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OVER A RY 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


ROYAL SOCIETY 


OF 


QUBRNSiBAN D. 


———$ 


VOL. XXII. 


PART L 


PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY 
BY 


H. POLE & Co.. PRINTERS, ELIZABETH STREET, BRISBANE. 
1909. 


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— Ropal Society of Queensland. 


Pateon : 
HIS EXCELLENCY LORD CHELMSFORD. 


OFFICERS; (909. 


President : 
J. ©. BAILEY. 


Vice-President : 
Dr. ALFRED SUTTON. 


Hon. Treasurer : Hon. Secretary: 
J. C. BRUNNICH, F.LC. E. H. GURNEY. 


Hon. Librarian : 
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Members of Council : 
COLONEL JOHN THOMSON, M.B., P.M.O. 


H. WASTENEYS. W. R. COLLEDGE. ws 

J. SHIRLEY. B.Sc. J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.LC. | 
Trustees : 

JOHN CAMERON, M.L.A. Hon. A. NORTON, M.L.C. 


Cot; JOHN THOMSON, M.B. 


Hon. Auditor : 
GEO. WATKINS. 


Hon. Lanternist : 
A. G. JACKSON. 


cS S. 694 b At 


THE JARDINE EXPEDITION FROM ROCKHAMP- 
TON TO CAPE YORK, 1864.—Hon. A. Norton, 
M.L.C., March 26th, 1908 ... 


THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA.—Rev. J. Goldie, 
June 26th, 1908 oe a sala 


CHILLAGOE GARNET ROCKS.—F. E. Connah, 
November 28th, 1908 


NOTES ON BRISBANE POND LIFE—W. R. Colledge, 
November 28th, 1908 


THE LAND WE LIVE ON (Presipent’s ApprEss).— 
J. C. Brimnich, FI.C., January 29th, 1909 


PAGE 


23 


$1 


35 


37 


“THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION FROM 
ROCKHAMPTON TO CAPE YORK IN 1864.” 


By HON. A. NORTON. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, March 26th, 
' 1908. 


For the use of Jardines’ Journal, and permission to write 
a paper on the subject for the Royal Society of Queensland, 
I am indebted to my friend, Alick Jardine. For the tracing 
of Cape York Peninsula, showing the course of their journey, 
I have to very heartily thank Mr. Spowers, Surveyor- 
General of Queensland, who, with his wonted courtesy, 
unhesitatingly consented when asked to have a tracing 
prepared in his office. 

It was during Leichhardt’s expedition from Moreton 
Bay to Port Essington, 1844 to 1846, that Gilbert, the 
naturalist, a collector for Mr. Gould, was killed by the 
blacks on the western side of Cape York Peninsula. Very 
little was known of that part of the country at the time 
(1845), but the aboriginals had shown a decided disposition 
to dispute any claim on the part of the white settlers to 
interfere with them, or with the country they occupied. 
In 1848, when Kennedy tried to reach Port Albany by 
keeping nearer to the eastern side of the Peninsula, the 
blacks asserted their rights with equal determination, 
and their hostility led to the death of Kennedy himself, 
when, with his blackboy Jackey, he had pushed on until 
almost within sight of the place at which they had hoped 
to arrive in Safety. 

Warnings such as these murders conveyed were in 
themselves sufficiently suggestive of what others might 
expect should they attempt to pass through the country 
which these hostile tribes claimed as their own. The 
Peninsula blacks had lived for years under conditions 


2 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION 


which forced them to learn the arts of war. Malays, and 
other neighbours not less savage than- themselves, had 
invaded their country and compelled them to fight for their 
rights continually; and what to them were the white 
explorers but invaders, who, if they had the opportunity 
would tamper with their women, and rob them of what 
they treasured most, if indeed they did not take their lives ! 

The whites who trusted themselves amongst them 
soon found this to their cost if they went unprepared. 
The dangers to which they might be exposed did not, 
however,’ deter some of Australia’s sons from making 
their way through the inhospitable and exceptionally 
difficult country. which lay between the furthest north 
settlements and Cape York; and in 1864 the brothers 
Jardine, Frank and Alick, aged respectively 22 and_ 20 
years, left Rockhampton with their party, intending to 
purchase cattle at the back of Bowen and drive them 
through to the newly-formed settlement which the Imperial 
authorities, on the recommendation of Sir G. F. Bowen, 
had decided to establish at Port Albany. A diary of thou 
trip was afterwards compiled by their friend, Mr. F. J. 
Byerley, who, however, made some unfortunate errors 
in his narrative. It was not a Government expedition 
as he desevibes it, but was undertaken by the brothers 
as a private speculation, with the view of forming a cattle 
station near the new settlement from which they would 
be able to supply beef to the officials and their men, as well 
as to such trading vessels as might call in for provisions. 
‘As a matter of fact; the Government of the day were prepared 
to place a sum on the Estimates, after the trip had ended, 
to recoup some of the loss which the Jardines had sustained 
during their exceptionally difficult journey. This, however, 
they respectfully declined, giving as the reason that “ inas- 
much as the expedition was a private enterprise, and not 
a public undertaking, they did not consider themselves 
entitled to any indemnity from the public.” At the outset 
the Government had offered, and the Jardines had gratefully 
accepted, the services of Mr. A. J. Richardson, District 
Surveyor at Rockhampton, and four blackboys with horses, 
saddles, and all equipments, to assist in’ the difficult task 
they had taken in hand. Mr. Richardson was to act as 
geographer, and generally to assist them. 


ES ee ee ee ee 


BY HON. A. NORTON. 3 


Before continuing the narrative, I may explain that 
Mr. Jardine, the father of the explorers, was in 1864 Police 
Magistrate at Rockhampton, and when the Northern 
Settlement was decided upon, it was he who was appointed 
to take charge of it. ~The selection was an exceptionally 
good one, for Mr. Jardine had not only an extensive official 
and military experience, but he was a keen sportsman, 
and had a thorough knowledge of Australian bush life. 
Before he came to Rockhampton he had lived in the 
Wellington district of New South Wales, where he was 
the owner of a cattle station, the management of which 
was confided to his sons, Frank and Alick. Here it was 
they became acquainted with the ways of bush life ; they 
looked after the stock, and when cattle were sold, they 
travelled with them to Bathurst and other places where 
they had to be delivered to the butchers who supplied 
beef to residents in the country towns. But, apart from 
the experience they. gained in this way, they possessed 
in a high degree that instinctive knowledge which enabled 
them to travel through the trackless forest without deviating 
from the direct course, a feat which to most persons is 
impossible. The blacks who lived on the Upper Macquarie 
River were comparatively civilized when the Jardines 
lived amongst them, but the brothers were quite aliv2 
to the necessity of avoiding everything which would bring 
them into conflict with the treacherous savages through 
whose country they must necessarily pass when travelling 
through the unexplored forests of Cape York Peninsula ; 
and they had too much discretion to provoke hostility 
which would greatly add to the difficulties and dangers 
they had to face in their northern journey. Mr. Byerley 
was under a misapprehension, therefore, when he spoke 
of Frank owning to ‘“‘a feeling of savage delight at the 
prospect of having a shine with these wretched savages, 
who, without provocation, hung on their footsteps, dogging 
them lke hawks all through the thickest of their troubles, 
watching with cowardly patience, for a favourable moment 
to attack them at a disadvantage.’ Indeed, throughout 
the journey, when they were at times compelled to act in 
self-defence, they allowed many of the aggressors to escape, 
when they might have shot them. down by dozens. 


4 THE JARDINES EXPEDITION 


The party which it was decided should make a final 
start from Carpentaria Downs, the then furthest north- 
west station, and which belonged to Mr. J. G. Macdonald, 
was composed as follows :—Frank Lascelles Jardine, aged 
22 years, leader; Alexander W. Jardine, aged 20 years, 
second in command; Archibald J. Richardson, Govern- 
ment Surveyor ; C. Scrutton, R. N. Binney, A. Cowderoy, 
assistants ; Eulah, Peter, Sambo, and Barney, black- 
boys. 

On 14th May, 1864, Alick started with some of the 
party and a number of horses from Rockhampton, inten- 
ding to travel overland by easy stages to Port Denison ; 
Frank, with Mr. Richardson, went so far by sea. About 
the middle of July they moved forward ; from Reedy Lake 
on the Burdekin, Alick, Richardson, Binney, and one of 
the boys went on with the horses and equipment to Car- 
pentaria Downs, while Frank, with Scrutton, Cowderoy, 
and three of the blackboys went to Stenhouse’s Station 
on the River Clarke, to collect and take care of the cattle 
which had been purchased. With these, 250 head of both 
sexes, they arrived at Carpentaria Downs on 6th October, 
and at once began to prepare for their arduous journey. 

Alick, with his companions and the horses, had 
reached this station on 30th August, and, needless to say, 
had been cordially welcomed by Macdonald ; but the five 
weeks’ interval had not been an idle time for Alick, who, 
after a few days’ rest, went off to explore the country 
through which they hoped to find a safe route for the 
stock, taking with him Eulah, their most trusted blackboy. 
Richardson and Binney were left-at the camp. It had been 
supposed that the stream on which Macdonald had formed 
his station was Leichhardt’s Lynd. It turned out to be 
a tributary of the Gilbert River, and Alick named it the 
Einasleigh ; following this down, they passed over ex- 
ceedingly rough country, but in places met with a good 
supply of water, in which were very fine fish. They sighted 
the Newcastle Range; and named Pluto Creek; Cana] 
Creek ; Parallel Creek; and Warroul Creek. In four days 
they travelled, as nearly as they could reckon, about 69 
miles, almost all that distance being very stony, and 
extremely rough. It was not until they had ridden 180 
miles that they concluded the so-called Lynd was not 


BY HON. A. NORTON. 5 


that stream. During the last few days they had passed 
through better country, with plenty of water, and they 
-had obtained game of various kinds, but it was not until 
14th September, when they were on their return journey, that 
they saw any blacks. With these they were able to parley 
without any display of hostility on either side ; the blacks 
were armed with reed spears and wommerahs. This day 
they also saw Leichhardt’s ‘ nonda ” (parinarium) bearing 
ripe fruit. On 15th September, they passed some natives 
who were fishing; but the meeting was amicable; these 
used long heavy four-pronged spears barbed with kangaroo 
bones. The following day they camped in good feed for 
their horses, and caught some perch and other fish, and in 
the evening they hoped to add some ’possums to their 
larder, but these were very scarce, and their hopes were 
blighted. They, however, before they reached camp at 
Carpentaria Downs, were fortunate enough to bag a bus- 
tard, some native companions, and other game. They 
found all well, and Alick employed himself in mapping 
the country which he and Eulah had traversed ; he was 
unable, however, to persuade Richardson that they were 
not on the Lynd, he trusting to the incorrect map received 
from the Surveyor-General’s Office rather than to that 
which Alick Jardine had correctly plotted. This difference 
of opinion led to some friction between the brothers and 
the Surveyor. It is due to Mr. Richardson, however, 
to state that he afterwards admitted he had been in error. 

Now, however, the arduous part of the Journey was 
about to begin, and the exploration of the Einasleigh 
watershed gave some idea, though but a faint one, of the 
difficulties that must be overcome before the brothers 
could shake their father’s hand ; for Mr. Jardine, senior, 
and his youngest son, John, had gone to Port Albany 
by water, and were at this time busily engaged in forming 
the new settlement, the Imperial Government having sent 
out a detachment of marines who were to be stationed 
there, and assist in the work. 

As already shown, the party consisted of six whites 
and four blacks (troopers). It had been calculated that 
four months’ provisions would be required, and in addition 
to this loading, they had to take with them tools, ammu- 
nition, and camp necessaries. The boys were armed with 


6 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION 


double-barrziled police carbines,.the whites with. Terry’s 
breech-loaders and Tranter’s revolvers. To carry so much 
dunnage they had eighteen pack-saddles, and for all pur-. 
poses they took with them forty-one horses and one mule, 
all of which must be shod before they could start. Then 
it was found that only Frank and Alick Jardine knew how 
to shoe a horse, and a number of these had not previously 
been -shod. However, with the thermometer marking 
100 degrees in the shade during most of the day, they set 
about the work, and at the close of the third day the last 
was finished. On llth October, Cowderoy, with Eulah 
(who had been over the country with Alick Jardine) and 
Barney were sent off with the cattle; their instructions 
were to camp at the swamp at the junction of Pluto Creek, 
17: miles from Macdonald station. The rest of the party 
were fully occupied in fixing up the packs and getting away 
with the horses, a number of which stoutly objected to 
carry the burdens which they were required to bear. It 
was past noon when they got off, and night had set in 
when ‘they arrived at the swamp. Alas, however, neither 
Cowderoy and the boys nor the cattle were there! It 
afterwards transpired that Eulah, smart as he. generally 
was, had led them some miles away from the course they 
were to have taken, and, becoming completely “‘ bushed,” 
they bad to camp for the night a long distance from the 
swamp. By the time the brothers had found them next 
morning, and brought them to the camp, it was too late 
to make a fresh start. The distance travelled on each of 
the ‘two following days was 11 miles, for grass was very 
scarce, Jarge patches of it having been burnt by the natives. 
Besides this, they had to take the stock over miles of rough, 
stony country in which good water was by no means abundant. 
They were glad, therefore, on 15th October, after 9 miles 
travelling over comparatively good and well-grassed country, 
to fix their camp at Cawana Swamp. which is described 
as: being about € miles in circumference, and very shallow. 
Some natives, who moved away when the cattle approached, 
left their camp fires burning. -An observation taken at’ 
night gave the Jatitude 18 degrees 1 minute 50 seconds. 
After they left Cawana Swamp the travellers were 
compelled to cross very stony basalt country, which lamed 
their cattle and wrenched the heads off the horse-shoe 


BY HON. A. NORTON. 7 


nails, Alick Jardine shot and brought a welcome addition 
to their larder—a rock wallaby, a native companion, and 
a young red kangaroo. For a time it seemed probable 
that they would have trouble with the blacks, of whom 
about 50 men, painted and fully armed, followed on their 
track ; when turned upon, however, they hastily retreated. 
Next morning al] the horses were missing, having made 
back, after the previous day’s weary travelling and_star- 
vation, towards the last luxuriantly-grassed camp. Bad, 
however, as the country had proved up to this time, it 
now became more and more difficult. On 17th October, 
one of their best horses had injured a hoof very severely, 
and two cows fell from the rocks and were killed. What 
grass there was was dry and very poor, even in the bed 
of Parallel Creek, where they camped for the night, and on 
the western side a basaltic wall 80 feet in height barred all 
progress in that direction. Nor was there any improve- 
ment next day; perpendicular cliffs on either side com- 
pelled them to travel down the bed of the creek, where 
there was almost no grass, and in which great blocks of 
stone impeded the passage of the stock, the backs and feet 
of which were “in a woful plight.”” One horse was lost, 
and a bull and s3veral of the cattle completely knocked 
‘up. This day they saw a large number of natives, some 
of whom were cooking fish, which they left in alarm, and 
also therr arms. ‘“‘ These blacks were puny, wretched- 
looking creatures, and very thin. They had a great number 
of wild dogs with them—over thirty being counted by 
the party.” 

'On 19th October, they came to the junction of 
Parallel Creek and the Einasleigh; and, happily, there 
was a slight improvement in the country. The river at the 
point where they camped is described as being ‘ about 
700 yards wide, with fine waterholes in it, containing plenty 
of fish.”? At a blacks’ fire here they made a startling and 
gruesome discovery— ‘the fresh remains of a negro were 
found roasted, the head and thigh bones were alone com- 
plete, all the rest of the body and limbs had been broken 
up, and the skull was full of blood.’? One day more, and 
for a'time they had done with the stones, and grass and 
water were abundant. They now came to the finest country 
the cattle had been on since delivery was taken of them, 


8 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION 


230 miles back; they. therefore decided before the good 
country was left, to camp for some days. ‘‘ Many of the 
cattle were lame, two of the hacks were knocked up, and 
several of the pack-horses had very sore backs.” - They 
were 120 miles from Macdonald’s, and had averaged 10 
mules a day since the start. 

While the stock rested, the brothers explored the 
country through which they hoped to find an easier route 
than they had so far followed. Richardson still adhered 
to ns theory about the Lynd, which he placed about 10 
miles north-east of their camp. They were even more 
satisfied, however, after their 25 miles ride on 24th October, 
that he was mistaken. They returned to camp after four 
days’ hard riding, having blazed on the last afternoon a line 
18 or 20 miles for the cattle to follow. Again they started 
with Eulah to explore, leaving instructions that the cattle 
were to go forward on 3lst October, following the line they 
had blazed for their guidance. They took no meat with 
them, trusting to find game and fish by the way. One 
delicacy which provided them with ‘‘a good supper and 
breakfast ’? was an iguana. After six days’ absence they 
rejoined their party at the place appointed, but on neither 
of their expeditions had they found even a_ moderately 
good route for the stock ; they therefore decided to take 
the course which seemed the least unpromising. From 
this time their troubles seemed greater than ever. When 
they left the camp, as they now had to do daily to blaze 
a line for the cattle to follow, 16 horses were missing ; on2 


other had died from what appeared to be snakebite. When 


night closed in there was no word of the horses, but one of 
the boys who brought them rations reported that some 
were still missing when he left the camp. Three. more 
days passed, and yet no news, but more than 20 of the 
cattle were missing, and as matters were getting serious 
Alick decided to go back and ascertain what caused the 
delay. 

The ninth day of November brought disastrous news. 
Alick started back in the early morning, and the men 
with the horses, which had strayed, met him half-way. 
On the afternoon of the day when the brothers moved on 
with the cattle (5th November), through want of reason- 
able precaution, the grass around the camp had taken fire. 


—————— 


BY HON. A. NORTON. 9 


The result was more than serious—420lbs. flour, all the tea 
except 10lbs., the mule’s pack which comprised 100lbs. 
rice, and jam, apples, and currants, 5lbs. gunpowder, 12lbs 
shot, cartridges and caps, two tents, one pack-saddle, 22 
pack-bags, 14 surcingles, 12 girths, 6 breechings, 30 ring 
pack-straps, 2 bridles, 2 pairs blankets, 2 pairs boots | 
most of the blackboys’ and many of the brothers’ clothes, 
and 2 bags containing awls, needles, twine, etc., were 
burnt. Then, too, a valuable horse died, apparently from 
poison. Such was the news which was brought to the 
camp on Cockburn Creek, 16 degrees 55 minutes 6 seconds 
latitude, on 9th November, 1864! Half their food and 
the greater part of their equipment had been burnt, but 
the hearts of the brothers never fauled, and they at once 
began to make their preparations for a forward move on 
the morrow. 7 

On the morning of 10th November, the brothers, 
taking Eulah with them, started as usual to blaze a line 
which the men with the cattle were to follow. The country 
was sandy, scrubby, and barren, and at 25 miles they 
marked a place for the party to await their return. Some 
miles further down Cockburn Creek they struck away 
N.N.W., and camped on the head of Maramie Creek, so- 
called because of the number of cray-fish caught there. 
Hence they ran Maramie Creek down, but without finding 
any improvement, nothing but a waste of tea-tree and 
spinifex on both sides; the blacks had used the bark of a 
small acacia for poisoning the fish in all the waterholes. 
They continued to explore until 15th November, during 
which time they had travelled through most worthless 
country, but discovered that the Staaten of Dutch explorers 
was the lower part of Cockburn and Maramie Creeks. The 
blacks had threatened, but did not attack them. 

The following day the cattle were moved down Cock- 
burn Creek on which there was poor grass, whereas else- 
where there was no grass. Deaths of cattle and horses 
from poisoning were now becoming frequent, and although 
water was plentiful the country was execrable, most of it 
being flat and thickly covered with tea-tree and other timber 
denoting poor country. On 20th November, the blacks 
fot the first time attacked the party; they approached 
from the west just before the sun set, so that the attack 


10 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION 


could not be easily seen ; none of the party were wounded. 
After this they were continually harassed, the most serious 
outcome of the interference being the scattering of horses 
during the night. This caused a detention of six days 
at one camp, and from it eight head of cattle were lost, 
and had to be abandoned. For several days they continued 
to travel down the river, where the grass was somewhat 
better, until they reached saltwater. Here they killed 
and jerked a beast, and a shovel-nose shark was similarly 
treated. Frank lost his only dog a. few days before this. 

By reason of absence of feed for the stock, they were 
compelled to keep away from the course they wished to 
follow, but necessarily they must now keep the coast.on 
their left. And time was very precious, for the wet season 
might set in at any time, and after even one storm the 
ground became dreadfully boggy. They knew they might 
be shut in amongst the anabranches, and for miles the flat 
country, showed high flood marks. On 5th December, 
they moved forward, this time steering northward across 
flat tea-tree country with fairly good grass, but almost 
without water. Half the horses were missing next morn- 
ing, and the whole day was spent in trying to find them. 
Some of them the brothers tracked to their last camp, but 
they had to stay there for the night as darkness set in before 
the whole of them were found. Without food or blankets 
they spent the night battling with myriads of mosquitoes. 
When next evening they reached the camp with the nine 
horses they had found, only two others had been brought 
in, and the mule with his pack had been allowed to stray. 
He was never secured, although one of the boys once caught 
sight of him. Two of the best horses were lost from the 
same camp, one of them, like the mule, having gone mad, 
apparently from drinking so much salt water in the absence 
of fresh ; the other had died it was thought from the same 
cause. At this wretched camp eight days had been lost, 
and on 13th December the party had to move on, but, with 
the mule’s pack they had lost all that remained of their 
tea, currants and raisins, their spade, tomahawks, _AXes, 
shoeing tools, etc., and two pairs boots, the only ones the 
brothers at this time possessed. This day their route took 
them ‘across large marine plains on which were numbers 
of birds, of which they shot a few. They camped at night 


- 


BY HON. A. NORTON. 11 


on good fresh water with good grass in the bed of the creek. 
Latitude 16 degrees 3 minutes 38 seconds. Next day 
the character of the country was still the same, but hot 
winds had dried up the grass. Then after a stage of 23 
miles, with country somewhat ridgy and a better class of 
timber, they camped on Eulah Creek with abundance of 
good water and grass. On 16th December, the country 
became more difficult; wide stretches of flood-marked 
levels and a creek which was so thickly lined with scrub 
that the brothers had to clear a track through for the 
cattle: While here they were attacked by blacks, who 
' made a circle round them and forced a fight, but they were 
driven off. When exploring the country ahead in the 
afternoon, the brothers came upon the long-sought Mitchell 
River. ) ) 4 
For some days they travelled down the river, crossing 
flood-marked flats and numbers of anabranches; but 
18th December was a memorable day, the party having 
been attacked by a large body of natives, who at first 
showed signs of great courage ; after some trouble and no 
small danger they were driven off. Three days later 
another mob appeared ; these carried green bushes behind 
which they attempted to approach the whites without 
being observed. This time they turned and fled, the whites 
chasing them without firing a shot, and then carrying off 
the spears which in their flight the blacks had dropped. 
When the travellers left the Mitchell on 22nd December. 
they had decided to begin the straight running for Cape 
York. ‘In such country at this particular time of year, 
however, those who travel must take such course as is 
possible. Their first day did not turn out well; there had 
been more rain than they wanted, and their camp at night 
is described as ‘‘a puddle without a blade of grass,” for 
the verdure which from a ‘distance looked so promising 
was nothing but:a dense mass of small green tea-trees about 
six inches in height. They had had no meat for three 
days, so they killed a steer and feasted ! They jerked the 
meat as best they could, for the rain came down heavily, 
and they watched the cattle and horses. Notwithstanding 
the rain, they had no water at the next camp, for the sand 
being exceptionally dry, no water lay on the surface. Nor 
was there any grass. Next day there was very little 


12 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION 


improvement, but it rained all night, and on Christmas 
Day Frank wished his companions the “ compliments of 
the season,’ and pushed on through the downpour. 
Christmas Creek was named this day; the country was 
somewhat better and they found a place to camp where 
there was good water and abundance of blue grass; green 
tree-ants were also plentiful, and caused them great dis- 
comfort. Up to the end of the month, although the country 
was on the whole better, the deluging rain was most trying, 
and one thunderstorm was especially violent. The blacks 
on 29th December rushed and scattered the cattle and 
horses, and chased one of the boys. They were driven 
off, but 10 of the cattle were lost on this occasion. They 
dare not delay on country the whole of which might be 
flooded several feet at any time. On the last day of the 
month the stock. and packs were safely conveyed across 
Macleod Creek, and they camped on shghtly rising ground 
on the bank of Kendall Creek. 

The New Year brought little relief to the wayworn 
travellers. The cattle and horses had to struggle through 
scrubby country, and over the large trees which had been 
jaid low by the recent terrific storni; but storms with 
heavy thunder and pouring rain were of almost daily 
occurrence. The ground was boggy, and the creeks and 
watercourses were running strong, but on 2nd January 
they had what they describe as the best camp of the journey 
on a high plateau. On 5th January, they sighted a range 
about 10 miles distant, and between them and it was a 
fine valley intersected by a large sandy river which they 
named after their friends, the Archers, of Gracemere. 
Why the Survey Department should in later maps. call it 
the Archer or Peach is to me a mystery. Surely they might 
pay the intrepid young explorers the poor compliment 
of retaining the name they gave it, and refusing to recognise 
it by any other. Mr. Spowers, our present intelligent 
Surveyor-General, I hope will correct this. The valley 
is described as one of great richness and beauty, the best 
country seen since passing Broadsound. They seem to 
have crossed the Archer without any exceptional difficulty, 
notwithstanding its width and the scrub which lined both 
banks. The flowers which grow in abundance in this 
valley are referred to as being very beautiful and comprising 


BY HON. A. NORTON. 18 


a number not previously known to the explorers. 
Leichhardt and other handsome trees were numerous. 

Unhappily, this pleasant condition did not long con- 
tinue, for the country they passed through after getting 
clear of the Archer and its anabranches, was comparatively 
poor and waterless but for the showers of rain. Its sandy, 
porous character is suggested by an extract from the 
Journal :—‘“‘ It was strange to see the horses bogging 
leg-deep during a thunderstorm, and in five minutes after 
unable to get a drink of water.” They had seen many 
anthills in this northern land, but here they were in some 
instances as high as 18 or 20 feet. As they passed on, . 
keeping as nearly as possible a northerly direction, the 
country was on the whole better, but at night on 8th 
January, after, for three miles, passing through “ wretchedly 
bad country like that on the Staaten, they camped on a 
‘gilgai,’ and had another night of heavy rain with high 
wind.’? No wonder two more of their horses knocked up ! 
But the difficulties they had so far experienced became 
more and more aggravated. They struck the Coen River, 
running W.N.W., and had to cut a road for the cattle 
through the thick scrub on either bank. This river is 
described as being 60 yards wide, sandy, and the home of 
crocodiles, the country on the north bank being very bad ; 
but worse troubles were ahead of them. 

On 10th January the country was comparatively 
sound for two miles, at which point a narrow boggy creek 
running strongly through a tea-tree flat intercepted their 
course. I will here quote the Journal :—‘‘ Athough care 
and time were taken in the selection of a proper spot, when 
the herd began to cross, the leading cattle, breaking through 
the crust, sank to their hips in the boggy spew below, and 
in a short time between 30 and 40 were stuck fast, the 
remainder ploughing through with great difficulty. Four 
beasts refused to face it altogether, and it was found 
necessary, after wasting considerable time, and a deal of 
horseflesh, to let them go. The greater part of the day 
was consumed in dragging out the bogged cattle with 
ropes.”? Five head had to be abandoned, their heads and 
backs only being visible above the mud. “ The horses 
were more easily crossed, but their saddles, packs, and 
loads had to be carried over by the party.” They at once 

B—Royat Society. 


14 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION 


camped and spent the rest of the day in drying their arms, 
saddles, etc., and in jerking the beef of one of the beasts 
which they had been unable to rescue from the bog. At 
night they again had heavy rain. On the following day 
the brothers slushed ahead of the cattle for two miles to the 
Batavia River, which was “a banker,” 25 yards across. 
By the time the cattle overtook them, they had cut a track 
through the scrub on either bank and had also felled a tall 
melaleuca acrcss the stream; by means of this impromptu 
bridge, above which a guiding rope was fastened, they were 
able to carry over the saddles, stores, etc., on their heads. 
The cattle they got safely across with the exception of one 
cow which was drowned, but in spite of all their efforts, 
two horses were also drowned. They were obliged to 
abandon their intention to push forward, because of the 
bogginess of the country and the continual rain, and they 
camped rather higher up the river.. They went on the 
following morning after some of the horses which had been 
left in the bog. These they brought to the camp where 
furth>or misfortunes awaited them. To their dismay they 
found that a number of horses had been poisoned ; five 
of these died the same evening, and another, supposed 
also to have been poisoned, was missing. One effect of 
the poison was complete blindness, and the fattest were 
the first affected. 

Having now oniy 21 horses, and these the poorest and 
worst, they buried a number of horseshoes, nails, and 
heavy material and redistributed their loading ; the rain 
continued aJl day. In spite of all their difficulties they 
camped next night 10 miles away from Poison Creek. 
The journey was not easily got through, for the horses had 
to be driven with the cattle, while the explorers, trouserless 
and bootless, had to walk. Some of the horses were unable 
to reach the camp, but these were brought on next morning. 
They had to exercise the greatest vigilence, for the blacks 
were hanging on their tracks. This day was a repetition 
of the last, horses having to be dragged out of bogs, packs 
removed and carried over the running streams, and at 
its close two more horses dying from poison! It poured with 
rain as they pitched their camp, and while doing so the 
blacks attacked them ; they were easily driven off, however, 
only two shots being fired, and they were not further 


/ 


BY HON. A. NORTON. 15 


troublesome. Sunday, 15th January, was observed as a 
day of rest, and the explorers feasted upon doughboys, 
jam, and ‘‘ stodge,’’ made of flour and water in which some 
small pieces of raw meat were boiled. Another horse was 
poisoned, and a cow lost in the bog; they had more rain 
at night. Their spare time while it was light was occupied 
in picking pandanus thorns from their feet and legs. 
Willingly would the brothers have rested but for the urgent 
necessity for getting to the end of their journey. They 
had to refuse all appeals to remain longer, and through 
a dense undergrowth of vines, zamias, and pandanus they 
pressed forward. They had no meat, and it was useless 
to kill a beast, because they could carry nothing more. 
One more horse died, and two others could scarcely drag 
themselves along; they had to unpack only twice this 
day, and travelled 16 miles. On 17th January, they 
pressed forward through country somewhat better than 
they had lately seen; distance 154 miles to their camp 
on Skardon Creek. The two weak horses died. At this 
point, by their reckoning, they were near Kennedy’s track 
on the eastern watershed. The improvement they hoped 
for did not last, next day’s march being through loose 
white sandy ridges, covered with low bushes thickly matted 
together with prickly vines, without trees and without grass. 
The creeks crossed, which ran W. and N.W., were full of 
water ; they were very boggy, and could only be crossed 
at their heads. A foal, whose mother had previously died, 
knocked up, so they killed him, and part of his flesh which 
was carried on, “‘ was a grateful addition to their food ”’ ; 
the distance travelled was 12 miles. The horses were short- 
hobbled at night and watched ; still they got away, and 
a late start next morning was the consequence. The 
country was again execrable in every respect. 

On 20th January, the way was blocked by a dense 
and extensive scrub through which it was impossible to 
cut a track for the cattle ; these had to be driven 2 miles 
back and then taken in an easterly direction. This took 
them on to the eastern slope from which the sea was dis- 
tinctly visible ; after a very arduous day’s work they struck 
a patch of better country, well grassed and lightly timbered. 
Here they pitched their camp, having travelled 9 miles 
to reach a spot 14 miles from their last camp. Plenty 


16 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION n 


turkeys’ nests were found, but, although they welcomed 
foal’s flesh as a delicacy, few of them were equal to turkeys’ 
eggs in which the young were well advanced! The next 
five days were but a repetition of the preceding ones. bad 
scrubby country without grass, intersected by deep water- 
courses which were then full of rushing streams; dense 
vine scrubs through which a track had to be cleared for 
the stock; miserable camping places, and pouring showers 
of rain day and night. On 26th January, they came upon 
a river which they took for the Escape; it was in flood 
at the time, and 50 yards wide ; following it down 7 or 8 
miles they cams upon an equaily large branch which joims 
it from the south-east, and named it the McHenry. This, 
too, was in flood, and they camped about a mile above the 
junction. This day their sugar was exhausted, buc they 
hoped they were not more than 30 miles from the new 
settlement, Somerset, and did not mind very much. 

On the morning of 27th January, they swam the 
cattle over the McHenry without trouble; the saddles, 
packs, etc., had to be carried on the heads of the best 
swimmers, and the day’s march was exceptionally tedious. 
Following the stream down to its junction with what they 
mistook for the Escape, they had to swim most of the 
creeks for the tain continued without cessation. Below 
the junction was a large vine scrub so dense that they had 
to skirt it, the combined streams being now 100 yards 
in width, and all the creeks and gullies which fell into it 
were fringed with scrub; 5 miles was the extent of their 
day’s march. Following on down the course of the river, 
the flooded creeks and their scrubby lining made traveling 
most difficult ; they therefore struck westwards hoping to 
find an easier route; but they were again disappointed, 
and turning towards the river they struck it in about 7 
miles. Further down by about 4 miles, making 12 miles 
for the day, they camped on the river bank. It had rained 
all day and here the stream was 150 yards wide. They 
killed a lame heifer, and cut up the flesh for jerking. Two 
horses were left utterly knocked up, but these were brought 
in on the next day, which was observed as “a rest day.” 
The stores were overhauled, and it was found that the 
greater part had rotted from constant exposure to the 
damp. Mr. Richardson here plotted up the route, and 


\ 


BY HON. A. NORTON. brs 


reported that their camp was on the Escape River, eight 
miles in a direct line from where it joins the sea, and sixteen 
miles from Somerset. In this case, as in that of the Lynd, 
he was altogether mistaken. 

| Leaving the rest of the party at this point, the brothers 
with Eulah started down the river on 30th January in 
search of the settlement. They took with them 25\bs. 
flour and 12lbs. meat as rations for a week. The country 
for travelling was execrable, and before noon the rain once 
more began to pour. Then the river turned sharply to 
the west, and they were forced to the unwelcome con- 
clusion that it was not the Escape ; for protection from the 
incessant rain they ran up a gunyah of tea-tree bark and 
decided, in deference to Mr. Richardson, to follow the course 
of the river still further on the morrow. When they started 
next morning they found no improvement in the country ; 
the continual rain had increased the flood waters ; the ground 
was more boggy; the swamps, anabranches, and lagoons 
were more numerous. After travelling 10 miles, another 
large stream from the south-east, which they named the 
Eliot, blocked the way. This they waded safely with the 
water up to their necks; their saddles and packs they 
carried on their heads; 7 miles further on they camped 
for the night on the river bank. Next morning they tried 
the river for another 7 miles ; then, as it kept turning more 
and more towards the west, they felt even more certain 
that 1t was not the Escape River, and turned back on the 
track by which they had come, camping at night in their 
tea-tree bark gunyah; rain, accompanied by cold winds, 
had fallen all day. When they reached the camp they found 
all well; but the flour was 30lbs. short, and, as always 
happens on such occasions, nobody could imagine what 
had become of it! Being almost without flour, and having 
to depend upon such game as they could secure to supple- 
ment the jerked beef, they were most anxious to push 
forward, but one day was spent in searching for a practic- 
able crossing of the river which was now wide and deep 
and rapid. The continual rain flooded it still more and 
detained them another day; they therefore killed another 
beast for rations. Richardson, after making further 
observations, decided that they were 33 miles south of Cape 
York. During the day they constructed a small raft, 


18 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION 


the frame being dead Nonda wood, which is light, and across 
this they stretched and bound a hide. Although the 
water fell considerably in the night, the stream was still 
130 yards wide, the current ran swiftly, and the banks 
were lined with scrub ; however, they swam 4 horses safely 
over and then floated the saddles and rations across on the 
raft. The brothers and Eulah, who were to go in search 
of the settlement, camped on the north side, Scrutton and 
the others remaining with the cattle. 

On 6th February the little exploring party pushed 
on in a N.N.E. direction, and, after many difficulties, at 
20 miles, they looked down on the sea about half-a-mile 
distant. This was Newcastle Bay. They went three 
miles further on and camped on a palm creek, with very 
steep banks. Following along the coast next morning 
at 7 or 8 miles, their course was blocked by what proved 
to be the Escape River. This they followed up through 
country that was indescribably difficult, the saddles at 
each of the numerous creeks having to be carried on their 
heads and a passage cleared with their tomahawks through 
the scrub. At last three of the horses completely knocked 
up. and they camped in the open. The brothers walked 
on until they came near the river; only near it though, 
for on either side there was a dense mass of mangroves 
nearly 3 miles in width. Their rations now consisted almost 
wholly of jerked beef, and they rejoiced that evening at 
finding 13 scrub-turkey’s eggs. ‘“‘ Eating what yolk or 
white they contained, they plucked and roasted the chicks 
as a bonne-bouche.”” They and their horses were tormented 
by March flies and sandflies by day, and by mosquitoes 
by mght. This day they travelled 22 miles. Wearisome 
as their journey had so far been, it was not less so on the 
two following days ; for although they could now see their 
destination, there was no hope of getting through the mud 
and mangroves which shut them off from the river banks. 
It was decided, therefore, to return to the cattle, and take 
them by a course which they hoped would lead to a practic- 
able crossing higher up the stream. So bad was the country 
they now traversed that they made only 12 miles, having 
to drive their knocked-up horses before them, and several 
times to drag them out of bogs. On the following evening 
they got back to camp after another most fatiguing day ; 


_ 


BY HON. A. NORTON. 19 


they left their jaded horses and their saddles near the river, 
and themselves swam across to their companions. 
Another horse had died during their absence. 

Two days they now spent in camp and a beast was 
killed and the meat jerked; only 10lbs. flour remained, 
and this was kept in case of an emergency. The 4 horses, 
saddles, and swags were brought across the river, and the 
cattle mustered for their next start, which took place on 
the morning of 14th February, a weary journey of 11 miles. 
Another horse had to be left after he was dragged out of 
a bog. On the following day they crossed the Eliot, and 
altogether made 10 miles, having had to carry their saddles 
over on their heads as usual. From this point they continued 
with much difficulty from. flooded streams, bogs, etc., to 
follow down the river, uncertain whether or not it would 
bend round into the Escape ; but on 21st February, from 
a high tree Alick was able to trace it to the sea on the Gulf 
side of the Peninsula. By Sir George Bowen’s request, 
later on, this stream was named the Jardine River. This 
geographical discovery, however, necessitated a retracing 
of their steps, and at night they camped 6 miles up the river. 
They rested on the following day, and killed and jerked 
a beast ; again, on account of the heavy rain, they had 
to construct a raft. On 24th February, the horses and 
packs were put across the river, and leaving the cattle 
with the rest of the party, the brothers with Eulah camped 
on the northern side preparatory to starting once more 
in search of the settlement. More trouble awaited them, 
for at 2 miles from their camping place an immense sheet 
of water, the overflow from a heavily flooded creek, blocked 
their way, and it was not until after two days that it had 
run down enough to enable them to cross, even by swimming. 
The horses they swam with the saddles on their backs, 
but the rations they slid along a rope which was fixed some 
feet above the ground to a tree on one side of the creek 
and to the butt of another on the opposite side. In the 
evening while Alick was cooking some jerked beef for 
supper (they usually eat it raw), Frank and Eulah climbed 
a high tree on a small hill, and from this they were able 
to pick out Newcastle Bay, and were moreover satisfied 
that they had headed the Escape River. At last they were 


20 © THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION 


within a short distance from the goal they had so long 
looked forward to reaching. 

On Ist March, they started early, the morning being 
wet as usual. At 3 o’clock they met with a number of 


blacks, who spoke some words of English, and greeted - 


them with friendliness. These were made to understand 
that they wanted to be guided to the settlement, “ Kaieeby,.”’ 
they called it, and they led the way for about 7 miles, when 
they joined a larger number of natives, all unarmed. \ With 
these they camped for the night. Whether the corroboree 
that was then held was intended as a welcome, or meant 
a rejoicing in anticipation of a repast on human flesh, they 
did not then know, but about midnight the din ceased 
and thew dusky friends went to rest. About noon their 
guides brought them safely to the settlement, and surrend- 
ered them to their father who had long expected them, 
their younger brother John being with him. With skin 
tanned by the sun, coverings of emu feathers on their heads, 
greenhide mocassins on their feet, and such remnants of 
clothing as would hold together on their bodies—with such 
outward but grotesque adornments—they were received 
with joy and gladness. Since their father had seen them 
they had travelled over 1,600 miles through country the 
greater part of which was practically unknown, and they 
had brought with them, and in good health, all the men 
who were in their care. But their losses of stock had been 
great, and the difficulties, hardships, and dangers which 
they had encountered and overcome, have scarcely if ever 
been surpassed by those of any Australian explorer. 

The rest of my story may soon be told. After enjoy- 
ing, in the companionship of their father and brother John. 
the first decent meal they had had for months, the brothers 
manned the Government whaleboat and pulled across the 
Straits to Albany Island to get fresh horses. The Straits 
are # mile wide, and the current was strong, but they 
brought two horses over that evening, and three more 
on the following day. They also chose a spot at Bullock 
Point, about 3 miles from Somerset, for the head station 
of their future run. Then they rested two days, more on 
account of their jaded horses than on their own. Taking 
these as well as the fresh animals with them, they started 
back under the guidance of two of their newly-found dusky 


BY HON. A. NORTON. 21 


- friends, their brother John also accompanying them. They 
were taken by a course which was generally better than 


that they had come by, but the last two miles of their day’s 
journey were so boggy that even the fresh horses stuck 
occasionally. On 6th March, just before dark, they pulled 
up on the river opposite the camp, but as soon as they got 
out of their own country the new boys were useless as guides, 
and the brothers had to pilot themselves. They crossed 
to the camp next morning; one horse had died during 
their absence, and some of the cattle were missing. This 
necessitated further loss of time, and three of the cattle 
could not be found. However, they built a raft similar 
to that made before, but larger, and they killed a beast 
for rations. The river was still 200 yards wide when they 
commenced the business of crossing on 9th March; the 
cattle with one exception, they got safely over, and also 
the horses. The raft answered admirably, but on the 
last trip, Cowderoy, who could not swim, was put on board. 
Unfortunately, he overturned it, and although he got ashore 
safely, the raft and all it carried, went to the bottom, and 
was recovered only with difficulty. The Cape York blacks 


-decamped during the night. In crossing the creek, which 


had blocked the brothers when they started in search of 
the settlement, and which they again had to swim, they > 
lost yet another horse. Still their iJl-luck followed them, 
for it took them two hours on the following day to drive 
the cattle through the scrub on Wommerah Creek, and 
when they were counted, 30 of them were missing ; of these, 
five were not recovered. At last, on 14th March, they 
arrived at Bullock Point, where they pitched camp, and 
made a home for those of the cattle which were left to them. 
When the necessary work of forming the station had been 
completed, John was left in charge of it, and Frank and 
Alick returned with their father to Brisbane in H.M.S. 
Salamander. Mr. Richardson returned by. the same 
opportunity, and in the Surveyor-General’s office occupied 
himself in compiling a map showing the route they had 
followed ; in this the error in connection with the River 
Lynd was rectified. 


My tale is told, and in conclusion I desire only to add 
that when I read of the splendid and fearless achievements 


> iy THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION 


of such young Australians as Frank and Alick Jardine, 
I feel inclined to thank God that I too was born in this 
“ fifth quarter ” of the globe, and entered upon the business 
of life while the ‘“eight-hours-a-day ’ man was but a 
figment of the human brain. 


a) dec 


THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA, 
THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS, AND 
RELIGIOUS BELIEBS. 


By the REV. J. GOLDIE. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, July 3rd, 
1908. 


In these days everybody is more or less acquainted with 
the islands of the Eastern Pacific, and with the manners 
and customs of the people inhabiting those islands. With 
the islands of the Western Pacific, however, travellers 
are not so familiar, and, perhaps, one- of the least known 
of all the groups in that part of the world is the great group 
of islands known as the Solomons. This fine group of 
islands lies between 5 degrees and 10 degrees 8. Lat., and 
154 degrees and 162 degrees E. Long. The length of the 
group is well over 600 miles, and many of the larger islands 
are very mountainous, some of their peaks rising as high 
as 10,000 feet. 

The people of this group are pure Melanesians, and 
have all the characteristics of this type. It is not for me, 
however, to advance my theory as to the peopling of these 
islands, or attempt any system of classification. Better 
men have failed to agree about these things, and though 
intensely interesting, we have not time to discuss them 
to-night. What I can speak with authority on, and what 
no doubt you will be interested to hear about, is_ the 
manners and customs of some of these people, and some- 
thing about their religious beliefs. I have lived amongst 
the people of New Georgia for the last six years, and there- 
fore may fairly claim to know a little about them. 


ee 
. 7 
24 THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA : 


~ 


FORM OF GOVERNMENT. ; 

The form of Government is that of hereditary chief- 
tainship. Over each village is a headman—called by the 
natives “‘ Palabatu’’—the same word as is_ used » for 
“husband.” The villages are divided into groups, and 
over each group is a chief called by the natives ‘na 
Bagara’’—a man of much more importance than the 
headman or “ Palabatu.’’ Sometimes the man who has 
the right to these positions 1s a weakling, and has little 
or no influence. Or perhaps a man of no family, but of 
very strong character, will overshadow him, and _ will 
really exercise a greater influence than the ‘ Palabatu.”’ 
But though the common people will look upon him as a 
kind of leader, the other chiefs will refuse to recognise him 
as one of themselves, or will do so very reluctantly. They 
speak of him in terms of the greatest contempt as “ having 
no father.”” Human nature is much the same all the 
world over. Over a big district, or over one of the 
islands, reigns the principal chief, or ‘‘ Gati-Bagara.” 
““Gati”’ is literally “trunk” or “stem,” and thus this 
chief is the real or hereditary chief, and is generally a man 
of great importance, and if a man of strong personality 
exercises a wide influence, and possesses almost unlimited 
power in certain directions. Sometimes the influence 
of one of these strong men will extend far beyond the 
bounds of his own district, or even of his own island, and 
thus his village becomes the political centre of that part. 
Such a one was Ingava, the chief of New Georgia, known 
to all the naval officers and traders who have been in that 
part of the world. 

Generally speaking, the communistic system prevails— 
land, houses, canoes, and produce all belonging to the 
community, and not to any particular individual. Since 
the advent of the white trader, however, this system has 
been greatly modified. In the way of trade they are often 
persuaded to purchase from the trader things that they 
don’t really require, and thus a debt is incurred for which 
some individual is made responsible. Other individuals 
in the same tribe will run into debt also, and to settle these 
when the trader asks them to pay up, private claims are 
made to what was once public property. Thus cocoanut 


BY THE REV. J. GOLDIE. ; 25 


trees, sago palm plantations, canoes, and even the land 
pass into private hands. To protect his property, and 
prevent others who think that they have as good a right 
to it as he has, a man will trade on the superstitious fears 
of his fellow villagers. and put a “tambu’” upon the 
property he has claimed. This “‘tambu” takes several 
forms. If it is on a piece of land, it is usually a stick split 
at the top, with the leaves of a certain tree inserted. If 
it is a particular tree they wish to preserve they tie a piece 
of the sacred vine round the stem, and a native seeing this 
will not touch it, for fear of bringing down upon his head 
the wrath of the spirits. But more about this later on. 

On most of the larger islands there is unceasing hos- 
tility between the “ bushmen ” and the “salt water men,”’ 
as they are called, as well as between the tribes inhabiting 
the different islands. This will show how little ground 
there is for fear of anything in the nature of a general 
rising, aS was reported by a trader from the group a few 
days ago. 

The “bushmen’’ protect themselves by building — 
their villages on the tops of the hills, and some of their 
positions are so well chosen, and the places so skilfully 
fortified, that it would be a difficult task even for a force 
of well-trained men to take them if properly held. I 
visited one of these fortified villages two years ago. It 
was situated at a place called “‘ Kumboro,”’ on the S.E. 
end of the Island of Choiseul, and at the top of a peak about 
twelve hundred feet (1,200ft.) above sea level. I was the 
first white man to visit the place, and it was with con- 
siderable difficulty that I persuaded the chiefs to allow me 
to go. After climbing—sometimes on all fours—up the 
mountain side, wading through streams, and getting many 
a tumble—losing the skin of my shins and hands in the 
process, I at last, after a three hours’ journey, arrived 
within hailing distance of the village. It was right above 
us, and was a great circular enclosure, taking in the whole 
crown of the hill, and entirely surrounded by great stakes, 
pointed at the top, about fifteen feet high, and about a 
foot or more in diameter. These were placed as closely 
as possible together, and at such an angle that anyone 
coming up the mountain side would be right underneath 
the stockade. Inside were walls of rough stone, forming 


66 


26 THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA 


a very effective defence against the attacks of the raiders 
from below. Inside the stockade I found about fifty or 
more houses. It was with evident reluctance that I was 
allowed to enter the village, and only after the guides had 
convinced the people that I possessed supernatural powers. 

These defences are very necessary on account of the 
raids made by the headhunters of Rubiana and other 
places. These raids were made in order to secure heads 
for the dedication of new houses and new canoes, and to 
obtain victims for the cannibal feasts and sacrificial rites 
performed from time to time. These people are the slaves 
of superstitious fears, and these superstitions were 
worked for all they were worth by the old sorcerors and 
witch doctors. If a house were built it would be neces- 
sary for the preservation of its inmates to propitiate the 
spirits by shedding blood, and the obtaining of a number 
of human heads. If a new “tomoko” or war canoe were 
about to be launched, the sprinkling of human blood and 
obtaining of heads would invest it with supernatural power. 
Therefore these raids were organised by the sorcerors, 
and in their beautiful war-canoes they would travel some- 
times over two hundred miles to kill and obtain heads. 
Before making a start the chiefs pay a visit to one of their 
many sacred places—generally the shrine of some of their 
ancestors—and there make sacrifices, and offer prayers 
to the spirits for help in their raiding operations. With 
great ceremony they then embark—carrying with them in 
each of the canoes a sacred relic or charm—as a rule, a 
small bone of some once-noted warrior, since deceased. Their 
mode of warfare is that usually adopted by natives of 
almost any place—taking their enemies by surprise, and 
killing them before they have an opportunity of defending 
themselves. Their operations, however, are carried out 
with an unusual degree of cunning and skill, for they gener- 
ally try to create the impression that they intend to raid 
a place to which they really have no intention of going, 
and after turning all eyes towards that particular place, 
they suddenly swoop down upon some other unfortunate 
village, and, catching the inhabitants unprepared, kill 
and capture to their hearts’ content. On their return to 
their own village they are received by the women and girls 
singing and dancing to welcome them home. Immediately 


,, 


BY THE REV. J. GOLDIE. oF 


they land another visit is paid to the sacred place, and 
offerings of food, ornaments, and sometimes of human 
flesh, are made to the spirits in return for their assistance 
in the raid. Immediately after these religious observances, 
a great feast and dance is held—or rather, preparations 
are made to hold it, for it generally occurs some days after 
—to celebrate the victory over their enemies. These people 
are cannibals, and if victims for their feasts could not be 
obtained in the raid, then so much the worse for some 
unfortunate slave captured in some previous expedition. 

With regard to slavery—the lot of the slaves cap- 
tured in these raids is not an enviable one. While they 
are treated with kindness, and the work they are expected 
to do is not. heavy or difficult, they are the absolute property 
of their captors. The women, in addition to having to 
do the work, are nearly always used for immoral purposes, 
and thus become sources of profit to their owners. Then 
there is always the dread uncertainty about the tenure of 
life. When a head is required to pay for some afiront to 
a neighbouring village. or a life to be sacrificed on some 
occasion of great ceremony, the unfortunate slaves know 
that, without warning of any kind—often after helping to 
prepare the feast—their own life may be taken from them 
by a sudden blow from the axe of one of their masters. 
Still I have known cases where the female slaves have 
become the wives of their captors, and have been treated 
with as much consideration as the women belonging to the 
tribe—which is perhaps not saying much. 

The marriage laws of these people are very simple. 
The wife is acquired by purchase. When a man makes a 
proposal for the hand of the girl of his choice, or when— 
as is very often the case—a girl makes a proposal for the 
hand of a young man, a meeting of all the friends takes 
place, and a price is fixed, which must be paid by the man 
before the marriage is allowed to take place. This price 
is regulated by the position occupied by the parents of the 
bride, and as it is always paid in native money or orna- 
ments, it is very hard to say what their value would be in 
English money. In the New Georgian Group of Islands 
it is not the custom to have more than one wife. though 
I have known several cases where a chief has had more 
than one. This happened where the first wife was getting 


28 THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA 


old and helpless, and the man required someone to do the 
work for him—for the women are always the drudges of 
the men. In the Shortlands, and in the Islands of 
Bougainville Straits, however, the chiefs and leading men 
almost without exception have more than one wife, and 
Some aS many as ten or twelve. As a rule, the wishes of 
the girl are not consulted in the matter, if her friends decide 
that an alliance with a certain young man is desirable, 
and if she causes any trouble they get very angry with her. 
Sometimes, however, the youth refuses to pay the amount 
agreed upon until the girl consents, and sometimes if the 
fickle lady changes her mind after the payment, which 
sometimes happens, there is a big row, for there is no law 
compelling the return of the money. “When everything 
runs smoothly they hold the marriage feast, the men 
taking charge of the bridegroom and the girls of the 
bride, and decked in all their finery they are led to the 
bridal feast, and from that time the man becomes a member 
of the women’s tribe. 

Female chastity is not a very common virtue among 
the unmarried women and girls. It is not true, however, 
as has often been stated by travellers, that it does not 
exist at all. After marriage, however, the severest punish- 
ment always follows any unfaithfulness on the part of 
the woman—the guilty couple being put to death as soon 
as their crime is proved against them. I have never known 
a case of exchange of wives, as reported by Dr. Guppy 
and others, taking place in the Eastern part of the Group. 

The birth customs of the New Georgian people are 
very peculiar. When the time of a woman draws near, 
she is considered ceremonially unclean. She is taken away 
to a little house in the bush, built by the women themselves 
—no man being allowed to touch it—there to await the 
birth of her child. No man is allowed to come near the 
place for at least fourteen days after the birth of the child. 
At the birth a sacrifice is made to the spirits, and blood 
sprinkled round and on the child, in order to propitiate 
the evil spirits, and incline them favourably towards the 
infant. Infant mortality is very great, and under the 
circumstances it is not to be wondered at. It is rather 
the result of carelessness, however, than the custom of 


BY THE REV. J. GOLDIE. 29 


infanticide, which obtains in the Eastern part of the 
Solomons. 

The burial customs, also, are interesting, as indicating 
some of the religious beliefs of these people. The body 
of a slave is usually buried in the sea, and no further notice 
taken. When one of their own people dies, however, 
it is a very different thing. If he is a man of any import- 
ance, such as a chief, all his people gather together, and a 
time of great feasting takes place. The body is decked out 
in all the finery and ornaments which he possessed, with 
shield and spear and axe, and fixed in a sitting posture 
it remains in the house for about three days. All the time 
great wailing and lamentation goes on in the belief that 
the spirit of the deceased will hear and be pleased. At 
the end of three days, the body is taken away, with great 
ceremony, and left on one of the small islands used as a 
burial place. After the flesh has left the bones, another 
big feast takes place, and with great ceremony the skull 
of the late chief is brought back and safely deposited in 
a little head house prepared for it at one of the sacred places 
near the village. To this place the friends go from time 
to time, taking offerings of food and ornaments, which they 
leave at the shrine, and make great lamentations in the 
belief that they are comforting the spitit of their departed 


- friend. The period of mourning generally lasts for about 


eighty or one hundred days, and during the whole of that 
time the relatives of the deceased will not entera canoe, 
or, in some instances, leave the house. They will not 
allow a drop of water to touch their bodies, nor a comb 
or knife to touch their heads. Their hair grows long, 
and is generally whitened with lme, and thus they live 
in filth and discomfort for months to express their sorrow. 
The head of a leper, or of a man who has met with a sudden 
violent death, by accident, they will not bring in for fear 
that they will meet with a like fate. On some of the 
islands in the group, the wives of important persons who 
die are expected to commit suicide, in order to accompany 
their lord and master on his last long journey. If they 
refuse, which they sometimes do, they are strangled by 
their friends, that the departed one may not be lonely. 
No one, of course, dies naturally in these islands. When 


a man dies his friends all believe thet he must have been 
C—Royat Society. 


30 THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA 


bewitched. A witch hunt is organised by the sorcerors, 
and generally some unfortunate girl—very probably a 
slave—is taken, and is charged with witchcraft. If she 
confesses, which sometimes in sheer fright she does, the 
poor wretch is put to death at once. If she will not con- 
fess, she is hung up by the thumbs or wrists for several 
days at a time, until a confession is exorted from her, when 
death follows as a matter of course. 

Concerning the buildings, canoes, weapons, food, 
etc., I have no time to speak in a paper like this. It would 
require a book to say all or nearly all about these things. 
I must, however, say a few words about the religious beliefs 
of these people. They believe in a Great and Good Spirit, 
whom they invest with the attributes of omnipotence and 
omniscience. This great Being is responsible for all things 
that exist. They believe that life is simply a road which 
at death is divided in two—the one leading to a place of 
happiness, and the other leading to “Sondo,” the place 
of departed evil spirits. At the parting of the ways stands 
an old woman directing each to his place. They believe 
that the Great Spirit is not to be approached by mortals 
and hence they pray to the other spirits which control 
the destinies of man. To propitiate these they go to the 
sacred places and pray, and offer sacrifices—sometimes 
of human flesh, and sometimes of food, ornaments, and other 
things. Everything in the lives of these very superstitious 
people is connected in some way and controlled in some 
way by the spirits, hence the old sorcerers and witch 
doctors are people of great importance, and make a profit- 
able thing out of the fears of the people. However, better 
days are dawning for the people of the Western Solomons. 
The power of the sorcerer is waning, and heading and 
witch hanging is ending, and, with a wise paternal govern- 
ment teaching the people agricultural pursuits and giving 
them something to employ their time, teaching them to 
work for themselves and thus better their condition, they 
would be a happy and contented people. 


i i, 
_ or 
7 é 
* — be 
: 
, 


PAPER ON “ CHILLAGOK GARNET ROCK.” 


By FRANK E. CONNAH. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 28th, 
7 1908. 


Introductory.—In all reports dealing with the geology 
of the Chillagoe District mention is made of the close 
association in the ore deposits of garnet rock with the 
copper minerals; in fact, Mr. Alexander Stewart, in his 
report for the Chillagoe Proprietary Company, in 1898, 
referred to it as being “ one of the features of the field.”’ 

Occurrence.—Garnet rock occurs not only in the lime- 
stone country at Chillagoe itself, but also in other parts 
of the district, notably at Mount Garnet, where no lim>?- 
stone is found in the immediate vicinity. Instances have 
come under my notice of garnet rock being found in the 
outcrop of lodes which showed no signs of copper or other 
valuable metal, but very seldom is copper absent. 

Garnet Mineral.—Garnet being a mineral of variable 
type, it isa matter of some interest to fix the type of the 
mineral of this district. So far as 1 am aware, the only 
analysis which has been published is one which was included, 
as being of interest, in the report of Mr. Stewart referred 
to. As I know that this analysis was made in a bush 
laboratory, under extremely adverse conditions, I have 
obtained a sample of the mineral from the same locality, 
and have submitted it to a careful analysis, the result of 
which I now lay before you. 

Garnet Rock.—Before going further, I would remind 
you of the difference between garnet mineral and garnet 
rock, the latter term being applied to rock of which garnet 
mineral is a chief constituent. 

Analysis of Garnet Mineral.—The analysis presented 
here is of the garnet mineral. The sample was obtained 


oo CHILLAGOE GARNET ROCK 


from an outcrop near the Dorothy mine at Chillagoe, and 
consisted of a crystalline aggregate, the crystals being of 
yellowish brown colour, and consisting mestly of the usual 
rhombic dodecahedron. The crystals were carefully sep- 
arated from cementing material (which, by the way, ap- 
peared to be amorphous garnet), and were obtained 
apparently clean. The analysis resulted as follows :— 


Silica (S10,) a as se 2 See. 
Ferric Oxide (Fe,0;) .. ai .. TBA 
Ferrous Oxide (FeO) big i 24 {eQORS 
Alumina (A1,03) Ne bas aT 
Manganese Oxide (Mn0) ee .» Ogee 
Lime (CaO) (other than CaC0,).. .. 81.06% 
Magnesia (Mg0) sf Bs it Ni 
Combined water Ke uh > OES 
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO) ae Oa 
Moisture ue Je a | 
100.07% 


The carbonic acid (0.25%) was evidently due to admixed 
calcite which had escaped in the cleaning of the crystals, 
and it was therefore calculated to calcium carbonate. 

The ferrous iron was determined by the hydrofluoric 
acid method. Triplicate assays gave identical results, 
and a check made on ferrous ammonium sulphate gave an 
accurate result. 

The loss on ignition (0.8%) was higher than anticipated 
and pointed to the presence of combined water. As thig 
was of interest, in view of the generally accepted theory 
that the formation of garnet took place under conditions 
of moist heat, I determined the combined water in 24 
grammes, dried at 100° C., using series of calcium chloride 
tubes placed before and after the ignition tube ; the result 
was a gain equal to 0.46%, which is reported as combined 
water. 

The specific gravity was found to be 3.429. 

Garnet Rock.—The garnet rock consists of garnet 
mineral, either by itself or, as is usually the case, mixed 
with one or more other minerals. It is a matter of some 
difficulty to say just what minerals are associated in the 
Chillagoe district, though it may be said that hand speci- 
mens usually show either calcite or amphibolite. When 


BY FRANK E. CONNAH. 38 


copper minerals also occur above water level they either 
are secondary depositions in the accompanying mineral, 
or where the garnet itself has suffered decomposition, 
the copper is frequently heavily impregnated as oxide 
in the altered product. Below water level copper sulphide 
minerals frequently accompany the garnet, magnetic 
pyrites being often found. At the Dorothy Mine fluorspar 
is also found accompanying the garnet. 

At Chillagoe the garnet-amphibolite combination is 
common, and was referred to as “eklogite”’ by Dr. R. L. 
Jack in his report on the field in 1891, and by Professor 
Skertchly in his report on the field in 1895, and again 
in his Presidential address to this Society in 1899. 


At Mount Garnet the garnet mineral occurs mostly 
in an amorphous splintery form, closely admixed with 
calcite. It appears to form the walls of the enriched 
deposit at water level, being adjacent to a series of felsite 
dykes. An analysis of this rock resulted as follows :— 


For CoMPARISON. 


Mt. Garnet. Chillagoe. 


Silica (Si0,) aie Sey pag 38.1 38.10 
Ferric Oxide (Fe393) eat SU OO 21.5 18.79 
Ferrous Oxide (FeO) Pre ee 0.6 1.00 
Alumina (A1,03) as Nah» hy LF? 9.75 
Manganese Oxide (MnO) eye Ora G 0.4 0.22 
Lime (other than CaC03) .. 20.1% 27.2 31.06 
Magnesia (Mg0) ¥ 12 Nil —— — 
Combined Water... sya! Bs 98 .9 98 .92 
Calcium Carbonate (CaC03) 2.5% 
Zine Sulphide (ZnS) He Oo 
Moisture - se oa ee 

99.8% 


It was impossible to obtain the garnet in this rock 
free from calcite, but the only minerals recognised were 
garnet, calcite and zinc blende. The second column above 
Shows the figures for the garnet constituents reduced to 
the same basis as the figures in the Chillagoe analysis for 


34 OHILLAGOE GARNET ROCK 


purpose of comparison. While only approximate they 
serve the purpose of showing this garnet to be of the same 
type as the Chillagoe crystalline variety, both being lime- 
iron-alumina garnet. 

_ Alteration Products.—As is usual in copper deposits 
the lode rocks above water level show signs of intense action 
by mineral solutions. The garnet rock is to be found in 
all stages of alteration, the initial stages giving usually 
more or less magnetic products, and the final product 
being of friable nature and yellow to brown colour, having 
a characteristic appearance not easily mistaken. 


LECTURE ON BRISBANE POND LIFE. 


(Summary or Lectvurt.) 


By W. R. COLLEDGE. 


Before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 28th. 1908. 


THE lecturer, dealing with the subject generally, spoke upon 
the adaptation of the creatures to their environment, their 
great fertility, and the peculiar provision, by means of 
ephyppial eggs in the Entomostraca, for preserving and 
propagating their species in unfavourable weather. Fifty 
lantern slides made from local subjects were exhibited. 
' These comprised :—Actinophrys eichornii, Vorticella, 
Epistylis, Desmids, Closterium Lunata and Striolata, 
micrasterias denticulata, Spirogyra, with specimens con- 
jugating, Batrachospermum Moniliforme, Volvox globator, 
Conochilus volvox, a rare Rotifer Brachionis Falcatus, 
Limnia ceratophylli, Melicerta Ringens, Utricaria capsules 
enclosing larva of Ceratopogon, Tanipus, also Cyclops 
Quadricornis, Tubifex rivulorum, Nais, and Nais proboscidea 
in the act of dividing, Hydra Fusca, with shde showing 
its various organs, Cypris, Pulex Daphnia, and the hyaline 
form of carinata, Scapholeberis mucronata, Cyclops quadri- 
cornis, male and female, Cetochilis Australiensis, various 
larv 2 of the caddis fly, using different materials to form 
their cases. The Water measurer, Hydrometra stagnorum, 
with parasite on thorax, Naucorides beetles, Notolecta 
Glauca, Ranatra linearis, Gyrinus Natator, Larva of the 
Dragon fly, the Ephemera, Coretha larva, and _ pupa, 
Hydropdilus. Afterwards some living specimens were 
placed in glass tanks before the powerful lens of the electric 
lantern; their magnification, and the manner in which 
various organs were seen, excited much interest as well as 
amusement, some of the larva much resembling pre- 
historic monsters. 


THE LAND WE LIVE ON. 
‘Qum Facrat Letas Seceres.’’—Virgil. 


By J. C. BRUNNICH, F.IC. 


Presidential Address read before the Royal Society of Queens- 
land on January 29th, 1909. 


So short and yet so comprehensive is the quotation from 
Virgil’s immortal Georgic : ‘‘ What makes the crops rejoice % ”’ 
that no better motto could be found for my address, dealing 
with the land we live on, the crops of this land, and the 
help which arts and sciences should and must give to agri- 
culture, in order to utilise our inheritance of land to -pro- 
duce crops, which will rejoice both in quality and in 
quantity. 

The subject of the address has been, on account of 
its importance, the favourite theme of many writers. The 
late Victorian Agricultural Chemist, Mr. A. N. Pearson, 
read a paper before the Australasian Association for the 
Advancement of Science in January, 1900, on “The 
Scientific Directing of a Country’s Agriculture,” in which 
he chiefly directed attention to the great advantage of 
manuring and improved tillage in order to obtain heavier 
crops, and drew attention to the necessity of soil survey. 
establishment of experimental farms, and the systematic 
examination of products. 

My friend, Mr. F. B. Guthrie, the Chemist of the New 
South Wales Department of Agriculture, delivered in 1906 
a lecture on “The Application of Science and Scientific 
Methods to Agriculture,’? under the auspices of the Sydney 
University Extension Board, in which he gave a short 
historical review of the evolution of scientific agriculture, 
and the recent results achieved by the aids of science. Mr. 
H. W. Potts, the Principal of the Hawkesbury Agricultural 
College, in his address on ‘‘ The Outlook for Agriculture,” 


38 THE LAND WE LIVE ON 


etc., recently delivered as President of the section for agri- 
culture of the Australasian Association for the Advancement 
of Science held in Brisbane, largely touched on the same 
question. 

Still the question is such an important one that it 
cannot be brought too often before the public and before 
our legislators, particularly if we bear in mind how much 
still remains to be accomplished. Although agriculture 
has made great strides during the last 50 years, and 
particularly of late, some startling and far-reaching dis- 
coveries have been made, yet the Secretary of the United 
States Department of Agriculture stated, quite recently, 
that farming is still in its infancy, and that the present 
productivity of farms is merely a forerunner of the 
marvellous results which will be obtained in the future. 

If there is any country in the world which strives to 
do justice to the scientific advance of agriculture, it is 
undoubtedly the United States of America, with its numerous 
Agricultural Colleges, Experimenta! Farms, with large 
Stafls of scientists spread all over the States, and at their 
head the Bureau of Agriculture, with eminent men guiding 
and controlling the whole. If agriculture is only in its 
infancy there, how does agriculture stand in Australia ? 
Is it born at all ? 

I myself have been connected with the Queensland 
Department of Agriculture and Stock for some considerable 
time, and must openly confess that agriculture in genera] 
has not made the progress it ought to have made, although 
a few branches, dairying for instance, have advanced 
considerably. But apparent progress is only toe apt to 
make us satisfied and forget that it might have been possible 
to do very much better. I cannot do better than quote 
some of the remarks made by Mr. J. M. Hunter, M.L.A., 
who recently visited South Australia, and made some 
of his impressions public in the Brisbane Courier (Nov. 17, 
1908) :—“I do not regard it as part of my duty at this 
juncture to blame or explain the acts of administration, 
or the want of them, that is responsible for the state of 
agriculture in Queensland to-day. I content myself by 
stating an unpleasant but pertinent fact, which is that 
while in the South and South-west of Queensland we 
possess a territory unequalled in any State of the Common- 


re 


BY J. ©. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 39 


wealth for size, quality of soil, and rainfall, we are not 


growing one quarter of the food-stuff we consume, while 
in South Australia they not only feed themselves, but 
after contributing largely to the needs of the Common- 
wealth, they sent away to oversea markets last year over 
£2,500,000 worth of wheat and flour.”’ 

An advancement of our agriculture can only be brought 
about by encouraging close settlement in agricultural 
districts ; by affording financial support to the farmers 
in their earliest struggles, by teaching the farmers the 
latest methods by practical demonstrations on Experimental 
Farms, and in Agricultural Colleges by establishing 
research scholarships at these institutions, and finally by 
introducing agricultural subjects into our elementary 
schools, so as to inculcate into the mind of our children 
a love for the noblest of all trades : ‘‘ To dress the earth and 
keep the. flocks of it—the first task of man and the final one.” 

The carrying out of this policy is largely one of expense, 
and it is a very bad sign, and shows great shortsightedness, 
that our legislators during bad_ times, necessitating 
retrenchments, put the pruning knife into the Department 
of Agriculture. In times of drought, our proverbial lean 
years, so far from retrenchment being set in motion, a 
young country should increase its expenditure, even at 
the cost of borrowing, just as the gardener waters his plants 
in dry weather to ensure future bloom. Such expenditure 
means Prosperity to Posterity. Nations are immortal, 
individuals are only mortal. I will give an instance of 
the fallacy of the present policy : A former principal of our 
Agricultural College was severely criticised for purchasing 


machinery and implements for the institution which were 


found to be of little or no value, and had to be replaced 
by other ones. Is it not much wiser that such implements 
should be tried once for all at a college, in order to let 
students see the advantages and disadvantages of each, 
than that useless or inefficient implements should be 
purchased by farmers, who have nobody to guide and 
advise, and have to rely upon the glowing testimonials 
displayed by the agents ; testimonials which perhaps are 
genuine enough, but not applicable to local conditions ? 

But why this singling out of Agriculture, for Soe et 
wherein lies its importance ? 


40 THE LAND WE LIVE ON 


Of all the primeval instincts hunger—the craving for 
food—is the most powerful and far-reaching one, and 
the supply of the necessary food to mankind is the principal 
object of agriculture. Nothing perhaps emphasises this 
necessity better than the humble prayer of every Christian : 
“Give us this day our daily bread.’’ We do not ask for 
clothes, or habitation, or other needs of life, but beg for 
bread only. 

How beautifully Ruskin, in his immortal work “ Unto 
This Last,” shows us the importance of agriculture and the 
intimate connection of it with the wealth and welfare of 
a nation :— 

“So long as men live by bread, the far away valleys 
must laugh as they are covered with the Gold of GOD.” 

“The wealth of a nation is only to be estimated by 
what it consumes.”’ 

“There is no wealth but Life, Life including all its 
powers of love, of joy, and of admiration. That country 
is the richest which nourishes the greatest number of noble 
and happy beings,” and finally, 

“There are two kinds of true production always going 
on in an active State: one of seed, and one of food; or 
production for the ground, and for the mouth.”’ 

The great importance of the food supply of the world 
was the leading feature of the epoch-making lecture 
delivered by Sir William Crookes ten years ago, at Bristol, 
in his inaugural address as President of the British 
Association for the Advancement of Science, in which he 
clearly showed that the world’s consumption of wheat is 
rapidly overtaking the supply. 

Professor Sylvanus P. Thompson, again, declared 
about two years ago that a shortage of the wheat supply 
is already imminent, and that in 1910 the demand will 
be barely covered by the production. 

Sir William Crookes’ lecture is particularly interesting 
to us, as Queensland is specially mentioned in the address, 
and the extracts of a few of the data will be of value. The 
world’s wheat crop for 1897-8 was about 2,000 million 
bushels, to which Australia, with its very vast areas, only 
contributes 33 million bushels, or about 12%; the United 
States produced 510 million bushels or 27%, and the two 
countries Italy and Spain together 178 million bushels 


- BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 41 


or nearly 10%, corresponding to the annual import of wheat 
into the United Kingdom. I specially mention these two 
countries, as their climate somewhat resembles our own. 
The two States together are about one-half the area of 
Queensland, but whereas Queensland has only in all 600,000 
acres or about .14% of its total area under crop, the land 
cultivated in Italy and Spain amounts to 47 and 39% 
respectively, which accounts for the Jarge production of 
cereals. 

Professor E. M. Shelton made years ago a rough estimate 
of our lands suitable for wheat culture, and considered 
about 50 million acres were fit for the cultivation of wheat. 
At present our area under wheat amounts to only 150,000 
acres. The great drawbacks to wheat culture in Australia 
are the climatic vicissitudes, as is clearly shown by the 
variation in the annual average yield. In Queensland 
the average yield for twenty years is 14.7 bushels per acre, 
which in the drought year 1902 dropped to 3.3 bushels, 
whereas the crops of last year will go well over the average. 
Victoria shows similar fluctuation, two years ago the crop 
was only 6.6 bushels, whereas last year (1908-9) an area 
of 1,885,000 acres yielded 12.8 bushels per acre. But, 
in spite of dry weather, good crops of wheat may be grown 
by improved methods of cultivation and the selection 
of healthy rust-resisting varieties. In 1907, on the Roma 
State Farm, a crop of 14 bushels per acre was obtained 
with only 3% inches of rain between seed time and harvesting. 
Last year the crops were very much heavier, averaging 
well over 20 bushels per acre, but several varieties of wheat 
yielded up to 38 bushels. 

The United Kingdom with an average yield of 29.5 
bushels is only able to grow 25% of its required wheat 
and has to import 75% from abroad, and rarely holds 
more than 14 weeks of supply on hand. What help it 
would be not only to us, but also to the Mother country, 
if we could cultivate part of our 50 million acres and supply 
Great Britain’s demand of 180 miilion bushels. 

Agriculture 13 the most ancient of all arts, coeval with 
the first dawn of civilisation. Agriculture flourished in 
ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. The ancient Romans 
highly esteemed husbandry, and spread the knowledge of 
agriculture all over Europe. In the early times the Anglo- 


42 THE LAND WE LIVE ON 


Saxon races much neglected agriculture, which indeed 
could not flourish under the feudal system. In the middle 
ages the best land belonged to the church, and the monks 
not only carefully cultivated their lands themselves, but 
supervised the cultivation of such lands which were leased 
to farmers. 

The development of agriculture in England may be 
traced from some of the old writings on agricultural sub- 
jects. One of the earliest works is the “ Books of Hus- 
bandry,” written in 1539, by Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, 
followed by Tusser’s ‘‘ Five Hundred Points of Good Hus- 
bandry,” and Googe’s ‘‘ Whole Art of Husbandry.” Of 
particular note was the work of Sir Richard Weston, pub- 
lished in 1645, ‘‘ Discourse on the Husbandry of Brabant 
and Flanders,” which largely induced the introduction of 
some of the methods of the justly-celebrated Flemish. 
agriculture into England. A very marked influence was 
also affected by Jethro Tull’s “ Horse-Hoeing Husbandry,” 
which appeared in 1731. 

The value of the application of Chemistry to agri- 
culture was very soon recognised, and already in 1795 the 
Earl of Dundonald, an ancestor of our late Governor Lord 
Lamington, published a treatise showing the intimate 
connection which existed between agriculture and chemistry. 
Unfortunately, the work did not receive the attention from 
the farmers of Great Britain and Ireland which it actually 
deserved. A much greater practical effect followed a 
series of lectures delivered by Sir Humphry Davy in 1812 
before the Board of Agriculture. The greatest advance 
in agricultural Chemistry was. however, due to the efforts 
of Dr. Justus von Liebig, whose first complete work was 
published in 1840. By the help of his teachings many 
operations and methods of cultivation carried out instinct- 
ively by farmers, methods transmitted from father to son, 
or accidentally discovered, were explained by scientific 
reasoning, and thus rendered more eminently and con- 
sistently useful. The work of Liebig was eagerly taken 
up, and used as a foundation for the scientific building up 
of agriculture by men like Anderson, Berzelius, Bousingault, 
Johnston, Voelker, Wolff, and carried on at the present 
day by Hall, Mitcherlich, Schloesing, Wiley, and many 
others. 


. — 
a . 


pie. 


BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 43 


The foundation of all agriculture is unquestionably 
the Soil, a layer of more or less weathered, crumbled rock, 
which covers the surface of Mother Earth, and is absolutely 
necessary to support any growth of plants. Only by the 
aid of the mineral matters obtained from the soil are plants 
able to grow and assimilate the organic plantfoods existing 
as an inexhaustable supply in the ocean of air. The con- 
stitution of the soil is very intricate and ever changing, 
and both the mineral ingredients, and the organic sub- 
stances, Humus, formed by the decay of vegetable matter, 
together with the host of micro-organisms living in the soil, 
are of vital importance. 

The importance of bacterial life has only of late years 
been properly recognised, and when we are told that one 
grain of soil may contain millions of micro-organisms, one 
cannot wonder at their far-reaching influence on the fertility 
of a soil. 

The skeleton of the soil is formed by mineral matters, 
and Geology is the science which will teach the agriculturadist 
the influence and importance of certain rocks on the com- 
position of soils. Geological maps of countries, illustrating 
the underlying strata, are of immense value to the scientific 
farmer, particularly those known as drift maps, which show 
the mineral matters actually existing on the surface. In 
some countries accurate soil maps are now available, which 
indicate the class of soil in each locality. These can only 
be produced by an exhaustive special examination. The 
United States Bureau of Agriculture has undertaken such 
a complete soil survey, a truly gigantic undertaking which 
will employ a large staff of experts for years. 

But for the study of the soil, other factors besides 
geology have to be taken’ into consideration ; they are its 
chemistry, physics, and, as already indicated, its biology, 
all which go hand in hand for the elucidation of the 
character of a soil. For years the fertility of a soil was 
chiefly judged by its chemical composition, paying, of 
course, due regard to the mechanical and physical con- 
dition, but of recent years the American school, as repre- 


sented by M. Whitney and F. K. Cameron, declare that the 


chemical composition of a soil has little to do with or to 


tell about the fertility of a soil, and that manures, if they 


44 THE LAND WE LIVE ON 


have any effect of increasing the crops, do so by altering 
the physical texture of the soil. 

But other investigators, hke R. D. Hall, the present 
director of the celebrated Rothamstead Experimental 
Station, clearly demonstrate from numerous and ¢on- 
tinuous manuring experiments that the views of the Amert- 
can scientists cannot be considered as generally applicable. 
A good many factors unquestionably combine to produce 
fertility, and the duty of every farmer is to maintain, and if 
possible increase, the fertility of the soil, so as to get 
maximum crops from his ground. 


Not only the actual amounts of available mineral 
matters in the soil are of importance, but also the proportion 
between them, and it has been shown quite recently by 
Japanese scientists, Loew, Aso, Daikuhara, and others, 
who have done a large amount of experimental work, that 
the ratio of Lime and Magnesia are of particular importance. 


Whitney’s theory that soil becomes unfertile by tne 
accumulation of toxic substances excreted by the roots of 
crops, and that the fertilizer act, not as a direct plantfood, 
but by destroying these substances and putting them out 
of action, has been supported by the results of investigations 
carried out in India. F. Fletcher proved by field experi- 
ments that there is an actual excretion of alkaloidice sub- 
stances by the roots of plants, which are toxic both to the 
parent plant and to other species. The sensitiveness of 
crops to the excreted toxins varies considerably. The 
results are of great importance with regard to the rotation 
of crops, and explain the advantages of certain rotations, 
showing for example why cotton grows feebly near sorghum, 
vet thrives at least as well, if not better, after sorghum than 
after cotton. ! 

Each crop fouls the soil for a succession of the same 
variety. The toxic substances can be precipitated by 
mineral manures, and also by certain vegetable refuse 
(leaves, etc.) containing tannic acid. Even before Fletcher 
published the results of his investigations several African 
Chemists showed that the sterility of certain soils was caused 
by the presence of toxic organic substances, the effects 
of which could be corrected by the use of stable manure, 
green manure, leaves of sumach, oak, ete., tannic acid and 


BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.1.C. _ 45 


pyrogallol, calclum carbonate, ferric hydrate and carbon 
black. 

Experiments on these lines would ke of particular 
value in our State to such crops as sugar cane, pine apples, 
which are continuously grown on the same soil for years. 

On the whole, soil chemistry has shown that exceedingly 
small amounts of mineral matters dissolved in the water 
within the soil are necessary for plant life, aided perhaps 
to some extent by a direct solving action of the roots upon 
the solid mineral matters. This theory had its foundation 
in the classical experiments of Sachs (1860) in which plant- 
roots were allowed to attack a slab of marble. Many 
investigators adhered to the notion that the rootlets excrete 
acids which help in the solution of the mineral matters, and 
on this theory the determination of available piantfoods 


in a soil by treatment with dilute watery solution of citric 


acid, as originally proposed by Dr. B. Dyer, in 1894, is based. 
The excretion of acids is, however, not necessary to account 
for the solvent action of roots, as is proved by the fact 
that soils maintain their neutral reaction under cultivation, 
although continually removing small amounts of bases 
from the soil. Instead of the acidity increasing under 
cultivation the watery soil solutions tend to get more 
alkaline. The slow solvent action of water on the soil 
particles is materially aided by the ever-present carbonic 
acid, given off continually by the growing roots, and indeed 
the determination of the available mineral plantfoods 
in a soul by one of the most recent methods, consists in 
treatment with water charged with Carbonic acid gas. 

One of the most wonderful aspects of nature is its 
dealing on the one hand with infinitely large quantities 
and distances quite beyond the range of human conception, 
and on the other hand with infinitesimal minute quantities , 
while still hoitding a true balance between all. 

We know that Carbon is the principal constituent 
of all organic tissue, and that plants obtain all their carbon 
from the minute quantities found in the atmosphere. The 
air contains approximately about three parts of carbonic 
acid in 10,000 parts, or in a cubic yard of air, weighing a 
little over 2 pounds (2.28lbs.) we find only 7 grains of 
Carbonic acid. The amount of carbonic acid varies with 
the altitude, and at a height of 18 miles, according to 


D—Rovyat Society. 


46 THE LAND WE LIVE ON 


Hinrichs, all carbonic acid has disappeared. Boussingault 
was the first to prove conclusively that the carbonic acid 
in the air is used for the assimilation of carbon by plants, 
and that other sources of carbonic acid, as from soil and 
water, are of little consequence. 

A crop of wheat will remove one ton of carbon from 
an acre of ground in four months, or as much as is contained 
in a column of air 3 miles in height, and a crop of maize 
removes in the same time about three times as much. 

Now the actual work done by the sun in the plant 
tissue to produce this assimilation amounts to at least 
3,000 horse power per day per acre, corresponding to the 
work of 15,000 men. We can now understand what an 
enormous amount of energy is wasted and lost for every 
acre we leave even partially uncultivated. George Ville, 
in lectures delivered in 1883 at the Academy of Brussels, 
puts this case very clearly. These lectures were translated 
and edited by Sir William Crookes under the title “‘ The 
Perplexed Farmer,” and they should be read by every one 
interested in agriculture. 

Another essential constituent of plant food is Nitrogen, 
one of the most inert of elements, in this respect approach- 
ing to the argon group. Although an inexhaustible supply 
exists in the atmosphere, 4-5ths being pure nitrogen, the 
higher plants cannot use it directly. It would be almost 
true to assert that the whole question of successful agri- 
culture centres about the fixiation of nitrogen. This 
essential of life is largely supplied to plants in the form of 
that ‘‘ villainous saltpetre’’ which, as gunpowder, we use 
for the destruction of hfe. Nitrogen, indeed, performs 
so important a role that one might almost christen agri- 
culture ‘‘ Azotism.’’ Yet, I would remind you the very 
word Azote, still used in France, was given to it for the 
very reason that, per se, it 1s incapable of supporting life — 
so involved are the processes of Dame Nature. 

Only some few of the micro-organisms are able to 
assimilate atmospheric nitrogen directly ; all higher plants 
must get their nitrogen in form of nitrates, and the prin- 
cipal source of this combined nitrogen is the small amount 
produced when organic substances are burned in air, and 
by the direct union of oxygen and nitrogen in the air under 
the influence of electric discharges. The extremely minute 


BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 47 


amounts of ammonia salts nitrates and nitrates in the air 
are collected by the rain. The amount of rainwater in 
nitrogen has for years been carefully ascertained at 
Rothamstead, and it was found that the average rainfall 
of 29 inches supplies yearly 3.84lbs. of nitrogen per acre, 
although the rainwater itself contains in an average only 
4-10ths part of nitrogen per million in the form of ammonia, 
and 1-l0th part per million as nitrate nitrogen. Similar 
determinations were carried out elsewhere, and the pre- 
valent idea that the amount of nitrogen in the water of 
tropical countries is much higher has not been sustained 
by the records pubhshed by Leather for the rainfall collected 
in India, at Dehra Dun and Cawnpore. They give almost 
identical amounts of nitrogen obtained in England, namely, 
3.25 and 3.4lbs. per acre, although the rainfall was 86 and 
49 inches per annum. Ingle made similar experiments 
in Pretoria, and found that a rainfall of 24 inches supplied 
6.58lbs. of nitrogen per acre aS ammonia, and 1.08lbs. 
as nitrate nitrogen. I arranged for collection of rain- 
water at our Roma State Farm, at the tropical Experimental 
Station at Kamerunga, near Cairns, and at Brisbane, for 
the past year, and the results so far seem to indicate that 
our rain is not very rich in nitrogen compounds. 

One of the principal objects of agricultural chemistry 
is to teach the farmer how he can best maintain the 
fertility of his soil. Fertility can only be maintained 
by giving back to the ground that which the crops them- 
selves take away. and this is easily done by the application 
of artificial fertilizers supplying the essential plantfoods : 
nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid. 

A continual process of gain and loss of all the plant- 
foods, more particularly of nitrogen, is taking place in 
every soil, and it is one of the main objects of the agri- 
culturist to encourage every increase of nitrogen, and at 
the same time reduce its waste to a minimum. A crop of 
wheat removes from the soil, in the grain alone, from 30 
to 50lbs. of nitrogen per acre. Of all the fertilizing con- 
stituents, nitrogen, although so abundant in the air, is the 
most expensive to obtain, and consequently one of the 
great aims of experimental chemistry has been to devise 
-a means of utilizing the atmospheric nitrogen. 


48 THE LAND WE LIVE ON 


‘An increase of nitrogen in soil is derived, as already 
mentioned, from the small amounts of nitrogen compounds 
dissolved in the rain water. 

As shown by the now historical researches of Hell- 
riegal, leguminous plants make direct use of the atmos- 
pheric nitrogen by the aid of micro-organisms, living in 
the root nodules, and green-manuring, with leguminous 
crops, can therefore to some extent supersede the direct 
application of nitrogenous manures. Bacterial cultures 
under the name of ‘‘ Nitragin,” to be added to the soil or 
for the direct treatment of the seed itself, to encourage the 
activity of the nitro-kacteria, were prepared by Nobbe, 
of Tharand, and Hiltner, in 1896, but did not prove a 
great success. Such cultures have been improved by G. 
Moore, of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

Another gain of nitrogen is finally obtained by the 
action of bacteria and micro-organisms living free in the 
soil, which are capable of assimilating atmospheric nitrogen. 
Winogradsky has already years ago proved such assimi- 
lation of nitrogen by certain forms of Clostridiwm ; Beijer- 
inck, Heinze, and others, by certain blue-green algae, 
Cyanophyceae. 

Of more recent date are the investigations of Kruger, 
Schneidewind, Mazé, Gerloch, Vogel, Heinze, and others, 
proving fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by so-called 
Azoto-bacteria. The presence of these bacterial forms 
was detected in the soils of cultivated fields and of meadows, 
in sand of dunes, and also in seawater. Azoto-bacteria 
require for their growth not only certain amounts of easily 
available mineral substances, chiefly phosphoric acid and 
potash salts, but also organic compounds for the supply 
of carbon, as these low forms of life cannot assimilate 
carbonic acid. These compounds are furnished by the 
higher plants, and by the decay of vegetable matters. 
The bacteria further require suitable temperature, 
mositure, and finally, plenty of air, so that they thrive 
best in loose, moist, deeply cultivated soil. | 

The farmer has it, therefore, in his own hands to 
improve the nitrogen contents of his land by encouraging 
the growth of these organisms by thorough cultivation. 

Dr. R. Greig-Smith, the Macleay Bacteriologist - of 
the Linnean Society of New South Wales, in his studies 


BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 49 


of slime producing bacteria, proved the fixation of atmos- 
pheric nitrogen by Azotobacter, and summarised the work 
of such friendly bacteria (proceedings of the Linnean 
Society of N.S.W., vol. XXXI., p. 615), by stating : “‘ We 
are now certain of the kind of help which the bacterium 
gives the plants. There exists a symbiosis; the plant 


supplies saline and saccharine matters, the latter of which 


the bacterium converts into gum, and at the same time 
elaborates atmaspheric nitrogen into constituents which 
are partly contained within the bacterial cell, and partly 
diffused in the gum, which by virtue of their presence, 
appears as a slime. Both the nitrogenous and the carbo- 
hydrate constituents of the slime are then elaborated by 
the plant-cells into tissue elements.” 

A further supply of nitrogen in the form of artificial 
fertilizer is frequently absolutely necessary, and hitherto 
farmers of the whole world have been depending largely 
on the supply of saltpetre fields of Chili. With an annual 
output amounting to 1,740,000 tons in 1907, a depletion 
of these mines is expected within 50 years, and the neces- 
sity of some other source of mitrogen becomes very 
apparent 

Birkeland and Eyre are now producing nitrates from 
the atmospheric air at their factory at Nottoden, Norway, 
by electric discharges, thus reproducing one of Nature’s 
processes. An enormous supply of water produces the 
cheap electric power necessary for heating the special 
electric furnaces through which air is passed, and the 
nitric acid oktained by the direct combination of nitrogen 
and oxygen is absorbed by milk of lime, to form calcium 
nitrate. | 

Another new nitrogenous manure is the calcium 
cyanamide, produced by the action of atmospheric nitrogen 
on calcium carbide, the well-known compound used fot 
the production of acetylene gas, or on a mixture of lime 
and charcoal, heated to 2000 degrees C. The product 
Cyanamide, or Kalkstickstoff, contains from 14 to 22% 
of nitrogen, which is given off in form of ammonia, when 
water acts on the substance in the ground. Experiments 
carried out with the fertilizer seem to give excellent results. 

Another very important line of investigation in agri- 
cultural chemistry and physiological chemistry is the study 


50 THE LAND WE LIVE ON 


of animal nutrition, and the composition of foddercrops, 
and food-stuffs in general. A large amount of experi- 
mental work has been done in this respect in Europe and 
in the United States, yet many esssential points are still 
shrouded in mystery. Wolff was the first to publish a 
special work on “ farm foods,” in 1864, chiefly based on 
the researches of von Voit, and Pettenkofer, carried out 
at Munich, and his own work at the Agricultural College 
at Hohenheim. 

In the analysis of fodders very little progress has 
been made, and the original “‘ Wende ”’ method, introduced 
by Henneberg in 1864, is: still largely used, although the 
results can be hardly called satisfactory. 

Of particular importance are the analyses of our 
stapte foods, wheat and wheaten flour. As most of the 
wheat is used in the form of flour, the milling and bread- 
making qualities are of chief value. With the introduction 
of improved methods of milling, many of our old popular 
ideas have been exploded, and the notion that dark- 
looking and whole-meal bread are more nutritious than white 
bread is proved tobe a fallacy. Our modern millers pro- 
duce not only a whiter but a more nutritious and more 
easily digested flour than their predecessors. Professor 
Snyder, of the University of Minnesota. has clearly shown 
that from nearly every class of wheat the white flour of 
commerce yielded more nutriment than the whole-meal, 
and that the addition of bran made flour more indiges- 
tible. The value of flour is practically judged by 
bakers by its strength, or the capacity to produce a bold, 
large-volumed, and well-risen loaf. We do not know yet 
what really constitutes the strength of flour, or how many: 
factors take part in its production. Quantity, composition 
and character of the insoluble proteins—Gluten—of the 
flour are some of the principal factors, but others are of 
equal importance, and the new fact made known by A. D. 
Hall that, although individual flours may be of poor 
strength and produce poor loaves, a blending of such flour 
nevertheless produced an excellent loaf; but only a mix- 
ture of the flours in certain proportions gave results equal 
to a sample of strong Manitoka flour. Again, it was shown 
that the strength varied if the wheats were harvested half 
ripe or, dead ripe. These investigations prove the practical 


BY J. C, BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 51 


value of the methods in practice by all millers to blend 


their wheats, and also shows that the results of milling and 
anaylses alone are not at all sufficient by which to judge 
the value of any wheat. As a matter of fact, experi- 
mental milling should be carried out on a far larger scale, 
and a few bags of each of the flours produced, so as to 


enable different blends to be made and bread from the 


Separate and blended flours to be tested. 

A further important research is the detection of 
injurious and poisonous compounds in fodder plants, and 
with regard to this an enormous amount of work will 
have to be done in Australia. Of particular interest has 
been the discovery of a hydrocyanic acid-yielding glucoside 
in the fodders belonging to the Sorghum family. Already, 
in 1803, Schrader had proved the toxic principle of bitter 
almonds to be hydrocyanic acid, since when investigators 
have shown the presence of free prussic acid and of 
cyanogenetic glucosides in many seeds and plants. Most 
hkely they play an important réle in the synthesis of the 
Proteins. Treub asserts that these bodies are the first 
recognisable product of the assimilation of the nitrogen 
of mtrates by plants. How the hydrocyanic acid itself 
is first formed is still a mystery, although Gautier’s sug- 
gestion that it may be formed by a reduction of nitrates 
by formaldehyde is a very feasible one. 

I cannot leave the application of chemistry to agri- 
culture without mentioning the great value which chemical 
methods of analysis have been in the develoment of the 
dairying industry. The introduction of simple methods 
for the determination of fat in milk and cream has put 
the industry on a sound scientific basis. 

I shall now pass on to the consideration of some of 
the other sciences influencing the development of agri- 
culture, and of necessity can only give bare outlines in 
some cases. 

Botany has always been of recognised importance in 
the search for new plants suitable for food, or of 
other commercial value. But perhaps one of the chief 
functions of the application of this science is the improve- 
ment of plants by breeding and cross-fertilization. 

As early as the beginning of last century Lamarck 
revolted against the dogma of the immutability of species. 


52 THE LAND WE LIVE ON 


By Darwin’s work—* considered a decidedly dangerous 
book to old ladies of both sexes ’’—the mystery of hereditary 
was somewhat cleared up by experiments in cross fer- 
tilization. The improvement of cereal grain, more par- 
ticularly of wheat by hybridising, 1s a matter of utmoitt 
importance, and a good deal of work has been done already 
in this direction. A large number of hybrids of wheats 
have been raised at the Minnesota Experiment Station, 
and in New South Wales the late Mr. W. Farrer 
produced a large number of cross-bred wheats, some of 
which proved of considerable value. Similar work with 
regard to fruits in particular has been done by others. 

Still the matter of breeding lacked a_ thorough 
scientific basis, and the work was, as stated by Lindley 
half a century ago, “a game of chance played between 
man and plant,” which, as a matter of fact, was always 
largely in favour of the plants. 

The mystery has been solved by the exceedingly valuable 
work of a monk, Gregor Mendel, of the Abbey of Brinn, in 
Austria, who, as the result of eight years’ painstaking experi- 
ments, communicated to the Briinn Natural History 
Society a paper on ‘“‘ Hxperiments in Plant Hybridisation.” 
This work was completely overlooked, and lay for 35 
years in the archives of the Society, only to ke re-discovered 
in 1901, almost simultaneously by three scientists, de 
Vries, Correns, and Tschermak. It was shown that the 
work of the amateur botanist gave a clear and complete 
theory with regard to the working of heredity, and based 
on his researches and theories cross-fertilization reaches 
almost the accuracy of mathematical science. Briefly 
his theory is, that inheritance consists in the transmission 
of independent characters—the Constant Characters—otf 
which each species possesses a certain definite number. 
These characters form pairs of opposites or alternatives. 
The characters are distributed among the germ cells in 
systematic manner, so that no germ cell will carry both 
numbers of a pair. Biffen, of the Agricultural Depart- 
ment of the Cambridge University, has taken the work up, 
and has already obtained very interesting results in the 
cross-fertilization of wheats and _ barleys. 

Botany is also of importance in the study of many 
plant diseases. Smut and rust are very prevalent diseases 


+ ee 


BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 53 


caused by fungi. The infection frequently takes place 
in the seedling stage, and the germs of the disease may 
also be lying dormant in the seed itself. In the case of 
wheat and barley, the seedling is not attacked by the 
smut spores, but during the flowering stage attacks the 
plants, settling on the ripening grain. Fungicides, rotation 
of crops, obtaining seed from healthy crops, and -the 
breeding of disease-resisting varieties are the principal 
remedies. 

Perhaps no science has made such great progress, 
and has been of such far-reaching influence in every-day 
life as Bacteriology. The influence of bacteria on agri- 
culture is of utmost importance. We have already men- 
tioned that by the aid of bacteria leguminous plants may 
directly assimilate nitrogen from the air. In nearly all 
cases reaction and changes going on continually in soil 
micro-organisms are the principal factors. The change 
of the nitrogenous matters into ammonia compounds, 
and finally into nitrates, generally called the process of 
nitrification, is caused by certain bacteria. A reversal 
of the process-denitrification—by which from nitrates 
and ammonia salts free nitrogen is liberated, and thereby 
lost—is lhkewise caused by bacteria. Soil Biology is quite 
a science of its own, and some observers attribute the 
assimilation of all inorganic and organic plantfoods, by 
the roots from the soil, to the action and help of bacteria. 
Bacteriology is of equal importance to dairying; the 
ripening of cream and cheese are both caused by bacteria, 
and so are souring of milk, development of bad flavours 
in butter and cheese. Desired results can only be obtained 
by thorough sterilisation of milk and cream, and the sub- 
sequent use of pure cultures of certain bacteria as starters. 

The great and principal objects of sciences of 
Engineering and Mechanics are to harness the forces of 
Nature to the service of agriculture, and to improve the 
various implements and machines used in its various 
branches. These sciences are of further importance in 
the carrying out of schemes of water conservation, and in 
the preparing and laying out of land for draining and 
irrigation. This branch of engineering is of particular 
value to our State, and just at present, when the Govern- 
ment are anxious to carry out such schemes, the want of 


54 THE LAND WE LIVE ON 


trained men is acutely felt. Engineering is of fuatonee 
great importance in the dairying industry for the con- 
struction of milking machines, separators, pasteurisers, 
churns, butter workers, refrigerating machines, etc. 

With reference to implements, let me give a short 
history of the Plough, one of the most necessary implements 
of a farm, used for the breaking up and turning over of the 
soil, to replace the slow and laborious hand digging. The 
use of the plough dates back almost to the earliest history 
of mankind, but the implements used in early times were, 
as a rule, primitive and clumsy, chiefly constructed of 
wood. Ploughing with shares shod with iron and bronze 
is mentioned in the Old Testament. Ploughs with wheels 
were also used by the ancient Greeks, but none of the old 
ploughs actually turned over a furrow. The modern 
plough. with a mould-board to turn over the soil, seems to 
have been invented in the Netherlands in the 17th century. 
Up to the middle of the 19th century the mould-boards 
were generally made of wood. Since that time great 
improvements in the construction of ploughs have been 
made, and different types are used for specific purposes. 
A particularly great advance was the introduction of the 
American Gang and Sulky plough, and the newest type 
of disc plough, so admirably suited for many of our classes 
of soil. In other implements, such as harrows, rollers, 
cultivators, etc., the ingenuity of the mechanic has made 
many improvements. As early as the year 1858, in an 
article in the Journal of Agriculture, th> necessity of the 
application of steam ploughs to agriculture was strongly 
advocated in Great Britain. Paradoxical as it seems, 
Ruskin in his id2ahstic social democracy emphatically 
condemns the employment of steam in agriculture. In 
the year 1618 patents for engines to plough the ground 
without horses or oxen were taken out by David Ramsay 
and Thomas Wildgoose, followed by. other patents for 
the depositing of seeds and manures, which, however, 
the wags of that time considered regular “‘ wild-goose 
schemes.” 

Towards the close of the 17th century, Francis Moore 
took out patents for a machine to go without horses, to 
be applicable to ploughing and harrowing, and to all 
branches of husbandry. So sanguine was he of his results 


BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 55 


that he sold all his horses. and induced many of his friends 
to do likewise. His work was improved upon by Richard 
L. Edgeworth, who took out patents in 1770. Since that 
time numerous other patents have been taken out, all of 
which helped to perfect the modern steam plough. I 
ean only mention the names of Major Pratt, Heathcote, 
Alex. McRae, John Tulloch, Osborn, Boydell, H. Hannam, 
James Usher, Hoskyns, Williams, and Fisken, who, during 
the middle of the 19th century, patented various schemes 
for steam cultivation, which are the fore-runners of the 
system of John Fowler, the principal system used at the 


present day. 


For harvesting, machines were also found a necessity 
as labour-savers, and as early as 1829 a reaping machine 
was invented by the Rev. Mr. Bell, of Carmylie, Forfarshire, 
whose struggles in this regards are almost pathetic. For 
trials he had to plant stalks of straw one by one in sand 
in his back yard, in order to find out how his machine 
would cut the straw. His machine, in an improved form, 
is still in use. Mowing and reaping machines have now 
been greatly improved, and not only cut the crops, but bind 
the straw up into sheaves. Cyrus McCormick is_ the 
inventor of the most modern reaping machine. One of 
his first machines, shown in the Crystal Palace Exhibition 
in 1851, was called by the Times “a cross between an 
Astley chariot, a wheel barrow and a flying machine,” 
but afterwards was considered worth the whole of the 
exhibition. 

At the present day one of our chief wants is a good 
cane-cutting machine, and it is interesting to note, just 
now, that here in Brisbane an engineer has patented and 
constructed such a machine, which will soon make its first 
practical trial, and which from appearance seems to have 


solved the problem, and if so will be of enormous value to 


the sugar industry. 

Other machines in which the ingenuity of the mechanic 
and engineer has been exercised are implements for sowing 
of seed, distribution of fertilizers, planting and harvesting 
of tubers, etc., and finally implements to improve cultiva- 
tion, so as to conserve the soil moisture as much as possible. 

A good deal remains to be done in the invention of 
machines directly utilising the light and heat of the sun 


56 THE LAND WE LIVE ON 


as a motive power, to take the place of the expensive steam 
power. Wind and water power are already largely utilised. 
The production of a cheap alcohol has made enormous 
progress on the Continent, and no doubt the time will come 
when we Shall utilise some part of our crops, and more 
particularly the millions of gallons of Molasses, the bye- 
product of our sugar mills, which now almost entirely 
go to waste, to be manufactured into alcohol, a liquid fuel 
which can completely replace petroleum and petroleum 
Spirit, imported in large quantities from America, for the 
driving of motor cars, launches, farm engines, and also for 
hghting and cooking. 

Electricity itself is now used as a direct aid as a plant 
producer. I can only mention the Thwaite system of 
Klectro-culture, a system using direct light and heat pro- 
duced by powerful arc-lamps to plants, to stimulate their 
growth. Sir Oliver Lodge’s large-scale experiments of 
electro-culture, by passing electric currents through wires 
and cross wires stretched across the fields on poles, are 
giving according to recent reports up to 40% increase in 
the yield of grain. Professor Lemstrom’s experiments 
to apply electric currents to cultivated fields, and the 
French system of utilismg atmospheric electricity for 
agriculture, and the direct treatment of seeds with electricity 
are further attempts in this direction. 

Veterinary science will help in the breeding of stock, 
in the treatment of diseases, and in this respect a good 
deal of work has to be done in our State, chiefly in the 
investigation of Redwater and other diseases. 

The Entemologist and Vegetable Pathologist have to 
investigate insect pests, plant diseases, and find remedies 
for all, particularly to seek the most successful and practical 
methods of combating insect pests by the introduction 
of parasites, requires careful and painstaking labour and 
research. One of our great problems is the destruction 
of noxious weeds, lantana and prickly pear ; for the former 
a natural check by insects has already been found in Hawai, 
and whether it is possible to find a similar remedy for the 
prickly pear will be seen in the future. | 

There are other sciences which have a more or less 
direct bearing on agriculture, but time permits me _ to 
mention only one more, and that is Education. Consider- 


~ BY J. CG.’ BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 57 


4 ing the importance of agriculture it is always to be wondered 


at how completely agricultural education has been neglected 
for years, and how farmers have been left to shift for them- 
selves and battle with adverse circumstances. How to 
educate the farmer has always been a question open to 
different views and serious discussions. It has of late 
years been seriously taken up and the teaching of the 
elements of agricultural sciences have been even introduced, 
as it should be, in the lower schools. 


The first Chair of Agriculture in the University of 
Edinburgh was instituted by Sir Wilham Pulteney, in 
1791, with Dr. Coventry as its first professor. An agri- 
cultural College was founded in Cirencester in 1839, which 
is still in a very flourishing condition. In Ireland, an 
agricultural school was established in 1821, which was 


followed by the establishment of agricultural training 


schools, and the introduction of the teaching of agriculture 
in the national schools, which has proved a very successful 
and economic system. 


Of great educational value are the numerous agri- 
cultural societies existing everywhere. As early as 1723, 
a ‘* Society for the improvement in the knowledge of Agrt- 
culture,’ was established in Scotland, followed by a similar 
Society in Dublin in 1737. The << Bath and West of 
England Society”? was founded in 1777, the “ Highland 
Soctety”’ in 1784, the “ Board of Agriculture’? was formed 
in 1793, and controlled by Sir John Sinelair, and the 
“ Royal Society for the improvement of Agriculture” was 
established in 1847. 


At the present day we must consider the United States 
of America to stand at the top of all countries with regard 
to agricultural education, their system of Agricultural 
Colleges, Experiment Stations, Agricultural Universities, 


-and the teaching of agriculture in lower schools is well nigh 


perfect, no labour or expense appears to be spared. 


Let us hope that. our country will soon be in a position 
to spend a proportionate amount of money for the develop- 
ment of agriculture, just as it is done elsewhere. We 
must never forget that farming is not only the most difficult 
of professions, but the only profession which is absolutely 
indispensable to mankind. For this reason agriculture 


58 THE LAND WE LIVE ON 


should be recruited from the most intelligent and persevéring 
of workers. 
In “ Time and Tide’? Ruskin says :— 


‘A labourer serves his country with his spade just . 


as a man in the middle ranks of life serves it with sword, 
pen or lancet,”’ and finally ‘“‘ Now the fulfilment: of all 
human liberty is the peaceful inheritanc> of the earth, 
with its herb yielding seed, and fruit tree yielding fruit 
after his kind, the pasture, or arable land, and the blossom- 
ing or wooded and fruited land uniting the final elements 
of life and peace, for body and soul.” . 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


Annual Meeting of Members, 


HELD ON JANUARY 29th, 1909. 


The Annual Meeting was held at the Technical College, 
Ann Street, on January 29th, 1909. 


The President (J. C, Brinnich, F.1.C., F.C.8., occupied 
the chair. 
Minutes of last Annual Meeting were read and confirmed. 


The Report of Council and Financial Statement for 1908 
were read and adopted. 


To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland. 


The Council of the Royal Society of Queensland have 
pleasure in presenting the Annual Report for the year ending 
31st December, 1908. 


Nine ordinary meetings were held during the year, when 
the following papers were read :— 


March 26th.—‘ The Jardine Expedition from Rockhampton 
to Cape York, 1864,’ Hon. A, 
Norton, M.L.C. 
‘‘ Recent Results of Astronomical Photo- 
graphy,’ W. #. Gale, F.R.A.S. 
April 24th.—*‘‘ The Origin of Australia,” Professor S. B. J. 
Skertchly. 
May 30th.—‘‘ Nature Studies in Queensland, New South 
Wales, and Fiji,” Hon. A. Norton. 
‘‘Men of Colour—Women also,’ ‘ Three 
Colour Pictures,” W. Saville Kent. 
June 26th.—‘‘ The People of New Georgia,” Rev. J. Goldie. 


August 1st.—‘‘ Palms of the Brisbane Botanical Gardens,”’ 
J. F. Bailey. 


August 29th.—‘‘ Geology of Tambourine Mountains,” 
J. Shirley, B. Se. 


September 25th.— Brisbane Tertiaries,’’ Professor 8. B. J. 
Shertchly. 


li. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. 


October 31st.—‘‘ Queensland Grasses,’’ Dr. A. Sutton. 


November 28th.—‘‘ Chillagoe Garnet Rocks,” F. FE. Connah. 


‘‘ Notes on Brisbane Pond Life,” W. R, 
— Colledge. 


A special meeting was also held on March 28th, at which 
Mr. W. F. Gale, F.R.A.S., gave a lecture entitled ‘‘ Astronomy 
and Photography.”’ 


The Council greatly regrets to have to report the death of 
four prominent members :—Messrs. L. A. Bernays, C.M.G., 
W. Saville Kent, W. Collins, and Hon. John Leahy. 


Eight new members were elected and thirteen resigned 
or left, leaving the membership at 103. 


The following names are those of the new members elected 
since the last report for 1907: Messrs. &. Dodd, F.R.C.V.S., 
D. Eglinton, Miss Eglinton, Messrs. EK. H. Gurney, EK. R. 
Gore Jones, G. Tucker, M.R.C.V.S., C. T. White, Major J. 


Johnston. ; 


Ten Council meetings were held during the year, and the 
attendance of Councillors was as follows:—J. F. Bailey, 8 ; 
W. J. Byram,4; J. C. Brinnich,9; H. M. Challinor, 3; 
E. H. Gurney, 6; J. B. Henderson, 7; Hon. A. Norton, 9; 
J. Shirley, 1; F. Smith, 2; Dr. A. Sutton, 4; Dr. J. 
Thomson, 4. 


Mr. C. T. White wa3 appointed Hon. Librarian in succes- | 


sion to Mr. Frank Smith, who resigned; and Mr. H. M. 
Challinor having resigned from the position of Hon. Secretary, 
Mr. E. H. Gurney was appointed to the position. 


During the year, upon the recommendation of the Library 
Sub-Committee, the Library has been put in order, being 
classified and catalogued by Mr. and Miss Eglinton. 


The financial statement, which is hereto annexed, shews 
that the monetary affairs of the Society are on a sound basis. 


Signed on behalf of the Council,— 


J. C. BRUNNICH, 
President. 
E. H. GURNEY, 
Hon. Secretary. 


Brisbane, January, 29th, 1909. 


iii. 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. 


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iv. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. 


Mr. Briinnich read his Presidential Address, entitled, ‘‘ The 
Land we Live on,’ and was accorded a hearty vote of thanks by 
the meeting. 


The following office-bearers for 1909 were then elected :— 
President: J. F. Bailey; Vice-President: Dr. Alfred Sutton ; 
Hon. Treasurer: J.C. Briinnich, F.1.C.; Hon. Secretary: E. 
H. Gurney ; Hon. Librarian: C.'T. White; Members of Cownetl : 
Colonel John Thomson, M.B., P.M.O., J. Brownlie Henderson, 
F.I.C., J. Shirley, B.Sc., H. Wasteneys, W. R. Colledge: Hon. 
Auditor : Geo. Watkins; Hon. Lanternist: A. G. Jackson. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Archer, R. 8. 

Badger, J. S. 

Bailey, J. F. (Life) 

Bailey, F. M. (Life) 
Bennett, F. 

Bernays, L. A., C.M.G. 
Briinnich, J. C., F.1.C. 
Bundock, C. W. 

Bundock, Miss Alice 
Byram, W. J. 

Cameron, J., M.L.A. (Life) 
Cameron, W. E. 

Carter, Hon. A. J., M.L.C. 
Challinor, H. M. 

Colledge, W. R. 

Collins, J. C. 

Collius, R. M. 

Collins, Wm. 

Collins, Miss Jane 
Connah, Frank E. 

Cooper, Sir Pope A., C.J. 
Cory, A. H., M.R.C.V.S.L. 
Costin, C. W. 

Dodd, S., F.R.C.V.S.L. 
Dunstan, Benjamin 
Eglinton, D. 

Eglinton, Miss 


Forrest, Hon. E. B., M.L.A. 


Fox, Geo., M.L.A. 
Gailey, R. (Life) 
Gibson, Hon. A., M.L.C. 
Gore, Gerard R. 
Gore-Jones, E. R. 

Gray, Hon. G. W., M.L.C. 
Greenfield, A. P. 
Griffith, Sir S. W. (Life) 
Gurney, E. H. 

Hedley, C. 

Henderson, J. B., F.1.C. 
Henderson, Mrs. J. B. 
Hirschfeld, Dr. 
Hockings, P. F. 
Hogarth, Mrs, 

Holland C. W. 

Hood, W. W. 

Hopkins, Dr. 

lllidge, T. 

Illidge, Rowland 

Irving, J., M.R.C.V.S.L. 
Jack, Dr. R. L. (Life) 
Jackson, A. G. 
Johnston, Major J. 


Jones, P. W. 

Jones, A. Raymond 

Kent, W., Saville (Life) 
Leahy, p. J., M.L.A. 
Leahy, John, M.L.A. 
Lord, Frederick 

Love, Dr. W. 

Lucas, Dr. 

Marks, Hon. Dr. 

Marks, E. O. 

May, Dr. 

McCall, T. 

McConnel, Eric W. 
McConnel, James H. 
McConnel, Edward J. 
Mackie, R. Cliffe 

Miles, Hon. E. D., M.L.C. 
Millar, T. W. 
Murray-Prior, Mrs. 
Norton, Hon. Albert (Life) 
Parker, W. R., L.D.S 

Plant, Lieut. -Col. Cz F, 
Plant, Hon EH. T.;, MA: 
Pound, C. J. 

Power, Hon. F. I., M.L.C. 
Pritchard, C. 

Raff, Hon. Alex. (Life) 
Reid, Major D. E. 

Roe, R. H., M.A. (Life) 
Ryan, Dr. J. P. 

Sankey, Major J. R. 
Schneider, Henry (Life) 
Shirley, J., B.Sc. 

Smith, Frank, B.Sc. 
Stevens, Hon. E. J. (Life) 
Steele, T. F.L.S., F.E.S. (Life) 
Sutton, Dr. A. 

Sutton, J. W. (Life) 
Taylor, Hon. Dr. 
Thomson, Dr. John (Life) 
Thynne, Hon. A. J. 
Tonks, T. 

Townley, Capt. W. 
Tucker, G., M.RC.V.S.L. 
Turner, Dr. A. Jefferis 
Walsh, Rev. W. M. (Life) 
Wasteneys, H. 
Watkins, Geo. 
Weedon, Warren (Life) 
White, C. T. 
Willcocks, G. C. 
Zoeller, C. 


i 
PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY 


H. POLE & Co., ExizaseTH STREET, BRISBANE. 


ee . 


a 
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<{ 
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ELIZABETH 


oi 
ae 


BRISBANE. 


ST., 


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PROCHKEDINGS 


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NO OKAY. 


PART If. 


PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY 
BY 
H. POLE & Co., PRINTERS, ELIZABETH ST., BRISBANE, 


1910, 


Ge = Bick 


Royal Society of Queensland 


Patron: 


HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WILLIAM MACGREGOR, 
M.D., G.C.M.G., C.B., Ere. 


QEERICERS,,. 1910. 


President : 
W. R. COLLEDGE. 


Vice-President : 
IK. H. GURNEY, F.C.S. 


Hon. Treasurer : Hon. Secretary : 
. C. BRUNNICT,, F.LC. Fr. BENNETT. 


Hon. Librarian : 
Cc. T: WHITE: 


Members of Council : 


J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C. W. RR. PARKER, L.D.S. 
J. SHIRLEY, B.Sc. P. L. WESTON, B.A., B.Sc. 
Trustees : 
JOHN CAMERON. Hon. A. NORTON, M.L.C. 


Hon. Auditor : 
GEO. WATKINS. 


Hon. Lanternist : 
A, G. JACKSON. 


CONTENTS. 


THE CLIMATES OF THE GEOLOGICAL PAST.— 
H. J. Jensen, D.Sc., September 25th, 1909 ... 


NOTE ON ESTIMATION OF ZINC IN COPPER ORES 
BY MEANS OF POTASSIUM FERROCYANIDE. 
Frank EF. Connah, September 25th, 1909 


THE ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE 
ROCK AND THE POSSIBILITY OF FINDING 
PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS IN AUSTRALIA.—4H. 
J. Jensen, D.Sc., October 30th, 1909... 


INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS INTO 
QUEENSLAND.—/J. F. Bailey, February 26th, 1910 


PAGE 


59 


65 


69 


77 


¢ 


: 
é 
, 


~ 


THE CLIMATES OF THE GEOLOGICAL PAST. 


By H. J. JENSEN, D.Sc. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25th September, 
1909. 


The important discovery of the Shackelton Antarctic 
Expedition of coal seams, within a few degrees of the 
South Pole, at an elevation of 10.000 feet, is another piece 
of evidence that this elevated and frozen region was once 
situated near sea level, and was enjoying a warm or tem- 
perate climate. 

The cause of an “Ice Age,” and the cause of a warm 
cycle such as may produce a luxuriant tropical vege- 
tation in Arctic regions, are subjects which have given 
rise to more controversy than perhaps any other scientific 
question, excepting the modern problems. of radio-activity. 

Although no single theory has been tound adequate 
to account for an ice-age, still we get closer to the soluticn 
of the problem as the years roll on. The American Schcol 
cf Geologists, by their lucid reasoning, have done much 
to help clear up the question. 

The ice-ages of greatest geological significance, that 
is, producing the most widespread effects, were the 
Cambrian Ice Age in the dawn of life on earth, the Permo- 
Carboniferous ice age in the period when ccal measures 
were laid down, and the late Tertiary when Eurcpe was 
covcred with extensive glaciers, and an ice age prevailed 
on Mourt Kesciusko and Tasmania. 

The early Cambrian Era was a period of great con. 
tinental extension and uplift. Either the continents rose 
and crew larger at the expense of the sea—or what really 
amounts to the same thing—the oceans grew deeper so that 
the waters sank or became confined to smaller areas. One 
of the results of this continental extension was that arms 
of the pre-Cambrian seas became isolated, and were turned 
into lakes situated at comparatively high altitudes. 


E—Royat Society. 


GO sacnne THE CLIMATES OF THE GEOLOGICAL PAST 
\ 


During the Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian periods, 
which followed the Cambrian, the continents became largely 
worn down and resubmerged. This was the effect of 
the cessation of those uplifts of continents and subsidences 
of ocean basins that characterised the previous cycle. 
The continents would be worn down by rivers, and the 
oceans would tend to silt up, causing the waters to rise. 


The carboniferous and early Permo-Carboniferous, 
which followed the Devonian, were periods of fluctuating 
conditions, as shown by the intercalation of land and 
swamp deposits, like coal beds, between marine sediments. 
The late Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic were periods 
of elevation or continental extension, and the most marked 
result of the inequalities in level produced was that scme 
areas became cold and arid (like the Thibet and Gobi 
to-day), and other areas became ccld and humid (like the 
west coast of Scotland to-day). 

At the end of the Triassic, uplifts ceased, and the 
following periods, the Cretaceous and Eocene, saw the 
centinents worn down and largely resubmerged. Absence 
of high mountains and the prevalence of marshy conditions 
naturally produced warm climates. 

In the middle and late Tertiary pericds which followed 
the Eocene, particularly in the Miocene and Pliocene, 
great uplifts again took place. This resulted in the pro- 
duction of high altitudes and cold climates. The Alps 
and the Himalayas, and many of our highest tablelands 
of to-day, were formed during these periods. 

It is clear that the three greatest Ice Ages, the Cam- 
brian, the Per:o-Carboniferous, and the late Teritary, 
correspond with periods of uplift or “ continental 
extension.’ 3 

The researches of Professors Hull and Spenser show 
that Europe and North America stood many thousand 
feet higher in the period of the Great Ice Age than at 
present. The drowned valleys off the Victorian coast, 
and the rugged coastline of south-eastern Australia, show 
that this part of our continent was much higher when an 
ice-age prevailed on Mount Koscuisko, the Australian Alps. 
and in Tasmania. 

It is therefore quite possible that the Ice Ages of 
geological history have all seen produced essentially by the 


BY H. Je JENSEN, D.SC. 61 


existence of much greater inequalities of level during these 
periods than exist at the present day. An average high 
altitude for the continents is, per sé, quite capable of pro- 
ducing an ice age. 


The periods of submergence, when continents were 
low and oceans were silting up, were periods of warm 
temperatures ; they witnessed great organic evolution, 
and produced a rich flora in Arctic regicns. Heer has 
shown that a bounteous plant life existed in Spitzbergen, 
and other far northern regions, in the Carboniferous, and 
again in the Cretaceous and Eocene, that is:in the periods 
of continental submergence or oceanic exten.ion. No 
such flora existed there in the Permian, or in the Triassic, 
which were periods of continental extensicn. 


Professor Chamberlin, of Chicago, has ably shown 
that these periods of Arctic warmth can easily be accounted 
for if we assume that a reversal of deep-sea circulation 
has repeatedly taken place. Instead of, as at present, 
the surface currents running towards the pole-, and the 
deep-sea drift moving towards the Equator, the surface 
currents flowed towards the Equator, and the deep-sea 
drift was polewards. 


The drift of warm equatorial deep sea waters towards 
the poles would ameliorate the climate there, and produce 
conditions suitable for luxuriant vegetation. Professor 
Chamberlin has shown, beth by mathematical and 
experimental investigation, that a slight increase in the 
amount of salt in the sea would reverse oceanic circulation 
in this way, and that an increase of evaporation in the 
tropics could easily produce the required increase in 
salinity of the ocean. Warm dense waters from equatcrial 
parts would then rise in polar latitudes, and impart their 
heat to the atmosphere. 


The total evaporation over the earth’s surface is 
roughly proportionate to the area covered with water, 
and evaporation is greatest in the torrid zone. There- 
fore, the greatest evaporation in the tropics would take 
place when this part of the earth is almost wholly sub- 
merged. Such a condition obtained in the Carboniferous, 
Cretaceous, and Eocene periods, which, as mentioned above, 
were periods of a rich Arctic flora. 


62 | THE CLIMATES OF THE GEOLOGICAL PAST 


Enormous evaporation in equatorial regions led to 
salinity obtaining a greater influence than temperature 
over the specific gravity of sea water, hence the salinity 
controlled the manner of circulaticn. Heavy salt waters 
sank and drifted polewards from the equator, and lighter, 
fresher and cold waters formed surface currents from the 
poles to the equator. 


Submarine eruptions, by pouring hot lavas into the 
sea, would cause increased evaporation and _ increased 
salinity, and would saturate deep-sea waters with carbonic 
acid, liberated partly from the lava itself, and partly from 
the decomposition of corals and coral limestone by the hot 
lava. The carbenic acid carried poleward in solution 
under pressure would be liberated as the waters rose to 
the surface. Carbonic acid thus liberated would be of 
great value to plant life, both because it is a plant food, 
and because it renders the climate warm and equable. 

It is therefore clear that both the facts of an ice age 
and the phenomenon of a rich polar flora can be explained 
on very simple assuraptions, and that there is no need to 
suppose those vast astronomical and physical revolutions 
which many theories have hypothesi.ed. 


M. Eugene Dubois, in a celebrated essay, tried to 
explain climatic variations on the earth, and also ice ages, 
on the assumption that the sun is a variable star. The 
objection to this view is that variability of the sun implies 
a harmonicus periodicity, and indeed, we _ possess no 
evidence to show that intervals between warm and cold 
periods of geological history were of equal duration. In 
fact, most of our data tend to disprove any regular periodi- 
city. On Dubois’s assumption, glaciation shculd also 
have been universal in the cold cycles, and simultaneous 
in the two hemispheres. This was not the case. Besides, 
M. Dubois’s theory is unnecessary, far-fetched, and un- 
proved. 

There may be some variability in the amount of heat 
obtained from the sun in different epochs, but as the 
evidence which we possess, proves it to be of an irr gular 
nature, it must be due to extra-solar or accidental causes. 
Effective causes of such fluctuation in solar heat might be 
either (1) the passing of our sun and planetary system 
through an excessively cold cr hot region in space; or (2) 


>, ae 


as “ay 
ois 
~ ~~ 


BY H, J. JENSEN, D.C. 638 


the entrance of the system into a region studded with 
meteorites. The first is of deubtful possibility, as there 
seems to be no reason why some regions of space should 
be hotter than others. The second is a more likely cause: 
It is easy to understand that if the sun entered a region 
of space particularly crowded with meteorites or cosmic 
dust, the first eifect cn the earth would be a cooling cf 
climates, due to the meteorites intercepting much of the 
sun’s heat before it reached the earth. The second effect 
would be a rise in the temperature of the sun consequent 
upon the meteorites falling into it. The cbjection to the 
second view is that some of the larger meteorites of such 
a pericd should remain fossilised in the geological record, 
which we cannot state to be the case. 


If there should be any variability in the sun. the 
pericds of hot sun would correspond with periods of slow 
contracticn of cur planet and warm climates, like the 
Cretaceous. Few or no great up-lifts or down-throws such 
as produce great inequalities cn the earth’s surface would 
take place in a period of slow, secular contraction, but the 
continents would be worn down by rivers, and sedimentx 
would be piled up in the ocean, and the waters would rise 
and submerge the lowlands. 

Cold sun periods would accelerate the process of secular 
contraction. Great wrinkliney of the earth’s crust would 
take place. Continent building (epeirogenic) and mountain 


~ building (orogenic) uplifts would occur. The super-elevated 


regions become subject to cold and arid climates, whereas 
the lowlands acquire moist and cold climates, the 
diminished intensity of atmospheric circulation causing 
the atmospheric water to be precipitated excessively on 
the coastal plains. 


An interesting view on the cause of an ice-age was 
recently advanced by Professor David. He showed that 
a drop of 40° in the earth’s temperature would move the 
isotherm of permanent glaciaticn (cr snow-line) into the 
tropics, and would preduce just those conditions which 
are essential for the production of an ice-age in tropical 
and sub-tropical regions. Such a cold period might not 
necessarily be accompanied by severe glaciation in polar 
and temperate regions, for these parts would suffer from 
drought. There would be no evaporation outside tropical 


64 THE CLIMATES OF THE GEOLOGICAL PAST 


regions, and all the vapour formed in the warm zone would 
be precipitated at the snow-line, where a great and con- 
tinucus ice-barrier would-form. North of the ice-barrier 
of the northern hemisphere, and south of that of the 
scuthern hemisphere, no snow would fall, and the ground 
might be perfectly free from sncw and ice. 

Croll’s theory and Adhemar’s hypothesis, and many 
other speculations are scientific curiosities of great interest, 
ard are well known. Croll’s hypothesis, theugh spurned 
by many, has such merits that even to-day it must be 
ranked as one of the best attempts ever put forward to 
explain the cause of an ice-age. 


er a ee 


NOTE ON THE CALCULATION OF PERCENTAGES 
FROM VOLUMETRIC WORK. 


By FRANK E. CONNAH. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25th September, 
1909. 


NOTE ON ESTIMATION OF ZINC IN COPPER 
ORES BY MEANS OF POTASSIUM 
FERROCYANTDE. 


By FRANK E. CONNAH. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25th September, 
| 1909. 


The accurate estimation of zinc in copper ores by 
means of Potassirm Ferrocyanide as usually recommended 
is ore which is liable to give trouble, especially if the zinc 
is only present in small quantity. One is justified in 
feeling dubious as to the accuracy of results when a blue 
colour makes its appearance in the solution during the 
titration, it being almost a certainty that more ferrocyanide 
is being run in than is required for the zine ions present ; 
and while this trouble can usually be averted by intro- 
ducing a small crystal of sodium sulphide into the solution, 
one can feel more confidence in the result obtained when 
the zinc is previously separated from the main sclution 
and dissolved in a measured quantity of acid. Such a 
soluticn is free from oxidising agents and interfering salts, 
and approaches more nearly to the conditions of the 
standard. 

The author has been using a process for several years 
for determining the zinc in copper cres which has invariably 
given excellent results. The precipitates obtained all 
allcw of quick filtraticn, and when cne is used to the details 
of manipulation the process can be quickly carried cut. 
Briefly, it consists of the separation of manganese by 
nitric acid and chlorate of petash, iron by ammonia, copper 
by potassium thiocyanate, and the zinc then is thrown 
out as a phosphate to be dissolved in a measured quantity 
of acid, and titrated under standard conditions. 

) There are no new reacticns in this, but the combi- 
nation does not appear to have found a place in the 
journals and text bocks. 


66 ESTIMATION OF ZINC IN COPPER ORES 


Process.—The ore is treated in a casserole with strong 
nitric acid, which has been saturated with chlorate of 
potash, and the sclution is evaporated to dryness without 
baking. Solid ammonium chloride is pow introduced 
(abcut 10 grammes) and then about 25cc hot water, and the 
assay kept warm till the mass is disintegrated, then excess 
of ammonia is added, and the solution is filtered. Boiling 
should be avoided, as there is a tendency tc form insoluble 
basic compounds of zinc. The precipitate is well washed 
with hot water containing ammonium chloride and 
ammonia. If the precipitate is bulky it is advisable to 
assist the washing by bringing the precipitate back into 
the casserole with the wash bottle (a cone of platinum 
in the filter is of great assistance). 


The main lot of zinc and copper is now in the filtrate. 
but it is necessary to retreat the precipitate. If the 
process has been carefully carried out, only one retreat- 
ment will be necessary. 


The ammoniacal filtrate (about 100cc) is rendered 
just acid with hydrochloric acid, boiled with a little 
sulphurous acid, and the copper is thrown out with a ten 
per cent. solution of pctassium thiocyanate and sodium 
sulphite, added drop by drop to the solution at about 
60° C. If only a little ccpper is present, the addition of a 
little cold water assi.ts the formation of the precipitate. 


To the filtrate a few drops of methyl orange are added 
and then 5 E bydrochloric acid till the neutral point is 
indicated, and then one drop more of the 5 E hydrochloric 
acid. The solution is now heated to boiling, and the zine 
precipitated by addition of ammonium phosphate. the 
solution being kept warm for a few mirutes till the precipi- 
tate becomes granular. Care must be taken here te avcid 
bumping. 

The precipitate is readily filtered off, and is then 
treated, with the filter paper, in a beaker with 15dcc hot 
water and 5cc strong hydrcchloric acid, and titiated at 
60° C. with standard potassium ferrocyanide as usual. 


In dealing with ores which contain under cne per 
cent. of copper, a very good alternative method is to take 
the ammoniacal filtrate from the iron, and after adding 
the required excess of acid add a small crystal of sodium 


BY FRANK E. CONNAH. 67 


sulphide, and titrate with the copper sulphide precipitate 
present. If the sodium sulphide be used in the form of 
crystal, the ccpper sulphide forms a dark precipitate, 
whereas if a solution were used a brown coloration of the 
liquid would result, which would interfere with the sub- 
sequent titraticn. 


VrRsit has 


3 ie a 
* 


THE ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE 
ROCK AND THE POSSIBILITY OF FINDING 
PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS IN: AUSTRALIA. 


By H. J. JENSEN, D.Sc. 


Read before the RoyalfSociety of Queensland, 30th October, 1909. 


&- Phosphoric Acid, which is an important plant food, is 
constantly being extracted from the soil wherever intense 
grazing or cultivation is practised. In our native scrubs, 
where the plants and animals on dying leave their remains 
on the ground, most of the phosphoric acid is returned to 
the soil, but when the beasts and plants of the field are 
taken to the cities for consumption no such restitution of 
phosphoric acid takes place ; and to prevent the land from 
becoming absolutely exhausted the addition of mineral 
fertilisers containing phosphate is essential. It is therefore 
clear that from a national and economic — standpoint 
prospecting for phosphoric acid is a more useful occupation 
than hunting for gold. 


SOURCE OF PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS. 


Most of the phosphate deposits of commercial value 
throughout the world occur in sedimentary rocks, but 
occasionally large bodies cf mineral phosphate (Apatite) 
are directly the product of igneous activity, as in Canada, 
Norway, and Estremadura in Spain. 

Primarily all the phosphate of sedimentary rocks was 
derived from igneous rock. All igneous rocks contain 
phosphoric acid in small amounts, varying from .01 0 5.00 
%-. It occurs in the form of apatite phosphate of lime wivh 
fluoride or chloride of lime), in smallneedles which crystallised 
out in an early stage of the consolidation of the rock. As 
apatite is generally one of the most soluble of the minerals 
of igneous rocks, it readily passes into the soil, where it is 
taken up by plants and into the animals which live on the 
plants, or it passes into the rivers in solution and thence to 
_ the sea, where it is taken in by fishes, corals, molluscs, and 


70 ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK 


other organisms. These latter are again eaten by sea birds, 
which excrete much of the phosphoric acid in their droppings. 
Phosphates in sedimentary rocks may therefore be derived 
from (1) bird, seal or fish excrements ; (2) bones of fishes 
and other animals; (3) shells of molluscs, molluscoids, 
crustacea, corals, foraminifera, etc. ; (4) remnants of swamp 
vegetation. Phosphoric acid, like carbon, is constantly 
changing its place between the organic and inorganic world. 


MODE OF OCCURRENCE AND ORIGIN. 

Apatite occurs in all rocks in small amount, and, being 
the most soluble mineral in igneous rocks, it easily passes 
away into sedimentary formations and the sea to be absorbed 
into organic life when the rock decomposes. But apatite 
of this kind is of no commercial value, the percentage in 
igneous rocks being too small for profitable separation. In 
some cases, however, large dykes and sheets of pure apatite 
occur in igneous rocks and in metamorphic sedimentary 
rocks in proximity to great plutonic intrusions. The most 
notable instances are the Canadian and Norway occurences. 
In such cases profitable mining is possible. The origin of 
these dykes and intrusive sheets is due to vapour action in 
the period of cooling of the great igneous masses with which 
they are conected. Vapours or hot waters containing 
phosphoric, hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids have 
circulated in the cracks and joints formed by the cooling of 
the magma, or formed in the adjoining sedimentary forma- 
tions by the thrust of the intrusion. In these passages the 
phosphoric acid has been precipitated in combination with 
calcium. 

Phosphorite occurs associated both with igneous and 
sedimentary rocks. It may occur either as veins in igneous 
rock, or bedded in sedimentary or metamorphic rocks, or 
in lenticular bodies infilling former caverns in limestones, 
or as an alteration product of limestone underlying guano 
deposits. In igneous rocks it may be either a primary 
product of vapour action like the apatite described above, 
or a secondary product formed by the alteration of calcite 
veins by solutions containing phoshporic acid from over- 
lying guano beds. 

Secondary phosphorite owes its phosphoric acid to the 
decomposition of organic remaius. Guano, bone breccia, 
decaying animal and vegetable matters have the soluble 


BY H. J. JENSEN, D.Sc. Th 


phosphates of lime (dicalcic phosphate), magnesium, and 
ammonium leached out by meteoric water containing carbon 
dioxide. The soluble phosphate solution filtering down 
come into contact with carbonate of lime, either in the form 
of limestone or calcite, and alters it to the phosphate, 
liberating at the same time carbon dioxide. 

The origin and mode of occurrence of guano has 
already been referred to. 

High grade apatite and phosphorite should contain 
from 70 % to 80 % tricalcic lime phosphate. 

The occurence of phosphorite deposits at the junction 
of two formations of a dierent character is not unusual, 
especially when the lower rock is fossiliferous limestone ; 
- and its occurrence where there is an unconformity 
between two formations or a thinning out of a fossiliferous 
stratum is also well known. It is very often associated 
with arragonite and not seldom with calamine. 


GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 


From the foregoing description of occurrences of 
phosphate rocks (not considering the apatite and guano 
deposits), it will be seen that phosphorite may originate 

(1) from the insoluble residue of leached guano ; 

(2) from the action of ammonium phosphate 
derived from guano beds on limestone : 

(3) as a breccia from the erosion of partly pnos- 
phatised limestone ; 

(4) from the leaching a bone beds ; 

(5) from the decompcsition of plant remains in 
dried up swamps ; 

(6) from the leaching of coral limestone, forami- 
niferal limestone, molluscan limestone, and 
brachiopod limestone. In such cases the phos- 
phate deposits may be in pockets either on the 
surface of the limestone under the soil, or under- 
laying the limestone on its junction with the 
subjacent formation. 

Aluminous phosphates originate by the action of 
ammonium phosphate from guano, decomposing organic 
matter, bones, etc., on trachytic or basaltic rocks or kaolin. 

A notable observation is that phosphates often occur 
at the unconformable junction between two different 
geological horizons. Thus phosphates occur at the junction 


72 ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK 


of the Cambrian and Silurian at Nerike in Westergotland, 
Sweden. The overlying Silurian limestone is rich in 
phosphatic nodules and glauconite, and almost everywhere 
in Sweden it has been observed that the Lower Silurian 
begins with a glauconitic bed with phosphatic concretions. 
The phosphatic nodules are probably derived by the con- 
cretionary action of water charged with phosphoric acid 
from the decomposition of brachiopod beds containing 
obolus and acrothele. There is always a break in the faunal 
sequence where phosphatic nodules occur. The matrix 
contains a mixture of two fanuas, due in part to weathering 
by suberial denudation. In the Cambrian Bala Beds of 
North Wales it is trilobite remains which have given rise 
to phosphatic concretions. In the New Brunswick deposits 
we have sand and glauconite cemented by phosphate of 
lime, and the nodules always contain trilobite remains, 
sponge spicules, and protozoan tests. 

In the Liassic strata of Lorraine and of the Mendip 
Hills, and in the Oxford clays phosphatic nodules occur. In 
the latter stratum they contain casts of cephalopods, 
lamellibranchs, echinoderms, phosphatised sponges and 
wood, concretionary masses, bones, teeth, coprolites of fishes 
and saurians, and pebbles of phosphatised sandstone, and 
compact phosphate. 

In the Devonian of Tennesse above the Chatanooga 
Black Shale, there is also a nodular deposit containing 
glauconite. 


These nodular deposits have been almost universally 
ormed along former shore lines, where erosion of coral,’ 
trilobite, molluscan and brachiopod limestone was going on 
by subaerial agencies and phosphatic concretions were 
washed out into the coastal muds just at or below low tide 
limit. For this reason, too, the phosphate beds always 
occur where beds thin out as well as where an unconformity 
occurs. Thus the phosphatic bed overlying the Chatanooga 
shales in Tennessee is only seven to eight feet thick, but in 
Virginia the same bed is 400 feet thick and contains no 
phosphatic nodules. | 

Phosphates may also form by direct deposition in deep 
water in association with glauconite. Some of the palceozoic 
and mesozoic beds of phosphatic nodules and glauconite 
may have their origin. 


X BY H. J. JENSEN, D.SC. 73 


The Challenger soundings off the Cape Agulhas Bank 
brought up phosphatic nodules and glauconite sand from a 
depth of 1,900 fathoms. Murray and Renard show that 
such deposits form particularly off continental borders and 
where currents of different temperatures meet, and where 
consequently great destruction of organic life is going on. 


GUANO DEPOSITS. 


Guano may often occur unleached on rainless islands 
or in rainless coast districts, as on or off the west coast of 
South America. It may also cccur in caves, as at Olsen’s 
Caves near Rockhampton, Queensland. It is composed 
chiefly of the excrement of seabirds when found on islands 
or on the coast, and when found in caves it is usually the 
dung of bats. 


WHERE PHOSPHATES MIGHT BE EXPECTED IN 
AUSTRALIA. 


(A) Apatite—In many parts of Australia we have 
Archean, Cambrian and ancient palceozoic schists and 
gneisses intruded by gabbroic plutonic rocks. In the Mount 
Lofty Ranges and Yorke Peninsula of South Australia, the 
Australian Alps of New South Wales and Victoria, in the 
Broken Hill district, in both Southern and Northern Queens- 
land, very ancient schist formations are met with, and 
where such formations are intruded by highly titaniferous 
gabbros and norites apatite veins might be expected. In 
the Northern Territory of South Australia and Western 
Australia it is hkewise possible that apatite veins of commer- 
cial value may yet be found. 


The country lying to the west of the D’Aguilar Range 
in Southern Queensland consists largely of gneisses, amphi- 
bolites, and schists, having an older appearance than any 
other met with in Australia. In many localities in this 
area the schist formations are intruded by gabbross. and 
the entire area being a titaniferous province, the chances 
of finding payable apatite here are not’ bad. This is the 
only likely locality with whose detailed geology I am 
persenally acquainted. 

(B) Phosphorites.—These minerals might be met with 
in pockets in any of the Palceozoic limestones of Australia, 
and possibly as beds in such limestone. Many of our 
Cambrian, «Silurian and Devonian limestones were re- 


J 


74 ORIGIN’ AND» OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK 


markably rich in life—molluscan, pteropod, brachiopod, 
trilobite, coral and foraminiferal remains constituting large 
limestone formations. Thus the beds of the Devonian lime- 
stone of the Currockbilly Range of New South Wales are 
almost wholly composed of brachiopods. Where such 
formations are followed by an unconformity, and con- 
temporaneous erosion of the deposit has taken place, rich 
pockets of phosphorite are possible. An unconformity 
would be recognised by the prospector if he sees a change in 
the dip of the overlying strata from that of the limestone, 
and notices at the same time that immediately above the 
latter formation comes a bed of coarse shingle. 


In these palceozoic limestones glauconitic phosphate rock 
of deep-sea deposition might be met with. Such deposits 
would probably be of a dark colour, due to manganese 
staining and might contain remains of deep-sea trilobites 
(blind forms), cephalopods, pteropods, and sponges with 
micro-organisms belonging to the foraminifera, radiolaria, 
infusoria, and diatoms. 

It now behoves us to consider if in Australia we may 
anywhere expect a counterpart of the Florida phosphates. 
In Florida we had an elevation of Tertiary limestone depcsits 
accompanied by drying up of salt marshes and by an inroad 


of mammals driven south by the great Ice Age. As the 


marshes dried up and the cold increased the animals died 
in large numbers of starvation and left their bones in caves 
and solution fissures of the limestone. Bats and_ birds 
preying upon the carrion left their guano in caves and 
fissures. The limestone, itself rich in phosphoric acid from 
the high proportion of foraminifera in it, was further enriched 
in that ingredient by leaching out of carbonate of lime. 


In Australia we have had no great universal Ice Age 
in Tertiary times, but for all that we have had an almost 
equal extermination of animal life by the desiccation of the 
now arid interior. It is believed by Australian geologists 
that until the Pliocene or early Pleistocene, large stretches of 
the desert interior were covered with vast lakes. Where 
the land now lies scorched and parched the rain then fell 
in copious amount. Vast herds of giant marsupials lived 
around these lakes and along the streams that watered them. 
Granually the climate got drier and drier. The animals of 
the Australian Interior would as a result be scattered in 


BY H. J. JENSEN, D.SC. 75 


two opposite directions. As the lakes diminished in size 
and the damp zone around them grew smaller, great herds 
of animals would draw together around their waters and 
die of thirst when finally a drought dried up their drinking 
supplies. In many parts of our interior great masses of 
bones of extinct animals are found, and where such is the 
case the neighbouring rock is likely to be a phosphatic 
limestone, as we remember that limestone in particular 
has a preservative action on bones. 


While some of the animals of the interior migrated 
inwards towards the drying up lakes, other troupes migrated 
outwards towards the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Great Aus- 
tralian Bight. In both of these areas a considerable eleva- 
tion has taken place in Pleistocene times, and Tertiary 
deposits, essentially limestone rich in foraminifera, have been 
raised high and dry, just as the Pleistocene of Florida has 
been elevated. These troupes of animals always hugging 
the moist coastal regions would in droughty years die in 
great numbers, and their remains, when falling upon fora- 
miniferal limestone or in cracks and crevices of such a forma- 
tion, would give rise to phosphatic limestone or secondary 
phosphorite. It is therefore possible that in the Tertiary 
limestones, both of the Australian Bight and of the Gulf of 
Capentaria, pockets of rich phosphatic rock, similar to that 
of Florida, might be met with. 


(C) Bone Beds in Limestone Caves.—Several years. 
ago when rambling through some of the Chillagoe Caves of 
Northern Queensland, I came upon some caves which 
contained on the floor a bone bed at least several feet in 
thickness. This occurrence is probably not an isolated one, 
but common in our Northern limestone country. In such 
bone caves phosphate rock of commercial value is possibly 
to be found. 


(D) Guano.—In our limetsone formations, and especially 
near the coast of Tropical Australia, where luxuriant shrubs 
provide abundant feed for all varieties of animals, large 
caves containing great thicknesses of bat guano are commonly 
met with. A notable example is the occurrence of guano 
at Olsen’s Caves, near Rockhampton, in Central Queensland. 


To summarise, phosphate deposits may occur in Aus- 


tralia, 
F—Royat Socirry. 


76 


ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK 


(a) as apatite in very old schist and gneiss formations 
that have been intruded by basic igneous rocks. 
(6) as phosphorite in palceozoic limestones, where 
unconformities occur above them, and leaching 
by subaerial agencies may have taken place. 
(c) as phosphorite in Tertiary limestones, where 
animals have died in large numbers on the 
desiccation of our interior in Pleistocene times. 
Such occurrences might be met with in Central 
Australia, and round the shores of the Aus- 
tralian Bight and the Gulf of Carpentaria. 


(d) as bone breccia in limestone caves. 


(e) as guano deposits in limestone caves. 


ES ag a age ae ee a oe 


wer tet ee 


fins oi e 


INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS INTO 
QUEENSLAND. 


By J. F. BAILEY. 


Presidential Address read before the Royal Society of 
Queensland, February 26, 1910. 


From my position as Director of the Brisbane 
Botanic Gardens, it may be expected that my presidential 
address would deal with scme subject appertaining to plant 
life, and it has occurred to me that it would be well to 
freshen the memory by a few notes as to whom we are 
indebted for the introduction and distribution of many of 
the economic plants now being largely cultivated in this 
State, as well as others of which trials have been made. 
The majority of these benefactors have passed away, but 
their good work for the State is largely in evidence around 
us at the present day. To many the names of the 
introducers of the plants, or the first cultivators of them, 
are unknown, therefcre it is hoped that these notes will 
furnish a useful record for future reference. 

Queensland stands pre-eminent among the States of 
the Commonwealth of Australia with regard to _ the 
number and variety of economic plants found in cul- 
tivation within her boundaries, the great diversity of 
climate experienced enabling plants from all parts of the 
world to find a home in one or another part of her large 
territory. 

Unfortunately, a number of those responsible for the 
introduction of plants in the early days kept little or no 
record of their work, a circumstance which has rendered 
it difficult in compiling information. 

So far as I am able to gather, the Brisbane Botanic 


Gardens, an institution formed in 1854, is responsi, 


78 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS 


for the introduction and distribution of a very large 
number of the economic plants grown at the present day, 
and in the early days of settlement it assumed the 
functions now performed by the State Farms. The name 
of Walter Hill, who was the first Director. and occupied 
the position until 1880, will ever be remembered, for it 
was due, in a large measure. to his efforts that such 
successful work was done in this direction. 


The Acclimatisation Seciety, which was formed in 
1862. has also been instrumental in forwarding this good 
work, and worked side by side with the Brisbane Botanic 
Gardens. Indeed, during the first year or two. plants 
introduced by the Society were intrusted to the keeping 
of the Gardens, until Bowen Park, the home of the Society, 
was ready for their reception. In connection with the 
work of the Acclimatisation Society, the name of L. A. 
Bernays, C.M.G., who, by the way. was a past president 
of our Society, will always be closely associated, for it was 
principally due to his indefatigable energies that the Society 
has earned such a world-wide reputation. The Society 
was fortunate that the mantle of this worthy gentleman 
fell on another enthusiastic worker. I refer to Leslie 
G. Corrie, who, since he succeeded Mr. Bernays in 1896, has 
interested himself in continuing the good work previously 
performed, especially with regard to sugar cane, pineapples, 
and bananas. Valuable assistance has also been rendered 
by W. H. Parker, the Vice-President of the Society. 

Among those who gave practical demonstration of 
their interest in the work under notice, J. G. Cribb stood 
in the front rank. he being the introducer of many of the 
kinds of American fruits now being grown in the State. 


One of the early introducers of economics was J. C. 
Bidwill who, between the time of his appointment as 
Lands’ Commissioner in 1848 and his death early in 1853, 
is said to have imported quite a number of interesting 
plants, the best of which were removed, after his death, 
to the Sydney Botanic Gardens, and although I can find 
no list of those taken away, I believe they were included 
in the economics sent from that institution in 1854 to M. 
C. O‘Connell, at Port Curtis, and to a gardener in Brisbane, 
and mentioned in the annual report of the Sydney Botanic 
Gardens for that year. G. W. Dart, a very old resident 


ae 


_——S> 


BY J. F. BAILEY. 79 


of Maryborough, in a letter recently written to C. H. 
Hughes, of the same town, states that most of the kinds 
of fruits now grown about Maryborough were growing in 
Mr. Bidwill’s garden at Tinana, . . . . and that the 
large tree of Hovenia dulcis growing at Tinana was planted 
by that gentleman. 

While Government Resident during the middle fifties, 
Captain Wickham was instrumental in introducing quite 
a large number of useful plants, which he cultivated at 
Newstead. For information as to the kinds grown, I am 
indebted to Robert Lane, now of the Parliament House 
staff, but who in those days was gardener to Captain 
Wickham. Mr. Lane also informed me that about the 
same time R. R. McKenzie had a good collection of 
fruits, etc., in his garden near the Bulimba point. About 
the same time the Hon. Louis Hope, of Cleveland, imported 
quite a number of useful plants, many of which he shared 
with the Brisbane Botanic Gardens. 


With regard to the cultivation of fruits, etc., on the 
Darling Downs, I cannot obtain definite information on 
the subject, but Benjamin Crow, a well-known and 
very able horticulturist of Toowoomba, informs me that 
when he went as gardener to Dr. Nelson (father of Sir Hugh 
Nelson, K.C.M.G.), at Gabbinba, in the sixties, that gentle- 
man had growing apples, peaches, figs, grapes, which 
appeared to be about 10 years old, and Mr. Crow planted 
oranges. Dr. Nelson was interested in experimenting 
with various plants likely to become useful, and at the 
time mentioned had hops and raspberries thriving. During 
the early sixties Mr. Penticost planted a small orangery 
near Toowoomba, and Messrs. Bushnell and Molde, in 
addition to the above mentioned fruits, had nectarines 
in their orchards. About this time, Mr. Crow states, good 
collections of fruits were grown at the following stations :— 
Gowrie (Mr. King’s), Glengallan (Mr. Deucher’s), Talgai, 
Eaton Vale. and others. 

Dr. Joseph Bancroft, another of our past presidents, 
must also be included among those who worked in this 
direction, especially with regard to vines and Indian 
wheats. 

The different nurserymen of Queensland have not 
been forgetful of the advantages to be derived by the intro- 


80 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS 


duction of economics. Among the early ones we must 
record the names of A. J. Hockings, 8. H. Eaves, E. Way, 
— Magill, Alfred Williams, of Brisbane, and C. H. Hart- 
mann, of Toowoomba. Mr. A. T. MHockings informed 
me that in one of his father’s letter-books is a copy of a 
letter dated 3lst January, 1857, addressed to the Curator 
Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, in which he ordered the 
following plants:—Sweet Sop, Sour Sop, Mangosteen, 
Mango, Litchi, Longan, Wampee, Jack Fruit, Avocado 
Pear, Durian, and Boehmeria nivea. 

On several occasions attempts have been made to 
introduce economic plants on the islands within the Barrier 
Reef. In the early seventies, Captain Bedwell, of H.M. 
Surveying Schooner “ Pearl,’ on behalf of the Brisbane 
Botanic Gardens and the Acclimatisation Society, planted 
Jack Fruit and Pandanus utilis. In the early nineties, 
cocoanuts, mangoes, peaches, and other fruit trees were 
planted at the instance of the Department of Agriculture. 

It is to be regretted that very few, comparatively 
speaking, of the many good things introduced in the early 
days, could be traced in any gardens in the State twenty 
years since, although thousands were distributed. How- 
ever, on the formation of the Department of Agriculture, 
in 1888, the work of re-introducing many of the most 
desirable kinds was taken up, with the result that the State 
farms and nurseries at the present are stocked with a fine 
collection of economic plants of every description. 

The statistics quoted herein are taken from the 
Annual Reports of the Queensland Government Statistician 
(Thornhill Weedon, F.S.S.). I also found A. Meston’s 
Geographical History of Queensland useful in obtaining 
information concerning crops cultivated in the early days. 

The following must not be taken as a complete list 
of the economic plants which have been introduced, but 
only those which have been given a trial in cultivation, 
for it must be borne in mind that very many cf the kinds 
introduced did not progress further than the pot stage. 

RUBBER. 
InpiA RUBBER (Ficus elastica). 

Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1867. 
InpiA RupBBeR VINE (Cryptostegia grandiflora). 

Intreduced during the early seventies by Brisbane 

Botanic Gardens and Acclimatisation Society. 


BY J. F. BAILEY. 81 


Para RuBBER (Hevea brasiliensis). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1877. 
Seeds imported by the Department of Agriculture, 
in 1889, and plants now growing at Kamerunga. 

PaNnaMA.RUBBER (Castilloa elastica). 
Planted cut in the Acclimatisaticn Society’s ‘hor ta? 
in 1882. 

CEARA RUBBER (Manthot glaziovit). 
Planted in Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1882. A 
plantation grcwing at Mourilyan Harbour early in 
the nineties. 

AFRICAN RUBBER (Funtumia elastica). 
Planted at Kga, S8.N., about 12 years ago. » Raised 
at Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1906. 


EDIBLE NUTS. 
QUERCUS CORNEA. 

Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1876. 
BrAzILiAN Nut (Bertholletia excelsu). 

Intreduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1873, 

and again in 1883, and distributed to establishments 

in the North in 1887. One of the plants introduced 
in 1883 is growing in the Gardens, but has made slow 
progress. 

SPANISH CHESTNUT (Castanea sativa). 

Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and at 

Bowen Park in 1866, and _ distributed from last 

mentioned place in 1875. 

Preccan Nut (Carya olivaeformis), and 
Hickory Nour (C. alba). 

Distributed from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 

1874. and one of the trees of the former raised by Mr. 

Aldridge, of Marybcrough, has borne good nuts for 

some years past. 

WALNout (Juglans regia). 
Plants distributed from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens 
in 1874. 
CULINARY VEGETABLES. 

Many of the well-known culinary vegetables were 
grown in the year 1826, when a convict settlement was 
established here. 

In 1828, Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) were grown 
at the penal establishment at Ipswich, and Backhouse 


82 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS 


and Walker saw Sweet Potatoes (Ipomaca batatas) growing 
at Brisbane in 1836. The following are some of the 
varieties since introduced :— 
JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (Helianthus tuberosus). 
By A. J. Hockings in the early sixties. 
Tree Tomato (Cyphomandra_ betacea) 
! By the Acclimatisation Society in 1885. 
CHocHo (Sechium edule) 
By L. A. Bernays, C.M.G., at suggestion of Sir 
Anthony Musgrave, in 188%. 
SWEET Corn (Zea Mays, vars.) 
Several varieties were introduced and_ distributed 
by :the Department of Agriculture in 1891. 
Sweet Porators (/pomaea batatas). 
Most of the best varieties owe their presence in this 
State to the efforts of the Acclimatisation Society. 
In 1907 the produce frem 2770 acres was 15.888 tons. 
Yam (Dioscorea sativa). 
Grown by T. Petrie at North Pine, prior te 1869, in 
which year the Acclimatisation Society imported 
several varieties from the South Sea Islands. 


GRASSES AND OTHER FODDER PLANTS. 


PERENNIAL Rye (Loliwm perenne). 
Introduced by the Acclimatisation Society in 1865. 
PRAIRIE GRASS (Bromus unioloides). 
Seeds received by Acclimatisation Society in 1865 from 
Hon. W. H. Groom, Toowoomba, who stated that 
it had proved successful on the Darling Downs. 
BuFFALO GRass (Stenotaphrum americanum). 
Growing at Brisbane Botanic Gardens and at Bowen 
Park in 1868. Distributed from first-mentioned place 
in 1874 for binding railway embankments. 
GUINEA GRass (Panicum maximum). 
Introduced by Acclimatisation Society in 1867. 
Rep Natau Grass (Tricholaena rosea). 
Introduced by Acclimatisation Society through Dr. 
Schomburgh of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens in 1876, 
and now become naturalised in many parts of the 
State. 
SoraHuM (Sorghum vulgare). 
Varieties introduced by the Acclimatisation Society 
in 1865. Numerous varieties have been introduced 


BY J. F. BAILEY. 838 


by the Department of Agriculture during the past 
twenty years. James Henderson, of Tambourine, 
is said to have imported Kaffir Corn during the eighties. 

Panicum (Setaria italica). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior to 
1871. 

Kentucky BLurE Grass (Poa pratense). 
Introduced by Acclimatisation Society in 1877. 

TEOsIntTE (Huchlaena luxrurians). 
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and 
Acclimatisation Society in 1878. 

CATERPILLAR GRAss (Paspalum dilatatum). 
Introduced by John Mahon, Principal, Queensland 
Agricultural College, who brought it from New South 
Wales, in 1897. 

Oats (Avena sativa). 
Oats were grown at the penal settlement at Ipswich 
in 1828. Grown extensively since the fifties, about 
17,000 acres being under cultivation in 19/8. 

Rye (Secale cereale). 
In 1877, the Acclimatisation Society distributed 
seed which had been received from Angas Mackay. 
It is said that Dr. Joseph Bancroft first cultivated 
this about Brisbane for fodder. 

WoNDER GRASS 

or (Panicum. muticum), 

Giant CoucH | 
Obtained by Dr. Joseph. Bancroft in the seventies, 
from, I believe, Dr. Schomburgh, the Director of the 
Adelaide Botanic Gardens. 


CaNARY Grass (Phalaris nodosa). 
Growing at Toowoomba Botanic Gardens in E. Way’s 
time, in the seventies. 


CLovers—-THE Rep Criover (Trifolium pratense), and the 


WHuiteE CLOVER (7. repens). 
Were introduced by the Acclimatisation Society in 
1865, and the latter has become naturalised on many 
of our pasture lands. 
LucERNE (Medicago sativa). 
Growing about Brisbane in the early sixties. 
The following have been introduced on account of 
their reputation in other countris for bearing pods suitable 


84 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS 


for fodder, but, so far as I am aware, no satisfactory results 
have been attained. 
CaRoB BEAN (Ceratonia siliqua). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and at 
Bowen Park in 1866, and distributed from the last- 
mentioned place in 1871. In 1890, seeds gathered 
from trees growing at the Park were distributed. 
ALGAROBA BEAN (Prosopis juliflora) and 
Mesguit (P. pubescens) 
Were intrcduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens 
and Acclimatisation Society in 1877. Received from 
Honolulu. 
RaAIn TREE (Pithecolobium Saman). 
Distributed by Acclimatisation Society in 1880. 


OLLS, 


Castor Orn (Ricinus communis). 
Growing at Botanic Gardens in 1861, and since become 
a great weed on our waste lands. 

CITRONELLA O1IL (Andropogon Schoenanthus). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1872. 

Croton Om (Croton tiglium). 
Growing in the Brisbane Bcetanic Gardens and at 
Bowen Park in 1866. 

GINGELEY (Sesamum indicum). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871, 
and introduced in 1889 by the Department of Agri- 
culture. 

OLIvE (Olea europea). 
According to L. A. Bernays, in “The Olive in 
Queensland,’ it would appear that W. Cairncross was 
the first to grow this plant, having set out eight trees 
at Bulimba in 1858. Importations were made by 
the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, the Acclimatisation 
Society and F. M. Bailey, in the sixties, and by the 
Department of Agriculture in 1889. 

Ort Paum (Elaeis guineensis). 
Planted in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861, 
and still alive, but does not appear as if it would last 
much longer. Those planted at Kamerunga State 
Nursery in about 1880 have fruited during several 
years past. 


 Grounp Nor (Arachis hypogaea). 

? Two thousand ‘ nuts’’ were distributed from the 
Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1875. 

RusstaN SUNFLOWER (Helianthus annuus). 
Introduced and distributed by the Department of 
Agriculture in 1888. 


BY J F. BAILEY. 85 


Cocoa Nut (Cocos nucifera). 
Although the Cocoanut was early introduced, it was 
not until about 1867 that a proper plantation was 
formed, and that by a Mr. Barnes in 1867, at Mackay. 
In 1880, the Acclimatisation Society distributed 800 
nuts, received from Singapore, among the northern 
planters. Shortly after its formation, 10,250 nuts were 
planted by the Department of Agriculture on the 
islands within the Barrier Reef. The North Queensland 
planters are evidently not fully alive to the value 
of this useful palm, otherwise they would follow the 
example of others in New Guinea, Solomon Islands etc. 


DYES. 


Loawoop (Haematoxylon campeachianum). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861, 
and there are three of the original trees now standing. 
Inpico (Indigofera tinctoria). 
Introduced about 1861 by the Brisbane Botanic 
Gardens. Distributed by the Acclimatisation Society 
in 1872, and by the Department of Agriculture in 1890. 
ANNATTO (Bixa orellana). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. 
Mapper (Rubia tinctoria). 
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior 
to 1871. 
SAFFLOWER (Carthamus tinctorius). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871, 
and at the Mackay and Kamerunga State Nurseries 
in 1889. 
NOPALEA COCCINELLIFERA. 
This plant and the cochineal insect were, according 
to Walter Hill, thriving in the Brisbane Botanic 
Gardens in 1871. 


86 INTRODUCTICN OF ECONOMIC PLANTS 


FIBRES. ’ 
Cotton (Gossypium spp.) 

Cotton was one of the earliest crops grown, for we 
find that in the year 1827, thirty acres were under 
cultivation at a branch penal settlement at Strad- 
broke Island. After this settlement was broken up, 
a lapse of some years occurred before resumption. 
In 1861, the following varieties were growing in the 
Brisbane Botanic Gardens :— 

SEA Istann (G. barbadense). Chester, New Orleans, 
Honduras, Boyd’s Prolific and Dean’s. 


UPLAND (G. hirsutum). Patte’s Gulf and Peruvian. 
In 1862, samples grown in various localities from 
Cleveland to Rockhampton were sent to the Inter- 
national Exhibition, Londen. In 1869, 14.000 acres 
were being cultivated. For several years prior to 
1889, very little was grown, but the industry was 
again revived in that year. when the Department of 
Agriculture imported and distributed a large quantity 
of American seed to farmers in the West Moreton 
District. In 1908, the production from 540 acres 
was 17,521Ibs. 

Jute (Corchorus capsularis and C. olitorius). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1862. 
During 1876 and 1877 the Acclimatisation Society 
endeavoured to start this industry by distributing 
about half-a-cwt. of seed to growers in localities from 
Brisbane to Mackay. 

New ZEALAND FuLax (Phormium tenazx). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, and in 
the garden of the Hon. Louis Hope, at Cleveland, in 
1861. 

ManitA Hemp (Musa textilis). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, and in the 
gardens of Mr. Warner, Brisbane, and Hon. Louis” 
Hope at Cleveland, prior to 1862. 

Sunn Hemp (Crotalaria juncea). 
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871. 

Screw Pine (Pandanus utilis). | 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens ir 1871. 

FLAx (Linum usitatissimum). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1$71. 


j 


BY J. F. BAILEY. 


BowstrRinc Hemp (Sansevieria zeylanica), and 


ArricaAN Hempes (S. cylindrica and S. guineensis). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1862. 

Broom Corn (Sorghum saccharatum, var.) 
Has been grown extensively during the past twenty 
years. 

Mauritius Hemp (Furcraea gigantea). 
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens during 
the sixties. 

SisAL Hemp (Agave rigida v. sisalana). 
Introduced by the Department of Agriculture, one 
thousand plants having been received from Yucatan 
in 1892. 

ABUTILON PERIPLOCIFOLIUM. 
Introduced by the Department of Agriculture from 
Trinidad in 1850. ‘ 

RaMIE (Boehmeria nivea). 
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens about 
1860, and ten thousand plants were distributed from 
there in 1873. 

MucserrRyY (Morus alba, and other species). 
Introduced for purpeses of silk-culture by Brisbane 
Botanic Gardens, the Acclimatisation Society and 
F. M. Bailey, about 1865. 4,500 cuttings were dis- 
tributed from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1873. 


Heme (Cannabis sativa). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1873. 


SPICES, CONDIMENTS, PERFUMES, Ete. 


CLove (Caryophyllus aromaticus). 
Plants were sent to M. ©. O’Connell, Port Curtis, 
and te a gardener in Brisbane frem the Sydney 
Botanic Gardens in 1854. Plants were growing in 
the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861, and a distribu- 
tion was made from there and from Bowen Park in 
1867 and 1874. 

CINNAMON (Cinnamomum officinalis). 
Plants were sent to M. C. O’Connel, Port Curtis, and 
to a gardener in Brisbane, from the Sydney Botanic 
Gardens in 1854. Growing in Captain Wickham’s 
garden in 1856, and in the Brisbane Bctanic Gardens 
in 186], 30 plants being distributed from there in 1867 


as 
88 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS 


and 1874, and a number from Bowen Park in 1866, 
1867, and 1874. 
GINGER (Zingiber officinale). 
Was grown at Brisbane Botanic Gardens and by 
A. J. Heckings prior tc 1862. 160 rhizomes were 
distributed from the Gardens during the year mentioned. 
ALLSPICE (Pimenta communis). 
Plants sent to M. ©. O’Ccnnell, Port Curtis, and a 
gardener in Brisbane from the Svdney Botanic Gardens 
in 1854. In Captain Wickham’s garden at Newstead, 
and in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1856 and 1861 
respectively. 
Buiack PEPPER (Piper nigrum). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. 
Nurmec (Myristica fragrans). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. 
and at Bowen Park in 1866, and distributed from the 
latter place during same year. 
CAPER (Capparis spinosa). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. 
CAYENNE PEPPER (Capsicum spp.) 
Pepper made from fruits grown by Mr. Giles, of Widgee 
Widgee, Wide Bay District, was shown at Inter- 
national Exhibition, Lordon, in 1862. 
VANILLA (Vanilla planifolia). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and at 
Bowen Park in 1866. Distributed to north rn 
localities in 1866, 1872, 1874 and 1885. 
PatTcHouLi (Pogostemon Patchoulr’. 
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior 
to 1872. 
TURMERIC (Curcuma longa). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871. 
CaRDAMON (Elettaria cardamomum). 
Plants and seeds were distributed by the Acclimatisa- 
tion Society in 1885. 
Tonquin Bean (Dipteryx odorata). 
Plants growing in Brisbane Bctanic Gardens in 1871, 
and a number received from Royal Gardens, Kew, 
in 1873. Some recently raised at Gardens from seed 
imported by Department of Agrculture. 


x 


BY J. F. BAILEY. 89 


MEDICINAL. 
CamMPHOR (Cinnamomum Camphora). 
Growing in Captain Wickham’s garden at Newstead 
in 1856. and in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 
1861. Was introduced for the sake of the valuable 
product obtainable from the tree, but is only grown 
as a shade tree, it being one of the best exotics suitable 
for this purpese. In other parts of the world it is 
being extensively grown for the production of camphor. 
Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra). 
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871. 
Noux-vomica (Strychnos nux-vomica). 
Introduced prior to 1871 by the Brisbane Bctaniec 
Gardens, and one of the trees now in the Gardens 
fruits freely every year. 
PERUVIAN BaRK (Cinchona spp.) 
In 1862, C. Calisaya, the “ Yellow Bark” was growing 
in the Brisbane Bctanic Gardens, and in 1867, C. 
succirubra, the “ Red Bark,” and C. officinalis, the 
‘“ Brewn Bark,’ were received from Java. Plants 
of the two last-mentioned species were distributed 
by the Acclimatisation Scciety in 1889. 
SENNA (Cassia spp.) 
Plants of several species were growing in the Brisbane 
Botanic Gardens in 1865, and distributed from there 
in 1874. 
IpEecACUANHA (Cephazlis ipecacuanha). 
Plants were sent to the Brisbane Botanic Gardens 
from the Royal Gardens, Kew, in 1873. 
Opium Poppy (Papaver somnijerum). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1875. 
Coca (Erythroxylon Coca). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1877. 


TANS. 
Divi Divi (Caesalpinia coriaria). 
One of the plants introduced in 1870 is still growing 
in the Gardens. I have not observed any others about 
Brisbane. 
CANAIGRE (Rumex hymenocephalus). 


Introduced and distributed by the Department of 
Agriculture in 1890. 


90 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS 


TIMBER. 

Very few exotic timber trees have been tried, and 
those introduced have been used for shade purposes, fer, 
as is well-known, timber suitable for almost any kind of 
work requiring this material abounds within our State. 

The following trees were introduced by the Brisbane 
Botanic Gardens :— 
Trak (T'ectona grandis), 

India, in 1856, and distributed in 1875. 

ReEpwoop (Sequoia gigantea), 

California, in 1859. One of the original plants 

« still standing, but has not made good growth. 

BRITISH Oak (Quercus pedunculata), 
In 1855. One of the original plants has now formed 
a handsome specimen in the Gardens. 

Rosewoono (Jacaranda mimosaefolia), 

Brazil, in 1856, and has since become a_ favourite 

subject for planting fcr shade and flowering purposes. 
DeoparR CEDAR (Cedrus Deodara), 

India, in 1861. 

Biack WALNuT (Juglans nigra), 


North America, in 1855, and plants distributed in 


1875. 
WeymoutH Pine (Pinus Strobus), 
North America, in 1858. 
Pencit Cepar (Juniperus Bermudiana), 
Bermuda, in 1862. 
Huon Prine (Dacrydiuwm Franklins), 
Tasmania, in 1863. 
Kauri Pine (Agathis australis), 
New Zealand, in 1863. 
Biackwoop (Dalbergia latifolia), 
India, in 1868. ~ 
Locust TREE (Hymenaza Courbuaril), 
West Indies, in 1863. One of the original plants 
has formed a fine specimen in the Gardens. 
Satinwoop (Chloroxylon Swietenia), 
India, in 1867. One of those originally planted 
has formed a fine tree in the Gardens. 
Masocany (Swietena Mahogani), 
West Indies, in 1870, and again in 1907, and seed 
distributed to localities from Maryborough to Cook- 
town in 1887. 


BY J. F. BAILEY. 91 


Epony (Diospyros Ebenwm), 
Sumatra, in 1870. 

Lignum Vivant. (Guiacum officinale), 
West Indies, in 1871. 


TOBACCO. 


Tornacco (Nicotiana Tabacum). 

Many of the squatters of the early days grew tobacco 
for the sake of the dried leaf, which they used in the 
preparation of a sheep dip. Exhibits of prepared 
leaf were made at the International Exhibition, London, 
in 182, by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, and M. 
Thozet, of Rockhampton. Ten varieties were under 
trial at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1870, and 400 
packets cf seed were distributed in 1873, and 15 
varieties in 1876. In 1876, the Acclimatisatiocn 
Society distributed seed of the varieties ‘“‘ Maryland,” 
“ Latakia,’ and ‘ Virginia.” Since then, other 
varieties have been distributed by the Botanic Gardens, 
the Acclimatisation Society, and the Department of 
Agriculture. The produce of dried leaf in 1908 was 
5389 ewt. obtained from 669 acres. 


SUGAR. 


Suear (Saccharum officinarum). 
We have records of sugar cane having been grown 
as far back as 1828, when it was used as a fence round 
the vegetable gardens attached to the penal settlement 
at Brisbane. Backhouse and Walker observed it 
being used for the same purpose in 1836. It was 
not until the year 1862 that any sugar was manu- 
factured, and then only on a very small scale by Mr. 
Buhot, from canes obtained from the Brisbane Botanic 
Gardens. During this year the Hon. Louis Hope, 
of Ormiston, had the largest area under cultivation, 
viz., 20 acres, and 2,000 cuttings were distributed 
from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens. During the 
seventies, a nursery was established at Oxley by the 
Government, and 78 varieties were represented there 
in 1879. <A distribution of 42 varieties was made 
in 1882 to 70 applicants, the weight of canes sent out 
amounting to 40 tons. About the year 1863, the 


Acclimatisation Society introduced some of the best 
G—RovyaL Society, 


92 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS 


varieties then growing at Mauritius, and subsequently 
distributed various kinds of canes. In 1878, the Society 
entered into an exchange of canes with the Southern 
United States of America. Several importations have 
been made by the Department of Agriculture, 
notably scme good varieties from New Guinea and 
Mauritius in the early nineties. Official returns show 
that in 1867 the 6 sugar mills then in existence produced 
168 tons of sugar, and 13,100 gallons of molasses, 
while in 1907, 48 mills produced 188.307 tons of sugar, 
and 5,980,433 gallons of molasses were obtained in 
1908. 
BEVERAGES. 


ARABIAN CoFFEE (Coffea arabica). 
Backhouse and Walker record having seen a few 
strong coffee plants near Brisbane in 1836. In 1862, 
a plantation was formed in the Brisbane Botanic 
Gardens, the plants having been raised from seed 
obtained from plants growing in Captain Wickham’s 
garden, at Newstead, in 1858. In the year 1873, 
6,400 plants were sent out frem the gardens, and in 
1882, there were 5,000 distributed. The Acclimatisa- 
tion Society, which, by the way also distributed 
plants at the same time. introduced the variety 
** Mocha” in 1880. In 1908, 285 acres under cultiva- 
tion produced 116,293lbs. of parchment coffee. 

[LiBERIAN CoFFEE (Coffea liberica). | 
This species, which came with a great reputation 
from other coffee-growing countries, in the year 1882, 
was distributed from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens 
and Bowen Park, but has not come up to expectations 
in this State. 

Tea (Camellia theifera). 
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior 
to 1861, and 1,000@ plants distributed from there in 
1§62, 2,000 in 1873. Early in 1880, 3,500 plants 
were ready for distribution, in addition to 200 plants 
of the Assam variety, and there was a distribution in 
1888. So far, these efforts have not resulted in any 
of this commodity being placed on the market. 


v 
Tea, Paraguay, or Mate (Jlex paraguayensis), 
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior 


4 
BY J. F. BAILEY. 98 


to 1861, but as its product did not meet with the 
taste of Queenslanders, it has not been grown other- 

. wise than for shade purposes. 

Cocoa (Theobroma Cacao). 
Plants were introduced by the Brisbane Botanic 
Gardens and Acclimatisation Society in 1866, and were 
distributed by the Society in the same year, and also 
in 1872 and 1883, and by the Botanic Gardens in 1874. 
A plant (under glass) fruited at Bowen Park in 1885. 
I saw a fine plant in fruit at Hambledon, near Cairns, 
in 1899, and was informed that it had been received 
from the Acclimatisation Society. 

Cota Nur (Cola acuminata). 
Intreduced by the Department of Agriculture in the 
early nineties, and sent to the State Nursery at 
Kamerunga. 

Cuicory (Cichorum intybus). 
Grown by G. Grimes, at Coomera, in the seventies, 
and at Kamerunga State Nursery in 1890. 

Hor Prant (Humulus lupulus). 
During the year 1883 experiments were made with 
the Hop plant at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens. The 
results were exceedingly good, the crop being equal 
to 10 ewt. per acre. It is said that in England 4 cwt. 
per acre for the first year is a good return. During 
James Pink’s time (1885), 1,000 sets were imported 
by the Gardens, and distributed to farmers on the 
Downs. Another trial to start the industry was made 
in 1889, when the Department of Agriculture imported 
a number of sets from Victoria, and distributed them 
to farmers in the Killarney district. 


FARINAS anp CEREALS. 
ARROWROOT. 
Both kinds of Arrowroot, viz., the White (Maranta 
arundinacea) and the Purple (Canna edulis) were 
introduced and distributed by the Brisbane Betanic 
Gardens about 1861. The latter species is reccrded 
as having been grown near Ipswich, in 1844. The 
The purple variety has for many years been extensively 
cultivated in South Queensland, 480,620]bs. of com- 
mercial arrowroot having been preduced in 1908. 
The recipients in the early distribution of the 


94 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS 


Maranta evidently did not carry on the work of 
growing it commercially, for we find that the Depart 
ment of Agriculture found it necessary to import it 
again when the Kamerunga State Nursery was formed 
about twenty years ago. 


Cassava (Manihot Aipi, the Sweet, and M. utilissima, the 
Bitter). 

J. Archer presented plants to the Brisbane Botanic 
Gardens in 1864, and they were growing at Bowen 
Park in 1866. 

Wueat (Triticum vulgare). 
In the year 1828 there was an area under this crop 
at Ipswich, and in the year 1856, Mr. Childs had a 
good crop from about 50 acres at Bulimba. In the 
year 1859, M. Thozet obtained some seed from wheat- 
straw found floating in the Fitzroy River, and culti- 
vated some excellent wheat from it near Rcckhamp- 
ton. For several years prior to 1862, J. Fleming 
and a few others cultivated wheat near Ipswich. It 
was well on in the fifties before wheat was grown on 
the Downs, and according tc a record of 1862, “ At 
Warwick, a flour-mill to be driven by steam power 
is in course of erection.”’ In 1877, the Acclimatisation 
Society distributed several varieties of Mexican 
wheats received from Angas Mackay, and in 1880 
intreduced a number of Indian varieties on the 
suggestion of Dr. Joseph Bancroft. Since 1889 the 
Department of Agriculture has made _ frequent 
importations of new varieties. The average area 
under cultivation for the ten years ended 1908 was 
90,729 acres, and the average production 1,223,599 
bushels. 

Maize (Zea Mays). 
Maize has always been our principal cereal crop, and 
was one of the earliest grown, for we find that about 
1827 there was a good area under cultivation at the 
penal settlements about New Farm, Bulimba, and 
also at Ipswich in 1828. In 1867, a trial was 
made at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens with a large 
number of imported varieties, but none equalled 
those already growing in the Colony. The 
Department of Agriculture, since 1889, has made 


BY J. F. BAILEY. 95 


frequent importations of the best varieties obtainable 
from maize-growing countries. The preduce in 1908 
from 127,655 acres was 2,767,600 bushels. 

Rice (Oryza sativa). 
Rice was growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens 
and in the garden of the Hon. Louis Hope, at Cleve- 
land, in 1861. In 1878, 3 cwt. in 17 varieties was 
imported by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens from 
India. The Acclimatisation Society grew some good 
samples in 1871, and distributed seed. and during 
the early nineties, the Department of Agriculture 
made several importations of seed. The area 
under cultivation in 1908 was only 7 acres against 
319 acres in 1899. 

BarRLey (Hordeum vulgare). 
Samples of barley grown by M. Thozet, at Rock- 
hampton, were exhibited at the International Exhibi- 
tion, Londen, in 1862. 

BucKWHEAT (Fagopyrum esculentum). 
Introduced by Acclimatisation Society in 1867. 

CANARY SEED (Phalaris canariensis). 
Has been growing on the Darling Downs during the 
past twenty years. 


FRUITS. 


Apple (Pyrus Malus). 
Collections were introduced by the Acclimatisation 
Seciety in 1868, 1869 and 1870. In 1871, J. G. Cribb 
presented a_ collection of American apples to the 


Brisbane Botanic Gardens. The area in bearing in 
1908 was 390 acres, and the production 31,121 
bushels. 


Paar (Pyrus communis). 
Dr. Lang cbserved trees growing at Brisbane in 1845. 
A collection of American varieties was presented to 
the Brisbane Botanic Gardens by J. G. Cribb. 1,730 
bushels of fruit were produced from 41 acres in 1908. 
PrEacu (Prunus persica). 
Trees of this fruit were seen near Brisbane by Dr. 
Lang in 1845, and were growing in the _ Brisbane 
Botanic Gardens prior to 1865. In 1871, J. G. Cribb 
donated a collecticn of American varieties to the 
Brisbane Botanic Gardens, and the Gardens introduced 


96 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS 


four Chinese varieties in 1876. 26,563 bushels of 
fruit were produced from 444 acres in 1908. 


ALLIGATOR PEAR (Persia gratissima). 
Sent by Sydney Botanic Gardens in 1854 tc M. C, 
O’Connell, Port Curtis, and to a gardener in Brisbane, 
and was grewing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, 
and three plants were distributed from there in 1862. 
Fruited for the first time in 1867. Plants were intro- 
duced from the Mauritius by the Acclimatisation 
Scciety in 1867. So far as [ am aware, the only 
fruiting plant growing about Brisbane is in W. H. 
Parker’s garden at Enoggera. 

AVERRHOA (ARAMBOLA. 
Introduced by the Acclimatisation Society in the 
eighties. 

BLACKBERRY (Rubus fruticosus). 
J. G. Cribb introduced several American varieties 
from America during the seventies, one of the most 
fruitful being Lawton’s Blackberry. 

Banana (Musa spp.) 
Backhouse records having seen bananas growing at 
Brisbane in 1836. In 1856, Captain Wickham had 
the Cavendish (M. Cavendishi) and the Sugar Banana 
(M_ sapientum, var.) growing at Newstead, and eight 
varieties, including the twc mentioned, were growing 
in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. The 
Acclimatisation Society from the first also interested 
itself in the intrcduction of good varieties, notably» 
nine from Singapore, in 1874, and several from Fiji, 
in 1875. Since its inauguration in 1888, the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture has been active in securing good 
varieties from ccuntries where this fruit is success- 
fully grown. During the year 1908, the produce 
from 4,647 acres under cultivation amounted to 
1,651,163 bunches. 

BREADFRUIT (Artocarpus incisa). 
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens at the 
end of the fifties. In 1860, Hon. H. Hood presented 
plants to the gardens, and plants were distributed 
from there and from Bowen Park on quite a number 
of occasions during the sixties and seventies. Plants 
introduced from Fiji were distributed by the Depart- 


BY J. F. BAILEY, 97 


ment of Agriculture in 1892. I[ saw a plant in fruit 
at the Botanic Gardens. Townsville, in 1899. 


JAcK oR JAcA Fruit (Artocarpus integrifolia). 
Introduced from India by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens 
in 1856. 

Cuina QuINncE (Cydonia sinensis). 
Plants received by F. M. Bailey from South Australia, 
and distributed in 1866, and plants worked from these 


were presented to the Acclimatisation Society in 1870 
by C. W. Jarrott. 
CHERRY (Prunus Cerasus) 
Several varieties have been cultivated in the Stan- 
thorpe District during the past twenty years. 
CHINESE Raisin (Hovenia dulcis). 
Introduced by J. C Bidwill in 1850. Was growing 
in Captain Wickham’s garden, Newstead, in 1856, 
and in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. 


ORANGE (Citrus aurantium). 
Dr. Lang records having seen oranges growing at 
Brisbane in 1845. They were grown by Captain 
Wickham. at Newstead, in 1856. Ten varieties were 
represented in the Brisbane Bctanic Gardens in 1861, 
those doing best being St. Michael, Mandarin, Bahia, 
Siletta. Blood and Parramatta. Forty-six varieties 
were growing in the Gardens in 1870. The Bahia 
Navel and Jaifa varieties were introduced by the 
Department of Agriculture in 1888. In 1908, 440,312 
bushels of fruit were produced on 3,121 acres. 

Lemons (C. medica var. limonum); Crrrons (C. medica), 

and SHappocks (C. decumana) 

Were seen by Backhouse and Walker in 1836, and 
Lemons, Citrons, and Limes (C. medica var. limetta) 
were growing in the Botanic Gardens prior to 1870. 
4,366 bushels of lemons were produced from 47 acres 
in 1908. 

Pometo (C. decumana var.) was growing at Bowen Park 
in 1866. 

CustaRD APPLES (Anona spp.) 

A. squamosa (Sweet Sop). 
Plants were sent to M. C. O’Connell, Port Curtis, and to 
a gardener in Brisbane, in 1854, from the Sydney 


98 


INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS 
Botanic Gardens. Growing in Captain Wickham’s 
garden, at Newstead, in 1856, and in the Brisbane 
Botanic Gardens in 1861. 


A. muricata (Sour Sop), and C. Cherimolia (Cherimoyer). 


A. 


Growing in Captain Wickham’s garden in 1856, and 
at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. The last- 
mentioned fruited at the Gardens for the first time in 
1867. 


reticulata (Bullock's Heart). 


Growing at Bowen Bark in 1866. 

Thirty-four custard apples were distributed from the 
Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1862, but the species 
are not recorded. 557 bushels of custard apples 
were produced from thirteen acres in 1908. 


Date (Phenix dactylifera). 


Growing in Captain Wickham’s garden, at Newsbaea: 
in 1856, and in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1867. 
Some years ago the Acclimatisation Society distributed 
plants of good varieties to some western localities, 
and good fruit has recently been received in Brisbane 
from some plants growing near Charleville. The 
first plantation was one formed by Mr. Barnes, at 
Mackay, prior to 1868. 


Durian (Durio Zibethinus). 


Fie 


Received by M. C. O’Connell, Port Curtis, and a 
gardener in Brisbane in 1854, from the Sydney 
Botanic Gardens. and intrcduced by the Brisbane 
Botanic Gardens and Acclimatisation Society in 1867. 
Distributed in that year, and also in 1874, but has 
not thriven for the same reason as that given in the 
case cf the Mangosteen. 

(Ficus carica). 

The follewmg varieties were growing in the Brisbane 
Botanic Gardens in 1871, viz.:—Smyrna. Black, 
Brown and Green Iszhia. Several other varieties 
have been introduced by the Department of Agri- 
culture since 1888. 741 bushels of fruit were pro- 
duced from ten acres in 1908. 


GRAPE, CURRANT AND Raisin (Vitis vinifera). 


Backhouse and Walker saw grapes growing near 
Brisbane in 1836. In 1856, Captain Wickham had 
vines growing at Newstead, and twenty varieties 


BY J. F. BAILEY. 99 


were to be seen in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens 
in 1861, those doing best being the varieties Black 
Hamburgh, Black Prince, White Sweetwater, Wantage, 
Xeres, and Muscatel Gordo Blanco. In 187], a num- 
ber of wine-producing varieties were introduced from 
South Australia, and in the same year J. G. Cribb 
presented the Gardens with thirty European and 
thirty American varieties; the latter were distributed 
to growers in Toowocmba, Warwick and Stanthorpe 
a year or two afterwards. In 1908, the area under 
vines was 1,554 acres which produced 4,229,980|bs. 
of fruit ; 77,698 gallons of wine made, ; and 619 gallons 
of brandy distilled. In 1865, thirty plants of the Zante 
currant were received from Victoria by the Acclimatisa- 
tion Society, and in the same year, F. M. Bailey 
presented 300 cuttings of this variety to the Society, 
200 of which were at once distributed. In 187], 
the Sultana raisin was growing in the Brisbane 
Botanic Gardens, and in 1892 and 1893. forty thousand 
cuttings of raisin and currant grapes were distributed 
by the Department of Agriculture. 

Guava (Psidium spp.) 
Recorded by Backhouse as growing in Brisbane in 
1826. but kinds not stated. P. Cattleyanum, the 
Strawberry Guava; P. Guava, the Apple Guava; and 
P. littorale, the Gooseberry Guava, were growing in the 
Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. 

JuJUBE (Zizyphus jujuba). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1864, 
and distributed to growers in the North, where it has 
taken such a hold of the lands in some localities as to 
be regarded as quite a nuisance. 

Ket Appie (Aberia Caffra). 
Introduced and distributed by the Acclimatisation 
Society in 1876. My grandfather probably was the 
first to introduce this plant into Australia, he having 
taken plants to South Australia in 1839. 

Lircnt (Nephelium Lntchi). 
M. C. O’Connell, Port Curtis, and a gardener in Bris- 
bane, each received a plant from the Sydney Botanic 
Gardens in 1854, and it was represented in Captain 
Wickham’s garden, at Newstead, and in the Brisbane 


100 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS 


Botanic Gardens at the end of the fifties. The tree 
now in the Gardens fruits regularly. Another species 
of this genus, viz., N. Longana, the Longan, was 
also received by the same recipients above-mentioned 
from the Svdney Botanic Gardens in 1854. It was 
in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861, but is a far 
inferior fruit to that of its ally, the Litchi. 

Loguat (Photinia japonica). 
Growing at Bowen Park in 18»6. 

Manoo (Mangifera indica). 
The Mange, which has become one of the most common 
fruits along the whole coast line of Queensland, is 
said to have been introduced by J. C. Bidwill at the 
end of the forties. Plants were sent from the Sydney 
Botanie Gardens in 1854 to M. C. O'Connell. at Port 
Curtis, and to a gardener in Brisbane. A plant was 
growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861, 
and fruited for the first time in 1867, and four plants 
were distributed from there in 1862, and also a number 
of grafted plants to likely growers in the North in 1883. 
The well-known varieties Alphonse and Raspberry 
were introduced from Bombay by the Acclimatisation 
Society in 1869, and the first-mentioned with the 
varieties Strawberry and Goa by the Botanic Gardens 
about the same time. Since then importations have 
been made by the institutions named. the Department 
of Agriculture, and privately. The production of fruit 
in 1998 was nearly 100,000 bushels. Crops from 
private gardens, however, are not included in this 
total. 

MANGOSTEEN (Garcinia mangostanda). 
M. C. O’Connell, of Port Curtis, and a gardener in 
Brishane received plants of this fruit, which is 
described as the most delicious in existence, from the 
Sydney Botanic Gardens in 1854. Although it has 
since been distributed on numerous occasions by the 
Brisbane Botanic Gardens and the Acclimatisation 
Society, so far has not met with success, owing no 
doubt tc the intense humidity required for perfecting 
its growth not being obtainable even in our northern 
localities. Several other species of the genus have 
been introduced and have fruited here, but their fruits 
have been of a very inferior quality. 


BY J. F. BAILEY. 101 


MOoNSTERA DELICIOSA. 
Introduced by the Acclimatisation Society in 1874, 
and fruited in 1876. 

Paraw (Carica papaya). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. 
Since then good varieties have been frequently intro- 
duced by the Gardens, the Acclimatisation Society 
and the Department of Agriculture. 9,845 doz. fruit 
from 55 acres was the production in 1908. 

Passton Fruit (Passiflora edulis) and the 

GRANADILLA (P. guadrangularis) 
Were growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. 

PEeRSIMMON (Diospyros kaki). 
Growing in Captain Wickham’s garden, at Newstead, 
in 1856, and in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and 
Bowen Park in 1885. In 1875. the Acclimatisation 
Society imported ten varieties, and in 1889, the 
Department of Agriculture twenty varieties, from 
Japan. In 1908, seventeen acres produced 670 bushels 
of fruit. 

PINEAPPLE (Ananas sativa). 
Backhouse records having seen pineapples growing 
at Brisbane in 1836. They were grown by Captain 
Wickham, at Newstead, in 1856, and in 1861, twelve 
varieties were represented in the Brisbane Botanic 
Gardens, those doing best being Cayenne, Enville, 
Black Jamaica, Queen, Ripley Queen, and Moscow 
Queen. Good varieties have also been introduced 
from time to time by the Acclimatisation Society, 
James Pink and others. The 2,171 acres under cul- 
tivation produced 598.794 dozen fruit in 1908. 

Rose AppiLe (Hugenia jambos). 
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior 
to 1861, and growing at Bowen Park in 1866. 
Another species of Hugenia, viz., E. uniflora, the 
Brazilian Cherry, was growing at Bowen Park in 1869. 

Rosetta (Hibiscus sabdariffa). 
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1875. 

SAPODILLA Prium (Achras sapota). 
Growing at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861, 
and distributed in 1875. 


102 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS 


Star AppiLe (Chrysophyllum Cainito). 
Sent by Sydney$Botanic Gardens to M. C. O’ cone 
Port Curtis, and to a gardener in Brisbane, in 1854, 
and was growing at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens 
in 1861. 

STRAWBERRY (Fragaria vesca). 
Early in the seventies the Brisbane Botanic Gardens 
experimented with about a dozen varieties of straw- 
berry. two of which are now extensively grown in 
South Queensland, viz., Marguerite and _ ‘Trollop’s 
Victoria. The production from 157 acres was 
338,9C3 quarts in 1998. 

TAMARIND (Tamarindus indica). 
Plants sent by the Sydney Botanic Gardens in 1854 
to M. C. O’Connell, Port Curtis, and tc a gardener 
in Brisbane. Grown by Captain Wickham, at New- 
stead, in 1856, and also at the Brisbane Botanic 
Gardens in 186]. Twenty plants were distributed 
from the Gardens in 1862. 

Vi1-ApPLE (Spondias dulcis). 
Introduced by Acclimatisation Society in 1876. 
Growing at Kamerunga State Nursery in 1891. 

GREEN MANURES. 

CowPEa (Vigna sinensis). 
Introduced by the Devartment of Agriculture in the 
early nineties. 

VELVET Bean (Mucuna pruriens var.). 
Was introduced in the early nineties by the Depart- 

ment of Agriculture and Colonial Sugar Refining 

0. Ae 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


Annual Meeting of JStembers, 


Held on Saturday, February 26th, 1910. 


The Annual Meeting was held in the Technical 
College, Ann Street, on February 26th, 1910. 

The President (Mr. J. F. Bailey) occupied the 
chair. 

The minutes of the last Annual Meeting were read and 
confirmed. 

The Annual Report and Balance Sheet being handed to the 
members were then read and adopted. 


To.the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland. 


Your Council have pleasure in submitting their Report 
for the year 1909. 

Ordinary meetings have been held as in Appendix B. 

Fourteen Council meetings were held during the year, 
at which the attendance was as shown in Appendix A. 

Part I. of Vol. XXII. of our Proceedings has been 
published and issued. 

The number of new members proposed during 1909 
has scarcely been up to the usual mark, and we have been 
unfortunate in losing by death, removal, and other causes, 
@ number of members. The deaths have included Dr. 
J. Thomson and Capt. Townley. In the case of Coun- 
cillor and Past-President Dr. J. Thomson, a letter of con- 
dolence was forwarded to his family. 

There are now on our roll 88 members ; 14 life members ; 
73 ordinary members; besides corresponding members, 
and 1 Associate member. See Appendix D. 

Some difficulty has been experienced in_ getting 
original contributions for the monthly meetings. Many 
of our members who are best in a position to contribute 
original research papers and exhibits plead that their 


ii; REPORF OF COUNCIE. 


published results are needed for their several Government 
scientific journals. 


It is confidently expected, however, that the forth- 
coming University, with its bent towards scientific research, 
will increase our membership and our list of original 
papers. 

In July, Professor Laby was welcomed by our 
Society, in conjunction with the South Brisbane Tech- 
nical College. A trip to One-Tree Hill was organized, 
and the Professor lectured in the evening under the joint 
auspices in each case. 


In November, Messrs. Henderson and Brtinnich gave 
an exhibition of modern scientific chemical apparatus. 
A most enjoyable and educative meeting was the result. 

The Library is rapidly growing, and is, in fact, too 
large for the new room to which it was shifted early in 
January, 1910. When funds permit, it will be well to bind 
such matter as is still unbound. 


The Premier, during the year, took steps to facilitate 
the possibility of our joint occupancy of the room at present 
occupied by the Royal Geographical Society in the Public 
Library, but, as the Minister for Education (the Hon. 
W. H. Barnes) had just granted us a continued tenancy 
in the Technical College at a nominal rental, our Library 
to be open to the students under the supervision of the 
College Librarian, we decided to remain in our present 
quarters. 

As will be seen by Appendix C, there is a satisfactory 
credit balance so far as the ordinary working expenses 
of the Society are concerned, but there still remains the 
binding of much of the matter in the Library when funds 
permit. 

During the year the Hon. Secretary (Mr. E. H. Gurney) 
resigned, but was appointed to the Council. Mr. F. 
Bennett took his place as Hon. Secretary. The place of 
Dr. J. Thomson on the Council was filled by Mr. W. R. 
Parker, and Mr. Wasteneys was succeeded by Mr. Gurney. 


F. BENNETT, J. F. BAILEY, 
Hon. Secretary. President. 


Brisbane, February 26th, 1919. 


REPORT OF COUNCIL. lil. 


APPENDIX A. 


| S| = ; 
| a1 local 
| Office. Name. Sb | 9% ae 
: 83 | 83 
i) SO 
President .| J. F. Bailey 11 2 
| Vice-President ..| Dr. A. Sutton .. 2 1 
Hon. Treasurer..| J. C. Briinnich, F,1.C. .. 6 1 
E. H. Gurney Ph tet be. 2 Resigned May 
Hon. Secretary F. Bennett 6 1 Appointed June 
Hon. Librarian..| C. T. White es as 7 L 
/| J. B. Henderson, F.I.C... if 2 
| J. Shirley, B.Sc... her 0 
ect || W.R. Colledge havi 2 
meee ~| E.H. Gurney .. -| See | above! Appointed june 
V. R, Parker, L.D.S. : 3 0 Appointed July 
Dr. J. Thomson . eel 0 | Died 
) H. Wasteneys : ie 1 | Leftim May 


iv. 


10 


REPORT OF COUNCIL. 


APPENDIX B. 


List or Papers Reap Durine 1909. 


Date. | Title. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


May 
July 


July 


Aug. 


| Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


29 | The Land We Live On (Presi- 
| dential Address) 


27 Some Aspects of Savage Life .. | 


(1) Life History of the Filaria | 
Mosquito 


(2) Effects and Methods of 
Eradication 


Queensland Vegetation (Lecture) 

3 | Scientific Jottings in Remote 
| Parts of Queensland | 

10 | The Atomic Theory of Chem- | 
istry (Lecture) 
| | 

28 | The Life History of a Mollusc | 
| (Lecture) 


25 | Climates of the Geological Past | 


30 | (1) Phosphatic Rocks and their 
| Occurrence in Australia ) 


(2) Estimation of Zine by 
means of Potassium Ferro- 
cyanide 


(3) Calculation of Percentages 
| from Volumetric Work 


| 

| 

30 | Exhibition of Modern Chemi- (| 
cal Apparatus | 


Notes on an Artesian Water 
Analysis 


Author. 


J. C. Briinnich, F.I.C. 


Rev. B. Danks. 
W. RB. Colledge. 
A. Jefferis-Turner, 


J. F. Bailey 


F. Bennett 


Prof. Laby. 


J. F. Shirley, B.Sc. 


H. I. Jensen, D.Sc 
H. I. Jensen, D.Sc. 


F. E. Connah. 


F. E. Connah 


J. B. Henderson, F.1.C. 
J. C. Briinnich, F.1.C. 


J. B. Henderson, F.I.C 


—— 
SS 


Vv. 


REPORT OF COUNCIL. 


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vi. 


REPORT OF COUNCIL. 


APPENDIX D. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Archer, R. §S. 

Badger, J. 8. 

Barton, E. C. 

*+Bailey, F. M., F.L.S. 
+Bailey, J. F. 

Bennett, F. 

Briinnich, J. C., F.1.C. 
Bundock, Miss Alice 
Bundock, C. W. 
Byram, W. J. 
Cameron, W. E., B.A. 
Colledge, W. R. 
Collins, Miss Jane 
Collins, J. George 
Collins, R. M. 

Connah, F. E. 

Cooper, Sir Pope A., C.J. 
Costin, C. W. 
Dempsey, J. J. 

Dodd, S., F.R.C.V.S.L. 
Dunstan, Benj. 
Eglinton, Dudley 
Eglinton, Miss Hilda 
Forrest, E. B., M.L.A. 
+Gailey, Richard 
Gibson, Hon. A., M.L.C. 
Gore-Jones, E. R. 
Greenfield. A. P. 
*+Griffith, Sir S. W. 
Gurney, E. H. 

Hedley, C., F.L.S. 
Henderson, J.B., F.I.C. 


Hirschfield, Eugen, M.D. 


Holland C. W. 

Hopkins, G., M.D. 

Hunt, G. W. 

Illidge, Rowland 

Illidge, T. 

Irving, J.. M.R.C.V.S.L. 

+ Jack, R. fag Ds 
F.R.G.S. 


. Jackson, A. G. 
Jefferis-Turner, A., M.D. 


Johnston, Jas. 
Jones, P. W. 
Leahy, P. J. 


*Members of Philosophical Society. 


OrpiInARY MEMBERS. 


BAG: 


Lindsay, W. 

Lord, F. 

Love, Wilton, M.B. 

Lucas, T. P., L.R.C.P. 

His Excellency Sir 
Macgregor, 
C.B., D:Sc., de: 

Mackie, R. Cliffe 


Marks, Hon. C. F., M.D., M.L.C. 


Marks, Edward O., B.A., B.E. 
May; Ty 2. M.D. 
Miles, Hon. E. D., M.L.C. 
McCall, T., F.1.C. 
McConnel, Eric W. 
McConnel, KE. J. 
McConnel, J. H. 
+Norton, Hon. A. M.L.C. 
Parker, W. R., L.D.S. 
Plant, C.F. 
Plant, Hon, E. H. T., M,L.C. 
Pound, C .J., F.R.M.S. 
Pritchard, C. 
Pulsford, F. E. 
*Raff, Hon. Alex, M.L.C. 
Rands, W. H., F.G.S. 
Reid, D. E. 
Riddell, R. M. 
+Roe, R. H., M.A. 
Ryan, J. P., M.D. 
Sankey, J. R. 
+Schreider, H., M.A. 
Shirley, J., B.Sc. 
Silcock, P. 
Smith, F., B.Sc. 
+Steele. T., F.L.S., F.E.S. 
+Stevens, Hon. E. sr M.L.C. 
Sutton, A., M.D. 
+Sutton, 7: W. 
Taylor, Hon. W., M.D., M.L.C. 
Thynne, Hon. A. J., M. Day 
Tonks, T. 
Watkins, G. C. 
+Weedon, Warren 
Willcocks, G. C. 

AssocIATE MEMBER. 
White, C. T. 


+Life Members. 


William 
M.D., C.M.G.S. 


REPORT OF COUNCIL. Vil. 


The President then delivered his address (illustrated by 
many fine slides) on the ‘Introduction of Economic Plants 
Into Queensland,”’ and was accorded a hearty vote of thanks by 
the meeting. 

The following office-bearers for 1910 were then elected :— 
Presidents W. R. Colledge; Hon. Treasurer, J. C. Briinnich, 
F.I.C.; Hon. Secretary, F. Bennett; Hon. Librarian, C. T. 
White ; Members of Council: E. H. Gurney, J. B. Henderson, 
E.1.C., J. Shirley, B.Sc., W. R. Parker, L.D.S. 


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SOCIETY _ 
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PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


ROYAL SOCIETY 


OF 


GO ee BN Sb A ND. 


VOR CX TTT. 


PART I. 


PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY 


BY 
H. POLE & Co., PRINTERS, GEORGE ST., BRISBANE. 


19tt¢ 


ee a a oe eee iti 


M6 < Gl = 


Royal Society of Queensland 


Patron: 


HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WILLIAM MacGREGOR, 
M.D., G.C.M.G., C.B., D.Sc., Etc. 


CRrMCt Rs, 19l. 


OO 


President : 
J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.I.C. 


Vice-President : 
P. L. WESTON, B.Sc., B.E. 


Hon. Treasurer : Hon. Secretary : 
J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. F. BENNETT. 


Hon. Librarian : 
Cc. T. WHITE. 


Members of Council : 


W. R. COLLEDGE. EK. H. GURNEY. 
H. RICHARDS, M.Sc. 


Trustees : 
JOHN CAMERON. Hon. A. NORTON, M.L.C. 
Hon. A. J. THYNNE, M.L.C. 


Hon. Auditor : 
GEO. WATKINS. 


Hon. Lanternist : 
A. G. JACKSON. 


CONTENTS. 


“ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED 
FISHES.—J. Douglas Ogilby, July 30th, 1910 


QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS.—Dr. Karel 
Domin, April 9th, 1910 eke ren ti 


PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SOME LIMESTONE AREAS IN 
QUEENSLAND.—Dr. J. V. Danes, July 28rd, 1910 


‘ON SOME NEW FISHES FROM THE QUEENSLAND 
COAST.—J. Douglas Ogilby, November 20th, 1910... 


NOTES ON THE ROTIFERS OR WHEEL ANIMA- 
CUL OF BRISBANE.—JV. R. Colledge, May 28th, 
1910 : x? vas 


ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA °OF 
QUEENSLAND.—John Shirley, B.Sc., September 
24th, 1910 ie =e nae i ; 


A BORA RING IN THE ALBERT VALLEY.—John 
Shirley, B.Se., September 24th, 1910... 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO.— 
R. Cliffe Mackie, November 26th, 1910 


NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO.—W. &. 
Colledge, February 25th, 1911... ies 


PAGE’ 


57 


85 


87 


93: 


.. L03- 


. 107 


. 121 


ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED 
FISHES. 


By J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 
July 30th, 1910. 


The following paper contains the descriptions of 2 
new genera and 24 new species of fishes and of 10 species 
which either have not previously been recorded from Aus- 
tralian Seas or of which the criginal descriptions were 
insufficient or erroneous. Of the 34 species described, 
all but 7 belong to the Queensland Fauna, the exceptions 
being 


Dobo, Aru Iss. Croker I:., N.T. 
Sphyrena altipinnis Hemipimelodus colcloughi 
Cherodon vitta Brachirus aspilos 


Valenciennea aruensis Cynoglossus sindensis 
Coryzichthys guttulatus 
With the exception of 5, the types of the new species 
are in the A.F.A.Q.* Museum, these being Xystodus ban- 
ficldi, Megaprotodon maculiceps, Brachirus salinarum, and 
B. breviceps in the Queensland Museum, and Spheroides 
squamicauda in the collection of Mr. J. T. Jameson, of 
Woody Point. 
The new genera here proposed are as follows :— 
i. Xystopus; fam. Synodidet ; type X. banfieldi. 
li. Cuit1as; fam. Pteropsaride; type Percis  stricticeps 
De Vis. 
The new species are :— 
1. CARCHARIAS SPENCERI; fam. Carchariide; Brisbane 
River. 

* Amateur Fishermen’s Association of Queensland. 

+ By Art. 4 of “‘ The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ” 
we learn that ‘‘ the name of a family is found by adding the ending ide to 
the root of the name of its type genus.” Plainly therefore the family name 
should be written as above, not Synodontide, as it is usually given. The 
same rule applies to all similar generic names ending in such Greek deri- 
vatives as odus, stoma, etc. 


ie.2) 


10. 


ai: 


iZ. 


13. 


14. 
15 


16. 


ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


. ANCHOVIA ZSTUARIA; fam. EHngraulide; Brisbane 


River. 


. XYSTODUS BANFIELDI; fam. Synodide; Dunk Island. 
. HEMIPIMELODUS COLCLOUGHI; fam. Srluride; Croker 


Island. 


. SPHYRZNA ALTIPINNIS ; fam. Sphyrenide ; Aru Islands. 
. PRIOPIS OLIVACEUS; fam. Ambasside; Creeks round 


Brisbane. 


. PRIOPIS NIGRIPINNIS ; fam. Ambasside@ ; Creeks at Kilcoy. 
. CH@RODON viTTa; fam. Labride; Aru Islands. 
. MEGAPROTODON MACULICEPS ; fam. Chetodide ; Moreton 


Bay. 

TRIACANTHUS FALCANALIS ; fam. J'riacanthide ; Moreton 
Bay. 

SPHEROIDES SQUAMICAUDA ; fam. J'etraodide ; Moreton | 
Bay. 


DICOTYLICHTHYS MYERSI; fam. Diodidew; Brisbane 
Rive. 

CHILOMYCTERUS GRANDOCULIS; fam. Diodide; More- 
-ton Bay. ne 

VALENCIENNEA ARUENSIS; fam. Gobiidew; Aru Islands. 

RHINOGOBIUS LEFTWICHI; fam. Gobiide ; Great Sandy 
Strait. 

ScoRPNOPSIS PALMERI; fam. Scorpenide; Moreton 
Bay. , 


. ScORPHNOPSIS MACROCHIR ; fam. Scorpenide ; Moreton 


Bay. 


. APISTUS BALNEARUM; fam. Scorpenide; Brisbane 


River. 
EROSA FRATRUM; fam. Scorpenide; Moreton Bay. 


. EBISINUS PROCNE ; fam. Dactylopteride ; Moreton Bay. 
. BRACHIRUS SALINARUM; fam. Soletd@; Kimberley, 


N.Q. 


2 BRACHIRUS BREVICEPS; fam. Soleide ; Rockhampton. 
. CoRYZICHTHYS GUTTULATUS ; fam. Batrachoidide ; Aru 


Islands. 


“CALLIONYMUS GROSSI; fam. Callionymide; Moreton 


Bay. 
The redescribed species are :— 


. DECAPTERUS ? ECCLIPSIFER (De Vis) ; fam. Carangide ; 


insufficiently described. 
Burris LONGICAUDA (De Vis); fam. Gobside ; insuffi- 
ciently described. 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILRY. 8 


‘'3. AMBLYGOBIUS ‘GOBIOIDES (Ogilby)=Gobius  cristatus 
Macleay ; fam. Gobiide; description insufficient. 

4. BRACHIRUS ASPILOS (Bleeker); fam. Soleide; new to 
Australia. 

.5. CYNOGLOSSUS SINDENSIS (Day); fam. Soleide; new to 
Australia. 

‘6. CHILIAS STRICTICEPS (De Vis); fam. Pteropsaride ; 
insufficiently described. 

‘7. DACTYLOPUS DACTYLOPUS (Bennett); fam. Calliony- 
mide; new to Australia. 

8. PETROSKIRTES FURTIVUS (De Vis); fam. Blenniide; 
descriptions insufficient. 

9. PETROSKIRTES JAPONICUS (Bleeker); fam. Blenniide. 

10. PETROSKIRTES ANOLIUS (Cuvier & Valenciennes) ; fam. 
Blenniide. 


CARCHARIID &. 
‘CARCHARIAS SPENCERI sp. nov. 


Depth of body 6-5, length of head 5-6, predorsal length 
3.35, length of caudal 3-6 in length of body. Width of 
head 1-3, depth of head 1-55, length of snout (preoral 
length) 3, diameter of eye 11-5, width of interocular 1-6, 
of internasal 3, of mouth 2 in length of head. 

Body robust ; length of head 1-8 in that of the trunk. 
‘Snout short and blunt 1-8 in the space between the eye 
and the Ist gill-opening ; inner angle of nostril nearer to 
the mouth than to the tip of the snout; ramal length of 
‘upper jaw 1-25, length of snout 1:5 in the width of the 
‘mouth. Tip of mandible rounded, extending forward to 
the vertical from the front margin of the eye ; labial folds 
‘short, the upper sometimes absent. Teeth oe 
erect and fully serrated in both jaws ; those of the upper 
jaw triangular and without a trace of notch on the outer 
edge, of the lower much narrower with a broad evenly 
convex serrated base; a small smooth symphysial tooth 
in each jaw. Space between eye and snout 1-4 in its dis- 
tance from the Ist gill-opening ; interocular region convex. 
Head and trunk as long as the tail. 

First dorsal inserted a little nearer to the pectoral 
than to the ventral, its anterior border slightly convex 
with the outer angle obtusely pointed ; posterior angle 
produced and acute, not nearly reaching to the vertical 


4 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


from the ventral; base of fin rather more than its vertical 
height. Second dorsal small, inserted a little nearer to 
the origin of the Ist than to the tip of the tail. Anal 
originating somewhat behind the 2nd dorsal, its length 
1:6 in its distance from the caudal, which is equal to that 
from the ventral. Caudal long with the upper angle obtusely 
pointed. Pectoral extending to below or beyond the end 
of the Ist dorsal, the anterior and posterior borders convex 
with more or less rounded angles, the outer border emarginate. 
Space between ventral and anal 1-75 in its distance from. 
the pectoral. 

Last gill-opening not much smaller than the 8rd, 
which is rather more than twice the eye-diameter. 

Above ashy or lead blue, below white; tips of 2nd 
dorsal, caudal, and pectorals darker. (Named for my 
friend and colleague Adkins Robert Spencer, to whom I 
am indebted for the specimen above described). 

Seas and estuaries of Eastern Australia, ascending 
rivers to, and it is said even beyond, the furthest limit 
of tidal influence, attaining a length of 2-5 mm. It is the 
common “‘ blue shark ”’ of the Brisbane River. 

Described from a specimen 122 cm. long; the jaws of 
which are in the A.F.A.Q. collection; Cat. No. 290. 


ENGRAULID &. 
ANCHOVIA AZSTUARIA sp. nov. 

D. :13-0r 14; A. 31 to 34; P.. 12; V. 7; Se: 40 ordi 
9 or 10. Depth of body 3-55, length of head 3-75, of 
maxillary 4, of anal fin 3-65, of caudal fin 3-75 in the length. 
of the body. Length of snout 4-4, diameter of eye 4, width 
of interorbit 4, height of dorsal 1-4, depth of peduncle 2-4, 
length of pectoral 1-25, of ventral 2-35 in the length of the 
head. 

Upper surface of head linear and oblique, with a well- 
marked fronto-occipital ridge, the nape anteriorly with a 
slight but. distinct acclivity ; snout vertically rounded in 
front and projecting beyond the lower jaw to a distance 
equaling three fourths of the diameter of the eye ; inter- 
orbital region strongly convex. Premaxillary, maxillary, 
and mandible each with a series. of minute teeth ; tongue 
toothed. Maxillary extending slightly beyond the 
mandibular articulation. Scales thin and easily detached ;- 
ventral profile cultrate and rather strongly serrated. 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 5 


Dorsal fin originating a little behind the ventral and 
one fifth nearer to the tip of the snout than to the root of 
the caudal, its length 1-55 in its height ; outer border linear, 
the last ray not produced. Anterior rays of anal about 
thrice as long as the middle rays and 1-4 in the height of 
the dorsal. Middle caudal rays 2 in the lower and longer 
lobe. Pectoral fin long and pointed, extending to or 
slightly beyond the base of the ventral. Space between 
origin of ventral and tip of snout 1-45 in its distance from 
the root of the caudal. 

Gill-rakers long and slender, 24 on the lower branch 
of the anterior arch, the longest 1-25 in the diameter of the 
eye. Vertebre 42. 

Pale green above; sides and belly silvery; usually 
a dusky shoulder spot. Longer dorsal rays and caudal 
lobes narrowly tipped with blackish. 

Total length 150 millim. 

Rivers of South-Eastern Queensland. Abundant in 
the Brisbane River, where it is taken commonly in the 
prawn nets. but is not used as food. 

Described from numerous specimens measuring from 
72 to 150 millimeters. | 

Allied to A. nasuta (Castelnau)* from the Norman 
River, Carpentaria, from which it may be distinguished 
by the following characters :— 

Depth of body rather more than 3-00, length of head 
4.50 in length of body ; dorsal originating midway between 
tip of snout and base of caudal .. i nasuta 

Depth of body rather less than 3- 50, length of head 
3.75 in length of body; dorsal originating one fifth nearer 


to tip of snout than to base of caudal .. .. estuaria 


Type in the Museum of the A.F.A.Q. ; Cat. No. 496. 


SYNODID. 
XYSTODUS7 gen. nov. 

Body depressed. No lateral line. Teeth in the jaws 
unequal and uniserial, consisting of long compressed w idely 
separated sagittate fangs, having between each pair one 
or two much shorter obtusely pointed teeth ; palatine teeth 


ee ee a enna e EIDE snes 
*Engraulus nasutus Castlenau, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, iii, 
1879, p. 5). 
tévarov, & spear ; ddovs, a tooth. 


6 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


of equal size, acicular and biserial, forming a long narrow 
band; hyoid bones with two series of strong teeth; a 
multiserial patch anteriorly on the tongue. Nostrils well 
separated, the anterior circular and cirrigerous, the posterior 
an oblique slit below the level of the anterior. Eye rather 
small, the adipose lid rudimentary. Dorsal fin inserted 
midway between the tip of the snout and the root of the 
caudal ; no adipose fin; anal fin similar to but longer than: 
the dorsal ; pectorals small and rounded ; ventrals 8-rayed. 
Vent much nearer to the ventral than to the anal. Other- 
wise as in Saurida. 
Coast of North Queensland (Dunk Island). 


XYSTODUS BANFIELDI sp. nov. 


D. rl; A. 14; P..13; Se. 61-13. Depth of body 77) 
length of head 3-6, of caudal fin 5-5 in length of body. 
Length of snout 4-25, diameter of eye 6-8, width of inter- 
orbit 8-5, cleft of mouth 1-6, height of dorsal 1-9, length 
of pectoral 2-25, of ventral 1-1 in length of head. 

Body slender, a little wider than deep. Frontal groove 
smooth in front, profusely pierced by small pores behind, 
continuous with the occipital groove. Diameter of eye 
1°6 in the length of the snout ; adipose lid vestigial ; inter- 
orbital region concave, its width 1:25 in the eye-diameter. 

Dorsal fin nearly as high as long, the tip of the longest 
ray, when depressed, barely reaching to the base of the 
last. Anal fin originating midway between the root of 
the caudal and the origin of the ventral, about thrice as 
long as high, and one-fourth longer than the dorsal. Middle 
caudal rays 2-5 in the lower lobe ; caudal peduncle as deep 
as wide, without trace of lateral ridge. Pectoral fin extends. 
to above the end of the base of the ventral, which is inserted 
a little nearer to the anal than to the tip of the mandible 
and well in advance of the dorsal, the 6th ray longest,. 
not reaching to the vent. 

Lilac, each scale of the back with a dark median 
stripe, which is often forked distally and form together 
narrow longitudinal pencillings, of which there are about 
nine ; a purplish lateral band about half a scale wide from 
the upper part of the opercle to the root of the caudal, 
dividing the lilac of the back from the yellowish white 
of the lower half of the body; anteriorly, to above the 
pectoral the band is black, and from its lower edge it throws 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. cs 


off twelve short subcruciform bars to enroach on the 
lighter color below ; these bars are much larger and darker 
in front and gradually fade away behind. Head spotted 
with violet and with transverse dark-edged bands between 
the eyes and three similar bands directed forwerd and 
downward from the eye to and upon the premaxillary. 
Base and middle rays of caudal and base of pectoral yellow. 
(Named for Edward James Banfield, Honorary Govern- 
ment Ranger of Dunk Island and the neighboring islets, 
to whose acute observation Queensland science is greatly 
indebted for its knowledge of the biology of the district). 

Described from a specimen in the Queensland Museum 
collected by Mr. Banficld, near Dunk Island, and measuring 
142 millim. 

SILURID &. 
HEMIPIMELODUS COLCLOUGHI SP. Nov. 

D. 16,0; A. 17; P.112. Depth of body 4-55, length 
of head 3-25, predorsal length 2-35, interdorsal space 3-4, 
upper caudal lobe 4-2 in length of body. Width of head 
1-45, length of snout 2-5, diameter of eye 5-45, width of 
interorbit 2-9, length of maxillary barbel 1:25, of dorsal 
spine 1-65, of anal fin 2-25, of pectoral spine 1-8, of ventray 
fin 2 in length of head. 

Upper profile of head linear and but little oblique ; 
diameter of eye 2-2 in the snout, which is feebly rounded 
and one fourth wider than long ; interorbital region gently 
convex, its width equal to that of the mouth. Pre- 
maxillary teeth in a continuous band, which is somewhat 
undulous posteriorly, pointed at the extremities, and 
nearly 4 times as long as wide; mandibular band divided 
mesially, of nearly equal width throughout, but narrowing 
rather abruptly to a point externally. Barbels slender, 
the maxillary extending to the origin of the pectoral fin; 
postmental barbel 1-5 in the maxillary barbel, inserted 
but little behind and outside the mental barbel, which 
scarcely reaches the gill-opening. Cranial shield mostly 
smooth, with a patch of small granules on either side, and 
a more crowded mesial patch posteriorly, from which two 
or three rapidly diminishing series extend forward along 
each side of the occipital groove. Nuchal shield sparsely 
granular anteriorly, with a well-marked median ridge, 
on either side of which is a lower and slightly divergent 


8 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


ridge, its greatest width 1:4 in its length, which is 2-6 in 
its distance from the tip of the snout ; outer border deeply, 
posterior feebly emarginate. Dorsal buckler moderate, 
saddle-shaped, smooth. Humeral process smooth and 
broadly triangular, terminating in an acute point, and 
extending along the proximal third of the pectoral spine. 

Dorsal spine slender, serrated in front and behind, 
the sides striated; adipose fin moderate, inserted above 
the middle of the anal, one third higher than long, its base 
1-65 in that of the rayed dorsal. Anal fin as high as long. 
with the outer border fecbly emarginate. Least depth 
of caudal peduncle 2 in its length behind the adipose fin. 
Pectoral spine curved, similar to but more strongly serrated 
than that of the dorsal. Ventral fin obtusely pointed, 
not reaching to the anal. Vent a little nearer to the anal 
than to the ventral. 

Gill-membranes meeting at a very obtuse angle, the 
free margin moderate ; axillary pore minute. 

Upper surface of body pale leaden blue, of head and 
nape brown, darkest on the latter; a bluish patch above 
the eye; checks, preorbitals, edges of mandibular rami, 
and humeral processes strongly tinged with yellow ; lower 
surface of head lilac, of body bluish white. Dorsal fin 
pale blue, the basal portion and the spine gray; adipose 
fin with a narrow whitish border; lobes of caudal and 
bases of anal and ventrals yellow, the middle rays of the 
former and the tips of the two latter pale blue; pectorals 
pale blue, the spine gray. (Named for its discoverer, 
Mr. John Colclough). 

Described from a specimen, measuring 202 millim., 
taken at Croker Island, N.T., and presented by its collector 
to the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; Cat. No. 993. 


SPHYRAINID A. 


SPHYRZNA ALTIPINNIS sp. nov. 


D. v-19; P. 15: Se. 1812824. Depth of oeae 
7-15, of caudal peduncle 14-4, length of head, 3-2, 
of caudal fin 4:55, of pectoral 8-75, predorsal length 2-45 
in length of body. Length of snout 2-15, diameter of eye 
5-15, width of interorbit 6-85 in length of body. 

Body robust, its width 1-4 in its depth. Depth of 
head subequal to the postorbital region ; diameter of eye 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 9 


2-4 in the snout; interorbital region feobly convex. 
Maxillary extending to below the anterior border of the 
eye, its distance from which is 3, its greatest width 2-2 
in the eye-diameter ; lower jaw without fleshy appendage. 
Premaxillary teoth about 54 on each ramus; posterior 
canine much the larger; 4 enlarged palatine teeth, the 
second the strongest ; mandible with 9 lateral teeth, the 
canine sinistral. Operclo with a weak spine. Cheeks 
and opercles scaly ; upper surface of head naked. 

Dorsal fin originating well in advance of the tip of 
the appressed pectoral ; dorsal spines flexible, the second 
the longest, 1:35 in the length of the snout; soft dorsal 
higher than the spinous, its last ray produced. Anal 
originating below the middle of, terminating well behind, 
and similar in size and shape to the soft dorsal. Middle 
caudal rays 3 in the upper and longer lobe ; depth of ped- 
uncle one and one sixth time the diameter of the eye. 
Pectoral fin 1:25 in the length of the snout and extending 
well beyond the origin of the ventral. Ventral inserted 
below the origin of the spinous dorsal and midway between 
the tip of the mandible and the middle of the anal, its 
length 1:45 in the snout. 

Ne elongate gill-raker. 

Above purple, each of the scales with a light centre ; 
sides silvery, crossed by fourteen vertical purple bars, 
the first behind the tip of the pectoral, the last above the 
end of the anal; lower surface pearly white; dcrsal fins 
blackish ; caudal grayish brown, darkest above; aral, 
ventrals, and pectorals gray, the anterior rays of the former 
and the outer rays of the two latter dusky. 

Total length 405 millimeters. 

Described from a single specimen obtained at the 
Aru Islands by Mr. John Colclough. 

Type in the A.F.A.Q. Museum., Cat. No. 1066. 


CARANGID &. 


DECAPTERUS ? ECCLIPSIFER (De Vis).* 
Peete. 1 28 iP. 21: Sc. 1245 E186. 
Depth of body 4°30, length of head 3°65, height of soft 
dorsal 8°90, of anal 9°30, length of pectoral 3°75 in 


*Caranz ecclipsifer De Vis, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, ix, 1884, 
p. 541: Cape York. 


10 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


length of body. Length of snout 2°80 diameter of eye 
3°15, width of interorbit 4:20, length of maxillary 2°66, 
of mandible 2°10, height of spinous dorsal 1°80, length of 
ventral 2°00 in length of head. 


Body elongate-elliptical, somewhat compressed, its 
width 1:50 in its depth, the dorsal and ventral profiles 
about equally convex. Depth of head 1:50 in its length ; 
snout pointed, longer than the eye-diameter, which con- 
siderably exceeds the feebly convex interorbital width ; 
adipose lid greatly developed, extending well over the 
preorbital and opercular regions, and leaving uncovered 
only a narrow vertical slit, of which the pupil is the centre ; 
cranio-nuchal ridge moderate, extending forward on the 
snout ; lower jaw the longer; maxillary scarcely extending 
to the level of the eye, the width of its emarginate distal 
extremity 2°50 in the eye-diameter. A narrow band of 
fine teeth in the jaws; vomer, palate, ptergyoids, and 
tongue smooth. 

Scales smooth, in regular series; throat and breast 
scaly ; occiput, posterior half of interorbit, inner half of 
opercle and subopercle, interopercle, and cheeks scaly ; 
head elsewhere naked ; soft dorsal and anal fins with a 
low basal scaly sheath. Lateral line straight to above 
the middle of the appressed pectoral, thence gently curved 
to below the anterior third of the soft dorsal, beyond which 
it is again straight ; posterior portion 1-40 in the anterior, 
bearing 31 plates, which are well developed posteriorly, 
where each is armed with a strong sharp spine ; anteriorly 
the line is continued in a wide loop over the nape, meeting 
its fellow immediately behind the nuchal ridge, and forming 
a definite boundary between the minute occipital and the 
larger body scales ; the loop itself is bisected by a short 
supplementary line, which passes forwerd along the 
interorbit and backward over about 7 scales. Caudal 
peduncle withcut subsidiary keels. 

Spinous dorsal originating behind the base of the 
pectoral, the 3rd spine longest, two fifths longer than the 
2nd ray, which reaches, when depressed, to the base of the 
9th ray ; origin of soft dorsal above the vent. Detached 
anal spines strong and subequal, 2-25 in the eye-diameter, 
united basally by membrane to one another and to 
3rd spine, which is inserted below the 6th dorsal ray ; anal 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. Til 
fin one third longer than the abdomen, its*anterior lobe- 
about as high as the soft dorsal. Caudal fin forked, the 
middle rays shorter than the eye; caudal peduncle wider 
than deep. Pectoral fin slightly curved, extending to below 
the origin of the soft dorsal. Ventral small, reaching 
midway to the base of the 2nd anal spine. 

Gill-rakers long and slender, 13-35, the longest 1-80: 
in the eye-diameter, but not quite so long as the middle 
fringes. 

Above olive green, lightest on the head, below pearly 
white ; a blackish opercular spot ; base of pectoral dark ; 
fins colorless. 

Described from a Moreton Bay specimen, 230 millim. 
long, in the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; Cat. No. 1134. 


AMBASSID &. 
PRIOPIS OLIVACEUS sp. nov. , 

DP vali, * i. 7 Al a 8s -Pal2 + Se.:23-15 » LALO t0-4:: 
Depth of body 2-55, of caudal peduncle 6-6, length of head 
2°85, of caudal fin 2-85 in length of body. Length of 
snout 4:1, diameter of eye 3, width of interorbit 4:35, 
longest dorsal spine 1-65, longest anal 2-15, length of 
pectoral 1-25, of ventral 1-4 in length of head. 

Upper profile of head linear, the nape convex with 
an appreciable median ridge ; interorbital region convex ; 
maxillary scarcely extending to below the anterior border 
of the eye. Preopercle with 5 or 6 strong spines at and 
below the angle. Head scales as large as those of the body. 

Procumbent dorsal spine well developed; spinous 
dorsal originating above the 4th body-scale, the 3rd spine 
longest and strongest, a little higher than the rayed dorsal ; 
spine of soft dorsal 1-35 in the height of the spinous dorsal. 
Anal fin originating below the 12th body-scale ; 3rd spine 
longest, as long as that of the soft dorsal, a little longer 
than the base of the fin, and 1-35 in the Ist ray, which is 
as high as that of the dorsal. Caudal fin deeply forked, 
the middle rays about half as long as the lobes. Third 
and 4th pectoral rays longest, extending to the 10th body- 
scale. Ventral shorter than the pectoral, the two outer 
rays longest, reaching to the vent, the spine as long as the 
3rd anal spine. 

Green above, yellowish white below; a black line, 


* The procumbent spine included. 


12 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


‘which is feebly curved anteriorly, from the upper angle 
of the opercle to the root of the caudal ; the scales forming 
the series through which this line runs are profusely dotted 
with black, as also are the edges of all the scales above 
the line, and antericrly the surface of the scales is similarly 
but more sparsely dotted; two or three series of body- 
‘scales below the line and the scales of the tail with a single 
marginal series of black dots. Upper surface of head and 
nape and the opercles so profusely dotted as almost to 
obscure the ground color; cheeks and lower surface of 
head less closely dotted. Al] the fins similarly marked, — 
the dots b2ing most crowded on the membrane of the 
second dorsal spine, the tips of the anterior anal rays, 
and the middle ventral rays. 


Abundant in all creeks and waterholes in the Brisbane 
district. Description taken from a 50 millim. example 
in the A.F.A.Q. Museum, to which it was presented by 
Mr. W. E. Weatherill ; Cat. No. 463. 


PRIOPIS NIGRIPINNIS sp. nov. 


D. vi, i8; A.i11.8; P. 10; Sc. 25-12; L. 0 to6,. Depan 
of body 2-85, of caudal peduncle 7-9, length of head 2°9, 
of caudal fin 2:8 in length of body. Length of snout 3:8, 
diameter of eye 2:8, width of intcrorbit 4-05, longest dorsal 
spine 1-5, longest anal 1-95, length of pectoral 1:3, of 
ventral 1:45 in length of head. 

Upper profile of head linear, the nape feebly convex 
and with a well defined median ridge ; interorbital region 
convex ; maxillary extending to below the anterior border 
of the eye. Preopercle with a few streng spines at the 
angle. Head scales as large as those of the body. 

No procumbent dorsal spine ; spinous dorsal fin origin- 
ating above the 7th body scale, the Ist spine longest and 
‘strongest, somewhat higher than the rayed dorsal; spine 
of soft dorsal 1-3 in the height of the spinous dorsal. Anal 
fin originating below the 14th body-scale, the 3rd _ spine 
longest, as long as that of the soft dorsal, a trifle longer 
than the base of the fin, and equal to the Ist ray, which 
is higher than that of the dorsal. Caudal fin deeply forked, 
the middle rays about two fifths of the length of the lobes. 
Fourth pectoral ray longest, extending to the llth body 
scale. Ventral a little shorter than the pectoral, the two 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 18 


outer rays longest, reaching slightly beyond the vent, the 
spine as long as the 8rd anal spine. 

Uniform violaceous brown, somewhat lighter bclow ; 
edges of all the upper scales clouded with numerous black 
dots; lower scales and those of the head with scattered 
dots ; a narrow black line from the tip of the appressed 
pectoral to the root of the caudal. Fins dusky; mem- 
brane of first dorsal spine densely powdered with blackish 
spots ; tips of the anterior soft dorsal and anal rays black. 

Inland creeks in the Moreton District. Description 
taken from a 45 millim. example in the A.F.A.Q. Museum, 
obtained in Kilecy Creek by Dr. T. Bancroft, and presented. 
by him to the Association. Cat. No. 1342. 

LABRID. 
CH@RODON VITTA sp. nov. 

D. xii 7; A. ti 10; P. 16: Se. 3-27-2-10. Depth 
of body 2-9, of caudal peduncle 7-7, length of head 3-15, 
of middle caudal rays 5-9, of pectoral and ventral fins 4:5 
in length of body. Length of snout 2:45, diameter of eye 
4-1, width of interorbit 3-5, last dorsal spine 3-05, last anal. 
spine 2-9 in length of head. 

Dorsal profile of body evenly and gently rounded,. 
not appreciably higher than the ventral profile, its highest 
point above the middle of the appressed pectoral. Head 
about one sixth longer than deep; upper profile of snout. 
gently rounded and moderately declivous ; eye moderate, 
its diameter rather less than the depth of the preorbital.. 
Cleft of mouth extending to below the anterior nostril.. 
Anterior canines large ; lateral mandibular teeth without 
prominent tips; no posterior canine. Preopercle finely 
serrated. Cheeks with eight series of small subimbricate 
scales ; some of the opercular scales larger than the breast- 
scales ; scales at the base of the caudal angulated and but 
little enlarged. 

Soft dorsal and anal fins low, rounded and subequal 
in height posteriorly, scarcely extending to the caudal fin, 
and with a low scaly sheath. Caudal fin emarginate. 
Fourth pectoral ray slightly longer than the third, reaching 
to below the tenth scale of the lateral line. Outer ventral 
ray the longest, extending to the vent. 

Reddish brown, darkest above; two to four narrow, 
sometimes anastomosing, silvery lines on the cheeks and 


14 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


preorbitals ; a broad blackish band along the middle of 
the body from behind the eye to the caudal peduncle, 
separated by a short interspace from a large oval black 
‘spot in front of the root of the caudal; fins uniform pale 
rufous. 

Total length (of type) 190 millim. 

Aru Islands. 

Type in the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; Cat. No. 1394. 

In company with the West Australian C. rubescens 
and the East Australian C. macleayi this Tuskfish forms 
a well-marked group, characterized by the smaller size, 
more slender habit, and uniform or nearly uniform colora- 
tion, which in the species mentioned is rufous brown in 
marked contrast to the more brilliant livery of the larger 
species. With these three should also be associated De 
Vis’ C. olivaceus. 


CHATODID. 
MEGAPROTODON MACULICEPS sp. nov. \ 

D. xiv 18; A. iv. 15: Se. 6-46-15; Ll. 36. Depth 
-of body 1-75, length of head 3-15, of pectoral fin 3-4, of 
ventral 3-4 in length of body. Diameter of eye 2-4, width 
-of interorbit 2.75, longest dorsal spine 1.35, longest anal 
1-25, length of caudal J-5, depth of peduncle 2-75 in length 
of head. 

Upper profile of head moderately steep and undulous 
owing to a slight protuberance above the posterior half 
of the eye. Snout slightly produced and obtusely pointed, 
1:25 in the eye-diameter ; interorbital regicn convex ; jaws 
equal; maxillary extending to below the anterior nostri’. 
Preopercle serrated. Scales mcderate, those on the middle 
of the trunk somewhat larger than the anterior scales and 
much larger than those on the tail, which rapidly decrease 
‘in size posteriorly : lateral line but little arched in front, 
not extending to the caudal peduncle. 

Dorsal fin broadly anal narrowly rounded behind, 
the spinous portion of the former twice as long as the soft 
portion; 4th and 5th dorsal spines equal and longest, a 
little longer than the soft rays. Second anal spine longest 
and strongest, somewhat longer than the dorsal spines 
and one fourth longer than the rays, which are slightly 
shorter than those of the dorsal. Caudal fin feebly 
rounded. Pectoral pointed, the 4th ray longest, reaching 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 1d 


to the 12th body-scale. Ventral as long as the pectoral, 
extending to the vent. 

Colors (after long immersion in alcohol). Pale rufous, 
with five rather wide dark longitudinal bands following 
the curvature of the back above the lateral line and twelve 
much narrower linear bars below ; a large black elliptical 
spot covers the upper middle portion of the side from 
above the middle of the pectoral fin to below the anterior 
third of the soft dorsal; about two thirds of it are below 
the rest above the lateral line, and the twe lower longi- 
tudinal bands and three upper bars are lost in it ; a large 
oval black spot on the side of the tail, partly below the 
end of the soft dorsal and partly on the peduncle, across 
the upper edge of which it extends but does not reach 
the lower border. Ocular band running from a short 
distance in front of the dorsal through the eye to the inter- 
opercle, darkest superiorly, and somewhat interrupted 
by a lighter spot where it leaves the nape; opercle with 
several large dark brown spots. Soft dorsal and anal 
fins each with a narrow dark inframarginal band, which 
extends forward on the former to the posterior raysf; 
caudal fin with a wide pale brown basal and a dark brown 
subarcuate median band. 

Described from a Moreton Bay specimen, measuring 
‘75 millimeters, in the collection of the Queensland Museum. 

Closely allied to Megaprotodon plebius*, from which 
it differs chiefly in the color markings. The lateral blotch 
bears a close resemblance to that of Chetodon speculumt 
as figured by Bleeker{, but is more pointed at either end. 


TRIACANTHIDA. 
TRIACANTHUS FALCANALIS sp. nov. 

D. v or vi—22 or 23; A.18; P. 16. Depth of body 
2-75, length of head 3-35, of snout 4.85, of first dorsal spine 
3°55, of ventral spine 4:3, of pelvic bone 5-, of soft dorsal 
3°55, of anal 5-5, of caudal 3-85, of caudal peduncle 5-1 
in length of body. Diameter of eye 3-85, width of inter- 


“Chetodon plebeius Gmelin, Syst. Nat., 1789, i, p. 1269... In Turton’s 
transjation, 1806, no mention is made of this species. 

t Chetodon speculum (Kuhl & v. Hasselt) Cuvier & Valenciennes, 
Hist. Nat. Poiss, vii, 1831, p. 73, 

t Atlas Ichth, pl. cccuxxy, fig. 3. 


16 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISdES 


orbit 3-65, of gill-opening 4-6, height of soft dorsal 3-55, 
of anal 2-5 length of pectoral 2-3 in length of head. 


Upper profile of snout linear, its length 1:45 in that 
cf the head and 1-35 in the space between the eye and the 
soft dorsal. Distance of eye from gill-opening 1:15 in the 
diameter of the eye, which is 1-5 in its distance from the 
dorsal spine; interorbital region concave (nearly flat in 
large examples), without indication of a median ridge. 
Gill-opening entirely behind the eye, commoncing in front 
of the lower third of the pectoral. 

Dorsal spine feebly curved or straight, tapering to 
an acute point, inserted abcve the base of the pectoral, 
and entirely covered with coarse granules, which ere some- 
what more cnlarged and pointed in front and behind, its 
distance from the soft dorsal 2:3 in that from the tip of 
the snout; soft dorsal with rounded outline, the highest 
part about the end of its first third, where it is 3-4 in its 
length. Anal fin much higher than the soft dorsal, below 
the eleventh or twelfth ray of which it originates and with 
which it is conterminous ; its outline is deeply emarginate, 
the anterior rays being produced and falciform, 1-5 in the 
base of the fin, which is 1°55 in that of the soft dorsal. 
Caudal fin deeply forked, the middle rays 3-25 in that of 
the outer; caudal peduncle distally cylindrical. Base 
of pectoral fin 1-5 in the width of the gill-opening. Ventral 
spines reaching to or not quite to the vent. Pelvic bone. 
tapering to a point behind. 

Silvery, washed with bronze above; two large oval 
dark blotches on the back, one below each dorsal fin 
anteriorly ; two similar blotches on the side, the one above 
the other behind the pectoral; bese, lower half of mem- 
brane, and outer half of dorsal spine except the extreme 
tip blackish. 


Total length 260 millim. 

Coast of Southern Queensland. Brisbane River and. 
Moreton Bay, common. 

Described from six examples, measuring from 150 to. 
256 milimeters. 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. ie. 


TETRAODID &. 
SPHEROIDES SQUAMICAUDA Sp. nov. 
SCALY-TAILED TOAD-FISH. 


D. 9; A. 7; P. 15. Depth of body (at the vent) 4-2, 
length of head 3 in length of body. Diameter of eye 2:6, 
width of interocular region 6-25, height of dorsal 1-45, 
length of caudal 1:15, of pectoral 1-5 in length of head. 

Body robust, evenly and gently rounded to above 
the middle of the pectoral fins, beyond which it slopes 
downward to the caudal. Anterior profile of head linear 
and slightly oblique, the mouth below the level of the eye ; 
length of head a little less than that of the trunk. Eye 
large, narrowly free below, its diameter about equal to the 
length of the snout ; interocular region narrow and concave, 
its width 2-4 in the eye. Nostrils pierced in a conspicuous 
rounded tentacle. A narrow band round the lips and an 
ovate gular patch naked; rest of head and trunk closely 
studded with flexible spintles, which do not quite extend 
to the dorsal fin above nor to the vent below, but are con- 
tinued backward on the upper side to below the origin of 
the dorsal where it meets the lateral line, the intervening 
border concave; between the lateral line and the vent 
there is also a naked embayment stretching forward to the 
tips of the appressed pectoral rays; tail spineless, with 
a low ridge on either side of the lateral line, each of which 
bears a series of unarmed squamiform processes. Latera} 
line forming a gentle curve to below the orgin of the dorsal, 
thence straight to the caudal fin; a linear connecting line 
across the nape, beyond which the main line curves 
gradually downward to behind the lower third of the eye 
where it trifurcates, the middle branch passing directly 
forward to the angle of the mouth, the others branching 
off at right angles, the upper eventually curving forward 
above the eye to between the nostrils, the lower ceasing in 
front of the inferior angle of the gill-opening. Sides of 
tail with a well-developed ridge. Width of gill-opening 
rather more than the base of the pectoral, and extending 
well above it, the inner flap not protruding, the outer 
with a flat tentacular process on its lower half. 

Dorsal fin falcate, with the extreme tip rounded, its 
length 2-85 in its height. Anal rounded, originating 


B—Royau Socrery. 


18 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


below the middle of the dorsal, than which it is much 
shorter and lower. Caudal fin elongate and rounded, 
as long as the peduncle. Outer edge of pectoral linear 
above rounded below. 

Upper surface lilaceous with numerous small blackish 
spots; sides gray, profusely dotted with darker; a 
moderately wide dusky band separates the two colors 
on the tail running just below the lateral line ; under surface 
immaculate white: fins colorless. 

Total length 80 millim. 

Coast of Southern Queensland. 

Described from the single example known. 


DIODONTID. 
DICOTYLICHTHYS MYERSI sp. nov. 

D. 12; A. 11; P. 20. Width of body 2°85, depth of 
body 2:85, length of head 2-70 in the length of the body. 
Length of snout 3:50, diameter of eye 3-05, width of inter- 
orbit 2:00, height of dorsal and anal fins 2-00, length of 
caudal 1:50, of pectoral 2-00 in the length of the head. 

Snout linear, rest of head convex above ; mouth below 
the level of the eye. Head much longer and a little deeper 
than wide, its length 1:30 in the trunk. Eye moderate, 
without free lid; interorbital region concave. Nasal 
tentacle bifurcate. Spines of head and lower surface 
erectile, of back and sides fixed, the abdominal and sub- 
caudal spines much smaller than the others, which are 
of about equal size throughout, the longest pair being on 
each side of the caudal peduncle and not so long as the 
diameter of the eye; no turbinal nor preorbital spines ; 
frontal region with a conspicuous median spine, out- 
side and behind which is a pair of rather smaller lateral 
spines; inside and behind these are yet another pair, 
the inner roots of which overlap one another; beyond 
these again are three other pairs similarly arranged, while 
the hinder border of the occiput is armed with a single 
spine corresponding to the frontal spine ; two short, widely 
separated supraorbital spines, followed by a series of eight 
spines, the first three belonging to the temporal region, 
the last below the dorsal; cheeks and opercles with short 
sharp spines; caudal peduncle with two pairs, the bases 
of the upper far overlapping above. Gill-opening narrower 
than the base of the pectoral. 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 19 


Vertical fins rounded, the length of the dorsal some- 
what more than that cf the anal, which is inserted almost 
wholly behind the dorsal, and about 2-50 in their respective 


heights ; caudal fin rounded, the peduncle deeper than 
wide : pectoral undulous, the upper angle slightly produced, 
the lower broadly rounded, the width of its base more than 
the eye-diameter. 

Uniform olive-brown, shading into lavender or dull 
white below ; lower part of the sides and entire under surface 
of the body, with small black spots ; a black vertical band 
below the eye, a second in front of the gill-opening, and a 
third below the tip of the appressed pectoral. Fins 
uniform gray. 

Total length 290 millim. 

Coast of South-Eastern Queensland. 

Described from three Moreton Bay _ specimens, 
measuring from 200 to 290 millimeters. 

Type in the A.F.A.Q. Museum, to which it was pre- 
sented by Mr. Harry Myers, of Brisbane, after whom I 
have great pleasure in naming it. 

This species is easily distinguishable from D. punc- 
tulatus* by the small size of the abdominal spines, which 
are much shorter than those of the back and sides, and 
from D. jaculiferust by the conspicuous mid-frontal spines, 
the absence of the elongate pectoral spines, and _ the 
formula of the vertical fins. 


CHILOMYCTERUS GRANDOCULIS sp. nov. 


D. 12; A. 11; P. 21. Width of body 2:25, depth of 
‘body, 2-50, length of head 2-60 in the length of the body. 
Length of snout 2-85, diameter of eye 2-20, width of inter- 
orbit 1-85, height of dorsal fin 1-80, of anal 1-95, length of 
caudal 1-35, of pectoral 1-80 in the length of the head. 

Snout linear, rest of head convex; mouth below the 
level of the eye ; head as wide as long and two fifths wider 
than deep, its length 1:30 in the trunk. Eye large, 
without free lid; interorbital region flat, the supraciliary 
edges slightly raised. Nasal tentacle compressed and 
simple. A short strong turbinal spine; a much smaller 
preorbital spine ; frontal region with a single median spine, 
its point reduced to a blunt tubercle, or more rarely a pair 


* Kaup, Arch. f. Nat., 1885, p. 230: Cape Seas and Mauritius. 
+ Diodon jaculiferus Cuvier, Mém. Mus., 1818, p. 130. 


20 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


of similar spines arranged transversely ; three supraorbital 
spines, the last pair close together and well separated from 
the first, followed by a similarly arranged temporal series 
of three, the last above the base of the pectoral ; cheek- 
spines not piercing the skin ; a few small opercular spines : 
spines of body strong and fixed, those in front short, 
quickly increasing in length backward the tip of the 
appressed pectoral ; four spines in an irregular row behind 
the temporal series; a single greatly produced movable 
spine behind the middle of the base of the pectoral, its 
length equaling the interorbital width; a similar but 
somewhat shorter spine behind the lower angle of the 
pectoral ; middle series of abdominal spines short and blunt ; 
pedurcle naked. Gill-opening much narrower than the 
base of the pectoral. 

Vertical fins rounded, the length of the dorsal 2-20, 
that of the anal, which is inserted behind the dorsal, 2-85 
in their respective heights: caudal fin rounded, the 
peduncle deeper than wide; pectoral emarginate, the 
width of its base equal to the eye-diameter. 

Dull violet or olive-green above, the tips of some of 
the spines darker, below white; sides with three usually 
circular black spots, the first in front of the lower angle 
of the gill-opening, with often a smaller spot above it; 
the second below or just behind the middle of the border 
of the appressed pectoral, sometimes with a smaller spot 
below and behind it ; the third midway between the origins 
of the vertical fins ; all these spots surround the base of a 
spine, and occasionally the third temporal spine is similarly 
favored. Fins pale brown, the caudal with a darker tip. 

Total length 250 millim. 

Coast of Southern Queensland (Brisbane River and 
Moreton Bay). 

Four examples, measuring from 130 to 250 millimeters 
have been examined in the preparation of this article. 

This species, the common “ Porcupine-Fish” of the 
Moreton Bay Fishermen is easily distinguishable from all 
the other Chilomyctert not orly by the size of the eyes, 
but especially by the two erectile dagger-like spines, which 
protect the pectoral region on each side. 

Type in the collection of the A.F.A.Q., to which it 
was presented by Mr. Charles Sigley ; Cat. Ne. 41. 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 91 


GOBITD. 
VALENCIENNEA ARUENSIS sp. nov. 


D. vi, i12; A. i112; P. 19: Se. 92-42. Depth of body 
5:1, of caudal peduncle 9-1, length of head 3:5, of soft 
dorsal, 3:35, of caudal fin 2-5 in length of body. Length 
of snout 2-7, diameter of eye 5-1, width of interorbit 5:5, 
length of. maxillary 2-6, longest dorsal spine 1:25, last. 
dorsal ray 1:55 (¢) 1-9 (Q), length of pectoral 1:25, of 
ventral 1-8 in length of head. 

Depth of head 1-65, width of head 1:4 in its length. 
Snout evenly rounded above, nearly twice as long as the 
diameter of the eye; interorbital region flat; maxillary 
extending to below the anterior border of the eye. 

Spinous dorsal originating above the base of the pec- 
toral, the 3rd spine produced; last dorsal ray longest, 
extending well on the rudimentary caudal rays, 1:2 (¢@) 
1-6 (Q) in the 3rd spine. Anal fin originating midway be- 
tween the root of the caudal and the vertical limb of the 
preopercle and below the 2nd ray of the soft dorsal, with 
which it is conterminous, the last ray much shorter than 
(g¢) or as long as (9) that of the dorsal. Caudal fincuneate : 
caudal peduncle short and stout, as deep as long. Pectoral 
reaching to below the origin of the soft dorsal. Ventral 
extending more than half way to the vent, the 3rd or 4th 
ray longest. 

Width of gill-opening twice the diameter of the eye ; 
7 gill-rakers on the lower branch of the anterior arch, the 
longest 2-5 in the eye. 

Pale olive-green, the back with ten broad darker 
cross-bands, of which two are on the nape, two below the 
spinous dorsal, four below the soft dorsal, and two on the 
peduncle ; these bands are much darker, sometimes almost 
black, marginally than mesially, the middle portion being 
but little darker than the ground color; sides of head and 
body with two chestnut stripes, the upper from the tip of 
the snout to the below middle of the soft dorsal, the lower 
from behind the eye to the upper third of the caudal, the 
- former bisecting, the latter forming the lower border of the 
cross-bands ; below these again is a series of six dark spots, 
which are connected with one another inferiorly, so as to 
form a third rather obscure stripe between the base of the 


22 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


pectoral and the lower third of the caudal, and transversely 
with the median stripe by narrow cross-bars, which may be 
interrupted or even absent. Head without spots; snout 
and opercles dull violaceous brown; two narrow silvery 
undulous bands from and above the corner of the mouth 
to the opercle, upon which the lower curves upward and 
forms a junction with the upper; they are also united by 
a narrow bar along the edge of the preopercie, and the 
upper bar is occasionally produced forward across the lip ; 
there are sometimes two similar short bars in front of the 
eye. Spinous dorsal with a black terminal spot on the 
membrane of the third spine and with six narrow undulous 
bars running obliquely upward and backward from its 
base; anal with an indistinct infrabasal band; caudal 
colorless, or with several obscure cross-bands, or with small 
but distinct purple spots on its basal half inferiorly, and 
always with a wide terminal silver-edged violet band. 
Described from 4 Aru Island specimens in the A.F.A.Q. 
Museum, the largest and type 120 millim.: Cat. No. 986. 


BuTIs LONGICAUDA (De Vis). 


BD. vi, 97: A: 9; P18 or 19: Sc: 29 or 30-10°or Te 
Depth of body 4-7, of caudal peduncle 8-4, length of head 
2-9, of caudal fin 4 in length of body. Depth of head 2:5, 
width of head 1-66, length of snout 2-66, diameter of eye 5-75, 
width of interorbit 4-25, length of maxillary 2-66, longest 
dorsal ray 2-2, longest anal 2, length of pectoral 1:45 in 
length of head. 

Snout greatly depressed, more than twice the diameter 
of the eye; interorbital region flat, broader in the male 
than in the female or young* ; supraciliary ridge crenulate ; 
maxillary varying much with age and sex, extending nearly 
to or slightly beyond the anterior border of the eye. 

Head almost whelly scaly, the scales on the upper 
surface small; lower surface of head, extremity of snout, 
nasal region, maxillaries, and a pair of narrow channels 
extending from the snout along the frontal region, inside 
the supraciliary ridges, to and beyond the postero-superior 
border of the eye, and thence to the upper angle of the 


*In a fine male measuring 140 millim. the width of the interorbital 
region is 3°75 in the length of the head, ina female of 135 millim. the 
same measurement is 4°35. 


BY J. DOUGLAS CGILBY. 293 


opercle naked. Most of the scales of the body and opercles 
with from 1 to 4 subsidiary squamule. 


Third dorsal spine longest a little shorter than the 
snout and 1:35 in the longest ray.* Anal fin originating 
below the 2nd dorsal ray and conterminous with the soft 
dorsal, its last ray in both sexes longest but not reaching 
to the caudal. Caudal fin rounded, the peduncle long, 
2-2 times as long as deep.t Pectoral fin reaching to the 
origin of the 2nd dorsal. Ventral rather more than midway 
to the anal. 

Dark chestnut brown or purple, uniform or with the 
scales of the lower sides and tail narrowly edged with 
yellow. Dorsal, anal, caudal, and ventral fins purple, the 
anterior borders and the tips of the dorsals, the upper 
berder and tips of the upper rays of the caudal, and the 
tips of the anal and ventral rays crimson, fading into saffron 
or white after brief immersion in a preservative ; occa- 
sionally the whole 2nd dorsal is crimson with the exception 
of a basal purple band ornamented with a few clear spots ; 
caudal and sometimes the last anal rays also with clear 
spots, which may be large and few in number, but are more 
commonly small and crcwded; pectorals uniform yellow, 
with a large black white-edged basal ocellus. 

The ‘‘ Crimson-tip Gudgeon”’ attains a length of 200 
millim. and is one of the most common estuary fishes of 
our southern Queensland Rivers, ard its presence may 
always be anticipated in any ccllection from the streams 
running into Mcreton Bay. Personally I have examined 
specimens from the Tweed River, t Nerang Creek, the 
Logan, Brisbane, and Pine River., Nocsa Creek, ard the 
Mary River, and its range probably extends well beyond 
these limits. IS may always be reccgnised by the crimson 
(white) tips to the fins and by the squamule which cover 
the anterior portion of the scaies, and which are absent in 
ail our other eleotrins. The only substance found in the 
stomach of the specimen dissected was the head of a small 


*In the male fish the last dorsal ray is the longest and is considerably 
produced beyond the others, in the female the 2nd or 3rd ray is the longest, 
1‘5 time the length of the last ray. 

+ The peduncle is more slender in the immature than in the adult. 

t Thus adding another genus and species of eleotrin to the fauna of 
New South Wales. 


24 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


fish, apparently some species of goby. These little fishes 
are said to be excellent eating. 

Described from 5 recent examples from the Brisbane 
River, and 1 each from the Tweed and Mary Rivers and 
Noosa Creek, the measurements of the 8 specimens being 
from 75 to 140 millim. I have also examined De Vis’ 
types from the Brisbane River, as also a specimen from 
the same source, to which is attached the Museum label 
‘* Eleotris papa De Vis”; and yet another, without locality, 
labeled ‘‘ Hleotris aporos.”?’ From this species, which 
belongs to the allied genus Ophiocara, it may easily be 
distinguished by the small size of the occipital scales, which 
in O. aporos are as large as those of the body. 


RHINOGOBIUS LEFTWICHI sp. nov. 


D. vi, 10;. A..10.; P. 16: Sc. 30 to 32-10. _ Depths 
body 4:6, of caudal peduncle 8-85, length of head 3-5, of 
caudal fin 3-6 in length of body. Length of snout 2-95, 
diameter of eye 3°85, longest dorsal spine 1-5, length of anal 
1:25, of pectoral 1:15, of ventral 1-2 in length of head. 

Depth of head 1-5, width of head 1-45 in its length. 
Diameter of eye 1-3 in the length of the snout ; width of 
concave interorbital region less than one third of the dia- 
meter of the eye; cleft of mouth ne to below the 
posterior nostril. 

Third dorsal spine longest, rather less than the space 
between its base and the preopercle ; soft dorsal and anal 
fins but little lower than the spinous dorsal. Anal origi- 
nating below the 8rd dorsal ray and conterminous with 
the soft dorsal. Base of pectoral 2-6 in its length. Ventral 
not reaching to the vent. 

Pale yellowish brown, all the scales, except those 
along the ventral profile, edged with dark brown; in half 
grown examples there is a row of darker blotches along the 
middle of the sides, with sometimes a second row near the 
dorsal profile, the anterior spots often meeting across the 
nape. Upper surface of head and nape spotted and ver- 
miculated with brown; an indistinct violaceous band 
curves downward from the eye to the angle of the mouth, 
behind which are two parrallel bands, which extend upon 
the base of the pectoral; opercles dull purplish. Fins 
hyaline, closely powdered with dusky dots; dorsals with a 
basal row of dark spots; last two dorsal and anal rays 


BY J. DOUGLaS OGILBY. 95 


‘with alternate darker and lighter bars, sometimes absent 
in the anal; caudal with a dark basal band. (Named for 
Mr. R. W. Leftwich, Junr., of Maryborough, to whom I 
am indebted for many kindnesses). 

Described from 6 specimens in the A.F.A.Q. Museum, 
collected in Great Sandy Strait, and measuring from 58 
to 75 millimeters; Cat. No. 1132. 

This pretty little goby abounds in the pools left by 
the receding tide on the oyster banks in the Great Sandy 
Strait, and I have also seen specimens obtained in the 
vicinity of Woody Point, Moreton Bay. Along the edges of 
these pools when undisturbed they lie motionless, basking 
in the shallow water, but if alarmed by the approach of 
an enemy they dart away with great rapidity, and seek 
refuge in the deeper water below or within the bunches 
of oysters, adjusting their bodies with great nicety to the 
inequalities of the surface cn which they have found a 
haven. Here their colors assimilate so closely with their 
surroundings that it requires a keen eye to locate their 
position even though one may have been but a few feet 
from them when they scught concealment ; they ale very 
quick in their movements, and even with a hand net it is 
most difficult te catch them. I have never observed one 
of thess fishes to take refuge in a hole as is the usual habit 
ef Amblygobius gobioides, which is equally common on the 
oyster beds. The stomach of thes example dissected was 
packed with green weed regularly cus into lengths of about 
an inch, with which also was a shrimp-like crustacean of 
about the same size. 


AMBLYGOBIUS GOBIOIDES (Ogilby). 

D. vil3; A.12; P.16. Depth of body 6°25, of caudal 
peduncle 9, length of head 4, of caudal fin 3°8 in length 
of body. Diameter of eye 5°5, length of pectoral 1°3 in 
length of head. 

Depth of head 1°65, width of head 1°35 in its length. 
Diameter of eye 1:4 in the length of the snout; width of 
interorbital region less than half the eye-diameter ; cleft of 
mouth reaching to below the anterior border of the eye. 

Third dorsal spine longest about one fourth longer 
than the head, and as long as the distance between its 
base and the anterior border of the eye; second dorsal 
and anal fins low, their longest rays 2 in the 3rd spine. 


26 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


Anal originating below the 2nd dorsal ray and conterminous 
with the soft dorsal, its base one fifth more than the head. 
Base of pectoral 2°6 in its length. Ventral fin 1°25 in the 
pectoral, reaching midway to the anal, 

Purplish or reddish brown above, gradually fading 
into lilac below, the sides with from 40 to 50 alternate 
darker and lighter transverse bands, which in large examples 
are usually broken up into vertical bars. Upper surface 
and sides of head and nape with numerous round blackish 
spots. Fins vinous; anterior border of first dorsal white ; 
sometimes a dark marginal spot between the fourth and 
tfth spines and some oblique dusky streaks basally ; second 
dorsal with three series of darl: spots: caudal sometimes 
with a few scattered spots. When newly caught, the 
lateral transverse bars are brilliant blue and gold. (Gobi- 
oides: a genus of Gobies to which this species bears some 
resemblance in its strengthened dentition and the obliquity 
of its mouth.) 

Total length 120 millim. 

Type in the Macleay Museum, Sydney University. 

Kast Coast of Australia. I have seen and examined 
numerous specimens from Port Jackson, the Richmond 
River, various parts of Moreton Bay, and Great Sandy 
Strait, in all of which places it is abundant wherever suitable 
ground exists. It may therefore be safely predicted that 
its range, both southward and northward, extends well 
beyond the limits here given. 

This species is essentially a ‘mud goby.” In the 
Wide Bay District I had many admirable opportunities 
of observing its habits on the vast flats left bare by each 
recurring tide The fish either excavates for itself a burrow 
in the mud or takes possession of the deserted burrow of 
&@ worm or crab, and enlarges it to suit its own convenience.* 
The burrow is invariably provided with two openings, 
which may be at the bottom of a small pool, but as often 
a$ not open upon the bare mud. Here, if one approaches 
cautiously, the little creature may be seen iying—regardless 
of or perhaps enjoying the fierce rays of a semi-tropical 
Summer sun—close to the burrow, bent into the shape of 
a U with one of the sides shortened, its head turned to- 


* When digging these fishes out I have never found any other animab 
occupying the burrow along with them. 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. yr is 


wards the entrance, through which it disappears like a 
flash on any incautious movement of the spectator. If, 
however, perfect quiet be maintained the head will shortly 
be seen to emerge from the other entrance, intently scruti 
nizing its surroundings to ascertain whether the danger be 
past. When they take refuge at the bottom of their retreat 
it is not an easy matter to dig them out. 

Described from five specimens collected in Great 
Sandy Strait by myself and a much larger example obtained. 
at Woody Point by Mr. J. T. Jamison. 


Gobius cristatus Macleay, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Waies,. 
v, 1880, p. 610 (20 May, 1881): Port Jackson. 

Gobius yobioides Ogilby, Catal. Fish. N. S. Wakes, 1886, 
p. 35. Substitute for G. cristatus Macleay, pre- 
occupied—Stead, Eggs and Breed. Hab. Fish, 
1907, p. 60. 


SCORP ANID i. 
SCORPZNOPSIS PALMERI Sp. nov. 

D.-xii 10; A. iti 5; P. 17 (1+ 5 + 11): Se. 8-45 to: 
47-13*; L. lat. 22 or 23. Depth of body 3, of caudal 
peduncle 8-75, length of head 2-6, of caudal fin 4, of pectoral 
3°55, of ventral 4 in length of body. Length of snout 2°85, 
diameter of eye 4:5, width of interorbit 6:55, length of 
maxillary 1:9, of longest dorsal spine 271, of longest anal 1:8 
in length of head. 

Snout long, its upper profile strongly convex, the 
preocular groove deep; lateral interorbital ridge low, not 
ending in a spine; an anterior median ridge, bisecting 
the preocular groove ; lower jaw the longer, without sym- 
physial protuberance; maxillary extending to below the 
middle of the eye, the width of its distal extremity equal 
to or a trifle more than that of the interorbit. Nasal, 
preocular, postocular (2), exoccipital, nuchal (2), tympanic, 
and parietal (3) spines present. Preorbital with a strong 
median hooked spine, from which radiate four smooth 
ridges, only the lower anterior of which terminates in a 
spine; the posterior ridge is continuous with that of the 
suborbital, which is armed with three strong spines ; behind 
these, but separated from them by a groove, is a stout double 
preopercular spine, below which are four graduated ridges, 


* Above first anal spine. 


‘28 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


the two upper ending in more or less conspicuous spinous 
points ; opercle with two strong spines at the end of diver- 
gent ridges, the upper spine the longer. Occipital groove 
deep and transversely oblong, bordered anteriorly by a 
sharp ridge, which is highest externally. Two or three 
small cirri on the head of the maxillary and a much larger 
fringed one behind the anterior nostril ; supraorbital ridge 
sometimes with a small cirrus; a large fringed cirrus near 
the distal end of the preorbital and a series of six smaller 
ones round the chin, behind which are a still smaller pair 
on the median line; some well developed fringed cirri on 
the body, principally along the lateral line, which is without 
spinous plates anteriorly. Scales in fairly regular series ; 
fins naked. 

Length of soft portion of dorsal fin 1:9 in that of the 
spinous portion; first dorsal spine a trifle longer than the 
eleventh and 2°5 in the fourth, which is a little longer than 
the third or fifth; last spine 1°4 in the height of the soft 
dorsal, which is equal to that of the spinous. Second anal 
spine much stronger and longer than the third, as long as 
the anterior rays, and higher than the spinous dorsal. 
Caudal fin rounded. Pectoral extending to a little beyond 
the vertical from the vent, the width of its base 1°85 in the 
fifth anc longest ray. Ventral reaching to the vent, which 
is an eye-diameter in front of the anal fin. 

Gill-rakers 5 + 11, all but the pair at the angle tuber- 
cular. 

Pale brown blotched with blackish brown, the most 
pronounced markings being across the nape, between the 
middle of the spinous dorsal and the lateral line, and between 
the soft dorsal and the anal ; in addition to these the ground 
color is profusely freckled with darker; a small whitish 
spot at the base of the last dorsal ray and a second some- 
times at the root of the caudal; throat and abdomen ~ 
pearly white: head somewhat darker than the back and 
sides, the blotches, however, being replaced by dark brown 
spots, the lower surface dirty white, anteriorly freckled or 
stained with yellowish brown, the mental cirri and a few 
scattered spots darker brown; a vertical black bar between 
the eye and the suborbital ridge; a silvery spot on and 
behind the interorbital region present or absent. Spinous 
dorsal blackish, with an irregular suprabasal and infra- 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 29° 


marginal silvery or lilac band, the spines with alternating 
bars of dark brown and pearly white; soft dorsal lilac, 
profusely freckled with rufous, the base, an obliquely oval 
anterior spot, and the last rays blackish: anal fin gray, 
spotted and freckled with dark brown: anteriorly with 
two pairs of broad alternate white and brown bands: caudal 
lilac, with a dusky base and a broad submarginal black 
band, the marginal band also freckled with black : pectoral 
gray, with two broad dark cross bands on the upper half, 
the lower haif with ocellated violet dark-edged spots, the 
base fuscous spotted with lilac: outer half of ventrals 
with two black cross-bands or irregularly spotted and 


- lined with black; an oval blackish spot on the base anteriorly. 


Total anath 200 millim. 

Coast cf Southern Queensland intoreuon Bay). 

Described from two examples measuring respectively 
165 (type) and 202 millimeters. 

SCORPAINOPSIS MACROCHIR Sp. nov. 

D. xii 10; A.mi5; P.16(1+4-+11): Se. 6-41-14; 
Ll. 22. Depth of body 2°35, length of head 2°35, of caudal’ 
fin 4°15, of pectoral 2°7, of ventral 3°85 in length of body. 
Length of snout 3, diameter of eye 4°75, width of interorbit 
3°9, length of maxillary 1°9, Icngest dorsal spine 2°85, 
longest anal 2 in length of head. 

A deep naked pit below the anterior border of the 
eye; lateral interorbital ridge inconspicuous ; no median 
ridge; lower jaw the longer, without symphysial pro- 
tuberance ; maxillary extending to below the hinder border 
of the eye, the width of its distal extremity 1°5 in that of 
the interorbit. Nasal, preocular, supraocular(2, the posterior 
large with a serrated upper edge), postocular (2 small and 
erect), exoccipital, nuchal (2), tympanic, and parietal (4, 
the last 3 united by a sharp continuous ridge) spines present. 
Preorbital with a small median spinous point, from which. 
radiate three low ridges, one directed downward, one for- 
ward, and one backward, each terminating in a short stout 
spine ; suborbital ridge with 3 strong spines; preopercle 
with 4 spines, the upper strongest and double; opercle 


with 2 widely divergent ridges, each terminating in a smalk 


spine. Occipital groove deep and transversely oblong, 
bordered anteriorly by a low arcuate ridge. Head and body 
without cirri, except a pair of small ones anteriorly on the 


30 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


preopercle. Postocular region and upper half of opercle 
scaly ; body scales rather irregularly arranged ; fins naked, 
except the upper half of the base of the pectoral; lateral 
line without spinous plates anteriorly. 

Length of soft dorsal fin 2°6 in that of the spinous ; 
Ist dorsal spine 1°3 in the 11th, and 1°75 in the 4th, which 
scarcely exceeds the 3rd and 5th: last spine 1°25 in the 
height of the soft dorsal, which is less than that of the 
spinous. Second anal spine stronger and longer than the 
3rd, scarcely as long as the anterior rays, and two fifths 
higher than the spinous dorsal. Caudal fin rounded. 
Pectoral very large, extending to above the 2nd anal spine, 
the width of its base 2.25 in the 5th and longest ray. Ventral 
reaching to the vent, which is an eye-diameter in front of 
the anal fin. 

Gill-rakers 5 + 9, all but the last lower one tubercular. 

Head and body uniform brown, the abdominal region 
tinged with yellow. Dorsal fin rather lighter than the 
body, the soft portion with an anterior and posterior 
median dusky spot; caudal with a broad submarginal 
dark and a narrow marginal yellowish band, the basal half 
pale brown; soft rays of anal similar to the caudal, the 
spines with strongly contrasted alternate blackish and 
yellow bars; base and terminal border of the pectoral 
blackish, the intervening portion and the free tips of the 
rays yellowish; ventral blackish with a yellow tip, the 
spine similar to those of the anal. 

Described from a specimen, 124 millim. long, taken by 
Mr. James Palmer at Bulwer, and now in the A.F.A.Q. 
Museum; Cat. No. 1305. 


APISTUS BALNEARUM sp. nov. 
ATKINSON’S FORTESCUE. 

D. -xv. 95. A. UiL).6 of 75, P..11 + 12 Bese 
‘L.l. 25. Depth of body 3°35, length of head 2°4, of caudal 
fin 3, of pectoral 2°3, of ventral 2°85 in length of body. 
Length of snout 3°25, diameter of eye 5°5, width of inter- 
orbit 5°45, length of maxillary 2°5, longest dorsal spine 
2°65, longest anal 2°7, detached pectoral ray 2°55 in length 
of head. 

Posterior border of eye nearer to tip of snout than to 
end of opercular flap; masillary scarcely reaching to 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 831 


below anterior border of eye ; lower jaw broadly rounded, 
not fitting into the rostral notch; tip of mandible with a 
small barbel, from either side of the base of which rises a 
much shorter one directed outwards ; beyond these on each 
side is a much longer barbel, nearly as long as the eye- 
diameter. Interorbital region as wide as the eye-diameter, 
with a short median and two longer and higher lateral 
ridges in addition to the low supraciliary ridges ; occiput 
with a pair of high sharp arcuate ridges, approaching 
mesialiy, and terminating in a spine ; preorbital anteriorly 
with two blunt points, posteriorly with a sharp curved 
spine ; suborbital ridge well developed, smooth but divided 
into continuous sections, commencing above the base 
of the preorbital spine and terminating in front of that of 
the upper preopercular spine ; preopercle with a long sharp 
spine at the angle, and 3 others, which grow increasingly 
shorter and blunter, below; opercle with three low diver- 
gent ridges, the upper of which ends in a small spine at the 
base of the flap: parietal ridge smooth divided mesially. 
Head and breast naked; body-scales in regular series ; 
fins naked ; lateral line straight. 


Length of soft portion of dorsal fin 2°4 in that of the 
spinous ; Ist dorsal spine equal to or longer than the 14th, 
which is 1°35 in the 7th and longest; last spine 1:15 in the 
height of the soft rays, which exceed that of the spinous, 
and do not extend beyond the base of the caudal. Anal 
fin as high as the soft dorsal, the 1st spine much shorter 
than the 2nd, which almost equals the 3rd, and is 1-2 in 
the longest rays. Caudal fin rounded, the tips of the rays 
slightly protruding. Pectoral reaching to below the middle 
of the soft dorsal, the 2nd ray longest ; the 2 lower rays 
simple, the outer of these wholly detached, the inner sepa- 
rated from the branched rays by a broad membranous 
interspace. Ventrals extending to the base of the 3rd 
anal spine. 


When alive or newly captured these fishes are every- 
where black except the caudal and a marginal band of 
variable width on the soft dorsal and anal fins, which are 
pure white. Shortly after immersion in formalin solution 
the black commences to fade, and now, at the expiration 
of twelve months, the bodies have become pale olive green, 
only the upper surface and sides of.the head and the tubular 


32 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


scales of the lateral line retaining any semblance of the 


living colors. The basal portion of the dorsal and anal 
fins have alse faded like the body, but the outer portion, 
the caudal, the pectorals and the ventrals remain as before. 


LI am inclined to think that the white fin-markings. 


are a token of immaturity,* since in the largest of my speci- 
mens the marginal dorsal and anal bands are greatly re- 
duced in width, and the purity of the caudal fin is marred 
by black lines and spots, which are more closely segregated 
near the base and tip. 

Described from three examples, measuring from 36 
to 40 millim., obtained in the Metropolitan Baths, Bris- 
bane, during May, 1909, by Mr. Richard Atkinson, and 


kindly presented by him to the A.F.A.Q.; Cat. No. 1105-6.. 


EROSA FRATRUM Sp. nov. 
D. xiv. 7; A. m.-65 P. 16: LL 10. Depth ofhaas 
2°25, length of head 2°15, of caudal fin 4:2, predorsal length 
2°25 in length of body. Length of snout 3.2, diameter of 


eye 4:1, width of interorbit 2°25, length of maxillary 2°15,. 


last dorsal spine 3°2, last anal 4°75, length of pectoral 1°55, 
of ventral 2°15 in length of head. 


Head about as wide as deep. Upper profile of snout 


feebly complex and strongly declivous; diameter of eye 


1°25 in the snout and 1°8 in the interorbital region, which 
is flat ; maxillary extending to a little beyond the anterior 
border of the eye, the width of its distal extremity 2°7 in 
that of the interorbit. Bones of the head deeply pitted 


and ridged; preorbital with three blunt points on its. 


anterior border; supraorbitals wider forming the lateral 
margins of a deep fossa, which contains the distal extre- 


mities of the premaxillary processes: they are united 


opposite the hinder half of the eyes by a much 
narrower bony bridge, which separates the frontal fossa 
from the occipital pit, which is bordered behind by a similar 
but lower ridge; parietal armature ending in 3 strong 
blunt processes, the middle much the largest ; suberbital 
and preopercular regicns very rough, the former with a 


conspicuous hump, behind which the bony area is greatly 


*As is the case with Huelatichthys niger (Mertens)—Diagramma 


crassispinum Riipp.—D. affine Gthr., in which the caudal fin remains pure- 


white until the fish has attained a length of at least six inches. 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 88 


expanded and fan-like; preopercular border with two 
series of blunt spines, the inner 3 the outer 5 in number ; 
a similar spine behind the angle of the mouth; opercle 
with 2 high smooth edges, which do net terminate in spines ; 
frontal and occipital pits, cheeks, a small temporal patch, 
and the upper angle of the opercle covered with smooth 
naked skin. Upper part of body with a few smali papille. 
Length of soft portion of dorsal fin 2°25 in that of the 
spinous ; Ist dorsal spine lower than the 4 succeeding and equal 
to the middle spines, beyond which they again increase 
gradually in height to the last spine, which is the longest 
and 1-2 in the 5th ray, which extends when depressed 
well beyond the base of the caudal. Third anal spine 
longest, 1.5 in the middle rays, which just reach the caudal ; 
the membrane of the last dorsal ray extends to the caudal, 
that of the anal not so far. Caudal small and rounded ; 
depth of caudal peduncle equal to the eye-diameter. _Pec- 
toral fin wide, its basal width 1:4 in its length; 5th ray 
longest, reaching to the vertical from the vent, the lower 
rays unbranched. Middle ventral rays equal and longest, 
extending rather more than midway to the anal. 


Uniform dark brown above, pale brown below. Upper 
surface and sides of head with some scattered pearly spots. 
Spinous dorsal pale brown with one or two lighter blotches ; 
soft dorsal dark brown with an oblique lighter band directed 
downwards on its anterior half; anal and caudal yellowish 
brown with black cross-bars, which frequently branch and 
cross one another so as to form a lattice-work pattern, the 
latter also with a dusky base; pectoral with the basal 
half pale lavender, beyond which superiorly is a blackish 
blotch, its distal half golden crossed by three narrow black 
bars, the last of which is marginal; inferiorly the two 
inner bars anastomose like those of the caudal.* (Named 
for the Brothers Crouch, to whom I am indebted for this 
unique specimen.) 

Described from a Moreton Bay example, 120 millim. 
in length, in the A.F.A.Q. Museum; Cat, No. 4. 


*In life the upper surface is rufous brown, shading into pink below. 


C—Royau Soctery. 


34 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


DACTYLOPTERID~. 
EBISINUS PROCNE sp. nov. 

D.. 43, wy St CAS 6: (OC 67-3 “Piss eee 
V. 5; Sc. 49-28. Depth of body 4:85, width of body 
4:35, length of head 3-8, of nuchal spine 2°65, of pectoral 
fin 1:15 in length of body. Width of head 1°85, length of 
snout 2°75, diameter of eye 3:2, width of interorhit 2, length 
of maxillary 2°5, of preopercular spine 2 (ad.) to 1°35 (juz.),* 
longest dorsal spine 1:4, middle caudal rays 1:3, length of 
peduncle 1°25, of ventral fin 1:15 in length of head. 

Depth of head 1:3 in its width. Snout subvertical 
and convex, one sixth longer than the eye-diameter ; depth 
of interorbital region 4:85 in its width; maxillary extending 
to below the anterior border of the pupil. Preopercular 
spine reaching to above the base of the ventrals in the 
adult, considerably further in the young. Humeral pro- 
cesses produced to or nearly to the level of the spinous 
dorsal, the distance between their apices 1:3 in the depth 
of the intervening notch, which is narrowly rounded an- 
teriorly. Lower edge of posterior part of body with three 
of the keeled scales enlarged and mobile, the first below 
the last dorsal rays, the others on the peduncle. Lateral 
line conspicuous, extending directly} backward to below 
the middle of the spinous dorsal, thence sweeping down- 
ward in a gentle curve to below the origin of the soft dorsal, 
and finally continuing to the base of the caudal below the 
8th series of scaly keels. 

Nuchal spine extending to a little behind the spinous 
dorsal; 2nd detached spine inserted midway between 
the nuchal spine and the 3rd ray of the spinous dorsal. 
to the base of which it reaches when depressed ; its length 
is 3-9 in the nuchal spine and 1:4 in the second and longest 
dorsal spine, which is subequal to the height of the soft 
dorsal. Anal originating below the 3rd ray of the soft 
dorsal and much nearer to the roct of the caudal than to 
the gill-opening. Caudal fin subtruncate with the outer 
rays produced. Width of peduncle immediately behind 
the dorsal fin 1-4 in its length. Pectoral fin reaching to 
the middle of the caudal, the tips of all the rays filamentous. 

*In an example 100 millim. long. 

+ According to the figure given by Jordan and Richardson (Proc. U.S. 


Nat. Mus., xxxiii, 1908, p. 665) the lateral line is strongly curved upward 
behind the humeral process in Ebisinus macracanthus. 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 35 


Upper surface pale violet with two broad darker cross 
bands descending on the sides to the ventral edge; these 
bands are much mere pronounced in the young, growing 
gradually fainter with advancing age and becoming in 
large examples merged in the darker tone of the ground 
color; back prettily blotched and lined with deeper violet 
and purple; under surface uniform pinkish white or fawn 
color. Upper surtace and sides of head pale yellowish 
brown spotted with violet ; preopercular spine sandy yellow. 
Free nuchal spine black; detached spine and Ist dorsal 
dusky ; 2nd dorsal and caudal hyaline, the rays with alter- 
nate dark and light bands; anal and ventrals like the 
lower surface, the former with a dark basal blotch between 
the 4th and 6th rays; pectorals violet, profusely spotted 
with purple, some of the terminal spots united to form 
transverse bars. (zpoxvy, a swallow.) 

Coast of Eastern Australia, not uncommon. 

Described from five specimens, 100 to 390 millim. 
long, taken in Moreton Bay ; type in the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; 
Cat. No. 248. - 

This species differs greatly from Hbisinus macracanthus,* 
from which it may always be distinguished by the want of 
the pectoral ocellus. 


SOLEID At. 
BRACHIRUS SALINARUM Sp. Nov. 


D. 66; A. 53: Sc. 84. Depth of body 2°90, length 
of head 5-00 in the length of the body. Length of snout 
3°00, diameter of eye 8:00, length of right pectoral 2°50 in 
the length of the body. 

Snout projecting well in front of the mouth; upper 
eye fully one half its diameter before the front of the lower ; 
width of interorbital region one sixth more than the dia- 
meter of the eye. Scales on both sides finely ctenoid; no 
enlarged nuchal scales; lips and under surfaces of snout 
and interopercle profusely papillose. 


—7 


* Jordan and Richardson (loc. cit.) wrongly name this species Ebisinus 
eheiropthalmus, the synonymy being as follows :— 
Dactylopterus macracanthus Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned. Ind., vii, 1854, p. 
449: Celebes. 
Dactylopterus cheirophthalmus Bleeker, ibid., p. 494, Banda. 
The month’s mentioned by those authors refer to the date of writing 
not of publication, and have, therefore, no scientific value. 


86 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


Left pectoral nearly as long as the right; ventrals. 
symmetrical, separate from the anal. 

The color is now bright green above and below, but 
there are a few small patches of dark violaceous gray on 
the eyed side, which may be the true color of the fish in its 
natural state: outer half of right pectoral black. 

Tctal length of type to base of caudal 123 millim. 

Salt pans at Kimberley, North Queensland. 

Type in the Queensland Muesum; two mutilated 
specimens. the caudals and ends of the dorsal and anal fins 
being broken off. 


BRACHIRUS BREVICEFS sp. nov. 


D. 72; A. 56: Sc. 75. Depth of bedy 3-00, length 
of head 5:50 in the length of the body. Length of snout 
3°50, diameter ot eye 7:00, length of last dorsal and anal 
rays 1:15, of caudal fin 1:00, of right pectoral 6-00 in the 
length of the head. 

Snout projecting well in front of the mouth; upper 
eye about one third of its diameter before the front of the 
lower ; width of interorbital region equal to the diameter 
of the eye. Scales on both sides ctenoid; no enlarged 
nuchal scales; lips smooth; a few minute hair-like cirri 
on the edges of the snout and chin. 

Last rays of dorsal and anal fins nearly reaching to 
the end of the caudal; caudal fin rounded; left pectoral 
1:25 in the right; right ventral well separated from the 
anal; left ventral atrophied. 

The specimen appears to have been cf a light reddish 
brown or fawn color, possibly with some lighter spots. 

Total length of type 157 millim. 

Coast of Queensland at Rockhampton. 

Type in the Queensland Museum; a single specimen. 
in bad condition. 


BRACHIRUS ASPILOS (Bleeker). 


D. 67; A. 52: Sc. 105... Depth of body 2°25, length: 
of head 4:80 in the length of the body. Length of snout 
3:00, diameter of eye 7-00, length of last dorsal and anal 
rays 1:60, of caudal fin 1:50, cf right pectoral 2°60 in the 
length of the head. 

Snout projecting well in front of the mouth; upper 
eye about one third of its diameter before the tront of the 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 37 


lower; width of interorbital region 1:30 in the diameter 
of the eye. Scales on the right side ctenoid, on the left 
side cycloid; no enlarged nuchal scales; many of the 
scales on the colored side with an elongate cutaneous ap- 
pendage, some of which may be longer than the eye; lips 
and entire lower surface of head profusely papillose. 

Last rays of the dorsal and anal fins nearly reaching 
to the end of the caudal; caudal fin broadly rounded ; 
left pectoral 1:60 in the right; ventrals asymmetrical, 
the left much the smaller, separate from the anal. 

Uniform blackish, ; dorsal, caudal, and anal fins nar- 
rowly, right ventral broadly tipped with yellow; right 
pectoral black. 

Total length 360 millim. 

Malay Archipelago, from Singapore eastward to 
North Australia. 

Described from a specimen measuring 230 millimeters, 
and taken at Croker Island, Northern Territory, by Mr. 
John Colclough, who presented it to the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; 
Cat. No. 1029. The body of this example is much muti- 
lated as if by repeated stabs of a knife or spear. 


Synaptura aspilos Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned. Ind., 
iii, 1852, p. 74: Singapore—id., Verh. Batav. 
Gen., xxiv, 1852, Pleuron., p. 29—Giinther, 
B. M. Catal. Fish., iv, 1862. p. 482. 
Synaptura marmorata Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned. Ind., 
v., 1853, p. 90: Solor—Ginther, ibid. 
Synaptura heterolepis Bleeker, Act. Soc. Sci. Ind. 
Neerl., i, 1856, Amboina, p. 65—Giinther, ibid. 
Brachirus heterolepis Bleeker, Atlas Ichth., vi, 18, p. 20, 
pl. eexxxvi, fig. 2 (juv.) and ccxxxvili (ad) : Timor ; 
Batchian; Ceram. . 
Notr.—Synaptura cinerea (De Vis) is identical with 
S. nigra Macleay. This species rarely shows a few. small 
cutaneous appendages on the back. 


CYNOGLOSSUS SINDENSIS Day. 

Cynoglossus sindensis Day, Fish, India, 1877, p. 434: 
Sind.—Jordan and Richardson, Bull. Bur. Fish., xxvii, 
1907, p. 281: Manila. 

le ee oe CO. 18 VL 4: Be. 9102.57) Da. tr. 7-9- 
24=50. Depth of body 3:75; length of head 4°65 in 


38 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


length of body. Length of snout 2°80, diameter of eye 
9:00. length of caudal fin 2-25 in length of head. 

Head as deep as long; cleft of mouth extending to 
below the hinder border of the lower eye, its angle midway 
between the tip of the snout and the margin of the opercle 
lips smooth ; rostral hook reaching well beyond the max- 
illary symphysis. Lower nostril tubular, situated close 
in front of the inferior border of the lower eye; upper 
nostril an open longitudinal slit between the eyes. Eyes 
equal, the upper about half a diameter in advance of the 
lower ; interocular region 1°75 in the eye-diameter. 


Seales of colored side ctenoid, those of the head and 
along the bases of the vertical fins more strongly so than 
elsewhere ; scales of blind side smooth; postocular scales 
not or scarcely smaller than those of the body. Two 
lateral lines on each side, the lower straight, along the 
middle of the body, forking in front of the caudal fin, along 
which both branches extend; the upper following the 
curvature of the back almost to the base of the caudal on 
the colored, not nearly so far on the blind side: both lines 
extend forward on the head nearly to the end of the snout, 
where they meet at a rounded angle, thence passing down- 
ward to the level of the mouth, where it bends inward and 
again divides, one branch being continued on to the rostral 
hook, the other curving abruptly upward and ceasing in 
front of the interorbital region: the two main lines are also 
united by a transverse line above the opercle, and a short 
distance beyond this branch a second subsidiary branch 
disconnects from the lower line and extends downward 
to the upper angle of the precpercle, from whence it bends 
abruptly backward to the border of the opercle, along the 
outer edge of which it passes to within a short distance of 
the ventral profile, where it recurves forward to the lower 
limb of the preopercle, and from thence, forming a rectangle, 
sweeps downward and forward to the lower lip. 

Dorsal fin originating on the snout in front of the 
upper eye. Caudal fin pointed. Ventral higher than 
long, not continuous with the anal. 

Blue-gray, shading into pale brown posteriorly ; oper- 
cular region darkest; edges of body above and below 
yellowish. Dorsal, anal, and ventral fins pale blue tipped 
with gray; caudal pale brown. 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 89 


Total length 210 millim. 

From the coast of Sind to the Philippines and Northern 
Australia. 

Described from a specimen, 195 millim. long, taken 
by Mr. John Colclough at Croker Island, Northern Terri- 
tory, and presented by him to the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; 
Cat. No. 994. 


Of the 46 species of Cynoglossus, the descriptions of 
which I have been able to consult,* six only are provided 
with a pair of lateral lines on each side. These are as fol- 
lows :—. 

a. Scales ctenoid on both sides. 


1. kaupit Bleeker, Act. Soc. Sci. Ind. Neerl., viii, 
1860, Sumatra 8, p. 73. 
aa. Scales ctenoid on the eyed, cycloid on the blind side. 


2. diplasios Jordan & Evermann, Proc. U. S. Nat. 
Mus., xxv, 1902, p. 367: Formosa—Interlinear 
scales 14. 


3. bilineatus Lacepede,t Hist. Nat. Poiss., iv., 1802, 
pp. 659 and 663: Indian Seas—Interlinear scales 
14 or 15. 


4. dispar Day, Fish. India, pt. 3, 1877, p. 434: 
Bombay—Interlinear scales 18 or 19. 


5. sindensis Day, ibid.: Sind—Interlinear scales 19 
or 20. 
aaa. Scales cycloid on both sides. 


6. dubius Day, Journ. Linn., Soc., xi., p. 525. 


* Eleven species are described in works not available tome. Of these 
& South African species has been named C. brachycephalus by Dr. Gilchrist, 
but this name, having been previously utilized by Bleeker for a Sumatran 
species, is inadmissible, and may appropriately be altered to C. gilchristi, 
after its discoverer. 


+ Lacépéde’s name was altered by Bleeker to quadrilineatus, presum- 
ably to avoid confusion with Plagusia bilineata, and his example has been 
followed by Giinther, Day, and others; this course, however, is not 
only unnecessary but absolutely subversive of the code of zoological 
nomenclature, since Lacépéde described the fish which is here called 
C. bilineatus as Achirus bilineatus, and, there being no other species of that 
name, his specific name passes unquestionably on to the Cynoglossus. 


40 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


PTEROPSARID&. 
CHILIAS* gen. nov. 

Body elongate and fusiform. Scales with longitu- 
dinal striae. Tubes of lateral line short and simple, occu- 
pying the basal half of the exposed surface of the scale. 
Herd depressed; cleft of mouth small; lips very thick 
and wide. Lower jaw without villiform teeth, with two 
strong hooked canines at the outer angle on either side. 
Eyes superior, close together. Dorsal fin continuous, with 
5 spines, the 4th longest : ventrals inserted below the base 
of the pectorals. Otherwise as in Parapercis. 

Coast of Southern Queensland. 

Type Percis stricticéps De Vis. 

The most notable characters in this proposed new genus 
are the depressed head, approximate orbits, and position 
of the ventrals. 

Up to the present time only three species of ptero- 
psarids have been captured in the seas of Queensland. but 
it can only be a matter of time before four other species 
are recorded; they are as follows :— 

1, PARAPERCIS NEBULOSA (Quoy and Gaimard), Voy. 
Uranie, Zoo]., 1824, p. 349 = Percis emeryana 
Richardson, 1842 = Percis coxii Ramsay. 1883 = 
P. concinna De Vis, 1884. Coasts of intertro- 
pical and juxtatropical Australia, ranging south- 
ward at least as far as Port Jackson. 

2. PARAPERCIS CYLINDRICA (Bloch), Ausl. Fisch., vi, 
1792, p. 42, pl. cexcix, fig. 1. China Seas to North- 
Eastern Queensland (Murray Island, ‘Torres 
Straits and Dunk Island),+ and Lord Howe Island. 

3. Parapercis hexophthalma (Ehrenberg) Cuvier and 
Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., iii, 1829, p. 271. 
Red Sea to the Louisiade Archipelago. 

4. Parapercis tetracanthat (Lacépéde), Poiss., iii, 1802, 


a xétAos, lip, with the affix las, ; in allusion to the abnormal develop- 
ment of the lips. 

7 Since writing the above, I have received a fine specimen from 
Moreton Bay. 

{The name is misleading since the species has, as is usual in the 
genus, 5 spines in the Ist dorsal fin; nevertheless Lacépéde’s failure to 
enumerate the spines correctly does not confer on any subsequent author, 
any more than on himself, authority to change the name; much less does 
it permit of the use of the same name for a distinct species. 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 4] 


pp. 473 and 488=Percis cancellata Cuvier and Valen- 
ciennes, ibid., p. 268. East Indian and Louisiade 
Archipelagos. 

5. Parapercis clathrata; nom. subst. for Percis tetra- 
canthus Lacépéde, ibid., iv. 1803, pp. 285 and 302 : 
inadmissible on account of the preceding species. 

6. Parapercis ocularis Waite, Mem. Austr. Mus., ii, 
1899, p. 109, pl. xxiv : Coast of New South Wales 
in from 30 to 84 fathoms. 

7. CHILIAS STRICTICEPS (De Vis), Proc. Linn. Soc., 
N.S. Wales, ix, 1884, p. 545. Southern Queens- 
Jand (Southport ; Peel Island and Bulwer, More- 
ton Bay). 


CHILIAS STRICTICEPS (De Vis). 

Diy 2s A1 teers 17: Sc. 6-62-13." Depth ‘of 
body 6-1, of caudal peduncle 11-4, Jength of head 3-4 in 
length of body. Length of snout 2-65, diameter of eye 5, 
width of interorbit 3, height of soft dorsal 2-35, of anal 
2-65, length of middle caudal rays 1-8, of pectoral fin 1-45 
in length of head. 

Snout broadly rounded, its upper profile flat ; upper 
lip very wide, more than half the eye-diameter ; maxillary 
not extending to the vertical from the eye; lower jaw 
bluntly pointed, much longer than the upper. Upper jaw 
with a broad band of villiform teeth and an outer series 
of strong conical teeth; a patch of conical teeth on the 
head of the vomer.’ Eye superior, well elevated above the 
surface of the head, its diameter rather more than the 
width of the preorbital; interorbital region flat. Pre- 
opercle entire; opercular spine small and sharp; tip of 
subopercle serrated. 

Spinous dorsal originating a little behind the base of 
the pectoral; 4th spine longest, as long as the eye; Ist 
spine minute; membrane of last spine fully attached to 
the lst ray; last ray not differentiated. Anal originating 
below the 5th dorsal ray. Caudal rounded, the upper rays 
slightly produced. Pectoral extending to above the origin 
of the anal. Ventral a little shorter than the pectoral ; 
4th ray longest, reaching to the anal. 

Lilac, clouded above with brown, so as to form about 
seven broad blotches indistinctly separated by lighter 
interspaces ; a lilaceous band bordered below by a dark 


42 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


brown bar and crossed at regular intervals by eight similar — 
bars from the base of the pectcral to the caudal ; lower half 
of the sides with nine vertical brown bands, as wide as the 
interspaces and gradually fading into the lemon yellow 
of the lower surface ; each of these bands is divided mesially 
by a narrow black bar, which is continued across the inter- 
spaces by dusky spots. Nape and upper surface of the 
head lilac spetted with brown; a violaceous bar from the 
middle of the eye, through the nostrils to the edge of the 
snout, which is spotted throughout with lilac ; middle of 
snout with five spots arranged like an arrowhead, the shaft 
being formed by two spots on the interorbital region; a 
vertical violet bar preceded by a triangular spot below 
the eye; lips with broad violet bars, those of the lower 
continued across the chin by a pair of large violet spots ; 
opercles brown-spotted ; subopercular and branchiostegal 
regions crossed by two wide violet bands; a series of six 
violet spots across the throat immediately behind the gill- 
Openings. Dorsal and anal fins hyaline; spinous dorsal 
with the base dark brown and with a few smoky brown 
spots on the membrane above ; soft dorsal with three smali 
black spots between each ray; anal with a much larger 
black basal spot similarly placed; base of caudal 
dark brown; rest of fin partly pale brown partly hyaline, 
black-spotted, the middle rays tipped with black ; pectorals 
and ventrals lilac, the former with a violaceous base (strictus 
constricted ; ceps, head). 

Type in the Queensland Museum. 

Length to 180 millim. 

Moreton Bay District, Queensland. 

Described from a fine example, captured off Peel 
Island by Mr. T. Welsby, and now in the collection of the 
A.F.A.Q. ; Cat. No. 870. 


Percis stricticeps, De Vis, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 
ix, 1884, p.. 545. 


BATRACHOIDID &. 


CoRYZICHTHYS GUTTULATUS sp. nov. 

D. iti, 20 or 21; A. 15 ‘or 16: ‘ Length’ of; headeaea, 

of caudal fin 4:5, of pectoral 5-2 in length of body. 

Diameter of eye 3-9, width of interorbit 7, length of ventral 
1-85 in length of head. 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 43 


Head as wide as long. Snout short 1-35, interorbital 
width 1-75 in the eye-diameter. Teeth as in C. diemensis, 
but without the enlarged ones on the vomer. Two opercular 
and two subopercular spines, the upper in each being 
much the larger. Skin of head and body, except the throat 
and abdomen, covered with more or less reticulated folds. 
Tentacles moderately developed, those surrounding the 
jaws simple or bifid in front, much longer and fringed 
behind, ; a series of broad simple or fringed tentacles round 
the edges of the opercular bones ; 3 well developed, usually 
fringed, supraciliary tentacles, the middle the largest ; 
a small fringed frontonasal tentacle ; 6 longitudinal series. 
of small tentacles on the occiput, extending backward 
to below the Ist dorsal; tentacles of the lateral lines very 
small or absent. 

Caudal and pectoral fins rounded; outer ventral ray 
scarcely longer than the pectoral. 

Brown above, more or less blotched with lighter 
posteriorly, the lighter parts profusely dotted; tail with 
two broad dark transverse bands more or less freckled 
with lighter ; lower surface light yellowish brown closely 
dappled with dark brown. Dorsal, anal, and caudal fins 
dark brown, variously streaked with lighter; pectorals 
brown with darker dots ; ventrals brown edged with lighter 
spots. 

Described from three Aru Island examples, 110 to 160 
millim. long, in the A.F.A.Q. Museum; Cat. No. 991. 


CALLIONYMID . 


CALLIONYMUS GROSSI sp. nov. 

D. iv, 9; A. 8; P..17. Depth of body 9-6, width ot 
body 5-5, length of head 4:5, of Ist dorsal spine 1:7, of 
caudal fin 2-66 to 3-5, of pectoral 4-25, of ventral 3:45 in 
length of body. Depth of head 2-2, width of head 1:15, 
diameter of eye 3, length of snout 2-6, of preopercular 
spine 2.5, of last dorsal ray 1:1, of last anal 1-5 in length 
of head. 

Body gently rounded above, its greatest depth below 
the anterior dorsal rays. Snout about as wide as deep, 
pointed, its depth 1:15 in it length; eyes close together 
directed upward, prominent, 1-2 in the snout, and 2°6 in 
the width of the head. Preopercular spine straight, the 


44 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


inner edge with 7 to 9 subequal antrorse serrlue,* the 
outer with a strong denvicle directed forward near its base. 
Occiput covered with smooth skin. Lateral line median 
and conspicuous. 

Origin of spinous dorsal somewhat nearer to soft dorsal 
than to tip of snout; spinous dorsal high, the first spine 
terminating in e filament, which extends to the last ray 
of the soft dorsal; the other spines not filamentous, the 
membrane of the last, which equeds the last ray, not quite 
reaching the soft dorsal, the base of which is somewhat 
Jonger than its distance from the tip of the snout; last 
ray longest, extending slightly beyond or not quite to the 
base of the caudal. Anal originating below the 2nd dorsal 
ray, its base less than its distance from the tip of the 
mandible ; last ray not nearly reaching so far back as that 
of the soft dorsal. Caudal peduncle distally fusiform, 
its least depth 1-3 in the eye-diameter. Pectoral inserted 
below the posterior half of the spinous dorsal, the middle 
rays longest, extending to below the 3rd or 4th dorsal 
ray. Ventral reaching beyond or not quite to the origin 
of the anal. 

Gill-openings superior, opposite to the origin of the 
dorsal, further apart than the outer borders of the eyes, 
and midway between the eye and the pectoral fin. 


Golden brown above, dull yellow below, the throat 
and ventral region silvery ; back end sides above the lateral 
line with numerous lilac annuli about as large as the gill- 
opening, and often crowded together so as to form clusters 
of considerable size; some of the annuli have a blackish 
central dot; a broad dusky band across the peduncle ; 
an irregular series of dark brown spots along the middle 
of the side just below the lateral line. Upper eyelids and 
occiput blackish. Spinous dorsal violet, with oblique 
wavy lilac dark-edged cross-bands, the anterior spine and 
its filament blackish ; soft dorsal and anal yellowish gray, 
the former with three series of oblong violet spots, the 
membrane of the last ray of the latter clouded; upper 


* The armature of the preopercular spine is so imperceptibly graduated 
between a single strong recurved spinule and fine serrule that I cannot see 
my way, in the absence of additional characters, to admit Calliurichthys 
Jordan & Fowler (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xxv, 1903, p. 941) as_a valid genus 
or even a well marked subgenus. 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 45 


portion of caudal yellow spotted with brown, lower portion 
violet with a paler margin; pectorals dull yellow, 
immaculate ; ventrals yellowish, the ground color almost 
wholly obscured by violet dots, emong which are scattered 
numerous white dark-edged ocelli, and, near the tip, a few 
blackish spots. A second specimen (? 9) differs in being 
of a general darker coloration above, the clear golden brown 
being replaced by violaceous brown, which color extends 
further down the sides, somewhat obscuring the lateral 
series of spots and terminating inferiorly in 12 or 13 short 
blunt processes, which encroach upon the pure white of 
the under parts. The fins correspond in general pattern 
with those of the larger example, but the cross-bands on 
the spinous dorsal are indistinct, and the pectorals are gray, 
their rays alternately banded with gray and lilac. (Named 
for my friend and colleague, the late Major George Gross, 
one of the leading conchologists of Queensland.) 

Described from two Moreton Bay specimens,. measuring 
respectively 128 and 112 millim., in the collection of the 
A.F.A.Q. ; Cat. No. 958. 


CALLIONYMID i. 
DACTYLOPUS, Gill. 

Body subcylindrical. Lateral line single, superior, 
straight. Head triangular, not depressed, the ~ snout 
moderate and anteriorly declivous. Mouth small and 
subinferior ; upper jaw the longer; lower lip expanded 
to form a small lobe on each side. Teeth long, slender,. 
and slightly recurved anteriorly, shorter, stouter and 
hooked laterally. Eyes well separated, superolateral. 
Preopercular spine well developed, strongly armed above 
and below. Spinous dorsal originating well in advance 
of the gill-opening, the last spine without membrane ; soft 
dorsal high, all the rays except the first branched ; caudal 
fin graduated above, rounded below ; pectoral fin angular, 
with 18 rays, the two outer above and below simple : ventral 
much longer than the pectoral, with i 1+4 rays, the last * 
the longest, the spine and the outer ray free. Branchial. 
foramen moderate, lateral. 

From the Molucca Seas to the East Coast of Australia.. 
Monotypic. 

There is a remarkable resemblance in some of the 
generic characters between Dactylopus and the rare Japanese: 


46 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


Callionymus altivelis Schlegel. In both the branchial 
foramen is lateral and below the first dorsal, the last dorsal 
spine is unattached by membrane to the back, and the soft 
dorsal is very high and has all the rays except the first 
branched. Dactylopws, however, differs materially in the 
increased armature of the preopercular spine and in the 
presence of a free ventral ray. 


Dactylopus Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1859, p. 130 

(bennetti =dactylopus). 

Vulsus Giinther, B.M. Catal. Fish., ii, 1861, p. 15 (dac- 
tylopus). 

DACTYLOPUS DACTYLOPUS (Cuvier & Valenciennes). 

D. iv,—8; A. 7; P. 18. Depth of body 6°20; wadth 
of body 4:50, length of head 3-50, of first dorsal spine 1-15 
to 1:50, of caudal fin 2-15 to 2-60, of ventral 2-00 to 2-50 
in length of body. Depth of head 1-70, width of head 
1:15, diameter of eye 3-60, interorbital width 8-85, length 
of snout 2-90, of preopercular spine 3-30, of last dorsal 
ray 1-05, of last anal ray 1-20 in length of head. 

Body rounded above, its greatest depth below the 
anterior dorsal rays. Snout as wide as deep, obtusely 
pointed, its depth 1-25 in its length. Eyes separated by a deep 
concavity, the supraorbital ridges high and sharp, extending 
forward on the snout, the diameter 1-30 in the snout and 
3:00 in the width of the head. Maxillary extending to 
below the anterior border of the eye. Preopercular spine 
strong and acute, its distal extremity slightly curved 
inward; outer border with four graduated barbs, the 
anterior median, very strong, and directed forward, the 
posterior reduced to a mere tubercle rising from the base 
of the curve; inner border with three curved subequal 
antrorse barbs. Occiput with a pair of raised bony bucklers, 
covered with reticulated sculpture, and separated by a 
smooth fossa, which is a continuation of the interorbital 
groove. Gill-openings lateral, opposite the middle of the 
spinous dorsal, as far apart as the head in front cf the hinder 
margin of the eye, and about twice as far from the eye as 
from the pectoral fin. Lateral line well defined in front, 
less so behind, terminating well above the middle of the 
base of the caudal. 

Origin of spinous dorsal a little nearer to the soft 
dorsal than to the tip of the snout; spinous dorsal high, 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 47 


the three anterior spines terminating in long slender filaments, 
which extend backward to well beyond the base of the 
caudal (¢) or to the peduncle (Q); last spine without 
membrane, much shorter than the rays ; interdorsal space 
as long as the spinous dorsal: soft dorsal high, the rays 
but little graduated to the last, which reaches to or slightly 
beyond the base of the caudal; base of soft dorsal equal 
to its distance from the anterior border of the eye. Anal 
originating below the membrane of the third dorsal ray, 
similar to and nearly as high as the second dorsal, its base 
about half its distance from the tip of the mandible, its ias¢ 
tay reaching as far back as that of the soft dorsal. Caudal 
fin with rounded tip ; caudal peduncle distally compressed, 
its least depth equaling the eye. Pectoral fin inserted 
below the end of the spinous dorsal, the middle rays the 
longest, extending to below the fourth dorsal ray. Free 
ventral ray as long as the head without the snout, much 
longer than the succeeding ray ; continuous rays graduated, 
the last very large, reaching beyond the pectoral, its mem- 
brane attached superiorly to the base of the eighth pectoral 
ray. 

Olive-or violet-brown above, with six large blackish 
blotches across the back, the interspaces with darker 
freckles and sometimes with blue black-edged ocelli of 
variable size; sides with a similar number of somewhat 
stellate blotches, more or less corresponding to the spaces 
between the dorsal blotches, the interspaces chestnut or 
violet, with or without golden or pearly spots and reticu- 
lated lines ; lower surface white, faintly tinged with bluish ; 
under surface of head pale brown. Iris silvery, with an 
inner golden rim. Spinous dorsal and its filaments blackish, 
the membrane of the second ray with numerous small 
pearly spots on its outer half, that of the third with a wide 
lighter marginal band; second dorsal lilac, the ground 
color well nigh obliterated by crowded oblique purplish 
bars: base of anal rufous brown, deepening to purple at 
the margin: caudal fin golden, the rays brown, speckled 
with pale blue ; posterior margin with wavy blue transverse 
streaks, the rest of the fin except the two lower rays which 
are smoky brown, with elongate blue lines, which are oblique 
above and horizontal below ; pectorals hyaline, the basal 
half of the upper and middle rays with alternate lilac and 


48 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


rufous rings ; free ventral ray with alternating rings of gold 
and purple, the united rays blackish or dark olive-green, 
with one or two large pearly basal spots. 

In the female the membrane of the spinous dorsal is 
golden brown, with darker marblings and irregular light 
blue spots and short bands ; basal two thirds cf soft dorsal 
with elongate dark brown blue-edged spots between the 
rays, the marginal third more faintly banded but profusely 
freckled with blue: inner third ot anal golden brown with 
elongate pearly spots, the rest of the fin smoky, with dark 
blue black-edged spots and lines. 

Total length 156 millim. 

From the Molucca Seas to South-Eastern Queensland 
(Stradbroke Island and Wynnum). 

Described from a fine Moreton Bay example in the 
A.F.A.Q. Museum; Cat. No. 684. 


Callionymus dactylopus (Bennett) Cuvier and Valenciennes, 
Hist. Nat. Poiss., xii, 1837, p. 310—Bleeker, Nat. 
Tijds. Ned. Ind., iii, 1852, p. 559: Amboina. 

Dactylopus bennetti Gill, Proc. Acad, Nat. Sci. Phila., 1859, 
p. 130. Name only. 

Vulsus dactylopus Giinther, B.M. Catal. Fish., ii, 1861, 
p- 152: Amboina ; Celebes. 

Dactylopus dactylopus Ogilby, Ann. Queensl. Mus., No. 9, 
1908, p. 38: Moreton Bay. 

Note.—Callionymus achates De Vis (Proc. Linn. Soc. 
N.S. Wales), is founded on a female cf C. calawropomus. 

BLENNIID &. 
PETROSKIRTES FURTIVUS (De Vis). 

D. xii; 21 or 22> Ava'23t0'25;. C. 13; P. daea eee 
Depth of body 5-6, length of head 5, of anal fin 2, of middle 
caudal rays 5-75, of pectoral fin 5-1, of ventral 5-1 in 
length of body. Length of snout 3-75, diameter of eye 3-85, 
width of interorbit 9-5, longest dorsal ray 1-35, longest anal 
1-85, depth of peduncle 2-3 in length of head. 

Head obtusely rounded in front, its width 1-5, its. 
depth 1-15 in its length; snout short and blunt; upper 
jaw the longer ; interorbital region convex ; cleft of mouth 
extending to below the anterior border of the eye. 
24. C: 


34? a upper canine strongly hooked, 


Dentition—l. 5 i 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 49 


about half tne length of the lower. Lateral line consisting 
of 2 short tubes. 
Dorsal fin originating slightly in advance of the gill- 
opening, the rays gradually increasing in length to the 
middle of the soft portion, the longest articulated ray 
1-25 time the height of the last spinous ray ; membrane 
of last ray reaching to the base of the caudal fin. Anal 
originating below the 11th dorsal spine. Caudal fin rounded, 
the 3rd to 5th and 9th to 11th rays in the male terminating 
in a filament. Pectoral fin rounded, the 8th and 9th rays 
longest, not reaching to the vertical from the vent. 
Ventral fin long, the inner ray as long as the pectoral. 

Gill-opening directed forward from above the base 
of the pectoral, its width 5 in the head. Vertebre 11+ 
31 =42. 

Yellow closely powdered with dusky dots; a broad 
dark blue band from the eye to the gill-opening, continued 
along the middle of the body as a much paler and rather 
ill defined band, which becomes forked below the middle 
of the soft dorsal, the lower branch being usually broken 
up into a series of spots, and both being continued well 
on to the caudal fin; behind the pectoral fin the lateral 
band throws off 6 or 7 conspicuously darker offshoots, 
which are directed downward and slightly backward ; 
a row of blue spots along the base of the dorsal fin; 
abdominal region sometimes crossed by a few narrow 
dark lines. Head pale olivaceous brown, the cheeks with 
2 or 3 darker vertical bars ; lower portion of the opercular, 
the branchiostegal, and the jugular regions closely spotted 
with blue. Teeth tipped with tawny yellow. Dorsal fin 
violet, the spinous portion the darker and with two series 
of pale spots, the soft portion with several narrow dark 
lines commencing at the base and running obliquely back- 
ward; free tips -of soft dorsal and anal rays white; an 
oblong blackish inframarginal spot on the 4 middle rays 
of the soft dorsal in the adult; anal lilac; pectoral and 
ventral pale yellow, the former with a few small round spots 
on or near the base. 

Female.*—Differs in having the lateral band more 


*The female bears a remarkable resemblance to the Japanese 
Petroskirtes elegans as figured by Jordan and Snyder (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 
xyv, 1903, p. 454, fig. 6). 

D—Royat Socirery. 


50 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


indistinct and ceasing altogether before the middle of the 
tail, the posterior half of which is adorned with numerous 
small blue spots ; the dark band behind the eye is usually 
broken up in two oval or lunate spots; all the fins are 
uniform gray except the spinous dorsal, which has a basal 
series of dusky spots. 

This pretty little blenny is an inhabitant of the East 
Coast of Australia from Port Jackson to the Wide Bay 
District, beyond which points it has not yet been traced 
though it doubtless occurs. It is exceedingly abundant 
on all the rocky sections of the foreshores and islands of 
Moreton Bay, where it is one of the most common objects 
of the rock-pool fauna. In the Great Sandy Strait I found 
it scarce, the environment probably being unsuitable to its 
habits. 

Described from 10 specimens, 45 to 85 millim. long, 
in the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; Cat. Nos. 71 and 1145. 


Petroscirtes fasciolatus Macleay, Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S. 
Wales, vi, 1881, p. 8: Port Jackson (male). Not 
Omobranchus  fasciolatus Ehrenberg = Blennechis 
fasciolatus Valenciennes, 1836. 

Salarias furtivus De Vis,* Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 
iv, 1884, p. 697 : St. Helena, Moreton Bay. 

Petrdscirtes macleayt Ogilby, Catal. Fish. N.S. Wales, p. 38, 
1886. Substitute for P. fasciolatus Macleay preoccupied. 


PETROSKIRTES JAPONICUS Bleeker. 


D. xii 22; A.1223° C293; P: 13; V. 2. Depth of fags 
6-25, length of head 5-35, of anal fin 2-1, of caudal 6-2, of 
pectoral 5:4 in length of body. Length of snout 3, 
diameter of eye 4-25, width of interorbit 9-25, longest 
dorsal ray 1-45, of ventral 9-35, longest anal 2-05, depth 
of peduncle 2-15 in length of head. 

Head rounded in front, its width 1-5, its depth 1-25 
in its length; no nasal nor orbital tentacles ; male with a 
low cutaneous occipital crest; cheeks swollen. Snout 
short and blunt ; upper jaw the longer ; beth lips posteriorly 
with pendent flaps ; eye small ; interorbital region convex , 


*The author cannot, without demur, admit the accuracy of some of 
Mr. De Vis’ earlier deseriptions, and finds himself compelled to class most 
of the species of Salarias described by Mr. De Vis, as belonging to the 
genus Petroskirtes. 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 51 


cleft of mouth extending to below the anterior border of 


ae 28 to 36* 2 ; 
the eye. Dentition—l. Va C. 5) lower canines 


much the longer. Lateral line incomplete, consisting of 
about 6 tubes, and ceasing nearly above the tip of the 
appressed pectoral. 

Dorsal fin originating above the base of the pectoral, 
the rays increasing in length to the 38rd, beyond which 
they are subequal,; longest articulated rays behind the 
middle of the soft fin and 1-5 time the height of the last 
spinous ray : membrane of last dorsal ray extending slightly 
beyond the base of the caudal. Anal fin originating below 
the 2nd dorsal ray. Caudal fin rounded. Pectoral 
rounded, the 8th ray longest, not nearly reaching to the 
vertical from the vent. Ventral short, the inner ray 
slightly the longer. 

Gill-opening in front of and above the base ot the 
pectoral, its width 5-5 in the head. Vertebre 1] +29—40. 

Olive-green, darkest anteriorly, the lower surface 
tinged with yellow; trunk with 3 to 5 horizontal bars, 
which disappear above the vent; the upper, however, 
is continued as a series of distant spots to below the middle 
of the soft dorsal, and along the middle of the tail there 
is a series of spots or vertical bars extending to the caudal 
fin. Head with 3 faint vertical bands, which meet across 
the under surface, where they show distinctly on the lighter 
ground. Fins violaceous, the tips of the anal rays white. 

This blenny has been recorded from the coasts of 
Eastern Australia and Southern Japan, and attains a length 
of 110 millim. The remarks under the preceding species 
apply with equal force to this, which is not, however, so 
numerous. I obtained one specimen only in Great Sandy 
Strait, and one, an exceptionally fine example, at Woody 
Point, Moreton Bay. 

Described from 6 specimens measuring from 62 to 110 
millim., among these being Mr. De Vis.’ types. Cat. Nos. 
in A.F.A.Q., 907 and 1123. 


Petroskirtes japonicus Bleeker, Versl. en Med. Kon. Akad. 
Wetens., iii, 1869, p. 246, c. fig. : Jedo Bay, 8.E. Japan. 


* The incisors increase in number with the age of the fish; Jordan 
and Snyder give “‘ 26 to 28” as the formula of P. dasson, Bleeker ‘ 36 to 
40” as that of P. japonicus. 


52 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


Salarias helene De Vis, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, ix, 
1884, p. 697: St. Helena, Moreton Bay. 

Aspidontus dasson Jordan and Snyder, Proc. U.S. Nat- 
Mus., xxv, 1903, p. 456, fig. 8: Wakanoura and Shima, 
S. Japan. 

Aspidontus japonicus idd., ibid., p. 458. 


PETROSKIRTES ANOLIUS (Cuvier and Valenciennes). 


Dexa Uyoe 18": A. i 20 or 21; Cal’; Pas 
Depth of body 4:85, length of head 4:66, longest dorsal 
ray 2-8, length of anal fin 1-9, of caudal 4-65, of pectoral 
4-6, of ventral 4:5 in length of body. Length of snout 
3°75, diameter of eye 4, width of interorbit 8, longest anal 
ray 2, depth of peduncle 2-65 in length of head. 

Head subvertical in front, its width 2, its depth 
(without crest) 1-20 in its length;°no nasal nor orbital 
tentacles; an elevated rounded cutaneous crest extends. 
from before the upper border of the eye nearly to the 
dorsal fin, its height equal to the eye-diameter ; cheeks. 
not swollen. Snout short and somewhat pointed; jaws 
subequal ; lower lip posteriorly lobate ; eyes small ; inter- 
orbital region convex; cleft of mouth extending to below 
the posterior border of the eye. Dentition—l. 34; C. 3; 
lower canines much the larger. Lateral line curved upward 
anteriorly, consisting of from 8 to 10 tubes, and ceasing 
below or before the last spinous dorsal ray. 

Dorsal fin originating a little in advance of the base 
of the pectoral, the spinous rays subequal in length, the 
soft gradually increasing in length to the 6th; 7th to 13th 
rays preduced and filamentous, about 4 times as long as 
the last spinous ray ; membrane of last ray scarcely extend- 
ing to the base of the caudal. Anal fin originating below 
the 11th dorsal spine. Caudal rounded. Pectoral rounded, 
the 9th ray longest. Ventral well developed, the inner 
ray the longer. 

Gill-opening in front of and above the base of the 
pectoral, its width about 6 in the head. 


* In his description of F. wilsoni Macleay gives the dorsal fin formula 
as ‘© 26” (i.e. xii, 14); of the score or so of specimens which I have examined 
from different localities none showed a greater variation than that given 
above; it would therefore be well for one of my Sydney co-workers to. 
yecount the dorsal rays in the type. 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 53 


Head and body chestnut brown or olive-green, the 
latter with numerous indistinct darker angulated transverse 
bars, which cease below the middle of the soft dorsal ; rest 
of tail with 3 darker longitudinal bars and some scattered 
black spots. Head sometimes with one or two vertical 
silvery streaks and a dusky cheek-spot. Dorsal fin brownish 
olive, darkest anteriorly, the spinous portion with 3 or 4 
oblique darker bars, the soft immaculate ; anal fin orange 
brown, each ray with a basal, median, and terminal sky- 
blue spot; caudal orange; pectoral greenish olive with 
a large round dusky spot on its muscular base; ventrals 
sky-blue. After immersion in formalin solution for some 
time these fishes become uniform blackish brown. 
(Anolius ; a genus of American lizards, the head of which 
suggests a resemblance*). 

The ‘‘ Crested Blenny” or ‘‘ Oyster Blenny,” as it 
may with propriety be called, is a resident of the coasts 
of New South Wales and Southern Queensland, and grows 
to a length of 70 millim. 

The life history of this little creature, so far as it has 
been determined, is both curious and interesting. Appar- 
ently they mate at a very early age, since in no other way 
can we account for their presence in places which it is 
impossible for them either to enter or leave in their adult 
state. Having paired, the young couple immediately 
proceed to the choice of a residence ; this almost invariably 
takes the form of a dead oyster-shell, between the valves 
of which they are able at this stage easily to insert their 
slim and delicate bodies. In the safe seclusion of this 
retreat they live out their peaceful lives, undisturbed by 
the strenuous and ceaseless war of Nature, which rages 
ever around and above them. Here they are dependent 
for food upon such small animals as may find their way 
between the valves of their prison and such flotsam as the 
tide may drift therein. Here too they breed, the female 
attaching her eggs by means of some glutinous substance 
to the upper wall of the shell, and it is remarkable that in 
all the cases which have come under my notice the ova 
were deposited not in a single mass but in scattered groups 
of some half-dozen eggs each; this arrangement may 


*<T] reléve sa petite téte comme ses petits sauriens nommés anolis 
dans nos iles.”” (Cuvier & Valenciennes, loc. cit.). 


54 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES 


possibly be selected in order to ensure a freer play of water 
on each egg. The young, on their emergence from the ova 
are quickly driven out from the parents’ domicile to make 
their own way in the great world beyond. On one occasion 
only have I known of a specimen having been discovered 
otherwise than in an oyster-shell; this individual, which 
was in a greatly contorted condition, had when young 
insinuated itself into a rock-crevice so small that, as it 
increased in size, its body was compelled to adapt itself 
to the form of its cell, of which it was in fact an animated 
cast ; notwithstanding this disability the fish was in perfect 
condition, not seemingly having suffered any inconvenience 
from the distortion of its body. This little blenny has 
contracted a curious habit, possibly due to inherited instinct 
consequent on the restricted nature of its normal home 
environment ; when kept alive in a tumbler or even in a 
basin, it never willingly moves forward in the usual manner 
of its class, but invariably retrogrades, pushing itself 
backward by means of its pectoral and ventral fins. 

Described from 3 Moreton Bay and one Great Sandy 
Strait specimens, measuring from 52 to 70 millim., in the 
collection of the A.F.A.Q.; Cat. Noo. 871 and 1237. 
Blennechis anolius Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. 

Poiss:, xi, 1836, p. 288: Port Jackson. 
Petroscirtes anolis Giinther, B.M. Catal. Fish., ii, 1861, p. 

238. 
Petroscirtes cristiceps Macleay, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 

vi, 1881 : Port Jackson. 
Petroscirtes wilsoni id., ibid, ix, 1884, p. 171 : Port Jackson. 

Note.—The Giintherian genus Petroscirtes has very 
properly been broken up in sections by various authors, 
and with the object of facilitating the identification of 
species may with advantage be still further subdivided 
as follows :— 
a. Canine teeth in both jaws. 

6. Dorsal fin free cr just touching the caudal 
a ae i PETROSKIRTES* 
ec. Anterior dorsal rays produced (Petroskirtes). 
ci. Anterior dorsal rays not produced. 


* Petroskirtes Riippell, Atlas Fisch. Roth. Meer., 1828, p. 110 
(mitratus). 


BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 55 


d. Soft dorsal rays subequal; occiput smooth or 
nearly so (Aspidontus*). 

dt. Some of the soft dorsal rays filamentous ; 
occiput with an elevated crest (Cyneichthyst). 


61. Dorsal fin more or less continuous with the caudal 
ss or ii. ENCHELYURUS{ 
a1. Canine teeth in the lower jaw only ; mouth inferior 
| lil. MACRURRHYNCHUS§ 
a. No canine teeth. 
e. Mouth terminal se be RUNULA|| 
e1, Mouth inferior .. a .. RUNULOPST 


* Aspidontus Quoy & Gaimard 

+ Cyneichthys ; nom. nov. ; (anolius). Kvvén, a helmet ; ixOus, a fish. 

t Enchelyurus Peters, Mon. Akad. Berlin, 1868, p. 268 (davipes). 

§ Macrurrhynchus Ogilby, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S Wales, xxi, 1896, p. 
136 (maroubre). 

|| Runula Jordan. 

{| Runulops; nom. noyv.; founded on two Scuth American species 
described by Jenyns. 


Ries ane tix thus yu oH 


papts 


QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 
‘Some Problems of Queensland’s Botanogeography). 


By Dr. KAREL DOMIN 
(PRacuE, Ozecn University), 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 
April 9th, 1910. 


There are two stages in our knowledge of the flora 
of every country. First, of course, it is necessary to know 
the elements of the flora, to identify and classify all the 
plants and to ascertain their affinities. All these are found 
in a flora where in natural system (according to their affini- 
ties) all plants occurring in the country are mentioned, 
accompanied with descriptions and their localities, show- 
ing the geographical distribution. 

This first step, however, is not sufficient for a complete 
knowledge of the flora. There are hundreds of questions 
about the life of single plants and their surrounding cir- 
cumstances and conditions, which cause the plants to be 
found in special associations. The material worked, out 
in a flora makes a foundation for all these questions, which 
penetrate deeper into the study of plant-life, being a part 
of a science called Botanogeography or Phytogeography. 

Botanogeography deals with the adaptation of plants 
to different surrounding circumstances; it explains which 
are the plant-associations of the country, and it tries to 
find out all the reasons which cause the unequal distribu- 
tion of the different plant-associations. The geographical 
distribution of single plants is, of course, given in a flora, 
but without any explanation. 

These reasons mentioned above are partly due to cir- 
cumstances now existing, and partly they are the result 
of the historical development of the flora. Therefore, the 
botanogeography must deal not only with the climate, 


58 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 


soil, etc., of the country, but it must also study the evolution 
of the country and its flora during the past geological periods. 


A special part of botanogeography—so-called ecology— 
tries to explain the different adaptations of the plants 
according to the so-called ecological factors, 7.e., especially 
the soil and the climate (the influence of warmth, water, air). 

The flora of Australia (except in some Northern and 
Central parts) is in its rough outlines fairly well known, 
although there is an immense field for future botanists. 
But there is very little done in botanogeography, except 
a recent work by Dr. L. Diels, dealing with the botano- 
geography of extra-tropical Western Australia. In Queens- 
land however, until the present time, very little was known 
about the factors which cause the different plant-associa- 
tions of the State. We know the elements of the flora 
(and fairly well the geographical distribution of single 
plants), due in part to Bentham, the author of the “ Flora 
Australiensis,’’ who unfortunately never was in Australia, 
and was therefore unable to deal with the botanogeography 
of the country, although his flora—considering all circum- 
stances—is wonderful; further due to the numerous works 
of Baron Ferd. von Mueller, and of F. M. Bailey, who devoted 
his whole life to the study of Queensland’s flora, and also 
due to some other authors, who published valuable special 
papers and works, as J. Shirley (the Lichen-flora of Queens- 
land), Brotherus and K. Mueller (Mosses), Cooke (Fungi), etc. 

Knowing all these circumstances, | made a plan for 
a visit to Queensland, intending to study the botanogeogra- 
phy of the State, as there is no other part of Australia 
which would be so interesting from the botanical standpoint, 
and which offers simultaneously marvellous prospects for agri- 
cultural development, combining the possibilities of tropical 
agriculture in the North and especially in the coastal region, 
and of growing different plants of temperate region in 
Southern parts. Besides these there is a large area with 
splendid timbers; many of them are used at the present 
time, but still more of them are wasted in a manner, which 
is understood by everybody familiar with the conditions 
of this wonderful virgin country, but which nobody from 
Europe can understand. 

But let me begin with a short description of the chiei 
plant-associations in Queensland. I cannot afiord to speak 


BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 59 


in detail, but the result of my studies in different districts 
of the State will be found in a book, which I hope to publish 
soon after my return to Bohemia. 

The most favourable conditions occur in the so-called 
vine scrubs. They are found in those portions where there 
is sufficient moisture in the soil and sufficient rainfall. 
In the North of Queensland, and especially in the coastal 
region, the conditions for vine-scrubs are much more fav- 
ourable than in other parts of Queensland, and they extend 
over larger areas on different soils. They prefer, of course, 
always a rich, deep soil, especially alluvial and _ basaltic, 
but in those portions where the rainfall reaches a very high 
range, we find them often on a very poor, almost innutri- 
tious soil, as on Bellenden Ker or Bartle Frere, on a poor 
granitic soil. 

Where the conditions are less suitable, the vine-scrubs 
are restricted, to narrow belts along the creeks and rivers. 
These so-called “‘ gallery vine-scrubs” are often found far 
in the dry open-forest country, which is usually unable to 
bear this plant-association, requiring better soil and especi- 
ally much more moisture, both in the soil and in the air. 

In the Southern part of Queensland the vine-scrubs 
are usually only on good nutritious soil or near watercourses. 
The largest area of vine-scrubs is found in the Gympie 
district (Eumundi, Yandina, etc.), but they are besides 
this nearly everywhere on the basaltic mountains as far as 
the Macpherson Range, the border of New South Wales. 
Here we usually find that the distribution of vine-scrubs 
coincides with the distribution of basalt. Sometimes the 
scrubs extend from the basaltic plateaux along the creeks 
down into the open forest country. In some places, where 
the basaltic strata are too thin or the moisture insufficient, 
we find forest instead of scrub. On the rich alluvial soil 
along the creeks and rivers are also often narrow belts of 
vine-scrubs. But most of them (at least in Southern Queens- 
land) have disappeared, as they occupied the best agricul- 
tural country, and have been cut down. 

In the far North of Queensland (as Cape York Fenin- 
sula), there are no vine-scrubs extending over big areas, 
but notwithstanding there are along the creeks and rivers 
spiendid vine-scrubs, some of them very little known, 
but possessing a rich beautiful flora with many relations to 


60 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 


the Papuan and Malayan regions (I may mention that 
all Queensland’s pitcher-plants are found here, as Nepenthes 
Kennedyi, F. v. M., and seven new species described by 
F. M. Bailey, 1.e., N. albo-lineata, Alicae, Bernaysii, Chol- 
mondeleyt, Jardinei, Moorei, Rowanae). 

The biggest and most marvellous vine-scrubs are found 
in the coastal districts from Cooktown in the North to 
Ingham in the South. Townsville itself lies in open forest 
country, but there are interesting vine-scrubs on Mount 
Elliot and in many places along the coast southwards. 

The vine-scrubs mentioned above reach their best 
evolution in the Cairns-Geraidton districts, where are 
the two highest mountains of Queensland, Bellenden Ker 
and Bartle Frere, both covered with thick jungles. This 
part of Queensland has a truly tropical character. We find 
here wonderful scenery, really unrivalled in its glory and 
its magnificent variations. There are not only the well- 
known Barron Falls, which with their unique gorge excel 
in the rainy season, and especially during the floods, the 
best scenery of the world, but there are everywhere land- 
scapes of such beauty, that I never saw better ones, either 
in the Malayan Peninsula or in Java or elsewhere in the 
tropics. This fact is worthy to be mentioned, as there are 
people in Queensland itself who do not guess the wonders 
of this virgin country, and who visit other tropics for the 
same purpose. Besides, this is the district the best 
suited for tropical agriculture, and a sugar cane district par 
excellence. ‘Ihe climate here, though tropical, is by far 
more supportable than in the wet tropics, where the tem- 
perature in the night often only slightly differs from the 
disagreeable wet heat during the day. 

It would be superfluous in Queensland to give a detailed 
description of a vine-scrub, besides it was given years ago 
by Pettigrew and some time ago by Ph. MacMahon. Vine- 
scrubs presents always a dense and thick forest association, 
with very little grass in undergrowth, but with plenty of 
creepers (vines) and any amount of epiphytic plants on the 
trunks and branches of the trees. Orchids and ferns are 
the most numerous among them. There are many pecu- 
liarities in the vine-scrubs: the trees attain usually an 
enormous height, but their bark is regularly thin and their 
top not too dense. They are sometimes cauliflor (producing 


BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 61 


the flowers and fruit directly on the trunk or from old leaf- 
less branches), and they have on the base of the trunk 
dilatated flanks. 

There are different types of vine-scrubs, as for instance 
in the biggest scrub district near Cairns there are (except 
the coastal scrubs) five different types, which appear always 
under the same (or very similar) conditions and show approxi- 
mately the same composition. The richest and most mar- 
vellous are the vine-scrubs in flats on deep alluvium; this 
is the proper home of the lawyer cane and the climbing 
bamboo (Bambusa Moreheadiana), the only one known in 
Queensland. Nearly the whole space between the trees 
is filled with magnificent creepers climbing from top to top 
and drooping in wonderful festoons. The trees are here of 
great size, but their timber is not of such good quality 
as in the higher positions, for the growth in these warm 
parts is too quick. 

Further on there are three types of vine-scrubs on non- 
basaltic soil. Each type has its special trees and different 
characters, but it would take too much time to deal with 
them. The last type is represented by the splendid vine- 
scrubs on the basaltic plateaux, as for instance near Ather- 
ton, Tolga, Aloomba, and all around both volcanic lakes 
(Lake EKacham and Lake Barein). The scrubs are here not 
so crowded with creepers and epiphytic plants, but the trees 
attain an immense height. Here is without doubt the best 
timber district, which excels all that I saw in other scrubs 
of Queensland. 

Due to the careful investigations of J. F. Bailey, we are 
familiar with most of the trees in this district. Many of 
them are just at present used in different sawmills, but 
there are many others with valuable timbers neglected so 
far. We find in the sawmills especially the following 
trees represented :— 

Tarrietia argyrodendron and trifoliata, very plentiful 
everywhere in this scrub, known as Crowsfoot Elm. 

Hlaecocarpus sp. div., known as Quondong. 

Melia composita or White Cedar is anelegant tree with 
soft, light-red wood. It is usually a smaller tree, but plenti- 
ful, especially along the clearings. 

Synoum glandulosum or Rosewood is a moderate sized 
tree belonging to the same family (Meliaceae) and very 


62 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 


plentiful. It is well known also from the scrubs in Southern 
Queensland. 

Cedrela Toona or Red Cedar, known near Herberton as 
‘“ Wanga,” is a tall tree of the same family. Its red col- 
oured wood of a beautiful grain is very valuable and much 
required. This tree is getting scarce. 

Flindersia Chatawaiana or Maple, again a representative 
of the Meliaceous plants, is very plentiful and has a nice 
wood, which is extensively used. 

Flindersia Schottiana or Ash is also plentiful; it is 
known under the native name, ‘“‘Bunji Bunji.” 

Castanospermum Australe is the well-known Bean Tree ; 
it is plentiful in different types of vine-scrub. 

Xanthostemon chrysanthus or Pender is very plentiful. 

Eugenia hemilampra or Mahogany is rather scarce. 

Alstonia scholaris or White Pine, which is very common 
in the scrubs on alluvium, is not too plentiful on the basaltic 
plateau. 

Gmelina fasciculiflora or White Beech is plentiful, as is 

Daphnandra aromatica, the so called Sassafras. 

Cryptocarya Palmerstoni or Walnut is very plentiful. 
Its characteristic nuts are to be found everywhere in these 
scrubs. | 

Under the name of Silky Oak (or Silky Wood), there are 
known 4 different trees, which are more or less plentiful. 
They are :— 

Darlingia spectatissima 

Cardwellia sublimis. 


Slenocarpus sinuatus. 
Embothriuam Wickhami. j 


Agathis Palmerstont or Kauri Pine is rather plentiful 
and attains an immense size. 

Podocarpus pedunculata or so called Black Pine is 
scarce. 

Darlingia araliifolia or Bull Oak is a very plentiful 
tree. 

Blepharocarya involucrigera or Bally Gum is very plenti- 
ful also. 

A different type of vine-scrub is often found in a belt 
along the coast. I use only for these scrubs the name, 
‘* Coastal Scrubs.” The trees growing here are not only 
botanically different, but differ also in their ecology, as 


BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 68 


they are in harmony with the special conditions on the 
sea-coast. A strong wind usually blows here, the trees are 
richly branched, with very hard horizontal branches and 
often with a dense top. The leaves are usually very coria- 
ceous, and epiphytic plants are not too numerous. We find 
this type of scrub both in North and South Queensland. 

Dealing with the sea-coast we may mention the other 
plant-associations found here. On the salt-water swamps 
along the coast, but only in sheltered positions, and along 
the rivers as far as the tide reaches, are usually found 
Mangrove Swamps, which show a most wonderful adapta- 
tion for these extraordinary localities. 

On sand and sand-hill (dunes) near the coast there is 
in many places a special association consisting of very 
scattered plants, which are creeping, with long, deeply 
rooting stolons. It is wonderful how the members of dif- 
ferent orders growing here under the same surrounding 
circumstances assume the same appearance. We find here 
grasses (Spinifex, Zoysia, etc), nut grasses, pea-flowering 
plants (Papilionaceae) and especially one convolvulaceous 
plant—Ipomoea Pes Caprae or the so-called Goat’s-foot. 
‘The last-mentioned plant is very common in the same plant 
association in different tropics, and provides a good name 
for the whole association (Pes-caprae-association). Later 
on plenty of other herbs and especially shrubs appear on 
these sandy localities near the sea-coast. This shrubby 
association is splendidly developed in the Southern portion 
of Queensland, from Frazer’s Island to the islands of More- 
ton Bay, also on some of the Reef Islands. We find here 
a great number of different shrubs, most of them of the same 
mode of growth, but belonging to different families. At 
the time when most of its component members are in flower 
(August and September), this association is the most wonder- 
ful in the whole State, as no other offers such a quantity 
-of showy flowers as this. The difierent Epacridacee, 
Myrtaceae, Papilionaceae, etc., are at this season covered 
with thousands of blossoms. 

In fresh-water swamps, especially near the sea, there 
is usually found a most remarkable association, which de- 
serves the name of T'ea Treé Swamps, as the prevailing trees 
and shrubs are usually called ‘‘ Tea-tree.”’ There are 
many different Myrtaceae, often with she-oaks (Casuarina), 


64 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 


which make on some localities a special sub-type of this 
formation (She oak swamps). We find the adaptation of 
this association again very interesting. The plants growing 
here must at one period of the year resist the effects of floods, 
at another season again they must bear dry weather, 
Neither the vine-scrub nor the open forest is able to grow 
under these circumstances. In the first stage the tea-tree 
swamps have hardly any undergrowth, the water at the end 
of the wet season being full of splendid water lilies (Nym- 
phaea gigantea and others), which seem to disappear in the 
dry season. No other association gives us such splendid 
opportunity to study the changes in the vegetation as this, 
for the conditions change often in a comparatively short 
time. We can observe in many localities how the tea-tree 
swamps take, by and by, the character of forests and at last 
become permanently so. On the other hand I saw in the 
district of Cairns different transitions between tea-tree 
Swamps and vine-scrubs. Tea-tree swamps have in the 
North of Queensland often beside their own plants elements 
both of the forest and scrub floras. With the change of 
conditions one of them becomes more plentiful. In Southern 
Queensland we see regularly slow transitions into forests ; 
in Northern Queensland, however, where the conditions are 
more favourable for the scrub plants, sometimes into vine- 
scrubs. 

A special association is the flora of salt and fresh water. 
On marshy, muddy ground near the sea and often in the 
neighbourhood of mangrove swamps we find sometimes a 
special association of salsolaceous plants. Near the inlet 
opposite to Cairns this association is very well developed. 

On many small islands along the Eastern coast of 
Queensland we observe a strange phenomenon, as some parts 
of these islands are barren or covered only with grass or 
other low vegetation, while some other parts are timbered 
with open forest or sometimes with vine-scrubs. The 
reason for this strange and very irregular distribution of 
forest cannot be found in the dierent character of soil, as 
it is to be seen on perfectly identical strata and apparently 
under quite congruent circumstances. I think, however, 
that the prevailing winds give us the correct explanation 
for this phenomenon, as we may observe that the exposed 
parts of islands, where the air is drier and the decomposed 


BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 65. 


parts of rocks easily carried away by means of wind, are 
barren (or nearly so), the protected parts are timbered. 
This everybody can observe in cases where the direction 
of the prevailing winds has not been disturbed. In many 
cases, however, there are groups of islands and then the 
direction of wind changes according to their position, 
and it seems at first sight impossible to find a plausible 
explanation for the phenomenon mentioned above. I hope 
in a special paper to deal in detail with this interesting 
question. 

The other type of forest is the very well known open 
forest, with close undergrowth of grasses and scattered 
trees, mostly from the genus Hucalyptus, known under 
different names as gums, box, stringy bark, ironbark,. 
Moreton Bay ash, coolibah, bloodwood, etc., etc. The 
other trees growing in the open forest are not only botani- 
cally but also in their ecology very different from scrub 
trees, and these two forest associations have no similiarity 
at all. Forest grows under conditions insufficient for vine- 
scrub, either from the character of the soil or the small 
rainfall. Most interesting is the contact between the open 
forests and vine-scrubs in the Northern and Central 
portion of Queensland. The line of demarcation between 
them is most distinct, a phenomenon which is unique in the 
whole world. I had opportunities to examine these rela- 
tions in many places and found that the reasons for this 
most decided demarcation are different on different locali- 
ties. 

Sometimes it is simply the question of water. Along 
the creeks (where there is usually better humus) there are 
vine-scrubs ; further on there is open forest country. In 
some localities a forest pocket occupies a circular slightly 
elevated ground between rich alluvial soil timbered with 
vine-scrub. In other places, however, the reasons are 
insufficient to explain this sharp line. Besides the con- 
ditions stated, I found these factors of great importance. 

1. The forest flora consists of true Australian types ; 
the scrub flora for the greatest part of Malayan and Papuan 
types. The historic evolution of these elements has been 
quite diverse, and we find always that they never come into 
a friendly contact. They are of quite different character, 
and on localities where the conditions are not decidedly 


E—Royat Socrery. 


66 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 


in the favour of one of them, there results a strong struggle 
between them. They do not enter into a special association 
with the representatives of both types (as it is usual in 
other countries with forest associations), but each one tries 
to get the upper hand. Therefore we cannot expect a 
mixture of types and slow transitions from one forest type 
into the other. 


2. But all these reasons would not be sufficient, if 
one factor were not here, and that is the regular bush fire, 
which kills all the scrub plants springing up on the border 
of the forest. 


3. Last we must deal with so-called ‘‘ forest pockets,” 
in which the phenomenon mentioned above attains its 
highest evolution. In some few cases there is no difficulty 
in explaining these forest pockets. On the slopes of Grant 
Hill, near Cape Grafton, in the North of Queensland, is 
for instance a system of creeks running mostly through 
open forest, but accompanied by a dense narrow belt of 
vine-scrub. In some places, however, the creeks are close 
together, and besides they often change their course, as is 
usual on the granite hills and mountains in this country, 
The result of it is that a bigger area is sufficiently watered, 
and this enables the vine-scrub to occupy the whole ground. 
But in one case the bordering creek was too distant from 
the next current. In the middle of this part, which was 
evidently drier, was a forest pocket of nearly circular shape 
enclosed on all sides by dense vine-scrub. 


But there are in the Atherton scrubs forest pockets 
of a circular shape, some of them not broader than one mile ; 
the line of demarcation is here most distinct. It is very 
hard to explain this most extraordinary contact between 
forest and scrub. My opinion is that there are again two 
different reasons :— - 


a. Sometimes the stratum of basalt is in some places 
very thin, and the soil consequently poor, insufficient for 
@ vine-scrub. 


6. In other cases I regard the forest pockets as a re- 
mainder of a former bigger open forest, which has been 
obliged to give way to the scrub. But on very small areas, 
where the scrub land had not so great possibilities, there 
remained forest pockets, which, I think, would disappear 


BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 67 


if the bush fires did not protect them against the invasion 
of scrub. 

There are again very different and distinct types of 
open forest. In the North must be specially mentioned 
the Eucalyptus forest with close undergrowth of high grass 
(as the typical form of the open forest), further with plenty 
of grass trees (Zanthorrhoea) or Cycads (or sometimes both 
together), or with plenty of she-oaks, etc. 

Most interesting is the open forest country in the far 
West, for instance near Cloncurry. We find along the 
Northern Railway on the Rolling Downs formation every- 
where open grassy plains, but with the beginning of the 
Silurian strata they disappear at once and give way to a 
special type of open forest with plenty of so-called “‘ Spini- 
fex”’ (Triodia) in undergrowth. This country is usuallly 
called ‘“‘ desert country,” but it is a true open forest. It 
is an interesting fact that very far West the open forest 
has so wide an area; its character is, of course, according 
to the soil and climate, very poor. 

A special type of open forest is to be found on the 
sandy soil in some places. near the Main Dividing Range in 
Northern and Central Queensland. The undergrowth is 
not close, and consists, instead of grass, of different shrubs. 
‘This type recalls another forest association slightly developed 
in Queensland (for instance in some places in the rough 
-country between Stanthorpe and Wallangarra), but ex- 
tending over large areas in New South Wales, where 
the whole country from Newcastle and Sydney to the 
Blue Mountains (except the gullies) are the best known 
localities for this forest with plenty of shrubs and grass 
‘in undergrowth. 

In some parts of North Queensland there is on the ranges 
near the coast another type of open forest, consisting 
mostly of she-oaks (Casuarina) with tall grass trees between, 
the grass being less dense than in the true gum forest. 

A quite different type of forest—and perhaps not a 
true forest—is seen in the different wattle-scrubs, which 
are spread over areas between the open forest and the Rolling 
Downs formation, larger than those of any other plant 
formation in South West Queensland. A wattle called 
brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) makes large irregular scrubs. 
In the neighbourhood of Clermont, and in many places 


68 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 


between Clermont and Rockhampton, are in patches in the 
open forest and on many ridges rosewood scrubs. Further 
westwards, everywhere in the Central and Northern districts, 
we find mostly boree and gidya scrub; both are species of 
Acacia. Boree prefers good, nutritious soil, and is often. 
found in smaller or larger patches on Rolling Downs. Gidya 
grows more on ranges and on poor, often rocky soil. Most 
of the Table Mountains are covered with gidya scrub, but- 
on their top we find regularly “‘ Spinifex”’ (7'riodia) and a set- 
of xerophilous shrubs. All these trees, although of small. 
size, give a splendid hardwood, one of the best Lever saw. I 
am perfectly satisfied that they will be used to a great extent. 
in the future. As an interesting fact I may mention that 
this wattle scrub has spread in historical time over open 
grassy country, as I observed it in Central Queensland, and_ 
Inspector J. Shirley informed me that he had noted it 
between Roma and Taroom in Southern Queensland. 

The trees (boree and gidya) grow very slowly. Many 
of the trees killed in the big drought of 1802, which I met 
on the Rolling Downs, must have been surely 100 years old. 
I regard it as a good testimony that at least during the 
past century there was in Queensland no drought of such 
frightful extent. 

On the Main Dividing Range, between the Northern 
and Central Railway there is everywhere a quite different 
forest association, not mentioned until now. The prevalent 
tree is an Acacia called lancewood. It grows very high, 
has long straight branches and a flat top. The stems are 
not very thick and the wood splits easily, but the trees are 
very tall, so that these lancewood scrubs are of quite different 
character from all other wattle scrubs, which never grow in 
tall closed forests. Besides these, there are plenty of shrubs 
in the undergrowth, so that this forest association is closely 
allied to the forest of New South Wales mentioned above. 

These lancewood scrubs are on the rough Desert Sand-- 
stone country, where the conditions are, of course, different 
from those of the flat country. In some places between 
Jericho and Alpha, I found forest pockets enclosed by the 
the lancewood scrub with a most decided line of demarcation. 
This phenomenon, unobserved until now, is of the same strik- 
ing nature as the pockets mentioned above. Here is, how- 
ever, a different reason; it is the question of soil. The 


BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 69 


sandstones are broken and the lower strata are coming on 
the surface. Sometimes it is in the form of a gully, and 
then the greater moisture is in favour of forest. It would 
be superfluous to mention that in these forest pockets are 
regular bush fires, while in the lancewood scrubs there are 
none. 

From Jericho eastwards we find again a different type 
of wattle scrub, very closed and dense, with prevalent 
Acacia and Eucalyptus. Bottle trees (Sterculia rupestris) 
are very abundant, but are not clustered together. 

Great areas in the Central and Western districts of 
‘Queensland are occupied by the Rolling Downs forma- 
tion, and. covered with open grassy plains ; in the Northern 
part with prevalent Mitchell grass (Astrebla pectinata and 
others) and Flinders grass (Anthistiria membranacea) ; in 
the Southern more with blue grass (Andropagon sericeus). 

These open plains possess an association, which has 
no parallel in any other part of the world. It is usually not 
a dense vegetation. The predominant grass is the deeply 
rooting, perennial Mitchell grass, really a marvellous fodder. 
Between its tufts there grow after the rain plenty of annual 
plants, of which the Flinders and Button grasses are the most 
valuable. In the Eastern parts we often find patches of 
scrub, especially boree. But further Westwards there are 
miles and miles of open plains, and only near the water- 
courses are scattered gums (especially the so-called coolibah) 
and tea trees (Melaleuca sp.). Some few shrubs are growing 
in small gullies; very common is a thorny Acacia called 
‘‘ Mimosa,’ and regarded as a sign of water underneath. 
Fuchsia bush—a species of Eremophila—is scattered here 
and there. Of the taller treees there are found some few 
““emu-apples,” whitewood, Myoporum, etc. 


Rolling Downs give the best possible grazing land. 
If in the future the system of conserving hay may become 
general, there will be no such catastrophes as after the big 
drought. But Ido not think that there is a possibility for 
close agricultural settlement. This part is a splendid 
grazing country, and gives besides opportunity for growing 
fruit and some vegetation to a smaller extent along the 
bigger watercourses. It is a pity that this is until now 
in hands of Chinese, who make good profit, but do not spend 
+heir money in Queensland. It would be a great advantage 


70 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 


to promote the immigration of skilful people from Europe, 
who could stand the competition with the Chinese, as the 
English people are usually not fond of this branch of agri- 
culture. 

| As there is not much time left, I will mention only 
some of the other plant associations of Queensland :— 

1. On. the very top of Bellenden Ker there is a most 
extraordinary form of low mountain scrub, consisting of 
different -shrubs with extermely hard branches. It is 
nearly impossible to penetrate through this thicket, which 
is in many respects of high importance, as there are found 
‘several plants (for instance Agapetes Meiniana, Rhodo- 
dendron Lochae), which have their affinities in the Malayan 
and Papuan mountains. This association covers only the 
narrow top of the mountains and the slopes some 80 feet 
below. _ Except this, the whole mountain is covered with 
dense tropical vine-scrub, of course of different types at 
different heights. The soil is everywhere on _ the 
eastern side granitic and poor. The ascent of the 
central highest peak is certainly not so difficult as 
one would suppose after reading the travels of Mr. 
Arch. Meston. The eastern side of the mountain 
is not such good timber country as the scrubs on the 
basaltic plateau. There are comparatively few trees, 
which are sufficiently numerous and are of a high mercantile 
value. Meston’s Mangostoen (Garcinia Mestoni), botani- 
cally an extremely interesting type of the flora of Bellenden 
Ker, described and discovered by F. M. Bailey, is very plenti- 
ful in the eastern slopes in an elevation between 2,500- 
4,000 feet. But the value of the fruit was exaggerated by 
Mr. Meston, and I regard all experiments with this tree as 
useless. First, it will not do well in the low land; and sec- 
ond, its fruit is of no special taste; naturally it cannot be 
compared with the true mangosteen (Garcinia Mango- 
slang). 

2. Shrubby plant association, consisting of plenty of 
low shrubs with little grass and few small trees, is often 
found on loose sand in the inland country. It is a 
Xerophilous association. 

3. On the islands of Moreton Bay, and also near Sunny- 
bank, in the vicinity of Brisbane (and surely in several 
other localities), is to be found an extremely interesting 


~ 


BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 71 


association, not identified until now. It is a true turf 
in different stages and with a very rich flora, consisting 
chiefly of Restiaceae, Cyperaceae, etc., with some Exa- 
cridaceae, Dilleniaceae, small Myrtaceae, Burmannia disticha, 
Utricularia, Drosera, etc. Turf-moss (Sphagnum) is usually 
not present, but sometimes it is present in large quantities 
(f.1., Stradbroke Island). 

4. Limestone flora. 1 had opportunity to examine the 
limestone country near Chillagoe, where on the limestone 
blufis is a type of flora quite different from all associations 
mentioned above. There are many plants peculiar to these 
parts. The flora consists of many shrubs and small trees, 
and has so many peculiarities that it would require a special 
lecture to give only the rough outlines of its general char- 
acter. I was glad to make the first botanical investigations 
of great extent in this very interesting country. 

5. There is a special flora on the rocks along the coast 
of Queensland, but it is not much developed. In the Glass- 
houses this association has some interesting members 
(Micraira subulifolia, Hriostemon myoporoides, Grevillea 
leiophylla, Dodonaea vestita, Melaleuca Luehmanni, besides the 
commoner rock plants, as Cheilanthes, Polypodium rigi- 
dulum, Peperomia, Plectranthus, etc.) 

In the North there are hardly more than 20 character- 
istic species accompanying the rocks. 

Let me now say some few words about the evolution 
of the flora of Queensland. We find,in Australia three dif- 
ferent elements represented in a very unequal degree in 
the flora of the different States. There is, first, the true 
Australian element ; second, the so-called Antarctic element 
(named so by Hooker) ; and, last, the Malayan (including the 
Papuan) element. The second element, which is of such 
great importance for the flora of New Zealand and the moun- 
tains in the south-east corner of Australia, is (with a few 
exceptions, as for instance, Dracophyllum Sayeri on the 
top of Bellenden Ker), not represented in Queensland. 
Both the other elements are in Queensland well represented, 
and the Malayan element is in no other State so rich as 
here. The Australian element, which attains its highest 
evolution in Western Australia, must be regarded as the 
true old Australian flora; in Queensland it is spread over 
the drier districts and is especially rich in Southern Queens- 


72 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 


land (islands of Moreton Bay). The Malayan element 
makes the base for the flora of the vine-scrubs. The wet 
tropical part of Queensland has altogether a true Malayan- 
Papuan flora, which shows that there was formerly a land 
or island connection and an easy way for propagation of 
this equatorial tropical flora southwards. But it would not 
be correct to regard Queensland’s tropical flora only as a 
new comer and a recent branch of the regions mentioned 
above. All that we know seems to testify that :— 


1. The tropical “‘ Malayan” flora of Queensland is only 
a small remainder of a flora spread formerly over large 
areas, which are now mostly sunken into the sea. Accord- 
ingly, 

2. The flora does not consist only of the original Malayan 
types. ‘Lhese made only a base, but it has been transformed 
in the great number of genera and species, which are known 
only from the Australian Tropics (endemic in Australia). 
It seems that the separation took place at a very early 
epoch, so that the ancestors of the present tropical flora 
in Australia developed themselves quite independent of 
the Malayan flora, and originated a large number of new 
forms. 

Now we understand the difference between the Malayan 
and the Australian elements, and we can imagine the struggle 
which certainly took place after the best and largest localities 
for the tropical flora disappeared under the sea level. In 
the Southern part of Queensland there are some differences, 
as the true Australian type is represented in a few special 
forms in the vine scrub flora. I may mention for instance 
the gigantic water gums (Eucalyptus botryoides) (besides 
some other gums, as Huc. resinifera) in the vine-scrubs 
on the basaltic mountains in Southern Queensland. Here 
the contrast is not so great, and we find sometimes diferent 
transitions, especially in the brushes, which have in sone 
places quite a mixed character. But we must not forget 
that just here most of the Malayan types, which require 
the most favourable conditions, are not so plentiful. 
Antarctic elements are, of course, missing, the most curious 
Fagus Mooret in the Macpherson Range being an interest- 
ing exception. 

My studies in different parts of Queensland brought 
me to the conclusion that the open forests in all parts of 


BY DR KAREL DOMIN. 73 


Queensland are not a natural association, but a secondary 
one, changed through the influence of their aboriginal 
inhabitants, mostly by means of bushfires. It seems rather 
strange to regard such immense areas in a virgin country 
covered with open forest as a secondary association, but 
I hope to bring in another place sufficient proof for it, and 
I will try to give a reconstruction of their ‘original form, 
which differs substantially from their present character. 


Last, but not least, I will make a few remarks regarding 
the agricultural prospects for the future, which are closely 
connected with the botany of the State. Everybody 
who is familiar with the different plant associations of a 
country must know thoroughly all the conditions of soil, 
climate, etc., for the distribution of plants in special 
associations shows it in a most striking manner. There- 
fore, it is not useless to go deeper into all these questions 
and to try to understand the conditions of the plant-life 
as much as possible. I think everybody who took a keen 
interest in the connection between the plant-life and its 
surrounding circumstances, could easily recognize from 
the character of the vegetation the nature of the country. 

No doubt, in Queensland is opened a field for tropical 
agriculture as well as for cultivation of subtropical plants, 
and some from temperate regions. It is, of course, necessary 
to choose the right plant. 

I think, there would be a possibility of cultivating a 
great variety of tropical plants in North Queensland, but 
just these, which would be of special value, are not fitted 
for it, as the rates for white labour are so high, that it would 
not pay to cultivate such plants as coffee, tea, rubber, etc., 
which must be looked after the whole year round. Sugar- 
cane will surely remain the most important plant for the 
future. In smaller quantities it would be, of course, 
possible to cultivate plenty of tropical plants, but that 
is not of great importance for the rich coastal scrub 
districts. Only a few of the true tropical plants do not 
grow here well, and these are plants which must have rain 
the whole year round. That is the case with the pale 
rubber (Hevia Brasiliensis), with the true mangosteen 
(Garcinia Mangostana), etc. 

It seems to me much more important to cultivate 
a greater variety of plants in the central drier districts. 


74 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 


At least as far as Charters Towers, along the Northern 
Railway, and as far as Barcaldine around the Central 
Railway, it would be possible to cultivate sufficient fruit 
not only for the settlers’ own use, but for a supply to the 
far West. There is a possibility for much more fruit and 
vegetable growing; there could be grown many plants. 
hardly cultivated as yet. Arochis hypogaea, date palm, 
and plenty others would be worth trying. 

It seems strange for a visitor to see how European 
fruits are cultivated in Queensland on localities where 
they cannot do well, but where it is easy to grow any amount 
of excellent tropical fruit. Once being in the tropics, 
it is best to adapt ourselves to them, to take tropical fruit, 
to adapt the houses to the tropical climate, etc. I was 
always wondering how little are estimated the yams, 
which can be grown to perfection, and which are surely 
more valuable than pumpkins. 

Notwithstanding all this; marvellous progress can be 
observed in agriculture, and no doubt, with the increasing 
population, we may expect still more improvement. 

And last I must express my thanks, not only to the 
authorities who helped me in a most efiective and kind 
way to carry out my plans, but to everybody whom I had 
the pleasure to meet, and whose hospitality was oiten a 
great help in rather rough conditions of climate and country. 
I regard it, with my friend, Dr. Danes, as a pleasant duty 
to give our own people good information about the 
possibilities for immigrants in Queensland, and it would 
be only a pleasure to me if many of our agricultural people 
would come to your prosperous and hospitable State. 


PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SOME LIMESTONE AREAS 
IN QUEENSLAND. 


By DR. J. VY. DANES 
(Pracun, Czecu University). 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 
July 23, 1910. 


During my stay in Queensland I had occasion to pay 
more or less hurried visits to three important limestone 
areas within the limits of the State, and I was able to make 
some observations about the present state and the develop- 
ment of some prominent and generally interesting features, 
which distinguish the pure limestone from most other 
common country rocks. 

Pure limestone differs conspicuously from many 
other rocks by its comparatively easy solubility through 
the action of water charged with a slight quantity of 
carbonic acid. The water widens the joints and clefts 
in the rock structure, and tries to force a passage vertically 
into the depths. Where the vertical progress is impossible, 
the water proceeds more or less horizontally, or follows 
the inclination of the beds, and starts again in the vertical 
direction if possible, until it reaches the base of the 
previous rock or the upper level of the underground water. 
The disintegrating action of the water upon the neighbour- 
ing rock is slow in the beginning and purely chemical ; 
but later on the cavities become so wide that the running 
water starts on the mechanical work, grinding the rocks 
with sand and gravel set into rotatory movement by 
vertical whirls, or scratching the surface with the same 
material, where the passage is more or less horizontal and 
unobstructed. Subterraneous passages, extended systems 
of caves, are results of that process, and their presence is 
the most characteristic feature of the limestone areas, 


76 LIMESTONE AREAS IN QUEENSLAND 


especially to an untrained eye. Almost all famous caves 
of the world occur in limestone. 

But the existence of caves is not the only result of the 
‘ssubterraneous passage of the waters. The rocks below 
the surface diminish gradually in volume, and concentric 
depressionsform. Many ofsuch depressions are formed by a 
slow gradual process, but others are the result of violent, 
although only localised, processes, being caused by sudden col- 
lapse of the roof of some cave. The shapes of such sinkholes* 
explain generally the way in which they originated, and 
very often the deep, abrupt sinkholes form entrances to 
the subterraneous passages. On a limestone area con- 
taining caves and sinkholes the rain water falling upon 
the surface does not flow away in streams, but disappears 
underground. No regular graded valleys are formed. 
Running water flowing in creeks or rivers from areas of 
impervious rocks seldom succeed in eroding an open valley 
through a limestone area. It generally disappears in 
fissures or sinkholes, and continues its way in subterraneous 
passages, reappearing again on the surface where the 
limestone area ends, or flows often subterraneously to the 
sea. 

Many of such subterraneous watercourses can be 
followed on the surface, deep sinkholes marking the 
direction of the caves, but many of them are completely 
lost to the human eye. It seems probable that in some 
limestone areas the cave systems are not yet fully 
developed, and that the waters after some progress in 
defined streams lose their individuality, and become a 
part of a general ground water basin, which fills all cavities 
and fissures to a certain level throughout some limestone 
areas. Such conditions seem to prevail in limestone areas, 
which are morphologically young, and which have not been 
long (geologically speaking) exposed to the disinte- 
grating agencies. 

During the further evolution, the defined underground 
watercourses become more and more general, and, prevail 
completely in morphologically old areas. 

The caves in their young stage show everywhere 
unmistakable proofs of violent mechanical work performed 


—_— 


* For sinkholes the Servian term ‘‘ doline”’ is most extensively used in 
scientific literature 


BY DR. J. V. DANES. aT: 


by water, by help of sand, gravel and rock debris, and are 
full of potholes of very diversified size and aspect. In 
old caves, the traces of the mechanical action are generally 
obliterated ; the old channels are filled by loam, sand and 
secondary limestone, the walls covered by secondary 
limestone, and numerous, often beautiful and picturesque 
stalactites and stalagmites give the most attractive appear- 
ance to old caves. Gradually the roofs give way to pressure, 
and. often in old limestone areas there occur long, narrow, 
precipitous gorges, which were caves before the collapse 
of upper layers of rocks. Blind valleys are the result of 
such a process, and also broad level basins* occur in some 
extensive limestone areas with rivers and creeks, which 
on one side leave the subterraneous passage, and on the 
other side disappear once more under the continuous. 
barrier of rocky ridges. 

Many limestone mountains represent rocky deserts, 
whose passage is very difficult, there being no definite 
valleys, which generally form the most important ways of 
communication in rugged mountainous countries. 

Where the limestone rocks are devoid of vegetation,. 
the chemical and mechanical action of the falling rain- 
waters affects the surface in a peculiar way. 

The edges and; corners of limestone blocks look as if 
worked by a fine chisel, and later develop deep correlated 
forms; extremely sharp and fine ridges fall abruptly 
into miniature valleys or basins, which generally end at 
a fissure or a cavity, where the water disappears into the 
underground depths. 

This phenomenon is very well developed, especially 
on many barren limestone ridges and plateaus in the Alps, 
and is known under the name of “‘ Karren ”’ to the Germans, 
and ‘“ Lapiaz’’ to the southern Frenchmen.t All those 
forms of terrain, which form the peculiarity of the 
physiographical character of the limestones, are known 
as the ‘* Karst phaenomena,” ‘“‘ Karst”? or “‘ Kras” is a 
South Slavish word designating a barren, rocky 
country, and was originally applied to the vast limestone 


—— a 


*Such basins are called ‘‘ poljes,” and occur along the Adriatic coast, 
in the French Jura, and in Jamaica. The greatest ‘‘ Livanjskopolji” in 
Western Bosnia covers about 180 square miles. 

+ In the Adriatic Karst. 


‘78 LIMESTONE AREAS IN QUEENSLAND 


plateaux and mountain ranges along the north and north- 
western margin of the Adriatic Sea in the southern countries 
of Austria-Hungary and the Balkan Peninsula. I¢ 
became a generally acknowledged scientific term for the 
‘forms of terrain of soluble rocks. 

The caves, although they are one of the most important 
“Karst phaenomena,” are known also from other forma- 
tions, especially from basaltic rocks, from sandstones, 
and conglomerates with soluble concrete, but the true 
development of “ Karst’ is characteristic only of the 
limestone among the very important country rocks. 
Rocksalt, gypsum and glacier ice develop also the 
characteristic features of the “Karst,” but their 
significance is minimal, as they occur rarely in great 
continuous masses. 

With the hope that the somewhat extensive explana- 
tion of the characteristic features of limestone 
physiography will give you an idea sufficient to under- 
stand, my further remarks, I shall proceed to a description 
of the chief features of the limestone areas I saw in 
Queensland. 

A long and narrow belt of limestone ridges extends 
in the surroundings of Chillagoe from Almaden in a north- 
westerly direction, about 20 miles beyond Mungana. 
The geological character of the country has been described 
several times by prominent geologists as Dr. Jack, Prof. 
Skertchly, Mr. Dunstan, and also some descriptions of 
the caves have been given. The limestones were 
deposited in the Silurian period, and their position has 
been violently disturbed through tectonic processes. 

The Chillagoe caves are famous as one of the 
picturesque attractions of North Queensland, and they 
deserve their fame, although the general extent and size 
of the principal caves cannot compete with many others 
of world’s fame. The limestone ridges are low, only 100 
to 150ft. high above the valley level. The floors of the 
principal caves are generally on a level corresponding with 
the surrounding country, and so the elevation of the roof 
seldom exceeds 60ft. from the floor. The stalactites and 
stalagmites are not so numerous as in other caves with a 
more humid climate, but the secondary deposits cover 
the walls and the floor so thickly that traces of erosion are 


BY DR, Je Vs DANES. 79 


almost completely obliterated. The great development 
of secondary deposits is an unmistakable proof of the old 
age of the caverns ; another proof is, that many roofs have 
collapsed, and open sinkholes with almost perpendicular 
walls are met with in rambles through the subterranean 
labyrinth. Waters which eroded those caves left them 
some time ago, and thick layers of “‘ cave-earth ”’ cover the 
floor of horizontal passages. The outer appearance of the 
limestone bluffs perforated by caverns in the interior is 
very rugged, and the bluffs are very inacessible. 

The Karren phenomena is developed on most of them 
in very bold and sharp forms. A climb to the top of a bluff 
reveals a really stupendous labyrinth of sharp correlated 
rocks, deep perpendicular chasms, miniature caves and 
recesses, but further progress is very slow and tiresome, 
and the edges of the rocks, sharp as a knife, leave dis- 
agreeable traces on the dress and skin. 

Most of the bluffs in the Chillagoe district are of such 
rugged appearance, with the exception of one group south- 
east from Chillagoe. A peculiarly shaped, smooth-faced 
limestone bluff, called generally ‘“‘ The Lion’s Head,” is 
known to everybody who has been in Chillagoe. The 
base of the bluff is full of potholes leading underground, 
and one narrow passage opens into the centre of the Lion’s 
Head Bluff, ending with a deep sinkhole. All surrounding 
rocks are smooth on the surface, and differ very conspicuously 
from most of the others. There can be no doubt that the 
Lion’s Head and its surroundings owe their shape to the 
vigorous action of running water in some remote period. 
The bed of the short ancient river was at a considerable eleva- 
tion above the present creek beds in the environs. The 
base of the Lion’s Head is about 100ft. about the present 
creeks. The Lion’s Head Bluff is an unmistakable 
remnant of the old landscape, and, I can recommend it to 
the attention of future investigators, who will be 
certainly able to say more about the former direction 
of the drainage at much higher level than the present, and 
the subsequent evolution of the landscape. 


From Rockhampton, I visited the Olsen Caves, which 
occur in a limestone ridge about 16 miles in an almost 
northerly direction from Rockhampton. ‘here are several 
ridges and bluffs to the east and south-east of Mount Etna, 


80 LIMESTONE AREAS IN. QUEENSLAND 


a conspicuous conical landmark. The limestone is of 
Devonian age, as proved by corals determined by Mr. 
Rands. Mr. Rands gives in his report a very good 
description of the Olsen Caves, and also of a second group, 
the Johansen Caves, is another mass of limestone. 

The Olsen Caves, which perforate in several passages. 
the narrow limestone ridge, are in size and height very much 
like the Chillagoe caves. The rivers or creeks which once 
eroded them left them long ago, but the secondary lime 
deposits, and especially stalactites and stalagmites, are ~ 
much less conspicuous than in the Chillagoe caves. The 
lack of this picturesque and ornamental element makes 
them less interesting for an ordinary tourist, but for a 
student of physiography, the work of the running and 
whirling waters is well preserved and very interesting. 
‘he small amount of secondary limestone, and also the 
better preservation of the caves, although the ridge is only 
of the same elevation as over the Chillagoe Caves, shows. 
that they are in a younger stage of development. 
Innumerable bats have their refuge in these caves, and the 
deposit on the floor is a magnificent guano preserved by 
nature for the use of future agriculturists. The top of 
the ridge shows a most beautiful and diversified develop- 
ment of the “‘ Karren phenomena,” and is more accessible 
than the tops of the Chillagoe bluffs, the disintegration 
being not so far advanced, and the roofs of the caves 
solid. 

Many other limestone areas are met among the 
paloeozoic rocks in the mountainous eastern parts of the 
State, and their morphological development will be of 
great help to a student of the geological changes in the 
latest periods, since limestone more than other rocks 
preserves the old landscape and reveals many details, 
which serve as unmistakable proofs of older stages of the 
drainage system. 

In the farthest north-west of tae State a high level 
plateau called Barkly Tableland extends and continues. 
very far into the Northern ‘Territory. The age of the 
limestones is yet unknown, but the depth of the continuous 
limestone strata is so enormous that it is quite possible 
that they consist of layers deposited in very difierent 
geological periods. Their extent is better known in the 


BY DR. J. V. DANES. 81 


Northern Territory by the explorations of Mr. Brown, 
the Government Geologist of Southern Australia. 


That limestone area, so far as it is known, differs in 
many respects from the limestone-outcrops in the very 
disturbed mountain ranges along the eastern coast. The 
beds are in almost undisturbed horizontal positions, except 
in some places along the eastern edge, as Mr. Ball kindly 
informed me. ‘They fill out a vast basin of unknown deyth. 
The bores, of which the deepest is on Alexandra Downs 
Station, 1,700ft. deep, did not reach the base of the lime- 
stone formation. The surface of the Barkly Tableland, 
and also of the connected plateaux in the Northern 
Territory, represent a very good grazing country wherever 
the limestones form the surface, but gravelly ridges consisting 
of jasperised boulders and pebbles are in places very 
extended, and covered by poor open forest and spinifex 
crass. The water on the surface is scarce, and only the 
Georgina River contains some permanent water holes, 
called lakes. Two of them were the refuge of Landsborough’s 
exploring party. One of them, Lake Francis, supplies 
Camooweal, the thriving economical centre of the ‘able- 
land; near the other, ‘“‘ Lake Morry,”’ the homestead of 
Rocklands Cattle Station is situated. 

The lack of a superficial water supply would be a great 
drawback to the future development of the good grazing 
country, but the limestone basin contains in the under- 
ground depths a magnificent supply of water, which can 
be reached by bores and pumped in unlimited quantities. 
The eastern part of the Tableland is formed by an impure 
limestone, where the underground water supply is very 
limited and not sufficient for practical purposes, but that 
area is luckily only an insignificant part of the Tableland, 
which, so far as the limestone extends continuously, can 
be sure of an unlimited water supply in bores reaching 
not below 4-500 feet. The extent of that basin in Queens- 
land is not yet known, but reaches more than a hundred 
miles further south than suggested until the present. The 
value of that water supply will be of immense significance 
for the future development of the farthest West of Queensland 
and of more extended areas within the Northern Territory. 
One good quality of it is that pumping is necessary, and so the 
wasting of superfluous water as in the case of artesian bores 

F—Rovyat Society. 


. 


82 LIMESTONE AREAS IN QUEENSLAND 


can never become dangerous to the very existence of the 
water supply for the future generations. Now almost all 
of the stations on the Tableland and in the South-eastern 
part of the Northern Territory use that subterranean water, 
and in the future a practically unlimited number of bores. 
will make the extensive use of that Territory for stock one 
of the most important resources of the interior. I shall 
be very glad indeed if the present remarks reach the 
State Governments concerned, and if a thorough geological 
survey from both sides prove to what extent my 
Suggestions are of practical value for the development of 
that, until the present, very little known and neglected 
country. 

The subterranean basin in the limestone formation 
gives a permanent: water supply to many magnificent 
rivers and creeks, whose surrounding areas can be the basis 
of closer settlement in the future. On the Queensland 
side, the Gregory River derives her splendid stream from 
numerous springs in the limestone, the lime suspended 
in the water is deposited in some places. in the form of 
travertin and calcareous conglomerate, forming natural. 
dams across the river bed, which the stream leaps in a number 
of picturesque cataracts and rapids. In the Northern 
Territory the McArthur, the Roper, the Victoria, the Daly 
and many other streams get their permanent, splendid 
quantity of water out of the subterranean limestone basin. 

The surface of the plateau is very level and the strata 
almost undisturbed, and there are extensive patches of 
country covered by a sandstone formation corresponding 
very probably with the so-called desert sandstone formation 
in age and aspect.* 

The caves are not very numerous, but they are ex- 
tremely interesting from the very young stage of develop- 
ment they represent. They seem mostly to be due to 
fissures crossing the country in an almost north-south 
direction, and several groups of caves and sinkholes are 
known in the environs of Camooweal. I visited most of 
them. ‘lhe best known are the Nowranie Caves, about 
10 miles South-South-East from Camooweal, accessible 
over a precipice and extending in two levels for some hundred. 


* On the Queensland side a small desert sandstone plateau forms the: 
divide about 30 miles east from Camooweal, near Wooroona Creek. 


BY DR. J. V. DANES. 83 


yards. The development of secondary limestone is insig- 
nificant, and stalactites and stalagmites very scarce. ‘lhe 
water level is about 240 feet below the surface. Another 
very intererting group of caves and sinkholes is one about 
44 miles north from the Rocklands Station. I named that 
eroup after Mr. A. H. Glissan, the manager of the 
Rocklands Station, who has a very deep interest in the 
scientific and economical development of the Tableland, 
and has gathered most valuable information about the char- 
acter of the subterranean water basin.. Further to the West 
the Happy Creek sends a great part of its waters to the sub- 
terranean basin through a sinkhole. The ‘“ Karren phae- 
nomen ”’ is only in its beginning—everywhere on the out- 
cropping rocks. 


a 


Proc, Roy. Soc. Q’uanp, Vou. XXIII. Prats J, 


Laprar (KaRREN PHAENOMEN) Ocran Caves RipGE, 


” 


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Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’nanp, Vou. XXIII. Puare II. 


WATERHOLE IN THE Wooroona CrEEK, Hast rrom CaMoowEAL 
(IMPURE LIMESTONE). 


A. H. Guissan’s Group or SINK-HOLES AND CAVES. 
Barkity TABLELAND,. 


‘‘ ENDEAVOUR Series No. 1.”’ 


ON SOME NEW FISHES FROM THE 
QUEENSLAND COAST. 


By J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 20th, 
1910. 


4 —_—__—__. 


Since the delivery of the above Paper and the issue of 
the Author’s Copies, the Council of the Royal Society has 
been informed by the Commonwealth Authorities that the 
Australian Museum in Sydney had, before the expedition 
sailed, been officially entrusted with the scientific descrip- 
tion of all the Fishes secured, a fact of which the Council 
was not aware until March, 1911. As most of the fishes 
described in the Paper have been forwarded to the 
Australian Museum, the Council has decided to withhold 
the Paper from publication in the Proceedings. 


G Royat Sociery, 


NOTES ON THE ROTIFERS OR WHEEL 
ANIMACULA OF BRISBANE. 


By W. R. COLLEDGE. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, May, 28, 1910. 


According to Gosse, “a rotifer is a microscopic animal 
found in fresh or salt water, which swims by means of 
cilia on its head, possessing jaws, stomach, and digestive 
glands, muscles, a well-developed vascular system, and 
nerve ganglions with fibres passing to the organ of sense.” 
825 species are known, 300 are found in America, double 
that number in England ; other countries contribute their 
quota ; even Shackleton caught some in his latest expedi- 
tion to the Southern Pole. Canada is the only place from 
which we have no record, probably because no student 
has searched its waters. 

A little work was done in Queensland in 1887 and 1889 
by a Naval Officer, Surgeon Gunson Thorpe. Two 
papers, with a list of 23 species are found contributed by 
him to the Transactions of the Royal Society of Queensland 
about that period. Seeing that this branch of science 
would repay a little study, I have devoted the most of my 
spare time for the last two or three years, and have been 
able to increase the number of these interesting creatures 
known in Queensland to 102 species. 

Those mentioned in Surgeon Thorpe’s papers are 
marked by an asterisk, the rest have all been found in the 
neighbourhood of Brisbane. — 


ORDER I. BDELLOIDA.—Creeping like a leech usually, 
but able to swim freely when they choose to do so. 


Famity 1.— Philodina citrina.* 
Rotifer neptunius.* 
Rotifer vulgaris.* 


88 ON THE ROTIFERS OR WHEEL ANIMACULZ OF BRISBANE. 


ORDER IV. RHIZOTA, or rooted ones. These are fixed 
in one place and rarely move from it during life. 


Famity IV.— Floscularia coronetta.* 
es longicaudata. 
+ ornata.* 
a campanulata. 


Famity VI. — Melicerta conifera.* 
: ringens.* 
Limnias ceratophylli.* 
bs annulatus.* 
Aicystes brachycera. 


és crystallina. 
Conochilus dossuaris. 
. unicornis. 

ie volvox. 


Stephanoceris eichornii. 


ORDER V. PLOIMA, or free swimmers. 


SUB-ORDER 1.—Illoricate. 


Famity 7. — Microcodidus chloena. 

Famity 8.— Asplanchna amphora, male. 
99 46 female. 
= brightwelli. 


Sacculus viridus. 


Famity 9.— Syncheta stylata. 
| ‘f ovalis. 
of tremula. 
Famity 10. —Triarthra longiseta. 
Polyarthra platyptera.* 


Famity 1]. —Cyrtonia tuba. 
Notops brachionis. 


Famity 12.—Copias copias. 
ig cerberis. 
- pachyurus. 
Coelopus brachyurus. 
Diglena grandis. 
Eosphora aurita. 
a digitata. 


BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 


Faminy 12. —Furcularia equales. 
longiseta. 
melandicus. 
micropus. 


99 
99 


Notammada aurita. 

m] clavulata. 
Proales sordida. 
Taphrocampa annulosa. 


Triopthalmus longiseta. 


SUB-ORDER 9.—Loricata. 


Famity 13. —Mastigocerca bicornis. 
bicristata. 
birostris. 
carinata. 
ae elongata. 

Rattulus tigris. 

“ mucosus. 
Calopus porcellus. 


29 
bP) 


99 


Famity 14. —Dinocharis collinsii. 
pocillum. 
tetractis. 


99 


29 


Scaridium eudodactylotum. 


longicaudatum.* 


99 


Famity 15.—Salpina brevispina. 
eustala.* 
3 macracantha. 
Diaschiza peta. 
ie semiaperta. 
Diplax trigona. 
Diplois davesii.* 


99 


Famity 16.—Euchlanis dilatata. 
oropha. 
triquetra.* 


99 


9? 


Famity 17.—Cathypna luna.* 
, J leontina. 
Monostyla bulla. 
cornuta. 
lunaris.* 


quadridentata. 


99 


99 


93 


89 


90 ON THE ROTIFERS 9R WHEEL ANIMACULZ OF BRISBANE. 


Famity 18.—Colurus amblytelus.* 
dactylotus. 
i deflexus. 
Metopidia, acuminata. 
Pr lepadella. 
oxysternum. 
Es solidus. 
~ triptera. 
Cochlearis turbo. 


Famity 19. —-Pterodina patina.* 


Famity 20. —Brachionis angularis. 
sp bakerii.* 
“ falcatus. 
cy militaris.* 
‘fl pale. 
oe ,, var. amphiceros. 
+ rubens. 
“0 urceolus. 
Noteus quadricornis. 


Famity 21.—Anurea aculeata.* 
» ps var., no ventral spines. 
fe cochlearis. 


Faminy 22. —Pleosoma lenticulares. 


Famity 23. —Gastropus minor. 
= stylifer. 


Famity 24. —Anapus ovalis. 


ORDER VI. SCIRTOPODA.—Skipping by means of 
jointed appendages. 


Famty 25. —Pedalion mirum:* 


This peculiar species was found at Dunk Island 
by Surgeon Gunson Thorpe, but I have found 
them in the city and suburbs occasionally. 

Another species so peculiar in structure, that its position 
in the group is uncertain, is Trochosphera cquatorialis. 
First found in the Philippine rice fields in 1859 by Professor 
Semper. It was next observed in Brisbane after the lapse 


BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 91 


w{ thirty years by Surgeon Gunson Thorpe, who also dis- 
covered the male. It does not appear to have been noticed 
anywhere but in these two localities, and contrary to the 
usual wide distribution of rotifers, I have only caught 
them in two pools for a very limited time in the year. At 
‘the request of F. Rousselet—the great authority on these 
microscopic fauna—I forwarded a batch, and some of these 
were shown, for the first time to a London audience, and 
‘specimens supplied to the museums of the Quecket Club 
and the Royal Society. 


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ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA 
OF QUEENSLAND. 


By JOHN SHIRLEY, B.Sc. 
(Senior Inspector or ScHooxs). 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 24th September, 
1910. 


At the meeting of the Australasian Association, held in 
Brisbane in January, 1909, the first list of the known 
Marine Mollusca of Queensland was published by Mr. 
Charles Hedley, Assistant Curator, Australian Museum,. 
Sydney. This list forms part of the Presidential Address 
to Section D., Biology, comprised in pp. 343-371, of 
Volume xii., of the Proceedings of the Association. Pages 
809-810 of the same volume contain a supplement to the 
main list. In all, some 1900 species are catalogued. 


The following additions are drawn. from a review of 
the cabinets of my son, Mr. Ray Shirley, who has been 
collecting for the past six years, and whom I have helped 
in every possible way. Owing to the greatly increased 
interest in natural history, many teachers of schools in the 
coastal towns have made collections of [marine shells, and 
from these I have received many parcels for naming. This 
has given me an opportunity to study the mollusca from 
a very wide stretch of coast. I take this opportunity to 
thank Mr. F. Barrett, of Cairns; Mr. John Fewtrell,. 
formerly of Townsville West, now District Inspector of 
Schools ; Mr. Ivie Murchie and Mr. Long, of Normanton ; 
Mr. E. Saunders, of Bowen; Mr. C. Kemp, formerly of 
Gladstone ; Mr. Joseph Hirst, formerly of Bulwer, Moreton 
Island; Mr. W. Noon, Yeppoon; and Mr. James Bruce, 
of Murray Island, Torres Straits, whose collections have 
enabled me to add many species to the Queensland list. 


94 ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND 


I wish also to put on record the assistance I have had 
from my friend, Mr. Charles Hedley, who has named many 
parcels of shells sent down to him, and also from Mr. E. A. 
Smith, of the British Museum; Mr. C. J. Wild, of the 
Brisbane Museum; Messrs. C. Gabriel and J. H. Gatliff, 


of Melbourne; and Mr. A. Simson, of Launceston, 


mania. 
PELECYPODA. 


Leda lata Hinds, Bundaberg. 
Arca bicors Jonas, Moreton Bay. 
,, Carpenteri Dunker, Moreton Bay. 
», Helblingi Chemnitz, Yeppoon. 
» lima Reeve, Gladstone. 
,, pusilla Sowerby, Caloundra. 
Byssarea zebra Sowerby, Townsville. 
Glycimeris australis Q. and G. 
i i v. Greyana Dunker, Moreton Bay. 
holoserica Reeve, Caloundra. 
mn striatularis Lamark, Bundaberg. 
Pinna angustata Lamark, Torres Straits. 
Perna ephippium Linneus, Torres Straits. 
»  fimbriatum Reeve, Torres Straits. 
Pteria marmorata Reeve, Yeppoon. 
Meleagrina vulgaris Schwmacher, Moreton Bay. 
Ostrea circumsuta Gould, Moreton Bay. 
glomerata Gould, Moreton Bay. 
mordax Gould, Bundaberg. 

5 rf v. cornucopioides Lamark. 
Pecten gloriosus Reeve, Yeppoon. 
leopardus Reeve, Yeppoon. 

»  medius Lamark, Normanton, Yeppoon. 
Amusiuim japonicum Lamark, Moreton Bay. 
Spondylus coccineus Lamark, Moreton Bay. 
imperialis Chemnitz, Cardwell, Yeppoon. 

ag tenellus Reeve, Caloundra. 
Limopsis multistriata Sowerby, Moreton Bay. 
Anomia acheus Gray, Thursday Island. 
Modiola elongata Swainson, Yeppoon. 
Fortunei Dunker, Caloundra. 

2 vagina Lamark, South Passage. 
Chamostrea albida Lamark, Bundaberg. 


99 


99 


39 


29 


93 


. BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.SC. 


Myodora ovata Reeve, Caloundra. 
cs striata Deshayes, Caloundra. 


Crassatellites Cumingiana A. Adams, Caloundra. 


Batissa violacea Lamark, Cairns. 
Austriella sordida T’enison Woods, Bowen. 
Codakia punctata L,, Capricorn Islands. 
Cryptodon globosum Férskal, Tweed Heads. 
Corbis Sowerbyi Reeve, Torres Straits. 
Cardium cardissa Linneus, Torres Straits. 

ss latum Born, Moreton Bay. 

a munda Reeve, Bundaberg. 

»  oxygonum Sowerby, Burnett River. 

, philippinensis Desh,, Normanton. 
Dosinia corrugata Chem., Gulf of Carpentaria. 

_ lamellata Reeve, Yeppoon 

3 subrosea Lamark, Keppel Bay. 

% turgida Reeve, Bundaberg. 
Gafrarium divaricatum Gmelin, Bundaberg. ' 
‘Cytherea dysera Chemnitz, Moreton Bay. 

ey impudica, Sowerby, Normanton. 

“j isabellina Phillipt, Moreton Bay. 
xl lacerata Hanley, Bundaberg. 
‘3 puerpera v. Gladstonensis Angas. 
Macrocallista lilacina Lamark, Cardwell. 
as lusoria Chemnitz, Normanton. 
vy pellucida Lamark, Torres Strait. 
‘Chione Yerburyi, H. A. Smith, Caioundra. 
Paphia analis Phillippi, Burketown. 

» inflata Desh, Moreton Bay 

»  semirugata Philippi, Fraser Island. 

,, tumida Sowerby, Moreton Bay. 

,,  turgida Lamark, Yeppoon. 

‘Tellina deltoidalis Lamark, Moreton Bay. 

»  lnbellis Hanley, Eliot River. 

,» rostrata Linneus, Murray Island. 
Donax australis Lamark, Caloundra. 

»  tinctus Gould, Yeppoon. 
Anapella cuneata Lamark, Caloundra. 
Mactra contraria Deshayes, Noosa. 

»  Cuvieri Deshayes, Bowen. 

»,  depressa Lamark, Bundaberg. 

»»  luzonica Deshayes, Caloundra. 


95 


96 ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND 


Mactra meretriciformis Deshayes, Eliot River. 
,,  polita Deshayes, Moreton Bay. 
Solen vaginoides Lamark, Yeppoon. 


CEPHALOPODA. 

Nautilus macromphalus Sowerby, Torres Straits. 
= umbilicatus Lister, Torres Straits. 
stenomphalus, Sowerby, Torres Straits. 

Sepia rostrata D’Orbigny, Moreton Bay. 

»  Rouxii D’Orbigny, Moreton Bay. 

Argonanta argo Jinneus, Torres Straits. 


AMPHINEURA. 


Acanthopleura spiniger Sowerby, Townsville. 
Cryptoplax striatus Lamark. 
Ischnochiton fruticosus Gould. 


GASTEROPODA. 
Scutus anatinus Donavon, Moreton Bay. 
Subemarginula australis Q. and G., Cairns. 
SS parmophoroides Q. and G., Caloundra. 
Haliotis coccoradiata Reeve, Caloundra. 
ss Cunninghamii Gray, Torres Straits. 
sf Roei Gray, Cairns. 
Trochus concinnus Dunker, Murray Island. 
incarnatus Philippi, Torres Straits. 
os mauritianus Gmelin, Caloundra. 
z noduliferus Lamark, Caloundra. 
radiatus Gmelin, Murray Island. 
@issculus Lischkeanus Pilsbry, Murray Island. 
Monodonta zebra Menke, Moreton Bay. 
Cantharidus (Elenchus) leucostigma Menke, Murray Islande 
Gibbula magus Linneus, Torres Straits. 
ie Strangei A. Adams, Gladstone. 
A Coxi Angas, Gladstone. 
Calliostoma picturata H. and A. Adams, Murray Island. 
7. oberwimmeri Preston, Murray Island. 
Euchelus baccatus Menke, Murray Island. 
7 instrictus Gould, Murray Island. 
fr mysticus Pilsbry, Caloundra. 
Bankivia fasciata Menke, Moreton Bay. 
Angaria laciniatus Lamark, Normanton. 
Ethalia costata Valenc., Murray Island. 
vestiarium LZ., Murray Island. 


39 


_ BY. JOHN SHIRLEY, B SC. . 97 


“Turbo pulcher Reeve, Bowen. 

setosus Gmelin, Gladstone. — 
stamineus Martyn, Bowen. 

Astralium asteriscus Reeve, Normanton. 

e fimbriatum Lamark, Caloundra. 

Liotia cidaris Reeve, Murray Island. 
Nerita chrysostoma Recluz, Murray Island. 

»  patula Sowerby, Caloundra. 

»  polita v. antiqua Recluz, Yeppoon, Wide Bay. 
* ,, signata Macleay, Murray Island. 
+ = 4, squamulata Le Guillou, Murray Island. 
Neritina pulligera Linneus, Cairns. 

a Rangiana Recluz, Murray Island. 

a variegata Lesson, Bowen. 
‘Tectarius bullatus Martyn, Cape York. 
Phenacolepas granocostatus Pease, Murray Island. 
Helcioniscus eucosmia Pilsbry, Caloundra. 

a tramosericus Montrouzer, Moreton Bay. 
Rissoina deformis Sowerby, Murray Island. 
‘Tatea rufilabris A. Adams, Tweed River. 
Truncatella valida Pfr., Murray Island. 
Hipponix antiquatus Linneus, Burleigh Head. 
Calyptraea calyptreformis Lamark. 

Cerithium Hanleyi Sowerby, Murray Island. 

re inflatum Quoy, Townsville. 

o3 lacteum Kiener, Murray Island. 

* tenellum Sowerby, Murray Island. 

" tuberculatum Linneus, Moreton Bay. 

*s tessellatum Sowerby, Murray Island. 
‘Cerithidea Fortunei A. Adams, Yeppoon. 

Ss obtusata Lamark, Moreton Bay. 
Pyrazus zonalis Bruguiere, Burleigh Head. 
Siliquaria australis Quoy and Gaimard, Caloundra. 
Strombus dilatatus Swainson, Torres Straits. 

a epidromis Linneus, Cardwell. 

ie floridus Lamark, Murray Island. 

be Isabella Lamark, Murray Island. 

a latissimus Linneus, Torres Straits. 


99 


*Given as a synonym of N. reticulata Karsten, but separated by E. 
A. Smith. 

+ Given as a synonym of N. chameleon Linneus, but separated by E. 
_A. Smith. 


98 ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND 


Strombus labiosus Gray, Torres Straits. 
Struthiolaria scutellata Martyn, Yeppoon. 
Pteroceras aurantium Lamark, Torres Straits. 
“ chiragra Lamark, Thursday Island. 
3 rugosum Sowerby, Torres Straits. 
Pyramidella sulcata 4. Adams, Murray Island. 
i variegata A. Adams, Murray Island. 
g: ventricosa Guerin, Cardwell. 
Fusus colus Linneus, Torres Straits. 

2 ,, Vv. nove-hollandize Reeve, Normanton. 

» spectrum Adams and Reeve, Yeppoon. 
Architectonica areolata Lamark, Murray Island. 

wi modesta Phillippi, Caloundra. 
RS Reevei Hanley, Normanton. 
Torinia infundibuliformis Gmelin, Caloundra. 
Cymatium caudatum Gmelin, Caloundra. 
doliarium Linneus, Torres Straits. 
* nodiferum Lamark, Bowen. 
Distortrix anus Linneus, Burketown. 
4 cancellatus Deshayes, Yeppoon. 
Melongena pugilina Born, Yeppoon. 
Bursa pulchra Gray, Caloundra. 
Cassidea achatina Lamark, Caloundra. 
Angasi Brazier, Caloundra. 
= rufa Linneus, Murray Island. 
Tonna costata Meuke, Torres Straits. 

a fimbriata Sowerby, Murray Island. 
Harpa conoidalis Lamark, Torres Straits. 
minor Martyn, Torres Straits. 

5, nobilis Martyn, Burketown. 

Natica maroceana Chemnitz, Murray Island. 
+ ,,  marochiensis Recluz, Moreton Bay. 
Polinices citrinus Philippi, Torres Straits. 
lactea Sowerby, Torres Straits. 
maura Lamark, Murray Island. 
rufa Born, Cape York. 

a Strangei Reeve, Bowen. 
Sigaretus incisus Reeve, Moreton Bay. 

»  papillus Gmelin, Moreton Bay. 
Cypraea annulata Gray, Torres Straits. 
brevidentata Sowerby, Caloundra. 


9? 


99 


9? 


39 


+ Joined to the preceding by Tyron, but separated by E. A. Smith. 


BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.SC. 99 


-Cypraea caput-anguis Phil., Caloundra. 
cicercula Gmelin, Murray Island. 
(Amphiperas) concinna Adams and Reeve, Caloundra. 
cribraria Linneus, Moreton Bay. 
cruenta Gmelin, Torres Straits. 
histrio Linneus, Cairns. 
+ interrupta Gray, Murray Island. 
Gy mappa Linneus, Gulf of Carpentaria. 
a neglecta Sowerby, Caloundra. 
nucleus Linneus, Murray Island. 
ee obvelata Lamark, Cairns. 
5 onyx Linneus, Burketown. 
y pantherina Solander, Torres Straits. 
=a poraria Linneus, Wide Bay. 
-: pyriformis Gray, Townsville. 
= reticulata Martyn, Cairns. 
ae scurra Chemnitz, Torres Straits. 
stolida Linneus, Caloundra. 
pe tabescens Solander, Murray Island. 
talpa Linneus, Torres Straits. 
1 teres Gmelin, Murray Island. 
rz testudinaria Linneus, Torres Straits. 
ventriculus Lamark, Torres Straits. 
ifein Childreni Gray, Wide Bay. 
Ovulum Angasi Adams, Caloundra. 
»  angulosum Lamark, Murray Island. 
“ birostris Lamark, Caloundra. 
‘“ lacteum Lamark, Yeppoon. 
a pyriformis Sowerby, Murray Island. 
fs verrucosum Lamark, Caloundra. 
Radius nr. seminulum Sowerby, Caloundra. 
Scaphella Norrissi Sowerby, Cape York. 
7 » V. Sophie Brazier, Cape York. 
a pallida Gray, Barrier Reef, Bowen. 
se piperita Sowerby, Cardwell. 
x reticulata Reeve, Gulf of Carpentaria. 
_ Turneri Gray, Gulf of Carpentaria. 
vespertilio Linneus, Gulf of Carpentaria. 
Cylindra nucea Meuschen, Bowen. 
Oliva bicolor Lamark, Normanton. 
,,  bulbiformis Ducloz, Murray Island. 
,, carneola Lamark, Murray Island. 


399 


>] 


100 ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND 


‘Oliva elegans Martyn, Murray Island. 
,  erythrostoma Lamark, Cape York. 
, tfunebralis Lamark, Murray Island. 
»  guttula Martyn, Torres Straits. 
, inflata Lamark, Trinity Bay. 
»  irisans v. fulgetrum, Murray Island. 
,  mustellina Lamark, Normanton. 
,,  sanguinolenta Lamark, Torres Straits. 
,,  tessellata Lamark, Torres Straits. 
,  tremulina Lamark, Murray Island. 
‘Marginella compressa Reeve, Murray Island. 
u triplicata Gaskoin, Murray Island. 
‘Terebra babylonia Lamark, Murray Island 
i cerithina Lamark, Cairns. 
as Dussumieri, Kiener, Bowen and Normanton. 
* mera, Hinds, Bowen. 
* monilis Quoy, Cape York. 
my nitida Hinds, Murray Island. 
i subtextile Smith, Bowen. 
iG trochlea Deshayes, Normanton. 
‘Conus aureus Hwass, Moreton Bay. 
»  bullatus Linneus, Burketown. 
,  catus Hwass, Murray Island. 
,» cinereus Hwass, Caloundra. 
,  generalis Linneus, Torres Straits. 
, gubernator Hwass, Yeppoon. 
,,  lithoglyphus Meuschen, Torres Straits. 
. luteus, Brod., Burketown 
,» miles Linneus, Torres Straits. 
“* , minimus Linneus, Murray Island. 
5 monile Bruguiere, Yeppoon. 
“+ .,  ochroleuca Gmelin, Port Douglas. 
»  omaria Hwass, Torres Straits. 
»  rattus Hwass, Caloundra. 
,,  Sstillatus Reeve, Dunk Island. 
,,  stramineus Lamark v. zebra, Torres Straits. 
»  suturatus Reeve, Murray Island 
»  tulipa Linneus, Normanton. 
»  vexillum Gmelin, Torres Straits. 
, virgo Linneus, Torres Straits. 


*s. Conus coronatus Dillwyn. 
t+ s. Conus fasciatus Martyn. 


BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.SC. 10} 


Glyphostoma tribulationis Hedley, Hope Island. 
Mangilia gracilenta Reeve, Hope Island 
Pleurotoma babylonica Lamark, Cairns. 


39 


ba J 


cognata Smith, Burleigh Head. 
grandis Gray, Burketown. 


' Fasciolaria fimbriata Linneus, Torres Straits. 
Peristernia australiensis Reeve, Tweed Heads. 


99 


93 


spinosa Martyn, Keppel Bay. 
ustulata Reeve, Normanton. 


Mitra adusta Lamark, Cairns. 


aurantiaca Chemnitz, Moreton Bay. 


»  cadervosa Reeve, Bowen. 


cardinalis Gmelin, Murray Island. 
discoloria Reeve, Murray Island. 


»  Hainillei Petit, Cardwell. 
» luculenta Reeve, Murray Island. 


papalis Linneus, Torres Straits. 
pontificalis Lamark, Torres Straits. 
procissa Reeve, Moreton Bay. 


Tritonidea australis Pease, Tweed Heads. 
Engina zonata Reeve, Murray Island. 
Arcularia australis A. Adams, Murray Island. 


cancellata A. Adams, Murray Island. 
concinna Solander, Townsville. 
ecstilba Mell. and Stand., Murray Island. 
glans v. elegans Reeve, Caloundra. 
globosa Reeve, Torres Straits. 
Jacksoniana Q. and G., Caloundra. 
Jonasi Dunker, Moreton Bay. 

monile Kilvzr, Cape York. 

labecula A. Adams, Bowen. 
subspinosa Lamark, Normanton. 
tiarula Kilver, Townsville. 


Pyrene discors Gmelin, Bowen. 


H Koya 


Filmer Sowerby, Murray Island. 

fulgurans v. punctata Lamark, Murray Island. 
jaspidea Sowerby, Murray Island. 

pulchella Sowerby, Murray Island. 

marie Brazier, Murray Island. 

‘mercatoria Linneus, Bowen. 

Tavloriana Reeve, Murray Island. 

Tyleri Gray, Moreton Island. 


Soerrrty. 


102 ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND 


*Pyrene zelina Ducloz, Caloundra. 
Murex acanthostephes Watson, Normanton. 


i Bednalli Brazier, Normanton. 

4 haustellum Linneus, Torres Straits. 
. monodon Sowerby, Burketown. 

a osseus Reeve, Normanton. 


54 pyrum L., Cardwell, 

- torrefactus Sby., Gulf of Carpentaria 
Afer Blosvillei Deshayes, Caloundra. 

, carinifera Lamark, Normanton. 
Thais ambustulatus Hedley, Moreton Bay. 

,, bufo Lamark, Yeppoon. 

,»  haemostoma Linneus, Moreton Bay. 

,, intermedia Kiener, Keppel Bay. 

» pica Blainville, Torres Straits. 

,,  succincta v. textiliosa Lameark, Caloundra. 
Drupa biconica Blainville, Murray Island. 

,  grossularius Bolten, Torres Straits. 

,  horrida Lamark, Torres Straits. 
Plecotrema lirata H. and A. Adams, Burleigh Head. 
Ophicardelus australis A. Adams, Brisbane River. 
Melampus castaneus Muhl., Bowen. 

Bullina lineata Gmelin, Caloundra. 
Bullaria ampulla Linneus, Bowen. 
a » v. bifasciata Menke, Bowen. 
>, australis Q. and G., Caloundra. 
‘Haminea galba Pease, Murray Island. 
Hydatina albo-cincta, v. d. Hoeven, Stradbroke Island. 
Hexabranchus marginatus v. Griff, Hope Island. 


SCAPHOPODA. 
Dentalium elephantinum Linneus, Torres Straits. 
ee katowense Hedley, Murray Island. 
BRACHIOPODA. 


Lingula hians Swainson, Moreton Bay. 


* Considered by Tryon to be a form of P. discors Gmelin. 


A BORA RING IN THE ALBERT VALLEY, 


——o—— 


By JOHN SHIRLEY, B.Sc. 
(Sentor Inspector oF ScHoots). 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 24th September, 
1910. 


In my experience of thirty-three years, during which I 
have held the office of Inspector of Schools, it has been 
my duty to travel over the whole of the inhabited portion 
of Queensland. For twenty years this work was done 
almost solely on horseback, with long periods during which | 
it was necessary to carry packs, tent, and provisions, and 
thus an intimate knowledge was obtained of that part of 
Queensland sufficiently inhabited to require schools. It 
has often been my good fortune to discover and examine 
the so-called kipper or bora rings. In each instance these 
comprised two earthen rings, whose diameters were in 
the ratio of 3:8, or 1:2, connected by a path, generally 
5 feet wide and 4-600 yards long. ; 

In the South-east Moreton District | know of four of 
these bora rings; one at the junction of the Mudgeraba 
and Gilston Roads, not far from the Nerang railway station ; 
the second at Munninba, between the selections of Hon. 
J. G. Appel and Mr. Alexander Duncan; the third about 
a mile east of the Canungera Mill, at the junction of the 
Pine Creek and Coomera River Roads. The fourth, 
which is one of the largest I have ever seen, and differs 
from all others examined in several important particulars, 
is the subject of this paper. 

It is on the eastern bank of the Albert River, at 
‘Tambourine Village, on Mr. Henderson’s farm, and about 
a quarter of a mile from his house. 

The site is in sandy soil, on a flat ridge rising 30-40 
feet above the Albert River. The first ring is 80 feet in 


104 A BORA RING IN THE ALBERT VALLEY 


« diameter, looking like an immense circus ring, with walls: 
which are now two to three feet above the surrounding 
level, and almost uniformly five feet thick at the base. 
In this ring trees of nine inches in diameter are growing, 
showing that it has not been used for some years past. 

Leading out of the large ring at its southern side is 
a path, now partly overgrown with grass, and varying in 
width from 2 to 5 feet. This path is 400 yards long, and 
is in a north and south direction. 

The path ends in a second ring, 30 feet in diameter, 
resembling the first, but with rather less solid earthen 
walls. So far this “ kipper ring’’ resembles in plan alk 
others yet visited ; but guided by Mr. Henderson and Mr. 
B. Geissmann, of Capo di Monte, Tambourine Mountain, 
it was seen that from the southern side of the small ring 
the path continued for another 400 yards, where it ended 
in a third wall of earth, this time of an oval shape. 

This oval enclosure measures 80 feet long by 30 feet 
in its widest part. The long axis lies in the same directicn 
as the paths, almost exactly north and south. 

Mr. Thos. Petrie in his “ Reminiscences of Early 
Queensland,’ has given a graphic account of the Bora 
ceremony, as practiced by the tribes in the neighbourhood 
of Brisbane, pp. 44-57, with a plan of one of the rings on 
p. 49. But neither in his book, nor in any other work on 
Queensland aborigines, have I found mention of the third 
earthen enclosure to which I have referred. 

Round the third or oval earthen rampart is a semi- 
circular track or path, roughly shown in the plan. 
Unfortunately in the Albert Valley to-day there are only 
a few half-castes remaining, and from these it is difficult 
to obtain any information as to tribal customs. 

All writers on the “ kipper”’ initiation ceremony 
describe the tribal fights that took place at its close ; first 
the fights between the initiated boys, then the melée in 
which parties of tried warriors distinguished themselves,. 
and finally the single combats between tribal champions. 
It is the general belief in the Tambourine neighbourhood 
that the oval enclosure was the scene of these Homeric 
contests, and that the semi-circular track surrounding it 
was beaten by the feet of the tribesmen of combatants 
when cheering on the champion of their tribe. 


_ BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.SC. 105 


When one considers the tools used in raising these 
‘structures were merely pointed sticks and stone tomahawks, 
and that the earth was carried on sheets of bark, one 
marvels at the energy and persistence of a race generally 
megarded as one of the Inwest in the scale of humanity. 


' v th 


7) +f Epi” ae 5S 
. * Than Tot : 


ne 


2 


+ 


2 


if 


eek 


+e 


es 


Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’nanv. Vou. XXIII. Prater III. 


30 FEET 


400 YARDS 


400 YARDS 


50 FEET 


et in TR ERS Gol Ate SDR Se el 
ee ' a 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO. 


By R. CLIFFE MACKIE. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 26th, 
1910. 


ee 


As an old colonist and one whose occupation brought him 
in contact with the blacks while they were still numerous 
and while they still retained their original customs, I have 
thought it might be interesting and useful if I placed on 
record what I observed among them. This will soon be 
impossible for men of the present day, for the blacks are now 
few in number, and it hard to find a district where the blacks 
retain their old customs unaltered by contact with the 
white man. 


My memory dates back nearly sixty-six years. From 
the year 1850 up to 1867 I lived principally upon the out- 
skirts of civilization, engaged with others in establishing 
cattle stations on suitable areas of recently explored country, 
and thus necessarily came in contact with the blacks while 
yet unaltered by contact with the whites in the settled 
districts. Being young and impressionable I took a deep 
interest in their ways and customs. As soon as new “runs ”’ 
were occupied, the blacks began dimly to grasp the new 
situation. They appointed one of their tribe, who had 
passed through the usual “‘ Bora’’ ceremonies, to investi- 
gate as to the “ whitefellow” and his ways. This the 
black did by volunteering to assist in droving the first lot 
of fat stock sent from the neighbourhood to market. His 
services as tracker were most useful in following up cattle 
that had strayed o:i the camp during the night or had 
‘“‘ rushed’? owing to a thunderstorm or any other cause of 
fright. Having thus made himself indispensable to the 
camp, he, during a trip of some hundreds of miles in length 
and of some months in duration, allowed nothing to escape 
him which was of consequence to his race. 


108 ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 5O YEARS AGO 


Some of their inferences were very amusing. A 
Moonie River “ boy,’ who accompanied a drover to Sydney, 
was taken by him to the theatre. The piece was a tragedy, 
and as a finale the heroine was stabbed by an assassin. 
The dagger used was of the usual “ telescoping’ kind, 
and liquid, representing blood, dripped from the blade. 
Combo stood up in great excitement, and amid the dense 
silence, cried out in broken English, *‘ Well, well! Stupid 
white-fellow, to kill that budgeree (i.e., good) young 
woman! I want to go home!” On my telling him it 
was not real, he replied, “‘ I saw the blood on his knife.” 
The curtain fell with the drover, Combo and myself the 
cynosure of all eyes. I saw this same man about five 
years afterwards on the Balonne River. He told me he 
had just returned from North-west Queensland, having 
spent the whole intervening period fulfilling his mission. 
Knowing the interest I took in blacks’ ways, he told me 
his adventures, and, as was the custom in those days, I 
took him on as a sort of “* Man Friday.”’ 


The account he gave me was, as near as I can now 
remember, as follows :—The news of his return from Sydney 
had soon spread far and wide, and he was required at all 
corrobborees in order to recount to the other blacks what he 
had learned. 

The listening blacks carried the tale to more distant 
tribes, who wished corroborative evidence. Their etiquette 
ran thus : — 

A general meeting was convened at some rendezvous, 
and at dusk the fires were set blazing. The narrator left 
the circle and took up a position directly opposite to wltere 
the leading men of the community are stationed. One 
of the “‘ elders’? then calls out to him, ‘“‘ Where did you 
come from?’ He replies by naming the last place at 
which he spoke. ‘‘ Where are you going?” To this he 
replies that he is going all about with news because he has 
seen the white-fellows’ camp and the “big waterhole” 
{t.e., the sea). A general request is then made for him to 
unfold his tale. Choosing a position so that his voice can 
be heard through all the camp, and addressing himself to 
the leading men, he tells all he knows. As this is the univer- 
sal practice among them, and as in this way the news of 
Governor Phillip’s landing and the outbreak of the gold 


BY R. CLIFFE MACKIE. 109 


diggings would be carried over the Continent, all tales of 
men who speak of having met tribes that never had heard 
of or seen white men must be received with extreme caution. 
I myself met, 40 years ago, blacks who declared that they 
were a ‘‘ moon’s journey’ from their own “ towrie”’ or 
hunting-ground. It is very hard to get reliable information 
as to their ways. They distrust and stand in awe of adult 
whites and will not reveal much to them. They are more 
free with young white boy and girls, but the latter are not 
prone to ask for information of the kind indicated nor to 
understand it when given. Besides, blacks would be very 
unlikely to discuss such topics with children too young to 
be told of such matters. It might be a matter of wonder 
why those white men who have lived among the blacks for 
years can or will tell so little about them. As a matter of 
fast, such whites are merely kept as curiosities by the blacks, 
just as we keep a strange animalina‘“‘ Zoo.” As the novelty 
wears off, the prisoner is relegated to the society of the 
‘gins ’’ and “* piccanninies,”’ and he is allowed no part in 
tribal discussions or initiations. This humiliating treat- 
ment, which is very keenly felt, makes the white prisoner 
on his return to civilization unwilling even to talk of matters 
which revive the galling memories of his past treatment. 
Such men are never allowed to learn anything of the matters 
and ceremonies afiecting adult blacks, nor would they be 
very likely to tell if they did know. They resent any 
inquiries which would lead to the disclosure of how com- 
pletely they had been ignored. 


It is probable that the race at one time were of a 
higher intelligence and civilization than now. Those who 
instituted their social and marriage rules must have been 
of a higher type than the savages that Captain Cook met. 
‘The present natives could scarcely invent the laws relating 
to marrriage and consanguinity nor those relating to their 
socialeconomy. There are many of their rules which remind 
one of the ancient Hindu and Thibetan rules. Whether 
similarity of social rules implies a similar racial origin is 
unsettled. 

With regard to their origin they have no theories to 
offer. Even with regard to their own individual existence, 
all they can suggest is that their ‘‘ totem” in some way 
influences the circumstance. With regard to their charac- 


“110 ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO 


teristics, it may be remarked that treachery is so common. 
among them that they, from fear of an attack from an enemy, 
are habitually light sleepers. ‘Lhe circumstances of their 
lives make them keen observers, though this charae- 
teristic diminishes after long residence with white men. 


Most of the young men are vain, and like to decorate 
themselves with gaudy feathers, shells, pipe-clay, ochre,. 
or anything of a showy nature. The “ gins” (except when 
being young they are given to these decorations) rarely 
indulge in such frivolities. 

The men have no conception of feminine beauty in the: 
sense in which we understand such a feeling ; and have no 
sense of conjugal love. They treat their children in- 
dulgently till the age of puberty, after which they abandon. 
them to their own resources. 

Taken generally, they are a laughter-loving people, 
and generous to a fault. The narrow rance of their ideas. 
is, no doubt, responsible for their taciturnity, and this may 
account for their limited vocabulary, which makes 
them represent by a _ diiterence in emphasis rather 
than by a different word any diferent shade _ of 
meaning. This  :s especially the case with the 
“gins *? when excited. Their language is pronounced with 
a marked nasal intonation. They had no recognised chief.. 
Each man had influence according to his force of character.. 
There were no tribal boundaries beyond the usual habits of 
remaining on a known hunting ground. An illegitimate 
could go to the next tribe, select a wife and marry. He 
would not be killed as an alien. Wounds were healed by 
an application of mud, and their flesh heals rapidly. They 
survive wounds which would end white men. For bowel 
troubles they use “‘ apple-tree ”’ gum, or the gum from some 
other eucalypt. 

When forced to go hungry they gradually tighten a 
belt of opossum hair round their stomachs, and this mod- 
erates the pain of hunger, or, at any rate, makes it less. 
keenly felt. 

The mothers are very fond of their sons, and on the 
return of a son after a long absence, the mother sits in front 
of him, puts her hand on his knees, and, looking pleadingly 
up in his face, says, “‘ Ti on naa, nia berahli’”’ (Come to me,. 
my child). 


BY R. CLIFFE MACKIF. 111 


A messenger carrying news to other tribes, Lefore he 
camps for the night, will cross the top end of the water- 
course, follow down to the lower end, and re-cross. ‘Lhis 
latter manceuvre is supposed to leave behind any malignant 
spirit which may have dogged their footsteps. 


A myall (wild black) will not follow walking behind a 
white whom he loves lest his savage instincts should lead 
him to take a treacherous advantage. 

They are not cruel, but, like children, are incapable of 
mental sympathy. They will not drown or kill puppies, 
but will put a whole litter into a hollow stump and abandon 
them to show starvation without compunction. They 
seem to form no mental conception of pain which they do 
not actually see or hear. 

It is not true that they abandon their aged or infirm 
to die of starvation. In all cases such victims were volun- 
tary martyrs, who, owing to senile decay, became despon- 
dent, and, at their own request, were taken to the neigh- 
bourhood where they wished to die, the whole camp demon- 
strating in various ways their sympathy. 

Upon arriving there, the patient was laid on his sleep- 
ing apparel with all his worldly goods. His friends then 
departed, and the patient, by the mere exertion of his 
will-power, died off in a sort of stupor or sleep, because 
he had willed to cease living. It was only those from 
other tribes, who, unable to brook the restrictions of the 
white invaders, left their own hunting-grounds and sought 
an asylum along their neighbour tribes that were left to 
die neglected. As they had no blood relations, they were 
left to meet their end as best they could, a tribal law for- 
bidding sympathy to one who was not of their tribe. But 
those of the same “‘ totem ”’ might, by consent of the tribe, 
bury the stranger. No other blacks would venture to do 
so, lest some evil might befall them. ‘Lhe stranger was 
generally buried, it may be remarked. 

A man or woman might only marry according to certain 
prescribed “ groups.” If a young gin were the destined 
mate for a certain black, he allowed her to run about as 
she pleased just as any mere animal might do till such time 
as he felt inclined to claim her. From this time on, she was 
for him alone. Should there be a piccaninny which, owing 
to this prior freedom of conduct, he did not consider his,. 


112 ANTHROPOLGGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO 


he refused the midwife all countenance for the child. The 
midwife then went to the mother who had gone through her 
confinement at a spot some distance away, and intimated 
that the child was unwelcome. The little stranger 
then disappeared as not wanted; so generally did one of 
twins. It is worthy of remark that the old midwife gener- 
ally pleaded hard for the child till the blackfellow indicated 
by an angry reaching for a nulla-nulla that he was weary 
of the subject, and would knock on the head perhaps her, 
the piccaninny, or both if she worried him much longer. 
Sometimes a black through jealousy refused to have the 
child saved. Crippled or deformed babies might be killed. 

It is not true, on the Darling and Murray waters, at 
any rate, that piccaninnies were killed when food was scarce 
or when the tribe had a journey to go. I do not presume 
to speak for districts unknown to me in this connection. 
The husband might have one or two wives, but they must 
be of the prescribed ‘“‘ group.”’ He would lend one for any 
time, short or long, to a visitor from another tribe, provided 
the visitor were not of the wrong “ group ’’—this to avoid 
consanguinity. There is a remarkable similarity to Maho- 
metan customs as regards divorce. They can divorce a 
wife, and, if all parties are agreeable, make them eligible 
to re-marry. First cousins may not marry. The children 
of such marriages and of marriages in prescribed “ groups ” 
are treated as illegitimates are with us. A front tooth is 
knocked out as a brand, and the outcast may marry in 
another tribe, or, if a gin, may become the property of a 
low white or a Chinaman. The low white or Chinaman 
prefers such a gin, as no blackfellow is likely to come and 
dispute possesion with him, nor is any visiting black likely 
to coax her away for a_ wife, as the tribe to which she 
belongs would favour the white man or Chinaman. 

No “‘ illegitimate ’’ may marry in his or her own tribe. 
The parents marry their girl to a suitable man. She is not 
consulted. Two men may exchange wives or barter them. 

Grown-up sons are expected to provide for their mother, 
and according to their lights they do so. The old men are 
kept in the camp with the gins, who carry them if necessary. 

Should any infant die, the mother must carry the corpse 
about with her for a certain time, according to the social 
order, before she buries it. The succeeding menstrual 


BY R CLIFFE MACKIE. 113 


period frees her from the obligation. The burial rites differ 
according to the several “‘ castes” of consanguinity. Some 
are put into a hollow tree which is still standing. Others 
are tied neck and heels and placed face downwards in a 
moderately deep hole, or they are laid in a shallow trench 
and covered over with leaves, earth, and long heavy saplings 
to save them from carrion birds. Dingoes, it is not generally 
known, will not eat human flesh. A grave was indicated 
by a single “ blaze ’’ on each tree in a circle round the grave. 
They had neither fear nor reverence with regard to such 
burial spots, but would not walk over a grave. One obser- 
vance is purely religious. A dead warrior is put on a 
wooden frame and placed over a smouldering smoking fire. 
The mourners rush up to the corpse and rub the oozing grease 
from the corpse over their own breasts and limbs. This is 
done to set free and send his soul away so that it will no 
longer follow them. 

In no instance on the inland waters did cannibalism 
obtain. The blacks would, however, eat stale eggs, putrid 
flesh, loathsome insects, etc. 

Like the ancient Egyptians, as seen in hieroglyphs, 
they used “ message sticks.’ Certain characters were cut 
into the message stick to assist the memory of a tribal dele- 
gate visiting another tribe on public affairs. 


They made effigies—such as a miniature snake—and 
these were used from the Condamine River to the Murrum- 
bidgee River at all religious ceremonies. The “‘ Thoroo 
Mullion”? or ‘“ bull-roarer’”? was only used at “ bora” 
ceremonies. 

They do not eat the animal whose “ totem” they wear, 
but the rest of the tribe may, as it is only a social “‘ taboo ’— 
of breaking which they would feel greatly ashamed if 
detected. 

They ate the grubs from the wattle trees, also the 
little yellow “ hypoxis’? yam. They would not eat the 
lily root as it made them sick, but they did eat the seed pod 
of a big lily in the ‘‘ Nangram’”’ waterhole. This is a big 
lily, sometimes blue and sometimes red, which grows about 
6 miles below Fairy Meadow on the Condamine River. 
This pod when ripe bursts with a great “‘ pop.” They ate 
a big yam—the “ Weeah’’—which has a running vine. 
The cattle “ate this yam out” by eating the vine down 


114 ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO 


persistently. It was found by tapping with the foot on 
the ground. It grew about 12 inches below the surface, 
and was best when from a year to eighteen months old. 
It was so juicy as to be as good as a drink on a hot day. 
They ate white ants, bee larve, and bee bread. 


A ‘ possum-belt’’ or loin cloth was worn, but by the 
young gins only. The males wore nothing. A stranger 
guest at a ceremony was distinguished by a few strips of 
kangaroo tail before and behind. 

The septum of the nose was gradually dug through 
with the little finger nail, and a quill inserted. This was 
considered a great decoration. 

The ‘‘ humpies ”’ were called “‘ gundis,”’ and were made 
of bark. Goondiwindi (the town) simply means “ the hut 
on the water hole.” 

They used no ‘“‘ woomerah.”’ ‘They had the ordinary 
light currajong “ heelaman,” also a special “ heelaman” 
for warding off boomerangs. Certain blacks were the recog- 
nised weapon-makers. The stone tomahawks were sharp- 
pened by water and friction. One of their “ grounds ” 
where these were prepared lies about 100 yards below the 
old house at Cobboreena, on the west of the Creek. The 
‘* dilly-bags ’’ were made of Xerotes, which the gins scorched 
while it was green, and, after a month, they pulled it up, 
dried it, and used it. 

Currajong fibre was beaten out, steeped in water and 
mud, and made into “ dilly-bags.’”> Kangaroo sinew was 
used for sewing opossum rugs. The “ reed-spear’’ was 
unknown, brigalow being used. 

The ‘‘ weet-weet ’’—a sort of torpedo-shaped stick— 
was used in play. One man held a small green twig or 
branchlet about three feet above the ground. Another 
jerked the weet-weet through this, and the toy often flew 
300 yards, the tail controlling its flight. They are 
guided in making their appointments as to religious cere- 
monies, etc., by the movements of the more conspicuous 
heavenly bodies, as Orion’s Belt, but a moonless night is 
always chosen for such ceremonies. The Milky Way and 
Magellan’s Clouds are watched, but the Moon and Orion’s 
Belt are, in that order, their chief guides as to times and 
seasons for social functions. They take interest in Venus 
as an evening star, but fail to recognise her in the morning. 


> 


BY R. CLIFFE MACKIE. 115 


‘They are afraid when an eclipse occurs, and include it with 
meteors and whirlwinds among the malignant spirits which 
they propitiate by making a peculiar kind of noise. When 


a blood relation dies, they note the position of some planet, 


and when that planet again returns in its annual course 
they renew their mourning and cry without shedding a tear: 
They think all the stars, planets, etc., are alive. They had 
several religious and social ceremonies. The “ corrob- 
boree ’’ was more of a social character, and a great ‘‘ Borah ”’ 
was their great religious ceremony. The word “ Bora” 
means a place where religious functions common to the com- 


.munity may be carried out. On the Murray River basin 


and all its tributaries a grand bora was held about every 
10 years. The time and place were arranged according to 
conditions of weather. No hunting is carried on in that 
place for at least a year, that there may be game enough to 
supply the assembled tribes while the bora lasts. As the 
time draws near, all the tribesmen within a reasonable 
distance visit the spot and help in the excavation. They 
use yam-sticks to loosen the soil, and, commencing from the 
centre of the ring with flat pieces of wood or tough bark 
for shovels, they throw the dirt between their legs behind 
them towards the outer rim of the circle which is to encom- 
pas the sacred ground. They usually excavate about six 
inches of the surface soil, which they ultimately form into 
a mound to represent and define the ring. Within speaking 
distance is a much smaller circle, where the neophytes 
must wait till called by the elders. 


The Kamiloroi tongue is used in these functions as 
being commonly understood by all the Western tribes of 
whatsoever dialect they be. 

The Neophytes are taught how to throw bundies, 
boomerangs, weet-weets, nulla-nullas and spears. They 
are taught weapon-making and rude blacksmithing. They 
get a secret family name, which, however, eventually leaks 
out by accident. The indispensable knack of quivering 
the muscles of the arms and thighs as shown at corrobkorees 
is taught here. 

Weapons were bartered. Marriage disputes were 
settled and questions of consanguinity. Jllegitimates had 
a tooth knocked out. All private and public disputes were 
argued out. No tribe had a chief. Each man’s opinion 


116 ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO 


carried weight according to his earnestness on the question 
and his force of character. These outings sometimes lasted 
for months, each tribe inviting the other to its “‘ towrie’’ 
or hunting ground. Idolatry was unknown either at boras. 
or at any other time. Effigies were used, but not wor- 
shipped. The ‘‘ mysterious observances’ talked about. 
have no foundation in fact. They have no theories as to a 
future life. The ‘“ die blackfellow, jump up white-fellow ’* 
is a white man’s importation. They believe in the presence 
of departed spirits and do not like to name a deceased person. 
Their grief at a death is very demonstrative and noisy, 
and is accompanied by their cutting themselves with mussel 
shells and sharp flints. They have no idea of God. All 
their ‘“‘ theology ”’ is associated with evil spirits supposed 
to inhabit the heavenly bodies, thunder, lightning, meteors, 
shooting stars, etc. 

Their ideas and ceremonies vary somewhat in different 
tribes, just as do our own religious sects. In the North the 
bora ring is an area like a rabbit-warren ; the large and small 
circles of one tribe and the two equal circles of another 
being merely differences in matters of form. The root prin- 
ciples are the same. 

The extraordinary lengths to which these bora practices. 
sometimes run have a parallel in the religious frenzies seen 
among our own race at times. 

The ‘“‘ Yo-Yo” bora ceremonies of the Barwon River 
are almost identical with the ‘‘ Wom-nay-narah-narah ”’ 
of Cooper’s Creek. 

The cutting off the top joint of the little finger and the 
piercing the septum of the nose are of social and not of 
religious significance. Pipe-clay marks on a gin had a 
medico-sexual import, not a religious one. The corrob- 
boree serves as a history or record of political and domestic 
events, and is an easy way of spreading local gossip to the 
other tribes. To send unwelcome rain away, all the men 
gathered kneeling in a ring round a “ charm ”’—a water- 
worn stone—and for half-an-hour repeated “ Wee yan 
Burran’”’ (Go away, rain). If the rain went, faith in the 
‘““stone’’ increased; if not, some other tribe was praying 
for the rain to continue. With the advent of the whites, 
and the dying out of the blacks, boras and corrobborees are 
neglected and forgotten. The marriage and other laws 


BY R. CLIFFE MACKIE. Li7 


of the blacks are becoming confused and forgotten. ‘heir 
“group ”’ distinctions are dying out, and they no longer 
take the chance of learning the arts peculiar to themselves, 
as these are fast becoming needless with the advent of white 
man’s food, weapons and laws. 

Only the low-class whites will fraternise with the 
blacks, who, therefore, learn nothing of us but our vices. 
The contact with the lowest stratum of our race has not 
been a benefit to the aboriginals. All honour to those who 
have endeavoured to preserve, help and teach them. As 
their visual and other sense organs are the faculties most 
developed in them, any attempt at teaching them should be 
directed to an appeal through these channels rather than 
through mental processes beyond their grasp. 

I append a list of native words with their meanings, 
as these are often of interest to present day readers. 


Billa ee x0) .. = Waterhole, as Wallum- 
billa, Bogrambilla, 
Yulabilla 

Dilla J, 2 .. = Waterhole, Manandilla, 

= Armadilla, Muckadilla. 

Kobble sie a .. =  Waterhole, Kobble, Kob- 
ble, Cobblegun. 

Bumba a ed .. == An angle in a creek 

Cooroora.. be .. = Big waterhole with rocks 
in. 

Euroka a He oe. TTL, 

Goodar ve as .. = Pine on one side of the 


water and box and 
coolibah on the other. 
Ba sf s- ..° == ‘Waterhole, =<‘ Whyen- 
bah, Tarawinnabah, 
Ibbinbah, Wallanbah. 
Whyenbah = Water- 
hole between two 
high ridges. 


Wallan = Bendee 
country. 
Ba = Water. 
Quey Bunda % .. = Red Kangaroo. 
Denown = Kmu. 
Yeppi = ~ Carpet: Snake: 


I Koyau Soerery. 


118 


Mundowie 
Mil 


Binna 


Numba 
Banjamin 
Meranjan 
Beerahli 
Goleer 


Geer 
Kamel 


Waal 
Boie 
Thaluma 
Boorae 
Collie 
Collie Mungul 
Ki-i 
Goona 
Keel 
Andillo 
Bogal 
Myall 


Beer .. 
Bullah 
Cooleebah : 
Tallah Inneu Ti Annowin 


Tallah Innen Yan Nowie.. 
Tanno Qui Qui Arrathy .. 


Auga Mundi 


Niah Inneu Bunnaguy 
Bundagie .. 


‘A. black who 


ANTHROPCLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO 


Foot. 

Kye. (Innu-gomille = 
you see). 

Ear (Innu-binna = you 
hear). 

Mother. 

Husband. 

Wife or woman. 

Picanninny, child. 

Borrowed wife, sweet- 
heart, or rejected wife. 

Yes. 

No (in Kamilaroi ton- 
gue). 

No (in Wallaroi tongue) 

Die. 

Thunder. 

Fire or Lightning. 

Water (Umbercollie). 

Big waterhole. 

Excessively amorous. 

Excrement 

Urine. 

Blackfellow 

Stranger blackfellow. 

knows 
nothing of white men. 

One. 

Two. 

Three. 

Where have you come 
from 2 

Where are you going to ? 

The other side of some 

red ground. 

Gather round. The 
** bora’”’ ground of the 
white writers. 

(“‘ Bora ” is not a blacks’ 
word.) 

I and you go. 

Fall down. 


BY R. CLIFFE MACKIE. 119 


Innu Kunmullie Let go, you. 


Kuckill 7 7" -. = No good (anything 
objectionable). 

Weaarree willijoe .. -- = _ we'll sit down. 

‘Ti Una = Come here. 


MARRIAGE CODE AND LAWS. 


Brothers : Sisters : 
Cubbee Cubbatha 
Hippi Hippatha 
Murri Matha 

~ Combo _ Bootha 


Cubbee Marries Matha 

Hippi Marries Bootha 

Murri Marries Cubbatha 

Combo Marries Hippatha 

Children take their parents’ names according to their 

‘group; and also their totem appellation, which is 
exchanged for their group name, when they obtain 
puberty. 


alt 


. é oo ie EP 
P s* be e ce 
ey F A 4 yet! aia te | a 
2 . 
éxi8 ar & 
" , 2. “7a vs “eT iY ‘ 
1 : ’ na 
: 
‘ 
Ll ae 
, 
we te 
4 ' ‘ 
sy én 
: eo" 
rs : 4, at . 
; jo bp i bai ate 
j 
? o 
} 4 « 7 
> 
‘ 
be ’ 
1 é 
, 
a. 
i * 
’ 
: : 
" v 


NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO, 


By W. R. COLLEDGE. 


Presidential Address, read before the Royal Society of 
Queensland, 25th February, 1911. 


Ladies and Gentlemen,— 

You have heard from the Report that the year has 
not been unfruitful. Our late Premier was reported to 
have asked if the Royal Society was alive. The best 
answer to that will be the substantial volume of the pro- 
ceedings which will soon issue from the press. It will be 
found more bulky than some of its predecessors. This 
is partly the result of kind contributors, the efforts of our 
very energetic Secretary, supplemented by members of 
the Council. But if the half of those who have been 
appealed to had responded in the affirmative, the result 
would have been a still more bulky volume as the evidence 
of our existence. 

Only those who have sought to secure such work as 
is desired by the Royal Society know the difficulty that 
exists in obtaining original contributions. A trouble that 
is not peculiar to our State; for I note in the last report 
of that old-established Microscopic Society of London, 
the “ Quekett Club’? (of which our Bacteriologist, Mr, 
Pound, is a member), that they complain of the same 
difficulty ; and regretfully say that if more original papers 
are not forthcoming, then the usefulness of their valuable 
magazine will be much curtailed. This is somewhat sur- 
prising, considering that the age is one of intense activity. 
There has never been as much scientific work done, in the 
same time, in any previous age, as in the present. All 
the world over, more men are occupied, who possess wider 
‘knowledge and more finished equipment than they ever 
had before. New fields of work are continually opening 


122) NOTES ON A BRUSH TONGUED MOSQUITO 


up; many of these are occupied ; the work is being done,. 
but a great deal of it does not seem to come to the Societies. 
which exist for its furtherance and development. We 
are sometimes tempted to ask are these bodies getting 
out of touch, or sympathy, with their mission, so that. 
the workers do not receive from them a warm hand grip,. 
and an encouraging word, and for want of them, keep. 
aloof. That at least is not the case with the Society here. 
Its Council are only too glad to welcome all work that bears. 
on it the stamp of originality. We have suffered some- 
what from our inability to present, what we do get, in a 
better illustrated form. In bygone days a Government 
grant enabled us to secure engravings to _ illustrate 
adequately some of the subjects read at our meetings. 
But when, in darker times than these, the knife of retrench- 
ment ruthlessly lopped off that source of revenue, and we: 
had to depend only on members’ subscriptions, then as 
honest men, making the Society pay its way, we did 
our best to keep the flag flying, but could not afford 
expensive engravings for the illustration of papers, and. 
on that account some work done in this State is said to- 
have gone to others who were able to furnish them in a. 
superior style. That has told against us, and other States 
have gained credit for work which otherwise might have 
appeared in our pages. But we believe that better times 
are coming. The establishment of the University in. 
Queensland ; the gathering of the most gifted of our youths. 
from all parts of the land must give an impetus to 
scientific work. 

The presence of Professors and teachers, who having” 
won laurels in other lands, and now make this fair city 
their home, cannot but have a powerful uplifting force. 
Their sympathies must be with us. And as, amid their 
onerous duties, some at least occasionally will be able 
to grace this platform, they will give the Royal Society 
a deeper inspiration, and make it a mightier force than it. 
has ever been before. 


To-night I wish to bring before you some interesting 
features of one of the species of mosquitoes found in our 
neighbourhood. Certain kinds of these insects are knowm 
to carry very serious diseases, and the whole family are re- 


BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 1238 


garded with suspicion. But the one I refer to is of a blame- 
less character, and probably the whole of the group to 
which it belongs are likewise harmless to humankind. 
They belong to the genus Megarrhina (R. Desvoidy), and 
are distinguished from others by their generally large size, 
brilliant coloration, peculiar shape of proboscis, and the 
possession of a caudal fan. Tropical and subtropical regions 
are their homes. Giles in his book enumerates fifteen species. 
They have been found in the Argentine, Brazil, Sikkim 
and Central Asia, Java, Batavia, Island of Formosa. Alfred 
Wallace notes them from Singapore, the Celebes Islands, 
New Guinea and Queensland. So far only one of the species 
has been reported from this State. They range from 
Thursday Island, Port Denison. Mr. Tryon found them 
on Percy Island, Dr. Bancroft at Caboolture; and I 
have got larva from North Pine and Milton. 


Sufficient material to make complete dissections of 
all parts of the body have not been available, but the little 
I have done is both interesting and instructive. This 
particular species was called Megarrhina speciosa, but 
Mr. Theobald, the authority at the British Museum on 
the Diptera, has rechristened it T'oxorynchites speciosa, 
so that it is now known by that name. 


On the 8th March, 1910, Dr. Parry (whose recent 
decease we greatly lament) brought down to me a living 
female specimen caught ten miles from Brisbane. This 
was the first living one I had seen. The next night it 
deposited on the water in its prison house a few eggs. These 
were laid, not in a raft like the house mosquito, but sep- 
arately on the water. They are oval, measuring the 50th 
of an inch in length by the 42nd in breadth. The micro- 
pyle is at the centre of one end, and the shell splits cen- 
trally through its long axis for the emergence of the larva. 
The eggs are pale in colour, do not darken by exposure 
to the air, like some species, and the surface is finely granu- 
lated. In two days they hatched, and the larva, pale and 
transparent, lay on the surface of the water. I thought 
from their appearance and absence of motion that they 
were cast off skins, until on touching one with the point 
of a needle, it gave a twitch, and I found that they were 
the new born larva of this particular species. 

The larva of many species are characteristic, so that 


124 NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO 


they can be recognised by anyone who has studied thire 
peculiarities. In the Toxorynchites speciosa the head is 
small, rectangular in shape, with a short unjointed palp 
projecting from either cheek. The thorax is about twice 
the length and breadth of the head. Three sets of short 
feathered balancing hairs spring from stout conical papilla 
on the sides. These bend towards the head. On the 
abdominal segments are similar papilla bearing much 
longer tufts of bristles. The terminal segment in the new 
born larva is longer and carries four very long seta, which 
are replaced in the next moult by a different form of appen- 
dage. In three or four days the colour becomes yellow. 
I found to my sorrow they were cannabilistic in practice. 


I placed in clean water so that there should be no 
insects to do them hurt. But they preyed on one another, 
and it became a question of the survival of the fittest. 
On returning from business at night, I found only two alive, 
one seriously injured. He had received a bite through 
the chest which severed one of the main tracheal tubes, 
and notwithstanding careful nursing he died in three days. 


The survivor was much more robust, and as the effect 
of his orgies, grew so as to require a new suit of clothes, 
for he moulted on the fourth day. This did not make 
any alteration in his appearance excepting in the tail 
appendages. In some species the difference is much 
marked, so that before and after the moult they look like 
two different species. Here the only change was in size 
and the tail fan. On the fifth day, granules of dark pig- 
ment began to appear, turning the general colour reddish 
brown, though the abdomen remained much paler. I 
regularly fed it on the larva of other mosquitoes, which 
it seized in characteristic style. First it displayed an 
aspect of perfect indifference to their presence. Not a 
muscle moved nor a balancing hair turned. It might 
be a floating splinter of wood for any sign of life. The 
other larva might swim round and almost touch it, but 
there was no sign of anxiety to cultivate a closer acquaint- 
ance. Thus all fear they might at first have at its 
presence subsided. By-and-bye, however, it would sidle 
up with a slow motion, watching intently with the head 
sloping downwards, the tail being attached to the surface 
film. Remaining motionless, it) measured the striking 


BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 125 


distance. If not quite near enough, then there was no 
muscular motion of the front part of the body, but the 
three last segments of the abdomen were quietly telescoped 
into each other, then outhrust, thus bringing him a little 
nearer. This generally took some time. And as ordinary 
larva are of an active nature they frequently moved to 
another place. But, with indomitable patience, the same 
process was repeated, again and again. Until at last the 
chance came, there was a flash from the seemingly inanimate 
body, and the larva struggled in his grip. Seized some- 
times by the middle, occasionally by one of the palps on 
the head, there was no escape from those relentless jaws. 
Gradually it was drawn in, chewed bit by bit, until all the 
juices were extracted. Skin and crushed organs were then 
thrown aside, and in an hour or two the same process was 
repeated, and so several larva were disposed of every day. 
It did not entirely confine itself to mosquito larva, for 
a moth accidentally singing its wings at the lamp fell on 
the water of its preserve. Likea trout at a fly it rose, seized 
and dragged it down. I regularly fed it with mosquito 
larva obtained from various sources for the succeeding 
months, but the cooler weather retarded its development, 
and it was not until the 27th of August that it threw off 
its larval skin and entered into the pupa stage. Then it 
was 24 weeks old. 

The pupa, or next stage of the insect, is distinguished 
from others of the family by its comparative size. They 
are veritable giants. Mr. D. O’Connor showed me one 
which had been sent to him as a curiosity some months 
ago. They are heavily built, chocolate brown in colour, 
and chiefly spend their time lying on the surface of the water. 
The cephalothorax is at first triangular in side view, but 
as the insect develops within, the lower portion grows as 
far as the third segment of the abdomen. 

On the nape is a large tuft of palmate hairs, which, 
by laying hold of the surface film, helps to steady its body 
‘on the surface of the water. 

It now breathes from the head, instead of the tail, 
as in the larval state, and the two spiracles or Lreathing 
organs are placed one on each side of the head. They 
are of the same dark chocolate colour as the body, but the 
internal surface is golden, contrasting beautifully with 
the darker background. 


126 NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO 


The connecting membrane of the segments, as in the 
case of the larva, is of a pale and flexible character. At 
the end is the telson or swimming appendage, composed 
of two broad fans. These diverge from each other more 
decidedly than they do in the pupa of other species with 
which I am acquainted. A stout rib passes down the centre 
of each leaf, and they are studded with minute hairs. The 
pupa stage continued for fifteen days; the perfect insect 
emerged on September 8th; the period from egglaying 
to perfect insect, being six months. This is probably 
much longer than it would have been in a natural state. 
In artificial conditions, mosquitoes require a much longer 
time to pass through their life changes than if they were 
placed in natural conditions. But this is the only instance 
where I have been able to breed from the egg to the perfect. 
insect. 

The adult insect is the largest and most handsome 
of all the species. The body measures three-quarters of 
an inch in length, and when the legs are extended from the 
sides, they cover a space of an inch and a half. So that 
it is a veritable giant in its tribe. 

Not only is it distingiushed for size, but likewise for 
beauty. The black eyes are bordered by silvery scales. 
The proboscis, palpi, and antenne, have blue and gold 
reflections. The pleura, or sides of the chest, are plated 
with flat gold scales with a pale lustre. The legs are dark 
brown, ornamented with scattered scales of silver and 
gold. While from the terminal segment of the body 
extends a miniature peacock’s tail, termed the caudal 
fan; it is black with patches of gold. Thus, though our 
prejudices are strongly against the order, yet we cannot 
deny that this species possesses beauty. 

One thing that strikes us is the shape of the proboscis. 
In most mosquitoes this organ is straight or slightly curved. 
This is an exception. The first half—a stout conical por- 
tion—projects straight from the head, but at the middle: 
it bends abruptly downwards, tapering at the same time, 
like the lash of a whip. 

An engineer, or a mechanic, examining that instru- 
ment would say that it was not meant for thrusting into 
flesh. It would be absurd to make a bayonet fora soldier 
with a curve in it like that. The hypodermic needle of 


BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 127 


the surgeon must be made straight for its special purpose. 
If it were given a curvature, such as we have there, it 
would bend or break at the first thrust. 


These considerations led me to dissect the organ 
with a good deal of interest, and I was rewarded by an 
interesting discovery, which, so far as I know, has not 
been noticed before. We are familiar with the statement 
that the female mosquito has neatly packed in her proboscis 
an armoury of six lancets. Some of these have minute 
teeth on their tips for deepening and enlarging the cut. 

In the Toxorynchites, however, I found all the lancets, 
except two, much degenerated, seemingly comparatively 
useless for thrusting into flesh. Two, however, were well 
developed. One, the largest, is a hollow channel, open 
on its upper side, and bent to the curve of the proboscis, 
and represents the organ through which the blood is 
pumped in the biting species. The other was a long slender 
rod, which near its end expanded into a long club-like 
form, the swelling being covered with fine hairs, growing 
larger and curving outwardly as they approached the 
tip, so that you have a long curved channel, and lying 
in the inside a long handled brush, not very unlike, in 
miniature, to that long brush called a ‘‘ turk’s head,” used 
by housewives in clearing cobwebs from the corners of a 
ceiling. This formation is quite unusual in the mosquito, 
and is analagous to some of the insects, whose chief food 
is the nectar of flowers and juices of fruit. The tongue 
of the honey bee is a ringed flexible organ, capable of con- 
siderable retraction and extension, and its food is lapped 
up in this way, the other mouth organs forming a tube 
up which the juices ascend by the action of the tongue. 
In the Mining Bee (which bores holes in the ground {for the 
reception of its eggs), you have a tongue which is clothed 
with hairs in the same way as this mosquito. 

The bee’s tongue is not so long as this mosquitoe’s 
proboscis, and the drooping shape certainly points to the 
idea that it is intended not for piercing flesh, but dipping 
into the nectaries of flowers and juices of fruits. 

Another point of confirmation is that the flabella, 
or lips of the proboscis, are clothed on the inside also with 
fine hairs of a similar character, which by capillary attrac- 
tion, would tend to suck up and retain floral juices, near 


128 NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO 


the tip of the channel of the larger lancet. In the head 
of the insect is found the pump, or aesophagial bulb, by 
which blood is drawn in other kinds of mosquitoes from 
their victims, but its size and muscular force might be 
insufficient to raise denser fluids, such as nectar, without 
the help of the hairy expansion on the end of the repre- 
sentative of the lancet. The probability is, therefore, 
this species, and most likely the group, are purely vegetable 
feeders, obtaining their food in apis modo, and are therefore 
harmless to man. 

The cornea of the eye is of a denser structure than 
usual. The halteres are small in size, pale yellow; near 
the base on the anterior side, there is a triangular space 
filled with oval cells, united at their longer axis; above this, 
near the knob, is a stiff oval ring protecting a softer mass, 
which divides into two elongated lobes by a deep central 
fissure, the rim being bordered by minute hairs. These 
organs are richly supplied with nerves, and are doubtless 
organs of some special sense not yet understood. There 
are strong grounds for thinking that insects have senses 
differing widely from those possessed by man. 


The terminal segment of the male body terminates 
in two ‘slender hooks, and they are tipped by a straight 
moveable rod arising out of a shallow trench. 

I take the following description of the male insect 
from Skuse :—Antennze brown, a little more than half 
the length of the palpi; basal joint black, with horny 
reflections ; second joint more than twice the length of 
the third, ornamented with some beautifully iridiscent 
scales, the whorl of very long hairs situated about one-third 
from the apex. Head covered with brilliant margaritaceous 
scales, chiefly reflecting green ; in a certain light appearing 
brown, with a bright pale greenish line round the hinder 
border of the eyes. Proboscis somewhat longer than the 
palpi, deep metallic blue, with a purplish reflection before 
the bend, brown beyond. Palpi deep metallic blue, with 
purplish reflections, the third joint ringed with golden 
yellow at the apex, and the fourth joint with a broader. 
ring of the same beyond the middle. Thorax brown, the 
lateral margins and prothorax densely covered with pale 
greenish scales, the latter with long brown hairs ; hinder 
margin and secutellum richly adorned with brilliantly 


BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 129: 


iridescent scales, and long brown hairs; pleura with a 
naked brown stripe from the origin of the wings to the scale 
like prothoracie projection, below this densely covered 
with silvery scales; metanotum brown naked. Halteres, 
ochre yellow. Abdomen about twice the length of but 
narrower than the thorax, flat, deep metallic blue, except 
the first segment, the latter green with a yellow patch 
on each side; fifth segment shows some golden yellow 
laterally, sixth and eighth segments ornamented with 
a strong tuft of golden hair laterally, the seventh with 
black tufts ; all the segments slightly bordered with golden 
hairs laterally ; the first to the third and fifth to seventh 
golden yellow beneath with a metallic blue longitudinal 
stripe down the centre; fourth entirely metallic blue, and 
the terminal one brilliant pale green. Coxe clothed with 
silvery scales. Femora and tibiz metallic violet, the 
-former golden yellow beneath. In the intermediate and 
fore legs, the first joint of the tarsi white except at the base, 
and the second also except at the apex; the rest metallic 
violet. Wings longer than the abdomen, with a pale 
brownish tint anteriorly and along the fifth longitudinal 
vein, veins pale brown, cilia pale and short, weak renections. 
Auxilliary vein joining the costa almost opposite, but some- 
what beyond the posterior branch of the fifth longitudinal ; 
sub-costal cross vein distinct, situated about midway 
between the origin of the anterior branch of the fifth 
longitudinal vein, and the origin of the second longitudinal ; 
fork of the latter very small, the tips of the branches slightly 
bent anteriorly ; supernumerary cross-vein equal in length 
to the middle cross vein; posterior cross-vein more than 
twice the length of the latter, rather sinuose, tip of the 
anterior branch of the fifth longitudinal vein joining the 
margin opposite the middle of the second posterior cell, 
a very prominent wing fold running close to the posterior 
side of the fifth longitudinal for the whole of its length, 
and another on the anterior side in the anal cell. 


The question arises, as we are anxious to destroy 
the noxious kinds of mosquitoes, and there are unquestion- 
ably difficulties in the way, would it not be a wise thing 
to use this particular insect for that purpose? It is not 
the only mosquito possessing cannabilistic habits. There 
are two in our neighbourhood which in their larval state 


130 NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO 


are unmitigated cannibals. One of these is Culex Tigripes 
a number of these bred in a tub in the yard attached to 
my place of business last year. I have a slide here of one 
which has killed one of the yellow fever mosquitoes larva. 
The Scotch Grey larva also kill all those within reach. 
But both of these are also blood suckers, so that they only 
kill to leave the ground clearer for their own depredations. 
But in the T'oxorychites we believe we have a vegetarian, 
which does no harm to any human being, and is at the 
same time a deadly foe to the young of other kinds of the 
genus. It can be hired on very reasonable terms. Its 
working hours are not limited, and it is very unlikely ever 
to go on strike. It works in the very places where it is 
needed. All the specimens of larva I have seen have been 
got in old tanks about human habitations, just the working 
ground where it is of greatest use. So that we have in it 
an ally, which, if used, may be the means of greatly 
reducing the numbers of those which are not only a 
nuisance, but a danger to the health of the community. | 
No attempt has ever been made in any country to use 
them for this purpose, so that Queensland might have the 
honour of leading the van in the contest. 


Proc. Koy. Soc. Q’Lanp, Vou. XXIII. Puate LV. 


1.—ToxoRYNCHITES SPECIOSA, X 334. 


2.—ToxoryNcHITEs sPEciosA Eaa, 


x 70. 


3.—ToxORYNCHITES SPECIOSA, PROBOSCIS TIP 
WITH BRUSH LANCET x Ql. 


4,—FULL-GROWN LARVA 41, 


‘cane 
Rae 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


Anmal Meeting of Members, 


Held on Saturday, February 25th, 1911. 


The Annual Meeting of the Society was held on Satur- 
-day, February 25th, 1911. The President (Mr. W. RB. 
- Colledge}, occupied the chair. The minutes of the previous 

Annual Meeting were read and adopted. 

The Hon. Secretary (Mr. F. Bennett), read the follow- 

ing Report of the Council for the year 1910 :— 


To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland. 


Your Council have pleasure in submitting their Report 
for the year 1910. 
The ordinary monthly meetings have been held as 
_ shown in Appendix B. 
Eleven Council meetings have been held during the 
_ year, at which the attendance was as shown in Appendix A. 
During the year 11 new members and nine honorary 
and corresponding members were admitted, and we lost 
by death, removal, or resignation, 8 members. We have 
to regret the loss of J. G. Collins, Esq., of Mundoolan. 
A letter of condolence was sent to the surviving relatives 
- of this worthy pioneer. On Lord Chelmsford’s departure 
to New South Wales, His Excellency Sir Wm. MacGregor 
was chosen Patron. There are now on our roll 91 ordinary 
members, 13 corresponding members, and 1 associate 
_ member, a total of 105. See Appendix D. 
Of the corresponding members, J. H. Maiden, F.L.S. ; 
H. I. Jensen, D.Sc.; Rev. G. Brown, D.D.;~A. Gibb- 
_ Maitland, Drs. Domin and Danes, and Professors Skeats, 
Rennie, and Pollock were enrolled during the past year. 
The Hon. A. J. Thynne was elected Trustee in the 
_ place of Dr. John Thomson, deceased. Mr. E. H. Gurney 


ve REPORT OF COUNCIL. 


was elected Vice-President in March, and Mr. Weston took 
Mr. Gurney’s place on the Council; Mr. G. Watkins again 
accepting the position of Hon. Auditor. 

The Council notes with pleasure the honour accorded 
to one of our members, F. M. Bailey, Esq., F.L.S., in creating 
him C.M.G. This appreciation of a life time of devotion 
to Botanical Science must be viewed with satisfaction by 
all scientists. 

Part Il. of Vol. XXII. of our Proceedings was issued 
during the year. 

The papers for last year have added largely to our 
record of original research, and the forthcoming volume 
of Proceedings will be one of the bulkiest and most valuable, 
scientifically, that we have issued. 

An attempt was made to let authors have their author’s. 
copies as soon as possible after the delivery of their papers, 
and our printers have done their best to help. 


The early inception of the University should give a 
decided impetus to scientific research. 

Our Library is almost too large for the space at our 
disposal, and keeps growing. Some interesting publica- 
tions on Malaria Prevention were received, in answer to- 
our requests, from the Health Departments and experts 
of the world. When the permanent location of the Library 
is fixed, it will be wise to bind a large mass of valuable — 
matter still unbound. 

By Appendix C, it will be seen that receipts for the 
year exceeded expenditure by £27 0s. 5d. The credit 
balance at the end of 1908 was £9 2s. 6d.; at the end of, 
1909, £22 12s. 4d.; and at the end of 1910, £49 12s. 9d. 


F. BENNETT, W. R. COLLEDGEH, 
Hon. Secretary. President. 


Brisbane, February 25th, 1911. 


u 


REPORT OF COUNCIL. 


—T 
—y 
—_e 
. 


APPENDIX A. 
= ° hol oe 
= Wing ee 
On S op 
Oftice. Name. Se | 98 Remarks 
Ce Qo ; 
2 Ro 
eS. eS ale : 
President ..| W. R. College... BF 8 
Vice-President ..; E. H. Gurney 7 ; 
Hon. Treasurer | J. C. Briinnich, F.I.C. 6 
Hon. Secretary..| F. Bennett 11 ? 
Hon. Librarian | C. T. White 10 
J. B. Henderson, F.I.C. .. 8 
Members of J. Shirley, B.Sc. .. Babee? 
Council. W. R. Parker, L.D.S. 4 
| P. L. Weston, B.Sc., B.E. 4 Appointed in 


March. 


J Rovyat Sociery. 


lv. 


Author. 


J. F. Bailey 


Revd. G. Brown, D.D. 


Prof. K. Domin (Univ., 
Prague) 


W. R. Colledge 
Prof. 


Danes (Univ., 


Prague) 
H. C. Richards, M.Sc. 
J. Shirley, B.Sc. 
J. Shirley, B.Sc. 


Prof. 8. B. J. Skertchly 


R. Cliffe-Mackie 


REPORT OF COUNCIL. 
APPENDIX BB. 
List or Papers Reap Durine 1910. 
No Date. Title. 
—_—_ % _— Se —_ 
1 | Feb. 26 | Introduction of Economic Plants 
| into Queensland (Presi- | 
_ dential Address) | 
2| Mar. 3) ‘Melanesians and Poly- | 
nesians.” Lecture. | 
3 | April 9 | Notes on the Phyto-Geography | 
of Queensland | 
4 May 28 | Rotifers of Queensland | 
5 | July 23 | The Physiography of Certain 
Limestone Areas in Queens- 
land 
6 | Aug. 26 | ‘* The Weathering of Building | 
| Stone and its Prevention ”’ 
7 | Sept. 24 | (1) Additions to the List of | 
| Marine Mollusca in Queens- | 
land 
| (2) A Bora Ring in the Albert 
| | River Valley 
8 | Oct. 29 | Geological and Biological Notes 
of the Nerang District, illus- | 
trated with Diagrams and 
Specimens 
9 | Nov. 26 | Anthropological Observations 
among the Blacks of 60 


years ago 


V. 


REPORT OF COUNCIL. 


P 


19 


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Vi. REPORT OF COUNCIL. 


APPENDIX D. 
LIST OF MEMBERS 


Honorary AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 
Dr. Cockle; Rev. Robt. Harley, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.; A. Liver- 


sidge, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S.; Rev. F. R. M. Wilson; J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.; 
Rev. G Brown, D.D.; 
Professor E. W. Skeats; Professor KE. H. Rennie; 


H. J. Jensen, D.Sc ; 
ment Geologist, W.A. ; 


rod 


A. Gibb-Maitland, Govern- 


Professor J. A. Pollock; Dr. K. Domin, University, Prague; Dr. Danes, 


Prague University. 


OrDINARY MEMBERS. 


Archer, R. 8S. 

Badger, J. S. 

Ball, L.C., B.E. 

*+Bailey, F. M., F.L.S., C.M.G. 

+Bailey, J. F. 

Bennett, F. 

Briinnich, J. C., F.I.C. 

Brydon, Mrs. 

Bundock, Miss Alice 

Bundock, C. W. 

Byram, W. J. 

Cameron, John 

Cameron, W. E., B.A. 

Colledge, W. R. 

Collins, Miss Jane 

Collins, R. M. 

Connah, F. E., F.1.C. 

Cooper, Sit Pope A., C.J. 

Costin, C. W. 

Cowley, R. C. 

Dempsey, J. J. 

Dodd, S., F.R.C.V.S.L. 

Dunstan, Benj. 

Eglinton, Dudley 

Eglinton, Miss Hilda 

Elkington, J. S.C, M.D., D.P.H. 

Forrest, E. B., M.L.A. 

Fraser, C. 8S. 

+Gailey, Richard 

Gibson, Hon. A., M.-L. C. 

Gore- Jones, E. R. 

Greenfield. A. P. 

*+Griffith, Sir S. W. 

Gurney, E. H. 

Hedley, C., F.L.S. 

Henderson, J.B., F.I.C. 

Hirschfeld, Eugen, M.D. 

Holland C. W. 

Hopkins, G., M.D. 

Hiilsen, R. 

Hunt, G. W. 

Illidge, Rowland 

Tack, Re G3) L.bDs 
F.R.G.S. 

Jackson, A. G. 

Johnston, Jas. 

Jones, P. W., A.I.C. 

Lindsay, W. 


F.G.S., 


Lord, F. 

Love, Wilton, M.B. 

Lucas, fT. P., ick Oe 

His Excellency Sir William 
MacGregor, M.D., D.Sc., 
G.C.M.G. C.B., &e 

Mackie, R. Cliffe 

Marks, Hon. C. F., M.D., M.L.C. 

Marks, E. O., B.A, B.E. 

May, W., 5.5: 

May, T. H., M.D. 

Miles, Hon. E. D, M.L.C. 

Murray-Prior, Mrs. 

McCali, T., F.I.C. 

McConnel, Eric W. 

McConnel, E. J. 

McConnel, J. H. 


Morris, L., A.M.I.C.E., Eng. 
tNorton, Hon. A., M.L.C. 
Parker, W. R., L.D.S. 

Plant, Hon. E. H. T., Mec 
Pound, C. J., 7.1%. M.B. 
*Raff, Hon. Alex, M.L.C. 
Rands, W. H., F.G.S. 

Reid, D. E. 

Richards. H. C., M.Sc. 
Riddell, R. M. 


+Roe, R. H., MA: 

Ryan, J. P., M.D. 

Sankey, J. R. 

+Schreider, H., M.A. 
Shirley, J., B.Sc. 

Silcock, P. 

Smith, F., B.Sc., A.1.C. 
+Steele. T., F.L.S., F.E.S. 
+Stevens, Hon. E. J., M.L.C. 
Sutton, A., M.D. 

tSutton, J. W. 

Taylor, Hon. W.F., M.D., M.L.C. 
Thynne, Hon. A. J., M.L.C. 
Tonks, T. 

Turner, A. Jefferis, M.D. 
Watkins, Geo. 

+Weedon, Warren 

Weston, P. L., B.Sc., B.E 
Willcocks, G. C. 


AssocIATE MEMBER. 
White, C. T. 


*Members of Philosophical Society. +Life Members. 


REPORT OF COUNCIL. vii. 


The adoption of the Report was moved by the Hon. 
A. Norton, seconded by Mr. J. F. Bailey, and carried. 

The Financial Report was moved by the Hon. Treasurer 
(Mr. J. C. Briinnich), seconded by the Hon. W. Taylor, 
and carried. 


The following office-bearers for 1911 were elected :— 
President, J. Brownlie Henderson F.I.C.; Vice-President, 
Poth Weston, -b-ce., B.E.;> Hon. . Treasurer, J. C. 
Briinnich, F.I.C.; Hon. Secretary, F. Bennett; Hon. 
Librarian, C. T. White; Council, Messrs. W. R. Colledge, 
K. H., Gurney, and H. C. Richards, M.Sc.; Hon. 
Lanternist, A. G. Jackson; Hon. Auditor, Geo. Watkins. 


The retiring President (Mr. W. R. Colledge) then 
installed Mr. Henderson in office. Mr. Henderson called 
on Mr. W. R. Colledge to deliver his Presidential Address. 
Mr. Colledge, in his prefatory remarks, announced the issue 
of a bulky volume of Proceedings, and commented on the 
indefatigable industry of the Hon. Secretary in obtaining 
Papers. 

The Lecture was illustrated by many fine slides, the 
lantern being ably operated by Mr. A. G. Jackson. 

Professor Skertchly moved, Mr. F. Bennett seconded, 
and Prof. Watson, of Adelaide, supported a vote of 
thanks to Mr. Colledge for his Presidential Address. 


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ie 


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STAR 


EAS re! 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


ROYAL SOCIETY 


oF 


QUBEBNSLAND. 


VOL. XXIII. 
PART II. 
PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY 
BY 
H. POLE & CO,, PRINTERS, GEORGE STREET, BRISBANE. 
1912, 


PROCEEDINGS 


ROYAL SOCIETY 
QU HHNSLAN D. 


Sennen 


We. XXITI. 


PART II. 


PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY 
BY 


HH. POLE & CO., PRINTERS, GEORGE STREET, BRISBANE. 


1912. 


. 
“0 4 


« 


of es: 


Royal Society of Queensland 


Patron : 


HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WILLIAM MACGREGOR. 
M.D., G.C.M.G., C.B.. Erc. 


PerAaCERS,. 1912, 


President: 
P. L. WESTON, B.Sc., B.E. 


Vice-President: 
H. C. RICHARUWS, M Sc. 


Hon. Treasurer. Hon. Secretary: 
J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. F. BENNETT. 


Hon. Librarian: 
T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc. 


Members of Council: 


J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C. E. H. GURNEY 
J. SHIRLEY, D.Sc. PROFESSOR PRIESTLEY 
J. F. BAILEY. 
Trustees : 
HON. A. NORTON, M.L.C. JOHN CAMERON 


HON. A. J. THYNNE, M.L.C. 


Hon. Auditor: 
GEO. WATKINS. 


\ 


CONTENTS. 


ANTHRACITE IN A FISSURE LODE.—Lionel C. Ball, 
b.E., 14th March, 1911 eg 


NOTES ON THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC 
ACTIVITY IN SOUTH-EaST QUEENSLAND.— 
E. O. Marks, B.4., B.E., 24th June, 1911 ... 


THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA.—H. I. 
Jensen, D.Sc. (Sydney), 29th July, 1911 


THE BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S CATHE- 
DRAL, BRISBANE.-— Henry C. Richards M.Se.,, 26th 
August, 1911 


ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘“‘WORM-NODULES” IN 
CATTLE.—T. Harvey Johnston,’ M.A., D.Sc., ete., 
28th October, 1911 ms 


A CENSUS OFAUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA. 
—T. Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Sc., etc., 28th October, 
1911 Po + 


ON A WEAK POINT IN THE LIFE-HISTORY OF 
NEOCERATODUS FORESTERI KREFFT.— 
Thomas L. Bancroft, M.B., Edin., 2nd December, 1911 


PAGE, 


131 


139 


149 


199 


207 


233 


ANTHRACITE IN A FISSURE LODE. 


By LIONEL C. BALL, B.E. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 14th March, 1911. 


———S— es 


INTRODUCTION. 


Ir is desirable that an almost unique geological occur- 
rence—that of coal as gangue in a lead-zinc fissure lode, the 
discovery of which was among the more interesting results 
of my visit to the Mended Hill Mineral Field in June last— 
should be brought to your notice and so_ recorded. 
Economically the association of the coal and metallic ores 
is likely to be of some importance, for timber is very scarce 
in the district ; and it may be possible, in milling and 
concentrating the ore, to save the coaly slime and use it 
in briquette form as fuel. Further, the certainty of there 
being a high class coal here should induce prospectors to 
be on the lookout for a workable seam in this part of the 
State; notwithstanding that if it is of inorganic origin, 
the possibility of which is shown below, no quantity of coal 
is likely to be discovered away from fissure formations. 


STRATIGRAPHY. 

The basal rocks of this field have generally been referred 
to the Silurian on the evidence of certain fossils from the 
Cairns Range, which lies 300 miles to the south. They 
consist of grits and shales seldom much altered except at the 
surface where they are silicified and bleached, but Dr. 
Jack,* who visited the field two and a half-years ago, 
discovered carbonaceous shales at the Lilydale mine, and 
the work done since his visit is indicative of similar, if not 
the same, shales occurring over an area of many square 
miles. 

*Report on the Lawn Hill Mines, Queensland. By R. Logan Jack, 
L.L.D., M.I.M.M., late Government Geologist. Sydney, 1908. 

A 


182 ANTHRACITE IN A FISSURE LODE 


From a stratigraphical standpoint the indication that 
these supposedly Silurian strata are coal measures is of 
great interest ; but unfortunately the carbonaceous shales 
rapidly disintegrate on exposure to the atmosphere, render- 
ing search for fossils in the material of the waste dumps 
hopeless; and we are consequently without palaeonto- 
logical assistance in correlating them with the sedimentaries 
outside of the district. Mr. Brown, the Government 
Geologist of South Australia, has, it may be mentioned, 
referred* the carbonaceous shales of the McArthur River, 
which may be an extension of the Queensland area, to the 
Permo-carboniferous system, on account of their resem- 
blance to the productive coal measures on the north-western 
coast of the Northern Territory. Further field work 
in this quarter of Australia is thus likely to have very 
interesting results, and it may even yet be shown that the 
strata belong to some of the older palaeozoic formations, 
as Lower Silurian shales—black from diffused anthracite— 
are not unknown in other parts of the wor.d.f 


OCCURRENCE AND NATURE OF THE COAL. 


The lodes of this field are in general composite fissure 
veins. The Silver King lode formation in particular has 
a width of over 60 ft., and, while looking into its capabilities 
as a lead and zinc producer, I noticed in many parts the 
gangue associated with crystalline blende and galena was 
very dark in colour. Specimens were collected and subse- 
quently examined in the laboratory, where pyrognostic 
tests indicated the presence of carbonaceous matter, which 
it may be taken was probably effective in precipitating 
the sulphides of the ore body, although the average amount 
of fixed carbon over the whole width of the formation does 
not exceed | or 2 units per cent. Some of the less crushed 
matrix having the physical characters of coal, a fragment 
was handed to the Government Analyst, who found it 
(when separated from the attached ore) to have the com- 
position tabulated below. This result agrees fairly well 
with the partial analysis of an ordinary commercial 
anthracite,t though the vok.ile matter is rather lower 


*Geological Reconnaissance from Van Diemen’s Gulf to the McArthur 
River, 1907. 

+See Geikie’s Text Book of Geology, 3rd Edition, p. 145. 

tSee Economic Geology, Vol. 4, p. 657. 


BY LIONEL C. BALL, B.E. 138 


than in Welsh anthracite and yet at the same time con- 
siderably above that of anthraxolite as shown in the 
subjoined tables :— 

Burketown, M.F.| Anthracite.* 


Constituent. Anthraxolite. + 


i. Analytical Result (at 100° C.). 


Moisture ot a 15% eecosere 4-0% 
Volatile Matter é3 3°1% 580% 1-8%, 
Fixed Carbon .. me 85-:9% 92-64% 90-19%, 
Ash ay A so 9-5% 1-56% 4-1% 


ii. Recalculated composition of water—and ash—free coal. 


Volatile Matter .. wi 35% 5-9% 1-9% 
Fixed Carbon .. 3. 96:5% 941% 98-1%, 


ORIGIN OF THE COAL. 


It seemed at first that the question of orgin would not 
be difficult to settle and that the coal, during movements 
of the wall rock, must have been dragged into the forma- 
tion from a bed traversed by the fissure, the carbonaceous 
character of some of the country rocks lending support 
to this view; but subsequent study of the available 
literature of the subject has convinced me that the evidence 
is not altogether conclusive, and that there is a possibility 
of the hydrogen and carbon having been derived from a 
deep-seated magmatic source. That is to say that the coal 
has been produced like the Canadian anthraxolite (the 
proximate analysis of which does not differ greatly from 
the above) from bitumen or petroleum, the case for the 
magmatic origin of which, long urged by French and 
Russian geologists and chemists, has been very ably stated 
by Mr. Eugene Coste, of Toronto.t Even if it is allowed 
that some petroleums may be of organic derivation the 
inorganic origin of others seems almost certain. 


* Analyses of British Coals and Coke, p, 369. 
+ Ann. Report Bureau of Mines, Ont., 1896, p. 159. 
t See Journal of the Canadian Mining Institute, Vol. 12, p. 274. 


184 ANTHRACITE IN A FISSURE LODE 


APPENDIX I. 


PARALLEL CASES. 
It may be as well to here refer to the few other cases 
known to me of coal accompanying metallic sulphides in 
fissure lodes. 


GERMANY. 
Ulrich has stated* that mineral coal occurs in ore 
lodes in several mining districts in Germany, but I have 
been unable to discover his original authority. 


UNITED STATES. 

The association of coal with lead and zinc sulphides 
has been noted} in Missouri, but, from the brief descrip- 
tions written, it would seem that the ores there occur not 
in lodes but in coal seams; and that the metals were 
precipitated by the carbonaceous matter from percolating 
meteoric waters. 

CANADA. 

A carbonaceous material similar to non-caking bitum- 
inous coal has been said{ to occur in a mica vein in 
Quebec, but confirmation of this is needed. 


TASMANIA. 


Anthracite has been reported from several mines in 
Tasmania. Mr. W. F. Petterd quoteds Ulrich in 
reference to an occurrence of anthracite “in irregular 
veins up to }-inch in size enclosed in calcite and siderite 
in the abandoned lead mine North Valley, Mt. Bischoff.” 

In the same work Mr. F. Danvers Power is credited 
with having identified anthracite ‘“‘in the workings of 
various quartz reefs in the Beaconsfield Goldfield,” but 
the substance had already been determined|| by Messrs. 
A. Montgomery, the then Government Geologist, and W. F. 
Ward, the Government Analyst, to be a variety of lignite, 


*See Catalogue of the Minerals of Tasmania. By W. F. Petterd- 
Hobart. By Auth., 1910, p. 51. 

yLead and Zine Deposits of Missouri. By Arthur Winslow and J. D. 
Robertson, 1894, p. 157. 

t J. Can., M.I., Vol. 7, p. 245. 

§ Op. cit. (8). 

|| See Aus. Ass. Adv. of Sci., Vol. 4 (18). 


BY LIONEL C. BALL, B.A. 135 


being brownish black in hue and having the following 
composition :— 

C. 38:91; H., 3:03; O. and N., 21-60; S., 2-36; Ash, 

12:00 ; Moisture (at 100° C.), 22-10% —100. 

They show that it is mostly found in sandy layers between 
hard beds of grit (of Silurian age) and also penetrating 
into cracks and joints in the beds where much shattered. 
Some years later Mr. Twelvetrees, the present Government 
Geologist, found on the 800 ft. level in the Moonlight-cum- 
Wonder mine, lying between grits and limestone; “‘ a peculiar 
brown earthy carbonaceous (compact bedded) deposit 
(nine feet wide on one side of the drive) approaching in 
character to semilignite or brown coal,’ of which the 
following proximate analysis is given :— 


Moisture (loss at 212° F.) .. st Be mit nh Ow Leroy 
Gases, &c. (lost at red heat) ae Ne ey BN 
Fixed Carbon aN ah “t a8 .. - 13:9% 
Mineral Matter (ash) is ¥ é2 2 "21.0% 

100.0% 


To account for the origin of the lignite Messrs. Montgomery 
and Ward suggested that it had been deposited from 
percolating swamp waters, that with the organic matter 
in suspension descended in quite recent geological times 
from the surface wherever the much shattered strata 
offered a ready passage. I do not suppose that when they 
wrote their paper the possibility of the magmatic origin 
of hydrocarbons had been seriously considered outside of 
Europe, but the theory has now many staunch supporters 
in all parts of the world and would seem to fit this case 
perfectly. The reference* of Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees 
to recent timber among boulders of conglomerate, 370 ft. 
beneath the surface in the Eureka Claim, points to former 
open communication with the surface at that place, but it 
need not have any bearing on the origin of the lignites. 
APPENDIX Il. 
- SoLtip HyDROCARBONS IN FISSURES. 

That various solid hydrocarbons and carbo-hydrates 
fill extensive fissures is well known. Such are those of 
asphalt in Utah, Cuba}+ and Peru,{ of albertite in 

* See Report on the Moonlight-cum-Wonder Mine at Beaconsfield, 
Launceston. By Authority, 1902. 

+ Economic Geology, Vol. 1, p. 437. 

t Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 
Bulletin, No. 27, p. 291. 


136 ANTHRACITE IN A FISSURE LODE 


Nova Scotia, and of grahamite in Western Virginia. Their 
associations with metalliferous minerals is much rarer, 
but Dana records* elaterite (with lead ore and calcite) 
from the Odin lead mine in Derbyshire, resin (with calcite 
and pearlspar) from the Settling Stones lead mine in 
Northumberland, and idrialite (mixed with cinnibar, clay, 
pyrite and gypsum, in brown-black earthy material) from 
the Idrian mercury mines, Austria; and certain of the 
asphalite veins of Peru include lenses of sulphides and are 
mined for vanadium.t 


APPENDIX ITI. 


GRAPHITE. 

Graphite is believed to be in certain cases an end 
product in the destructive distillation of petroleum that 
has risen from below.{ Besides occurring disseminated 
in some of the older rocks of the earth’s crust it is known 
in fissure veins in Quebec (in gneiss), Ceylon (in granite 
rock), Cumberland (in greenstone porphyry) and Siberia 
(in granite and limestone).§ 

Associated with iron ores it is found at a number of 
localities ; but Cirkel, the Canadian authority, mentions. 
only one occurrence with gold (in quartz at the Sunnyside 
Extension mine, San Juan), although it occurs in several 
silver veins in Ontario,|| including the Silver Islet, 
La Rose and Cobalt Hill). Liversidge mentions $ its 
occurrence with quartz, iron pyrites, and pyromorphite 
at the head of the Abercrombie River. 

In our own State, Mr. Dunstan has shown that 
the granites of Croydon are graphitic and contain iron 
pyrites, copper pyrites, galena and arsenical pyrites in 
small quantities, and though he does not actually affirm 
it, the carbon appears to have been the precipitating agent- 


* System of Mineralogy. 

+ Op. cit. (15). 

+ See Geikie’s Text Book of Geology, 4th Edition, p. 186. 

§ Graphite. By Fritz Cirkel, Dept. of Mines, Canada, 1907. 
|| J. Can., M.I., Vol. 10, p. 55. 

$ Minerals of New South Wales. London, 1888. 

q G.S.Q. Pub., Nos. 202 and 212. 


BY LIONEL C. BALL, B.A. 1287 
APPENDIX IV. 


GASEOUS HYDROCARBONS IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


Some passing mention should be made of the occurr- 
’ ence—unusual but by no means non-existent—of gaseous 
hydrocarbons in metalliferous mines; but time has not 
permitted of my looking up the bibliography of the subject 
and I can refer to but one case, that of the Silver Islet 
mine, Ontario, in which gases were met at 1,000 ft. beneath 
the surface. This was mentioned in a discussion* on 
the ore deposits of the Cobalt district, when a member, 
Mr. Hixon, suggested the possibility of the hydrocarbons 
being magmatic and incidentally the cause of the silver 
of the lodes being in the metallic state. 


‘Op. cit. (20) 


NOTES ON THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC 
ACTIVITY IN SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND. 


By E. O. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 24th June, 1911. 


TuHeE following notes have been compiled in the desire 
of interesting members of this Society in a question on 
which, in the past as well as in the present, very divergent 
‘views have been held—namely, the question of the 
geological ages of volcanic activity in this corner of 
Queensland. : 

A problem of this. nature is always, to a geologist, 
one of exceptional interest; in this case, affecting as it 
does extensive areas of coal measures, it is one which in 
the future will possibly possess considerable economic 
importance in addition to its scientific interest. 

A by no means small attraction is added by the fact 
that to the varied volcanic rocks are due, entirely or in 
part, so many of the physical features characterising the 
landscapes with which we are familiar, such, for instance, 
.as the Glass House Mountains, the rugged scenery of Mt. 
Barney and its neighbours, or of Cunningham’s Gap, the 
broad rich valleys of the Darling Downs and the beauties of 
the Toowoomba Range, or the richly beautiful scrubclad 
valleys, gorges and lofty plateaux which render the head- 
waters of the Logan, Albert, Coomera and Nerang rivers, 
a region destined to become the pleasure resort of our 
metropolis. 

Voleanic rocks attain a very considerable develop- 
ment in the south-eastern corner of this State, and consist 
of widely varying types. The petrological characteristics 
of many of the rocks have received a good deal of attention, 
chiefly from Dr. H. J. Jensen, and further study in this 
direction is much to be desired. It is not intended here, 


140 THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY 


however, to discuss the petrology, except in so far as it 
concerns the determination of the geological age. 

The rocks may be divided for field purposes into the 
two main types, trachytic and basaltic, though each of 
these contain widely differing rocks. Many of them have 
been determined by Dr. Jensen to belong to the alkaline 
types. Both tuffs, lavas and dykes are met with. 

All Brisbane residents are familiar with the trachytic 
tuff, or so-called “‘ porphyry,” on the streets and in build- 
ings, as well as with the rock in situ in Kangaroo Point, 
Leichhardt Street, and other places in and near the city. 
Trachytic rocks also occur in or form the Glass House 
Mountains and other mountains in East Moreton, Flinders 
Peak, Mts. Lindsay and Barney, Cunningham’s Gap, the 
Little Liverpool Range, and near Esk, besides many other 
localities known, and many, probably, not) yet recorded. 

Rocks of the basaltic type are even more extensively 
developed, occupying, as they do, so much larger an area 
than the more acid lavas, due probably to their more 
mobile condition when extruded. They partake in the 
formation of the Blackall Range, Tambourine Mt., portions 
of the Macpherson Range, Little Liverpool and Main Range, 
as well as large part of the Darling Downs. They are 
found besides at lesser elevations, and in the neighbourhood 
of Brisbane and Ipswich, from such comparatively low- 
lying areas as Cooper’s Flains, Manly, Redbank Plains, 
Bundamba, etc. 

The first observer to offer an opinion as to the ages 
of the voleanic rocks was the late Sir A. C. Gregory, who, 
in his capacity of Geological Surveyor for Southern 
Queensland, between the years 1875 and 1879, traversed 
much of the country in which they occur. In his report 
on the south-eastern districts of the Colony of Queensland, 
he says that the basaltic rock “‘ may be referred to a very 
recent date in the Tertiary era.” He refers, both in this 
report and in one on the coal deposits of West Moreton 
and Darling Downs, to the fact that at Clifton coal mine, 
under 30ft. of basalt, large pieces of fossil wood were found. 
so little altered that it split and warped several inches on 
being exposed to the air. It was associated with woody 
seed vessels (Conchotheca Turgida). ‘The latter were 
referred for determination to Baron von Mueller, who 


BY E. 0. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 141 


mentions their having been obtained beneath basalt— 
a record to which the writer’s attention was kindly drawn 
by Mr. E. C. Andrews. 

In describing the “ porphyritic’’ rocks, Sir A. C. 
Gregory considered them to be older than the basaltic, 
which have cut through and overlie them. He also con- 
sidered them to be later than the “ carbonaceous series,” 
which had not then been classed as of Trias-Jura age, but 
included with them the Brisbane rock. 

In 1887 and 1889, Mr. W. H. Rands, working in 
Brisbane and in the Logan and Albert districts, determined 
the Brisbane “ porphyry” to be a trachytic tuff, lying at 
the base in this locality at any rate, of the Trias-Jura 
system. He encountered at Walton (now Woodhill), 
a trachyte which he considered to be contemporaneous 
with the coal measures in which it occurs. The basalt of 
Tambourine Mt. and the Macpherson Range, found both 
on the Trias-Jura beds, and on the underlying schists. 
Mr. Rands considered to be later than the coal measures 
and Woodhill trachyte, but older than the desert sandstone 
(Upper Cretaceous), to which age he ascribed a sandstone 
resting on the basalt and containing pebbles thereof, at the 
head of Nerang River. 

Dr. Jack, in his Geology of Queensland, pointed out 
that it is a mistake to suppose that the volcanic rocks 
consist of only one continuous series, but expressed the 
opinion that the basalt of Tambourine is not necessarily 
of later age than the Woodhill trachyte, since it lies on 
strata considerably lower in the ‘Trias-Jura system than 
the horizon at Woodhill. Dr. Jack considered that the 
basalt of the lloowoomba Range is contemporaneous, 
though locally uncomformable with the ‘lrias-Jura rocks, 
beneath the upper portion of which he supposed them to 
dip to the west, thus accounting for the absence of an 
escarpment in that direction to correspond with that forming 
the Main Range. The basalt at Ipswich he also thought 
to be contemporaneous with the coal measures there, but 
this has since been shown of more recent origin. The 
basalt of Clifton and elsewhere appearing to occupy local 
hollows in the stratified rocks, he himself considered to be 
later age than the Trias-Jura. 


142 THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY 


Mr. S. B. J. Skertchly, in a report on the geology of 
the country round Stanthorpe and Warwick, refers to the 
basalt of the Toowoomba Range as Tertiary, but does not 
record the sections which lead him to that conclusion. 

Dr. H.J. Jensen has made several important contribu- 
tions, to the study of South-East Queensland igneous rocks, 
chiefly in papers read before the Linnean Society of N.S.W. 
The rocks described are in the East Moreton as well as in 
the Fassifern districts, and he refers all of the volcanic 
rocks he found on Trias-Jura areas to a post-Trias-Jura age. 
He records, in the Fassifern district, trachyte dykes in the 
Trias-Jura sandstone, a basalt injected in and overlying 
the trachyte, but gives no actual section proving, in our 
present ignorance as to the horizon occupied by the sand- 
stones intruded, that the volcanic rocks are post Trias-Jura. 

Mr. E. C. Andrews, of the New South Wales Geological 
Survey, in working near the Queensland border, referred 
the trachytes and basalts of the Macpherson Range to the 
Trias-Jura age, but subsequent work has, the writer under- 
stands, led him to regard them as of Tertiary age, corres- 
ponding presumably with the undoubted Tertiary basalts 
of New England, described by Prof. David, as well as by 
himself. 

The present writer, in examining the coal measures 
south of Brisbane, came to the conclusion that the volcanic 
rocks met with—almost entirely of the basaltic type— 
belong to two ages, Trias-Jura, and late or post-tertiary. 
Several sections were observed, including Mr. Rand’s 
Woodhill trachyte, of interbedded volcanic rocks amongst 
the upper or Walloon coal measures, in the neighbourhood 
of Beaudesert. These occurrences, however, are possibly 
merely sills or dykes parallel to the bedding, though an 
examination of them does not give one that impression. 
In a flying visit to the coal seams outcropping in the Upper 
Logan district, a site was pointed out by Mr. J. Buchanan, 
where an outcrop of carbonaceous shale or weathered coal 
had been covered by a recent slip in the bank of Christmas 
Creek. Mr. Buchanan remarked on the outcrop- having 
been perpendicular, and the writer observed that sandstone 
in juxtaposition with the fallen ground was also perpen- 
dicular, and that this sandstone contained rounded pebbles 
of basalt similar microscopically to the andestic basalt 


/ 


BY E. 0. MARKS, B.A., BE. 148 


of the neighbourhood. Some distance further down the 
- creek, a similar sandstone is seen resting on basalt. Owing 
to circumstances, a detailed examination could not then 
be made, but the section thoroughly convinced the writer 
of the Trias-Jura age of the basalt in that locality. The 
absence of detailed examination or of fossil evidence regard- 
ing the sandstone and carbonaceous beds forms but a slight 
flaw in the otherwise absolute proof, since undoubted 
Trias-Jura strata occur, with coal seams, on Widgee Creek, 
less than two miles away, and the same formation appears 
to extend throughout the intervening ground. The 
vertical position of the strata, moreover, does not accord 
with the comparatively undisturbed character of the 
Tertiary formations elsewhere. 

The sandstone and included basalt is presumably on 
the same horizon as that observed by Mr. Rands, and 
ascribed by him to the Desert sandstone. Since the time 
of Mr. Rand’s observations several areas which had been 
attributed to the Desert sandstone on physical grounds— 
the only data available—have since proved to be of greater 
age. It is more than probable, there being no evidence 
to the contrary, that the sandstone observed by Mr. Rands 
is of Trias-Jura age, like the remainder of the sandstone 
in its neighbourhood. 

A paper on the Volcanic Kruptives of West Moreton, 
by R. A. Wearne and W. G. Woolnough, to the former 
of whom the field work was due, was read before the 
Sydney meeting of the Australasian Association for the 
Advancement of Science in January this year, but has 
not yet been published. The authors consider that there 
are, in all probability, two volcanic series :— 

(1) Of Trias-Jura age, contemporaneous with the 

Walloon stage of the Trias-Jura ; 

(2) Of Tertiary age. 

The former of these includes the normal trachytes, 
andesites and basalts of the Main Range ; the latter includes 
the more alkaline trachytes (comendite and grorundite) of 
Mt. French, Mt. Greville, etc., the rhyolites of Mts. Maroon 
and Barney, and the basalts of the Toowoomba Range. 

Proof of the Trias-Jura series lay in the discovery of— 

(1) Trachyte tuff containing T'aeniopteris Daintreet, 

found in the Lockyer district, near the Main 
Dividing Range (near Mt. Mistake) ; 


144 THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY 


(2) A number of trachyte pebbles found in conglom- 
erate in the upper portion of the Walloon coal 
measures, in the Fassifern and Lockyer districts. 

The authors thus ascribe the trachytic as well as 

basaltic rocks to two distinct ages. The Toowoomba 
basalt, an olivine basalt, is considered to be Tertiary, 
being distinct petrologically from the basalt referred to as 
Trias-Jura age, which appears to be of a similar character 
to that of the Upper Logan districts. 


It is interesting to note that the numerous areas of 
basaltic Java which occur in the neighbourhood of Brisbane, 
still occupying in places the valleys in which it originally 
flowed, and nowhere attaining any noteworthy elevation, 
consist of an ophitic dolerite varying very slightly in 
character in any of the localities from which the writer 
has examined specimens. This rock, which is_ of 
undoubted Tertiary or post-Tertiary age, is equally distinct 
petrologically from either the Toowoomba basalt or the 
andesitic basalt of the Macpherson Range. 


This dolerite is familiar to us as the “ blue metal” 
of the streets, for which purpose its great toughness is 
somewhat discounted by its defective binding power— 
a defect due to its fine and uniform texture. At Redbank 
Plains, Cooper’s Plains and Runcorn, and probably else- 
where, this rock lies on strata, bearing, in certain localities, 
a plentiful dicotyledonous flora as well as fish and reptilian 
remains, the age of which have not yet been definitely 
determined. 

From the foregoing list of observations and opinions, 
. we may summarise the present state of our knowledge 
of the ages of vulcanicity as follows :— 

Undoubted post Trias-Jura basaltic rocks occur near 
Brisbane, and at Clifton, on the Darling Downs. These 
rocks are probably of late Tertiary if not of post-Tertiary 
age. 

From opinions formed in the fleld, though not sup- 
ported up to the present by any positive proof, several 
observers are persuaded also of the post-Trias-Jura age 
of some (or most) of the trachytic rocks, a diversity of 
opinion existing as to whether the main body of these are 
Trias-Jura or post-Trias-Jura. There can be no reasonable 


BY E. 0. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 145 


doubt that some are Trias-Jura, excluding the Brisbane 
tuff, the age of which has long been beyond question. 

There is little if any room for doubt also as to the 
‘Trias-Jura age of much of the basaltic rock, more especially 
in the eastern portion of the Macpherson Range. 

Opinion is divided in regard to the Toowoomba basalt, 
no definite proof having been recorded up to the present 
in favour of either view. 

Intimately associated as the volcanic rocks are with 
the Trias-Jura system, it is essential to realise how much 
or how little we know about that system before we refer 
rocks to any particular stage of it. Up to the present time, 
the only connected or in any way detailed examination 
made covers a comparatively small area in the neighbour- 
hood of Ipswich and Brisbane, and from there south to 
Beaudesert—a total area of roughly some 1,000 square 
miles of the strata. The whole formation covers at least 
15,000 square miles, so our knowledge must be regarded 
as very incomplete. Inside our limited area we are aware 
of three divisions—in ascending order:—The Ipswich 
coal measures, the Bundamba sandstones, and the Walloon 
coal measures. We are, however, in no way justified in 
supposing that the Walloon coal measures form the summit 
of the formation, Just as the Ipswich coal measures are 
not necessarily the lowest division, though certainly so 
locally. ; 

In the greater part of the areas in which the volcanic 
rocks occur, the sedimentaries have been the subject of 
only few and disconnected observations, and it is highly 
desirable to realise that, in the absence of connected and 
reasonably detailed work, we are practically in complete 
ignorance as to the stratigraphical position of these 
sedimentaries in the ‘Trias-Jura system. For instance, 
it is a pure assumption, but one that is often made, that 
the coal measures of the Darling Downs are on the same 
horizon as those of Walloon. Except for a _ certain 
similarity in their coals, there is really not the slightest 
reason in our present knowledge to suppose this to be the 
case, though there is every likelihood of it being so. 

The basalt of Tambourine Mountain is similar to, and, 
except for denudation, continuous with that of the 
Macpherson Range, which is almost certainly of ‘lrias- 


146 - THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY 


Jura age. Yet the Tambourine rock rests uncomfortably 
on beds low in the system, as well as on the underlying 
schist. 

The unconformability is interesting, for it shows 
elevation during Trias-Jura times; it also serves to 
accentuate the fact that the mere superposition of lava 
on portion of the system is no evidence, the horizon being 
unknown, that the lava is of post Trias-Jura age. 

Should contemporaneous volcanic rocks prove of 
wide extension, their study is likely to be of great assistance 
to the stratigraphy of a system, that otherwise appears 
to offer few sharply-defined limits on which to base the 
divisions. The study may thus be of no small aid in the 
intelligent prospecting of the coal measures. 

In those districts where volcanic rocks of both ages 
occur, or where the age has not been definitely determined, 
it will be necessary to preserve an entirely open mind 
regarding the age of any particular rock met with, remem- 
bering always that neither the contemporaneous nor the 
later rocks necessarily belong to only one brief period of 
vulcanicity. We know that elsewhere in Australia there 
were two periods of volcanic activity in Tertiary times, 
and it is not unlikely that representatives of both these 
occur in our area. 

Volcanic materials, chiefly tuffs of no considerable 
development, occur in MesoZoic rocks elsewhere in Australia, 
but voleanic activity is considered to have been the excep- 
tion, in Mesozoic times, throughout the world, a fact 
conferring greater interest on such rocks as do belong to 
that period. Where, as seems likely in this present case, 
the volcanic activity was extensive, the interest is consider- 
ably increased. 

It is hoped that these few notes, in drawing the atten- 
tion of members of this Society to the question will help 
towards its study by reducing the greatest difficulty—the 
lack of observers where so much is to be observed. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
Andrews, E. C.— 
An Outline of the Tertiary History of New England. 


A Preliminary Note on the Structure of Mt. Lindsay. 
Records Geol. Surv., N.S.W., Vol. VII., Part ITI. 


BY E. 0. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 147 


David, T. W. EL — 
Presidential Address, Section C., Australasian Associa- 
tion for the Advancement of Science, Hobart, 1892. 
Contribution to the Study of Volcanic Action in 
Eastern Australia. A:A.A.S., 1893. 
sv Vegetable Creek Tin Mining Field. 
Memoirs, Geol. Surv., N.S.W., Geology No. I. 


‘Gregory, A. C.— 
Coal Deposits of West Moreton and Darling Downs 
Districts, 1876. (Council and Assembly Paper). 
Geological Features of the South Eastern Districts 
of the Colony of Queensland, 1879. (Legislative 
Assembly Paper). 


Jack, BR. L.— 
Geology and Palaeontology of Queensland and New 
Guinea (Jack and Etheridge), 1892. 


Jensen, H. J.— 

Geology of Glass House Mountains. 
Proceedings, Linnean Society of New South Wales, 
1906. 

Geology of the Volcanic Area of the East Moreton and 
Wide Bay Districts. 
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1906. 

Distribution, Origin and Relationships of Alkaline 
Rocks. 
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1908. 

Geology of Mt. Flinders and the Fassifern District. 
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1909. 

The Alkaline Rocks of Southern Queensland. 
A.A.A.S., Brisbane, 1909. 


Marks, E. O.— : 
Coal Measures of South-East Moreton. 
Geol. Surv., Q. Publication, No. 225. 


Rands, W. H.— 

Geological Map of the City of Brisbane and its 
Environs, accompanied by a Report. 
Geol. Surv., Q. Publication, No. 34. 

Geology of and Minerals occurring in the Neighbour- 
hood of Beenleigh, and of the Logan and Albert 
Rivers, 1887. 
Geol. Surv., Q. Publication, No. 36. 


148 THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY 


Rands, W. H.— 
The Albert and Logan Districts, 1889. 
Geol. Surv., Q. Publication, No. 51. 


Skertchly, 8. B. J.— 
Geology of the Country Round Stanthorpe and 
Warwick. 
Geol. Surv., Q. Publication, No. 120. 


THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA. 


— 


By H. I. JENSEN, D.Sc. (Sydney). 


—_—_—_ 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, July 29th, 1911. 


eo 


I INTRODUCTION. 
SCOPE OF PAPER. 


THE object of this paper is not to offer the reader 
any really new material, but rather to present the know- 
ledge we already possess in a concise form, and to point 
out which of the very many more or less conflicting 
theories of earth mechanics are most capable of explain- 
ing the facts observed in Australia. 

The books and papers referred to in the compilation 
of these notes are so numerous that they are separately 
entered up in Appendix I. The maps illustrating the 
growth of Eastern Australia in geological time are based 
on those issued by Professor David to his tectonic 
geology class. 

It shall be my endeavour first of all to show how 
the geography of Australia has changed during geo- 
logical time. After these changes have been described 
we will try to enquire what meaning can be assigned 
to them, and what kind of earth movements produced 
them. We will then further discuss the ‘eae 
unity of Eastern Australia. The Petrological Unity 
of Eastern Australia will then be discussed and at the 
same time some remarks will be made on the origin of 
some leading Australian ore deposits. 

We shall then pass on to the treatment of faulting 
and folding, the causes of these movements and their 
effects on topography. The origin of some-of our most 
important land forms and scenery will then be briefly 
dealt with. 


150 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


THE RECONSTRUCTION OF PALZOGEOGRAPHY. 


Just as the historian and the antiquarian in their 
discussions on events prior to the exact historical period 
speak of the stone age, the bronze age, and so forth, 
dividing early historical time according to the nature 
of the debris characterising the age, so the geologist, 
who has no exact conception of the duration of his periods, 
divides geological time into the age of fishes, the age of 
reptiles, the age of Brachiopods, and so forth. 

Just as the historian divides time into periods and 
his periods into dynasties, so the geologist divides his 
geological time into periods, and his periods into epochs. 
In the same way as the historian speaks of the Heroic 
Age or Era, so the geologist speaks of the Palxozoic 
Age or Era. The historian has his shepherd king period, 
Plantagenet period, andso on; the geologist, likewise, 
has his Devonian Period, Miocene period, and so on. 
Just as the historian speaks of the dynasty of the 
Ptolemys, Hanover dynasty, &c., so the geologist has 
geological horizons based on the predominance of some 
particular dynasty of animal or plant life. 

Our knowledge of the geography of past geological 
ages is ga-hered from the study of the fossilised remains 
of plants and animals. Of all petrifactions, none are 
so important to the geologist as shallow water marine 
organisms ; because of their abundance in the fossil 
state, and their uninterrupted sway during the long ages. 
they afford us landmarks, not only for the division of 
geological time into periods, but also into horizons and 
stages. The long persistency of each genus allowed 
it to differentiate into sub-genera and species, which, 
besides being very absorbing studies for the evolutionist, 
are also of great value in delimiting the minor divisions 
of geological time. 

In the following pages it is taken as an axiom that 
a great accumulation in any place of marine fossils 
indicates close proximity to the shore line at the time 
of deposition. This follows from two considerations. 
In the first place the waters of the continental shelf 
are better adapted, both as regards temperature and 
food supplies, for plant and animal life. In the second 
place, the opportunities for organisms to be preserved 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 151 


are better near the shore where sediments may bury 
them, and where the high pressure of deeper levels does 
not exist and exert great solvent power on the objects 
deposited. It is, therefore, axiomatic that the greatest 
thickness of sediments and the greatest profusion of 
fossil remains occur within 150 miles of the coast. 

The nature and distribution of sediments of various 
ages, therefore, gives us a clue as to the position of the 
shorelines of these ages. A glance at the maps on the 
following pages should convince anyone that prior to the 
Tertiary period, Australia had a much different outline 
from that of to-day, and that the geographical unity of 
Australia begins with the Tertiary. [1] 


Il. PALAZOGEOGRAPHIC STUDIKS. 


(A) PRE-CAMBRIAN. 


By referring to the map (fig. 1) we see that the 
known Pre-Cambrian areas of Australia are all grouped 
in the western portions of the continent and Tasmania. 
A curve drawn from the north-east corner of Tasmania 
to the Kimberley district of West Australia, with a 
slight convexity to the north-east embraces all the 
best known Pre-Cambrian areas of Australia. Such a 
curve, it is interesting to note, would have its centre near 
Kerguelen Island, in the Southern Ocean. But, as the 
Pre-Cambrian is a geological scrap-heap for all the for- 
mations which antedate the appearance of life on the 
earth, rocks of that age must underlie all later formations, 
and they cannot be utilised in the reconstruction 
of Pre-Cambrian geography. All that we can say is 
that both sea and land were in existence in this great 
epoch, for the Pre-Cambrian rocks are largely of sedi- 
mentary origin. 

The principal Pre-Cambrian areas of Australia 
are (1) the West Tasmanian area; (2) Yorke’s Peninsula, 
West of Adelaide; (3) the Musgrave Ranges and part 
of the Victoria Desert, South Australia; (4) an area 
near Broken Hill; (5) the Macdonnell Ranges, South 
Australia ; (6) the Kimberley Area, West Australia, 
and (7) the Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie areas, W.A. The 
igneous rocks of this early period comprise both acid 
and basic varieties. The acid rocks consisted of granites, 


ee 


152 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


felsites, graphic granites, gneiss, augen gneiss, basalt, 
andesite and gabbro. 


The sedimentary rocks comprise quartzites, mica 
schists, andalusite schists, marbles and limestones. 


The western portions of Australia, which are so 
largely of Pre-Cambrian age, have probably in the main, 
escaped heavy sedimentation in all subsequent geological 
periods, for otherwise a heavy coat of later sediments 
would frequently hide the Pre-Cambrian rocks. Western 
Australia was, therefore, uplifted at an early period. 
It formed part of a Pre-Cambrian landmass which ex- 
tended in a north-west direction to Arabia and Abys- 
sinia and south-wards to Antarctica. This great landmass 
was probably fairly persistent throughout Paleozoic 
times, since Africa, India and Australia had a similar 
flora up to the end of the Paleozoic, namely the Lepi- 
dodendron flora of the Carboniferous and the Glossopteris 
flora of the Permo-Carboniferous. 


The absence of sediments newer than Pre-Cambrian 
over large areas of Western Australia, is not the sole 
evidence for supposing this area to have been essentially 
a continental mass from that remote geological age to 
the present. A strip of the west coast of W.A. was sub- 
jected to several marine transgressions in late Paleozoic 
and Mesozoic times, but sedimentation was neither 
prolonged nor heavy, for practically all deposits later 
than Pre-Cambrian are almost undisturbed by any 
compressional forces, their dip seldom exceeding 20°. 
The sediments of various later geogolical ages are deposited 
upon highly folded, inclined and contorted rocks, con- 
sisting of schists, conglomerates, gneisses and igneous 
rocks of the Pre-Cambrian complex. Even the Cam- 
brian rocks, such as the Nullagine series of Pilbarra, 
are little disturbed. The WNullagine, Carboniferous, 
Permian and Mesozoic rocks, where in juxtaposition, 
are not easily separable by such criteria as hardness, 
metamorphism, difference in angle of dip, and so forth, 
but mainly by the occurrence of unconformities between 
them. Consequently the transgressions of the ocean 
in these periods did not interfere with the geological 
unity or plateau character of Western Australia. 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 158 


Another point of interest in this connection is the 
fact that artesian water, which occurs in Queensland only 
in rocks of late Mesozoic age, has been obtained in 
Western Australia in rocks of Permian, Carboniferous, 
and even older ages. This shows still more forcibly 
that since the early Paleozoic, Western Australia has 
been a unit or block of the earth’s crust in which no 
compression of strata has occurred, and in which the 
only earth movements (faults and fractures) have been 
the result of tangential strain. 

In {Bull. 33, Geol. Surv. of W.A., Mr. A. Gibb- 
Maitland [2] shows that at Pelican Hill artesian water 
was obtained at a depth of about 3,000 feet in the lowest 
bed of the Carboniferous series, a sandstone stratum 
about 448 feet thick. In the Collie Coalfield mining 
is greatly handicapped by the constant soakage of 
artesian water into the workings. 

In the Irwin Coalfield (Bull. 38, Geol. Surv. of W.A.), 
the coal is hydrous, and the carboniferous rocks are 
water bearing. [3] 

Clearly, from this the post-Cambrian rocks of the 
Western Australian block are porous by virtue of being 
uncompressed, and in many Cases they are in a state 
of strain or tension. We may therefore conclude 
that West Australia has been a relatively rising mass | 
from the beginning of the Cambrian. : 

In Eastern Australia, all rocks of pre-Triassic age 
have undergone such compression that their original 
water content has been expelled, and they have become 
too impervious to take up water again. 


CAMBRIAN SEDIMENTATION. 


Examination of the Cambrian areas of sedimenta- 
tion shows (Fig. 2) us that they are all situated to the 
east of the main Pre-Cambrian massive, already referred 
to. They lie on a definite band about 300 miles wide, 
running in a crude north-westerly direction from 
Tasmania to Kimberley, in W.A. This band then 
corresponds to the Cambrian area of intense sedimenta- 
tion, including the continental shelf of the period. 

The chief localities for Cambrian rocks are the 
Caroline Creek district in Tasmania; the Heathcote 


154 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


district, Victoria; the Mt. Lofty Range, north of Peters— 
burg, Kangaroo Island, Vincent’s Gulf, and thence 


north to the Queensland border, in South Australia; and. 


the Kimberley district in Western Australia. These 
beds are in many places rich in the forms of life character- 
istic of the period—such as the coral Archeocyathine ; 
sponge spicules; the trilobites Conocephalites, Micro- 
discus, Olenellus, Dikellocephalus ; the pteropods Salterella. 
and Tentaculites, and the Gastropod Ophileta. 

While the belt referred to was probably the con- 
tinental shelf and region of heavy sedimentation in 
Cambrian times, it is probable that the Cambrian ocean 
extended eastwards over the whole of Eastern Australia. 
The remarkable crystalline and wholly unfossiliferous 
rocks, which are known to us as the Brisbane Schists, 
the Byron Bay Schists and Cofi’s Harbour Schists, are 
probably deep sea deposits of Paleozoic age, which 
accumulated in the profound and lifeless ocean during 
the periods ranging from Cambrian to Devonian. At 
great depths life would be scarce, and any remains of 
skeletons of organisms which may have dropped to the 
bottom would speedily go into solution. 

During the Lower Cambrian period, a glacial age 
was experienced in Australia, boulder beds of iceworn 
nature outcropping in many places on the belt {of 
Cambrian sediments, right from Adelaide north to the 
Queensland-South Australian border, and in the north 
of Western Australia. [4] 

ORDOVICIAN SEDIMENTATION. 
The region of the heaviest Ordovician Sedimenta- 


tion lies east of the region of heaviest Cambrian deposition. 


The latter had been uplifted and largely converted into 
dry land before the Ordovician period. The continent 
had therefore taken a step in the direction of the rising 
sun. A strip, two or three hundred miles wide, lying 
east of the Cambrian continent, had been converted. 
into land. (f1g. 3). 

The Ordovician in the Australian region was truly 
an age of graptolites, which were in many parts, particu- 
larly in Victoria, buried in such numbers as to give a 
graphitic character to the shales and slates of this period. 
These graphitic shales have acted as precipitants for gold, 


BY H. I, JENSEN, D.SC. 155 


so that they stand in the same relation to the goldbearing 
quartz reefs of Victoria as the plumbago beds of the 
Gympie Goldfield stand to the reefs there. 

The main areas of Ordovician Sedimentation in 
Australia were the Cephalopodan limestone of Tasmania, 
the Victorian graphitic shales at Sandhurst, etc., the 
black graptolite slates of the Victorian and Snowy Alps, 
the Myall Reefs, N.S.W., the graptolite slates at Dubbo 
and Cadia (near Orange), N.S.W., the Mandurama 
graptolite and radiolarian rocks (N.S.W.), and the 
Larapintine system of the MacDonald Ranges of S.A. 

The Ordovician rocks of N. 8. Wales, Victoria and 
Tasmania were probably deposited in very deep water, 
radiolaria being very abundant in them in the Snowy 
Alps, at Mandurama and elsewhere. 

Contemporaneous tufis and lavas were erupted 
and occur in the series at Mandurama and Cadia, N.S.W. 
These volcanic extrusions were of an andesitic nature. 


SILURIAN SEDIMENTATION. 

Silurian sediments occur over wide areas of Eastern 
Australia. In Victoria, Tasmania and Southern N. 8S. 
Wales, where the Ordovician sea was deep, the Silurian | 
sediments follow the Ordovician, and largely overlie 
them. Further north, however, the areas of most 
intense Silurian sedimentation are several hundred miles 
east of the main Ordovician belt. (Fig. 4). 

The Silurian Sea was an extensive one, and a 
moderately shallow one. Corals played an important 
part in the life of the time. 

Silurian rocks occur at Yass and Bowning, the 
Jenolan Caves, Wellington, Molong, etc., in N. S. Wales ; 
at Chillagoe in Queensland ; at Lilydale in Victoria, etc. ; 
and at Yass (N.S.W.) they contain banded rhyolites and 
tuffs of a dacitic nature, and submarine tuffs at Wel- 
lington (N.S.W.) 

The shallow nature of the Silurian Sea, together 
with the slow uplift of the sea bottom, caused a rapid 
advance of the coastline towards the east, so that 
it is doubtful that the various Silurian areas of Australie 
are contemporaneous. They are homotaxial, and belong 
to the same great period—but may have become elevated 
into dry land at different times in that period. 


156 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


Most of the important cave-limestones of Australia 
belong to the Silurian—as for example, those of Chillagoe 
and Mungana in North Queensland, and those of Jenolan, 
Wellington and Yarang-obilly in New South Wales. The 
Trugose and tabulate corals of that age apparently did not 
build ona subsiding sea-floor as the madrepore and millepore 
fauna of the Pacific to-day, but were building on a slowly 
rising seabottom, gradually extending their domain as 
successive portions of the ocean floor were raised to the 
zone of shallow water. 


THE DEVONIAN. 


In the Devonian Period, the ocean which in the early 
Paleozoic covered Eastern Australia was much reduced. 
Here and there basins remained in which Devonian sedi- 
ments were planked. These basins were probably trough 
subsidence areas (senkungs-feldter) in the Silurian plat- 
form. One such basin extended along the south-coast of 
New South Wales, from the neighbourhood of Tilba-Tilba, 
through Yalwal and Sassafras, then dipping under the 
Permo-Carboniferous coal measures of the Sydney basin, 
it reappears at Tamworth, on the flanks of the New England. 
Another Devonian basin now forms the Buchan and Bindi 
limestones of Victoria; another depression is represented 
by the Murrumbidgee limestones of N.S.W., and extended 
westwards to Canowindra and Wilcannia. Another great 
area of Devonian sedimentation was that of the Burdekin 
beds of Queensland. (fig. 5). 


Upper Devonian rocks also occur at Mount Lambie, 
N.S.W., at Back Creek and Clyde Mountains near Braid- 
wood, N.S.W., and also between Orange and Wellington, 
N.S. W. 

The earliest rocks of the Lower Devonian period were 
of an igneous nature, namely, the Snowy River porphyries 
of N.S.W. 

Generally speaking, most of the igneous rocks of the 
Devonian period were of an acid character. 

The nature of Devonian sediments (largely limestones 
and coarse sandstones) indicates shallow water and 
derivation from the denudation of and igneous rocks. The 
Devonian sediments therefore suggest that the volcanic 
ejacamentea and the igneous intrusions of the late Silurian 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 157 


and Early Devonian were of granitic magma: by the 
same course of argument, we can suggest from the fine 
grained and dark nature of the slates of the early Silurian 
that the eruptions of that age and of the Ordovician 
were of basic magma. 

CARBONIFEROUS. 


In the Carboniferous period, the movement of the 
shoreline to the east was further accentuated. Along 
great stretches the area of maximum sedimentation lay 
far to the east of the present Continent. (fig. 6). Isolated 
or semi-detached seas covered the New England area of 
New South Wales, and the Gympie area of Queensland. 
Great upliits, accompanied by granitic intrusions, took 
place in the areas of maximum Silurian and Devonian 
sedimentation. Mountain building was in this period 
the result of earth folding processes, as instanced by the 
gigantic earthfolds in the Devonian beds underlying 
horizontal Upper Marine, near Braidwood, New South 
Wales. 

A north and south running strip of the West Australian 
Continental mass was lowered sufficiently to become the 
depository of marine sediments. 

During this period and the following, it is not ‘istieely 
that portions of Australia were connected with New Zealand, 
Fiji, and New Caledonia. 


PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS. 


In the Permo-Carboniferous a shallow sea developed 
to the east of the main Devonian areas (Fig. 7), running 
north and south from the Sydney basin to the Dawson 
River in Queensland. This elongated basin was probably 
produced by folding, accompanied by faulting. In it 
were deposited the Permo-Carboniferous beds. This basin 
lay between the Gondwana land proper and the island 
continent between Australia and Fiji and New Zealand. 
It stood to these two landmasses in the same relation as 
the Sea of Japan does to Japan and China. It afforded 
a means for floating ice to be carried far to the north. [4] 

Mighty upheavals took place in the Carboniferous 
and Permo-Carboniferous periods. Such elevated lands 
were built up that mammoth glaciers shed icefloes, which 
not only found their way far to the north in the South 


158 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


Australian area, but even as far as Bowen in Queensland 
The climate was so cooled that the rich flora of the coal 
measures was driven north, and likewise the mollusca 
and corals migrated to the north. Of corals only the hardy 
zaphrentis remained when the cooling of the climate set in. 
During the Permo-Carboniferous cataclysms com- 
menced the break up of the great Gondwana continent 
and the separation of Australia from India and South Africa 
was commenced. 

At the close of this period, the New England area of 
N.S.W. became compressed between the adjoining segments 
of the earth’s crust, so that the Permo-Carboniferous strata 
of this region were folded as intensely as the Silurian in 
other parts of Australia. [6] 

To summarise the geological history of Paleozoic 
Australia, we may say :— 

(1) The Pre-Cambrian is a conglomeration of forma- 
tions—both acid and basic igneous rocks were intruded. _ 

(2) The Cambrian was an era of uplift, Continental 
extension, and mountain building. Whether the Cambrian 
ice age was caused by earth movements having super- 
elevated many mountains and produced glaciers, or whether 
the cause of the ice age is due to any astronomical factors. 
is hard to say. Eruptions and intrusions were of an acid 
nature. 

(3) The Ordovician was a period of quiet subsidence 
over most of Eastern Australia; a great thickness of 
sediments accumulated. Vulcanicity was at a minimum, 
and the igneous masses which have been proved of this age: 
were of an intermediate (andesitic) to basic character. 

(4) The Silurian was a period of slow elevation of the 
sea floor over Eastern Australia, and of Continental exten- 
sion by the piling up in the seas of the weathering products 
of the Continents. Vulcanicity became more and more 
marked towards the end of the period, and the intrusions. 
and lavas became more and more acid in character. 

(5) The Early Devonian was an era of rapid elevation 
in some parts, downthrow in others. Great folds and 
great faults were produced. The lavas, tufis and intrusive 
rocks of the period were very acid in character. 

The Devonian uplifts must have caused the isolation 
of many seas, for the Devonian sandstones of some parts 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 159 


care like our Triassic rocks, very poor in fossils, and indicate 
deposition in a semi-brackish sea. The Devonian sediments, 
where not of organic origin, point to acidic eruptions and 
intrusions in this and the previous period. 

(6) The late Carboniferous was a period of most 
intense folding and faulting, accompanied by igneous 
intrusions and volcanic eruptions of strongly acidic 
character. 

(7) The Permo-Carboniferous was a period of general 
subsidence, accompanied by erosion of the lands and the 
piling up of sediments in the ocean. Volcanic eruptions 
took place far and wide in the regions of heavy sedimenta- 
tion, and the lavas were all of an intermediate to basic 
nature. 

Towards the end of this period the super-elevation of 
some landmass lying to the south-west of Tasmania, caused 
an Australian ice age. Evidences obtain at Bacchus 
Marsh, Victoria; Hallett’s Cove, and other places in §.A., 
Lochinvar and Branxton in N.S.W., Bowen in Queensland, 
and the Irwin and Gascoyne Coalfields in W.A. [4 and 5] 

In the foregoing notes, the following two points are of 
special interest :— 

(1) The Continent moved in an easterly direction 
throughout the Paleozoic, and by the end of the Permo- 
Carboniferous, had captured more than the whole of the 
present continent, including many deep ocean parts. This 
is satisfactory evidence that Penck’s theory of the 
—— ehh 
permanency of ocean basins does not hold. 
~~) Andesite indicates a subsiding and rhyolite . 
rising area. : 

THE Mesozoic. 

The Mediterranean Sea of Australia, shown on Figs. 
7, 8, 9, commenced in the Permo-Carboniferous period, 
during which it was probably connected with the ocean 
by a south passage. Its oceanic connection to the south 
ceased with the dawn of the Mesozoic. 

In the Triassic and in the Trias-Jura, it is probable 
that the main mountain ranges of Australia lay some 
distance out in the present Pacific Ocean, in the direction 
of New Zealand. Regional uplift took place over most 
of the coal-basin (Permo-Carboniferous) area. The 
upward movement was not of equal intensity in all parts. 


160: THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


During the Triassic, the Sydney basin not only lagged 
behind in the uplift, but was subsiding at intervals, so that 
during this period it was a shallow sea in which the 
Narrabeen shales, the Hawkesbury sandstones, and the 
Wianamatta shales were laid down. During the Narrabeen 
interval volcanic eruptions of an andesitic nature showered 
out ashes, which helped to build up the chocolate shales. 
The abundance of fossil leaves and wood in this formation 
indicates shallowness, proximity to land, and possibly 
nearly fresh water conditions, indicating that this area 
had participated for a time in the uplift of the late Permo- 
Carboniferous. The Hawkesbury sandstone system consists 
of coarse-grained sandstones, which, evidently, must have 
been deposited in a storm-tossed brackish sea, for the sedi- 
ments carry no fossils except a few Macroteeniopteris leaves 
and fragments of fossil wood. Brackish water affords the 
most suitable habitat for thinshelled molluscs, and a shallow 
storm-tossed sea gives the best conditions for the complete 
destruction of shell remains by the grinding action of the 
sands. The frequency in the Hawkesbury system of false 
bedding is also indicative of changing currents and shallow 
water. 

The Hawkesbury period was followed by an uplift 
which inaugurated a lake period in the Sydney area. In 
the lake then formed the Wianamatta shales were laid 
down. Mr. F. Chapman, F.L.S., concludes from his study 
of the fossil microzoa of the series that the Wianamatta 
shales were deposited in fresh or brackish water. [7] 
(Records Geol. Surv. of N.S.W., Vol. VIII., Part IV.) 
The other fossils of the formation, comprising thin-shelled 
mollusca and labyrinthodont remains, support this con. 
clusion. 

The Hawkesbury sandstone sea was at the start 
considerably larger than the area now covered by its forma- 
tion. 

Mr. W. 8. Dun [8] has described fossil leaves in Lower 
Trias rocks from Benolong, in the Dubbo district. The 
sea gradually dwindled in size as elevation proceeded, and 
at last only the Wianamatta lake remained. 

The elevation of the whole of the eastern belt of the 
present Australian Continent led to a relative depression 
of the interior, and in later Triassic times (the Trias-Jura 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 161 


of Jack) an epicontinental sea formed in which the Trias- 
Jura rocks were laid down. This sea extended from the 
New England and Central tablelands in New South Wales 
west into Central Australia, thence north to the Gulf of Car- 
pentaria. It reached the eastern margin of the present 
Continent in the Moreton Bay district of Queensland, 
whence a stretch of water extended south over the Clarence 
and Richmond districts of New South Wales. 


The Trias-Jura sea is coextensive (Fig. 8) with the 
artesian areas of New South Wales and Queensland, and 
included also the Ipswich and Clarence coal-measures. 

The bulk of the sediments deposited in this period 
consisted of coarse, silicious sandstones, distinguished by 
current bedding and scarcity of fossils. In parts, as on 
the Maroochy Beach of Queensland, fossil wood is plentiful. 
In isolated places leaves and thin-shelled mollusca are 
found. Evidently, the conditions prevailing in this expanse 
of water were similar to those prevailing in the Hawkesbury 
period over the Sydney basin. 

The area subject to sedimentation in the Cretaceous 
period was almost identical with the Trias-Jura basin. 
(Fig. 9). 

In the Cretaceous Mediterranean Sea of Australia 
were deposited the Rolling Downs formations, consisting 
of sandstones, marls and limestones, with marine fossils. 
The Cretaceous sea was probably connected with the ocean, 
both to the south and to the north. 

The Rolling Downs are capped by the Upper Cretaceous 
or Cretaceo-Tertiary Desert Sandstones, fine-grained, 
magnesian sandstones—this formation often lies uncon- 


-formably, and occurs in the form of broken ridges with 


flat summits and precipitous sides. The Rev. Mr. Tennison 
Woods, F.L.S. [9], considered the Desert Sandstone to be 
an early Tertiary volcanic tuff deposit, formed under 
terrestrial conditions, the false bedding being due, in his 
opinion, to wind changes (Proc. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., 
Vol. XXII., p. 290). He considers also, that in the period 
of the Desert Sandstone, Australia was more elevated than 
to-day. 

The theory of the volcanic origin of the magnesite 
of the Desert Sandstone is probably correct. Although 
the main trachytic eruptions of Eastern Australia were 


162 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


older than the great basic flows, there is strong evidence 
in the Moreton and Fassifern districts of Queensland, and 
in the Canoblas, Nandewars, and Mittagong trachyte 
series in New South Wales, that the trachytic eruptive 
rocks were preceded by basic and ultrabasic intrusives, and 
flows quite distinct from the Miocene and Pliocene basalts. 
The age of this post-Jurassic volcanic period is probably 
not older than late Cretaceous, nor newer than Eocene. 


The Cretaceous was a period of relative quiet, and 
the great continental rim elevated in the late Permian, 
Triassic and Trias-Jura periods was being worn down to 
base level. The formation of the Bolivia and Mole pene- 
plains was completed in this period. (Andrews—Tertiary 
History of New England). An early Tertiary uplift followed, 
and this was accompanied by renewed degradation until 
the great Miocene peneplain of Eastern Australia was 
formed (Sandon and Stannifer peneplain of Andrews op. 
cit. [10], Monaro peneplain of Sussmilch [11] ). 

The first great basalt demonstration of the Tertiary 
occurred before the completion of Miocene peneplanation, 
and the alkaline lavas of Eastern Australia are usually 
regarded as early extrusives of that eruptive cycle, a view 
that assigns them to the Eocene or early Miocene periods. 
The later basalts succeeded, and are best regarded as late 
Pliocene. Their extrusion was followed or accompanied 
by great upheavals in some areas, such as New England. 


The igneous activity of the Mesozoic periods has not 
left such striking evidence as the Tertiary volcanic action 
just referred to. The following clues are, however, afforded : 


(a) The chocolate shales of early Trias (Narrabeen) 
age contain augite, and are probably andesitic tuffs. 

(6) The Wianamatta shales do in many places near 
Penrith pass into tuffy shales. The nature of the shales 
themselves is indicative of derivation from basic volcanic 
rock. Some shaly beds in the Clarence series are likewise 
tufiy. | 

(c) The alkaline rocks of Eastern Australia were 
preceded by basic eruptions from which they are separated 
by at least one geological period. The magnesites of the 
Desert Sandstone may be related to these basic eruptives. 


(12] 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 163 


From the nature of the Mesozoic sediments generally, 
we may conclude that the Mesozoic period was not 
characterised by intense vulcanicity, but some eruptions 
probably took place, such as the andesitic ejacamenta 
of the Narrabeen period, the basic tufis of Wianamatta 
age, and others mentioned above. If any eruptions took 
place in the Hawkesbury period, they must have been of 
an acid nature. The Trias-Jura of the Clarence River 
district of New South Wales contains basic tufis probably 
contemporaneous, and this is also the case with the 
Mesozoic rocks between Nambour and Yandina, Queens- 
land. [13] The latter also contain rhyolites and associated 
tuffs, some of which show close resemblance to the felsitic 
tuffs at the base of the Trias-Jura in Brisbane. None of 
the rocks igneous definitely assignable to the Trias-Jura 
have an alkaline facies. 

The points of major interest in connection with the 
Mesozoic rocks of Eastern Australia are :— 

(1) Our Mesozoic sediments show no folding of conse- 
quence. Generally speaking, they show only slight dips, 
and have never been under the influence of tangential 
pressure like the Mesozoic sediments of the Alps, Himalayas, 
Java, etc. 

(2) Even our Permo-Carboniferous rocks are only 
strongly contorted in the area of the New England district. 
‘Since the Permo-Carboniferous, Eastern Australia has been 
a stable unit of the earth’s crust; if not actually rising, 
so that any sedimentation of late Permo-Carboniferous, 
and later age, is due to marine transgressions and epi-con- 
tinental seas invading the landmass. 

(3) Mountain building from the Permo-Carboniferous 
on has been by plateau uplift, not by folding, except in the 
New England, where tangential thrusts must have taken 
place in the Mesozoic. Faulting has aided in the formation 
of our mountains, but intense folding of this age has only 
occurred in the Northern Tableland of New South Wales. 

(4) The most folded rocks of late Permo-Carboniferous 
and Mesozoic age are in a few small subsidence areas, among 
which the Gympie Goldfield [14], the New England, and 
the Ipswich Coalfield are prominent. 

(5) The discovery by R. A. Wearne, of Fenestella 
in horizontal sandstones resembling Ipswich coal-measures, 

c 


164 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


near Mt. Barney, shows that the idea that the formations 
become progressively more and more folded as we go north 
towards New Guinea is not without limitations. [15] 

(6) So little compression has there been since the 
ushering in of the Mesozoic in Eastern Australia, that artesian 
water is obtainable in Mezosoic rocks, but not in oider rocks. 


(7) The Desert Sandstone is a volcanic ash deposit, 
probably partly of late Cretaceous, partly of Tertiary age, 
as suggested by Tennyson Woods. [9] 

THE BRISBANE AND THE GYMPIE ROCKS. 

The veteran geologist of Queensland, Dr. Jack, classed 
most of the unfossiliferous schists of Queensland with 
the Gympie formation. In my paper, ‘“‘ The Metamorphic 
Rocks of Southern Queensland” [14], read before the 
A.A.A.8., Brisbane Meeting, 1909, I gave some weighty 
reasons for regarding the Gympie area as a small subsidence 
area, in which, by reason of depression and compression 
between adjoining blocks of the earth’s crust, more recent 
formations were metamorphosed than in the more elevated 
blocks. Mr. Wearne’s interesting discovery of Fenestella, 
near Mt. Barney, in almost horizontal sandstones confirms 
this view. [15] 

I am inclined to regard the unfossiliferous Paleozoic 
beds between Brisbane and Coff’s Harbour, and also those 
north of Brisbane in the D’Aguilar Ranges, and further 
north in the Yabba Ranges, etc., as a paleozoic complex 
of deep sea deposits, ranging from, perhaps, Pre-Cambrian to 
Devonian or Carboniferous in age. These beds were 
elevated in late Carboniferous or Permian times, and 
portions of the area which they covered were submerged 
again by an epicontinental sea, when the great Mesozoic 
uplift of New England took place. The Clarence basin 
sandstones and Ipswich coal-measures were laid down in 
this epicontinental sea. 

The Gympie beds of Gympie proper have been proved 
by their fossil contents to be equivalent with the Lower 
Marine beds of New South Wales, therefore Permo-Carboni- 
ferous. While it is not only possible, but probable, that 
large areas of Queensland were under shallow water in 
Permo-Carboniferous times, the beds laid down in that 
period have only been preserved in cases where they have 
been downthrown by trough faulting. [14] 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 165 


The progressive increase of folding in Permo-Car- 
boniferous rocks observed on going north from the Vic- 
torian to the Queensland border, reaches its climax in the 
Macleay-Manning and Southern New England districts 
of New South Wales. North of the Macpherson Range, 
the Permo-Carboniferous have only been materially dis- 
turbed in certain senkungsfeldt areas of small extent. 

At Bega, in N.S.W. (see Fig. 11), we have the Ordovician 
rocks and igneous rocks of granite composition. Further 
north, in the Cobargo district, lightly folded Silurian shales 
(Narira schists) rest on the Ordovician. Still further 
north, not far from the Narrigundah goldfields, Devonian 
rocks appear, according to Anderson [16], sitting horizon- 
tally on top of folded Silurian. These Devonian rocks 
are seen at Braidwood and Ettrema, folded into huge 
anticlines and synclines. At Sassafras, horizontal Greta 
and Upper Marine rocks rest on them. That is the case 
in the Turpentine Range, Sassafras, the headwaters of 
the Clyde, Endrick and Danjera rivers. [17] 

Still further north, as at Sydney and Maitland, the 
Permo-Carboniferous is lightly folded, and _ horizontal 
Triassic caps it. Still further north, on the Macleay and 
Manning Rivers, the Permo-Carboniferous is greatly folded. 
After that the intensity of fold movements diminishes 
progressively as we go north into Southern Queensland. 

These facts may be stated in geological parlance in 
this wey— 

Sydney was the centre of a great geosyncline, the 
Bega-Monaro district and the Macpherson Range were 
the stable and resistant hinges [13] during all periods 
up to the Permo-Carboniferous. As sedimentation con- 
tinued in the New England subsidence area during the 
Permo-Carboniferous, the uplift of this province took place 
in the Triassic. During the coalmeasures period, therefore, 
the centre of the geosyncline was near Sydney. East and 
west folding has taken place in the same way, Sydney 
being the centre of the depression. (See Fig. 11). 

During the subsequent Triassic period, the Permo- 
Carboniferous sediments were folded in subsiding areas, 
and eroded away in other areas. 

The synclinal nature of the Sydney basin closed with 
the Triassic period of sedimentation. 


. 166 THE BUILDING NF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


Prior to the Permo-Carboniferous, the whole of the 
East Australian Coast was a synclinal. The formation of 
the Bega-Monaro ge-anticline commenced in the early 
Paleozoic, and that of the Macpherson Range commenced 
in the Permo-Carboniferous. 

To make the position clear, we may regard the move- 
ment along the whole Australian coast as either a move- 
ment upwards or a sinking. 

From the point of view of uplift without tangential 
pressure, the Kosciusko mass has continuously risen since 
Ordovician times; proceeding northwards, uplift came 
later and later, post-Devonian at Narrigundah, post- 
Carboniferous at Nelligen and Braidwood, post Permo- 
Carboniferous at Yalwal, Ettrema, etc., post Triassic at 
Sydney. Inthe country stretching from Armidale on New 
England tothe mouth of the Macleay and Manning Rivers 
uplift, accompanied by tangential compression, took 
place prior to the elevation of the Sydney area, namely 
in the Triassic period. This uplift was also experienced 
in Northern New England and the Macpherson Range, 
but was there only accompanied by tangential pressure in 
localised subsidence areas. 

Compression is, generally speaking, the outcome of 
subsidence. When subsidence ceases, earth segments rise 
without being folded. Small areas lagging behind in the 
general uplift may undergo compression. Viewing the 
Kast Australian earth movements in the sense of downward 
movements, we see from the above that the maximum 
subsidence took place in the New England-Manning belt 
prior to early Triassic, when elevation commenced in this 
region. 

The Sydney area remained submerged longer—in fact 
until the Triassic sediments had been laid down, when 
regional uplift set in; and south of Sydney the cessation 
of subsidence came earlier and earlier in geological time. 

The Macpherson Range became a stable or rising area 
in late Permo-Cabroniferous. 


During Mesozoic times, as well as Tertiary, the general 
tendency has been towards uplift and tension along the 
whole east coast of Australia, for the horizontal disposition 
of a formation of a given geological age may be considered 
as indicating that subsidence had ceased, or did cease, in 


BY A. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 167 


that period, though the area may have remained sub- 
merged for a while after. 


Hence I deduce from the horizontal nature of Permo- 
Carboniferous beds at Mt. Barney [15], that in this period, 
or just before it, subsidence came to an end in this region ; 
it does not follow that sedimentation must cease at the 
same time. It may persist for a whole geological period 
longer. | 

Queensland underwent the same general types of 
movement as New South Wales during the Palxozoic era. 
In the early Triassic, the super-elevation of some earth 
segments, such as New England, caused down warpings 
of slight amplitude, and in the depressions thus formed 
were the Triassic and Cretaceous rocks deposited. 


CAUSES OF FOLDING. 


It has been argued that throughout the Palzozoic 
periods the ancestral Australian Continent was continually 
adding to itself on the eastern side. Adopting Kelvin’s 
hypothesis of the origin of the continents, we may regard 
this original Australia or Gondwana Land as a floater, that 
is a portion of the earth’s crust, which consisted of acid 
magma, and was specifically light, and therefore raised 
by flotation above the heavier magmas, or buoyed up by 
the heavier basic magmas beneath. As erosion was con- 
tinually making it specifically lighter, and the detritus 
resulting from erosion was being piled up in adjoining seas, 
the process of erosion had the effect of causing continued 
elevation of the continental area and subsidence for a long 
period at least in the adjoining basins. 

The elevation of the continental area would cease 
when the underlying basic portions of the earth’s crust had 
consolidated and fallen under the influence of secular 
contraction. 

The subsidence of the seabasins would cease when 
sufficient sediments had been heaped together for the 
depressed isogeotherms to reassert themselves. 


The gradual rise of temperature in this great mass 
of cool sediments would cause first a general uplift, and, 
later, if upward expansion did not afford sufficient relief 
of pressure, folding of the sediments would ensue. 


168 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


In this way the great accumulation of sediments round 
the margin of the old continent would be raised into 
mountain ranges, the continent advancing a few hundred 
miles in the direction of the former sea in each geological 
period. 

The sediments of one geological period in this way 
became raised into a marginal buttress of mountain ranges 
in the next geological period. These mountain ranges in 
their turn would become subject to denudation, and the 
material derived from them would accumulate on the 
new continental shelf and in the adjoining deep; in its 
turn this new area of sedimentation would become a 
continental margin. 

This view is opposed to the doctrine of Permanency 
of Ocean Basins advanced by that eminent geologist, 
Penck, but it derives strong support from the geological 
history of Eastern Australia. [For further discussion see 
12}. 

Ocean basis are subsiding segments of the earth’s 
crust, whose downward movement is probably due to 
rigid connection with the shrinking interior of the crust. 
In their downward sag, these segments sink from levels 
of lower earth temperature to those of higher temperature, 
with the result that such segments are fused below, and by 
reason of their expansion exert a lateral pressure on 
adjoining segments. In this way is produced a creep in 
the zone of rock flowage from the subsiding segments 
towards the rising segments. The displaced magmas become 
injected into cavities (macule), zones of no strain, and 
fractures in the continental margins, the rocks in which 
become heated by the injected magmas and consequently 
expand. A period of mountain building and folding, due 
to igneous injection as outlined by Reg. A. Daly [18], 
may therefore succeed or accompany the uplift and folding, 
due to rise of isogeotherms. 

Mountain building by igneous injection, seems to have 
gone on extensively in the late Paleozoic and _ early 
Mesozoic in the New England area of New South Wales. 

Folding only takes place in the superficial strata of 
a rising area (undergoing expansion due to rise of 
isogeotherms) under particular conditions, namely, when 
the area is a sunken fault block relatively left behind in the 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 169 


general uplift, and so pinched in between two other blocks, 
and when the area is underlying mountain building by 
igneous injection. 

Thus the elevated Triassic Hawkesbury sandstones 
of New South Wales are not superficially folded, nor are 
the Permo-Carboniferous sandstones of the Shoalhaven 
district (Nowra Grits). There have been no _ abyssal 
injections of magnitude introduced into them since their 
deposition. They have never been intruded by granites 
or diorites, or gabbros. This is also true for the Ipswich 
Coal Measures in Southern Queensland. 


But the Ipswich Coal Measures are locally disturbed 
to a considerable degree at Ipswich in proximity to a fault 
which suggests that this portion of the area is a Senkungs- 
feldt. They are also slightly folded in the D’ Aguilar Range, 
near the Glass House Mountains, the uplift here having 
probably igneous injection as the immediate causal agent. 


Those portions of a continental margin which have 
their cracks and macule infilled by magmas creeping 
along the zone of flowage became cemented together, and 
persist as land for many periods, while those portions which 
are not affected by igneous injections are weakened and 
tend to become downfaulted areas (Senkungsfeldter). 


In illustration of this statement, it might be pointed 
out that the Kosciusko fault block, the Central Tableland, 
and the Northern Tableland in N.S.W., abound in huge 
granitic intrusions, as is also the case with the Stanley 
River block of South Queensland (Woodford Peneplain). 


In his presidential address to the Linnean Society 
this year, Mr. C. Hedley gave further particulars of his 
view that the Tasman deep is a pressure trough, and 
endeavoured to show that the physiographic features of 
New South Wales are due to a pressure emanating from 
the Tasman deep [19 and 20}. 


There is no doubt about the existence of a great fold 
in the Mesozoic rocks of this part of Australia. The 
Hawkesbury sandstones and the Nowra Grits have in general 
a gentle dip towards the sea, and the Peneplains formed 
by the truncation of the original fold in middle Tertiary 
times have their eastern margins depressed beneath the 
sea by a further accentuation of the fold movement. 


170 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


But this fold is of such a gentle nature, and the dips 
produced so slight, that the movement may be more aptly 
described as Andrews has done as plateau uplift 
[Andrews, 1]. 


No superheated magmas have yet worked their way 
up in these sediments and caused expansion and intense 
folding, but very late Tertiary faults have produced 
Senkungsfeldt areas (as described by Sussmilch, 11], some 
of which may, perhaps, in a future period, become so 
squeezed as to be intensely folded. Up to the present, 
the uplift has affected the superficial strata only so far 
as to produce in them faults and great masterjoints. As 
shown by Sussmilch (op cit) and T. G. Taylor [21], the 
direction of the rivers of Southern N.S.W. is induced by 
these faults, while in the present writer’s opinion, the great 
canons which dissect the Southern coastal tablelands and 
Blue Mountains of N.S.W. follow principally great joint 
cracks of the sandstones. TheSe joint cracks, aS Seen by 
the writer at Ettrema Canon, often coincide in poSition 
with Paleozoic faults, and may owe their origin to Slight 
displacements along these old fault lines. Joints and 
faults in a homogeneous formation conStitute the lines of 
weakness, along which streams are able to work down and 
dissect a plateau. 


Folding of a compressive nature in an area like that 
of the Blue Mountains of N.S.W., is very deepseated, and, 
in the writer’s opinion, pressure is exerted in the deeper 
portions of the earth’s crust from the sea, towards the land,. 
from the great subsiding basin of the Tasman Sea towards. 
the Continent. In this respect, the writer agrees with 
Hedley, and disagrees with Andrews, who believes that: 
the continent exerts a pressure in the direction of the 
ocean. The contour of the east coast of Australia would 
seem to lend colour to Andrews’ hypothesis, but, as 
pointed out by Hedley, in an interesting discussion, the 
apparent convex curve of the East Australian coast becomes 
two concave curves if we analyse the soundings in the 
adjoining Pacific Ocean, for a bar of shallow water runs 
from Point Danger eastwards in the direction of Fiji. 


The deepseated landward pressure in itself largely 
accounts for the buoying-up of the Continent. 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.Sc. 171 


THe BREAK-UP OF GONDWANA LAND.—FAULTING. 


The coasts of Western Australia, India, Arabia, and 
East Africa are unmistakably faulted coast lines [Atlantic 
type, see 12]. 

Recent faulting is still enlarging the Indian Ocean. 
Madagascar is a horst, and the Mozambique channel is a 
Senkungsfeldt, the fault which separated the former from 
Africa having taken place in Pleistocene times. 

The faulting in progress at the present time in the 
Rift Valley of Africa—a region of great modern earth- 
quakes—is a later instalment of the same process of 
disruption. 

Gondwana Land existed from the early Paleozoic 
(Cambrian) to the Permo-Carboniferous as a compact 
landmass. In the Carboniferous, subsidence areas of the 
nature of trough-faults had already commenced, and over 
some of them passed transgressive arms of the sea: thus 
not only in Africa are almost horizontal Carboniferous 
marine sediments met with, put in West Australia a long 
strip, occupying mainly the west coast of modern W.A., 
was submerged in the Carboniferous, and during part of the 
Permo-Carboniferous, and again at intervals in the Mesozoic. 
The land connection between Australia, Africa and 
Antarctica began to break down during these periods, though 
island bridges probably remained until the end of the 
Mesozoic, these accounting for the African affinities of 
the West Australia flora. 

This disruption was, no doubt, due to secular con- 
traction. The interior of the old Continent became 
unstable, and was downthrown as soon as the cooling of 
the deeper portions of the earth’s crust commenced to make 
them contract. Portions of the upper crust became 
separated from the cooling, lower portions by the forma- 
tion of shrinkage cavities (macule), some of which were 
not reached by igneous invasions from the zone of flowage. 
Thus the upper shell become unsupported, and fell in. 
The rim of the old Continent was largely strengthened 
by igneous injections, and thus escaped the general 
collapse. In this way the old complex of Western 
Australia, and that of Western Tasmania consist very 
largely of igneous materials. 


172 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


It has been suggested that in the Permo-Carboniferous 
and early Mesozoic periods the Continent extended far 
into the present Pacific Ocean, and may have been con- 
nected both with Fiji and Antarctica or New Zealand. 
[22, C. Hedley, A.A.A.S., 1909.] 

These extensions have been taken away again by 
faulting. 

It should be here mentioned in explanation of the 
distinctive nature of the West Australian flora, that 
although all our late Permian and Mesozoic sediments 
are of a epi-continental nature that is formed in epi-con- 
tinental seas, Western Australia had, prior to the Tertiary 
period, very little land connection with eastern portions 
of the Continent. 

The present appearance of the eastern coast of 
Australia is in many parts that of a strongly faulted coast- 
line. As shown by Sussmilch, the Southern Tablelands 
of N.S.W. [11] constitute a blockfaulted peneplain. I 
have myself corroborated faulting of this kind by 
describing instances in the country west of Jervis Bay. [17] 

A further and more striking example was seen on a 
later visit to the Bega district. The Bega coastal district 
is separated from the Monaro Tableland by a linear though 
facetted fault -scarp, which has downthrown the eastern 
block about 1,500 feet relative to the Monaro block. The 
topography is identical on the coastal plain and Monaro 
Tableland. This fault scarp runs parallel with the Con- 
tinental shelf, and it is more than likely that some of our 
steep declivities on the Continental shelf are similar, but 
submerged, fault scarps. 

E. C. Andrews has given a very complete account of 
Tertiary faulting [1]. 


MounTAIN RANGES AND DIRECTION OF FOLDING. 

As already stated, Andrews has tegarded the con- 
vexity of the Australian coast towards the Pacific as 
evidence of folding towards that deep. The veteran 
geologist, Suess, has drawn similar conclusions from the 
curvature of mountain ranges, arguing that the East Asiatic 
mountain festoons and island festoons indicate folding 
towards the Pacific. Mr. C. Hedley has argued against 
this view, and I think with ample justification that fold 
mountains will tend to form a girdle round buffers or 


_ + 


‘ BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC, 173 


bulwarks in the shape of compact and resisting earth 
segments, the more pliable rocks being moulded against the 
resisting object. 

There are, no doubt, cases of surface folding, in which 
the fold movement is exerted from the land in the direction 
of the sea, as in Fig. 13 (a), where two earth segments, a rising 
one, A’, and a subsiding one, B1, are in contact. At their 
junction the beds will be in some cases overfolded towards B?; 
in some places fractured and overthrust faults may develop. 
This type of earth structure is in evidence at Penrith, in 
the Blue Mountains, N.S.W., and in the Main Range; 
Fassifern district, Q. In such cases, we always have a 
broken plateau, different parts of which are rising or sub- 
siding at different rates. 


More usually, we have surface folding conforming 
tothe type illustrated in Fig. 13 (6). A synclinal area under- 
going expansion B? is folded up against the hard-resisting 
Paleozoic rocks, A+. It is clear that folding of this kind 
may form either a concave or convex range in the direction 
of thrust depending on the configuration of the opposing 
mass. (See Fig. (6), (c) and (d).) 

In my paper on the Geology of the East Moreton and 
Wide Bay Districts, I presented the view that the folding 
of the Mesozoic rocks of the D’Aguilar Range and the 
Blackall Range was caused by pressure from the East. 
This view I still adhere to, and these ranges have a slight 
convexity to the Kast. As shown in Fig. 12, the south spur 
of Mt. Mee has small cappings of Trias-Jura rocks elevated 
high above the surface of the coastal plain. The pressure 
from the East must have been rather deep seated, the 
surface formations being at the time in a state of tension. 

In discussing the merits of the theories advanced 
by Hedley, Andrews and others on the direction of pressure, 
it is the deepseated and not superficial pressures that count, 
for as already shown, the surface formations of Eastern 
Australia have throughout Tertiary times been in a state 
of tension, and plateau uplift has been the main cause 
of mountain building. Plateau dissection accounts for 
the curvature of our ranges. 

For this very reason it seems absurd to draw inferences 
as to the direction of existing and Tertiary pressure dis- 
tribution from the configuration of existing mountain 


174 THE BUILDING OF FKFASTERN AUSTRALIA 


ranges: Bends concave to the east occur where areas 
of soft Mesozoic sediments or Permo-Carboniferous rocks 
have offered an easy task to the forces of erosion. The 
ranges consist largely of barriers of hard palzozoic rock, 
whose directions of folding offer no clue to the tertiary 
direction of pressure. 

It seems, therefore, that in the East Australian area 
we cannot deduce the direction of earth pressures from 
either the curvature of mountain ranges or from the fold 
lines in the Paleozoic rocks, but only from the differential 
movements of fault blocks. 

The existence of the high plateaux along the eastern 
rim of the Continent seems to the writer evidence for 
believing that the pressure came from the east. The greatest 
uplift would be in the blocks in closest proximity to the 
source of pressure. Experimentally this may be verified 
by pushing a piece of paper away from you while the other 
end of the paper is clamped under your inkpot. At first 
it will fold upwards at the end from which the thrust is 
exerted, then another fold appears near the object offering 
resistence to the thrust and finally the whole sheet is 
uplifted. If you try to fold a slightly elastic yet brittle 
object in the same way, it will fracture before the first 
fold (that near the source of thrust) is complete. Con- 
sequently the block faulting in Eastern Australia, along 
the Pacific rim, is further evidence for deepseated pres- 
sure from the Kast. 

Where least resistance was offered to the thrust by 
Paleozoic massives, the main uplift was further from the 
source of pressure. This will account for the wide expanse 
of lowland country between the Darling Downs and Moreton 
Bay. 

The writer is, therefore, not in agreement with Mr. 
Andrews’ deductions regarding lines of pressure. Prob- 
ably his lines of pressure from the Southern Ocean towards 
the interior of Australia are correct, but his lines of pressure 
from Eastern Australia towards the Tasman Sea should 
probably be reversed. [23] 

In 1802 [23], Andrews attributed the rugged nature 
of the North Queensland coast to recent faulting. In 
the writer’s opinion, this view is corroborated by the fact 
that the Barrier line of reef is separated from the coast 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 175 


by deep water, and not by a sea of coral islands. This 
implies fast movement such as would be produced by fault- 
ing. If the movement had been slow the corals would 
have been able to keep building up at the same pace as the 
the downward sag, and islands would be scattered through 
the whole expanse between the reef and the mainland. 

Fig. 13 gives the writer’s idea of this block. In it 
we have a repetition of the processes which build up 
mountain folds and caused the gradual easterly aggrandise- 
ment of Gondwana land. 

In North Queensland, in the Tertiary period, a plateau 
uplift gave rise to a plain extending as far as the present 
Barrier Reef. This plain was faulted, and the seaward 
portion sagged downward. During this process, volcanic 
extravasation took place. The subsiding block is getting 
heavily sedimented, and its western portions are at the 
same time having their isogeotherms raised by the intrusion 
of basic magmas as indicated by the recent basalt flows and 
hot springs of N.Q. The conditions are, therefore, favour- 
able to the productions of great folds in this block, which 
in due course will become uplifted and a part of the con- 
tinent. The down movement of the block will continue 
until rise of isogeotherms in the sediments is able to over- 
come the pressure of the sediments. 


It strikes the student of geology that folding move- 
ments were more intense in the Paleozoic periods than 
later in the earth’s history. This, if so, would seem to 
corroborate Kelvin’s theory of the origin of the earth, 
for it would indicate that in the Paleozoic, the earth’s 
crust was more plastic and the zone of flowage nearer to 
the surface than at present. 


VULCANICITY AND PETROLOGY. 


The petrology of the sedimentary rocks of each of 
the great Palzozoic periods is naturally very similar through- 
out Eastern Australia. Though similar rocks are not 
always contemporaneous, and sometimes one series, some- 
times another, is missing in various parts of the continent, 
still a general resemblance exists between the sedimentary 
formations of each period for all parts on the same belt 
of sedimentation, and this lithological similarity can often 
be verified by the discovery of fossils. 


176 THE BUIEDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


As there was a steady displacement of the shoreline 
in an easterly direction, we should expect the more easterly 
portions of Eastern Australia to have deep sea deposits, 
characterising the early Paleozoic and shallow sea deposits 
typical of late Paleozoic. The late Paleozoic rocks of 
the eastern part of N.S. Wales and Queensland should, 
therefore, be lithologically similar to the Cambrian of 
Central Australia ; thus, conglomerates formed a dominant 
series in the Cambrian of South Australia and Western 
N.S. Wales, and conglomerates are typical of Permo- 
Carboniferous and Carboniferous in more eastlying parts. 

Volcanic rocks because of their want of fossils are 
more difficult to study, but their study also leads to 
important deductions. 

It appears that intermediate igneous rocks, that is 
to say, those which are allied to diorite and andesite in 
magmatic character, are characteristic of any era of 
subsidence. We see such rocks at the present day extruded 
from the active volcanoes of the New Hebrides, the Tongan 
Islands and the Kermadecs in the great Pacific subsidence 
area. Rhyolites and Granites are more typical of an 
era of quiet uplift and of mountain building by rise of 
isogeotherms. Alkaline rocks, both basic and acid, are 
typical of a period of general uplift accompanied by 
faulting and Senkungsfeldt formation over portions of the 
area. Basic lavas belong chiefly to periods of plateau uplift. 
To illustrate by modern examples—we have in the North 
Island of New Zealand, an area of post-tertiary elevation, 
where many volcanoes are even to-day disseminating 
acid lavas. Alkaline rocks are poured out by the Antarctic 
active volcanoes on the troughfaulted perimeter of a 
plateau which has undergone very recent uplifts. [24] 
We have them under similar conditions in Italy and East 
Africa. 

Basalts of an alkaline facies are to-day emitted 
from the volcanoes of Tonga and Samoa, in which there 
is probably a present tendency to general uplift, but calcic 
and magnesic basalts are often poured over subsidence areas 
in the period preceding their re-elevation. 

Let us now consider igneous action in the history of 
Australia, investigating period; after period, commencing 
with the Cambrian..- 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 177 


CAMBRIAN. 

Acidic igneous rocks supposed to be of this age exist 
in Western and Central Australia. Similar rocks were 
not intruded in Eastern Australia till many periods later. 
They belong mainly to the Upper Silurian period in Central 
New South Wales, to the Carboniferous in Eastern New 
South Wales, south of the Sydney basin, and in part at 
least to the late Permo-Carboniferous or early Mesozoic 
in New England and Southern Queensland. 

ORDOVICIAN. 

In Victoria, Professor Skeats [25] has referred the 
Heathcotian Series to this period. The igneous rocks 
of this series were of an intermediate to basic nature, and 
chemically rich in magnesia. From this, one would expect 
the Victorian area to have been undergoing subsidence 
during Ordovician times. The evidence of the associated 
sediments confirm such a_ supposition. 

In Central New South Wales we have contemporane- 
ously interbedded andesites in the Ordovician near Orange, 
Forbes and Mandurama. Here, too, the sedimentary 
rocks would seem to indicate a period of subsidence. 


Upper SILURIAN. 

In Victoria some of the Snowy River porphyries and 
felsites (all very acid rocks) may belong to this period. 

In New South Wales we have acid submarine tufts of 
this age at Wellington, and banded rhyolites and dacite 
tuffs at Yass. 

The sedimentary rocks of the Upper Silurian 
in Victoria and Central New South Wales show that a 
shallowing of the sea had commenced. 

In North Queensland too, in the Chillagoe district, 
we have granites and felsites of this age. 

In the New England district and the north coast of 
N.S. Wales, where subsidence was still in progress, the 
intrusive rocks being dioritic (blue) granites. 

DEVONIAN. 

Professor Skeats has demonstrated that some of the 
Snowy River porphyry series of Victoria were erupted 
in the Devonian. 

Many granite intrusions in N.S. Wales are supposed 
to be of this age, to which, as well, the Snowy River 
porphyries of N.S. Wales are referred. 


178 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


Professor Skeats has assigned to the Lower Devonian, 
the dacite and quartz porphyrite series of Dandenong 
Hills ; to the Middle Devonian, the felsite series of Buchan. 


Upper PALZXOZOIC. 


To the Upper Devonian or Lower Carboniferous, 
Professor Skeats has assigned great areas of rhyolite, quartz 
porphyry and basalt at Mount Wellington, and in the 


Grampians. [25] 

Many of the N.S. Wales granite intrusions have been 
referred to the Devonian, as have also many of the 
granites of Southern Queensland. 

By far the most of the granites of N.S. Wales are con- 
nected with the folding of the Devonian beds, and took 
place prior to the deposition of the Upper Marine. The 
granites of Yalwal, Sassafras, Narriga, Moruya, Moonbi 
Ranges and many more, have proved to be post-Devonian 
and pre-Greta, and the probability is that they are all of 
Carboniferous age. 

Carboniferous rhyolites occur associated with con- 
glomerate formation to the west of the New England, 
in the Nandewar Range. 

Melaphyres (basaltic) were at this time poured out 
in the Avon River district of Victoria. 

The north-eastern portions of New South Wales were 
still subsiding under a load of sediments, and the andesitic 
eruptions of the Clarence town series were extruded over 
the Stroud district and eastern New England. 

In the Permo-Carboniferous period, the south coast 
district of N.S. Wales was subjected to eruptions of Alkaline, 
sub-alkaline and basic rocks. [26] These eruptions 
initiated the period of uplift. 


MESOZOIC. 


The chocolate shales of the Narrabeen series contain 
volcanic minerals, and are probably to a great extent of 
tuffaceous origin. 

Generally speaking, the Mesozoic period was in Eastern 
Australia notable for the rareness of indications of volcanic 
action. 

Some of the acid granites of the New England may 
perhaps be of late Permo-Carb. or of early Mesozoic age. 

Some of the upper beds of the Clarence (Ipswich) 
Series seem to have been tufis. 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 179 


Marks has demonstrated the existence of dolerites 
of Triassic age in more or less isolated patches of the 
Ipswich coalfield. [27] Further, we have the period of 
Trias Jura sedimentation in Southern Queensland ushered 
in by eruptions of felsite (Brisbane tuffs), dacite, quartz 
porphyry and andesite (Eumundi series). 

Yet Mesozoic eruptions were extremely localised. 
Volcanic debris or lava is seldom met within boring in Trias 
Jura or Hawkesbury formations. 

It was only in the late Cretaceous that vulcanicity 
became more intense, as evidenced by tuffy material in 
the Desert Sandstone, the trachytic tuffs in the Upper 
Cretaceous of the Mackay district (Q.). [For references 
see 9 and 12.] 

It has only been shown that in the areas distinguished 
by Alkaline eruptives in Tertiary time, monchiquites, 
essexites, picrites and teschenites were erupted during 
late Mesozoic times [12]; the Alkaline rock being frequently 
preceded by ultrabasic eruptions which were separated 
from the main period of Alkatine effusions by a short period 
of erosion. 

In Tasmania the Mesozoic, or at ail events a portion 
of it, probably the Jurassic, was characterised by extensive 
volcanic extravasation. The great diabase sills of that 
State are usually assigned to the Jurassic. 


TERTIARY VULCANICITY. 

The absence, except in very few cases of fossiliferous 
aqueous rocks in the regions of tertiary volcanic action, 
makes it extremely difficult to assign exact ages to Tertiary 
igneous rocks. 

The Kainozoic eruptions may be roughly divided into 
the Older Basalts, the Alkaline Rocks and the Newer 
Basalts. 

(A) THe OLDER Basatts. In many cases the exact 
ages of these rocks cannot be determined on stratigraphical 
evidence. In some cases an age can be assigned to them 
on physiographic evidence. 

E. C. Andrews [1] states that the Leads of the 
«“Qlder Volcanics” are characterised by the presence of 
abundant plant leaves, lauraceous types predominating. 
Fruits and seeds, he says, are characteristically absent. 

Their geographic position is above the level of the 

D 


180 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


great Tertiary peneplain of Eastern Australia, this pene- 
plain having been excavated out of ‘ Older Volcanics,’’ 
palzozoic and mesozoic rocks indifferently. They, there- 
fore, lie on basalt capped hills dotting the peneplain. 


As examples, Andrews mentions Dargo High Plains, 
Vic. ; Kiandra, Older Macquarie and Hawkesbury Leads 
[Mount King George (?), Bald Hills, Hill End, etc.], Older 
Tingha and Emmaville Leads (N.S.W.) 

Skeats [25] describes numerous occurrences of Older 
Volcanics in Eastern Victoria. According to this author 
older basalts are not petrologically distinguishable from 
the newer, except by their finer grainsize and greater 
_ decomposition. 

In New South Wales, the basalt of the Sydney basin, 
found in dykes around Sydney, as necks at Hornsby, Pros- 
pect, Minchinbury, Dundas, etc., and as more extensive 
cappings on Mount Hay, Mt. Tomah, and Mount King George 
in the Blue Mountains, are in part referable to this series. 
These basalts have decidedly alkaline affinities, contain- 
ing variously sodalite, analcite and hauyne. 

The Orange basalts underlying the alkaline pile of the 
Canoblas must also be put in this class. They were 
erroneously mapped by Mr. Sussmilch and myself as later 
than the alkaline eruptions, but Mr. E. C. Andrews dis- 
covered, by physiographic methods, that we must have 
made a mistake, which was confirmed by Messrs. Andrews 
and Sussmilch in subsequent studies in the field. These 
basalts are in some instances characterised by the presence 
of melilite and fayalite. Probably the melilite basalts 
and the tufis of Hobart and the Alkaline basalts of Shannon 
Tier, Tasmania, are roughly contemporaneous. 

It has been demonstrated by Andrews [1], that many 
of the New England basalts and much of the Darling 
Downs basalts of Queensland belong to the Older Volcanics. 
Mr. R. A. Wearne, B.A., and the writer have also seen 
evidence in the Fassifern district of extensive intrusives 
of basic magma in very late Mesozoic, or more probably 
Early Tertiary time, before the Alkaline rocks of that dis- 
trict were poured out. 

The Rhyolites of the Macpherson Ranges, between 
Queensland and New South Wales, antedate in part at 
least the extrusion of the Alkaline rocks. [15] From 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 181 


physiographic considerations it seems likely that an early 
Tertiary age must be assigned to them. 

(B). THE ALKALINE Rocks. [29] It is quite possible 
that the lavas of this series were in part at least contem- 
poraneous with the Older Volcanics. Although petro- 
logical analogies have tempted the writer in the past to 
consider all the Alkaline rocks of Eastern Australia to be 
of identical age, their more detailed physiographic study 
renders this view questionable. 

Alkaline rocks of Tertiary age exist in Victoria, at 
Mount Macedon, and detailed investigations in this 
important type district have led Skeats to the conclusion 
that their age is Middle Tertiary. They are certainly 
mountains of accumulation and not residules. 


In Queensland, the writer has investigated the Glass 
House Mountains and the Yandina district volcanoes, 
all of which have been satisfactorily shown to be true 
mountains of accumulation. Their age, probably, ante- 
dates the formation of the Middle Tertiary peneplain, 
which is represented, in this district by the Woodford 
peneplain, for although dykes of alkaline rocks occur on 
the peneplain surface, no true lavas and tufis of an alkaline 
nature have been detected on this level. A monoclinal 
fold, along the D’Aguilar and Blackall Ranges, broken by 
occasional faults, has depressed the coastal region so as to 
preserve it in the volcanic representatives of the alkaline 
rocks. This fold must have been forming at the time 
when the alkaline rocks were erupted, and if some of these 
eruptions were not actually submarine, as maintained 
by J. Malcolm Newman, B.E., there can be little doubt 
that the whole present broad coastal belt was submerged 
in late Tertiary times, and has only recently been re-elevated. 
The late uplift can date back only to the Pleistocene, as 
far as can be judged by the evidence of the marine shells 
of the raised beach deposits. 

The Mount Flinders and Fassifern Alkaline rocks, 
studied by Mr. Wearne and myself, are probably also in 
part of early Tertiary age, slightly antedating the for- 
mation of the Middle Tertiary peneplain. There is, however, 
strong evidence that in this region the eruptions lasted 
long enough to leave some of their accumulations on the 
peneplain surface. They were, therefore, partly of Middle 


182 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


Tertiary age. In this case, as in that of the Glass House 
region, a monoclinal fold accompanied by _ extensive 
fractures was produced in the Main Range, parallel to, 
and in part, along the line of igneous activity after the 
period of vulcanicity. 


The Nandewars, the Warrumbungles, and the Canoblas 
in New South Wales, are probably also of Lower-Middle 
Tertiary age, though the Canoblas appear rather younger 
than the others. These mountains post-date the formation 
a peneplain carved in the Nandewars out of Palzozoic and 
Trias Jura rocks, in the Warrumbungles out of the Trias 
Jura rocks, and in the Canoblas out of the metamorphic 
rocks and Older Volcanics. The peneplain was under- 
going re-elevation at the time of the eruptions, for both in 
the Nandewars and in the Warrumbungles, the volcanic 
ejacamenta frequently infill erosion hollows in the pene- 
plain surface. The age of this peneplain was probably 
Late Cretaceous or Lower Tertiary age, like the Mole 
peneplain; there being no indications in these regions of 
an older peneplain surface, the writer has always hesitated 
to consider this peneplain the equivalent of the Stannifer 
(Miocene). If the writer is right in this interpretation, 
it follows that during the great early Tertiary elevation 
of New England and Middle Tertiary peneplanation, these 
volcanic groups escaped wholesale degradation by being 
situated in the Central Australian trough, which was a 
local baselevel (probably largely lacustrine, as hinted by 
abundant gypsum deposits in the west), for the erosion 
of regions which participated in the Pliocene uplift. 


The fossil leaves collected in the Warrumbungle tuffs 
by the writer are most closely allied to those of the Older 
Voleanics. 


Andrews has suggested to the writer that more or 
less dissected peneplain underlying the volcanic pile of the 
Warrumbungles is the equivalent of the Stannifer. This 
view would place a post Miocene age on the volcanic rocks, 
and assign them to the newer volcanics. Fossil evidence, 
as well as. physiographic, discountenance this view. 


The alkaline rocks of the Mittagong district, N.S.W. 
[30], and the tinguaites of Kosiusko [31], and of Barrigan 
[12]. are probably of an early Tertiary age. 


BY H. I. JENSEN, DSC. 183: 


Tor NEWER VOLCANIC. 


The rocks are mainly basalé of a more or less por- 
phyritic nature. They cover enormous areas of Eastern 
Australia. In age they postdate the formation of the 
Middle Tertiary peneplain, and the eruptions were in 
progress during the great Pliocene uplift. The leads of 
newer volcanics are consequently buried channels below 
the peneplain level or resting immediately upon it: their 
fossil contents are characterised by an abundance of fruits 
and seeds similar -to those of tropical Australia to-day. 
Lauraceous types are characteristically absent. 

The whole of the extensive basaltic plain of Western 
Victoria, and many areas in Eastern Victoria belong to 
the Newer Basalts. In this state eruptive activity con- 
tinued, as inthe Mount Gambier District of South Australia, 
into late Pleistocene and recent times. Remains of the 
Dingo (an animal presumed to have been introduced by 
man) have been found in the tuff. 

On the Monaro in N.S. Wales andin the New Englaud 
extensive eruptions took place in late Pliocene or early 
Pleistocene. Most of the Darling Downs basalts were 
probably erupted at the same time. At the same time 
extensive sheets were poured out in North Queensland 
(as at Cairns, Atherton, Geraldton, &c.). 

Pleistocene and recent erosion has only had time 
to slightly modify the original surface. There has been 
no peneplain formed since these volcanic extravasations. 
The very level nature of the Darling Downs, and of the 
tableland on the Blackall Range and of the tablelands on 
similar ranges is due to the fact that the lavas flowed over 
a peneplain surface only, slightly dissected, and being of 
a liquid nature, the lava outpourings made a level surface. 
The eruptions were dominantly fissure eruptions. 

Early Tertiary peneplanation was followed by the 
eruption of the Older Basalts, which usually cap deep 
leads of this age. 


THE VALUABLE MINERALS OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA. 


Closely connected with the petrology of our continent 
is the study of our mineral deposits of economic value. 
The genesis of ore deposits is also intimately bound up 
with structural geology. 


‘184 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


It is convenient to consider separately the groups 
of non-metallic minerals and metallic minerals or ores. 


I. Non-MeEtTAuuic MINERALS. 


The principal non-metallic mineral is coal. Of less 
importance are oil shale, phosphatic rock, opal, diatomaceous 
earth and graphite. 

(a.) The occurrence of coal depends on the burial in 
some bygone epoch of the requisite thickness of plant re- 
mains, considerable subsidence following so as to allow 
a great thickness of sediments to accumulate on top of 
the seam. Under these conditions, the weight of the 
superincumbent strata, together with the heat appertaining 
to the depth to which the organic bed was depressed, have 
produced the necessary pressure and heat to compact 
and dehydrate the deposit. 

Folding and metamorphism in the zone of flowage 
have not affected the coalfields, for these processes or 
even a moderate amount of igneous intrusion would com- 
pletely turn coal into graphite. The moderate folding 
and the measure of igneous intrusion that have affected 
the Gympie goldfield, have turned several coal seams into 
plumbago, which, as is well known, occurs interbedded 
with Pheenix slates. 

Faulting, especially block or trough faulting, is the 
process most frequently leaving its mark in the coal measures. 

Coal occurs in Eastern Australia in the Permo-Carbon- 
iferous (Newcastle and Wlawarra districts of .N.S.W.; 
Bowen, Little River, Oakey Ck. and Dawson River in Q.) ; 
in the Triassic (in the Ipswich and Barrum districts of Q., 
the Clarence district of N.S.W., and in the Otway and 
Wannon and Gippsland districts of Vic.; Leigh’s Ck., 
S.A.; Fingal and Jerusalem, Tas.) ; and in the Tertiary 
rocks we have hydrous coals, the best of which are the 
lignites of Morwell, Vic. There are numerous other localities 
of considerable economic importance, but the main point 
for us to recollect that vast areas of Eastern Australia 
represented by our coalfields have undergone no con- 
tortion since the deposition of the coal. The western half 
of the Australian continent has been free from such forces 
even longer. Indeed there is no reason why Carboniferous 
and Devonian coals should not be found in Western Aus- 
tralia. 


BY H, I. JENSEN, D.SC. 185 


The Australian coalfields were probably in most cases 
formed by the decay of plant life in swampy freshwater 
areas. 

There is strong evidence that considerable plant life, 
sufficient to give thick coal deposits, existed in parts of 
Eastern Australia, as far back as the Silurian period ; but 
the deposits then formed have been changed to graphite 
by subsequent regional metamorphism. 

The writer had occasion some time ago to visit a 
deserted turquoise mine, near Bodalla, on the South Coast 
of N.S.W. He observed that the turquoise (AIPO,:Al 
(HO),+H,0), existed in the form of small segregations, 
together with pyrites in a graphite bed, associated with 
quartzites above, and black slate below, of Silurian age. 
The copper and iron (in part) had evidently been introduced 
during the metamorphic processes, and the former had 
chemically combined with the phosphoric acid present 
in the organic matter, which probably was a coal bed at 
the time. The same metamorphic processes that produced 
the mineralisation changed the coal to graphite. 

The association of the graphite with quartzite, like 
coal with sandstone, renders it more probable that the 
carboniferous matter was of plant, than of graptolitic 
origin. 

(b.) Oil Shale. In N.S.W., the chief oil shale deposits 
consist of algal remains [32] (Reinschia Australis), and 
were probably a freshwater deposit. 

The Tasmanian ‘‘tasmanite ” deposits are supposed 
to have formed in salt or brackish water. 

The conditions for the preservation of oil shales are 
the same as for coal. 

Petroleum oils have not yet been tapped in Australia, 
but there are strong possibilities that such will yet be 
found. 

The conditions for the formation of petroleum oils 
are (a) the existence of beds of coal, oil shale or other organic 
remains ; (b) regional metamorphism of just sufficient 
intensity to give rise to folds and suff.cient heat to sublime 
the oils into the anticlinal maculae, or (c) volcanic intrusions 
causing the distillation of organic rocks. 

In south-eastern Queensland oil may yet be found 
in the Triassic Walloon coal measures under the Birnam 


186 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


Range, in the Permo-Carboniferous rocks at a depth under 
the Eastern Darling Downs, and in the Triassic rocks of 
the Kast Moreton and Wide Bay districts. _ 

In New South Wales the Carboniferous and Permo- 
Carboniferous rocks of the Stroud and Taree districts 
offer most promise. 

(c.) Opal, being a product of mineral spring action, 
has no great geological importance, so will be dismissed 
in this paper. 

(d.) Phosphatic rocks have been discussed in another 
paper by the writer. (These preceedings, 1909.) 

(e.) Diatomaceous earth of ecohomic value occurs 
chiefly in direct association with our late Tertiary basalts. 
It is a deposit formed of the test of organisms which lived 
in siliceous hot springs. The writer has had excellent 
opportunities to verify this by his studies in the Warrum- 
bungle Mountains, where petrified wood and hyalite (water 
opal) are invariably associated with the rocks surrounding 
the diatomaceous earths. 


Il. Orgs. 


The following points are of importance in connectio 
with the study of our ore deposits : — 

1. Mineral lodes are mainly confined to folded areas. 
This is why coal and gold are seldom found together. 

2. The minerals were introduced during a period of 
igneous intrusion. 

3. The intrusions take place chiefly in the portions 
of the folded earth segment, which are most remote from 
the source of the folding force. 

4. Well defined fissure lodes have the same general 
direction as the trend lines of folding in the same regions. 
In the immediate proximity of great igneous intrusions, 
they may take varied directions, diverging from the 
intrusion. (See L. K. Ward, ‘‘ Geology of the Heemskirk 
Massive,” A.A.A.S., 1911, Sydney.) 

5. The direction of the zone of mineralisation is that 
of the fold lines and major faults. 

Considering Australian ore deposits, it is interesting 
to note that in the eastern half of the continent, most were 
formed during the great abyssal injections of the Carbon- 
iferous and early Mesozoic periods. 


{ 
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 187 


To the Carboniferous belong the Tasmanian ore 
deposits ; the Victorian goldfields ; the Yalwal, Braidwood, 
and other southern goldfields of N.S.W.; the Moruya, 
Ettrema and Colerado mineral fields of the south coast 
of N.S.W.; the Grafton Copper Mine (?), Cloncurry, Chil- 
lagoe, the Etheridge, Hodgkinson, Palmer and ‘“ Towers ”’ 
fields. 

To the early Mesozoic period belong the ore deposits 
of Gympie, Q., and most of the New England deposits. 

The deep leads of Eastern Australia show us that 
it was not until the early Tertiary uplifts that the con- 
tinent was sufficiently dissected for the reefs to shed their 
gold on the surface. 

In Western Australia, the igneous injections giving 
rise to ore bodies were of very early Paleozoic age. Con- 
sequently there are sedimentary rocks as old as Cambrian 
in W.A. with alluvial gold. The silver lead deposits of 
Broken Hill also belong to an earlier era than those of 
Eastern Australia. 

Certain facts in connection with ore deposits in 
Australia are of interest without being quite apropos in 
this paper, such as: 

1. The association of complex ore (lead, zinc, copper, 
silver, arsenic) with limestone as at Mungana, Q., Ettrema, 
&c., N.S.W., and with garnet rock (metamorphosed 
limestone), at Broken Hill. 

2. The possibility that Gympie gold is due to chemical 
precipitation of gold in magmatic water, by the carbon- 
aceous Phoenix slates and graphite beds; that Chillagoe 
is a contact deposit ; that the Towers gold is probably 
due to physical changes undergone by magmatic waters, &c. 


BriEF REVIEW OF THE TERTIARY. 


K. C. Andrews in his “ Tertiary History of New Eng- 
land,’’ and inthe “ Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia,’ 
has given a very detailed and complete history of the 
Tertiary, and full description of the processes whereby 
land and sea forms were shaped. No complete description 
will, therefore, be essayed here. 

It is sufficient to say that most Australian geologists 
are converging to the belief that there are definitely two 
Tertiary peneplains represented in our scenery. 


188 THE BUILDING OF FASTERN AUSTRALIA 


The first existed in early Eocene times, during which 
a warm climate existed throughout Australia. 


The Cretaceous sea had vanished, all but a gulf extend- 
ing over Western Victoria and Riverina. (7g. 10.) . The 
Central Sea had become silted up or slightly elevated, 
so that a desert or a series of salt lakes resulted. There 
were no mountains in Australia, for all elevations had been 
base levelled during the Cretaceous period of sedimentation. 
In the waters, about Table Cape, Tasmania, the fora- 
minifera exhibited tropical affinities, and resembled those 
now found around Torres Straits. The plant life was 
of a tropical or semi-tropical character, as shown by their 
remains in the older leads, and _ so essentially similar a 
flora existed throughout the eastern part of the continent 
that it is safe to suppose that geographical barriers, such 
as high mountains or deserts, were not in existence. 


Then followed the early Tertiary uplift which affected 
the whole rim of the continent. The more central portions 
of Australia participated only to a minor extent. 

A long period of stability then came, during whic 
the uplifted peneplain was dissected and worn down ag 
to the form of a peneplain. This stage was reached pro- 
bably in the Miocene. 

Then followed an other great uplift, probably Pliocene, 
and at the same time were erupted the Newer Basalts. 

The period of the Newer Basalts was probably very 
wet, and the Australian interior was experiencing a wet 
climate at the same time, and during most of the Fleistocene 
period as well. As evidence of the lacustrine state of the 
interior during late Tertiary and Fost-Tertiary times, 
one might quote the widespread existence of gypsum 
deposits formed in former lakes, and the great extents of 
Black Soil Plain, which were formed largely from volcanic 
detritus, carried down by mightier streams than those 
which hold sway to-day. 

Following the Pliocene uplift and the great basic 
outpourings of lava, came a period of contracting, fractur- 
ing and block-faulting of the surface strata of the earth’s 
crust in the newly uplifted regions. Numerous downthrows 
(senkungsfeldter) occured as a result. The block-faulting 
in the southern tablelands of N.S.W. has been ably de- 
scribed by Sussmilch [11], a long list of probable faults 


BY H. I, JENSEN, D.SC. 189 


belonging to this late geological age has been prepared by 
Mr. E. €. Andrews. [1] 

: It is the writer’s opinion, as enunciated in’ one of his 
papers [29 (a)], that an arid climate was experienced in 
Central Australia, immediately after the uplift of the 
Cretaceous basin in the late Mesozoic and early Tertiary 
times. During most of the Tertiary period, however, 
conditions were extremely wet, a fact borne of it by the 
sedimentary banding of clays and sands of fluviatile and 
lacustrine deposition, under the great Red Soil Plain, as 
well as by the Black Soil Plains and gypsum beds. The 
writer has had an opportunity to study these deposits 
at Nyngan, on the eastern flank of the Cobar massive, as 
well as on the western slopes of the Warrumbungles. 


The cause of the aridity of the Cretaceo- Eocene and the 
present periods is undoubtedly, in part, a geographic one, 
connected with the uplift of a girdle of tablelands round 
the margin of the continent at the end of the Mesozoic, 
and again at the close of the Tertiary period. Partly, too, 
the cause is meteorological. During the two arid periods, 
the climate of the Australian zone has been dominated 
by entirely different atmospheric movements to those 
prevailing in the Middle Tertiary. As shown in a paper 
by the present writer to this Society, it is likely that this 
wet period and the Pleistocene glaciation of Kosciusko 
was, in all probability, a cosmic one, the nature of which 
is still doubtful, though it must be admitted that peculi- 
arities in physical geography alone could have ogee 
about the result. 

The effect of Tertiary changes on the life of this con- 
tinent have been most pronounced. 

The disappearance of the Cretaceous basin caused 
a migration of those hardy forms of plant life, which had 
developed on the barren soils of Western Australia into 
the Eastern parts, where they expelled and subdued the 
Indo-Malaysian type of flora. The latter has only succeeded 
in maintaining its predominance on rich scrub soil in 
leached basalt and alluvial areas. 

The invaders probably consisted of eucalyptus, 
casuarine, acacias, proteaceous plants, zamias, and epac- 
ridee. The eucalyptus may possibly have originated 
in south-eastern Australia, and this may also be the case 


190 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


with the casuarine, but the others are almost certainly 
invaders from the west. 

The plants which they drove back were largely lauracee,, 
as is well demonstrated by the fossil leaves of the older 
deep leads and the trachytic tuffs of the Warrumbungles. 

The grasses now dominant in Eastern Australia pro- 
bably also originated in the west, especially those of the 
interior. 

The wet climate of the Middle Tertiary drove the arid 
climate plants, which had established themselves over 
the raised Cretaceous basin, into the Eastern coastal regions, 
while tuft grasses, similar to those of the Plains of Promise, 
took possession of the drier parts of the interior. 


The re-elevation of the coastal rim, with the restoration 
of arid conditions on the inland plains, brought victory 
to the saltbush and similar orders, and caused a return 
to some extent of the eastern flora. 


Messrs. R. H. Cambage, F.L.S., and E. C. Andrews, B.A... 
F.G.S., are at present carrying on the interesting and im- 
portant work of tracing the descent of Australian forest 
timbers, and investigating what geologic and _ physio- 
graphic causes brought about the specific differences now 
obtaining between the trees of different parts. 


Late Pliocene uplift led to the creation of three climates.. 
/ (1) coastal, moist and warm ; (2) tableland, cool and moder- 

ately dry; (3) inland plains, dry and with seasonal 
extremes of temperature. This movement, according to 
Cambage and Andrews, caused a differentiation of our 
trees into three groups. Each genus developed species suited. 
for each of these climatic zones. Pleistocene faulting, 
according to the same authors, separated still further 
members of the same group in such a way that further 
specific differences arose. In other cases faulting allowed 
an intermingling of coastal and inland types, as was the case 
on the Cassilis geocol [33], where the western flora mingles 
with that typical of the Hunter River Valley. 

The work of Mr. Cambage promises to cast considerable 
illumination on obscure problems of Tertiary geology, 
thus he shows, from the distribution of the Casuarine, 
that a portion of south-eastern Australia must have been 
lost by faulting in post-Tertiary times. 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 191 


Mr. C. Hedley and others are carrying on similar work 
with regard to zoological distribution. Mr. Hedley main- 
tains that in the Middle Tertiary, when a wide peneplain 
covered Eastern Australia and a lacustrine region occupied 


_ the interior, the giant marsupials, known from our newer 


' leads and bone beds, roamed far and wide, and fed on the 


plenteous herbage produced by the moist climate. 


The elevation of the tablelands decimated them, for 
the lacustrine interior became an arid plain on which 
they died out of starvation, the table lands were too cold 
and did not produce the proper herbage for these huge 
animals. The great basaltic extravasation caused further 
destruction to them, and the surviving remnant was 
slaughtered by the blacks. 


An interesting effect of the basaltic outpourings on 
the temperate tablelands of Eastern Australia was the 
destruction of the Eucalyptus flora, and the failure of that 
flora to reassert itself. In coastal regions, basalt country 
in the state of nature soon becomes covered with scrub, 
as we call tropical moist climate jungles. Given good soil, 
this flora can hold its own against the hardy typical 
Australian flora. But on the tablelands the climate is 


‘too dry and cool for tropical jungle ; and inland the climate 


is also too dry and extreme, so that basalt flows in these 
regions never become scrub covered. [35] The basalt 


lands therefore remain treeless plains, for the Eucalyptus 
and Acacia groups requires a loose loamy soil, but our 


basalt soils are heavy, and shrink on drying. The cracking 


-of basalt soils may be the cause of a normal tree growth 


failing to assert itself, and young trees having their roots 


torn by the cracking of the soil. Again, it is possible 


that the black colour and high lime content of black soil 
may have some inhibitory effect on the germination of 
seeds of plants typical of poorer country. This latter 


problem has never been investigated. 


Some of the Tertiary changes of geography of 
Australia must have been witnessed by the aborigines. 

In Victoria, and in the Mount Gambier district of 
South Australia, basaltic volcanoes were in active eruption 
when the Australian aborigines and their dingoes were in 
possession. 


192 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


The faulting down of Bass Strait saved a remnant 
of the original inhabitants of Australia (the Tasmanian 
aborigines) from utter destruction by the invading 
Australian aborigines. 

Torres Strait was probably also formed during the 
occupancy of Australia by the blacks. 


STREAM DIRECTIONS. 


Great changes in the drainage systems of Australia. 
resulted from the Pliocene uplift. Andrews has shown 
that some streams cut down rapidly enough to keep pace 
with the uplift. He quotes the Hawkesbury River as an 
instance. Other rivers were diverted from their courses. 

The parallelism of many rivers with the coast has 
given rise to much controversy and speculation. Hedley 
[19 and 20] sees in it evidence of a great fold rolling in on 
Australia from the Pacific. Andrews is inclined rather 
to consider these remarkable streams due to faulting. 

[36] Woolnough and Taylor have suggested that the 
Hawkesbury (Wollondilly) formerly tapped the Shoalhaven, 
Tuross and other south-coast rivers. But this great 
Wollondilly river was beheaded by coastal streams which 
were rapidiy cutting back in a westeriy direction. These 
streams having a steep fall to the sea carved canons rapidly, 
whereas the sluggish Wollondilly cut down but loa 
and fell an easy prey to piracy. 

The writer [13] has shown that the Upper Mary River 
(rising in the Conandale and Yabba Ranges), Queensland, 
was once part of the Maroochy River, flowing through the 
Eumundi Gap, in the Blackall Range. Here, undoubtedly, 
the uplift of the coastal plain of East Moreton has tended 
to aid a capture of consequent by subsequent streams. 

In New South Wales, where the reverse has taken 
place, we must look for a different cause for the parallelism 
of the early streams with the coast. To the writer, the 
most reasonable explanation seems as _ follows :—The 
elevation of the Miocene peneplain carved in Permo-Carbon- 
iferous and Mesozoic sandstone gave rise to the production 
of cracks and joints in the sandstone. The major lines 
of weakness thus formed followed the structural directions 
of the subjacent old rocks. Master joints in the sand- 
stones closely followed fault lives, anticlinal axes and similar 
structural lines of the older rocks. Along such cracks 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 193 


the earliest streams took their courses, and as elevation 
progressed, they often worked down through the sand- 
stones into the folded formations, where their tendency 
to follow structural lines would be accelerated. 

Our inland areas not having undergone much vertical 
movement in the Tertiary, possess very old streams, many 
of which probably date back to the Eocene. 

The Namoi and its tributaries are very old subsequent 
streams. The Castlereagh is younger, for its original course 
was filled up by the volcanic pile of the Warrumbungle 
Mountains, and the river had to wander round this group 
in a spiral. 

PRESENT Day MOVEMENTS. 


Only a few salient points will be mentioned. C. 
Hedley and T. G. Taylor [37] have demonstrated that 
the east coast of Australia is in the main subsiding, as shown 
by the existence of the Barrier Reef and numerous drowned 
River valleys. David and Halligan [38] have proved a 
coastal subsidence of over 100 feet in post-Tertiary times 
for the Port Jackson, Hawkesbury and Hunter River inlets. 
Andrews [77] has shown that a slight elevatory movement 
followed in extremely recent times. The writer has proved 
[13] that the coasts of Moreton Bay are being slowly 
uplifted, and this holds true for all the coast line, from Point 
Danger to Great Sandy Island. 

The Victorian coast line is subsiding from Cape Howe 
to Cape Otway. That of Western Australia is undergoing 
elevation. 

Faulting is still in progress in the regions round the 
Gulf of St. Vincent, South Australia, as shown by frequent 
earthquakes in that region. 


ARTESIAN WATER. 


Of all Australian geological questions, none are so 
interesting and valuable as those connected with the origin 
and distribution of Artesian Water. In Eastern Australia, 
Artesian Water is confined to formations later than the 
Permian. In Western Australia it has been obtained 
in rocks as old as Cambrian, and large supplies exist in the 
Carboniferous of the Gascoyne River district. 

The fact is pretty well established that one of the 
essentials for the existence of Artesian Water is a pervious 


194 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


stratum of rock lying between two impervious strata. It 
is also established that formations pervious enough to 
become artesian beds have never been strongly compressed 
by earth movements or regional metamorphism. They 
have been areas of tensional strain and fracture since the 
artesian beds were laid down, for which reason they in 
most cases signify that elevation relative to adjoining seg- 
ments of the earth’s crust, has been the dominant earth 
movement. 


In Eastern Australia Artesian Water may be found in 
the Triassic (as in New South Wales, see Pittman) [39], 
and in the Cretaceous (see Jack and Etheridge, Geology 
of Queensland.) ‘Tertiary formations may also contain 
Artesian (subartesian) Water, as in the Riverina and parts 
of Victoria. 


Two theories as to the origin of the Australian Artesian 
Water beds have been advanced, neither of which has been 
properly established. 


The one school of geologists, supported by Pittman 
and David, believe in the meteoric origin. They believe 
that the pervious beds are continuous over vast areas, 
and have outcrops on the surface near the edge of the 
artesian basin, at which outcrops water is taken in from 
streams that cross them. Water then rises in the bores 
by hydrostatic pressure. The comparative freshness of 
the water is supposed to be due to its having outlets to the 
sea in the Gulf of Carpentaria and Great Australian Bight. 
This view receives some support from the rapid dwindling 
of Queensland rivers which cross the Blythesdale Bray- 
stone (Cret.) in Queensland; from a similar disappearance 
of the streams that enter the Pilliga Scrub from the 
Warrumbungle Mountains, in N.S.W.; from the drying- 
up of the Castlereagh River, west of Mundooran, and 
many other such occurrences. 


The other school follow, Professor Gregory [40], in 
believing that the water is nascent plutonic water, given 
off by cooling igneous magmas at great depths. According 
to this view, the porous artesian beds act as sponges, 
absorbing the water which rises as subterranean 
springs along joint cracks and other flows in the formation. 
Gas and steam pressure would be the expeiling forces. 


a 
* 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 195 


Gregory’s view receives considerable support from 
the following facts :— 

(1) Springs are rare in the artesian area, but abundant 
outside this area. They frequently occur on the summits 
of high mountains, where the catchment area is insufficient 
to account for their permanent flow. [29] 

(2) The water bearing beds of the Artesian area are 
often sand and boulder drifts, and not sandstone: they 
frequently seem to be mere lenticular patches. 

(3) Very pervious rocks like the Blythesdale Braystone 
are rarely met with. 

(4) Artesian Water is generally hottest and purest 
when tapped from the lower strata: while the water with 
most solid matter in solution comes from the upper strata. 

If the meteoric theory is right, we should expect 
the water to become more and more impure the farther 
it is from the intake, and the shallow bore waters should 
be the freshest. The reverse happens to be the general 
rule. On the Plutonic theory, the superficial beds contain 
water which has travelled much further through assimilable 
sediments, and should therefore be most saline. Experi- 
ence shows this to be the case. 

Probably each of these two rival theories is true for 
some places. While recognising the meteoric theory as 
affording a correct explanation for some cases, the writer 
firmly believes that the plutonic theory must account for 
the origin of many bore waters. 

Proof of a conclusive nature will not be possible uniil 
a systematic survey is made of the artesian basin, including 
chemical and physical investigation of the waters at different 
depths. 

It would be well to state here that whether the meteoric 
or plutonic theory be found to be true for the greater part 
of our artesian basin, there is little danger of speedy 
exhaustion of the water supplies. It is true that bores 
have frequently ceased to flow, but in every case the cause 
has been either (1) corrosion of the casing allowing the 
water to escape into dry sandbeds; or (2) the scouring of 
a water channel between the casing and the walls of the 
borehole, allowing similar escape of the water. Sometimes 
the latter cause of stoppage has been aided by tinkering 
with the bore, e.g., by temporarily shutting the bore. 


196 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


When a flow ceases in this way it can usually be got . 
from the same stratum by sinking another bore a few yards 
away. 


APPENDIX. 


REFERENCES TO LITERATURE (Reference number given in square bracket, 
thus [1] ). 
AnpDREws, E. C. 
‘An Outline of the Tertiary History of New England.” 
Rec. Geol. Surv., N.S.W., 1903, Vol. VII. [10]. 
‘“* Report on the Drake Mining Field.” 
Mineral Resources No. 12, Geol. Surv., N.S.W. [6]. 
‘‘ Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia.”’ 
Jour. & Proc., Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XLIV, [1]. 
‘“‘ Preliminary Note on the Geology of the Queensland Coast.” 
Proc. Linn. Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XXVII., 1902. [23]. 
ANDERSON, . 
CHAPMAN, F. 
‘“* Microzoa from the Wianamatta Shales.” 
Rec. Geol. Surv., N.S.W., Vol. VIII, Pt. 4. [7]. 
Carne, J. E. 
“The Kerosene Shale Deposits of N.S.W.” 
Geol. Memoir, No. 3, Geol. Surv. of N.S.W., 1903. [32]. 


Carp, G. W. (with L. F. Harper and J. B. Jacquet). 
“The Geology of the Kiama-Jamberoo District.” 
Rec. Geol. Surv. of N.S.W., Vol. VIII., Pt. 1, 1905. [26]. 
‘“* Notes on Some Sydney Basalts.”’ 
Rec. Geol. Surv., N.S.W., Vol. VII, Pt. 3. [28]. 
CaMBAGE, R. 
‘* Notes on the Native Flora of New South Wales.” 
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1905, Part 3. [34]. 
Don, W. 8. 
‘“ Notes on Some Lower Mesozoic Plants from Benolong, Dubbo 
District.” 
Rec. Geol. Surv. of N.S.W., Vol. VIIL, Part IV., 1909. [8.] 
Davin, T. W. E. (with F. B. Guthrie and W. G. Woolnough). 
“The Occurrence of Tinguaite on Mount Kosciusko.” 
Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XXXV. [81]. 
Davip AND HALLIGAN. 
* Recent Subsidence on the Coast of New South Wales.” 
Jour. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W. [38]. 
Davip: Report of Glaciation Committee of A.A.A.S. 
Promo-Carboniferous Glaciation. [5]. 
** Geological Epochs,’ Add. at Mexican. 
Geol. Conference, 1907. [4]. 
Dany, Re A. 
“Mountain Building by Igneous Injection,” [18] 


BY H. I. JENSEN, D.Sc. 197 


GREGORY, J. W. 
“The Dead Heart of Australia,” [40]. 


HEDLEY, C. 
“A Biological Scheme for the Mid-Pacific.”’ 
A.A.A.S. Reports for 1909. [22]. 
Pres. Add. Linn. Soc. of N.S.W., 1910. [19]. 
Pres. Add. Linn. Soc. of N.S.W., 1911. [20]. 
“The Barrier Reef,’ (Hedley and Taylor). 
A.A.A.S. Reports for 1907. [37]. 


JENSEN, H. I. 
“ Distribution, Origin and Relationships of Alkaline Rocks.” 
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., Vol. XXXIIT, Pt. 3, 1908. [12]. 
‘“ Geology of Parts of the East Moreton and Wide Bay Districts.” 
Same Proc., Pt. 1, 1906. [13]. 
“The Metamorphic Rocks of Southern Queensland.”’ 
A.A.A:S. Reports, 1909. [14]. 
“ Geology of the Country Behind Jervis Bay.”’ 
Jour. and Proc., Roy. Soc., N.S.W. [17]. 
«Notes on Quartz Reefs in the Nelligen District.”’ 
Same Jour. [17]. 
“Geology of Warrumbungle, Nandewar and Canoblas Mts., N.S.W., 
and Mt. Flinders, Q. 
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909. [29]. 
“The Vegetation on Basalt Soils.” 
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., Pt. 4, 1909. [35]. 


Mawson, D., and TayYtor, T.G. 
‘«The Geology of Mittagong.”’ 
Jour. and Proc. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XX XVII. [30]. 


Morpison, 
‘““ Voleanic Necks of the Sydney District.”’ 
Ree, Geol. Surv. of N.S.W., Vol. VII, Pt. 4, 1904. [28]. 


Pittman, F. 
** Artesian Water.”’ 
Jour. and Proc., Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., 1907, Vol. XLI. [39]. 


Sxreats, E. W. 
“The Volcanic Rocks of Victoria.’’ 
A.A.A.S., 1909 Meeting, Brisbane. [25]. 


SHACKLETON, E. 
“In the Heart of Antarctica.” [24]. 


Sussmincn, C. A. 
‘““ Notes on the Physiography of the Southern Tableland of N.S.W.”’ 
Jour. and Proc. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XLITI. [11]. 


Tavrog,'T.. G. 
“The Physiography of Yass-Canberra,”’ 
Bull. 6., Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology. [21]. 
** The Correlation of Coal, Contour, and Climate.”’ 
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1908. [33]. 


198 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA 


And WooLnovuGeH, W. G. 
‘Important Example of River Captive, in N.S.W.” 
Proc. Linn. Soc.,) N.S.W., 1907, Pt. 2. [36]: 
TENNISON-WOODS. 
“The Desert Sandstone.” 
Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., Vol. XXII., p. 290. [9]. 
WEARNE, R. A. 
Paper read at A.A.A.S. Meeting, 1911. [15]. 


EXPLANATION OF TEXT FIGURES. 

Figs. 1 to 10. Maps of Australia, showing supposed distribution of land 
and sea during geological time and zones of heavy sedimentation, 
after T. W. E. David. 

Fig. 11. Ideal section from Bega, N.S.W., to Southern Queensland, 
showing geosyncline under Southern New England up to end of Permo- 
Carboniferous, and under Sydney and the Blue Mountains after the 
Permo-Carboniferous ; showing also how folding in the Paleozoic 
Rocks gets more and more intense as we pass from the South of 
N.S.W. to New England. 


QO = Ordovician So = «Silurian 

D = Devonian C = Carboniferous 

P-C = Permo-Carb. H. =.. Triassie 

J = Trias-Jura B = Basalt (Tertiary) 

G = Granite T = Acid Lavas (Tertiary). 


Note the absence of folding in the Post Carboniferous rocks as 
Queensland is entered. 

Fig. 12. Ideal section from Mt. Byron _(D’ Aguilar Range) to Coast, near 
Sandgate. 

Fig. 13. (a, 6, c, d). Sketches showing how a new range is moulded on 
old divides. 

(a) before folding ; (c) plan of same ; 
(b) after folding ; (d) plan of same. 

Fig. 14. Section showing subsidence area between N. Queensland Coast 
and Barrier Reef. This area is now being covered with sediments, 
and will in the next geological period become elevated into a fold range 
being squeezed between a subsiding massive and a rising massive. 


tig th 


| 
\ i 
ats j Re 
i \ 
ook 
| es Donati 
RANGES 
x ! 
Mus” = ee 
Mubarre or a 
oe th i. 
vy ate 
He fo] 
es “, 3. a 
\ of ik 
ete f 5 red = 
wee i ow ; 
Nee ) “I, y 
Nai \ 
Ni: ae Sa) 
© oe : 
Pre Camarian foexs a 


found chieply W of line marked xx 


Se * 
4 AREA \ 
% 


earal 


Figy, 


Shaded 


Fig. CAMBRIAN SEDIMENTATION. 


Shaded Probable Cambrian wa ey 
Zone of Heavy Sedimentation ea 


Kimberley District WA... 
Mt Lofty la Petersbury.S A 


if 
As 
3. Heathcote District, Via. , 
4 Caroline Ck. Pasi. 


Fig3. Oroovieraw Sen. 


Fig3. ORoovician SeniMEN TATION 


a Probable Continen ri Shelf A 


Aecorded Outeraps 8: 


ay??? 


a a 


Probable Silurian 
Actual Outeron 


Fig 4. 


Probable Silurian Shelf, lined. 


Shaded. , 


Actual Outerops 


Fig 


Devonian SEaIMENTATIO, 


Fig 5 


Oevowian SEaIMENTATION 


Fig. 6 


CHP BOWITPOUS 
APES. Ap. 


Heavy Sedimenlatian 
Shaded... 

Lines a Canbs. | 
Folding, Granitye \ 
Lnjeclion & Ore & 
Depasilian 0-4°Qs 


Fi 1g: 6, 
CHRBOMIFFYPOUS 


HAEMS 


Heavy Sedimenlulian 


Lines ar Carbs. 


Shaded.. 


‘ 


or eae 


=f 

2 2 
‘~v 3 
S 5 
SS 
oS 

#5 
op ESS 
So Si 
DS 4 
SNe 
Tic 
uk SQ 


a. ed 
ee ——- 


EYGAS COYWE 
Co4L FIELD 


a 
“hy 


/ 


/K 
Z aj 
K 
( 


I 
Y, 


, 


_— 


Fig.J * 
Strongly Sedimente d 


PER MOCARBS Discrih x 


Areas 


yo OAKEY CREEK 


COAL FIELD 


z a 
2 
| YY) . 
| Lirreg WY, Yh ee ‘ 
| RWERF~ SIZ KS, 1 
l | hE \ > 
* \ 8 
a'K { fi x = 
n 4 | Bow, , e 
K Yy 0 
NG cascovne | ee, | 1 ae 
Us Veoa. FIELD i | %: 8 
TG | 14 = ' WY Of? 
¥ x CROW, | Ke ;3 
S KPOIN™, eae 
ee 
wo LAND | YOOX | % iS 
—\rn _ se ey wet ‘a8 
awinGs | a. = LS 
Con, FIELA— \ { x | ies 1 
\ yy Meee 
Zoniiii %, | is 4 a || ! eee 
COAL FIELY o> - —tp- y aK = 
EA ys MULETTS GES, EIR x parc \ 
SEA = ee 1 Coiba Ng 
* NE 
> X> SN Sen ee a x 
se Lez X~ x ee ee SS wACcHle MARS y/ 
= ee Sg — Beh; 
a gio et _ — ye = 
a7 ho Z 
Aig FE TABLE CAPE 24). MERSEY Sie 
x 
X : 
thee 5 bed 
Fig T. 


PERMOCARB$ Disérib ution of Land & Sea, 
Strongly Sedimente d Oh Glacial Beds fea] Probable Extent of Sea 
Areas bs 


(eee 


fg 8, Triassic Distributio 


CONTINENTAL SHELF | <\\1- 


a 8 Ee | 


TRIAS LAKES 


we 


Fy8. Triassic Distribution of Land and Sea 


Ky) 
CONTINENTAL SHELF eetee, 


TRIAS LAKES 


Y) i 4, 
EARLY TRIAS My, | 


LINE of ORE DEPOSITION i 5 


Dist 5, 


Fig W, 
Distribution of Land and Sea “1 the Crelaceous, 
The Marine Area is Shaded. 


ZCRE TACEOUS — 


gone a Ze ZZ ms 
EEE SELES 


a C— 


Fig. 10. ; 
Distribution of Land and Sea in the Tertiary . 


Land unshaded : Sea crosshned. 


Cobargo Blue Hirs. 
| Marrigun don Braidwood an eke Mannin 


Bega. rf D. = SES SS 


' a, 
< fr F , 
=A ao ee Le a eva SS 32 ~ -7 ——— 
= Ps i PIS pred 


Pe o we = 
iy, a ns ah AVS EZ xx ale AND LN NM May BK 
Oo. jen’ 4 AVA: AN KWAK | IN 

ae 3) Bn i, rx ZZ 7 : 


P 
we oS SAS ; Cc 


Fig.l. 


ie Blue Hics. 
Shoalhaven 


Bega. } Herrigundan Sraidwood 
Veen eoBen : 
mV ATACE ta EN 


we res 7 


Os ER NVES WZ Wy 
pe PLA 


PLE: 


“al Fi aes 


evel 


| Figll , Ap ts Ay Bee 


Me Me € 


f 
Hornblendic 
ial ee chigts 


Sandstone! | Mic 
Ca. 


“Ta 


ee 
Nat ar is 4a 


Scale 


Me Me e 


t 
| Hornblendic 


tp ‘ S ‘hi ts 
AE Byron P stone | v Mica Schist 
/ 


Marang be. 


7 * ; 
aie Nearer (cepa 
~ 


Fig 12 
Scale abt. hm. Acrinch. 


sea — anes mane 
Pk peek 
ning, MesoL oss bs 7 Why, 3 
nly, site 3 Z 
= 1 MNilede of Range 4 
Lp qa’ Curvature Wetter fp 


rece 
be 


QO 
wer 


Fig 13, 


(a) 


(&) 
Tertiary Uplifr 


~ AAW Lat & = 


va “ 


C Ae” 
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THE BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S 
CATHEDRAL, BRISBANE. 


By HENRY C. RICHARDS, M.Sc., 
Lecturer in Geology, University of Queensland. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, August 26th, 1911. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Havine witnessed the growth of this building which is 
likely to be a prominent feature for a long time in Brisbane, 
and being somewhat acquainted with the stones used in 
its construction, the recording of available information would 
seem to the author to serve a useful purpose. 

In the choice of the building stone, its actual mode 
of weathering in a structure is of first importance, but 
failing this, the practice of carrying out mechanical and 
laboratory tests approximating as far as possible the actual 
conditions is resorted to. While these latter tests are 
extremely useful, that, under normal conditions, is the 
real one. Unfortunately, records of the stones used in 
old buildings are generally unobtainable, thus, much of 
the information to be obtained from a study of the weather- 
ing of the stones in old structures is thereby lost; hence 
the importance of accurately recording the available 
information and current opinions as to the stones at the 
earliest opportunity. 

Stones USED IN THE BUILDING. 

These have been gathered from three Australian 
States, although the bulk of the material is of local origin, 
and both igneous and sedimentary rocks have been used. 

Five different stones, of which the following is a list, 
are contained in the structure :— 


Tuff Locality Brisbane. 

Sandstone + Helidon, Queensland 
Sandstone ra Sydney. 

Granite J Harcourt, Victoria. 


Basalt . Footscray, Victoria. 


200 BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S CATHEDRAL, BRISBANE 


The igneous rocks, namely the Granite and Basalt, 
have been used in the basement ; the main structure is of 
the Brisbane tuff, which is generally called “ porphyry,” 
while the sandstone used outside comes from Pyrmont, 
Sydney; the inside sandstone being obtained from 
Helidon. 


DESCRIPTION AND SOME TESTS OF THE STONES. 
(1). TUFF. 


This is the material familiar to everybody, and which 
is used for road-metal, coping-stones, pitchers, building 
material, etc. It is a fine-grained fragmental rock formed 
by the consolidation of volcanic detritus such as ashes, 
sand and lapilli. It is a hard compact material, exhibiting 
a variety of colours, salmon, pink, grey, white, green, 
purple, etc., which blend well with one another. The 
colour effects may be well seen on roads built of this 
material, after a heavy downpour of rain, when a handsome 
multi-coloured mosaic is produced. Owing to the nature 
of its texture it does not take a polish, and in the Cathedral 
is used in medium-sized blocks, either rock-faced or smooth- 
dressed. It is interesting to note that while tuffs are not 
generally used for building purposes owing to their porosity 
and friability, the so-called “ peperino”’ of the campagna 
of Rome and Naples is a tuff, and has been used in other 
buildings in those cities, it was also used in the houses of 
Herculaneum and Pompeii.* 

The material in question was obtained from the 
O’Connelitown quarries, one of the numerous tuff quarries 
in the immediate neighbourhood of this city. Immense 
quantities of this excellent material exist, as it occurs 
bedded up to a great thickness, as shown opposite the 
Botanic Gardens, and at the Leichhardt Street quarry. 
It occurs geologically almost at the base of the Tria-Jurassic 
System, being separated from the much-older underlying 
schists by a few feet of highly carbonaceous shales, which, 
in many places, contain abundant traces of fossil trees. 
The source of the ashes which build up this tuff was in all 
probability an ancient volcano, of which the present 
Enoggera granite marks the base. 


oe 


*Hull, Building and Ornamental Stones. P. 283. 


BY HENRY 0. RICHARDS, M.SC. 201 


This tuff is not of uniform compactness in all the quarries 
or even in the same quarry, and requires to be carefully 
chosen, but when well picked and dressed properly, is found 
to be a highly durable stone under the local climatic con- 
ditions. 


(2) HELIDON SANDSTONE. 


This stone is also well known in Brisbane, having been 
used in many structures. 


There are several varieties, white, pink, and brown. 
The Lands Office affords the best instance perhaps of a 
structure of the brown stone, while in the Central Station 
buildings, the white and also the pink varieties may be seen. 
The former building, with the exception of the columns 
and the stones above them, which are of Yangan material, 
is of the brown Helidon stone, the basement being of granitic 
stones from Enoggera and Mount Crosby. The brown 
variety is a particularly handsome material, works well, 
occurs in large blocks, and has a warm tone in contrast 
to the cold, hard effect of the white variety. The concentric 
markings due to the iron-staining, together with the 
variation of iron-contents in the different blocks give a 
structure of this material a very pleasing effect, particularly 
when compared with buildings of a uniform grey stone, like 
the Treasury Building. 


All the interior work of the Cathedral, the walls, ceiling 
and pillars, is done with this stone, and an examination 
of this building shows the possibilities in working this free- 
stone. 

Owing to its protection from the weather, not the 
slightest fear need be felt as to its endurance. 

The stone was obtained from Wright’s quarry, and 
the following information on the brown stone used in the 
Government Printing Office, and now being used in the 
Central Technical College buildings, has been very kindly 
supplied by Mr. T. Pye, the Deputy Government Architect:— 


COMPRESSION STRENGTH. 


Building. Lbs. per sq. inch. Tons per sq. ft. 
1. Government Printing Office .. 5355 344,25 
2. Central Technical College Ber 5076 326 
3. Central Technical College e 3624 233 


Numbers 1 and 2 were dry, while 3 was wet. 


202 BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S CATHEDRAL, BRISBANE 


THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 


The specific gravity of the stone used in the Govern- 
ment Printing Office was 2°337, and the absorption by weight. 
4-41 %, giving a bulk absorption of 10-30%. 

Subjected to acid tests, the stone, after being immersed 
in a solution containing 23% hydrochloric and 24% 
sulphuric acids for 48 hours’ was quite friable after the 
treatment. 

Chemically, the stone is stable, and contains a medium 
silica percentage, while the loss on ignition and ferric oxide 
values are higher, the latter one would expect from the 
colour of the stone ; lime and magnesia are absent or present 
in slight traces only. 

The above results carried out for the Public Works 
Department on the brown stone obtained from Wright’s 
quarry for the Government Printing Office now being 
erected, might be taken in a general way to hold for the 
brown stone from Wright’s quarry in the Cathedral just 
completed. 

The compression test is a fair one for sandstones, and 
gives a value more than sufficient for the purposes to which 
the material is put, being approximately the same as the 
Sydney stone. 

The absorption value is medium, but in a climate like 
Brisbane enjoys, and which is for building stone purposes 
free from frost, it does not matter to any great extent, more 
especially as the atmosphere of this city is not laden with 
acids, and the stone shows no traces of carbonates. 

The chemical constitution and acid test call for little 
comment. 

Reviewing the above tests, this stone for building 
purposes must be regarded as a very fair building material 
in comparison with other Australian sandstones. 


(3) SYDNEY SANDSTONE. 


This is one of the widely-used Sydney freestones, 
and is obtained from the Pyrmont quarries, being known 
there as the Purgatory stone. It is hard, according to 
masons, as hard as its name, and has given evidence of its 
weathering qualities in Sydney, where the conditions are 
perhaps somewhat more severe than here. Its chief 
objection has been the manner in which it frets in certain 


BY HENRY C. RICHARDS, M.SC. 203 


situations, this being due in the opinion of Messrs. Vernon 
and Kent to a perishing of the cementing medium of the 
quartz particles, a kind of dry rot, and which only appears 
to occur when the stone is not exposed to the moisture 
of the atmosphere.* 


The variety used here is grey-coloured, though occa- 
sional blocks of the brown variety have been employed, 
and these arranged somewhat haphazardly produce an 
effect which serves to break what would otherwise be a 
somewhat monotonous dull-grey colour. An examina- 
tion of the stone work around the beautiful window on the 
N.E. side of the building shows the manner in which this 
material lends itself to carving. 


Views have been expressed to the effect that the 
Helidon stone might, with more advantage, have been used 
for the external purposes to which the Sydney freestone 
has been put. 


The former, from a colour effect, may have been more 
pleasing, but its weathering qualities for this type of work 
have yet to be fully demonstrated. The-brown variety of 
Sydney stone, such as has been recently used in the New 
Zealand Life Assurance building, in Queen Street, is 
peculiar, owing to its taking on the familiar soft brown 
colour aiter being exposed for some time. This is due 
to the fact that the stone when freshly quarried contains 
a smail amount of ferrous iron, sometimes in the form of 
carbonate, which becomes oxidised to the ferric state on 
exposure. 

Owing to the somewhat uneven distribution of the 
ferrous iron contents, the stone does not become a uniform 
brown, which is rather fortunate from an architectural 
point of view. hi 

The following tests of the Sydney stone will be of 
interest. Those with an asterisk are taken from the paper 
published by Nangle and Baker, in Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., 
Vol. XLIII., while the others were carried out by the 
author, and published in “‘ The Building Stones of Victoria,’’ 
in Proc. Roy. Soc, Vic., Vol. XXII. 


*R. T. Baker and J. Nangle, Proc. R.S. of N.S.W., Vol. XLIII., p- 189- 


204 BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S CATHEDRAL, BRISBANE 


COMPRESSION TESTS. 


Edge of Cube. Lbs. per sq. inch. Tons per sq. foot 
3 inches .. be = 4800 308°5 
3 inches .. Se a 4861 312-5* 
3 inches .. ba * 5645 366° 9* 
3 inches .. os Sa 5747 370° 1* 


ABSORPTION ‘TEST. 


This gave a value of 3°65 % by weight and 8-40 % by 
bulk, which, in comparison with other sandstones, is fair. 


ATTACK BY CARBON DIOXIDE. 


To ascertain this a current of carbon dioxide gas was 
passed continually for 3 weeks through water containing 
the stones in two-inch cubes, and as a result, 0:03% by 
weight was lost ; this is an excellent result. 


ATTACK BY MINERAL ACIDS. 


Two-inch cubes were placed in solutions containing 
1% hydrochloric and 1% sulphuric acid, and allowed 
to remain in it for 96 hours. As a result of this 1-031 % 
by weight was lost, and a decided darkening in colour was 
produced; this value is rather high. 


SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 
The specific gravity of this stone is about 2°30, and 
thus has a weight per cubic foot of approximately 144lbs., 
a medium weight for a sandstone. 


FIRE TEST.* 


The stone, after being subjected to a temperature of 
750° ©. for 15 minutes was plunged suddenly into cold 
water and was uninjured, no chipping at the edges, but 
merely a deepening in colour due to further oxidation of 
the iron contents. 

The above results, together with its observed mode 
of weathering, point to the stone being quite a satisiactory 
one for the purpose it is asked to serve in this building. 

(4) HarcourT GRANITE. 


This has been used very extensively in Melbourne 
and other parts of Victoria. It is distinctly handsome 
when polished, though in this building being used in the 
foundations it is not polished. 

This is a somewhat coarse-grained grey granite, which 
is made up of quartz, felspar, and the black mica biotite, 
the latter being in abundance and sufficiently fresh to show 


BY HENRY C. RICHARDS, M.SC. 205 


up well in contrast to the milky-white felspar and colour- 
less quartz. It has proved its stability as a building stone, 
and a notable example of its use and weathering is to be 
seen in the Equitable Buildings, Collins Street, Melbourne. 
It is a stone that works with ease in all directions, can be 
obtained in very large blocks, and quarries well ; the quarries 
being in close proximity to the railway line at Harcourt, 
it can be delivered in Melbourne at a very reasonable rate. 

The local granite from Enoggera must be regarded 
as an inferior stone in many ways, but owing to its con- 
taining hornblende, as far as strength is concerned it 
probably surpasses.the Harcourt material, but this mineral 
also greatly increases the cost of working. The Enoggera 
stone is rather fine in texture, has not the same relief when 
polished, and is liable to contain crystals of pyrites and 
vughs of calcite. These two latter minerals weather 
rapidly, especially the former, which becomes oxidised, 
and a dirty brown patch is formed. This phenomenon 
may be well seen in many of the stones used in the base 
of the Lands Office. Compression tests on three-inch 
cubes of Harcourt Granite have civen the following results : 


Stone. Lbs. per sq. inch. Tons per sq. foot. 
Harcourt granite .. io 2, 11,444 736 
Harcourt granite .. =. oe 11,333 729 


Being an igneous rock it is almost impervious, and all 
its minerals are of a very stable nature, there being no 
carbonates or sulphides, while the black mica is found to 
stand weathering excellently. The climatic conditions 
likely to affect the stone are those of extreme temperature, 
but in this city no fear need be anticipated on that score. 


(5) Footscray Basar. 


This is the familiar bluestone used in Melbourne for 
many varied purposes, of which the uses for building stones, 
copying stones, pitchers, and road metal, are the chief 
ones. It is a dark compact basalt which works easily 
and as a result of its proximity to the city in suitable masses 
is cheap. 

Owing to its igneous nature and its chemical con- 
stitution, it is an excellent weathering material, but buildings 
of this stone alone are objected to on account of its 
sombreness, though for bulk stores and gaol structures 
it gives an air of great solidity. It is chiefly used as a 


206 BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S CATHEDRAL, BRISBANE 


building stone for basements, a favourite combinatior 
being sandstone as a super-st1ucture on basalt, with which 
very handsome results are obtained. 

While not in much evidence in the now completed. 
Cathedral, it has been used in parts of the foundations 
of this building, and, as far as durability and strength are 
concerned, it has fully proved itself under more severe 
conditions than exist here. | 

St. Patrick’s Cathedral in Melbourne is built almost 
entirely of this stone, with the result that it will long outlive 
St. Paul’s Cathedral, which is built of the Geelong freestone 
and Waurn Ponds limestone, both of which stones have 
already very much decayed. The crushing strength of 
this material on a three-inch cube was found to be 10,5771bs. 
per square inch, or 680 tons per square foot, a strength. 
more than sufficient for its use in this building. 


CONCLUSIONS. 


From the foregoing it will be seen that of the stones 
in the Cathedral, the Harcourt Granite and Footscray basalt 
used in the basement are stones of proven quality, and no 
doubt need be felt of their lasting properties. 

The inside Helidon sandstone, owing to its compression 
strength, its protection from the weather and its lasting 
properties even when exposed, also promises a very long 
existence. 

The outside materials, namely, the local tuff and the 
Sydney freestone will determine the life of the building ; 
of these the tuff from its texture and composition and 
apparently wise choice should weather excellently, whereas 
if any stones show signs of decay one would expect them 
to be the Sydney sandstone in exposed conditions, where 
it is finally carved, and the smooth-dressed tuff. Theformer 
will, in the course of time, almost certainly fret in places, 
as it has done in Sydney buildings, and being smooth- 
dressed might be expected to exfoliate in other places, 
that is, thin flakes a fraction of an inch thick, part from 
the rest of the stone in a direction parallel to the surface, 
as a result of the disturbances produced by the uniform 
tapping over the face of the stone during dressing. 

In conclusion, I would like to extend my thanks to 
Archbishop Donaldson, Mr. R. 8. Dods, and Mr. T. Pye, 
for information afforded me in connection with this paper. 


ON THE OCCURRENCE OF “ WORM-NODULES” 
IN CATTLE—A SUMMARY. 


By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc., etc., 


Brotocy Department, University, BrisBane. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, October 28, 1911. 


For the past two years a considerable amount of atten- 
tion has been paid, both in the Commonwealth and in Europe, 
_ to the occurrence of ‘“ worm-nests”’ or ‘* worm-nodules ” 
in cattle in various parts of the world, but more particularly 
in Australia. Since these nodules are known to be common 
and widespread in this state (Queensland), which is an 
important meat-producing country, and since their presence 
is causing heavy financial losses to pastoralists and meat 
exporters, | have deemed it advisable to bring together 
for public information, a summary of what is known regard- 
ing this parasitic condition. As ‘ worm-nodules”’ may 
be produced in man, camels, horses, etc., by allied parasites 
(Onchocerca, spp.), casual reference is made to them also. 
The following account refers to that form of Onchocerciasis 
met with in Australian cattle :— 

Macroscopic appearance :—The naked-eye appearance 
has been described fully by various authors (Gibson, Park, 
Cleland and Johnston, Leiper, Gilruth and Sweet), so that only 
brief mention need be given here. The nodules vary in 
diameter, {rom under two to four centimetres in the case 
of approximately spherical forms, while others of an elon- 
gate shape may possess a long axis, Measuring 7 cms., 
or even greater. Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. 7) found one 
reaching 11 cms. by 8 cms., whilst, very rarely, they meet 
with others so small that their diameter was only six 
millimetres. On cutting across a nodule, one notices that 
the ‘‘ worm-area”’ lies at or near the centre, though occa- 
sionally quite eccentrically. There is very little variation 
in the size of this area though the thickness of the surround - 


208 ON THE OCOURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ” IN CATTLE 


ing fibrous capsule may vary greatly in different nodules- 
The parasite, Onchocerca gibsoni, Cleland and Johnston, 
lies coiled in the worm area in such an intricate manner 
that it is impossible to extract the female entire. The 
small male worms may occasionally be obtained in an 
unbroken state. These nematodes are seen to lie in a 
definite tunnel or canal, within which they appear to be 
capable of a slight movement. Gilruth and Sweet (1911, 
p. 10, figs. 3, 4, 37) have figured a tunnel in which the male 
and female worms are lying side by side. The actual 
nodules are, of course, the result of irritation of the sur- 
rounding cells of the host-tissue, set up by the presence 
of the parasite. An eosinophilia is also present. When 
the worms dies, it degenerates, becoming calcified and 
finally breaking down, the worm area undergoing a degener- 
ation also. This condition is more frequently met with in 
older animals. The statements that tuberculosis is commonly 
associated with this alteration are not substantiated. 


Seat of infection, etc.:—The commonest situations 
in which the parasite occurs are the brisket and flank, 
between whose muscles and in whose subcutaneous tissues 
the worm-nodules lie. The affected areas have been 
defined as follows :—(Gilruth and Sweet, 1911, p. 5, 6.) 
“The commonest situation is the region of the brisket, 
‘chiefly the triangular outline formed by the junction of 
the ribs with the costal cartilages, especially between the 
fourth and sixth ribs, but often extending backwards to 
the tenth, and, at times, forward to the second rib. Fre- 
quently they are superficial, 7.¢., in the subcutaneous tissues, 
but more often they are situated between the posterior 
portion of the superficial pectoral muscle and the anterior 
part of the posterior deep pectoral, between the posterior 
portion of the deep pectoral and the external abdominal 
oblique, and between the panniculus and the posterior por- 
tion of the external oblique, rarely deeper. . . The 
other situation is the external surface of the hindlimb, 
especially behind the femoro-tibial joint, and the groove 
leading upward to the pelvis, anterior to the gluteus 
maximus, and even near the angle of the haunch. While 
occasionally superficial and readily detected, they are often 
under the dense subcutaneous fascia lata, when they are 
much more liable to be overlooked.” They mention the 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A.. D.SC. 209 


reported occurrence of nodules in other situations, such as 
‘““on the inner side of the thigh, in the groin and even 
throughout the body,” but they are “strongly inclined to 
the opinion that such conclusions have resulted from small 
tumours of different origin being mistaken for these 
nodules.” Dodd (1910, a, p. 86) mentioned that they may 
occur in the connective tissues in any part of the body. 
We found them mainly in the brisket (C. and J., 1910, c, 
p- 92), but referred to their presence in certain other situ- 
ations. Dr. Cleland and myself have seen an encapsuled 
specimen, said to have been taken from the neighbourhood 
of the spleen, a situation similar to that from which Filaria 
lenalis was recorded by Stiles. 


In regard to the number which may be found in an 
animal, we (Cl. and J., 1910, c, p. 92) have recorded the 
finding of twenty-one in the brisket alone. As many 
as fifty has been counted from one host (Gilruth and Sweet, 
p. 6.), while a yearling (p. 4) was found to harbour twenty- 
four. Gibson (1893, p. 577) mentioned that he had been 
informed by butchers that, in rare instances, nodules were 
_ so numerous and so distributed in an animal, that condem- 
nation of the whole carcase was necessary. 


Age incidence :—As a result of careful ante- and post- 
mortem examinations of a large number of cows and_ bullocks 
of various ages, Gilruth (p. 4, 5) found that there was a 
heavy infection in the case of yearlings, as in old animals, 
and that one sex was as liable to become parasitised as the 
other, but that in the older animals there was usually a 
greater percentage of degenerated nodules. The youngest 
animal recorded as having been found to be infected was 
between six and seven months old (C. and J., 1910, c, p. 92; 
six to eight months—G. and §., 1911, p. 5). This is con- 
clusive evidence that the worm can mature very rapidly, 
and also suggests that the life of the parasite probably 
does not extend over many years. 

Degree of infection :—The most important statements 
regarding the degree of infection are those of Gilruth (1911, 
p. 3), who has had opportunities of investigating this side 
of the question. He states that “so far as could be ascer- 
tained, no cattle station in Queensland is entirely free from 
the parasite,” that at least twenty per cent. of animals 
on “clean” stations are affected, and that a complete 


910 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE 


examination would possibly show that fifty per cent. isa ~ 
nearer approximation. He instances a case in which ten 
per cent. were found to be infected after “ very careful. 
examination by manipulation, using incision only when 
certain or doubtful, but later on, when the brisket of a num- 
ber were partially dissected, another 25 per cent. were 
found to harbour the nodules.” Thus 35 per cent. of the 
cattle, from a ‘‘ notoriously clean station,” from the south- 
western portion of Queensland, were parasitised by 
Onchocerca gibsoni. In two mobs, from different parts of 
north-western Queensland, the same observer detected 
their presence in 60 per cent. of the animals “ without any 
manipulation,” and as a result of “‘a more careful examin- 
ation by dissection,” found every animal to contain “ from 
one nodule upwards.” It is known that the heaviest in- 
fection occur in the more northerly districts, and that the 
degree lessens as we pass southward. Gilruth and Sweet 
believe that this state of affairs is not due to the conditions 
of ‘soil, climate, rainfall or management.’’ Gibson (1893, 
p. 577) mentioned that he had been informed by Mr. Stanley, 
the New South Wales Government Veterinarian, that at 
least 50 per cent. of the cattle slaughtered about that 
time (1892) in Sydney, contained worm-nests, but Gilruth 
and Sweet (p. 3) doubt this large percentage. Our own 
experience did not reveal such a high degree of infection. 
Hancock (1911, p. 25) states that ‘‘ since examination has 
been systematically made, at least 50 per cent. of all con- 
signments from Queensland ‘ports have been found to contain 
a variable percentage of affected carcases.” Judging from 
‘“lruth and Sweet’s findings, Hancock’s estimate would 
be greatly increased if a more searching examination were 
carried out. The Editor of the British Medical Journal 
(3rd Dec., 1910, p. 1797), mentioned that about 75 per cent. 
of the carcases were found to be parasitised. Macfadden’s 
findings (1911,.p. 2) corroborate those of Gilruth. He stated 
that at first ten per cent. of the quarters in each consignment 
mere examined for the presence of nodules, but on a more 
complete examination, it was noticed that a much larger 
percentage was infected, and in some instances “‘as many 
as a hundred per cent. of those already passed’ were found 
to contain worm nests. The Editor of the Journal of Meat 
and Milk Hygiene (1911, p. 23), in a footnote to our paper 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 211 


(Cleland and Johnston, 1911, a, p. 21-23), refers to the 
fact that “‘in one consignment of 1,500 hind quarters 
which recently arrived in London, 808 were found to be 
infected.” This is about 54 per cent., and the number 
would probably have been greater had fore-quarters been 
examined. If we consider what a large amount of meat 
is exported from Australia, especially Eastern Australia, 
to Great Britain and elsewhere, we must realise the serious- 
ness of this parasitic invasion. Macfadden (1911, p. 3) 
states that between 60,000 and 70,000 quarters of Australian 
beef arrived per month, between July and October of last 
year (1910) at the port of London alone. 


Effect on host :—In regard to the result of this para- 
sitism on the health of the infested animal, it is of importance 
to note that no authors, excepting Barnard and Park 
(1894), have mentioned any deleterious effect produced by 
the presence of the Onchocerca. In reference to the state- 
ments made by these authors, we (Cleland and Johnston, 
1910, c, p. 93) have already suggested that tubercular and 
actinomycotic tissues, from various parts of the body, had 
been inadvertently mixed with true worm nodules, and hence 
their mistake in believing that tubercle commonly follows 
‘the parasite. Dodd (1910, a, p. 86), Hancock (1911, p.25), 
Nicoll (1911, p. 73), Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. vil) and 
others agree with us in our assertion that the presence 
of the nematode is not any in way detrimental to the host. 


Public health aspect :—From the point of view of public 
health and meat inspection, we must admit that the presence 
of animal parasites in food is undesirable. We think 
that they should be removed, but even if eaten, whether 
unconsciously or otherwise, as already pointed out by us 
(1910, a, p. 174; 1910, c, p. 98), no harm would result. 
Dr. Gibson (1893, p. 579) fed a dog on worm-nests for a 
-considerable time without ill effect. Then again, the parasite 
can only survive the death of the host for a very short time. 
The same remark applies to the embryos. Besides this, 
there is no possibility of direct transmission through eating, 
even if the same species were able to live in man which is 
most improbable. 

Robinson (1910, p. 6) reported that Dr. Collingbridge, 
‘the Medical Officer of Health for London, had stated that 

F 


212 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”” IN CATTLE 


‘the portions of meat containing the parasite are obviously 
unfit for food and should be destroyed.” We do not agree 
with this remark. The meat in unaffected, though the 
connective tissue immediately surrounding the worm is 
affected, since the formation of a dense fibrous capsule 
or ‘‘ worm nodule” is the result, but the effect does not 
extend beyond this. The Editor of the British Medical. 
Journal (3rd Dec., 1910, p. 1797) mentioned “ that the meat: 
in question is little, if at all, deteriorated in quality, that 
it is perfectly safe for human consumption, and that its. 
unsightly condition may be remedied by the removal of the 
nodules.”? Nicoll (1911, p. 73) says, that “‘ there is no evi- 
dence to show that the meat suffers, or that it is dangerous 
for human consumption, and the fact that is has been eaten 
for some time, both in this country and in Australia, without 
ill consequences being remarked, may be taken to support 
the Australian view.” 


Distribution in Australia :—The greatest percentage 
of infection appears to occur in Queensland, especially 
in the more northerly and westerly regions, and as one 
passes southwards, the condition becomes less common. 
Though occurring in New South Wales, its presence is 
more or less restricted to the Northern Rivers and the 
Hunter districts, though it may be found occasionally 
in cattle elsewhere. It is difficult, however, to trace the 
origin of cattle brought in for slaughter, but a large per- 
centage come “overland” from Queensland to Sydney, 
Melbourne and elsewhere. Hence at the abattoirs in these 
cities and in Hobart, nodules are met with. The occurrence 
of the condition in Victorian-bred cattle is doubtful, while 
Tasmania appears to be free fromit. It is well-known in 
Western Australia and in the Northern Territory. The 
distribution outside of Australia will be referred to in another 
place. 


The parasite:—The main papers dealing with the 
parasite (Onchocerca gibsoni) infesting Australian cattle 
are those of Cleland and Johnston (1910, 1911), Leiper 
(1911), and Gilruth and Sweet (1911). The worm had 
usually been referred to as Spiroptera reticulata, which is. 
a parasite infesting horses in Southern Europe. Barnard 
and Park (1894, p. 644), Park (1893, also in Tryon, 1910), 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 213 


Shipley * (1910), and Hancock (1911, p. 25) refer to it 
under that name; Leiper* (1910), as Onchocerca reticulata ; 
Bancroft (1893), as Strongylurus sp.; Cleland (1907, p. 88), 
and Johnston (1909, p. 412), as Sprroptera sp. ; and Tryon 
(1910, p. 81), as Spiroptera (Onchocerca) sp. ; while Cleland 
and Johnston, a little later (1910, a, p. 174) described it 
aS a new species of Filaria, /. gibson. Later in the same 
year (1910, c, p. 96), they removed it to the genus Onchocerca. 
Later authors (Leiper, 1911; Nicoll, 1911; Gilruth and 
Sweet, 1911), have followed them in calling it O. gibsoni. 
The synonymy of the nematode may be summarised thus :— 

Onchocerca gibsoni (C. and J., 1910, a), Cleland and 

Johnston (1091, c). 
? Filaria lienalis, Stiles, 1892 (undescribed). 
Spiroptera reticulata, Park, 1893, Bernard and Park, 
1893 ; Shipley, 1910, etc. (nec., Diesing, 1841). 

Strongylurus sp., Bancroft, 1893. 

Spiroptera sp., Cleland, 1£07, Johnston, 1909. 

Filaria gibsoni, Cleland and Johnston, 1910 a. 

Spiroptera (Onchocerca) sp., Tryon, 1910. 

Onchocerca reticulata, Leiper, 1910 (nec. Diesing). 

Filaria (Onchocerca) gibsoni, Clel. and Johnston, 1910, d. 

Unchocerca gibson, Clel. and Johnston, 1910, c; Leiper, 

1911, etc. 

Onchocerca reticulata, Diesing, known more commonly 
but less correctly, as Spiroptera reticulata, is a distinct, 
but closely allied, parasite infesting the horse, and is 
known under various synonyms, ¢.g.: ilari reticulata, 
F., cincinnata and Spiroptera cincinnata. FF. lienalis, Stiles, 
may be a synonym of O. gibsoni, and is evidently an Onche- 
cerca, aS Leiper (1911, a, p. 10) has suggested. Its specific 
identity with the Australian worm seems to me to be unlikely. 
The main distinctions between O. gibsoni and O. reticulata 
have been tabulated by Leiper (1911, @; p. 10). 

The original account (1910, @) contains a few in- 
accuracies regarding the male worm, but these were corrected 
and a-more detailed description of the male, female and 
embyro was given in a larger report published some months 
later. (August, 1910, c.) Gilruth and Sweet have shown 
recently (1911), that there is a considerable amount of 


* Quoted in an abstract of a report (1910)—Editor Jour, Meat and 
Milk Hygiene, 1911, p. 24. - . 


914 ON THE OGCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE 


variation in the mature parasites. The following summary 
is taken mainly from the papers just referred to :— 


The female is very long, but its exact length is unknown, 
owing to the impossibility of extracting it entire. By 
adding the lengths of all the fragments collected from a 
single nodule, apparently containing only one parasite, 
we (1910, c) found measurement to be 97 cm., while Gilruth 
and Sweet found it to vary from 52 to 140 cms. The cuti- 
cular ornamentation is in the form of series of spirally 
arranged ridges, each ridge being made up of a series of 
undulations. The anterior end is bluntly rounded, bearing 
a tiny papilla on each of the three small lips which surround 
the mouth. The diameter in the anterior part of the worm 
is from ‘08 to °16 mm., and throughout the greater part of 
the body is from ‘37 to ‘5 mm. The vulva varies in its 
position, being situated between “46 and 1°23 mm, from 
the anterior extremity. The nerve-ring les at from 142 
to .188 mm., and the excretory pore at from °36 to °38 mm. 
from the head end. The anus is located at about -20 mm. 
from the posterior extremity. 

The male is a very thin and relatively short worm 
with much less pronounced cuticular ornamentation. It 
is scarcely half the width of the female and its length varies 
between 3°75 and 5°3 cm. (Leiper; Gilruth and Sweet.) 
It is thus approximately only about one-twentieth of the 
length of its partner. The nerve-ring is situated at from 
‘17 to -2 mm., and the excretory pore at -25 mm. from the 
anterior end. The cloaca lies at a distance of from ‘048 
to ‘072 mm. from the posterior extremity.* The two 
spicules are unequal. The longer is from ‘14 to "197 mm., 
and is a curved rod with a twisted stem and a pointed 
distal termination. The smaller spicule is swollen character- 
istically at the outer end. Its length varies from ‘08 to 
094 mm. ‘There are six, probably seven, pairs of pipalle 
on the tail end of the male. There is a peri-anal group, 
consisting of four pair, and a caudal group of two pair. _ 
At the extreme end there is a pair of minute pro- 
jections, which probably represents the seventh pair. 


"eps ele on ag A ie Ss ee 

*In our paper (1910, c, p. 94) the distance in one case is given as 
-072, and in another -65:-m. The latter is a misprint for (065mm. In 
our preliminary report (1910, a), the length of the smaller spicule was given 
as ‘047, instead of -(082 mm., and some of the papillz were overlooked. 


BY T, HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 215- 


In the peri-anal group, the first pair are usually slightly 
more prominent and somewhat separated from the remaining 
three pair, which are really ad-anal or post-anal in position, 
the first pair being distinctly pre-anal. Gilruth and Sweet 
(p. 15) have noted a certain amount of variation in the 
arrangement. The alae are not very prominent. The 
tail end has a spiral twist, similar to that recorded as — 
occurring in O. volvulus. (Parsons, 1609, p. 363.) 

The embryos measures from ‘22 to °35 mm. in length 
by 003 mm. in width, the anterior end being obtusely 
rounded or nearly straight, and the posterior extremity 
tapering. Gilruth and Sweet have estimated that there 
may at one time be as many as two million embryos and 
fertilised eggs in one female. 

The internal anatomy of the parasite does not call 
for attention in this paper. (Cleland and Johnston ; Leiper ; 
De Does; Gilruth and Sweet.) 

Transmission :—From the economic point of view, 
the most important feature is the means of transmission. 
If this be known, then one may hope to be able to formulate 
Measures to limit the degree of infection, by reducing the 
numbers of the transmitting agents, as is now being done 
in the case of mosquito destruction in order to lessen 
malarial and other mosquito-borne infections. Direct 
transmission of a filarial worm is quite unlikely. We 
(1910, c, p. 98), as well as Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. 26), 
failed to inoculate calves by injecting living embryos 
subcutaneously. An intermediate host appears to be 
necessary. In some few cases it is known to be a crustacean 
inhabitating fresh water, but more frequently it is a blood- 
sucking insect, usually a mosquito. The latter method 
of transmission presupposes the presence of filarial 
embryos in the blood of the final or definitive host. 
But, as yet, these have not been found in the general 
circulation of cattle affected with Onchocerca, nor in 
horses harbouring O. reticulata, nor in men infested with 
O. volvulus. In the case of man, filarial embryos belonging 
to other Filariidae may be met with in the blood, but in 
cases of an infection by O. volvulus alone, such larval forms 
have not yet been detected. We have given a summary 
of our results (1910, c, p. 97), which were all negative, 
embryos being found in the peripheral parts of the tumours, 


216 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE 


but not in the blood, though searched for in films taken 
by night as well as by day, in case there should be any 
periodicity. Since the nodules are practically restricted 
to those portions of the animal which come in contact with 
the ground, and since they are frequently subcutaceous 
in situation, we were led to suggest that a fresh water 
crustacean might act as a transmitting agent in a manner 
analogous to that known to occur in the human guinea- 
worm, Dracunculus medinensis. Dr. Cleland and myself 
have not been able, as yet, to infect Cyclops and Daphnia 
with the embryos, the latter living only a very short time 
in water. We have, therefore, been driven back to our 
first idea, that a biting insect or a tick might be the 
actual transmitter. The lack of material in Sydney, and 
the pressure of official business, prevented our following up 
this matter as thoroughly as we wished. 


Leiper (1911, a, p. 12), arguing from the structure 
of the embryo, believes the intermediate host to be a biting 
insect, such as Stomoxys, Hippobosca or Tabanus, or perhaps 
one of the Ixodidae. The Hippoboscidae may be excluded on 
account of their absence or rarity on our cattle. Stomoxys 
salcitrans is a common fly in parts of Eastern Australia, 
and may be responsible for the transmission, but this seems 
rather unlikely on account of the relatively slow, south- 
ward extension of the condition. The same remark applies 
to the Tabanidae. Gilruth and Sweet (p. 27) are not in 
favour of the idea that biting flies spread the parasite, 
for the same reason, nor do they think that ticks are re- 
sponsible, as they state that the nodules were observed 
long before the advent of the tick in Queensland. They 
evidently refer to the “cattle tick’? Margaropus (or 
Boophilus) annulatus, var. australis, but there are many 
other ticks which are known to infest cattle in Australia, 
e.g., Amblyomma, Haemaphysalis, Aponomma, and Rhipicep- 
halus, while an Ixodes, (J. holocyclus) attacks various animals 
here. None of these, excepting M. annulatus are, however, - 
common on cattle, and may be disregarded for the present 
on that account. The calf louse (Haematopinus vituli, L.), 
is regarded by these workers (p. 28) as being the most 
likely transmitting agent, and point to certain facts which 
seem to them to support their contention, viz., that the 
infection in young and old cattle is about the same ; that lice 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 217 


are frequently present on weakly young animals; that the 
situation of the nodules is under those parts of the skin 
which most frequently harbour lice; and that the south- 
ward advance is slow. They, moreover, found a living 
embryo in a louse* which had been fed on an inoculated 
part of a heifer. It seems to me that the mosquito, the 
true lice, and the ‘ cattle-fly °°—a species of Musca, fre- 
quently found associated with Queensland cattle—are the 
most likely agents. The great objection, however, lies in the 
fact that, as yet, the embryos have not been detected in 
the blood-stream, and have not been found beyond the 
nodule.t’ Even after centrifugalising large quantities of 
blood, Gilruth and Sweet were unable to detect their 
presence. In regard to the allied parasite, O. gutturosa, 
from the Algerian cattle, Emery (in Neumann, 1910, p. 271) 
mentioned that he had not been able to find embryos in 
the blood. 


The life history is not yet known in any species of 
Onchocerca. Brumpt (1904, quoted by Fulleborn, 1908, p. 15), 
Fiilleborn (1908, p. 15), and Rodenwaldt (F.and R., 1908, 
p. 83), found embryos of O. volvulus in the peripheral parts 
of the tumours from human beings, and the first named 
author believed that a Vabanus, Glossina or Simuliwm 
might act as a transmitter. None of these authors, nor 
Parsons (p. 366), detected embryos in the blood, but the 
latter worker states that the distribution of O. volvulus 
‘“‘ suggests the existence of a riverine intermediary,” and 
believes it highly probable that embryos must pass some- 
time in the general circulation (p. 367), the transmitting 


* Dr. Cleland and myself have examined a large number of lice 
(Haematopinus vituli, L.) and Mallophaga (Trichodectes bovis, L., syn. Tr. 
scalaris, Nitzsch), taken in New South Wales from a young calf infected 
with nodules, but without result. Of course the Trichodect is not likely to 
be a normal carrier on account of its food being epidermal structures and 
not blood. Sometimes blood is found in the crop, but this is not usual, 
the blood entering from wounds along with the ordinary food. 


+ Park in a footnote to a paper (Barnard and Park, 1894, p. 645) refers 
to finding ‘‘ young Spiroptera in some of the blood vessels.”” Though Dr. 
Cleland and myself, as well as Professor Gilruth and Dr. Sweet, have 
worked through series of sections, we have not been able to find embryos 
in the blood. Park’s statement stands quite unconfirmed up to the present 
as regards Australian cattle. It may be mentioned, however, that De Does 
41904) found the embryos in the blood of Javanese cattle, and thought 
that blood-sucking insects were the most likely transmitting agents. 


218 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE 


agent being, by analogy, probably a blood-sucking insect. 

We have suggested (C. and J., 1910, c, p. 98) that 
imprisonment within a nodule may not be the normal 
fate of O. gibsont. Leiper (1911, a, p. 13) thinks that an 
examination of the viscera might reveal the presence 
of the parasite in an unencapsuled condition, where it would 
liberate its embryos into the blood stream. On the other 
hand, one would expect that if encapsulation be abnormal, 
that there should be a greater number of free than encap- 
suled parasites, and the detection of the embryos in the 
circulation should not be difficult. As all the known species. 
of the Onchocerca are found more or less embedded in 
fibrous capsules, and as both males and females may occur 
together in these nodules, and in such relation to each other 
that fertilisation is readily effected, (Brumpt, re O. 
volvulus, quoted in Fulleborn, 1908, p. 15, and in Fulleborn 
and Rodenwaldt, p. 83; Gilruth and Sweet, p. 10, re O. 
gibsoni), it seems to me that the connective tissues, especi- 
ally the subcutaceous, are @ normal, and probably the normal 
habitat of the members of the genus. 

Origin of the parasite:—The original home of the 
nematode is almost certainly the East Indies. We (C. and 
J., 1910, c, p. 99) showed that it was probably by way of 
Timor that infected animals (buffaloes) arrived in Northern 
Australia. De Does had already recorded the occurrence of 
worm-nests in cattle in Java, but we were at the time unaware 
of his work. Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. 34, addendum) 
mention that cattle were imported from Coepang, about 
1824, and from other parts of the East Indies in 1840. 
This evidence supports the conjecture that infected animals 
—either cattle or buffaloes, or both—came from the East 
Indies to the Northern Territory, and became the means 
of spreading the condition, which has gradually extended 
its range southward, eastward and westward. 

It might be observed that O. armillata (Railliet and- 
Henry, 1910, p. 250) parasitises Indian and Sumatran 
cattle and buffaloes, and an allied or perhaps identical 
worm occurs in Malayan and Indian cattle and buffaloes 
(Daniels, Tuck, Leiper, Lingard). O. armillata infests the 
aortic walls. O. gutturosa (Neumann ,1910, p. 270) occurs 
in the cervical ligament of cattle in Northern Algeria and 
Tunis. These parasites are distinct from OU. gibsoni. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 219 


Historical Summary :—A brief historical summary 
has been reserved until now, in crder to simplify reference. 
Only the main papers relating to Onchocerciasis in cattle, 
more especially in Australian cattle, come in for notice. 

The first published record was that by Morris in 1880 
(1881, p. 337), though Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. 1) have 
been informed that the presence of nodules in the brisket 
of Queensland cattle has been known for at least forty 
years. In 1892, Gibson (1893, p. 576) communicated an 
article to the Intercolonial Medical Congress, in which he 
gave an account of the embryo and such facts of the female 
worm as he could extract; of the pathology of the con- 
dition ; as well as of feeding experiments performed on a 
dog, but with negative results. In the same year, T. L. 
Bancroft referred to the presence of nodules in cattle in 
Brisbane and Rockhampton. 

In 1893, Barnard and Park (1894, p. 642) read a short 
paper, entitled ‘Notes on Sptroptera, associated with 
Tuberculosis in Cattle,’ in which they give an account 
of the result of an enquiry into the condition as affecting 
Queensland cattle. The parasite was recognised as being 
similar to Spiroptera reticulata (i.e, O. reticulata), which 
infests horses. No cattle under two years of age were 
found to be affected, and this led them to suggest that the 
worm probably takes at least a year to develop and cause 
trouble. They thought that human beings might become 
parasitised by infected meat or drinking water. The 
disease was stated to be absent in Tasmania, but probably 
present in South Australia. A short account of the 
embryo and of a fragment of an adult was given. “A 
section of a small tumour or nodule containing the worm 
has a perforated or reticulated appearance, hence the 
name Spiroptera reticulata’? (p. 644). There seems to be 
little doubt but that various tissues, some tubercular, 
others actinomycotic, had become mixed with real “* worm- 
fibromata”’ (as De Does called them), hence the mistake 
made by these authors in considering that degenerated 
worm-nests commonly became the seat of tuberculosis or 
actinomycosis. (C. and J., 1911, c¢, p. 93.) 

Similar information was published by Park, in Dec., 
1893, in the Veterinary Journal (1893, p. 102), and in a 
report to the Chief Inspector of Stock (quoted in Tryon, 


220 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE 


1910, p. 82-4). In the same year, Stanley (1893) referred 
to the presence of nodules in New South Wales cattle. 
For many years after this, little notice seems to have been 
taken of the condition in spite of its commonness. The 
fact that infected animals apparently do not suffer in health 
may have been responsible for this indifference towards 
the matter. The waste of meat incurred in removing 
the nodules from carcases and in condemning badly-infested 
portions, should have been sufficient reason for an investiga- 
tion being undertaken. Apart from a few mere references 
dealing with the presence of worm-nests in cattle in West 
Australia (Cleland, 1907), in New South Wales (Johnston, 
1909), and in Queensland (Pound, 1909), nothing was done 
until the latter part of 1909, when Dr. Cleland and myself 
in Sydney, and Drs. Gilruth and Sweet in Melbourne, began, 
independently, to devote special attention to the subject. 
Very shortly afterwards public notice was drawn to presence 
of these nodules in abundance in frozen carcases arriving 
from Australia, mainly from this State (Robinson, 1910, 
p. 6; Ann. Rep. Med. Off. Health, 1909, London, abstract 
in Jour, Meat Milk Hyg., 1911, p. 24). It was suggested 
that such infected meat was possibly unfit for human 
consumption (Collingbridge—quoted by Robinson, 1910, 
p. 6). This led to severe measures being taken by the 
Health authorities in London and elsewhere (Robinson, 
1910 ;° Hancock, 1910, p. 25;°Macfadden, 1911)7 9G 
course, @ scare was created, and investigations were com- 
menced by the Local Government Board (London). In 
the Annual Report of the Medical Officer for Health for the 
Corporation of London for 1909 (1910, p. 106-7)*, it was 
stated that in November, 1909, a large percentage of 
carcases of Queensland beef were found to contain encapsuled 
parasites lying in the connective tissues of the flank and 
brisket. The nodules, together with a small portion of the 
surrounding tissues, were removed and the rest passed > 
as being fit for food. In cases where they were very 
numerous, the whole quarter was condemned. The 
parasite was identified by Shipley as Spiroptera reticulata, 
and by Leiper as Onchocerca reticulata. This report was 
probably isswed early in 1910. 


* Abstract in Journal Meat and Milk Hygiene I., 1911, p. 24. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 221 


__ Meanwhile a short preliminary paper was published 
by Dr. Cleland and myself in the February (Feb. 2nd) 
number of the N.S.W. Agricultural Gazette, in which we 
briefly described the worm as a new species, Filaria gibsont, 
quite distinct from, though closely allied to, F. reticulata 
of the horse. The idea that the nematode could be fm any 
way injurious to human beings was disputed, as such 
nodules had frequently been eaten in Australia without 
any ill-effects having been detected. A more detailed 
report was reserved for official publication in the Annual 
Report of the Government Bureau of Microbiology, Sydney, 
for 1909, which, however, did not appear until August, 
1910. This delay allowed the inclusion of some further 
details, and of information either unpublished or not avail- 
able at the time of writing the earlier article. 


There appeared in the same month (February, 1910), 
in the Queensland Agricultural Journal, two short papers 
onthe subject, one by Tryon (1910, a), entitled ‘‘ Verminous 
Tumours in Cattle,’ in which the writer gave a list of Austra- 
* lian literature, and made public some official information 
contained in reports by Park, and the other by Dodd (1910 a), 
who disagreed with Park’s statements regarding the alleged 
frequent association between these nodules and tuberculosis. 
About the same time, Railliet and Henry (1910), in Paris, 
contributed a short paper on the Onchocerca group of 
parasites, and in it referred to the presence of encapsuled 
nematodes in the connective tissues of oxen having 
been recorded from Australia (Cleland ; Barnard: Park), 
and from Java (De Does). They also dealt with allied 
worms causing the formation of worm-nests in other 
hosts. They discovered that there exists in the horse 
two species of Onchocerca, one O. reticulata preferring the 
legs as its habitat, though found elsewhere; the other, 
O. cervicalis, frequenting the neck. O. armillata was 
described by them as a new species, infesting the aortic 
walls in oxen and buffaloes in India and Sumatra. Lingard 
(1905) had already called attention to the presence of 
aortic worms in Indian cattle. Neumann (1910, p. 270) 
shortly afterwards described another species, O. gutturosa, 
occurring fairly commonly in the cervical ligament in 
cattle in Algeria and Tunis. As already mentioned, 


222 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE 


the Australian parasite, O. Gibsoni, prefers the brisket 
and flank. 

The work of these French parasitologists was not 
~available until after the publication of our official report 
on “* Worm-Nests (Filariasis) in Cattle” (Cleland and 
Johnston, 1910, c). Inthis article, we reviewed the Australian 
literature and the public health and pathological aspects 
of the condition. We also gave a more detailed account 
of the anatomy of the worm and of its relationship to: 
various other species of Onchocerca, such as O. volvulus,. 
which causes nodules in man in certain parts of Africa 
(Fulleborn, Rodenwaldt, Parsons, etc.), and O. reticulata,. 
which gives rise to a similar condition in horses (Pader). 
An account of experiments to determine the mode of 
transmission was also given. An allied parasite infest- 
ing the camel was dealt with incidentally, and was. 
thought to be perhaps identical with O. gibsoni. The 
camel parasite is, however, a distinct species (O. fasciata), 
as Railliet and Henry (1910) have shown. Some of the ground 
traversed by these authors was also covered by ourselves. 
Their paper reached us in time to allow us to add a reference 
to it as an addendum to the above article in its rearranged 
condition, when it was published in the form of two papers 
(1910, d, 1910, e), by the Royal Society of New South Wales. 

Early in the present year (1911), a number of papers 
appeared, the most important being one by Leiper (1911, a), 
an article by Macfadden (1911) accompanying it. Others. 
were published, or rather republished, by the editor of 
the Journal of Meat and Milk Hygiene (Jan. 1911, p. 21-26), 
while the February number of the same journal contains. 
a brief article by Nicoll (1911). 

Macfadden (1911) gave an account of the offcial 
method of inspecting the carcases in London, the present 
inspection being much more detailed and thorough than 
that detailed by Hancock (1910), as being in force a short 
time before. He referred to the heavy infection occurring 
in some shipments, and to the difficulty of coping with 
large consignments of Australian beef arriving at the port 
of London. 

Leiper’s paper (1911, @) is a valuable one. In it he 
deals mainly with the anatomy, geographical distribution, 
and pathological effects of the parasite. In addition he 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A, D.SC, 228 


makes suggestions regarding the probable life-history, 
these having been referred to earlier. In regard to the 
geographical distribution, he refers (p. 10) to an encysted 
parasite found by Stiles in 1892 in cattle in the United 
States, and mentioned under the name Filaria lienalis, 
Stiles. A description was not published,* and at a later 
-date (1894), this nematode was regarded as_ being 
“ Spiroptera reticulata.’ There is, therefore, little doubt, 
but that the parasite in question is an Onchocerca, perhaps 
identical with O. gibsoni, but I am inclined to believe that 
it will be found to be a different species, whose normal 
or original host may have been the bison. Some support 
for the idea that the two forms may be distinct is derived 
from the fact that Algerian oxen harbour a different species, 
O. gutturosa, Neumann, and that Indian and East Indian 
cattle may be parasitised apparently by two species, viz., 
O. gibsont and O. armillata. Ford (1903) met with one 
kind—* the aortic worms ’’—which form nodules in the 
-aortic walls of Malayan buffaloes. These are regarded 
by Leiper (1911, a, p. 10), as belonging to O. gibsoni, while 
Railliet and Henry (1910) describe the aortic worms which 
infest oxen and buffaloes in India and Sumatra as a distinct 
form, which they named O. armillata. If these species be 
identical, then the latter will rank as a synonym of O. 
_gibsom, only a few weeks separating their respective dates 
of publication. They appear to me to be specifically 
distinct. Tuck (1907, 1808) referred to the aortic worms 
as well as to another kind—also belonging to the Filariidae— 
from Indian and Siamese builocks. From the accounts 
_given, we had regarded both of these as being distinct from 
O. gibsont. It seems probable that the “aortic worms ” 
(which are not yet recorded from Australia) are O. armillata, 
and that the ordinary “‘ nodule worms” from the brisket 
-and flank are O. gibsoni. Ags already mentioned, O, 
_gutturosa is usually restricted to the cervical ligament. 


*In Stiles and Hassall’s Index Catalogue of Medical and Veterinary 
_Zoology, part 29, 1910, p. 2266, there is a reference to a paper by Stiles 
[1892, g] ‘‘ On the presence of Spiroptera reticulata in cattle,” but mention 
sis made that the MS. was lost in the mail. The paper is, therefore, 
-uppublished. 


t Lingard (1905) recorded their presence in Indian cattle. 


224 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘* WORM-NODULES ”” IN CATTLE 


Leiper (p. 7) does not definitely group all the 
Onchocerca worms producing nodules in cattle under one 
species. He confines himself to stating that “ this parasitic 
condition is known to occur not only in Australia, but 
also in the United States (Curtice; Stiles), in the Malay 
States (Daniels; Ford), and in India (Lingard).”’ 

De Does (1904), Dood and Ouwehand* recorded the 
occurrence of worm-nodules (worm-fibromata) in Javanese 
cattle. 

In Nicoll’s article (1911), there is a brief summary 
regarding the parasite and the method of inspection of 
meat in England in order to detect its presence. 

Quite recently an important paper by Gilruth and 
Sweet (1911), entitled “‘ Onchocerca gibsoni, the cause of 
Worm Nodules in Australian Cattle,’ has been published 
along with the greater part of our report (C. and J., 1910, c, 
d, e) by the Commonwealth Government. The work of these 
authors has been frequently alluded to in the present 
article. They corroborate our findings generally, and 
give additional information regarding the anatomy of the 
worm and the variation met with in the parasites, as well 
as the early developmental stages of the embryos. Their 
suggestion that lice may act as transmitters has been 
already referred to. 


The Report. of the Agent-General for Queensland in 
London, 1910, has just been published (Robinson, Sept., 
1911), and in it he again refers to the question of nodules 
in beef, mainiy from the commercial side. A brief article 
will shortly appear in the Queensland Agricultural Journal 
(Johnston, 1911, 6). There is aiso a brief reference made by 
Tryon (1911), in the Annual Report of the Agricultural 
Department, Queensland (1910-1911). 

In concluding this summary, one must emphasise 
the fact that we need more definite knowledge regarding 
the means of transmission of the worm. ‘“ The elucida- 
tion of the life-history of the parasite is the most important 
part of the investigation of the disease. Until this is 
effected, no certain preventive measures can be framed 
or put into force.” (Nicoll, 1911). 


*The articles by Ouwehand and Dood (mentioned by Neumann, 
1910) are unknown to me. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 225 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ONCHOCERCIASIS. 


Notr.—I have not been able to consult works marked with an asterisk. 


Baneroit, t.. L:— 

1983. ‘“‘ Notes on Some Diseases in Stock in Queens- 
land,” in Report of Chief Inspector, 1892 (1863), 
Appendix, p. 4. 

Barnard, C. KH. and Park, A.— 

1894—“*‘ Notes on Spiroptera associated with Tuber- 
culosis in Cattle.” Report Austr. Assoc. Adv. 
Sci., V., 1893 (1894), p. 642-5. 

Braun, M.— 

1908. ‘‘ Die tierische Parasiten des Menschen,” 1£08 
Edition. Also English Translation of Earlier 
Edition. 

Brumpt, E.— 

*1904. ‘* Apropos dela Filaria volvulus, Leuckt.”? Revue 

de Medic et d’Hyg. tropic., 1904. 
Cleland, J. B.— 

1807. “The Diseases of Animals and Meat Inspection 
in Western Australia.” Journ. Agric., West 
Australia, XV., 1907, p. 84-94 (p. 88). 

1908. The same as above. Report Austr. Assoc. Adv. 
Sci., 1907 (1908), p. 686. 

1909(a). The same—reprinted in Jour. Trop. Vet. 
Science, IV., 1909, p. 491-8. 

1909(6). ‘‘ Trypanosomiasis, etc., in Camels.” Dept. 
Agric., West Austr., Buil. 34, 1909, p. 8, etc. 

1809(c). Same as 1909(6)—reprinted in Jour Trop. 
Vet. Sci., LV., 1809, p. 316-344 (p. 324). 

Cleland, J. B., and Johnston, T. H.— 

1910(a). ‘‘ Worm-Nests in Cattle due to Filaria gibsont 
—Preliminary Report.’ Agric. Gazette, N.S. 
Wales, XXI., Feb., 1910, p. 173-4. 

1910(b). The same—reprinted in Jour. Trop. Vet. Sci., 
V., 1910, p. 520-1. 

1910(c). ‘* Worm-nests (Pilariasis) in Cattle.’ Annual 
Report of Govt. Bureau of Microbiology for 1809 
(Sydney, N.S. Wales), I., 1909 (August, 1910), 
p. 91-99. ; 


226 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘* WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE 


1910(d). ‘‘ Worm-nests in Australian Cattle due to 
Filaria (Onchocerca) gibsoni, with Notes on 
Similar Structures in Camels.” Jour. Proc. Roy. 
Soc., N.S.W., XLIV., 1910, p. 156-171. 
1910(e). ‘* On the Anatomy and Possible Mode of Trans- 
mission of Filaria (Onchocerca) gibsoni. Jour. 
Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., XLIV., 1910, p. 171-189. 
1910(f). The same as 1910(c).—Reprinted by the 
editor under the title ‘‘ Worm-nests in Cattle due 
to Filaria gibsoni,” in Jour. Comp. Pathol. Therap., 
XXIII., Dec., 1910, p. 335-353. 
1911(a). The same as 1910(a),—reprinted in Jour. 
Meat and Milk Hygiene, I., Jan., 1911, p. 21-3. 
1911(b). Reprint of 1910(d) and 1910(e) by Common- 
wealth Govt.—See under Gilruth and Sweet. 
Curtice, C.— 
*1892—‘‘ Parasites, etc.” Jour. Comp. Med., and Vet. 
Archives, XIII. 7, p. 223-236. 
Daniels, C. W.— 
*1904. ‘“‘ Studies from Institute for Medical Research, 
Malay States,” III., p. 17. 
Diesing, K. M.— 
1851—‘‘ Systema helminthum,” II., 1851, p. 287. 
De Does, J.— 
*1904. ‘“‘ Wormfibromen en Filaria—embryoen in het 
bloed.” Geneeskundig Tijd. v. Ned. Ind., Deel. 
XLIV. (5), Batavia, 1804, 15 pp.T 
Dodd, 8.— 
1910(a). ‘‘ Spiroptera reticulata in Cattle.’ Queensland 
Agric. Journal, Feb., 1910, p. 86. 
1910(b). The same—reprinted in Jour. Trop. Vet. 
Sci., V., 1910, p. 518. 
Dood,— 
*Quoted by Neumann, 1910. 
Ford, T. A.— 
*1903. Veterinary Record, June, 14, 1903. See Tuck. 
Filleborn, F.— 
1908. ‘‘ Uber Filaria volvulus, Leuckt.’”’ Beiheft 7, 
zum. Arch. f. Schiffis, u. Tropenhyg., XII., 1908, 


pp. 1-17. 


t I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Henry Tryon, Government 
Entomologist, for the opportunity of seeing this paper. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 227 
Filleborn, F., and Rodenwaldt, E.— 
1908. *‘ Filarien”’? in Real Encyclopadie d. ges. Heilk- 
inde Auil., 4, Vol. V., p. 81,, etc. 


1893. ‘“‘ Notes on Certain *‘ Worm-nests’ or ‘ Worm- 
Knots,’ occurring in the cellular tissues of the 
brisket in Cattle.” Trans. Intercol. Med. Congr. 
Austr. II1., 1892 (1893), p. 576-580. 

Gilruth, J. A., and Sweet, G.— 

1911. ‘‘ Onchocerca gibsoni, the cause of Worm Nodules 
in Australian Cattle,’ published by the Federal 
‘Govt. (Commonwealth of Australia— N.S.W. Govt. 
Printer, Sydney), 1911, p. 1-34. 

On pages 35 to 58 is reprinted (almost in full), 
Cleland and Johnston, 1910 (d), and 1910 (e). 
Hancock, G.— 

191i. *‘ Report on the Examination of Queensland 
Beef in the Port of London for the presence of 
Spiroptera reticulata’ (August, 1910)—quoted by 
Editor Jour. Meat and Milk Hygiene, I., 1911, 
p. 24-6. 

Johnston, T. H.— 

1909. Proce. Linn. Soc., N.S. Wales, XXXIV., 1909, 
p. 412. 

191i(a). This paper, Proc. Roy. Soc., Q’land, 1911. 

1911(6). ‘‘ A brief account of the worm nodules 
occurring in Cattle.’ Queensland Agric. Journal, 
Dec., 1911. 

Johnston, T. H., and Cleland, J. B., see Cleland and Johnston 

Labadie-Lagrave and Deguy, 1899.‘‘ Un cas de Filaria 
vovulus.”’ Arch. d. Parasitologie, IIJ., 1899, p. 
451-460. | 

Leese, A. S.— 

1910. Annual Report of the Veterinary Offcer inves- 
tigating Camel Diseases, for the year ending: 31st 
March, 1910. p. 13. 

Leiper, R. T.— 

19li(a). ‘‘ Report on Onchocerciasis in Cattle, with 
Special reference to the structure and bionomic 
characters of the parasite.” In Reports to the 
Local Govt. Board, etc., London. New Series, 
No. 45 (food reports, No. 11), 1911, p. 6-16. 


228 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE 


1911(6). The same—reprinted in Jour. Trop. Med. Hyg., 
15th March, 1911, p. 87-93. 

1911(c). Dr. Leiper’s conclusions republished in Q’land. 
Agric. Jour., April, 1911, p. 220-1. Under the 
title ‘‘ Parasitic Nodules in Australian Beef.” 

1911 (d) Proc. Zool. Soc., Lond., 1911, p. 45. 


Leuckart, R.— 

*In Davidson’s Hygiene and Diseases of Warm Climates, 

1893. 
Lingard, A.— 

*1905. (a) ‘* Observations on the filarial embryos found 
in the general circulation of the Equide and 
Bovide, and their probable pathological sig- 
nificance.’’ London. 

1905 (6). This paper referred to in Lancet, 23rd Sep- 
tember, 1905, p. 893-4; Brit. Med. Jour., 11th 
Novr., 1905, p. 1299; Bull. d. V’Inst., Pasteur, 
IIL, 30th Nov., 1905, p. 933-4; Vet. Journ., 
XII. (ns.), Dec., 1905, p. 381; Jour. Trop. Med. 
Hyg., VIII., Ist Sept., 1805, p. 268-9. 

Looss, A.— 

1905.—In Mense’s Handb., d. Tropenkrankheiten, 

Leipzig, 1905. | 
Macfadden, A. W. J.— 

1911. ‘“* Report on Meat Inspection at English Ports 
in regard to Onchocerciasis.” In Reports to 
Local Govt. Board, ete. 

New Series, No. 45. (Food Reports, No. 11), 1911, 
py, t-b. 
Manson, P.— 
*1893. Skin Diseases, 1893, p. 893. 
Morris, W.— 

1881. Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S. Wales, XIV., 1880 

(1881), p. 337. 
Neumann, L. G.— 

1905. A Treatise on the Parasites and Parasitic 
Diseases of the Domesticated Animals. Engl. 
transl., of French Edition. 

1910. ‘‘Un nouveau Nematode parasite de Boeuf 
(Onchocerca gutturosa, n. sp.)” 

Revue vétérinaire, May, 1911, p. 270-8. A 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 229 


translation of the same, reprinted in Jour. Trop. 
Vet. Science. VI., 1911, p. 101-5. 
Nicoll, W.— 
1911. ‘‘ Onchocerciasis in Cattle,’ Jour. Meat and Milk 
Hyziene [., 1911; pei. 
Ouwehand— 
* Mentioned by Neumann, 1910. 
Pader, J.— 

1901. “* Filariose du ligament suspenseur du_ boulet 
chez le cheval.” Arch, d. Parasitologie, IV., 
1901, p. 58-95. 

Park, A.— 

1893. “*‘ Parasitic Diseases in the Colony of Queens- 
land.’ Vet. Journ. and Annals of Comp. Pathol, 
XXXVITI., 1893, p. 102-7. 

1910. Report to Chief Inspector of Stock, also various 
newspaper articles (1893), summarised in Tyron 
1910 (a), p. 82-3, p. 83-4. 

Park, A. and Barnard, C. E.— 

1894. See Barnard and Park. 

Parsons, A. €.— 

1909. “ Filaria volvulus, ete.” in Parasitology LI., 

1908, (1909), p. 359-368. 


Penel, R.— 
*1905 (a), ‘‘ Les Filaires du sang de Phomme.”’ Paris, 
1905. 
1905. (6), ‘‘ Les Filaires” in Arch. d. Parasitol, IX., 
p. 187-204. 
Pound, C. J.— 
1909. In Rep. Agric. Dept. Q’land, for 1808-9 (1909), 
pis eae 
Prout, W.— 


1901. (a) ‘“‘ A Filaria found in Sierra Leone (? Filaria 
volvulus, Leuckt).”’ Brit. Med. Jour., Jan. 1901, 
p. 209-211. 
1901. (6) ‘“‘ Observations on Filaria volvulus.” Arch. 
d. Parasitol., IV., 1801, p. 301-307. 
Railliet, A.— 
1895. Traité d. Zool. médic. et agricole, 1895. 
Railliet, A. and Henry, A.— 
1910. Les Onchocerques, etc. C. R. Soc. Biol., Paris, 
LXVIIL., 1910, p. 248-251. 


| 
230 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE 


Robinson, T. B.— : 
1910. Report of the Agent-General (London) for Queens- 
land, for 1909 (1910), p. 6. . 
1911. Report of the Agent-General (London), for 
Qland for 1909 (1910). 
Rodenwaldt, E.— 
1908. ‘* Filaria volvulus. Arch. f. Schiffs, u. Tropen- 
hygiene, XII., 1908, p. 701-2. 
Stanley, E.— 
1893. Report to Board of Health, N.S. Wales, 1893. 
Stiles, C. W.— 
*1892. (a) *‘ A word in regard to Pilaritdae, found in 
the body cavity of horses and cattle.’ Jour. Comp. 
Med. and Vet., Arch. XIII., 1892, p. 143-147. 
*1892. (b) “A check list of Animal parasites of cattle, 
etc.’ Jour. Comp. Med. and Vet. Arch., 1892, 
p. 346-350. | 
1892. (c) ‘On the presence of Spiroptera reticulate 
in cattle.’ Stiles and Hassall, in their IJndex 
Catalogue of Med. and Vet. Laterature, p. 2266, 
refer to the fact that the M.S. was lost in the 
mail. ‘This paper is, therefore, unpublished. 
*1894. ‘“‘ A preliminary catalogue of the parasites 
in the U.S. National Museum.” Vet. Magazine, 
May, 1894. 
Tryon, H.— 
1910. (a) ‘“‘ Verminous tumours in cattle—Australian 
literature.’ Q’land Agric. Journal, 1910, p. 81-4. 
1910. (6) The same, reprinted in Jour. Trop. Vet. 
Sei, V., 1910, p. 511-516. | 
1911. ‘‘ Verminous tumours of Cattle” in Report of 
Govt. Entomologist—Report Dept. Agric. Stock, 
Qland, 1910-1911 (i911), p. 73. 
Tuck, G. L.— 
1907. ‘‘ Observations on some worms found in the 
aortas of buffaloes and bullocks.” Jour. Trop. 
Vet. Sei., I1., 1507, p. 69-100. 
1908. The same—published in Studies Inst. Mea. 
Research, Malay Straits, Singapore, IIl., 1608, 
p- 19-66. 
1907. Abstracts of same in Veterinary Record, X!IX., 
1907, p.- 648-9. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 231 


Védy, L.— 

*1906. “‘ Filariose dans le district de 1’ Uele.’ Bull. 
Acad. roy. d. Méd. d. Belgique, Dec., 1906, p. 
966-976. 

Ziemann.— 

*1907. Medizinal—be-ichte tiber die deutschen 
Schutzgebiete ftir das Jahr, 1905-1906. Berlin, 
1907, p. 148, 179 (cuoted by Filleborn and Roden- 
waldt, p. 84). 

Editorial Abstracts and reviews— 

1910. Brit. Med. Journ., 3 Dec., 1910, p. 1796-7— 
referring to Leiper, 1911 (d.) 

1911 (a). Lancet, 4 Feb., 1911, p. 317—referring to 
Leiper, 1911 (a). 

1911 (0). ““ Imported parasitic Colonial Beef.” Jour. 
Meat and Milk Hygiene, I., 1911, p. 24-6. 
Abstracted from Annual Report of Med. Officer 
of Health for Corp. of London for 1809, p. 106-7 
and also from Hancock (Q.V.) 

1911 (c). <‘* Australian Meat Regulations.”’ Jour. Meat 
and Milk Hygiene, I., I911, p. 351. 

The greater number of the abovementioned papers 
deal either wholly or in part with Onchocerciasis in cattle 
but some of them refer only to a similar condition in man, 
and a few to that met with in horses and camels. For 
further literature regarding Onchocerciasis in horses, see 
Pader (/.c.), as well as various veterniary textbooks. 


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A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN 
KNTOZOA, 


—_. —_. -——~ 


By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc., 
Biology Department, University, Brisbane. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, October 28th, 
: 1911, 


THE present paper is the result of an attempt to collect 
references to the occurrence of entozoa and haematozoa 
in Australian reptiles, the term Australian being used 
in a wide sense so as to include forms from New Guinea and 
New Britain, as was done in a similar paper on avian entozoa. 
(Johnston, 1910 c.) 


Many of the following records, more especially those 
which give merely the generic name of a nematode infest- 
ing a certain host, are of little value, but for the sake of 
completeness, they have been tabulated. Dr. Sweet (1908) 
has already collected a number of earlier records and 
published them in her Census of Australian Entozoa. The 
greater part of the literature referring to our reptilian haema- 
tozoa has been brought together in papers by Dr. Cleland 
and myself. (Johnston and Cleland, 1910 @; 1911 a.) 

I have mentioned synonyms of the accepted specific 
name of the host only in those cases where a recorder of the 
occurrence of a parasite has referred to the host under such 
hame. 

OPHIDIA. 
1. PyruHon sprmoTes Lacep, (syn. Morelia  spilotes.) 
The Diamond Snake. 
*a Hemogregarina shattocki, Sambon & Seligmann, 
1907, p. 284; Sambon, 1907, p. 310; Sambon, 
1909, p. 111 ; Dobell, 1908, p. 291 (Hamogregarina 
sp.) ; Laveran, 1908, p. 103. 


*a, denotes that the parasite is a Protozoon; b, that it is a Cestode; 
c, a Trematode ; d, a Nematode; e, an Acanthocephalan; f, a Linguatulid. 


234 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA 


Sambon’s and Dobell’s specimens were obtained in 
England, hence the original locality of the host is not 
recorded. As has been already pointed out (Johnston, 
1909 6, p. 403), the snake must have come from the coastal 
district of New South Wales, if the popular and scientifie 
names be correct. 


b i., Bothridium pythonis, Blainville—more commonly 
known under the name of Solenophorus megaloce-~ 
phalus (megacephalus), Creplin. 


Baird (1865 a p. 68 ; 1865 6 p. 52)- described a cestode 
under the name of Bothridium arcuatum, from this host. 
Monticelli and Crety (1891, reprint p. 17) after having 
examined Baird’s original material stated it to be a synonym 
of Blainville’s species. Krefft (1871, p. 214) referred to 
Baird’s description. Specimens have been taken (Johnston 
1910 d, p. 28) from diamond snakes killed near Sydney. 


ii, Sparganum sp. 


IT have several Bothriocephalid larve from the sub- 
cutaneous tissues of this host (Hawkesbury River). They 
resemble at least externally, those recorded here from the 
connective tissues of other reptiles such as Python varie- 
gatus (N.S.W. and Queensland), Varanus varius (Burnett 
River), Varanus gouldii (Burnett River), Dendrophis 
punctulatus (Burnett River), while an allied form is occas- 
ionally found in certain frogs between the muscles of the thigh 
—Hyla ‘cerulea (Burnett River and Sydney), Hyla aurea 
(Sydney and Perth, West Australia). The parasites referred 
to as Bothriocephalus mansoni, by Spencer (1892, p. 433) 
and by Hill (1905, p. 378) whose specimens were found in 
human beings, should perhaps be grouped merely as 
Sparganum sp., as their identity with Cobbold’s forms is 
doubtful. Similar specimens of a Sparganum have been 
forwarded to me by Mr. Desmond, Government Veterinarian, 
Adelaide, who found them in the subcutaneous tissues of 
of a fox in South Australia. Probably the adult forms 
of these occur in snakes. 


d. Ascaris sp., Krefft (1871, p. 214). 


A large Ascarid occurs fairly frequently in this species 
and in P. variegatus (N.S.W. and Queensland). 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 235. 


2. PYTHON SPILOTES var. variegata, Gray (syn. Morelia 
variegata). The Carpet snake. 


Unlike P. spilotes, this reptile has a very wide range 
over Australia. 


i, Hemogregarina shattocki. Sambon & Seligmann. 
Johnston, 1909 6, p. 403; 19106, p. 42 (Enoggera, 
Brisbane) ; Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 487 
(Burnett River). 


i., Hemogregarina morelie, Johnston, 1909 b, p. 404; 
1910 6, p. 43 (Abrolhos, West Australia). 

iii., Haemogregarina megalocystis, Gilruth, Sweet and 
Dodd, 1910, p. 234 (Victoria). 


H. megalocystis is very like H. bancrofti from Pseudechis 
australis and P. mortonensis (vide infra), in regard to its 
detrimental effect on the parasitised erythrocyte. The 
other two haemogregarines will be referred to again (mde 
infra). 

oe Bothridium pythons, Blainville—Johnston, 1910 

d, p. 28 (N. S. Wales). 


ii. Sparganum sp. in subcutaneous tissues (Hawkes- 
bury River). 
ad Ascaris sp., Krefft, 1871, p. 214. Occurs also in 
Python spslotes. | 
3. PYTHON AMETHYSTINUS, Schn. 
a Hemogregarina amethystina, Johnston, 1909 a, p. 
257; 1910 b, p. 42. (Port Curtis, Queensland. ) 
As a result of having examined haemogregarines from 
a considerable number of reptiles, it has become evident 
to me that these haematozoa vary a good deal in form and 
size. I now regard H. amethystina, H. moreliae, H. shattocki 
(from Australian pythons) and H. pococki, Sambon (from 
Python molurus) as being identical, and that they are all 
(as Dobell suggests in the case of Sambon’s forms) synony- 
mous with H. pythonis (Billet) Labbé. We cannot agree 
entirely with Dobell’s suggestion that the generic name 
of the host might be added as a temporary specific name. 
We have adopted this method where convenient, but we 
have met with cases where this would be inapplicable. 
For example from species of Pseudechis, we have described 
two haemogregarines differing widely in regard to their 


236 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA 


effect on the red cell; Python variegatus harbours at least 
two quite distinct forms ; and then again we (J. & C., 1911 
a) have met with a species in Varanus Gould‘ which, to our 
minds, is certainly different from that usually met with 
in V. varius, 


4, DENDROPHIS PUNCTULATUS, Gray. The green tree-snake. 


a Hemogregarina dendrophidis, Johnston & Cleland, 
1910, a, p. 680 (Burnett River). 


b Sparganum sp., from the mesentery and _ sub- 
cutaneous tissues—collected by Dr. T. L. Bancroft, 
Burnett River. 


5. DIPSADOMORPHUS IRREGULARIS, Merrem. 


All the following entozoa were collected by Dr. A. 
Willey in New Britain. 


b Phyllobothrium dipsadomorphi, Shipley, 1900, p. 550. 


d i., Physaloptera obtusissima, Molin; Stossich in 
Shipley, 1900, p. 559. 


ii., Physaloptera retusa, Rud.; Stossich in Shipley, 
1900, p. 559. 


iil., Diaphanocephalus appendiculatus Molin: Stossich in 
Shipley, 1900, p. 560. 


f. Porocephalus tortus, Shipley, 1898, p. 52; 1900, 
p. 563. 


6. DIEMENIA PSAMMOPHIS, Schl. The whip snake. 


No parasites have been described from this host though 
a mere mention of the occurence of Porocephalus sp., Physa- 
loptera sp., and Ascaris sp. has been made (Johnston, 1910, 
a, p. xviii; 1910 d, p. 309), Sydney. 


7. DIEMENIA RETICULATA, Gray (perhaps more correctly 
D. PSAMMOPHIS var. RETICULATA). 


This Western Australian reptile is sometimes known 
locally as a “ spinifex snake.”’ Krefft recorded the presence 
of some parasites but did not give any indication of the 
locality, in fact one is led to believe that the host came 
from Queensland or New South Wales. As a matter of 
fact, his material was from Western Australia. Dr. J. B. 
Cleland has been kind enough te hand over to me specimens 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 237 


which he collected in North Western Australia, and I have had 

an opportunity of inspecting Krefft’s collection also. The 

latter is very indifferently preserved. 

a Hemogregarina sp., Johnston & Cleland, 1910 a, 
p. 682. (N.W. West Australia.) 

d Physaloptera sp., Krefit, 1871, p. 214. 

I have a few specimens collected by Dr. Cleland. 

e Echinorhynchus sp., Krefit, 1871, p. 214. 

I have some immature echinorhynchus from the sub- 
peritoneal tissues (Johnston, 1910 d, p. 659) collected by 
Dr. Cleland. 

f Porocephalus sp., Krefit (1871, p. 214) recorded the 
presence of Pentastomum in the lung of the above 
snake. ‘His specimens are specifically identical 
with those which I have received (Johnston, 1910 
d, p. 28) from Dr. Cleland. For the present they 
may be provisionally identified as Porocephalus 
teretiusculus (Baird), which they very closely 
resemble. 

8. DIEMENIA TEXTILIS, Dum. & Bibr. The brown snake. 
a Trypanosoma sp., Tyrie and Love, 1906, p. 408. 
This record is based upon the following extract. “ Dr. 

Love exhibited under the microscope a Trypanosome from 

the blood of a brown snake, sent by Dr. Tyrie.” North 

Queensland. 

d Physaloptera sp., Johnston, 1910 d, p. 309. (Sydney). 

e Echinorhynchus sp., Johnston, 1910 a, p. xi; 1910 
d, p. 659. 

Adult forms in the intestine, and larval forms in the 

subperitoneal tissues. (Sydney ; Hunter River.) 

Bennett in his book ‘‘ Wanderings in New South Wales, 
1834,” Vol. I., p. 215, refers to the presence of bright red 
worms one and a-half to two inches long, affecting the lung 
and perforating the stomach wall of the brown snake. The 
lung worm is possibly Porocephalus teretiusculus. The 
stomach worm may have been a Diaphanocephalus or other 
Strongyle. 

9. PSEUDECHIS PORPHYRIACUS, Shaw. The Black snake. 
a Hemogregarina pseudechis, Johnston, 1909 b, p. 406 ; 

1910 b, p. 48 (Sydney) ; Johnston & Cleland, 1911 
a, p. 487 (Hawkesbury River). 


238 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA 


6b i., Proteocephalus gallardi, Johnston, 1911 a, p 175 
(from various districts of New South Wales and 


from Gippsland, Victoria). Previously recorded 


as Ichthyotaenia sp. (Johnston, 1910 a, p. xi; 
p. Xviil.) 


This tapeworm also infests the Tiger Snake, Notechis’ 


scyutatus (Sydney district). 
ii, Sparganum sp. Larval forms of a Bothriocephalid 


have been taken by me from the subperitoneal 


tissues (Sydney). 

c Hemiurus sp., from the intestine. Also previously 
recorded from Denisonia superba (Johnston, 1910 
a, p. xviii) under the synonym Apoblema (Sydney 
district). 


d Diaphanocephalus sp. (Kalicephalus sp.) from the 


alimentary tract (Sydney). 

e Echinorhynchus sp., Johnston, 1909 c, p. 590. From 
the rectum. A common parasite (Hawkesbury 
River ; Sydney). 

f Porocephalus teretiusculus (Baird). 


This parasite infests the lungs of some of our venomous: 
snakes and has generally been referred to as Pentastomum 
teretiusculum. Baldwin Spencer (1888, :p. 110) first recorded 
it from the host from King Island as Pentastomum sp., but 
later (1892, p. 1) gave a full account of it under Baird’s 
name. (Victoria.) Shipley (1898, p. 77) summarised 
Spencer’s and Baird’s accounts. I here record the occur- 
rence of the parasite in New South Wales (Blue Mountains). 
10. PSEUDECHIS AUSTRALIS, Gray. A Northern Black Snake. 

a Hemogregarina bancrofti, Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, 

-p. 486. Films kindly forwarded by Dr. T. L. Ban- 
croft, from Eidsvold, Burnett River, Queensland. 

h i. Proteocephalus sp. (EKidsvold, Burnett River. 

This cestode is closely related to but not identical 
with, P. gallardi, but a tapeworm which I have taken from 
Denisonia superba belongs to the same species as the parasite 
from this host. 

ii. Sparganum sp. 

From the mesentery collected from a snake, forwarded 
by Dr. Bancroft. (Eidsvold, Burnett River). 


~- 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, MA., D.SC. 239 


11. PSEUDECHIS MORTONENSIS, De Vis. 


a Hemogregarina bancrofti, Johnston & Cleland, 1911 
a, p. 486. (Eidsvold, Burnett River.) 


12. DENISONIA SUPERBA, Gunther. (Syn. Hoplocephalus 
superbus). The Copper-headed Snake. 


b i Piestocystis hoplocephali, Hill, 1894, p. 49. 

Occuring in cysts in the peritoneum around the intestine. 
(N.S. W.) 

ii, Proteocephalus sp., Johnston, 1910 a, p. xviii. 


This cestode is specifically identical with that referred 
to above as occurring in Pseudechis australis, and differs 
only in minor details from Proteocephalus gallardi. Recorded 
from Sydney district under the synonym Ichthyotaenia sp. 


c 1. Hemeurus sp. 


From the oesophagus (Sydney). Recorded as A poblema 
sp. (Johnston, 1910 a, p. xviii). It also infests the Black 
Snake. 

d Trichosomum sp., (Johnston, 1910 a, p. xviii). From 

the intestine. (Sydney.) 


f Porocephalus teretiusculus, (Baird): 


This ~entastome was described by Baird (1862, p. 114) 
having been taken from the lung of a snake belonging to 
this species which had died at the London Zoological Gar- 
dens. Krefft (1871, p. 211) hereby mentioned Baird’s 
species. B. Spencer (1892, p. 1) found the parasite in D. 
superba (Victoria) as well as in Pseudechis porphyriacus. 
Shipley (1898: p. 76) referred to its occurrence in this host. 
Porecephalus sp., recorded by me (1910 a, p. xviii) from the 
same host (Sydney district) belongs to Baird’s species. 


13. NoTECHIS scuTATUS, Peters—syn. Hoplocephalus curtus. 
D. & B. The Tiger Snake. 


b Proteocephalus gallardi, Johnston. 


Tapeworms which | have taken from a Tiger Snake 
killed near Sydney, have been identified as belonging to the 
same species as those from the black snake.  WNotechis 
scutatus is thus a newly recorded host for this entozoon. 
Kitson’s reference (1904, p. 147) to the occurrence of a long 
cestode in this host is of no value. 


240 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA 
d Physaloptera sp., Johnston, 1909 d, p. 590—from 
the stomach and duodenum (Sydney district). 
14. ACANTHOPHIS ANTARCTICUS, Shaw. The death adder. 
d Physaloptera antarctica, Linstow, 1899, p. 15. 
(South Australia). 
15. Furrma occrpirauis, D. & B. The ringed snake. 
d Diaphanocephalus, sp. (Kidsvold, Burnett River). 
16. A LarGe UNIDENTIFIED SNAKE—from the Bismarck 
Archipelago. 
d i Physaloptera, sp. Linstow, 1897, p. 286. 
ii Ascaris papillifera. Linstow, 1897, p. 281. 
LACERTILIA. 
17. GyMNoDACTYLUS mMILIUSII, Bory. (Syn. Phyllurus 
milius:t.) 

d Ascaris sp. Kreffit, 1871, p. 214. 

18. DIrePLODACTYLUS ViITTATUS, Gray, syn. JD. ornatus, Gray. 

f Porocephalus sp. Recorded by Krefft (1871, p. 214) 

as Pentastomum sp. 
19. Gpura TRYONI, De Vis 

a i Hemogregarina sp. 

ii Hemocystidium sp. 

Both were found by Dr. Cleland and myself in a film 
kindly forwarded by Dr. T. L. Bancroft (Eidsvold, Burnett 
River). 

20. LiaLis BURTONU, Gray. The slow worm. 
b Piestocystis lialis, Hill, 1894, p. 61. (N.S.W.) 
d Physaloptera sp. Johnston, 1910 a, vp. xvii. 
(Sydney.) 
21. AMPHIBOLURUS MURICATUS, White. 
d Strongylus paronai, Stossich, 1902. 


bo 
bo 


2. AMPHIBOLURUS BARBATUS, Cuv. The Jew lizard. 

d Strongylus paronat, Stossich. 

IT am referring to Stossich’s species some Strongyleg 
collected by Dr. Cleland in the Moree district, N.S. Wales. 
23. PHYSIGNATHUS LESUEURII, Gray. The water dragon. 

d Microfilaria sp. Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 489. 
Found in blood smears forwarded by Dr. Bancroft 
(Bidsvold) Burnett River), who afterwaids ‘discovered the 


BY T, HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 241 


adults in the mesenteric veins. The finding of filarial embryos 
in the blood of reptiles is rare, this being the only recorded 
instance as far as Australian reptilia are concerned. 
24. CHLAMyDOSAURUS Kinet, Gray. The frilled lizard. 

d Strongylus paronai, Stossich. 


Some specimens taken by me from a frilled lizard for- 
warded by Dr. Bancroft (Burnett River), are provisionally 
referred to this species. 

25. VARANUS INDICUS, Daud. 


b Palaia varani, Shipley, 1900, p. 548. 
d Physaloptera varan, Parona. Stossich in Shipley, 
1900, p. 560. 


Both species were collected by Dr. Willey in New 
Britain. In regard to Palaia varani, the account given 
does not allow of the genus being properly placed. It 
seems to me probable that Palaia is a synonym of Proteo- 
cephalus. 


26. VARANUS VARIUS, Shaw. The monitor. 


a Hemogregarina varanicola, Johnston & Cleland, 1910 
4, p. 683 (N.S.W.) ; 1911 a, p. 487. (Burnett River) 

Hemogregarina sp. Gilruth, 1910, p. 36 (Victoria) 

is the same. 

b i Proteocephalus tidswelli, Johnston, 1910 a, p. 103; 

1910 6, p. 87 (N.S. W.?) 

This species was first described as Ichthyotaenia (Acan- 
thoteenia) tidswelli, but Benedict (1), La Rue (2) and others 
have shown that Weinland’s genus has priority over Lonn- 
berg’s Ichthyotaenia. I have already shown (1910 a, p. 113- 
114) that Linstow’s genus Acanthotaenia is a synonym of 
Proteocephaius. 

ii Sparganum sp. 

From the sub-peritoneal tissue. (Burnett River— 
collected by Dr. Bancroft.) 

d Physaloptera sp—P. varani, Parona ? 

Johnston, 1909 e, p. 115; 1910 a, p. xi; 1910 6, p. 88 
(N.S. W.) 


(1.) Benedict, H.—On the Structure of Two Fish Tapeworms, from 
the genus Proteocephalus. Weinland—-Jour. Morphology XVI, p. 337; 
Studies from Zool. Lab. Univ., Nebraska, No. 33, Jan., 1900. 

(2.) La Rue, G.—On the Morphology and Development of a New 
Cestode of the genus Proteoeephalus. Weinland.—Studies Zool. Lak 
Univ., Nebraska, No. 95, Dec., 1909. 


242 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA 


27. VARANUS GOULDII, Gray. Gould’s Monitor. 
a Heemogregarina gouldii, Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, 
p. 488. Found in films forwarded by Dr. Bancroft 
from Eidsvoid. 
b i Proteocephalus tidswelli, Johnston. 
Some fragments coliected from a specimen (Burnett 
River) probably belong to this species. 
ii Sparganum sp. 
Specimens were forwarded to me by Dr. Bancroft 
(Burnett River) who found them in the subperitoneal tissues. 
d Physaloptera sp—P. varani, Parona? Johnston, 1910 
d, p. 524. 
I have specimens from this host from Queensland (Dr. 
Bancroft—Eidsvold), West Australia (Dr. Cleland), Victoria 
(Mr. A. 8. LeSouef) and New South Wales (T.H.J.) 


28. VARANUS sp. From New Guinea. 

b i Proteocephalus birot (Ratz). Ratz, 1900 a, p. 658. 

ii Proteocephalus saccifera (Ratz). Ratz, 1900 a, p. 658. 

iii Taenia mychocephala (Ratz), 1900 a, p. 659. 

The two former were described under the genus I[chthyo- 
iaenia. A description of the three species is given in Ratz, 
1900 a, ‘p. 657 ; 1900 6, p. 980; 1901, p. 329. 

29. EGERNIA CUNNINGHAMI, Gray. 

Krefft (1871, p. 214) mentioned finding worms in this 
host. They appear to belong to the Oxyuridae. (N.S.W.) 
30. EGERNIA wuHitu, Lacep. (Syn. Lygosoma (Hinulia) 

whitii, Steind.) 

d Ascaris sp. Krefft, 1871, p. 214. 

31. TRACHYSAURUS “RUGOSUS, Gray. 

d Oxyuris tuberculata, Linstow, 1904, p. 300 (Australia). 
32. Tir1qguA SCINCOIDES, White. The Common sleeping 

or Blue-tongued lizard. 

« Hemogregarina tiliquae, Johnston & Cleland, 1911, a 

p. 484. (Hawkesbury River.) 

d Physaloptera sp. Johnston, 1910 a, p. xi (Sydney). 
33. Tr1qgua GiGAs, Schn., syn. Cyclodus gigas, Schn. 

d Physaloptera sp. Krefft, 1871, p. 214. 

Boulenger (Cat. Reptilia-Lizards, Edit. 2, III., p. 145) 
states that the localities from which this lizard is known are 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 243 


New Guinea, Moluccas and Java, Australia not being 
mentioned. 
34. TILIQUA OCCIPITALIS, Peters. (Syn. Cyclodus occipit. lis.) 
d Physaloptera antarctica, Linstow, 1889, p. 15 (South 
Australia). 
35. Lycosoma (HINULIA) TAENIOLATUM, White. 
a i Hemogregarina sp. Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, 
p. 479. 
ii Trypanosoma sp. Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 479. 
Both of these haemotozoa were found in a film forwarded 
by Dr. Bancroft (Burnett River). 
e Echinorhynchus sp. 
From the intestine. (Hawkesbury River, N.S.W.) 
f Porocephalus sp. 
Krefft (1871, p. 214) recorded the occurrence of Pentasto- 
mum in the lung. 
36. Lygosoma (HinvuLiIA) Quoyi, Dum. & Bibr. 
a Hoemogregarina hinulie, Johnston & Cleland, 1910 a, 
p. 684, Hawkesbury River); 1911 a, p. 487 
(Sydrey). 
e Kchinorhynchus sp., Johnston, 1909, d, p. xxix. 
(Hawkesbury River). From the intestine. 
37. Lycosoma (HINULIA) TENUE, Gray. 
d Physaloptera sp., Johnston, 1910 a, p. xi. (Hunter 
River.) 
CROCODILIA. 
No entozoa have, as far as I know, been described 
from Australian crocodiles. 


CHELONIA. 


38. CHELONIA MyDAS, Linn. (Syn. Chelone mydas). The 
Green Turtle. 

¢ i Amphistoma scleroporum, Creplin. 

ii Octangium sagitta, Looss. 

Neither of these trematodes had been previously recorded 
from Australian hosts. They were known from Mediter- 
ranean turtles. Amphistoma scleroporum is insufficiently 
known, Braun’s single specimen (Braun, 1901, p. 56) which 
he referred to Creplin’s species, being immature. It was 
8.2 mm. long by 2.2 mm. broad and possessed only rudi- 
ments of the genitalia. Looss (1901, p. 623) in his descrip- 

H 


244 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA 


tion of A. spinulosum from Chelone mydas from Egypt, 
states that mature specimens are from 5 to 5.6 mm. long 
and are thus much smaller than Braun’s specimen of A. 
scleroporum. Later (1902, p. 430) he referred to specimens 
7.5 to 8 mm. long, about 1.6 mm. broad and | to 1.6 mm. 
in thickness, and mentioned that they were of a pale flesh- 
red colour when alive. He also stated that the species was 
unmistakeably like Braun’s form. My specimens (collected 
on Mast Head Island, at the southern end of the Barrier 
Reef by Mr. L. Harrison in October, 1910) are from 7.5 to 
9 mm. long by from 2.4 to 3 mm. broad. The characters 
are those of A. scleroporum. The anatomy is strikingly 
like that figured by Looss (1902) for A. spinylosum, the main 
difference being that, in some of my specimens, the vitellaria 
extend a little further forward and the testes are more 
markedly lobed. 


Octangium sagitta was originally described by Lees 
(1899, ‘p. 772) as Microscapha sagitta, being transferred later 
to Octangium (1902, p. 685). 


39. ERETHMOCHELYS IMBRICATA L. Syn. Chelone 
cata L. 


imbri- 


Shipley (1900, p. 532) described a trematode which he 
regarded as belonging to Monostomum trigonocephalum Rud., 
the material having been collected by Willey (New Britain ?) 
Braun (1901) recognised that Shipley had had more than 
one species before him. He stated (p. 51) that M. trigono- 
cephalum Shipley 1900, p. 532, pl. 54, fig. 1, did not belong 
to Rudolphi’s species but to M. rubrum (p. 45): that the 
form figured on plate 44, figs. lc, 3, 4, 5, 7, as well as 
Cricocephalus delitescens Looss (1899, ‘p. 759) belong to M. 
album ; and (p. 38) that Pronocephalus trigonocephalus Looss 
(1899, ‘p. 756) as well as some of Shipley’s forms belong to 
Rudolphi’s species. In 1901 Looss (1901, :p. 566) recognised 
that his trigonocephalus was distinct from Rudolphi’s and 
consequently re-described it as a new species Pr. obliquus, 
while Rudolphi’s species was made (1901, p. 567: 1902, 
p. 548) the type of a new genus Pleurogonius. He stated 
(1902, p. 549) that some of Shipley’s forms, viz., those 
described and figured, belonged to this species, while certain 
forms which were figured but not described, belonged to 
Cricocephalus albus (K.& Hass.) Looss, which Looss admitted 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 245 


(p. 532) to be identical with his C. delitescens ; and that 
(p. 527) Braun’s account (1901) of M. trigonocephalum 
‘included at least two distinct species, Pronocephalus obliquus 
Looss (on page 40) and M. trigonocephalum Rud. (on p. 3) 
and in all probability (according to Looss, 1902, p. 557 
footnote) includes also a third form, HE pibathra crassa Looss. 
He regarded M. trigonocephalum of Van Beneden 1859 
and of Walter, 1893, as belonging to Plewrogonius longius- 
-culus Looss (1901, p~. 568; 1902, :p. 558). 

From the foregoing it appears that Willey’s collection 
really contained the following :— 


i Pleurogonius trigonocephalum (Rud.) Looss. 

ii Cricocephalus albus (K. & Hass.) Looss. 

Braun believed that Monostomum rubrum K. & H. 
was also present. Looss (1902) does not refer to this species. 
40. A SEA TORTOISE. 


The following trematodes were identified by Braun 
(1899) from material collected in the Bismarck Archipalego 
by Dahl. He dealt with a number of other forms from 
‘Chelonians in the same paper. 

i Distomum gelatinosum Rud. (p. 716). 

ii D. irroratum, Rud. (p. 717). 

iii Monostomum album, K. & Hass. (jp. 723). 

iv M. rubrum, K. & Hass. (p. 724). 


D. gelatinosum is called Rhytidodes gelatinosus by Looss 
(1901, p. 563 ; 1902, p. 445) ; D. irroratum becoming Pachyp- 
solus irroratus (Rud.), Looss (1901, p. 55; 1902, p. 485) ; 
and M. album, Cricocephalus albus (Looss, 1902, p. 532). 


Braun (1899) has been misquoted by Dr. Sweet (1908 
“pp. 459, 460, 463, 464) who includes the following species 
‘in error as having been amongst those collected in New 
Britain by Dahl. | 
i Amphistoma scleroporum, Crepl. (p. 725). 
ii Distomum amphiorchis, Braun (p. 719). i.e., Orchid- 
asma amphiorchis (Braun) Looss, 1901, p. 560; 
1902, p. 463. 
iii Distomum anthos, Braun (‘p. 720)—Calycodes anthos 
(Braun) Looss, 1901, p. 565; 1902, p. 458. 
iv Distomum cymbiforme, Rud. (Braun, p. 720).— 
Phyllodistomum cymbiforme (Rud.) Braun, 1901, 


246 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA 


p. 10—Plesichorus cymbiforme (Rud.) Looss,: 19014 
p. 655; 1902, p. 469. ; : 

vy Monostomum reticulare v. Ben., Braun, 1899, ‘p. 725 
—Microscaphidium reticulare (v. Ben.) Looss, 1902, 
“pelo9 ly | | 

vi Monostomum trigonocephalum (Rud.) \Looss, 1901 
p. 567; 1902, p. 548. 


41, CHELODINA LONGICOLLIS, Shaw. The long-necked 
Tortoise. 


« i Hemogregarina clelandi, Johnston. Johnston & 
Cleland, 1911 a, p. 482. (Burnett River—Dr. 
Bancroft; Murray River, South Australia). 
Originally described from C. oblonga. 


ii Heemocystidium chelodine, Johnston & Cleland, 1909: 
a, p. 97; 1910 6, p. 38 (Sydney). 

iii Trypanosoma chelodina, Johnson (A. E.), 1907, p. 26 
(Murray River, SouthAustralia) ; Johnston & 
Cleland, 1911 a. p. 479 (Murray River, South 
Australia ; Burnett River—Dr. Bancroft). 

42, CHELODINA OBLONGA, Gray. 

a i Hemogregarina clelandi, Johnston, 1909, ‘p. 407, 
1910 6, p. 44; Johnston & Cleland, 1910 a, p. 67 
footnote; 1911 a, p. 482 (Perth, West Australia). 


ii Hemocystidium chelodine, Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, 
p. 482 (Perth, West Australia) —originally described 
from C. longicoiiis. 
43. Ewypura Krerrri, Gray. 
a i Hemogregarina clelandi, Johnston. J ohnston & 
Cleland, 1911 a, p. 483 (Burnett River). ; 


ii Trypanosoma chelodina, Johnson (A. E.). 
Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 480 (Burnett River.) 


In our paper (1911 a) we have given other localities 
in Queensland from which parasitised blood films were taken 
by Dr. Bancroft, viz., Enoggera and Petrie’s Creek. The 
species of tortoise from these localities has been identified 
as Emydura macquarie, hence the information contained 
in that paper will need to be modified in accordance with 
the details as to, host and localities contained in this com- 
munication. Hemocystidium —chelodine recorded by us. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 247 


{1911 a, p. 481) from this host from Petrie’s Creek, near 
Brisbane, thus should be listed under EF. macquarie (vide 
infra). 

44, EMYDURA MACQUARI®, Gray. 

a i Hemogregarina clelandi, Johnston. 

ih Hemocystidium chelodine, Johnston & Cleland. 

i Trypanosoma chelodina, Johnson (A. E.). 

These three haematozoa were recorded (J. & C., 1911 a) 
as being taken from #. Kreffti from Petrie’s Creek. The 
host is really HE. macquarie, a very closely related species. 
All of the above were found in a blood smear taken in this 
locality by Dr. Bancroft (J. & C., 1910 a, :p. 679). 

45. ELSEYA DENTATA, Gray. 
c Amphistoma sp. Kreffit, 1871, p. 213. 
d Ascaris sp. Krefft, 1871, p. 213. 
From Northern Queensland Rivers. 

\ My thanks are due to Dr. Bancroft, who has greatly 
assisted me by forwarding material from various parts of 
Queensland ; Mr. D. Fry of the Australian Museum, Sydney, 
who has identified mcst of the hosts for me; Dr. J. B. 
Cleland ; Messrs. 8. J. Johnston (Sydney University), D. Fry, 
F. H. Taylor, L. Gallard and L. Harrison for sending 


specimens to me. 


LITERATURE. 


1862 Baird, Proc. Soc. London 1862, p. 114. 

1865a Baird, [bid., 1865, p. 68. 

18656 Baird, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (3) XVI., p. 52. 

1899 Braun, Centr. f. Bakt., Orig., I., XXV., p. 714. 

1901 Braun, Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin, II., 1901. 

—— Cleland & Johnston—see Johnston & Cleland. 

—— Crety & Monticelli—see Monticelli & Crety. 

1908 Dobell, Parasitology I., 12C8 (109), p. 291. 

—— Dodd, Gilruth & Sweet—see Gilruth, Sweet & Dodd. 

1910 Gilruth, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., XXIII., p. 36. 

1910 Gilruth, Sweet & Dodd, Lbid., XXIII., p. £31. 

1894. Hill, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, IX., 1894. 

1905. Hill, Trans. Inter. Med. Congr. Ausir., 1905, p. 378. 

1907° Johnson (A. E.), Austr. Med. Gaz., XXVI., p. 26. 

1909a Johnston (T. Harvey), Rec. Austr. Museum, VII., 
p. 257. 


248 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA 

19096 Johnston, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, XXXIV.,. 
p.. 400. 

1909¢ Johnston, [bid., XX XIV., p. 590, etc. 

1909d Johnston, Jour. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, XLITL., p. xxix. 

1909e Johnston, [bid., XLIII., p. 103. 

1910@ Johnston, Jbid., XLIV., p. xi; p. xviii. 

19106 Johnston, Ann. Rep. Bureau Microbiology, Sydney, L.,. 
pp. 38, 41-45, p. 87 (abstracts of 1909a, 18095, 1909e.). 

1910c Johnston, Jour. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, XLIV., p. 84. 

1910d Johnston, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1910, p. 28,. 
p. 309. 

191la Johnston, Annals Queensland Museum X., 1911, p. 175. 

19116 Johnston, The present payer. 

1909a Johnston & Cleland, Jour. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, 
ALT;, : 7.997. 

1910a@ Johnston & Cleland, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.Wales, 
XXXV., p. 400. 

191la Johnston & Cleland, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales. 
XXXVI., p. 479. 

1904 Kitson, Vict. Naturalist, XXI., 1904-5, p. 147. 

1871 Krefit, Trans. Ent. Soc. N.S. Wales, II., 1871. 

1897 Linstow, Arch. f. Naturg., LXIII., 1897. 

1899 Linstow, Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin, I., (2), p. 15. 

1904 Linstow, Arch. f. Naturg., LXX., p. 300. 

—— Love & Tyrie—see Tyrie & Love. 

1908 lLaveran, C. R., Acad. Sci., CXLVII., 1908, p. 103. 

1899 Looss, Zool. Jahrb., XIIJ., 1899, p. 521. 

1901 Looss, Centr. f. Bakt., Orig., I, XXX., p. 555—; 
p. 618—. ; . 

1902. Looss, Zool. Jahrb., XVI., 1902, p. 411. 

1891 Monticelli & Crety, Mem. R. Accad. Sci. Torino, Ser. 
1I., XLE., 1891. 

1900a Ratz. Centr. f. Bakt., Orig., I., XXVIII., p. 657. 

19006 Ratz, C. R. Soc. Biol., LII., 1900, p 980. 

1901 Ratz, Arch. d. Parasitol., IV., 1901, p. 329. 

1907 Sambon, Trans. Pathol. Soc. London. LVIII., 1907. 

1909 Sambon, Jour. Trop. Med. Hyg., XII., 1909. 

1907 Sambon & Seligmann, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1907- 

1898 Shipley, Arch. d. Parasitol, I., 1898. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 249 


Shipley in Willey’s Zool. Results V., 1900, p. 531 


Spencer, Trans. Inter. Med. Congr. Austr., 1892, 
p. 433. 

Spencer (Baldwin), Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., I., 1888, 
p. 110. 


Spencer (Baldwin), Q. J. M. S., (N.S.), XXXIV 
1892-3, p. 1. 


Stossich, Bull. Mus. Genova. 1902. 


Sweet, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., XXI., 1908 (1909), 
p. 454. 


Sweet, Gilruth & Dodd,—see Gilruth, Sweet & Dodd. 
Tyrie & Love, Austr. Med. Gaz., XXV., p. 408. 


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ON A WEAK POINT IN THE LIFE-HISTORY OF 
NEOCERATODUS FORSTERI, KREFET. 


By THOMAS L. BANCROFT ., M.B., Edin. 


(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 2nd 
December, 1911.) 


THE writers on Ceratodus, so far as I am aware, have 
not touched upon a very important matter in connection 
with the life-history of the fish. 


From the earliest date (1870) no one seemed ever 
to have caught a small Ceratodus, 7.e., a fish, an ounce 
to a pound or so in weight ; specimens, about six pounds 
or there about, were occasionally taken and regarded 
as very small ones. The Blacks even were unable to find 
the little fellows ; it was a mystery where they hid them- 
selves; some people thought that they went up small 
ereeks, whilst others thought that they lived in the mud 
and some comparatively recent observations have lent 
support to the latter theory*. 3 

It appears that during a dry spell at Cooranga, on 
the Burnett, when a lagoon was drying up and all the fish 
were concentrated in a small space, search was made for 
Ceratodus ; several small fish were taken out of the mud; 
they were fish about fourteen inches in length, probably 
about four pounds in weight: these were the smallest 
hitherto seen, that is in their natural home. Mr. 
Thomas Illidge has, however, reared fish from the ova 
up to eighc months ; they were then two and a half inches 
in length. 

All the fishes, in a lagoon drying up, are compelled 
to sink into the mud or debris, so it cannot be said of those 
small Ceratodus, that they were in the mud of their 
free will. There are stretches of the Burnett River with 
a sandy, and other parts with a rocky bottom, in which 


* Notes on the Ceratodus by D. O’Connor, Rep. Aust. Assn., Ad. 
Science, Vol. XII., p. 383. 


952 LIFE-HISTORY OF NEOCERATODUS FORSTERI 


numerous full-grown Ceratodus live, and these fish spawn 
every September; where are the young fish in such 
lagoons ? There is no mud, but I suppose those who have 
advocated the mud theory, regard the debris at the bottom, 
consisting of rotten leaves, sticks and water weeds, as 
mud. 


I have endeavoured to find the little fish by scooping 
out water weeds, mud and debris of every kind both in the 
river and in the contributory creeks ; I have found young 
forms of every fish inhabiting the Burnett with the 
exception of Ceratodus. I have tried liming a pool with 
the intention of suffocating all the fish ; I have dynamited 
holes, but never was a Ceratodus under six pounds taken. 
I have had conversations with a good many men, who have, 
for a life-time, dynamited mullet, and they have all had 
the same experience in that no little ‘salmon’ have 
been seen. 


With a fishing net having a six inch mesh, that is 
three inches square, set across a deep lagoon, there is no 
difficulty whatever in meshing forms from six to thirty 
pounds in weight. With a net of three inch mesh, one 
might reasonably expect to take smaller forms, but 
although attempts were repeatedly made both by day 
and night, night being the best for large fish, no success 
followed. 


Dredging in places, where last year ova were plentiful 
and even as recently as a month ago, no young fish can 
be procured although dead ova are to be found. With 
this experience, I have concluded that there are no young 
forms at the present time. 


Ceratodus was a common fish all over the world ages 
ago, but is now restricted to the two rivers in Queens- 
land, the Mary and the Burnett. 


It is therefore nearing its extinction. There is a 
weak spot in its<life-history ; this occurs after the little 
fish leaves the egg, or rather its gelatinous envelope ; it 
is then a helpless little creature only able to move a few 
inches at a time and unable to balance itself, lying upon 
its side at the bottom for hours on a stretch ; it remains 
in this helpless state for several days, and during this 
critical period of its life it is preyed upon by the larve 


BY THOMAS L. BANCROFT, M.B., EDIN. 253 


of dragon-flies: so helpless is it and so numerous its 
enemies that I am of opinion not one individual ever 
escapes in an ordinary seascn. In aquaria, it is extremely 
difficult to prevent the litiie fish from being devoured by 
insects : so rar I have been unable from this cause to rear 
fish longer than ten weeks: some of the insects live in the 
stems of the water weeds and elude the most careful 
detection; you may. daily watch your little fish thrive 
right up to its disappearance when further search brings 
to light a larva or a part of the fish’s remains. 


It is probable that certain meteorological conditions. 
occur, perhaps once or twice in a century, during which 
the enemies of the young Ceratodus are removed. Such 
a condition might occur in this manner; during a pro- 
longed drought when the Burnett River is reduced to 
a chain of lagoons, the enemies would be absent ; the 
enemies consisting of small fishes, prawns and _ insects, 
live in the water weeds in comparatively shallow water, 
water‘to a depth of six feet or so; now in a drought the 
water would have receded past this level and the small 
fish have been devoured by the larger ones, eels especially, 
so that eventually only large fish remain ; a flood follow- 
ing would give the Ceratodus freedom from its enemies, 
possibly for a number of years. 


During a flood in an ordinary season all the little 
fish and insects keep well to the edge and go up gullies, 
and when the water recedes return again to the same parts 
of the river which they left. Large trees having been 
undermined by the flood and falling into the river, are 
the means of causing a considerable wash out, deep pools 
or lagoons below the obstruction resulting ; such new 
lagoons would be free from water weeds ana it is possible 
that a flood occuring in the winter might bring about 
conditions favourable to the propagation of Ceratodus 
in those new lagoons. 


As it is manifest that without assistance or unless 
natural favourable conditions occur in the near future, 
this interesting fish will shortly be extinct, endeavours 
should be made at once to prevent the extinction. 


Mr. D. O’Connor, on behalf of this Society, which 
received a subsidy from the Queensland Government 


254 LIFE-HISTORY OF NEOCERATODUS FORSTERI 


for the purpose, was instrumental in transferring 
many living specimens from the Mary to the Enoggera, 
Condamine and Logan Rivers; it is very likely that both 
sexes were taken to each spot, for recent examination 
of fifty Ceratodus shewed that there were twice aS many 
males as females: in any bunch of five specimens both 
sexes would occur. There is no doubt that the fish sur- 
vived and thrived in their new abode, as specimens have 
been caught twenty years later. 


Nevertheless, [ am of opinion that that method will 
not suffice to prevent the extinction, and propose the follow- 
ing scheme. Let a suitable lagoon be constructed and 
stocked with a dozen fish ; so arranged that the fish could 
be caught in September, the spawning season, transferred 
to a hatchery and there stripped of their ova. if that be 
possible with Ceratodus ; the young fish reared until a 
year old and then liberated in weedy rivers. A pond, 
circular in shape, as large as ‘possible, constructed pre- 
ferably by excavation, bricks and cement, with abrupt 
walls ; one half to be four feet in depth and planted with 
Vallisneria and Hydrilla, and one half twelve feet deep. 
Preparatory to catching the fish any that might be in the 
weedy portion could be made to go into the deep water 
by poking a long stick into the weeds: by means of a 
frame, the width and depth of the deep portion, covered 
with wire netting and lowered into the water at the 
junction of the shallow with the deep art and carried 
towards the end, the fish would be imprisoned ; if the 
extreme end were made narrow and shallow the fish could 
be more easily captured. If it were found that Ceratodus 
was a fish that could not be stripped of its ova, it would 
be advisable to construct a small pond, the same absolutely 
protected in every way from insects, into which the fish 
could be transferred during the spawning season; the 
ova could be obtained and hatched in aquaria if that were 
considered advisable. Failing for want of funds to get 
the scheme as outlined carried out, | would recommend 
that a smail hatchery be arranged and some one sent to 
Miva on the Mary River, in September, to procure ova. 


Ceratodus spawns in weed beds in still water close 
to the edge of the river during September and October, 
in water two to four feet in depth; the ova are eaten by the 


BY THOMAS L. BANCROFT, M.B., EDIN. 255 


*Grunter.”” Therapon percoides and other fish; some 
few being hidden in the weeds, escape detection ; T believe 
in thick masses of Hydrilla they have the best chance. 
On Nitella beds, the ova that sink deep perish owing to 
the lower portion of the Nitella being in a state of 
decomposition ; the eggs that reach the sand or mud also 
die, probably from this being roul. The eggs that get 
tangled up in the green weeds and not exposed to too 
much light develop in about a month; the larve of 
insects seem not to injure them but are attracted by the 
young fish directly it emerges. 

A dredging net made of mosquito net on a stout ring 
of iron is serviceable in scooping through the weeds in 
search of ova: the ova must be kept cool and in the 
dark ; they are very easily killed; only a few obtained 
in this rough way develop. It is absolutely necessary 
to keep the newly hatched fish in the dark for a week at 
least. 


Control experiments with the ova of the common 
Cat-fish, Tandanus tandanus, were very successful under 
the conditions that seemed the reverse for Ceratodus: a 
young Tandanus might be likened to the chick of the 
common fowl and Ceratodus to a young pigeon. 

One experienced in rearing trout would be required 
to attend to the hatchery. 


256 LIFE HISTORY OF NEOCERATODUS FORSTERI. 


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PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


Annual Meeting of Members, 


Held on Monday, March 25th, 1912. 


The Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the 
Queensland University, Monday, March 25th, 1912. The 
President (Mr. J. B. Henderson) occupied the chair. There 
was a very fair attendance of Members and _ friends, 
including His Excellency, Sir Wm. Macgregor, Lady Mac- 
gregor, and Mr. Byth (Private Secretary). The minutes 
of the previous annual meeting were read and confirmed. 
The Hon. Secretary read the accompanying Report for the 
year 1911, which was adopted on the motion of Mr. J. F. 
Bailey, seconded by Mr. E. C. Barton. The Financial 
Report (as herewith) was moved by Mr. J. C. Brunnich 
(Hon. Treasurer), seconded by Mr. A. G. Jackson, and 
carried. 


To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland. 


Your Council have pleasure in submitting their Report 
for the year 1911] 


The Ordinary Monthly Meetings have been held as 
shown in Appendix B. 


Eleven Council Meetings have been held during thg 
year, at which the attendance was as shown in Appendix 
A. At no meeting was there an attendance of fewer than 
five Councillors. 


During the year 10 members were admitted, and we 
have lost by removal and other causes, 6 members. There 
-are now on the roll 14 honorary and 95 ordinary members, 
a total of 109. See Appendix D. 

Messrs. Bailey and Jackson were selected in March 
to fill the vacancies on the Council, Mr. G. Watkins again 
accepting the position of Hon. Auditor. 

Vol. XXIII of our proceedings was issued during the 
year. A number of papers of considerable value were 


i. REPORT OF COUNCIN. 


given during 1911, especially in the fields of Geology and 
Biology, and the forthcoming volume promises to be one 
ot value. Plates will be more in evidence than in years 
when less funds were available. Our printers do their 
best to let each author have his author’s copies as soon as 
possible after the M.S.S. is handed in, and each author is 
now allowed 50 author’s copies. We have received valuable 
help from several members of the Univcrsity staff, and 
have reason to hope that, when matters have passed the 
difficulties of the inception stage, and when science students 
are more numerous, we Shall receive for publication much 
research work from the University and its alumni. 


The Library, containing approximately 4,000 volumes, 
has been shifted from the Technical College to the University. 
This has entailed considerable expense, and as it is now 
imperative that we should bind much unbound work, a 
further expense will be entailed. This, with the cost of a 
well illustrated volume of Proceedings, will lower our Bank 
balance during the year ahead of us. We congratulate 
our members on meeting for the first time in the University, 
and trust that the Society’s valuable Library will be largely 
made use of by members and University students in the 
future. It is hoped that Dr. Harvey-Johnston will take 
charge of the receipt of exchanges, etc., while the issue 
of books will be under the control of the University 
Librarian, and thus both our and the University’s interests 
will be seen to. 

By Appendix C., it will be seen that, though there 
was an increase in expenditure of about £43 for printing 
Proceedings, we still have a slightly greater credit to balance 
than we had at the end of the previous year. 


F. BENNETT, J. B. HENDERSON, F.LC. 
Hon. Secretary. President. 
February, 1912. 


REPORT OF COUNCIL. iil. 
APPENDIX A. 
ATTENDANCE OF CounciL, 1911. 
=i |e 
Sy os | 
Office. Name. 52 | — 20 Remarks. 
=e ‘a 
os ie ae 
= \|n 
President .| J. Brownlie Henderson, | 10 


Vice-President .. 
Hon. Treasurer.. 


F.I.C. 
P. L. Weston, B.Se., BE. 5 
J. C. Briinnich, F.> fee ae 8 


Hon. Secretary..| F. Bennett.. 11 i! 
Hon. Librarian..| C. T. White 7 1 
EK. H. Gurney 7 1 
W.R. Colledge .. 9 1 
Members of 4H. C. Richards, M.Se ‘i lL 
Council J. F. Bailey : 3 ei Appointed in 
A. G. Jackson 2 1 March. 
APPENDIX B. 
List or Pavers, Erc., Reap Durine 1911. 
No.| Date. Title. Author. 
1|Feb. 25|A Brush-Tongued Mosquito (Presi- | W. R. Colledge. 
dential Address) 
2 | March 25 | Anthracite in Galena : L C. Ball, B.E. 
Exhibits of Galena of peculiar H. C. Richards, M.Sc. 
character 
New Slides J. F. Bailey. 
April 25| Exhibition of Chemical Apparatus 
by Government Analyst and 
Staff 
3 | June 24] Notes on the Geological Age of| B.O. Marks, B.A., 
Volcanic Activity in South-east B.E 
Queensland 
4 |July 29| The Building of Eastern Australia|} H. I. Jensen, D.Sc, 
5 | Aug. 26] The Building Stones of St. John’s} H. C. Richards, M.Sc. 
Cathedral, Brisbane 
6 | Oct. 28] On the Occurrence of Worm-nests | T. Harvey-Johnston, 
in Cattle D.Se. 
7 | Oct. 28}A Census of Australian Reptilian |T. Harvey-Johnston, 
Entozoa D Sc. 
8; Dec. 2] A Weak Point in the Life History of | Dr. Thos. Bancroft. 


a Ceratodus 


REPORT OF COUNCIL. 


‘GI6T ‘havnaqay pug ‘auvgstsg 
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‘daUNspaty, “wo ‘HOINNNAG ‘OC ‘f "4091100 PUNO puB pouTMIVXy 


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JIGE ABER 943 AO} BNAWALYLS ITVIONYNIA 


‘aNWISNAANO ACO ALABIOOS IWAOW AAL 
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REPORT OF COUNCIL. Vv. 


APPENDIX D. 
LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Honorary AND Corresponpinc Mempemrs (13.) 
Dr. Cockle; A. Liversidge, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S.; Rev. F.R. M. Wilson; 
J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.; H. J. Jensen, D.Sc; Rev. G Brown, D.D.; A. Gibb- 
Maitland, Government Geologist, W.A.; Professor E. W. Skeats; Professor 
EK. H. Rennie; Professor J. A. Pollock; Dr. K. Domin, (Czech University), 


Prague; Dr. Danes (Czech University), Prague; Professor T. Edgeworth 
David. Orpinary Mempers (95). 
Archer, R. 8. Lord, F. 


Badger, J. 8. 

Ball'L.C., B.E. 

*+Bailey, F. M., F.L.S., C.M.G. 

+Bailey, J. F. 

Barton, E. C. 

Bennett, F.. 

Briinnich, J. C., F.1.C. 

Brydon, Mrs. 

Bundock, Miss Alice 

Bundock, C. W. 

Byram, W. J. 

Cameron, John 

Cameron, W. E., B.A. 

Colledge, W. R. 

Collins, Miss Jane 

Collins, R. M. 

Connah, F. E., F.I.C. 

Cooper, Sic Pope A., C.J. 

Costin, C. W. 

Cowley, R. C. 

Dempsey, J. J. 

Dunstan, Benj. 

Eglinton, Dudley 

Eglinton, Miss Hilda 

Elkington, J. S. C., M.D., D.P.H. 

Forrest, EK. B., M.L.A. 

Fraser, C. S. 

+Gailey, Richard 

Gibson, Hon. A., M_L.C. 

Gore-Jones, KE. R. 

Greenfield. A. P. 

*+Griffith, Sir S. W. 

Gurney, E. H. 

Hamlyn-Harris, R., D.S8c., 
F.R.M.S., F.L.S., F.E.S. 

Hedley, C., F.L.S. 

Henderson, J. Brownlie, F.I.C. 

Hirschfeld, Eugen, M.D. 

Holland C. W. 

Hopkins, G., M.D. 

Hiilsen, R. 

Hunt, G. W. 

Illidge, Rowland 

fame, ow G., L:L.D., 
F.R.G.S. 

Jackson, A. G. 

Johnston, T. Harvey, M.A., D.Sc., 

EAS: 

Johnston, Jas. 

Jones, P. W., A.I.C. 

Lindsay, W. 


B.G.8e; 


*Members of Philosophical Society. 


Love, Wilton, M.B. 

ihueag. CoP... GER.GP: 

His Excellency Sir William 
MacGregor, MD .,.. DS6.. 
G.C.M.G. C.B., &e 

Marks, Hon. C. F., M.D., M.L.C. 

Marks, EK. O., B.A., B.E. 

Mav, H. W., B.E. 

May, T. H., M.D. 

Michie, J. L, M.A. 

Murray-Prior. Mrs. 

McCall, T., F.1.C. 

McConnel, Eric W. 

McConnel, E. J. 

McConnel, J. H. 

Morris, L., A.M.I.C.E., Eng. 

tNorton, Hon. A., M.L.C. 

Parnell, T , M.A. 

Parker, W. R., L.D.S. 

Plant, Hon. EB; H. T.,, M.L.C. 

Pound, C. J., F.R.M.S. 

Priestley, H. J.,M.A. 

*Raff, Hon. Alex, M.L.C. 

Rands, W. H., F.G.S. 

Reid, D. E. 

Richards. H. C., M.Sc. 

Riddell, R. M. 

TRoe, R. H., M.A. 

Ryan, J. P., M.D. 

Sankey, J. R. 

Saunders, G@ I., B.E. 

pennd, §...):, A.8,, A.S.M: 
(Adelaide) 

+Schreider, H., M.A. 

Shirley, J., B.Sc. 

Smith, F., B.Sc, A.I.C. 

Steele, T., F,L.S., F.E.S. 

Steele. B. D., D.Se. 

+Stevens, Hon. E. J., M.L.C. 

Sutton, A., M.D. 

TSutton, J. W. 

Swanwick, K. ff., B L : 

Taylor, Hon. W.F., M.D., M.L.C. 

Thynne, Hon. A. J.. M.L 

Turner, A. Jefferis, M.D. 

Watkins. Geo. 

+Weedon, Warren 

Weston, P. L., B.Sce., B.E. 

White, C. T. 

Willcocks, G. C. 


-+Life Members. 


Nine admitted. Six left colony or resigned. Now on list, 109. 


vi. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 


The following new members were proposed by Mr. H. 
C. Richards, M.Sc.:—A. W. Oakes, B.A., 8. G. Lusby, 
M.A., H. G. Denham, D.S8c., and P. P. Fewings, Esq. 


The President then delivered his Retiring Address. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 
Natrona WASTE. 


It is only six years since I previously had the honour 
of presiding over the deliberations of our Society, and I 
then took for the subject of my address, one in which we 
all have long taken a considerable interest—Education. 
T then called attention to the pressing necessity for the 
influence of a University on our national life, and we are 
now in the happy position of having achieved our hearts’ 
desire in that direction, and to-night the Royal Society 
meets for the first time within the University Building. 
It is true that it is but an infant among Universities, but 
it is an infant whose growth has already seriously 
embarrassed its parents. The baby has completely out- 
grown its clothes, and judging by this remarkable growth 
and the preparations proposed for its further expansion, 
it is going to grow much more quickly than provision 
has been made for clothing it. And where the money is 
to come from to feed it as it grows, is already a pressing 
question, and one that has to be looked at from two differ- 
ent standpoints—that of the young Queenslanders demand- 
ing a first class up-to-date education such as will fit them 
to be capable leaders of this great State, and that of the 
State Treasurer who has to find the money. Let us hope 
that Queenslanders will see that the best education that 
can be had is not too good for the best of our young men 
and women, and that they will give at eiection times a 
mandate to their Parliamentary representatives that 
education, primary, secondary and University, is the 
most important part of the national life which is dealt 
with by our system of Government, and must be made 
efficient. Primary education is already well in hand, 
secondary and University education are only in their 
infancy, and must be as carefully nourished and as freely 
fed as our splendid system of primary education. 


BY J. B. HENDERSON, F,I.C. Vili. 


Nearly everything has been done for our University 
so far by the Government ; in the Southern States, the 
three older Universities have had almost as much done 
for them by private benefactors as by Government aid. 
It is to be hoped that Queensland will not long remain 
distinguished as purely a Government University. Already 
a few thousands have been given, but hundreds of thousands 
are required for endowment. It is not generally realised 
that it takes nearly £25,000 to endow the professor’s salary 
for any one chair, apart from the cost of lectures, laboratories 
and other incidental expenses. Sydney has private endow- 
ments amounting to about £500,000, and we must provide 
at least as good an education as Sydney, if our students 
are to hold their own in after life. 


, In thinking over possible subjects for my address 
this evening, I decided to follow up one which must have 
repeatedly thrust itself on the attention of every student 
of science—the national waste of material, of energy, and 
even of life itself that is going on around us in every direction. 


It is quite true that we are a young nation, we have 
only passed our Jubilee, and that youth is the time of waste. 
It is only on reaching maturity that the individual appre- 
hends the necessity of conserving energy, and nations are 
apt to resemble the individuals of which they are mostly 
built. But, after all, a nation is guided (or should be 
guided), by individuals of mature thought, by men who 
have (or should have), the large outlook and who should 
never hesitate to spend or be spent in the effort to help 
every individual to get the best possible return for his 
work, and to advance the nation to the highest, morally, 
mentally and materially. 


My object to-night is to point out briefly some of the 
directions in which we are wasting materials and energy 
—and energy means wealth, and in its final application, 
life. I found when I opened up the subject that it led to 
much labour, much searching—that many hours spent in 
looking for information and statistics gave little result, 
and that the most I could hope for was to interest a few 
who had more leisure to take up some branches of this 
subject and investigate them thoroughly. 


Viil. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


Considering the enormous wealth produced by our 
handful of people, it may seem absurd to talk of national 
waste. Let us glance at some of our industries as they 
stand to-day, and see if after all we are not wasting golden 
opportunities. 

Take first of all our Pastoral Industries. Wool is 
one of our principal exports. In 1910, the wool exported 
was valued at £5,808,000 and weighed 139,250,802Ibs. 
(Government statistician). Much of this was scoured, 
and most of it could easily have: been scoured here. In 
France it pays to extract the water-soluble potash salts 
from wool by washing the wool with cold water and evaporat- 
ing the solution. From 7.0 to 10.0 per cent of potash salts 
is obtained in this way from raw wool. (F. H. Bowman’s 
‘** Wool Fibre,’’ page 256). We produced over 139 million 
pounds weight of raw wool in 1910, containing over 6,000 
tons of potash salts recoverable without damaging the 
wool, obtained by washing with water. The evaporation 
of this solution in the dry atmosphere of West Queens- 
land should not be an expensive matter. We are evidently 
losing wealth in that direction. 


Wool again is the source of lanoline, which exists 
in raw wool to the extent of about 14 per cent. So far 
as I can gather no lanoline is saved in Queensland. So 
we throw away every year 20 million lbs. weight of lanoline. 
And the German wholesale price of lanoline is about 11d. 
per lb. I do not mean the mixture of lanoline, vaseline 
and water, which is sold as lanoline in collapsible tubes, 
at a very much higher rate. But at 11d. per lb. our lano- 
line which we threw away in 1910 had a value of approxim- 
ately £1,000,000. Personally I think there is certainly 
a fair margin of profit showing here—it is not at all likely 
that a process which is already worked successfully and 
well known in Germany, would cost a great deal more to 
work here, with such a store of raw material to hand. 


Other directions in which it is obvious that waste 
might be avoided and energy and material conserved 
in the pastoral industry, are preservation and care of natura] 
pastures, and the prevention of spread of weeds and other 
vegetable pests. The danger of practically exterminating 
some of our most valuable indigenous pasture grasse 


BY J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C. ixt 


and herbs has repeatedly been pointed out, but the 
temptation to overstock pastures in good seasons is always 
present, and the danger is one which it is difficult to over- 
come, either by legislation or administration. The annual 
loss of animal life from poisonous weeds is very heavy 
and in some cases might be avoided. The loss of pastures, 
through overgrowth of weeds, is almost invariably easily 
prevented, as in the case of prickly pear, but when lost, 
the cost of recovery of the pasture is exceedingly heavy. 
It has been pointed out repeatedly that the spread of cattle 
ticks, which have wasted millions of money, might have 
been: prevented when first noticed in Northern Queens- 
land ; now they are evidently here to stay, and they demand 
an annual toll running into many thousands of pounds. 
It probably costs Queensland much more every year for 
feeding the ticks with cattle than for all the secondary 
and University education combined. 


Another of our great Industries is the production of 
sugar. In 1910 we produced 210,756 tons of sugar 
(Government Statistician). Now each ton of sugar means 
the production of about 35 gallons of molasses, so that 
7,376,000 gallons of molasses were produced. Nearly 
all of that was wasted; so far as I can learn only a very 
small proportion was made into cattle feed and not much 
converted into alcohol. Each gallon of molasses yields 
about 0.4 gallon of alcohol so that molasses sufficient to 
make nearly 3,000,000 gallons of alcohol was thrown away 
to become a nuisance to whole neighbourhoods. The 
importation of petrol to Queensland in 1911 was 765,139 
gallons which, at 1s. 4d. per gallon, gives £51,000. | Evidently 
most of the money sent from here to America for petrol 
might have been kept in Queensland. I understand that 
alcohol cannot be bought in Queensland at less than Is. 5d. 
per gallon. Three million gallons at Is. 5d. represents 
£212,500, a considerable annual loss to the state. It is 
possible even now to sell industrial alcohol at Is. 3d. per 
gallon in Queensland. Unfortunately the stringent Excise 
Laws add materially to the cost and trouble of using 
industrial alcohol, owing to the fear that some of our 
decadent and debased fellow citizens might drink alcohol 
which had paid no duty. But for that fear, industrial 


x. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


alcohol could be sold at 1s. per gallon, possibly lower, and 
at that price it would probably replace kerosene and largely 
replace petrol. 


I would note here that profitable undertakings, 
considered from the national and from the trading com- 
pany standpoint do not necessarily mean the same 
thing. A trading company with income and. expenditure 
balancing is a financial failure—a nation with income 
and expenditure balancing is a financial success. The 
production of alcohol from molasses, to replace petrol, | 
if it only paid expenses from a trading standpoint might not 
be profitable—from the national standpoint there would 
be one saving among others, of £51,000 which would 
otherwise have gone to America. In other instances 
which I note, I obviously do not intend to suggest that the 
value of the material at present wasted would be all profit 
to the trader—but that that value is a value lost to the 
nation. © Whether from the standpoint of National 
Economics, it would pay to keep an industry going which 
only paid expenses, is a question which it is not necessary 
at present to discuss —in most of the instances I have given, 
the wastes are already being made sources of trading profit 
elsewhere. 

The enormous quantity of megass which is burned 
in the sugar mills is often looked on as waste, and many 
suggestions have been made as to its better utilisation 
as in making paper, paper pulp, etc. I understand that 
no use has yet been found for this material which will give 
a greater return than its use as fuel, so at present it can- 
not be looked on as wholly a wasted product. 


In agricultural products, other than sugar, there 1s 
also a lavish waste of wealth. After good seasons, hundreds 
of thousands, probably millions, of tons of grass are burned 
off which might have been stored for fodder, either dry in 
stacks or as ensilage in silos. 7 

I remember a former Under Secretary for Agriculture 
telling me that in one district shortly after the great 
drought which ended in 1902, he saw several farmers throw 
into the roadways alongside, lucerne which they had cut— 
it was so low in price just then that it would not pay to 
send to market. And yet a few months later lucerne had 


BY J. R HENDERSON, F.I.C. 5 


again risen in price and stacked lucerne would have returned 
many times the cost of stacking. Five years ago the 
Government fruit expert published the fact that in the 
Cleveland district alone 300 tons of mangoes were allowed 
to go to waste—it did not pay to market them As old 
trees yield from 1 to 2 tons of fruit in a good season, it is 
evident that thousands of tons of mangoes go to waste 
in Queensland every good season. | 


There is something seriously wrong with the people 
of a country in which superabundant wealth of agricultural 
products is produced in a good season, only to be to a large 
extent deliberately wasted, and who cry out with pangs 
of starvation after one dry year. Surely with all our 
education and training and our agricultural experts, it 
will not much longer be left to sad personal experience, 
the most costly of all teachers, to teach many of those 
engaged in agriculture the necessity of making the good 
seasons provide for the bad. 


A most serious blot on our national life is the primitive 
and wasteful manner in which we are attempting to settle 
people on our lands. The sacred right of individual liberty 
has, in this case, been carried to an absurd extreme. It 
is still true “none of us liveth to himself.’ The State 
recognises not only the right of the individual to a certain 
amount of freedom, but on the other hand insists that 
as he is a part of the State he must not damage the State 
by, for instance, destroying himself. Where the freedom 
of the individual undoubtedly and seriously conflicts with 
the good of the State that freedom should certainly be 
curtailed. Nothing can damage our State more seriously 
than to have men throwing away their substance and the 
best of their lives attempting impossible tasks in pioneer- 
ing. And yet it is not many years since I heard of a family 
of new arrivals from England, with only £50 capital, being 
allowed to take up prickly pear land. The result was a 
foregone conclusion—they held out until starved out and 
then abandoned the hopeless task. Most of us in travelling 
over Queensland have seen the remains of not one or two, 
but of hundreds of abandoned homes, most of them repre- 
senting a waste of capital and life which can be ill-spared 
in our vast territory, and which a little more knowledge 


Xli. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


would have prevented—knowledge too, which was possessed 
by officers in the Lands Department from which the 
selections were taken. But, owing to the fact that it 
has hitherto been regarded as the absolute right of every 
man to *“‘do what he likes with his own,” selectors have 
been and still are permitted to undertake the task of estab- 
lishing homes on lands where it is perfectly obvious that the 
applicants, owing to lack of capital, or experience, or both, 
must certainly fail. In doubtful cases by all means let 
the applicant try. but when he asks for land where he 
obviously cannot succeed, do not give it to him—persuade 
him to take some where he has at least a fighting chance. 
It is perfectly obvious that the settler who can start on 
Jand which is ready for planting, or which will in some way 
yield him a return for his labour in a short time. is almost 
bound to succeed. Settlers who tackle pioneering are 
generally hard-workers, and if success is to be obtained by 
constant application, they will succeed. It is also perfectly 
obvious that in many cases, the first clearing work could 
be done much more economically by the Government with 
its command of large capital, for large machinery, than 
it could be done by the selector with his one-man efforts. 

Most of us have seen, or know of, thousands of square 
miles of our Western Country; already fairly well served 
by rai’way, which if cleared of prickly pear or scrub, or both, 
ploughed where necessary, and made ready for the farmer 
to begin work, would be instantly snapped up by farmers. 
But the first cost of this preliminary work makes it practic- 
ally impossible for the average farmer to attempt the task 
with any chance of success. [Lam quite certain that before 
many years are over, we will find the State Governments 
of Australia doing this pioneering work as a matter of 
course, even as they now undertake for the individual 
the administration of justice, of defence. the post and 
telegraph, roadmaking, and all those other services which 
civilised communities have found to be better undertaken 
by the community than by the individual. The State 
which leads the way by preparing the land and the railway 
to market, so that success in settling on new land will be 
practically assured instead of being exceedingly problem- 
atical, will not lack increase of population. Immigrants 
would flock in by thousands to obtain such a chance, while 


BY J. Bs HENDERSON, F.I.C. Xill. 


the cost to the State of doing the pioneering would easily 
and certainly be repaid by the increased value of the land. 
Good agricultural land is one of the few assets which seems 
never to fall in value—as the population increases’ the 
value of such land also increases. The unnecessary waste 
of time and capital and life in the single handed and other 
ignorant methods of our pioneers, is probably one of the 
most serious wastes in our national life. It means not only 
time and capital gone—the crushing, physical strain often: 
lowers the worker almost to the level of a working animal. 
He is up before daybreak, toils all day, often till long after 
dark, and if he is dairying, keeps it up for seven days a week. 
There is no time for reading, none for thinking, none for 
recreation, only one long struggle to achieve the goal of: 
an independent living. But in the struggle, even when 
successful, there is too often almost as much lost ag is 
gained. Even years after success has been attained from 
the material point of view, there is often still no flower 
garden, no library in the house holding the treasures of 
the ages, no work of art worthy of the name, and the only 
music heard is a thing to be avoided. I have even known 
such a one living in the old tumble-down slab humpy, with 
all its crudities, inconveniences and ugliness, with no 
garden, no attempt at bettering in any way the material 
surroundings, and yet, in a well-finished building close 
by, a beautiful up-to-date motor car. So common is this 
loss among the farmers of much that is best and noblest 
and highest in our lives, that the suggestion that a higher 
standard is possible, is often received with incredulous 
smiles. Such words as “ bucolic’? and “ bumpkin ”’ convey 
meanings not at all complimentary to farmers. But history 
also teaches that from the farm have come great leaders 
of thought, soldiers, scientists, even artists—in a word, 
the past declares that there is nothing in farming that 
Should lead to the atrophy of our higher nature. In the 
present each one of us knows of families on the farm where, 
along with the ability to work hard and successfully, goes 
a refinement and education, which is as genuine and thorough 
as could be met with in any city home. The frequent 
loss of many of those higher attributes which distinguish 
man from the lower animals, in the terrible struggle for 
his animal existence in a new land, or for that matter in 


XIV. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


an old land, is a serious form of national waste that 
undoubtedly saps the strength of any country. Anything 
that can be done by a Government, that is by the com- 
munity, to lighten that load and more quickly bring the 
settler to obtaining a livelihood without such extremes 
of wasteful toil, it is the imperative duty of that Govern- 
ment to do, and it can be done without going to the other 
extreme of sapping the individuality of the farmer. The 
problem is obviously one which can be successfully financed. 
The actual details of the methods by which the work should 
be done would vary with circumstances, but would give by no 
means impossible problems to a properly qualified agricul- 
tural engineer. It is rather a notable fact and typical of 
the state of our agricultural methods that although nearly 
three-fourths ot our exports are of agricultural origin, 
agricultural engineers are practically unknown in Queens- 
land. . 

There are other directions in agriculture in which 
there is at present a great waste of energy and material, 
such as the burning off of millions of feet of timber when 
clearing, because no one can find a use for it. 

The waste of Forestry has been and still is, appall- 
ing, but I can find no statistics available. 

Water, both rainfall and artesian, is mostly run to 
wasce. 

Then there is the use of horse ploughs for large 
areas where steam or petrol would be much less costly, 
and similar primitive methods of working. I noticed 
recently a statement by a Manitoba wheat farmer, that 
the replacement of horses by a large petrol tractor for 
ploughing and reaping had saved him £500 a year. Where 
capital is not available to small farmers for the purchase 
of such expensive engines, there is a good opening for 
co-operation. 

Turning for a moment to the Mining Industry, we 
find there a similar prodigality in wasting our mineral 
wealth. The history of many mining companies is a 
succession of managers, each of whom points out that his 
predecessor knew nothing of his business, and straight- 
way proceeds to demonstrate that he also does not know 
how to solve the problems. And so we have the capital 
which should have been applied to making the mine a 


BY J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C. XV. 


wealth-producing business, squandered in useless and 
often absurd methods. As an example of the results 
which can be achieved by educated endeavour in our 
mining methods, take one of our largest well-known Northern 
mines. There, where everything pointed to disaster, a 
qualified engineer, a university graduate, was appointed. 
He reduced the costs by over 20s. per ton on an output of 
about 20,000 tons per annum, and so turned a dismal 
failure into a dividend paying mine. 

Lying in many places over Australia, including 
Queensland, are huge heayps of ore residues, all waste pro- 
ducts. They contain hundreds of thousands of pounds 
worth of metallic values, but for the lack of a little know- 
ledge—knowledge of a proces which would economically 
extract these values, all of that wealth at present lies 
waste. 

From one works alone (Mt. Morgan), over 800 tons of 
sulphuric acid per day is thrown away into the atmosphere. 
This enormous loss is much more marked in America than 
it is here, and the problem of its utilisation is receiving 
close attention there. 

In our coal mining also, the great bulk of our wealth 
of coal is wasted. First of all, with present mining 
methods, about one-third of the coal is left in the seams, 
and can never be recovered. Of what is extracted that 
used in producing power by steam is mostly wasted— 
some of the waste being inherent to the methods, much 
of it due to unsuitable boiler construction, dirty tubes 
and plates, and bad firing. It has been estimated that 
of the energy actually obtained from the original coal 
in a coal seam, less than 10 per cent is utilised by steam 
engines. With house coal for heating and cooking, matters 
are even worse, probably less than 1 per cent of the original 
energy of the coal seam being utilised. 

There is one obvious method of effecting a huge saving 
in this wasteful method of producing energy, a method 
to which attention has been called elsewhere. It is to 
establish a huge power station at the centre of the mining 
district—in our case, near Ipswich. There electrical] 
power would be generated from waste coal and from the 
waste gases from large coking ovens. The by-products 
* rom the distillation of the coal would also yield a return 


Xvi. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


in ammonia, phenols, etc. Electric power generated on 
a large scale from such waste fuel would, according to the 
estimate of one of my engineering friends, cost not more 
than 0.4d. per unit. From Ipswich, it could be distributed 
all over the Ipswich and Brisbane districts at a cost that 
would put electric light, electric power, and clectric heating 
into every home: With modern metallic ‘lament lamps, 
electric light is already a competitor with gas; and at 
such a low rate for electricity, it would at once displace 
gas for lighting, as much cheaper, more sanitary, more 
convenient ; in fact, better in every way. I made an 
attempt to get actual figures as to the probable saving 
to Brisbane by the adoption of this form of utilisation 
of the energy of our coal supply, including cost of capital 
outlay, but statistics and facts were difficult to get, while 
some necessary factors in the calculation seem almost 
unobtainable, and they should certainly be handled by 
an engineer. However, a presidential address is not 
supposed to concern itself with direct original research, 
so I will leave the detailed elucidation of this subject to 
one of our engineering members: more than one good 
paper could be written on the subject. But I have found 
enough to justify the statement that the saving would 
be enormous, both to energy users in cost, and to the 
reserves of coal. 

For example, of the heat produced in cooking at an 
ordinary stove, probably less than 2 per cent is actually 
utilised, I can find no statistics of trials, though I under- 
stand they have been made. But in electrical cooking, 
from 79 per cent to 80 per cent of the energy is actually 
utilised. With a low price for electricity the saving would 
be marked. while the convenience, the cleanliness, the 
better results, the absence of smells, the ease of controlling 
the temperatures, and the great saving of labour, would 
make the change desirable even if it cost more than at 
present, instead of less. The hot water reservoirs could, 
if necessary, be heated at night when there is little demand 
for other current. Imagine a house where the electric 
current was cheaply available. There would be no fire 
to light in the morning—the oven could be heated, the 
kettle boiled, the porridge made, eggs and bacon cooked, 
the bread toasted—all the heat required obtained by the 


BY J. B. HENDERSON, F.1.C. XVll. 


turning on of a few switches. No coal, no wood, no ashes 
to clear away, no smoke, no dust, and no waste heat making 
the kitchen an oven of itself. When any cooking operation 
was finished, a switch would be turned off, and heating 
would cease. In the most recent ovens the temperatures 
to be obtained are marked on the switch, and so cooking, 
which depends so much on correct heating, becomes one 
of the exact sciences. A plentiful supply of hot water 
would easily be made available for washing or bathing. 

When dusting and sweeping had to be done, exhaust 
sweepers, electrically driven with the exhaust hose dis- 
charging on the lee side of the house, would drive dust 
out into the sterilising sunshine where it would cease to 
be “ dirt,’’ cease to be “ matter in the wrong place.”’ 

The sewing machines would be driven electrically, 
as I understand they are now in nearly every home in 
many American towns—San_ Francisco for instance. 
Troning would be done with an electrically heated iron, 
and burning with a too-hot iron and waste work with a 
too-cold iron would be things of the past. With all our 
8-hours days and wages boards and arbitration courts, 
and partly because of them, there seems to be one 
individual who is getting longer hours, whose money does 
not go so far as before, and who has no right of appeal 
to any wages board or arbitration court—I refer to the 
mother. Help in the housework is getting more and more 
beyond her reach as its cost rises, the general increased 
cost of living affects her nearly as the buyer for the 
family, and, help or no help, the work must be done, starting 
at daybreak and finishing long after dark. There is no one 
who would be more relieved and helped by ‘ eleccrifying ’’ 
our energy supply than the mother, and there are none 
who stand more in need of help or are more deserving. 

Another result of cheap electrical supply would be the 
establishment of home industries. The principal reason 
for gathering hundreds of workers into factories in many 
industries, is the fact that power is provided more cheaply 
there, enabling work to be produced at a lower cost than 
before. But if the power is supplied just as cheaply to run 
a sewing machine or a loom, or a wood-turning lathe at 
home, as to run suburban trains and factories, the main 
reason for congregating sewing machines, looms, or wood- 


Xviii. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


turning lathes into factories ceases to exist. The cost 
of carriage of goods is somewhat greater, but where cheap 
electricity is supplied, it is found that the worker much 
prefers the independent life at home to the fixed hours 
of the factory. The cost of the machinery has proved 
no bar, as makers have shown themselves only too willing 
to advance them on the time-payment system. Cheap 
electrical supply would soon give us a sturdy independent 
class of home workers. 

Electrification of trains would, of course, follow with 
an enormous saving in cost of haulage, in cleaning of carriages 
and in waste of passengers’ clothes. 

If such a cheap source of power were available in Bris- 
bane, it would assuredly straightway become the greatest 
manufacturing city in Australasia. The manufacturer 
here, with the cheap power, would undersell his rivals 
elsewhere who used power at about 6 or 10 times the cost; 
while ore smelting, which is becoming every day more and 
more electrical, would certainly make its home here. 

And to think that all this enormous gain in cleanliness, 
in convenience, in time, in money, would ‘cost us, as a 
community, less than nothing—that by making the change 
we would save money. 

This great saving of coal and labour can, of course, 
only be done by the community, that is, by the Government 
—no private trading company should or could get the 
necessary monopoly, probably no one else could raise the 
necessary capital to effect the change. It would mean 
buying up several private interests at present supplying 
some of our wants, probably not more than five companies, 
but the enormous savings to be made and the gain other- 
wise would make it a very profitable matter indeed to buy 
each of these interests at an honest price. There seems a 
tendency nowadays to confiscate private interests by tax- 
ation or by Government competition. Where such interests 
have been honestly acquired and are honestly serving the 
public as they are in Brisbane, no other course should be 
adopted than honestly buying them back. Competition 
by the Government would virtually mean confiscation. 
And the scheme is no wild Utopian idea—it requires no new 
discoveries, no new inventions, scarcely any new laws, 
In November, 1910, the President of the Society of 


BY J. B. HENDERSON, F.1.C., XIX. 


Electrical Engineers promulgated such a scheme for 
England, and calculated that electricity could be supplied 
at one-eighth penny per unit. 

There are other forms of national waste which have 
not yet received the serious attention of those who look © 
after the welfare of our nation. A few years ago, I heard 
one of our educational authorities state that nearly two 
years of a young man’s life were practically wasted by 
the overlapping of the State school, the Grammar School 
and the Southern Universities. ‘Fortunately that can no 
longer be said, and the education of our youth is now in 
the process of being made as nearly continuous as possible. 
It is to be hoped that before long there will be no over. 
lapping, and that a student will not require to reach first 
year University standard in certain subjects ere entering 
the University. 

The passing from the State School should qualify for 
the High School, and passing from the High School should 
qualify for the University, with no side-tracking of education 
to coach the student to ‘‘ pass an exam.’ That efficient 
system of inspection, as opposed to examination, which 
has succeeded so well in our Primary Schools, should 
succeed quite as well in our Secondary Schools. If, in any 
instance, it did not, the University would soon let the fact 
be known. | 

Possibly the saddest of all our wastes is that direct 
waste of human life which could so easily, in many cases, be 
avoided. In the case of adults phthisis and typhoid are 
largely “preventable, if watched by the individual and 
fairly attacked by the community, while malaria, filaria and 
other mosquito-borne diseases can easily be eradicated. 
But of all the life losses, the most inexcusable and criminal 
is that of infant life. Times without number the appalling 
statistics have been published, but with only a comparatively 
slight lowering of the infantile death rate. It seems almost 
impossible to drive home to those controlling the com- 
munity, in any land, their criminal responsibility for per- 
mitting the wholesale slaughter to go on. Much of the 
waste of infant life is due to ignorance of the most elementary 
facts of infant nutrition. I knew of a baby three weeks 
old, the mother unable to suckle it, being fed with tapioca 
made with water, and of several other cases almost as bad, 


XMie st PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


the mothers being fairly well educated otherwise although ~ 
knowing, nothing of. babies. I suppose any medical 
practitioner could supply hundreds of similar instances. 
Surely there is something wrong with a system of education 
which teaches ‘a girl who is presumably going to be a 
mother, nothing whatever about maternal duties and 
responsibilities. Motherhood is, or ought to be, the 
supreme crown of nearly every woman’s life, and her 
education ought first of all and_ before everything else, 
fit her for that w hich is her greatest duty, if also her greatest 
privilege and happiness, and this could easily be done 
without in the slightest degree sacrificing her general 
education. ‘There is no question that good mothers are the 
greatest asset of any nation, and we ought to see to it that 
the education of our girls fits them for that high position. 
There is another direction in which even quicker results 
can be obtained in lowering the infant death rate—that 
' of stopping the milk poisoning. It is universally agreed 
by sanitarians that the high infant mortality of the summer 
months is due to bacteria in milk, bacteria to which adults 
are mostly immune. These bacteria get into the milk 
after it leaves the cow’s. udder, in other words, they 
get there through. filthy methods of milking and storing 
the milk. Milk, when it leaves the udder of a healthy cow, 
js in a sterile ¢ condition. The calf gets sterile milk, the baby 
gets the filthy. milk. It has been pointed out that if the 
death rate among calves was as high as among babies, 
every breeder of cows would soon become bankrupt. We 
kill during the early summer months more than one baby 
every day in the Brisbane district, through this filthy 
milk, yet practically no steps are taken to stop the 
legalised murder. . Several municipalities in other countries 
have demonstrated that this particular waste of human 
life can be stopped, and they have stopped it, and at a 
very small cost indeed. One London hospital actually 
bought a farm, got a healthy herd together, milked the 
cows. with, milking machines under perfect sanitary con- 
ditions, separated.the milk, chilled the separated milk and 
cream, sent them by rail.in chilled storage to London, 
and then got. the pure wholesome cold-stored products for 
mixing. again for each. child as prescribed, at a smaller 


BY J. B. HENDERSON, F.1.C. EX. 


cost than they had previously been-paying for the ot 
death-dealing article. 

What is the moral condition of a community which; 
with such absolutely convincing evidence ‘before it as:to 
the possibility of protecting these innocent lives, allows 
them to be slain by the hundred year after year ? ‘Herod 
had some excuse, if no reason, for his ‘“‘ Massacre of the 
Tnnocents,’? who could not have numbered so very many. 
in the small village of Bethlehem; he thought his throne 
and life were in danger. ‘We certainly have neither excuse 
nor reason for fling a far greater number every year in 
Brisbane. ; 

And now having rather hastily run over a few of ‘the 
more obvious sources of. national waste, let me say that 
the way out in nearly every instance lies in bringing’ mén__ 
who have been properly educated, to deal with the problems 
to be attacked. For attacking each separate: problem, 
education, along specialised lines, is essential for the best. 
results. For some of the problems, the material solution 
has already been shown in other lands; the only difficulty, 
is in educating our community to take the necessary action. 
In the cases of other problems, more knowledge is required, 
and I trust that not one of the least; honourable tasks 
undertaken by the young graduates of our; new University, 
will be the solution of problems such as these... 

I have said nothing of the presence wasteful. methods 
of the system of party politics by which we are governed. 
It has been many times pointed out that no.sane business 
man would ever attempt to conduct his private business, 
along the lines now used for doing. the national business. | 
The methods of election, the franchise used, the choosing. 
of the ministry, the giving of the ministry legislative con- | 
trol, the methods in use while legislating —in fact the whole — 
“party ’’ system, requires to be put back into the crucible 
and remelted. The greater proportion will be found waste 
material, and a committee of capable business experts, 
not men who give too much weight to precedent, should » 
take the resultant pure metal in hand, and from it con- 
struct a system by which the business of the country could 
be conducted in a more sane manner than it is at present. 
Every politician who has written on the matter, has 
deplored the waste of time and energy which the present 


Xxli. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


system entails, yet nothing is done. It has been pointed 
out that a leader who brought about the change, would 
commit political suicide. Let us pray that a leader will 
soon arise in the Empire who will value the good of his 
country above that of his own political life. The current 
literature of the Old Country, even more than that of 
Australia, emphasises the fact that the nation is getting 
quite as tired of the present system as the politicians are. 
With the public so educated, the hour is here, let us hope 
that the hour brings the man. My reason for introducing 
the debatable subject of politics at all, is that most of the 
larger problems I have mentioned to-night must be dealt 
with by politicians, and they are severely handicapped in 
their attempts to obtain national efficiency by the methods 
which our present system forces them to adopt. 

May the time soon come when it will be recognised 
as the principal duty of our various Governments to so 
eontrol and direct the States, that the maximum results 
will be obtained from the efforts of every individual in 
every trade and profession, and that the national assets 
of the State will be conserved for our children. 


And the way out does not lie in wasteful wars between 
Labour and Capital, between Individuals and Communism. 
We must have labour and capital, we must have individual 
freedom and control by the community, and when we, 
as a people, are sufficiently educated to recognise that 
fact and ahandon the system ot party Government, we 
will have taken the first and greatest step towards evolving 
a proper State Control in which waste will be as carefully 
guarded against, and individuality as jealously fostered 
as in the keenest of private businesses. 


A vote of thanks was proposed by Mr. Richards, 
and seconded by Mr. Briinnich. _An interesting discussion 
followed in which His Excellency, Mr. Barton and Mr. 
Briinnich took part, and Mr. Henderson briefly replied. 

The following officers were returned unopposed. 
President, P. L. Weston, B.Sc., B.E.; Vice-President, 
H. C. Richards, M.Sc.;: Hon. Treasurer, J. C. Briinnich, 
F.I.C.; Hon. Secretary, F. Bennett; Hon. Librarian, T. 


RFPORT OF COUNCIL. Xxlii. 


Harvey-Johnston, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.8.; Councillors, H. 
J. Priestley, M.A., E. H. Gurney, J. B. Henderson, F.1.C., 
J. F. Bailey, J. Shirley, B.Sc. 

The President could not be installed as his train could 
not arrive in time, and the Hon. A. Norton was absent 


through illness. 


vier 
rohigs 


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VOL. XXIV. 


PRINTED YOR THE SOCIETY 


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H. POLE & CO., PRINTERS, GEORGH STREBT BRISBANE. 


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VOL. XXIV. 


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PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY 
BY 
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Royal HOciely of Queensland 


Patron : 
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WILLIAM MACGREGOR, 
M.L.D., GGG: C.5., Etc. 


OF FI@iaies, 1913. 


President : 
H. C. RICHARDS, M.Sc. 


Vice-President: 
J. SHIRLEY, D.Sc. 


Hon. Treasurer : Hon. Secretary : 
J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. F. BENNETT. 


Hon. Labrarian : 
T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc. 


Assistant Librarian: 
D. C. GILLIES. 


Members of Councii: 
J. F. BAILEY. E. H. GURNEY. 
E. C. BARTON, A.M.I.C.E. PROFESSOR PRIESTLEY. 
P. L. WESTON, B.Sc., B.E. 


Trustees: 
HON. A. NORTON, M.L.C. | JOHN CAMERON 
HON. A. J. THYNNE, M.L.C. 


Hon. Lanternist: 
A. G@. JACKSON. 


Hon. Auditor : 
GEO. WATKINS. 


CONTENTS. 


A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA.— 
T. Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Sc., b.L.S., and 
Launcelot Harrison, April 24th, 1912 


A LIST OF MALLOPHAGA.—T. Harvey Johnston, 
M.A., D.Sc., and Launeelot Harrison, April 24th, 
1912 


SUPPLEMENT TO THE LICHEN FLORA OF 
Age Salama Shirley, D.Se., ves 29th 
1912 


NOTES ON SOME AUSTRALIAN ATHERINIDA.— 
Allan R. McCulloch, June 26th, 1912 


ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF 
QUEENSLAND (Part ey Shirley, D.Se., 
July 81st, 1912 ; - 


CRATER NEAR HERBERTON.—R. C. Ringrose, M.A., 
April 24th, 1912 


NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.—!’. Harvey Johnston, 
M.A., D.Sc., June 26th, 1912 


NOTES ON PORTION OF THE BURDEKIN 
VALLEY.—E. 0. Marks, B.A., B.F., October 
9nd, 1912... 


A BEETLE THAT TAKES IN BALLAST.—F. P. 
Dodd, November 27th, 1912.. 


A NOTE ON AUSTRALIAN PEDICULIDS.—T. 
Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Se., and  Launeelot 
Harrison, November o7th, 1912 


STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA pee 
lide.)—A. Jefferis Turner, M.D., F.E.S., Novem- 
ber 27th, 1912 ‘ : 


THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.—O. Meston and 
J. Brownlie Henderson, F.I.C., July 31st, 1912.. 


Ne 


‘ PAGE 


23 


AT 


or 
on 


63 


93 


103 


105 


111 


165 - 


A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA. 


By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A.. D.Sc., F.LS., 
and LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 


ee 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, April 24th, 1912. 


—- 


WirH the exception of a few short papers by Messrs. 
Le Souef and Bullen, in the Victorian Naturalist (see Liter- 
ature list), no work on Mallophaga has been done in 
Australia. The forms from Australian hosts that we list 
have been described by various European writers, rarely 
from material collected from the hosts in their natural 
state, but more often taken from skins in European 
museums, or from animals in captivity in the collections 
of the various Zoological Societies. It is to be expected 
that records of this nature will require some revision, 
as some straggling is bound to occur. 


‘The names of bird hosts are in accordance with 
Mathews’ Handlist (1908), which is itself based on Sharpe’s 
Handlist of Birds (1899). The synonym under which 
the host was originally quoted is in all cases given. 
Parasites from domesticated and introduced animals are 
dealt with in a separate paper. We have not included 
parasites described elsewhere from species, the range of 
which includes Australia, and the Australian seas: nor 
those from oceanic birds, except where a definite Australian 
reference is given. In one or two instances, new names 
have been used to replace others which were preoccupied. 


Mr. Le Souef having kindly placed his collection of 
Mallophaga at our disposal, we are able to establish some 
synonymy after examination of his types. The making 
of new records from our own collections is left for a later 
communication. 


It will be seen that Mallophaga have been recorded 
from but 48 out of nearly 900 bird species listed by Mathews : 
and from only 7 marsupials. 


2 A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA 


MALLOPHAGA FROM BIRDS. 
DROM2XUS NOV-EHOLLANDI®, Lath. 
Degecriella asymmetrica, [Nitzsch], Johnston & 

Harrison, 1912. 

Syns. Nirmus asymmetricus, Nitzsch, 1866, xxviii, 
p. 370 ; Nitzsch in Giebel, 1874 p 151, pl. 8, figs. 8-9 ; 
Piaget, 1877, p. .... ; 1880, p. 205, pl. 17, fig. 3 (Paris 
Zoo). 

Nirmus setosum, Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii.‘ 
p. 157, figs. 5-6 (mec. N. setosus, Giebel, 1876). 

We have examined the type of N. setosum, Le 
Souef and Bullen, and find it to be identical with 
Nitzsch’s species as described and figured in both 
Giebel and Piaget. Le Souef figures the male as 
possessing continuous bands on the posterior segments 
of the abdomen. This appearance is due to the strong 
ventral markings showing through in the cleared 
and mounted specimens. We have examples from 
the same host from Queensland, New South Wales, 
and Victoria. 

Lipeurus pallidus, Giebel, 1866 (nec. Piaget, 1880). 

Recorded from this host. Stated by Giebel (1874, 
p. 219) to agree so completely with L. heterographus 
from the domestic fowl, that he considers th two 
species identical, and the emu merely an accidental 
host. 

CATHETURUS LATHAMI, Lath. 
Goniocotes fissus, Rudow. 

Rudow, 1869, p. 23 (New Holland) ; 1870, xxxv., 
p. 477; Giebel, 1874, p. 187; Piaget, 18°0, p. pi) 
Taschenberg, 1882, p. 84, pl. 2, figs. 7-74 (Hamburg 
Museum). 

Goniocotes macrocephalus, Taschb. 

Taschenberg, 1882, p. 87, pl. 2, fig. 11. (Hamburg 
Museum). 

Lipeurus crassus, Rudow. 

Rudow, 1870, p. 127 ; Giebe 1, 1874, p. 217 . Piaget, 
1880, p 259 ; Taschenberg, 1882, p. 174. 

Lipeurus ischnocephalus, Taschenberg. 


Taschenberg, 1882, p. 173, pl. 6, fig. 8. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON, 3 
/ 


SYN@CUS AUSTRALIS, Temm. 
Goniodes elongatus, Piaget. 
Mr. A. 8. Le Souef has collected specimens, which 
we identify as belonging to this species, from the 
above host in Victoria. 
Goniodes retractus, Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 90 
The male of this species is unknown, and it is 
possible that the species may have to be referred to 
the genus Gontocotes on its discovery. Locality, 
Victoria. 


o 


EXCALFACTORIA LINEATA, Scop. 

Oxylipeurus acuminatus, [Piaget|, Mjoberg. 

Mjoberg, 1910, p. 92. 

Syn. Lipeurus acuminatus. Piaget. 

Piaget, 1885, p. 70, pl. 7, fig. 6. Host quoted as 
E. australis. Leyden Museum. 
Goniodes elongatus, Piaget. 

Piaget, 1885, p. 53, pl. 5, fig. 10; 1880, p. 281, 
pl. 23, fig. 5. 

Syn. Goniodes longus, Le Souef, 1902, xix, p. 90. 

Taschenberg (1882, p. 71), believes this form to 
be identical with connie asterocephalus, Nitzsch, 
but Piaget (1885, p. 53) upholds the validity of the 
species Host quoted as H#. australis, Leyden Museum. 

We have examined Le Souef’s type of G@. longus, 
and find it identical with G. elongatus, Piaget. Host 
quoted as EH. chinensis, Victoria. 


MEGALOPREPIA MAGNIFICA, Temm. 
Inpeurus columbae, [Linn]. 
Syn. Lipeurus baculus, Nitzsch, 1818. 
This common parasite of pigeons is given as 
occurring on Carpophiga magnifica by Taschenberg 
(1882, p. 125). No locality is stated. 


MACROPYGIA PHASIANELLA, Temm. 
Colpocephalum albidum, Giebel. 


Re. orded by Piaget (1880, p. 534, pl. sia fig. 5), 
from Columba phasianella. 


4 A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA 
PHAPS CHALCOPTERA, Lath. 
Goniocotes flavus, |Rudowl|, Giebel, 1874. 
Syn. Goniodes favus, Rudow, 1870, p. 486. 
Gontocotes flavus, Giebel, 1874, p. 188: Piaget, 1800, 
p- 236 ; Taschenberg, 1882, p. 101, pl. 3, figs. 5-5a. 
Inpeurus angustus, Rudow. 
Rudow, 1869, p. 34; 1870, p. 137; Giebel, 1874, 
p- 216; Piaget, 188 , p. 306; Taschenberg, 1882, 
p- 123. From Tasmania. Taschenberg (1882, p. 123) 
considers that the species is probably identical with 
L. baculus (=L. columbae). ; 
Inpeurus columbae, [Linn.|, Neumann. 
Syn. L. baculus, Nitzsch. 
Recorded from the above host by Taschenberg 
(1582, p. 123), as L. baculus. 
Colpocephalum albidum, Giebel. 
Giebel, 1874, p. 268. 
LEvcosaRciIA PICATA, Lath. 
Lipeurus columbae, {Linn.], Neumann. 
Recorded from the above host by Taschenberg 


(1882, p. 124). Host quoted as L. plicata and the 
parasite as Lip. baculus. 


RRALLINA TRICOLOR, Gray. 
Rallicola bisetosa, |Piaget|, Johnston & Harrison, 1912. 
Syn. Oncophorus  bisetosus, Piaget, 1880, p. 
218. Leyden Museum. 
MICROTRIBONYX VENTRALIS, Gould. 
Goniodes cornutus, Rudow 
Rudow, 1869, p 26; 1870, p 485; Giebel, 1874,. 
p- 205 ; Piaget, 1880, :p. 284. 
PORPHYRIO MELANONOTUS, Temm. 
Rallicola fallax, [Piaget|, Johnston & Harrison, 1912. 
Syn. Oncophorus fallax, Piaget, 1880, p. 220, pl. 
18, fig. 6. Eastern Australia, Leyden Museum. 
Daprion CAPENSIS, Linn. 
Ancistrona procellariae, Westwood. 
Syn. A. gigas, Piaget. 
Recorded from the above host by one of us (L H., 
1911) from Narrabeen, New South Wales. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. > 


STERNA BERGII, Licht. 
Colpocephalum crassipes, Piaget. 

Recorded by Piaget (1880, p. 566) from a specimen 
of S. poliocerca in Leyden Museum. As this is Gould’s 
species from 8. E. Australia, now merged in S. bergit, 
we have included the reference, although no direct 
Australian locality is given. 


HyYDRALECTOR GALLINACEUS, Temm. 
Rallicola sulcata, [Piaget|, Johnston & Harrison, 1912, 
Syn. Oncophorus sulcatus, Piaget, 1880, p. 218. 
pl. 18, fig. 5. Rotterdam Zoo. 


ANTIGONE AUSTRALASIANA, Gould. 


Philopterus integer, Nitzsch. 

Syn. Docophorus integer, Nitzsch, 1886, p. 360; 
Giebel, 1874, p. 95; Piaget, 1880, p. 99. 

Docophorus noveholl indie, Giebel, 1866, 

XXViil., ~. 360; 1874, -p. 96. | 

Giebel described the form from the above host 
(quoted as Grus novehollandie) as a distinct species. 
Piaget does not uphold the distinction. 
Lipeurus giganteus, Le Souef & Bullen. 

Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 156, fig. 1. 
Lipeurus gruis, [Linn.| Johnston & Harrison, 1912. 

Syn. L. ebre@us, Nitzsch, 1818. 

L. hebreus, Nitzsch, 1866, p. 382; Giebel, 

1874, p. 226. 

Taschenberg (1882, p. 133) records the occur- 
rence of L. hebr@us on Grus novehollandie. | 

We have examined specimens of the last two 
species from the same host from Queensland, Victoria, 
and N.S. Wales. 

Ipis motucca, Cuv. 

Lipeurus ibis, Le Souef & Bullen. 

Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 156, ae A 
Host quoted as Threskiornis stictipennis, 

PLATIBIS FLAVIPES, Gould. 

Ornithobius fuscus, Le Souef. 

Le Souef (1902, xix., p. 91) states that he has 
met with O. fuscus on the Australian  spoonbill. 
Possibly it has only straggled from a swan. 


6 A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA 


XENORHYNCHUS ASIATICUS, Lath. 
Philopterus horridus, Giebel. 


Syn. Docophorus horridus, Giebel, 1876, p. 243% 
Piaget, 1880, /p. 97. 


Host quoted as Ciconiqa australis. 


NOTOPHOYX NOV2-HOLLANDIE, Lath. 
Lipeurus unguiculatus, Piaget. 
Piaget, 1888, xxxi., p. 247, Pl. 10, fig. 2 


Host quoted as Herodias novehollandie. 


CHENOPSIS ATRATA, Lath. 

Lipeurus anatis megaceros, Johnston & Harrison, 1912, 

Syn. Lipeurus squalidus, var. antennatus, Piaget, 
1880, p. 346. L. squalidus, Nitzsch, is a synonym 
of L. anatis, Fabricius. The name antennatus is pre- 
occupied by L. antennatus, Giebel (1874, p. 213). 
We therefore propose to substitute the sub-specific 
name megaceros as above. Host quoted as Cygnus 
atratus, Rotterdam Zoo. 
Ornithobius fuscus, Le Souef. 

Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 91. Victoria. 
Trinoton niger, Le Souef. 

Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 91. Victoria. 
Colpocephalum castaneum, Piaget. 

Piaget, 1885, p. 153, Pl. 16, fig. 7. Host quoted 
as Cygnus atratus, Rotterdam Zco. 


CEREOPSIS NOV#-HOLLANDI®, Lath. 

Lipeurus australis, Rudow. 

Rudow, 1869, p. 38: 1870, p. 130; Giebel. 1874, 
p. 239; Piaget, 1880, p. 351; Taschenberg, 1882, 
p. 164. 

Taschenberg notes that this’ species is closely 
related to L. jejunus Nitzsch (=L. crassicornis, Olfers), 
his material coming from the Hamburg Museum. 


NETTIUM GIBBERIFRONS, 8. Mill. 
Lipeurus anatis major, Piaget.. 
Syn. Lipeurus squalidus, var. major, Piaget, 1880 
p. 346. Host quoted as Anas gibberiformis. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 7 


PHALACROCORAX SULCIROSTRIS, Brandt. 
Inpeurus setosus, Piaget. 

Piaget, 1880, p. 335, Pl. 27, fig. 4. Host quoted 
as Phalacrocorax (Graculus)  sulcirostris, Leyden 
Museum. 

Menopon subrotundum, Piaget. 

Piaget, 1880, p. 453, Pl. 35, fig. 2. Host quoted 

as Gracula sulcirostris, Rotterdam Zoo. 


SULA SERRATOR, Gray. 
Philopterus breviantennatus, [Piaget] J. &. H., 1912, 

Syn. Docophorus breviantennatus, Piaget, 1880, 
p. 108, Pl. 9, fig. 9. Host quoted as Sula australis : 
Leyden Museum. 

Pectinoprgus gyricornis (Denny) J. &. H., 1912. 

Syn. Lipeurus gyricornis, Denny. 

Piaget, (1880 p. 337, Pl. 27, fig. 8) records this 
species—originally described by Denny (1842, p. 167) 
from a tern, Sterna hirundo—from Sula australis, 
Leyden Museum. This species has the typical form 
of Lipeures from Sula. 

Menopon albescens, Piaget. 


Piaget, 1880, p. 491, Pl. 41, fig. 4. Hest quoted 
as Sula australis. 


MICROGLOSSUS ATERRIMUS, Gmel. 
Colpocephalum temporale, Piaget. 
Piaget, 1888, p. 252, Pl. 10, fig. 6. Host quoted 
as Psittacus aterrimus, Rotterdam Zoo. 
Degeeriella paraboliceps, [Piaget]. J. &. H., 1912. 
Syn. Nirmus paraboliceps, Piaget, 1880, p. 135, 
Pl. 11, fig. 5. Host and locality as above. 


CALYPTORHYNCHUS VIRIDIS, Vieill. 
Lipeurus circumfasciatus, Piaget. 
Piaget, 1 &&C, . 301, Pl. 24, fig. 6. Taschenberg 
(1882, p. 118, Pl. 3, fig. 13) records th is species from 
the above host under the name of C. leachi, no locality 
being given. 


8 A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA 
CACATUA GALERITA, Lath. 
Lipeurus albus, Le Souef & Bullen. 


Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 157, fig. 4. 
Victoria. 


CACATUA ROSEICAPILLA. Vieill. 


Degeertella eos. [Rudow.| J. & H., 1912. 
Syns. Nirmus eos, Rudow, 1870, xxxv., p. 471 ; 
Giebel, 1874, p. 181 : Piaget, 1880, p. 137. 


Nirmus tenuis, Rudow, 1870,, xxxv., p. 471 (nec, 

Nitzsch in Burmeister, 1832, p. 429). 

Giebel has quoted this host under two different 
names,—as Plictolophus roseocapillus in his Index 
(1874, p. x.), and as Cacatua cos in the text (1874, p. 
181); Gurlt (1878), in preparing his list, has copied 
Giebel’s names, but has quoted them as referring to 
two distinct hosts, Psittacus eos and Psittacus roseo- 
captllus (fide Piaget, 1880, p. xvii.) 


CALOPSITTACUS NO V#®-HOLLANDI2®, Gmel. 
Goniocotes fasciatus, Piaget. 

Piaget, 1880, p. 236, Pl. 19, fig. 11. Host 
quoted as Nymphicus nove-hollandie, Leyden Museum 
and Rotterdam Zoo. It is questionable whether this. 
species should be included in its present genus. 


POLYTELIS BARRABANDI, Swains. 
Philopterus angustoclypcatus, [Piaget] Johnston & 

Harrison, 1912. ; 

Syn. Docophorus angustoclypeatus, Piaget, 1880, 
p. 34, pl. 2. fig. 3. Host recorded as Platycercus 
ba: ratandi. 

Philopterus  forficula, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison, 

1912. 

Syn. Docophorus forficula, Piaget, 1871, p..... : 
1880, p. 32, pl. 2, fig. 1. Host as above. 
Colpocephalum trimaculatum, Piaget. 

Piaget, 1880, p..525, pl. 43, fig. 8. Host as above - 
Rotterdam Zoo. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 9 


POLYTELIS MELANURA, Vig. 


Inpeurus circumfasciatus, Piaget. 

Piaget, 1880, p. 301, pl. 24, fig. 6; Taschenberg, 
1882, p. 118, pl. 3, fig. 13. Host given as Platycercus 
melanurus, Leyden Museum. 


APROSMICTUS CYANOPYGIUS, Vieill. 
Philopterus forficula, [Piaget| Johnston & Harrison, 


1912. | 

Syn. Docophorus forficula, Piaget, 1871, p. .-..3 
1880, p. 32, pl. 2 fig. 1. Host given as Platycercus 
scapulatus. f 


PLATYCERCUS ELEGANS, Gmel. 
Philopterus forficula, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison, 
1912. 
. Syn. Docophorus forficula, Piaget, 1871, p. .... 3 
1880, p. 32, pl. 2. fig. 1. Host given as P. pennantis. 
PLATYCERCUS PALLIDICEPS, Vig. 
Colpocephalum trimaculatum, Piaget. 


Piaget, 1880, p. 525, pl. 43, fig. 8. Host quoted 
as P. palliceps, Rotterdam Zoo. 


PLATYCERCUS EXIMIUS, Shaw. 
Philopterus forficula, [Piaget], Johnston & Harrison, 
1912. 
Syn. Docophorus forficula, Piaget, 1871, p. ....3 
1880, p. 32, pl. 2, fig. 1. 
Menopon psittacus, Le Souef & Bullen. 
Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 158, fig. 8. 


BARNARDIUS ZONARIUS, Shaw. 
Philopterus forficula, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison, 
1912. 
Syn. Docophorus forficula, Piaget, 1871, p. ....3 
1880, p. 32, pl. 2. fig. 1. Host quoted as Platycercus 
bauert, (p. 33) and P. zonarius (bauert) (p. 684). 


DacELO GIGas, Bodd. 
Philopterus delphax, [Nitzsch| Johnston & Harrison, 
1912. 
Syn. Docophorus delphax, Nitzsch, 1866, p. 360 ; 
' Nitzsch in Giebel, 1874, p. 92. Host quoted as 
Dacelo gigantea, Halle Museum. Piaget, 1880, p. 75. 


10 


A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN. MALLOPHAGA 


Degeeriella bracteata, |Nitzsch| Johnston & Harrison, 

1912. 

Syn. Nirmus bracteatus, Nitzsch, 1866, p. 369 ; 
Giebel, 1874, p. 145: Piaget, 1880, p. 163. Host 
as. above. 

Degeeriella goniocotes, {[Piaget| Johnston & Harrison, 

1912. 

Syn. Nirmus goniocotes, Piaget, 1885, p. 33, 
pl. 4, fig. 3. Host given as Dacelo gigas from Mada- 
gascar (Leyden Museum). As this bird is confined 
to Australia, either the locality or the host is incor- 
rectly stated. 

Menopon infumatum, Piaget. 

Piaget, 1885, p. 106, pl. 11, fig. 7.. Reference 

to same host and locality as last species. 


CACOMANTIS RUFULUS, Vieill. 


Philopterus laticlypeatus, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison, 
1912. | 
Syn. Docophorus laticly peatus, Piaget, 1871, p..... : 
1880, p. 37, pl. 2. fig. 9. Host given as Cuculus 
flabelliformis from New Holland, Leyden Museum. 


SCYTHROPS NOV#HOLLANDIA, Lath. 


Philopterus obcordatus, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison, 

1912. 

Syn. Docophorus obcordatus, Piaget, 1871, p. ....; 
1880, p. 38, pl. 2, fig. 10. Leyden Museum. 
Degeeriella lipeuriformis, [Rudow| Johnston & Harrison, 

1912. 

Syn. Nirmus lipeuriformis, Rudow, 1870, p. 470 ; 
Nirmus chelurus, Nitzsch in Giebel, 1874, p. 150; 
Piaget, 1880, p. 138. Dry skin; Paris. Giebel, (1874, 
p. 151) establishes the identity of Rudow’s and 
Nitzsch’s species, but wrongly retains Nitzsch’s name. 
Menopon platygaster, Giebel. 

Giebel, 1874, p. 290: Piaget, 1880, p. 420, pl. 32, 
fig. 5. Leyden Museum. 


MENURA SUPERBA, Davies. 


Philopterus paraboliceps, [Piaget] J. & H., 1912. 
Syn. Docophorus paraboliceps, Piaget, 1888, p. 
224, pl. 8, fig. 2. Host quoted as Menura lyra. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON 11 
Degeeriella submarginalis, [Burmeister] J. & H., 1912, 
Syn. Nirmus submarginalis, Burmeister, 1832. ; 
p. 4381; N. submerginellus, Nitzsch, 1866, p. 368; 
Giebel, 1874, p. 148; Piaget, 1880, p. 155; 1885, 
p. 22, pl. 3, fig. 2 (Halle Museum) ; N. menurae-lyrae, 
Coinde, 1859, p. 424; N. menura, Le Souef & Bullen, 
|g pale | ed a 
Kellogg (1908, p. 27) gives Menura superia as 
a host of Nirmus (i.e. Degeeriella) marginalis,: Nitzsch. 
We cannot find any reference justifying this, hence 
we have concluded that it is an error. 


MENURA VICTORI®, Gould. 
Lipeurus menura, Le Souef & Bullen. 

Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 157, fig. 3. 
Menopon menura, Le Souef & Bullen. — | 

~ Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 158,, fig. 9. 
Degeeriella submarginalis, [Burmeister]. 

Syn. Nirmus menura, Le Souef and Bullen, 1902, 
xviii., p. 157. For full synonymy, see under Menura ° 
superba. We have examined Le Souef and Bullen’s 
type of N. menura, and find it identical with the 
above species. These authors quote the host as 
Menura superba, but Mr. Le Souef informs us that 
the birds were the now separated Victcrian form 
M. victoria. 

GYMNORHINA TIBICEN, Lath. 
Degeeriella bimiaculata, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison, 

1912. 

Syn. Nirmus bimaculatus, Piaget, 1885, p. 148, 
pl. 16, fig. 1. Host given as Baryta tibicen, Rotterdam 
Zoo. 

GYMNORHINA LEUCONOTA, Gray. 
Degeeriella semiannulata, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison, 

1912. 

Syn. Nirmus semiannulatus, Piaget, 1883, p. 156; 
1885, p. 24, pl. 3, fig. 11... Host quoted as Baryta 
leuconota. | . 

Piaget (1880, p. 140) records Nirmus varius (te. 
Degeeriella veria) Nitzsch, from the above host. This 
is a common parasite of European crows, and prob- 


2 A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA 


ably straggled from one of these on to the Gymnorhina, 

whieh was very probably a captive in the Rotterdam 

Zoo, where much of Piaget’s material was collected. 
PARDALOTUS PUNCTATUS, Shaw. 

Menopon, sp. 

Giebel (1874, p. 286) mentions that Nitzsch had 
a damaged individual of a species of Menopon from 
the above host, which was not in sufficiently good. 
condition to justify description. Nitzsch considered. 
it to be closely allied to his own M. minutum. 

GLYCIPHILA FASCIATA, Gould. 
Goniocotes candidus var. pellucidus, Piaget. 

Piaget, 1885, p. 40, pl. 4, fg. 10. Leyden Museum- 
This is possibly a straggler, as it is extremely unlikely 
that Gonvocotes should occur on the Meliphagide, 
and particularly on such a small honey-eater as G- 
fasciata. 

PTILONORHYNCHUS VIOLACEUS, Vieill. 
Philopterus grandiceps, [Giebel| Johnston and Harri- 

,son, 1912. 

Syn. Docophorus grendiceps, Giebel, 1874, p. 85; 
Piaget, 1880, p. 53, Host quoted as P. holosericeus. 
Degeeriella pontoni, Johnston & Harrison, 1912. 

Syn. Nirmus nitzschi, Ponton, 1871 (nec. Giebel,. 
1866, p. 364; 1874, p. 125). This species is referred 
to by Gurlt (1878). Piaget merely mentions the 
name. We have not been able to consult Pontcn’s 
original description. As the specific name nitzeché 
was precoccupied by Giebel in 1866, we have substi- 
tuted for it pontoni, in compliment to the author of 
the species. 

Giebel (1874, p. 133) gives a brief description 
of Nirmus (=Degeeiiella) sp. from the above host, 
collected from a dry skin, but not in sufficiently good 
condition to allow description. 

SERICULUS CHRYSOCEPHALUS, Lewin. 
Degeeriella hectica, [Nitzsch| “ohnston & Harrison, 1912. 

Syn. Nirmus hecticus, Nitzsch, 1866, p. 366; 
Giebel, 1874, p. 136; Piaget, 1880, p. 161. Host 
quoted as Sericulus regens. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 13 


STREPERA GRACULINA, White. 
Colpocephalum vinculum, Le Souef & Bullen. 
Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 158, fig. 10. 


MALLOPHAGA FROM MARSUPIALS. 
MACROPUS GIGANTEUS, Zimm. 
Heterodoxus longitarsus, [Piaget] Johnston & Harri- 
son, 1912. 
Syn. Menopon longitarsus, Piaget, 1880, p. 504, 
pl. 41, fig. 7. Rotterdam Zoo. Host quoted as 
Halmaturus giganteus. 


-MACROPUS RUFUS, Desm. 
Boopia grandis, Piaget. 
Piaget, 1885, p. 154, pl. 16, fig. 8. 


MACROPUS DORSALIS, Gray. 
Boopia minuta, Le Souef. 
Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 51, fig. 8. 
-MAcCROPUS UALBATUS, Less & Garn. 
Becpia notafusca, Le. Souef. 
Le Souef, 1£02, xix., p. 50, fig. 1. 
“* Kangaroos and Wallabies.” 
Heterodoxus longitarsus, [Piaget| Johnston & Harri- 

son, 1912. 

Syn. Menogon longitarsus, Piaget, 1880, p. 504 
pl. 41, fig. 7. Heterodoxu macropus, Le Souef & 
Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 159, fig. 11; Froggatt, 1907, 
p- 391. We have examined the types of Heterodoxus 
macropus, Le Souef and Bullen, and find the species 
to be identical with that described by Piaget ag 
Menopon longitarsus. No hosts are indicated specific- 
ally by the former authors. We will deal more fully 
with the host distribution of this parasite in a forth- 

‘ coming paper on Mallophaga from Marsupials. 
Latumcephalum macropus, Le Souef. 
Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 51, fig. 4. 
PETROGALE PENICILLATA, Gray. 
Trichodectes penicillatus, Piaget. 


Piaget, 1880, p. 506, pl. 32, fig. 10, Rotterdam 
Zoo. Taschenberg (1882, p. 214) states that this 


14 


A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA 


species is identical with 7’r. crassipes, Rudow (1886, 
p. 111, pl. 7, fig. 1) from the Angora goat. Raillet 


(1895, p. 837) and Neumann (1905, :p. 65) refer to the 


species, suggesting that in one of the above cases 
the host is wrongly indicated. Material collected 
by ourselves from the above host does not include 
any T'richodectes, nor have we found a member of this 
genus on any of a large number of marsupials. 
examined. 


AEPYPRYMNUS RUFESCENS, Gray. 


Boopia bettongia, Le Souef. 
Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 50, fig. 2. Host quoted 
as Bettongia rufescens. 


PHASCOLOMYS URSINUS, Shaw. 


1907 
1866 
1874 
1876 
1878 
191] 


1911 


Boopia tarsata, Piaget. 

Piaget, 1880, p. 599, pl. 50, fig. 1. Host quoted 
as Phascolomys fossr. 
Colpocephalum truncatum, Piaget. 

Piaget, 1880, p. 540, pl. 45, fig. 2. Piaget (1880, 
p. 542) records finding this species, which is a parasite 
of Grus communis, on a wombat. This is evidently 
a case-of straggling. 


LITERATURE LIST. 
Burmeister—Handb. d. Entomol, 1832. 
Coinde—Bull. Soc. imp. Nat., Moscou, xxxii., 1859. 
Denny—Monogr. Anoplurorum Britanniae, Lon- 
don, 1842. 

Froggatt—Australian Insects, Sydney, 1907. 

Giebel—Z.f. ges. Naturwiss., xxviii. 

Giebel—*‘ Insecta Epizoa, etc.” Liepzic, 1874. 

Giebel—Z. f. ges. Naturwiss. 

Gurlt—Arch. f Naturgesch., xliv. ; 

—Harrison—Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., Notes and 

Exhibits, pt. 3, 1911. 

Johnston & Harrison—** Notes on some Mallophagan 
Generic Names,’ P.L.8., N.S.W. 1911. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 15 


1912. Johnston & MHarrison—‘* A Census of Australian 
Mallophaga.’’ Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, 
1912. (The present paper.) 

1908— Kellogg —‘‘ Mallophaga,’? in Wytsmann’s ‘“ Genera 
Insectorum”’ Fasc. 66. 

1902—Le Souef—Victorian Naturalist, xix., p. 50. 

1902. Le Souef & Bullen—Vict. Nat., xviii., p. 155. 

1902 Le Souef & Bullen—Vict. Nat, xviii., p. 159. 

1908 Matthews—*‘ Handlist of the Birds of Australia.” 
“Emu” vii, pt. 3, 1908, Supplement. 

1910 Mjoberg—Arkiv. f. Zoologi. vi., No. 13. 

1905 Neumann, “ Parasites et Maladies parasitaires des 
Oiseaux domestiques,’ Paris, 1909. 

1818 Nitzsch—in Germar’s Magazin d. Entom., iii, 1818, 
pp. 261, sqq. 

1866 Nitzsch—Zeitschr f. ges. Naturwiss, xxviii. 

1874 Nitzsch—(in Giebel) “ Insecta Epizoa,”’ 1874. 

1871 Piaget—Tijd. v. Ent., xiv. 

1877 Piaget—Tijd. v. Ent., xx. 

1880 Piaget—‘‘ Les Pediculines, Essai Monographique.’ 
Leiden, 1880, 

1885 Piaget—‘* Les Pediculines, Essai Monographique,”’ 
Supplement, Leiden, 1885. 

1888 Piaget—Tijd. v. Ent., xxxi. 

1871 Ponton—American Monthly Microscopical Journal, vi. 

1895 Raillet—Traite d. Zool. Agric. Medic. 

1869 Rudow—Beitrage, etc. Inaug. Dissert. Halle. 

1870 Rudow—Zeitschr. f. ges. Naturwiss, xxxv and xxxvi, 

1899 Sharpe—* A Handlist of the Genera and Species 
of Birds,’ London, 1899, sqq. 

1882 Taschenberg—* Die Mallophagen, etc,’ Nova. Acta. 
Halle, xliv., 1, 1882. 


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A LIST OF MALLOPHAGA 
FOUND ON INTRODUCED AND DOMESTICATED 
ANIMALS IN AUSTRALIA, 


By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc., and 
LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, April 24th, 1912. 


THE present communication contains a list of the 
Mallophaga previously recorded as occurring on introduced 
animals in Australia, as well as several whose presence is 
now noted in literature for the first time, though some 
of them are common, well-known forms. We have recently 
‘published (J. & H., 1912, a,) a census of the species 
recorded from the native Australian fauna. 


The application of the law of priority has necessitated 
the alteration of some well-known names. 


BIRDS. 


(CoMMON Fow. (Gallus domesticus). 
1. Lipeurus caponis (Linn). Syn. L. variabilis, Nitzsch. 
—Common. N.S.W., Victoria,* Q’land, W. Austr. 
2. Lipeurus heterographus, Nitzsch.—Vict., Sydney 
(N.S.W.) 
3. Goniodes dissimilis, Nitzsch —Vict., N.S.W. 
4, Goniocotes gigas, Tasch.—N.8.W., Q’land. The 
occurrence of this parasite (quoted as 
Gc. abdominalis) on fowls in N.S.W., has already 
been recorded by Bradshaw (1909, p. 51). It is 
fairly common. 
5. Goniocotes hologaster, Nitzsch.—Uncommon. 
Melbourne (Victoria). 


“We are indebted to Mr. A. S. Le Souef for most of the Victorian. 
-material referred to in this paper. 
B 


18 ' A LIST OF MALLOPHAGA 


This species was referred to by DeGeer as Ricinus 
galling, which name therefore appears to have priority. 
Linneus, described a Pediculus galline (= Menopon galline), 
but soon afterwards DeGeer divided up the Linnean genus 
into Pediculus (including the blood-sucking species), and. 
Ricinus (including those which feed on epidermal structures). 
Thus P. galling L. should have become R. galline (L.), 
in which case R. galline DeGeer would be invalid, as it 
refers to a different species. DeGeer’s work is not avail- 
able to us, so that we do not know whether that author 
believed that he was referring to Linnzeus’ species, or whether 
he took no cognisance of P. galling L. and erected a new 
species, R. gallinew. We are thus unable to state whether 
the parasite should be termed Gc. galline (Geer), or Ge. 
hologaster (N.), though it seems to us that Nitzsch’s name 
is the more correct. 


7. Menopon galline (L.)—Syns. M. trigonocephalum 
(Olfers); MW. pallidum, Nitzsch. A common 
parasite. N.S.W., Victoria, Queensland, West 
Australia. 


8. Menopon stramineum, N.—Syn. M.  biseriatum, 
Piaget. Common—N.8.W., Victoria, Q’land. 


TuRKEY (Meleagris gallopavo). 


1. Lipeurus meleagridis (li.)—Syn. L. polytrapezius-. 
N. Sydney (N.S.W.) 


2. Goniodes stylifer, N. N.S.W., Victoria, Q’land. 


3. Menopon stramineum, N. N.S.W., Victoria, Q’land. 


GUINEA FowL. (Nwmida meleagris). 
1. Lipeurus caponis (L.)—Sydney (N.S.W.) 


2. Goniocotes rectangulus (Nitzsch), Burm.—Sydney. 
This species is usually quoted as Ge. rectangu- 
latus N., but the latter name is a synonym. 


PHEASANT (Phasianus colchicus). 
1. Lipeurus caponis (L.) Victoria. 


2. Goniodes colchici, Denny.—Syn G. colchicus, Giebel. 
Victoria. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 19 
Peacock (Pavo cristatus). 
1. Goniodes pavonis (L.)—Syn. G. falcicornis, Nitzsch, 
Melbourne, Sydney. 
SILVER PHEASANT. (Genneus nycthemerus.) 
1. Menopon  fulvomaculatum, Denny.—Syn. M. 
productum, Piaget. Victoria. 
PicEON (Columba livia dom.) 


1. Lipeurus columbe (L.)—Syn. LL. baculus, N, 
Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane. 


bo 


Goniodes (Coloceras) damicornis, Nitzsch. Sydney. 
3. Goniodes (Coloceras), piagetitnom. noy.—Syn. 
Gd. minor, Piaget (1880, p. 256), nec. Gd. dispar. 

var. minor, Piaget (1880, p. 248)*. 

4. Goniocotes bidentatus (Scopoli).—Syn. Ge. compar, 

Nitzsch. Sydney. 

5. Menopon giganteum, Denny.—Syn. M. latum, 

Piaget. Sydney. 

6. Colpocephalum  turbinatum, Denny.—Syn. C. 
longicaudum, Nitzsch (1866). Sydney. 

Inpian DOvE (T'urtur suratensis). A common bird in some 
Australian cities. . 

1. Goniocotes chinensis, Kellogg & Chapman. Sydney. 
Previously recorded only from Turtur chinensis, 
from Hawaii. 

GOosE (Anser domesticus). 

1. Lipeurus crassicornis (Olfers).—Syn. L. jejunus, 

Nitzsch. Victoria ; Sydney, Richmond (N.S.W.) 
DvccKk (Anas domestica). 


1. Lipeurus anatis (Fabr.)—Syn L. squalidus, N. 
Sydney, Melbourne. 


2. Menopon obscurum, Piaget. Sydney. 
Muscovy Duck. 


1. Lipeurus crassicornis (Olfers). Sydney. 


*According to Article 11, of the International Code of Zoological 
Nomenclature, ‘‘ specific and sub-specific names are subject to the same 
rules . . . . . . and frcm a nomenclatural standpoint, they are 
co-ordinate - that is, they are of the same value.” Hence our substitution 
of a new specific name for Piaget’s species. 


20 A LIST OF MALLOPHAGA 


Swan (Cygnus, dom.) 

1. Lipeurus crassicornis (Olfers). Victoria. 

2. Ornithobius fuscus, Le Souef (1902, p. 91)—Melbourne 

Zoological Gardens. 

3. Ornithobius cygni (L.) Victoria, Sydney. 
SrarLine (Sturnus vulgaris). 

1. Philopterus leontodon, Nitzsch. Sydney. 

2. Degeeriella nebulosa (Burmeister). Sydney. 

3. Menopon spinosum, Piaget. Sydney. 
SKYLARK (Alauda arvensis). 

1. Menopon parviceps, Piaget. Richmond,* (N.S.W.) 
‘OsTRICH (Struthio camelus). 

1. Lipeurus quadrimaculatus, Piaget. Richmond 


(N.S. W.). (In collection of Entomological 
Branch, Dept. of Agriculture, Sydney). 


MAMMALS. 


Ass (Equus asinus). 


1. Trichodectes pilosus, Giebel (nec. Piaget). Victoria. 
Horse (Equus caballus). = 
1. Trichodectes pilosus, Giebel. Victoria. Lea (1908, 
p. 105), refers to this species, but does not state 
whether it oceurs in Tasmania. Linneus (Syst. 
Nat. II., 1018), described Pediculus equi from the 
horse. In 1842, Denny (1842, p. 191), gave an 
account of a parasite which he regarded as belong- 
ing to Linneus’ form, as Trichodectes equi. In 
1874, Giebel (1874, p. 5S), described Tr. pilosus, 
ostensibly renaming 7'r. equi, Denny and Pediculus 
equi, Linn. Piaget (1880, p. 397), in 1880, 
separated Denny's 77. equi from Linneus’ form, 
redescribing the former as 7'r. parumpilosus, while 
on p. 395, he described what he believed to be 
Tr. pilosus, Giebel, giving as a synonym Pediculus 
equi, Linn. A little later, Taschenberg (1882, 
p. 214), stated that Piaget was correct in identify- 
ing Tr. equi, Denny with Tr. parumpilosus, and, 


Sen Nn en 
*We are indebted to Mr. C. T. Musson, of the Hawkesbury Agricul- 
tural College, Richmond, N.S.W., for specimens from this locality. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 2r 


moreover, after having examined’ Giebel’s 
specimens, was convinced that 7'r. pilosus, Giebel, 
was also synonymous with Tr. parumpilosus, 
Piaget. He went on to state that the two species. 
from horses should be quoted as 7'r. pilosus, Piaget, 
and 7'r. parumpilosus, Piaget. Taschenberg does. 
not appear to have recognized that pilosus was 
already preoccupied when Piaget adopted it. 
Railliet (1895, p. 835) quoted Tr. pilosus, Piaget, 
nec. Giebel, under the name T7'r. vestitus. 


The synonymy of the two species is thus :— 


(a) Pediculus equi, Linn. (6) Trichodectes equi, Denny,. 
Tr. pilosus, Piaget, nec. nec. Li: 
Giebel. Tr. pilosus, Giebel, nec. 
Tr. vestitus, Raill. ' Piag. 


Tr. parumpilosus. Piaget, 


From the foregoing it will be seen that Giebel, without 
any justification, renamed Denny’s and Linnzus’ species, 
believing both to be identical. It has since been shown 
that his description really referred to Denny’s form, and 
not to Pedic equi, Linn. His name thus accidentally 
becomes the valid one for 7'r. equi, Denny, nec. Linn., with 
Tr. parumpilosus, Piaget as synonym, while the Linnean 
species must stand for the less common parasite, T'r. equt 
(L.), with 7'r. pilosus, Piaget, nec. -Giebel and T'r. vestitus, 
Raill, as synonyms. It might be stated here that Piaget’s. 
names are those generally used, but from the above dis- 
cussion it will be seen that this should not be the case. 
Osborn (1891, p. 45-7) followed Piaget’s nomenclature. 


Ox (Bos taurus). 


1. Trichodectes bovis (L.)—Syn. Tr. scalaris, Nitzsch. 
N.S.W., Johnston, 1911, p. 217. Queensland. 
We have restored Linnzus’ specific name. 


SHEEP (Ovis aries). 


1. Trichodectes ovis (L.), Raill.—Syn. T'r. sphaeroece- 
phalus, Nitzsch, Victoria, N.S. Wales. -Lea (1908, 
p. 105), has recorded the presence of this species 
under Nitzsch’s name in Tasmania. 


22. A LIST OF MALLOPHAGA. 


Goat (Capra hircus). 

1. Trichodectes climax. Nitzsch, Victoria, Nitzsch’s 
name was published in 1818, but no description 
appeared (as far as we are aware) until Gervais 
published one in 1844. 

Cav (Felis domestica). 


l. 7. ichodectes subrostratus, Nitzsch. Victoria. 


GUINEA Pie (Cavia cobaia). 
1. Gyropus ovalis. Sydney. 
2. Gliricola porcelli (Schrank)—Syns. Gyropus gracilis, 
Nitzsch ; Gliricola gracilis, Mjoberg (1910, p. 18): 
We have reinstated Schrank’s name on account 
of its priority, even though it is very imapprop- 
priate.* 


LITERATURE. 
1909. Bradshaw, Farmers’ Bull. 15, Dept. Agr., N.S. W. 
1842. Denny, Monogr. Anoplur. Brit., London. 
1907. Froggatt, Australian Insects, Sydney. 
1874. Giebel, Insecta Epizoa, Leipzig. 
1911. Johnston, Proc. Roy. Soc., Queensland. 1911. p. 207. 
1912a Johnston & Harrison, Proc. Roy. Soc., Q’land. 1912, 
pp. 1—16. 
19126 Johnston & Harrison, the present paper. 
1908. Lea, Insect and Fungus Pests, ete., Edit. 3, Hobart. 
1902. Le Souef, Victorian Naturalist, xix., 1902. 
1767. Linnezus, Syst. Nat., IT. 
1910. Myjoberg, Arkiv. f. Zoologi., VI, (13). 
1818. Nitzsch, in Germar’s Mag. d. Entomol. 
1891. Osborn, Bull. 7., Dept. Agr., Entomol. Div., U.S.Az 
1880. Piaget, Les Pediculines, Leiden. 
1895. Railliet, Traité de Zool. Agric. Medic., Paris. 
1882. Taschenberg, Nova Acta. XLIV. (1), 1882. 


*Froggatt (1907), refers to some of Piaget’s and Le Souef’s species, but 
does not add any information regarding Australian Mallophaga, either 
mative or introduced. . 


¢ 


SUPPLEMENT TO THE LICHEN FLORA OF 
QUBENSLAND. | 


By JOHN SHIRLEY, D.Sc. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, May, 1912. 


The Lichen Flora of Queensland was published in 
1888-9. Parts I-III (6) appeared in Volumes V and VI, 
of the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland, 
Part IV, with Index and Supplement, was sprinted by 
Messrs. Pole & Outridge, in 1889. Since that time, a period 
of twenty-three years, many additional lichens have been 
recorded from this State by Dr. Jean Muller, of Geneva ; 
Dr. Chas. Knight, of New Zealand; Dr. James Stirton, 
of Glasgow; Rev. F. R. M. Wilson, and the author of this 
‘paper. 

These additions have been described in various 
scientific journals of Europe and Australia, and many 
have been recorded by our Government Botanist in his 
Bulletins, or in Extracts from the Queensland Agricultural 
Journal, 1890-1912. In these the sections dealing with 
lichens were of my drafting. 


As many Queensland lichens are recorded under 
incorrect names, and not infrequently under wrong genera, 
a revision is necessary, and as the Australian student 
cannot consult the whole of the works, a summary is 
required. This paper is an attempt to meet both these 
requirements. 

The reference following the name of each species gives 
to the student the name of an Australian  publiation 
in which a description may be found, with the habitat of the 
type specimen, and a means of obtaining other information. 


The classification is that of Dr. Jean Muller, of Geneva, 
who adopted the distinguishing title of Muller of Aargau, 
for which the abbreviation M.A. is used. 


/ 


24 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND. 
- LICHENS. 
CoLLeMAcEs, Mull. Arg. Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 18, and 
Lich. Socot. 
I. CoLLEME®, Korb., Par., p. 48. 


1. Obryzum, Wallr. These are lichens parasitic on species: 
of Collemez, and are now referred to Pyrenocarpez.. 
Lich., Great Brit., ii., 264-5. . 

O. myriopus f. isidiosum, Wilson. s. Coccocarpia pellita 
v. tncisa, M.A., Bot. Bull. viii., 97. 


”) 


2. Synechoblastus, Trev. 

S. mgrescens, Huds. s, Collema nigrescens, Huds..,. 
Lich. Fl. Q., p. 5. cael 

S. glaucophthalmus, M.A. 8s. C. leucocarpum, Tayl.; 
Lich. Fl. Q., p. 6. 

S. microcarpus, M.A. s. C. microcarpum, M.A., Lich. 
Bi a2.,. 2. 0. 

S. Gwytheri, Shirley.  s. C. Gwytheri, Stirton, Q.A.J.,, 
Nov., 1899. 


3. Physma, Mass., Neag., p. 8. 
P. byrsinum, M.A. s. C. byrsinum, Ach., Lich. FI- 
Q., p. 5. 
P. byrsinum v. amphiurum, M.A., Bot. Bull. iv., 23. 
4. Collema, Ach. (pro p.) 
C. hypolasium, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 


5. Leptogium, Fr. (pro p.) 

L. bullatulum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 23. 

L. cerulum, Wils., Bot. Bull. ii., p. 28.—Coccocarpra 
aurantiaca, Bot. Bull., viii., p. 97. 
Wilsoni, Shirley=L. denticulatum, Wils., a name 
already used by Nylander, Lich. Mey., 41. (See 
Bot. Bull. ii., 28.) 
L. sphinctrinum, Nyl., Bot. Bull. ii., 28. 
L. atro-viride, Wils.,-Bot. Bull. ii., 28. 
L. phyllocarpum v. isidiosum, Nyl., Bot. Bull. iii., 20. 
L. phyllocarpum v. dedalum, Nyl., Bot. Bull. v., 31. 
L 
LD 
L 
L 


S 


. tremelloides v. azureum (Ach.), Mnt., Bot. Bull. iii., 20. 
,. tremelloides v. isidiosa, M.A., Bot. Bull. viii., 91. 

. chloromelum, Nyl., Bot. Bull. i., 20. 

. hypotrachynum, M.A., Lich. Beit. xii., 12. 


BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.Sc. 25 
6. Leptogiopsis, M.A., L.B., 372. 
L. carneolum (Wils.), Shirley, Bot. Bull. ii., 28. 


1. MyrtIaneium, Mnt. et Berk. 
Now referred to Fungi. Lich. Fl., Great Brit., ii., 263. 


IT. EPICONIACE®, M.A., Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 18; 
and Lich. Socot. 


I. Canicrem®, Mull. Arg. Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 19. 


— 


. Trachylia, Fries. 
T. tricincta, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 31. 


2. Pyrgillus, Nyl. 
P. javanicus, Nyl. = P. australiensis, Wils., Bot. Bull., 
i, 31, and Calicium — stenosporum,  Wils., Bot. 
Bull, ii., 29. 
P. calicirsporus, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 31. 
P. fallax, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 31. 


oo 


. Acolium (Fee), De Not. 
A. buelliaceum, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 91. 


4, Calicium, Ach. 
C. trachelinum, Ach. =C. glebosum v. glaucescens, Wils. 
=C. glebosum v. concinnum, Wils, 
and C’, hymenosporum, Wils., Bot. Bull, ii., 30; 
Bot. Bull., viii., 91. 
. trachelinum v. queenslandie, Wils., Bot., Bull., ii., 30. 
. glebosum, M.A., Bot. Bull, v., 31. 
. pachypus, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 23. 
. chlorosporum, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 29. 
. fulvo-fuscum, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 29. 
atro-nitescens, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 30. 
. victoria, C.K., v. albo-carneum, Wils., Bot. Bull., 
ii., 30. 
. victoria, C.K., v. jejunum, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 30. 
. pretenue, Wils.,; Bot. Bull., ii., 30. 
. quercinum v. lenticulare, Ach., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 
. curtum, Borr., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 184. 


OES OO.G20 6 


oR eas) 


26 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND. 
III. LICHENACE, Mull. Arg. Lich. Soc., and Enum. 
Lich. -Gen:, ‘p. -18. 

I. SPHEROPHORES, M.A., Lich. Miy., p.120. 


1. Spherophoron, Pers. 
S. australe, Laur., Bot. Bull., iii., 20. 


11. TYLOPHORE®, Nyl., Prod. Lich. Nov. Gran., p. 430 as 
TYLOPHOREI. 


bo 


. Tylophoron, Nyl., Prod. Lich. Nov. Gran., p. 430. 
T. triloculare, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 92. 


mm. *CLADONIEZ, M.A., Enum. Lich. Gen.; p. 22. 


3. Stereocaulon, Schreb. 
S. proximum v. nudatum, M.A., Bot. Bull., ii., 21. 
S. ramulosum v. microcorpoides, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 31. _ 


4. Thysanothecium, Berk et Mnt. 
T. Hookerit, Berk et Mnt., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 


5. Cladonia, Hftm. 
s. Pheocarpe. 
C. fimbriata v. antilopea, M.A., Bot. Bull., ii., 21; 
vill., 92. 
C. fimbriata v. tenella, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 184. 
=C. delicata, Wilson, non. Flk. 
C. fimbriata v. chordalis, Flk., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 
C. fimbriata v. radiata, Fr. Lich. Fl. Q., p. 184. 
C. cartosa, Flk.=C. degenerans, Fr., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 
C. degenerans v. pleolepis, Flk., Bot. Bull., viii., 93. 
C. elegantula, M.A.=C. lepidula, Kremp. of Lich. Fl. Q., 
Pate 
C. furcata v. foliolosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 93. 
C. ochrochlora v. ceratodes, Flk., Bot. Bull., iv., 23. 
C. rangiformis v. sorediophora, Wain., Bot. Bull., iv., 23. 
C. squamosula, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 184. 
s. Erythrocarpe. 
C. macilenta v. flabellulata, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 93. 


Iv. THAMNOLIEZ, Mull. Arg., Lich. Miy., p. 121. 


6. Thamnolia, Sch. 
T. vermicularis, Sw., Bot. Bull., v., 31. 


*Given as an order of Lecideei in Lich. Flor. Great Brit. II, 2. 


- 


BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D SC. 7 2a 
v. Usnea, Th. M. Fries., Gen. Heter, p. 50. 


7. Usnea, Hftm. 

U. barbata v. asperrima, M.A.=Eumitria Baileyi, 
Stirton, B.B., ii., 21. 

U. barbata v. hirta, Fr. =U. florida v. articulata, Stirton, 
Bb. ni 2k . 

U. barbata v. scabrida (Tayl.), M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 21. 

U. barbata v. strigosa, Krph.=U. florida v. strigosa, 
Stirton, B.B., iii., 21. 

U. sublurida, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 

vi. RAMALINES, Th. M. Fries., Gen. Hetero., p. 50. 


8. Alectoria, Ach. 
A. australiensis, C.K., transferred to Fungi, having 
no gonidia. Bot. Bull, viii., 91. 


9. Ramalina, Ach. | 
R. gracilis, Nyl.=R. geniculata, Hook. et Tayl. (none 
perforate part), Lich. Fl. Q., p. 196. R. maculata. 
M.A., R. exiquella, Stirt., R. costata, Mey. et Flot. 
R. Eckloni, Mnt.=R. Yemensis, Ach., Lich. Fl. Q., 
p-- 196. 
R. Ecklonit v. tenuissima, Mey. et Flot., Bot. Bull., 
vili., 93. 
. Ecklonii v. membranacea (Mnt.), Laur., Bot. Bull, 
Hi.) 22 
. Eckloni v. ovalis, Tayl., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 
. dendriscoides, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 22. | 
. dendriscoides v..minor, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 22. 
. farinacea v. squarrosa, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 185. 
. fraxinea v. teenieformis, Ach., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 185. 
. inflata, Hook. et Tayl., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 185. 
. inflata v. gracilis, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 186. 
. inflata v. olivacea, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 93. 
R. letodea, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 22. 


10. Platysma, Hoffm. 
P. eriophyllum, C.WK.=Erioderma Knightii, Shirley. 


Sy 


thr rea > 


vul. PELTIGEREH, M.A., Lich. Gen., p. 29. 
11. Peltigera, Hoftm. 3 
P. polydactyla v. dissecta, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 93. 
12. Nephromium, Nyl. 
N. tropicum, M.A., Lich. Beit., 559. 


28 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND. 


yiu. PARMELIE, Mull. Arg., Lich. Parag., p. 3; and Lich. 
Gen., p. 3l. 


13. Stictina, Nyl. 
S. argyracea f. isidiosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24. 
. punctillaris, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24. 
. fragillima v. linearis, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 188. 
. fragillima v. dissecta, M.A.=S. fragillissima, Kremp. 
S. intricata, Stirton (non Del.) =S. crocata v. esorediata, 
M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 23.; Bot. Bull., viii., 94. 
S. intricata v. Thouarsii, Nyl.=S. pustulosa, Wilson. 
S. cinnamomea, Rich.=S. fragillima, Nyl., Lich. Fl. Q., 
p. 196. 

S. impressula, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 189. 

S. impressula v. sublevis, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24. 

S. suborbicularis, M.A.=S. subtomentella, C.K., and 
S. macrophylla, of various authors. Bot. Bull, 
vill., 94. 

S. quercizans, Ach.=S. tomentella, Leighton (non Ach.), 
Bot. Bull., viii., 94. 

S. cyphellulata, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 189. 

S. fuliginosa, Nyl., Bot. Bull., viii., 94. 

S. brevipes, M.A.=S. marginifera, Tayl., Lich. Fl. Q., 
p. 55; Bot. Bull., vii, 94. 

S. retigera, M.A.=Lobaria retigera, Ach., Lich. Beit., 74- 


14. Sticta, Ach. 

S. pulmonacea, M.A.=Lobaria pulmonacea, Ach., Lich. 
Hi Qi). oss 

S. variabilis v. papyracea, M.A., Bot. Bull., viil., 94. 

S. demutabilis, Krph., Bot. Bull., 11., ep 8 

S. carpolomoides, Nyl., Bot. Ball. ni: 2a. 

S. dichotomoides, Nyl.=S._ stipitata, Wils., and S-. 
camare, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 196. 

S. Sayeri, M.A., Lich. Fl Q., p. 191. 

S. Seemanni, Bab., Bot. Bull., viii, 94. 

S. fiix v. myrioloba, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 31. 

S. glaucescens, Krph., Bot. Balk, im: Za. 

S. aurata v. microphylla, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 190. 

S. endochrysea v. flavicans, M.A.=S. flavicans, Hook. 
et Tayl., Bot. Bull., viii, 94. 

S. Richardi, Hook., to be separated from S. Billardiert, 
Del., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 62; Lich. Beit, 566. 


15. 


16. 


BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.Sc. 29 


S. sulphurea, Schaer, Lich. Fl. Q., p. 190. 

S. Karstenti, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 190. 

S. Karstenii v. linearis, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q.. p- 191. 

S. impressa, Hook. et Tayl.=S. physciospora, Nyl., 
and S. Bornetii, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 94. 


~ 


Riascolia, De Not: 


R. erosa, Eschw., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 

R. Ravenelit, Tuck., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 

Rk. patinifera, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 191. 

R. hypoleuca, M.A.=S. hypoleuca, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., 
2a 6 


Parmelia, Ach. 


P. tinctorum, Despr.=P. euplecta, Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q., 
p- 36; and P. pretervisa, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 23. 

. cetrarioides, Del., Queens. Ag. Jour., Nov.. 1899. 

. laceratula v. minor, Shirley, Bot. Bull., v., 32. 

. tenuirima, Tayl., Bot., Bull, viii., 95. 

. tenuirima v. corallina, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 186. 

latissima v. ciliata, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 23. 

. latissima, Fee.=P. platycarpa, Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q., 
p. 39. 

. hypoxantha, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 

. placorhodioides, Nyl., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 

. cetrata v. sorediifera, Wain., Bot. Bull., viii., 94. 

. corrugis v. sorediata, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 24. 

perforata, Ach.=P. reparata, Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q.. 40. 

perforata v. ciliata, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 24. 

encausta, Ach., Q.A.J.. Nov., 1899. 

perlata v. ciliata, D.C., Bot. Bull, viii., 95. 

. perlata v. olivaria, Ach., Bot. Bull., iii., 24. 

. Hookeri, Tayl., Bot. Bull., viii., 95. 

. tiliacea v. afixa, Strn., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 

. tihacea v. rugulata, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24. 

=P. caperatula, Stirton (non Nyl.), Bot. 

Bull. viii., 95. 

. tiliacea v. stenophylla, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q.. p. 186. 

. tiliacea v. sulphurosa, Tuck., Bot. Bull., viii., 95. 

. meizospora, Nyl.=P. tiliacea v. meizospora, Ny)., 
Bot. Bull., viii., 95. 

P. pruinata, M.A., Lich. FI. Q., p. 188. 


wey yyw ety WD 


a wee 


30 


“Se ty 


wire: 


aria a Baia a aa 


LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND. 


. pretervisa, M.A.=P. tinctorum, Despr., Bot. Bull., 


vili., 95. 


. conspersa f. exasperata, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 188. 
. conspersa v. hypocleistordes, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 24. 
. adpressa, Krph.=P. amplexula, Stirton, Bot. Bull., 


vill., 95. 


. rutidota f. sorediosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 95. 

. limbata v. endococcinea, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 186- 
. gracilis, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 187. 

. limbata, Laur.=P. insinuata, Knight (non Nyl.), 


Bot. Bull., viii, 95; Lich. Fl. Q., p. 47. 


. virens, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 187. 


virens v. sorediata, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 188. 


. hypoxantha v. major, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 187. 


hospitans, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 188. 


. eciliata, Nyl., Bot. Bull, v., 32. 

. physodes v. pulverata, M.A., Bot. Bull., vin., 95. 
. urceolata v. sorediifera, M.A., Bot. Bull. v., 32. 

. urceolata v. subcetrata, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 32. 


17. Theloschistes, Norm. (Pseudophyscia, Lich. Beit., 1503). 


qT, 


if. 


chrysophthalma v. leucoblephara, M.A.=T. velifer, 
Wils., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 193, as Physcia. 

flavicans v. croceus (Ach.), Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 24, 
as Physcia. 


18. Anaptychia, Korb., Fl. 1861, p. 32. 


A. 


A. 


barbijera, Nyl.=P. barbifera, Nyl., Lich. Fl. Q., 
De Tks | 

comosa, Trev.=P. comosa v. alata, Wils, and 
Theloschistes comosa v. alata, Shirley, Bot. Bull, 
ii., 32. ; Bot. Ball., v., 32; Bot. Bull, viu., 95-6. 
leucomelena, Trev.=P. leucomela, Lich. Fl. Q., 
p. 70, Bot. Bull., viii., 95-6. 


. speciosa v. hypoleuca f. sorediifera, M.A., Bot. Bull, 


viil., 95-6. 


. speciosa v. sorediosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., vili., 95-6. 
_ obesa v. caesio-crocata, Tuck., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 71, as 


Physcia. 


19. Physcia, Fr. (pro. p.) 


: = 
Ce 


picta v. isidiophora, Nyl., Bot. Bull, ii., 24. 
picta v. sorediata, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 24. 


- BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 31 


Ix. PyxingE@, M.A., Lich. Parag., ‘p. 6; Bot. Soc., 
p. 356. 


20. Pyxine, Fr. 
P. endochrysina, Nyl., Bot. Bull., viii., 96. 
P. cocoes v. endoxantha, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 24. 
P. meissneri v. endoleuca, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 96. 
P. meissnert v. sorediosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii. 96. 


x. Psorome, Nyl., Syn. II., 21 (ex. Gymnoderma), and 
M.A., Lich. N.Z.; p. 41. 


21. Psoroma, Fr. 
P. pholidotum, M.A.=Pannaria pholidota, Nyl., Lich. 
FI. Q., p. 196. 
P. sphinctrinum, Nyl.=P. contortulum, Wils. 
P. cesium, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 193. 
P. Karstenii, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 193. 


XI. PANNARIEX, Korb., Syst., p. 105. 


bo 
bo 


. Pannaria, Del. 

P. mariana=P. pannosa, Nyl.=P. cervina, Kremp., 
Lich: - Fl)-Q:,.p..) FSi yekichy) Beit... 243); Lich. 
Beit, 1159; Lich. Fl. Q., p. 196. 

P. elatior, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 

P. terrestris, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 

P. mariana f. isidiosa, M.A.=P. pannosa f. isidioidea 
M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 96. 

P. fulvescens, Mnt., Lich. FI. Q., p. 193. 

P. brisbanensis, C.K., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 194. 

P. sordida, C.K., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 194. 


> 


23. Heppia, Nyl. 
H. brisbanensis, Wilson. Bot. Bull, ii., 32. 


24. Erioderma, Fee, Lich. Schenk. —. 
E. Knightii, Shirley=Platysma eriophyllum, C.K. 
Bot. Bull., viii., 96. 


xl. PARMELIELLEH, M.A., Lich. Cath., p. 239. 
25. Parmeliella, M.A., Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 36. 
P. triptophylla, M.A.=Pannaria triptophylla, Ach., 
Lich. Fl. Q., p. 80. 
P. nigro-cincta, M.A.=Puannaria nigro-cincta, Mnt., 
Lich. Fl. Q., p. 81. . 


bd 
1 


30. 


ol. 


32. 


+ 
LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND. 


xi. CoccocaRPIE®, M.A., Lich. Schenk. 


. Coccocarpia, Pers. 


C. molybdea, Pers., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 
C. pellita v. incisa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 97. 
C. pellita v. isidiophylla, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24. 


hes = 


CO. pellita v. smaragdina, M.A.=C. smaragdina, Pers., 


Bot. Bull., viii., 97. 


xiv. PLacopiE®, M.A., Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 37. 


. Amphiloma, Fr. 


A. murorum, M.A. = Placodium murorum, Korb. Lich., 


Fl. Q., p. 85. 


. Placodium, D.C. 


P. clavigerum, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 
P. galactinum v. dispersum, Pers., Bot. Bull., iii., 25. 
P. glauco-lividum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24. 


xv. Psore#, M.A., Lich. Parag., p. 8. 


. Phyllopsora, M.A. 


P. breviuscula, M.A.=Psora parvifolia, 'Tuck., Bot. 


Bull., iii., 25 : and P. foliata v. atro-virens, C. K. 


P. foliata, Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q., p. 105, as Lecidea. 


Psora, M.A. 
P. parvifolia, M.A.=Lecidea parvifolia, Pers., Lich, 


PL 4d; yw. 2 06. 


P. parvifolia v. fibrillifera, Nyl., Bot. Bull, v., 33. 
P. parvifolia v, subgranulosa, M.A., Bot. Bull.. viii., 97. 


Ph 


subhyalina, Shirley=Lecidea subhyalina, Stirton, 
Lich. Fl. Q., p. 106. 


Thalloidima, M.A. 


Mish 


caeruleo-nigricans, M.A.=L. caeruleo-nigricans, 
Lghtf., Bot. Bull., viii., 97. 


Xvi. LECANORE, M.A., Lich. Socot., p. 358. 


Lecanora, Ach. 


SESE SE Si SEs 


s. Hulecanora, M.A. 


. lacteola, M.A., Bot. Bull., vii., 97. 
. subfusca v. cinereo-carnea, Tuck., Bot. Bull.. viii., 98. 
. subfusca v. conjungens, M.A., Bot. Bull., xii., 19. 

. subfusca v. compacta, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii, 2 
. subfusca v. allophana, Ach., Bot. Bull., i., 2 
. subfusca v. distans, Nyl., Bot. Bull, vin., 9 


Or 


is 


12 


‘33. 


34. 


35. 


36. 


_ BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 35 


. subjusca v. subgranulata, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iv., 25. 

. subfusca v. testaceo-pallida, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 97. 

. subpurpurea, Strn., Q.AJ., Nov., 1899. 

. granifera, Ach. (non. Krph.), Bot. Bull, tii., 25. 

caesto-rubella, Ach., Bot. Bull., iii., 25. 

. interjecta, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 25 ; viii., 98. 

connivens, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 25. 

atra v. serialis, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 19. 

. albellaria, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 19. 

. flavido-fusca, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 20. 

. Knightiana, M.A., Bot. Bull, xii., 20. 

. melacarpella, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 20. 

. rhodophthalma, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 32. 

s. Aspicilia, M.A. 

A. impressa, Kremp.= Lecanora levissima, C.K., B.B., 
vil., 99. 

A. melanommata, C.1K.=Lecanora melanommata, C.K., 
EQ: \p. 91. 4 

s. Ochrolechia, Mass., for s. Lecanorastrum, L.F.Q., 
94. 


SESS SE SESE SESH Si Si sists 


Lecania, Mass., Lich. Scand., p. 11. 

L. pheoplaca, Strn., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. . 

L. punicea, M.A.=Lecanora punicea, Ach., Lich. Fl. Q., 
p. 93. 


Callopisma, De Not. 

C. connabarinum v. opacum, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 98. 
C. conjungens, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 98. 

CO. rubens, M.A:, Bot. Bulli, iv., 25. 


Rinodina, M.A. 

R. xanthomelana, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 25. 

R. diffractella, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv:, 25. 

R. rhypoderma (M.A.), Shirley, Bot. Bull., iv., 25: 
Lich. Brisb., 51. 

R. minutula, M.A., Bot. Bult, iii., 26. 


Pertusari@, D.C. 

. albinea, M.A., Bot. Bull, xiii., 22. 
amblygona, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 21. 

. commutata, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 98. 

. confluens, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 22. 

. depressa v. octomera, M.A., Bot: Bull., viii., 98. 
. elliptica, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 21. 


py 


38. 


39. 


ve WIA 


LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND. XN 


P. globulifera, Nyl., Bot. Bull., viii., 98. 

P. irregularis, M.A., Bot. Bull, xiii., 22. 

P. leucoxantha, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 21. 

P. lactea, Nyl.=P. sorediata, C.K., Bot. Bull., viii., 98. 
P. leiocarpella, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 21. 

P. leioplaca v. gibbosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 33. 

P. leioplaca v. octospora, Nyl., Bot. Bull. v., 33. 

P. iewcostoma, M.A., Bot. Bull., xii., 21. 

P. macra, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 22. 

P. meridionalis v. xanthostoma, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 26. 
P. multipuncta, Turner, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 

P. persulphurata, M.A., Bot. Bail; 1v2 5. 25. 

P. plicatula, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii, 21. 

P. rhodotropa, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 20. 

P. straminea, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 22. 

P. sulphurata, M.A., Bot. Bull, vii., 98. 

P. subvaginata, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 26. 

P. subrigida, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 21. 

P. Wuljenti, D.C., Bot. Bull., iii., 27. 


. Diploschistes, Norm. (Urceolaria, Ach.) 


D. actinostomus, Zahl= Urceolaria actinostoma, Scher., 
Bot. Bull, iii, 26; and Lecidea clausa, C.K., 
Lich. Fl. Q., p. 123. 


xvul. GyaLecte@, M.A. Lich. Parag., p. 12. 

Gyalectidium, M.A. 

G. phyllocharis, M.A.=L. phyllocharis, Mnt., Lich. 
FL Q., p. 115: Bot. Bull., vii., 99. 

G. filicinum, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii, 99. 


xvul. LecipEs, M.A., Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 50. 


Lecidea, Ach. 
s. Eulecidea.—Apothecia lecideine ; spores, 8 
simple ; hypothecium coloured. 
L. ferax, M.A., v. geographica, M.A. Bot; Bull, xing 
23: 
L. albo-cerulescens, Wuli.=L. subnubila, Stirton, Lich. 
Fl. Q., p. 108; Bot. Bull., vii., 99. 
L. cinerascens, A.L.8.,=L. speirea, Ach., Lich. Fl. Gt. 
Brit., ii., 73. 
s. Lecidella.—Apothecia lecideine: spores 8, 
simple ; hypothecium hyaline. 


> 


40). 


L. 


. leptoloma, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 27. 
. piperis, Spreng., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 194. 
. piperis v. melanocarpa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 100. 


BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 35 


. angolensis, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 27. 


s. L. ocellifera, Nyt, Lich. Jap., p. 70. 


. nesophila, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 23. 


s. Biatora.—Apothecia biatorine, spores 8, simple. 


. aspidula v. dispersa, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 22. 
. nsulana, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 22. 
. exigua, Chaub., Bot. Bull, iii., 27: 


impressw, Krph., Bot. Bull, iii, 27; given as 
Lecidella, Lich. Cost. Riec., ii., 18. 


. impressa v. angulosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 26. 


s. Biatoreila, M.A., Apothecia biatorine, spores 
numerous, simple. | 
hematina, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 26. 


Patellaria, M.A. 


"oT 


ga i a 


s. Biatorina.—Apothecia biatorine, spores small, 
uniseptate. 


. melaclina, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 100. 


s. Psorothecitum.—Apothecia lecideine-biatorine ; 
spores large, uniseptate. 


. flavicans, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 26. 
. melanodermia, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 26. 
. Taitensis v. epiglauca, Nyl., Bot. Bull., v., 33. 


s. Catillaria.-—Apothecia lecideine-biatorine, finally 
convex and immarginate, spores 8, uniseptate. 


. albo-flavicans, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 100. 


s. Bilimbia.—Apothecia lecideine-biatorine; spores 
3 to many-celled, finger or rod-shaped. 
nodulosa, Shirley. s. L. nodulosa, Stirton Q.A.J., 
Nov., 1899. 


. spheroides, Dicks., Bot. Bull., v., 33. 

. leucoblephara, Nyl., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 195. 

. triseptata, Hepp., Bot. Bull., iii., 27. 

. luteola v. conspondens, Nyl., Q:A.J., Nov., 1899. 

. vinicolor, Shirley. s. L. vinicolor, Stirton, Q.A.J., 


Nov., 1899. 

s. Bombyliospora.—Apothecia lecideine-biatorine ; 
spores shaped and divided like a bee’s body : 
5 to many-septate. 


36 


41. 


a ee 


LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND. 


P. fusco-luteum. M.A.=L. fusco-lutea, Dicks.. L.F.Q.. 
plis: 
P. domingensis v. ineaplicata, M.A., Bot. Bull, iii, 
28. 
P. vulpinum, Tuck.=L. domingensis v. gyrosa, Stirton, 
Lich FE Qpe ali 
s. Bacidia.—Spores acicular, 3 topluriseptate. 
_ intermiata, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 100. 
. millegrana, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 100. 
millegrana v. fusco-nigrescens, M.A.. Bot. Ball, 
Viii:< “LOO: 
P. rhodocardis, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 26. 
P. entodiaphana, C.K., Bot. Bull., i., 28. 
s. Scoliosporum.—Spores blunt at one end and 
pointed at the other, 3 to pluriseptate. 
P. multiseptata, Shirley, Bot. Bull, v., 33. 
Blastenia, M.A. 
B. ochroleuca, M.A., Bot. Bull, xiii., 23. 


maa 


41 (a) Buellia, De Not. Spores brown, bilocular. 


42. 


_ rimulosa, M.A., Bot. Bull, vin., 101. 

_ subareolata, M.A., Bot. Bull., viu., 100. 
subarenaria, M.A., Bot. Bull., viri., 100. 

lactea, Korb., Bot. Bull, i., 29. 

parasema v. rugulosa, Korb., Bot. Bull., 1i., 28. 
parasema v. saprophila, Korb., Bot. Bull, ii., 28, 
parasema v. vulgata, Th. Fr.; Bot: Bulls! ieee 
_tetrapla, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., Shirley ; Lich. War., p. 3. 
. tetrapla v. nigro-cincta, M.A., Bot. Bull.; viva 

_ modesta, M.A., Bot. Bull., i., 28. 

_ amblygona, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii, 23. 

. innata, M.A., Bot. Bull., 21., 29. 

_ lauri-cassie, Fee., Bot. Bull., 11., 28. 

. macrosporoides, M.A., Bot. Bully xiii: 

. placomorpha, Stirton, Q:. A.J.,. Nov;-189o: 
sanguinolenta, Shirley=L. sanguinolenta, Stirton, 
Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. . 

. glomerella, Shirley=L. glomerella, Stirton, Q.A.J.. 
Nov., 1899. 


who bb bbb bbb 


& 


Heterothecium, Flot. (pro. p. Mass.) 

H. vulpina, Tuck. s. L. domingensis vv. gyrosa, 
Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q:, p: IN7:: Bot. Bullewag 
101. 


44. 


45. 


46. 


BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. BT 


. vulpina v. corallinum, M.A., Bot. Bull. iv., 27. 

. vulpina v. glaucescens, Nyl., Bot. Bull., v., 33. 

_ fusco-luteum, M.A. s. L. fusco-lutea, Dicks., Lich. 
FQ), pi 116 Bere Balls wan; 101, 

. pulchrum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 27. 

. biferum, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 34. 


re es 


3. Rhizocarpon, M.A. 


R. geographicum v. cyclopicum, Nyl. 

S. L. geographica v. cyclopica, Nyl., Lich. Fl. Q., 
p. 123: 

xix. *Connoconigem®, M.A., Lich. Parag., p. 18. 

Coenogonium, Ehrenh. 

C. confervoides, Nyl. s. C. interpositum, Nyl., Bot 
Bull., vii., 101. 

C. implexum, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iv.. i: 

C’. moniliforme, Tuck., Bot. Bull., i1., 29. 


xx. BIATORINOPSIDE®, Mull. Arg., Lich. Parag, p. 18. 


Biatorinopsis, M.A. 
B. planella, Nyl., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 196. 
B. zonata, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 27. 


XxI. THELOTREMES, M.A., Graph., Fee., p. 5. 

Ocellularia, M.A., L. B., 365. 

O. annulosa, M.A., Bot., Bull, xiii., 24. 

O. Bailey, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 29. 

O. cricota, Wils. s. Phaeotrema cricotum, M.A., Bot. 
Bullies 82; vali 102: 

O. diffractella, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 29. 

O. endomelena, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 101. 

O. goniostoma, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 29. 

O. jugalis, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 24. 

O. leucotylia, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 91. 

O. pulchra, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 29. 

O. phlyctioides, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 101. 

O. platychlamys, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 24. 

O. xantholeuca, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 29. 

O. zeorina; M.A.. Bot. Bull., iv., 28. 


47. Phaeotrema, M.A., Graph. Fee, p. 10. 


*In Lich. Fl, Great Brit.. 1, 2, placed with Lecidex. 


P. cricota, M.A. s. Ocellularia cricota, Wilson, Bot- 
Bull., viii., 102. 


38 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND. 


48. Thelotrema, M.A., Graph. Fee, pp. 10-11. 
T. albo-coronatum, C.K. s. 7. cwpulare, M.A., Bot. 
Bull., vin, 102: 
. argenteum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 28. 
. bicuspidatum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 28. 
. cyphelloides, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 24. 
. endoxanthum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 28. 
. inturgescens, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii, 102. 
. megalosporum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 28. 
. microphthalmum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii, 24. 
. profundum, Shirley, Bot. Bull., xii., 24. 
T. rimulosum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 28. 


49. Leptotrema, M.A., Graph. Fee, p. 12. 

. emulum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 25. 

. diffractum, M.A., Bot. Bull. iv., 27. 

. compunctum, Nyl., Bot. Bull., viii., 102. 


om fs Ee ele Pape ie [arm 


a ee ee 


. monosporum, C.K. s. Thelotrema monosporum, ee 
lpn 2: (pe IS 
. nitidulum, ar Bot;. Boils citi; 25: 
. patulum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 25. 
. polycarpum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xili., 25. 
XXII. GRAPHIDE®, M.A., os a Fee, p. 13., and Bot. Soce., 
p. 372 


eae 


50. Tremotylium, M.A. 
T. nitidulum, M.A., Bot. Bulls; viii., 103: 


51. Platygrapha, Ny|. 
P. Shirleyana, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 25. 


52. Opegrapha, Ny}. 

s. Huopegrapha, M.A., Lirelle lecideine, always 
oblongate, not thalline-margined : perithecium 
complete ; gonidia chroolepoid. 

O. grossulina, M.A., Bot. Bull., i., 29. 

O. prosodea, Ach., Bot. Bull., xiii., 26. 

O. interveniens, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 30. 

O. Bonplandi v. abbreviata, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii, 102. 

s. Lecanactis, M.A. As in Euopegrapha, but 
lirelle always when young orbicular, sub- 
lecideine, at length oblongate, no thalline 
margin, but often pulverulent : perithecium 
complete; base incrassate; lips laterally 
emergent. 


OSS 


BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 39 


. varia v. diaphora, Nyl., Bot. Bull, viii., 102. 

. vulgata v. subsiderella, Nyl., Bot. Bull., vii., 102. 
. lacteella, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 26. 

. minutula, M.A., Bot. Bull., xili., 26. 


53. Melaspilea, M.A. 


M. 


s. Holographa, M.A. Perithecium complete, lips 
connivent ; disk rimiform. 


. operaphoides, Nyl., Lich. Nov. Gran., p. 487, No. 92, 


as Opegrapha. 


leucina, M.A. s. O. lewcina, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q.? 

p. 135. 

s. Hemigrapha, M.A., Perithecium with base 
wanting; lips connivent; disk rimitorm- 
angulate. 


asteriscus, M.A., Bot. Bull., ii., 29. 

s. Eumelaspilea, M.A. Perithecium at the base 
complete ; lips rather small, at length distant 
or widely gaping; disk wide. 


. congregans, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 30. 
. intrusa, M.A. s. Opegrapha intrusta, Stirton, Lich. 


Fl. Q., p. 135. 


. congregantula, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 26. 


s. Melaspileopsis, M.A., Lich. Parag., p. 20. 


. stellaris., M.A., Bot. Bull., xii., 26. 


54. Graphis (Ach.), M.A. 


s. Aulacographa, M.A. Perithecium black, base 
complete; lips  connivent: ‘longitudinally 
suleate ; disk rimiform, black. 


. descissa, M.A., Bot. Bull:, xiii., 27. 
. rimulosa v. pulverulenta, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iv., 30. 
. rimulosa v. brachycarpa, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 27. 


s. Solenographa, M.A. Perithecium black, com- 
plete, not at all sulcate ; disk narrow, black, 
subrimiform. 


. emersa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 103. 


s. Hugraphis, M.A. Perithecium black, wanting 
beneath the lamina ; lips connivent, not at all 
sulcate; disk narrow, commonly rimiform, 
subnigrous. | 


. albissima, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 27. 
. tmmersella, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 27. 


40 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND. 


G. Lineola, Ach., Bot. Bull., viii., 103. . 
i. scripta v. recta, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iv., 31. 

s. Aulacographa, M.A. Perithecium black, wanting 
beneath the lamina about the middle part of 
the lirella; lips connivent, longitudinally 
sulcate ; disk subrimiform and_ subnigrous. 

G. duplicata, Ach., Bot. Bull., viii., 103. 
G. dwplicata v. sublaevis, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 103. 
G. vinosa, M.A.,: Bot. Bull., xiui.; 27. 
s. Phanerographis, M.A. Perithecium complete ; 
disk at length opening widely, plane. 
G. semiaperta, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 31. 
s. Fissurina, M.A. Perithecium pallid, more or 
. __ less erumpent ; disk pallid ; spores 4-locular. 
G. albo-nitens, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 30. 
G. insidiosa, M.A., Bot. Ball., viii., 103. 
G. laevigata, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 30. 

s. Chlorographu, M.A. Perithecium pallid ; disk 

subplane, pallid ; loculi of spores more than 4. 
G. Baileyana, M.A., Bot. Bull., viti., 103. 

s. Diplographis, M.A. Lirelle with lips closely 
connivent, longitudinally suleate, not at all 
black ; spores 2-4-locular. 

G. robustior, M.A., Bot. Bull. iv., 31. 

s. Mesographis, M.A. Perithecium sulcate/ above 

black, within coloured ; epithecium rimiform. 
G. xanthospora, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 27. 


55. Pheographis, M.A., L. B., 454, 531. 
s. Anisothecitum, M.A., Perithecium black, base 
wanting ; disk subrimiform, narrow. 
P. epimelena, M.A., Bot. Buil., xiii, 28. s. Graphs 
malacodes, Stirton, non. Nyl.. Lich. Fl. Q.._p- 
143. 


56. Graphina, M.A. 

s. Solenographina, M.A. Perithecium black, com- 

plete ; lips not suleate ; disk rimiform, black. 
G. saxicola, M.A. s. G. olivaceo-lutea, C.K., Lich. FI. 

QO: ana Aap: 

s. Aulacographina, M.A. Perithecium black, base 
incomplete, wanting beneath the lamina ; 
lips longitudinally sulcate; disk rimiform, 
black. 


a 


G. 


ae 


a: 


- 


BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 4] 


sophistica v. recta, M.A., Bot. Bull., xin., 28. 
subvelata, Shirley. s. Graphis subvelata, Stirton, 
Q.A.J.. Nov., 1899. 

tenwrima, Shirley. Bot. Bull., v., 34. 

s. Platygrammina, M.A. Perithecium fuscous or 
pallid, base wanting; disk widely aperient, 
subplane, pallid, clothed with a thin thalline 
vestment. 


quassiaecola, M.A. s. Graphina pyelodes, Wils., Bot. 

Ball, .4di.n32 Paves. 

s. Platygraphina, M.A. Apothecia and = disk 
thickly albido-thalline clothed ; perithecium 
brown or pallid or almost indistinct, base 
complete, everywhere thin; disk broad, flat, 


pallid. 


. simulans, M.A., Bot. Bull., 11., 29. 


s. Medusulina, M.A. Lirelle gregariously crowded, 
not subsequently dispersed. 


. egenella, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 31. 


Pheographina, M.A. 

s. Eleutheroloma, M.A. Perithecium wanting or 
hyaline under the lamina, elsewhere black 
or olivaceo-fuscous or evanescent; lips at 
length distant, thin; disk wide, subplane, 
nigro-fuscous. 

caesio-pruinosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., i., 20. 


. caesio v. monospora, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 28. 


s. Homoloma, M.A.  Perithecium fusco-nigrous, 
not sulcate or thalline clothed ; base complete, 
margins thick ; disk black and narrow. 

assimilis, Shirley, Lich. Fl. Q., p. 195. 

s. Chrooloma, M.A.  Lirelle clothed with thalline 
stratum, wholly pallid, or golden or brown ; 
margins thick, connivent, beneath the thallus 
profoundly longitudinally  sulcate; = disk 
narrow, pallid. 

chrysentera, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 31. 
contexta, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 32. 


b). Helminthocarpon, Fee. 


H. Baileyanum, M.A., Bot. Bull. xiii., 29. 


/ #, 


42 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND. 
58. Arthonia, Ach. 
A. albofarinosa, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 
A. amoena, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 29. 
A. gracilior, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 29. 
Ay rubeella, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 29. 
A. subgyrosa, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 30. 
A. gregaria v. adspersa, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii.,. 30. 
A. gregaria v. purpurea, Esch., Bot. Bull., iv., 32. 
A. leptospora, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 32. 
59. Arthothelium, Mass. 
A. eribrosa, Fee., Bot. Bull., iv., 32. 
4. favulosa v. depauperata, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 32. 
A. fevulosa v. intermedia, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 30. 
4. microsporum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 29. 
A. polycarpum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 29. 
A. puniceum, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 104. 
60. Mycoporellum, M.A. 
M. perexiguum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 32. 
61. Asterotrema, M.A. 
A. punctuliforme, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 30. 
XXII. GLYPHIDE®, M.A. 
62. Sarcographa, Fee. 
S. subtricosa, M.A. s. S. actincta, Wils., Bot. Bull. 
vili., 104. 
S. subtricosa v. pulverulenta, Shirley. s. S. actinota f, 
pulverulenta, Wilson, Bot. Bull, ii., 33. 
S. oculata, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 30. 
63. Chiodecton, Ach. 
CO. endoleucum, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 104. 
C. hamatum, Nyl., Bot. Bull., xiii., 30. 
C. spherale, Ach.  s. C. stromaticum, C.K., Lich. FI. 
Q.\.p. 157 
C. virens, M.A:, Bot. Bull., xiii., 30. 
XXII. (a) NYLOGRAPHIDE®, Th. M. Fries. 
64. Diplogramma, M.A. 
D. australiensis, M:A., Bot. Bull., iv., 33. 


iV. PYRENOCARPE, “M.A., Consp. Syst. N.Z., p. Td. 


I. DERMATOCARP, M.A., Pyreno. Cub., p. 377. 


1. Dermatocarpon, Eschw. Syst., p. 21 (pro. p.) 
D. miniatum, Th. M. Fries, Bot: Bull., x., 28. 


BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 43 
II. STRIGULEH, M.A., Pyr. Cub., p. 378. 
2. Strigula, Fr. 
S. Glaziovi, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 61. 
S. elegans v. eumorpha, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 104. 
S. elegans v. pertenius, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 104. 


It. PYRENUL&, M.A., Pyr. Cub., p. 381. 
Sub-tribe 1. Astrotheliew, Trev., Syn. Gen. Tryp., p. 22. 
3. Parmentaria, Fee., Meth., p. 24. 
astroidea, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 104. 

. Baileyana, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., p. 34. 
. grossa, M.A., Bot. Bull’, x:, 35. 
. nterlatens, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 35. 
. subastroidea, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 35. 
. subastroidea v. subsimplex, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 35, 
toowoombensis, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 35. 
Sub-tribe 2. Pleurotheliew, M.A., Pyr. Cub., jp. 387. 
4. Pleuwrothelium, M.A., Pyr. Cub., 387. 
P. australiense, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 33. 
5. Parathelium, Nyl., Bot. Zeit., 1862, p. 279. 
P. decumbens, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 105. 
P. fibrata, Shirley. s. Verrucarria fibruta, Stirton, 
Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 
6. Pleurotrema, M.A., Pyr. Cub., p. 388. 
P. pyrenuloides, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 15. 


7. Campylothelium, M.A., Lich. Beit., 595. 
C. defossum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 30, and iv., 33. 


C. ntidum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii, 30, and iv., 33. 
Sub-tribe 3. Trypetheliew, M.A., Pyr. Cub., 389. 


8. Trypethelium, Trev., Syn. Tryp., p. 19. 
. anomalum, Ach., Bot. Bull., v., 34. 
. infuscatum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 34. 
. tropicum v. nigratum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 34. 
. virgineum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 34. 
. eleuterie v. citrinum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 30. 
. oligocarpum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 33. 
9. Bathelium, Trev. Syn. Gen. Tryp., p. 21. 
B. chrysocarpum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34. 
10. Bottaria, Mass., Misc. Lich., p. 42. 
B. umbilicata, M.A. ss. Trypethelium umbilicatum, 
©. Be. Bats Balls ae 34. 


Sila iac Basia aa 


eas Pasa 


A4 


It, 


13. 


14. 


16. 


LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND 


Melanotheca, Wee., Ess. Sup., p. 70. 
M. cruenia, M.A. s. M. rubra, C.K., Bot. Bull 
34. | 

M. oxyspora, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 34. 

M. subsimplex, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34. 

Tomasellia, Mass., F1., 1856, p. 283. 

T. aciculifera, M.A., Bot., Bull., iii., 31. 

iT’. queenslandica, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 34. 
Sub-tribe 4. Verrucariew, M.A., Pyr. Cub., 398. 


Porina, M.A.; Lich. Beit., 644. 


5 Ky 


P. africana, M.A. .s. P. limitata, C.K.,, Bot. Bull, x., 


30. 
. araucarie, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34. 
. bellendenica, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34. 
. fulvula, M.A., Bot. Bull, xiii., 31. 
gine. NE AC. Bot. Bulli, 30: 
. internigrans, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 30. 
. pallida, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 31. 
. rude, M,A., Bot. Bull.) x.; 30. 


wy ytd 


Oe Bots ‘Bull. 3; "ae 

. tetracere, ‘M.A.,. Bot. Bull.,-x:, 30. 3: WW. 
Stirton. 

P. variegata, Fee:, Bot. Bull., x., 30. 


Phylloporina, M.A., Lich. Epiph., No. 50. 
P. epiphylla, M.A:, Bot. Bull, x., 30: 


' 


. Clathroporina, M.A., Lich. Beit., 541. 


C. desquamans, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 34. 

C. desquamans v. sorediifera, M.A., Bot. Bull., vin. 

C. flavescens, M.A., Bot. Bull. iv., 34. 

C. olivacea, M.A. s. Porina enteroxantha, C.K.., 
FL QO op 7k Bor. Balk, aa Oe, 


Arthopyrenia, M.A., Lich. Beit., 612. 

. aiomaria, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 29. 

. cinchone, M.A., Bot. Bull., vin., 105. 

. consobrina, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 29. 

, extans, M:.A:; Bot: Bull, =.) 29: 

. fallacior, M.A,» Bot.>Bull, x.9.28: 
limitans, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 29. 

. oculata, M.A-.,.Bot. Bull, x., 29. 
suboculata, M.A., Bot. Bull., xm, 31. 


Ps fs fb me pe 


Ds ps pa 


rhaphidospora, M.A.  s. Verrucaria rhaphispora, 


NANO, 


, 105. 


Lich. 


BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. A5 


17. Polyblastia, M.A., Lich. Beit., 490. 
P. geminella, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 31. 
P. gregantula, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 30. 
P.. nudata, M.A., Bot. Bull., viit., 105. 
18. Pyrenula, Fee., Ess. Suppl., p. 76. 
P.. adacta, Fee., Bot. Bull, 1ii.; 31. 
P.. adacta v. cinerascens, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 33. 
P. bicuspidata, M.A. s. V. subvariolosa, C.Ix., Bot. 
Bull, viii, 106. 
. Bonplandie, Fee., Bot. Bull., x. 32. 
. ndusiata, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 32. 
. Kunthii., Fee., Bot. Bull., viii., 106. 
. mastophora (Nyl)., M.A., Bot. Bull, ii., 31. 
mastophorizans, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 33. 
. marginata, Trev., Bot. Bull., viii, 106. 
mamillana, Trev., Bot. Bull, ii., 31. 
melaleuca, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34. 
. microcarpoides, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 32. 
. nigro-cincia, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34. 
nitida, Ach., Bot. Bull., vii., 106. 
. nitidans, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34. 
oxyspora, M.A., Bot. Bull.,:x., 32. 
. pinguis, Fee., Bot. Bull, viii., 106. 
. pinguis v. emergens, M.A. s. V. punctella v. exstans, 
Nyl., Bot. Bull... x., 33. 
. porinoides, Ach., Bot. Bull., x., 33. 
. subcongruens, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 32. 
. sexlocularis, M.A. s. V. subvariolosa, C.K., B.B. 
apes Fp 
P. velatoir, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 32. 
P. Warming, M.A., Bot. Bull., 11., 31. s. V. tropica, 


Stirton. 


Sewwey weve yy 


mo Ay ty 


19. Anthracothecitum, Mass., Esam. Comp., p. 49. 
A. aurantium, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 33. 
A. amphitropum, M.A., Bot. Bull, iii., 31. 
A. confine, M.A., Bot. Bull., vii, 106. 
A. denudatum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 33. 
A. denudatum v. ochrotropum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 33. 
A. Doleschalii, Mass. 8s. Trypethelium planum, C.K.. 
Bot. Bull’, viii., 106. 
A. oculatwm, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 35. 
A. oligosperum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 33. 


46 


LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND 


A. pyrenuloides, M.A., Bot. Bull., ii., 32. 
A. Thwattesi1, M.A., Bot. Bull., ii., 31. 
Microthelia, WKorb., Syst., p. 372. 


M. 
. brisbanensis, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 31. 

. maculiformis, M.A., Bot. Bull, iii., 32. 

. obovata, M.A. s. Pyrenula obovata, Shirley, Lich. 


alba, M: A; Bot. Bull, x31. 


Bis Q. 3p. L76. 


M. queenslandie, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 31. 
. Shirleyana, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 31. 
. subgregans, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 31. 


NOTES ON SOME AUSTRALIAN ATHERINTDAL, 
By ALLAN R. McCULLOCH, 
ZOOLOGIST, AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM, SYDNEY. 
(Published by permission of the Trustees of the Australian 


Museum). 


Plate I. and Text Figure 1. 
Read before the Royal Socrety of Queensland, 26th June, 1912. 
(Communicated by Dr. T. Harvey JOHNSTON). 
ATHERINA MUGILOIDES, nom. nov. 
(Text Figure 1.) 

Atherinichthys punctatus, De Vis, Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. 
Wales, IX., 1885, p. 869 (not Atherina punctata, Bennett, 
1832). 

NAVE, L/7-8 5 AAY9-10 Ware ees  O FT Maa hat. 
Soe SE Ly, Tre: 


i 


ww NV 
5a TCC yi; raat: ei 
cin 

= 


x 
N\\ 
‘ q 


Aa 


GI4, it~ 
2g ee 
Ze 4 


No 
ARNE AMRNONN 


Text Ficure 1. 


od 


Body stout, depth at ventrals 51-52 in length from 
snout to hypural; head 4 in the same. Snout 14-14 in the 
eye, which is 24-22 in the head, and equal to or wider 
than the interorbital space. Maxillary not expanded 
posteriorly, reaching to below the margin or anterior fourth 
of the eye. Teeth minute, slender, acute, apparently 
arranged in two series in the upper jaw and one in the 
lower ; confined to the front and anterior parts of the sides 
of the jaws. Vomer, palatines and tongue toothless. 
Gill-rakers long and slender. 


48 AUSTRALIAN ATHERINID® 


Scales much larger anteriorly than on the caudal» 
peduncle, in 33-34 series between the base of the pectoral 
and the hypural. There are six between the median series 
before the second dorsal and the anal, 10-12 between the 
first dorsal and the head, and nine between the first spines 
of the two dorsal fins. 


Origin of the first dorsal almost midway between the 
snout and the hypural, and a little behind the vertical 
of the vent which is between the middle or hinder third 
of the ventrals. Ventrals inserted about halfway between 
the pectoral and the dorsal or nearer the latter, and beneath 
the hinder third or fourth of the pectoral. Anal com- 
mencing well, and terminating slightly in advance of the 


second dorsal. 


Solourless after long preservation in alcohol, with a 
broad silver lateral band. Cheeks and opercles silver. Upper 
parts with scattered minute black specks. 


Described from six specimens, 28-35 mm. Jong from 
the snout to the hypural. Through the kindness of Dr. 
Hamlyn-Harris, Director of the Queensland Museum, 
I have been able to examine four from Cape York. including 
the type specimen, while two co-types are in the Australian 
Museum. The largest of these last is figured. They do not 
appear to differ generically from <Atherina, but may be 
distinguished from most other Australian species by their 


large scales. 
CRATEROCEPHALUS, gen. nov. 


Freshwater atherines with small protractile mouths, 
the maxillary not reaching to the anterior margin of the 
eye. Body covered with large, cycloid, concentrically 
striated scales which extend forwards on to the upper part 
of the head: some large scales on the cheeks and opercular 
bones. First dorsal with about 5-8 spines, the second 
with 1 spine and 7-8 rays. Anal similar to dorsal. Miero- 
scopic teeth in each jaw; vomer, palatines and tongue 
toothless, the skin covering the roof of the mouth often 
bears minute papillae which closely resemble teeth. Gull- 
rakers short and few, about ten on lower limb of first arch. 


Type.—C. fluviatilis, sp.nov. Atherinichthys inaculatus, 
Macleay, also belongs to this genus. 


BY ‘ALLAN R. MG CULLOGH. AQ: 
~ This genus differs from Atherina in having a smaller 
mouth’ and shorter and fewer gill-rakers. From Tdénio- 


membras it is distinguished by the “absence of vomerine 
teeth. 


" Atherininichthys, Bleeker, in which C. maculatus and 
other Australian atherines have been placed, is synonymous 
with Chirostoma, Swainson* (type Atherina humboldtiana, 
Cuv. & Val.), and differs from all the Australian species 
in its small scales, long anal fin, _and general form. , 


CRATEROCEPHALUS. FLUVIATILIS, sp. nov. 
(Plate I.:; Figure 1.) - . 

D.V-VII, I/7-8; A.1/8-9; V.I/5; P. sg; Segoe OREM & 3 

L. Lat. 31-33. | ee Raia] 

Head 32- 33 in the length from the snout to the hypural. 
Depth 14-134 in the head. Eye longer ‘than the snout, 
about 3 in the head, and equal to or longer than the depth 
of the caudal peduncle. Interorbital width a little narrower 
than the eye in young specimens, wider in adults. Cheeks 
with a single series of large angular scales, and there are 
similar scales on all the opercular bones ; upper surface of 
the head with larger irregular scales extending forwards 
to between the eyes, snout and ‘preorbital'naked. Anterior 
nostril near the margin of the preorbital on the angle formed 
between the top and side ‘of the snout ; posterior nostril 
near the eye. A line of pores extends ‘estan the snout to 
behind the eye, then bends downwards to a groove above 
the operculum; another line extends around the preoper- 
culum and branches behind the angle of the mouth, one 
branch running along the preorbital and the other on to 
the lower jaw. Maxillary slightly..expanded posteriorly 
not reaching the anterior margin of the eye. Six branch- 
iostegals. Teeth minute, in a single series in each jaw. 


Scales large, cycloid, concentrically striated, 31-33 
in a row from behind the base of the pectoral to the hypural. 
Most of those on the dark lateral band are pierced by a 
simple pore. Between the median scale béfore the second 
dorsal and that in front of the anal there are 7-10 rows : 


? 


in 20 specimens from the junction of the Namoi and Barwon 


*See Jordan & Evermann, Bull. U,. S. Nat. Muz., No.. 47,. Pt. a 
1896, p. 792, and Pt. IV., 1900, pl. cxxm., fig. 334. 
D 


5a AUSTRALIAN ATHERINID® 


Rivers there are 7 rows, and. in six from Narrandera three 
have 10 rows, two have $,andonehas7. Thescales extend 
on to the base of the caudal 

Origin of first dorsal slightly in advance of the middle 
of the length to the hypural, and a little behind the vertical 
of the ventrals ; second and third spines. longest. Anterior 
rays. of second dorsal longest, the fin originating a little 
farther back than the anal, to which it is similar in form. 
Ventrals usually reaching to the vent, sometimes shorter. 
Upper pectoral rays longest, reaching to the vertical of 
either the ventrals: or the first dorsal. 


Colour.—Whitish in formalin with a dark (silver) 
band extending from abdéve the base of the pectoral to the 
hypural which may be continued, more or less indefinitely, 
on to the upper portion of the operculum and side of the 
snout. Upper portion of head and back with more or less 
numerous minute black specks which, when present, are 
arranged near the margins of the scales above the lateral 
band. Lower parts of the body with a few scattered specks, 
and a median row on the under surface of the caudal 
peduncle. 

Described from six specimens, 35-61 mm. long, from 
North Yanko Creek, Narrandera, N.S. Wales,-and twenty 
from, a lagoon at the junction of the Namoi and Barwon 
Rivers, N. S. Wales. The specimen selected as the type 
is 61 mm. long, from the former locality. They were 
collected by Mr. David G. Stead, who presented them 
to the Australian Museum. Other specimens are in the 
Museum collection from the McIntyre River, on _ the 
boundary between N. 8S. Wales and Queensland. 


This species is very probably identical with Atherima 
interioris, Zietz,* from the overflow of Coward and Strang- 
ways Springs, Central Australia, which though named, 
has not been described. Through the kindness of Professor 
E. C. Stirling, Director of the South Australian Museum, 
I have been: able to examine one of Mr. Zietz’s original 
specimens, but its condition is too bad to enable me to say 
whether it is identical with these described above or not. 

The following notes on the distribution and_ habits 
of C. fluviatilis have been supplied by Mr. Stead. “ The 


*Zietz, Trans. Rey. Soc. S. Austr., xxxmi., 1909, p. 264. 


BY ALLAN BR, MC: CHLLOCH. 51 


Freshwater Hardyhead,” which, curiously enough, 
considering its abundance, has, apparently, hitherto escaped 
description, is one of the commonest fishes in the Western 
waters of New South Wales—I may go farther than that, 
and say throughout the whole of the Murray River Drainage 
Area. I have collected it from billabongs and lagoons on 
the Murray River and have seen it in the Mitta Mitta, 
and other Victorian feeders of the Murray. It has also 
been sent to me in a collection from the lower Murray 
in South Australia. I have taken it in the warrumbools 
and small waterholes of the country north of the Upper 
Barwon, not far from the Queensland border, and have 
taken or observed it in Lake Narran, in several places on 
the Barwon and the Darling (old Collymungool Station, 
Collarenebri, Calmundi Station, Walget, Barooma, Brew- 
arrina, and Bourke), in Tarrion Creek and the Dry Bogan, 
in the Bogan proper (at Nyngam), the Macquarie, the 
Cudgegong (at' Rawden and above at an altitude of about 
2,500. feet), the Lachlan, the Murrumbidgee (at several 
places on the plains and also, in the vicinity of Cooma. 
at an altitude of about 2,500 feet), Yanko Creek, Edward’s,, 
or Kyalite River and the Wakool, 


‘“T have found it equally abundant in such widely- 
separated places and at such varying altitudes as Munga- 
barina, near Albury, Rawden near Rylstene, and the 
Upper Barwon. It may be mentioned that in one haul 
of the net, at a small waterhole near the junction of the 
Namoi and the Barwon, I took several thousands of this 
species from 3-3 inches in length, with a net only 30 feet 
long by 4 feet deep. In the flowing rivers and larger 
lagoons it is found principally in the shallows along the 
banks, and in the clearer waters is seen moving in small 
schools. 


«Adults commonly attain a length of two or three 
inches, and exceptionally four inches. The spawning 
season is during the warmer months, and the egg, which 
s an adhesive demersal one, is_ relatively large. It 
subsists upon the small aquatic insects and crustaceans 
which occur in prodigious numbers in most of the waters 


of the Murray Drainage Area.’’ 


52, AUBTRALIAN ATHERINID® ~ 


CRATEROCEPHALUS MACULATUS, Macleay. 
(Plate: a eave 


Atherinichthys maculatus, Macleay, Proc. Linn. Soc, N. Ss. 
Wales, VIIT., 1883, p. 207, and IX., 1884, p. 40. 


D.VI-VII, | ¥/6-8 ¥ A.1/8-9;'V.1/5; P. 11-13; C.-17; 
L. Lat. 32-33. it r 


_ Head 332-41 in the ek from the snout to the hypural, - 
Depth of foie 11-134 in the head. Eye longer. than, the 
snout, larger than in C. fluviatilis, 23-34 in the head, its. 
length equal to or less than the depth of the caudal peduncle. 
Interorbital as wide as the eye in. young specimens,. half 
as wide again in adults. : Head scales, nostrils, and pores: 
as in fluviatilis. Teeth minute, in three or four rows in, 
the upper jaw, and one or two below. 


Scales and fins similar to fluviatilis, but the relative 
positions and sizes of the latter vary somewhat in both 
species ; the ventrals appear to be usually larger in C. 
maculatus. In all my specimens there are seven transverse 
rows of scales between the median dorsal and anal | series 
in front of the second dorsal and anal fins. | 


Colour.—Whitish in alcohol with a dark band from the 
hypural to the pectoral, which is usually also distinct on 
the head. Upper part of head and back more or less 
densely speckled with black, and in well-marked examples 
each scale on the sides bears a central dark spot. 


This species was originally obtained in Lillesmere 
Lagoon on the lower Burdekin River, Queensland. I am 
unable to find the type specimens in the Macleay Museum, 
and as they are not in the Australian Museum they are 
probably lost. The Australian Museum collection includes 
two specimens from freshwater at Cairns, and two from 
Townsville, collected by Mr. W. Butcher; four from 
Eidsvold, Burnett River, collected by Dr. Thomas L. 
Bancroft ; one from near Brisbane, collected by Mr. F, 
Phillips. Length, 34-74 mm. 


O. maculatus is distinguished from C. fluviatilis chiefly. 
by its different colour-marking and in having several rows 
of teeth in the jaws instead of only one. The eye is also 
larger. | 


BY ALLAN R. MC CULLOCH. 53 


Explanation of Plate I. 


Figure 1. Craterocephalus fluviatilis, sp. nov. Type, twice 
natural size. 


Figure 2. Craterocephalus maculatss, Macleay. Twice 
natural size. 


Gtk (OED; ae ae. Woe Ge gine okie . 
Cara ae fe eae? 


LOL DE 


“ype 


PuatE I. 


Proc. Roy. Soe. Q’nanp, VoL. xxiv. 


ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF 
QUEENSLAND. 
Part ITI, 


By JOHN SHIRLEY, D.Sc. 
Senor Inspecror or ScHoots. 


(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 31st July, | 
1912. 


In continuation of my paper of September 24th, 1910, 
in which 348 species, not yet recorded from Queensland, 
were reported, and which formed a suplement to Mr. Charles 
Hedley’s list of 1911 Queensland species, catalogued in 
the Proc. Aust. Assoc., Vol. xii., pp. 343-371, and 809-810, 
I submit a further list of marine shells from this State, 
not hitherto known to be found on our shores. 


Arca (Scapharca) -chalcanthum, Reeve, Normanton. 
Arca nivea, Gmelin, Moreton Bay. 

Arca reticulata, Sby., Moreton Bay. 

Glycimeris angulatus, Lamk., Murray Island. 
Modiola Senhausii, Reeve, Murray Island, Normanton. 
Crassatellites pulchra, Reeve, Caloundra, 

Cardium vertebratum, Jonas, Moreton Bay. 

Dosinia laminata, Reeve, Normanton. 

Macrocallista impudica, Chem., Normanton. 

Euchelus ampullus, Tate, Caloundra. 

Euchelus baccatus, Menke, Murray Island. 

Turbo pulcher, Reeve, Murray Island. 

Strombus tridentatus, Lamk., Murray Island. 
Pterocera pseudoscorpio, Lamk,, Normanton. 

Cithara nove-hollandiw, Reeve, Cape York. 
Cymatium obscurum, A. Ad., Torres Straits. 

Bursa leucostoma, Lamk., Yeppoon. 

Cassis strigata, Gmel., Moreton Bay. 

Terebra aciculina, Lamk., Murray Island. 


56 


MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND. 


Terebra cingulifera, Lamk., Murray Island. 

Conus betulinus, L., Torres Straits. 

Conus maldivus, Hwass, Murray Island. 

Harpa: crassa, Morch, Normanton. bits iy 
Glyphostoma rubida, Hinds, Cape York. 

Peristernia nassatula,' Lamk., Thursday Island. 
Cantharus (T'ritonidea) australis, Pease, Murray Island. 
Cantharus (Tritonidea) rubiginosa, Reeve, Normanton. 
Arcularia compacta, Angas, Bowen. 
Thais armigera, Reeve,* Torres: Straits.’ 

Drupa concatenata, Blain., Thursday Island. 


The following are errata in my previous paper of 


September 24th, 1910 :— 


p. 147, line 13, for ‘““philippinensis, Desh,” read 
** Reeveanum, Dunker.”’ 


isp. 148, line 30, delete “‘ Gibbula. magus, L.,’ which 


though sent down from Torres Straits is undoubt- 
. edly European. 
p. 148, line 37, for ** mysticus, Pilsbry,” read “‘ampullus, 
.Tate.”’ 


- p. 153, line 10, for “ adusta, Lamark,”’ read “ digitalis, 


Reeve.”’ 


_p. 153, line 15, for ‘* Hainillei, Pet.,” read “ variabilis 


Reeve,’’ 


ORATER NEAR HERBERTON: 


By. R. C. RINGROSE, M.A. 


— ee 


(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 24th April, 1912) 

Tuts remarkable spot is situated on the Upper Barron 
River Watershed, about nine miles from Herberton, and 
about twelve miles from Atherton, in an area of land com- 
prising two square miles, reserved at the instance of the 
Herberton Chamber of Commerce as a Reserve for a 
National Park. The corrected height of the Crater ‘tip 
above sea level is 3,341 feet, and of the high ridge outside 
the scrub is 3,566 feet. The bed of the Barron River 
(Dinner Creek) encircling the Crater on two sides is 3,101 
feet. These readings are the result or a series of observa- 
tions with two aneroids, and corrected by Mr. C. E. Deshon- 
chief surveyor to the Hydraulic Engineer’s Department 
of Queensland. 

The whole of this dividing ridge between the Barron 
River and Nigger Creek is either too heavily grassed or 
clothed with dense scrub and the vegetable mould formed 
by the decomposition of the leaves, to admit of accurate 
observation of the rocks buried beneath. Speaking 
generally, the whole of this divide consists of quartz 
porphyries (composed of felspars and quartz with a small 
quantity of mica) cut through in places by elvan dykes. 
A large portion of the high mountain on which the Barron 
River and Poona Creek rises is largely composed of massive 
porphyry. The main mass of this range is often cut into 
intrusive dykes of a fine grained porphyry known as elvans. 
It may here be noted that the main quartz porphyries 
and granites of the valleys of the Wild and Walsh Rivers 
as well as many of the Permo-carboniferous or Devonian 
series of these valleys are everywhere cut into by a series 
of intrusive elvan dykes, in some places forming dykes 
cutting through the ridges at their ‘highest points or 
occurring in the form of irregular compact masses. 


58 CRATER NEAR HERBERTON. 


These dykes are probably newer, though possibly 
of the same period as the huge massive porphyry, which 
extends from the Valley of the Dry River, some 34 miles 
southerly, from Watsonville and crosses the Wild River 
some seven miles from MHerberton and extends past 
Evelyn Station to the Gorge Road and to the Millstream. 

In his report on “The Tin Mines of Watsonville,” 
(1897), Mr. 8. J. B. Skertchly, referring to the igneous 
rocks of the Herberton and Watsonville Districts, says— 
‘““The granites are the oldest of the rocks and they are 
newer than the permo-carboniferous (?Devonian) sedi- 
mentary strata for they can be seen forcing their way 
into these rocks and sending strings and dykes into them, 
and this is even more marked in the southern part of our 
Colony than in the northern.” 

‘Next in geological sequence is the great porphyry 
series which has pushed its way through the granite and 
sent numerous dykes into it. Following this is the period 
of the elvan dykes, which intersect alike the sedimentary 
rocks, the granite and the porphyry. Connected with 
these elvan dykes is the production of some of the tin- 
bearing matter, as is abundantly shown in the sequel. 
Next in order are the basic dykes (diorites, etc.) with which 
the chief outpourmg of the tin occurred.” 


Last of all, there are the great basaltic outpourings 
of the Tertiary period similar to so many other districts 
in. Australia. 

These main characteristics are well illustrated on the 
main spur of the Hugh Nelson Range, on which the “ Crater” 
is situated. Descending from the high granite point, 
from which the view of Bartle Frere and Bellenden Ker 
is obtained, it is necessary to proceed on foot through the 
scrub. Here and there cedar trees are met with, and 
except in a few places the rock is buried under the rich 
vegetable mould of the scrub. But the main characteristics 
above referred to are well illustrated, where fragments of 
the rock are obtainable. Entering the scrub, the rock 
is here elvan, further on the quartz porphyries appear, 
and in the bed of the creek, about three quarters of a mile 
in the scrub, hard elvan porphyry is exposed. Crossing 
the Creek chocolate soil overlies the rock beneath. Ascend- 
ing the high ridge forming the Gorge of the Barron River 


BY R. C. RINGROSE, M.A. 59 
the quartz porphyries are again visible and extend to the 
“Crater.” The ridge near the ‘“ Crater” is narrow, and 
towards the Barron River Gorge is exceedingly steep. 
From the summit of the ridge one descends rapidly amongst 
cedar trees, until one descends almost unconsciously into 
the great chasm known as the “ Crater,” hidden ‘amongst 
the trees at the end of the leading spur, and encircled on 
two sides by the Barron Gorge. I estimate the distance 
across the ‘“‘ Crater’ at its widest point to be 34 chains. 

From the rim on the low but accessible side, the distance 
to the water is rather less than 300 feet. On all sides, 
except where there i is a slight slip, the walls are absolutely 
vertical. The whole of the bottom of the chasm is water, 
the depth of which measured by a line with a weight on it, 
is about 300 feet. (These measurements are subject to 
correction.) The surface of the water is covered with a 
weed known as “lemna oligorhiza.”’ 

The main material of the precipitous walls of the 
chasm is quartz porphyry, but on one-side there is a small 
belt of fine-grained elvan porphyry. The height of the 
** Crater”? is 3,341 feet above sea level, and the bed of the 
Barron River, just above the Crater is 3,101 feet. It 
therefore follows that there is no outlet for the water in 
the Barron River. As far as is known the level of the 
water is stationary, and there is no evidence that it either 
increases or diminishes otherwise than by rainfall or by 
natural evaporation respectively. The bed of the Barron 
River is solid quartz porphyry, and from Dinner Creek 
descends rapidly in a series of pretty cascades, until it 
passes through a gorge just above Clarke’s track to the 
Russell. Attempts have been made, but no one _ has 
succeeded in getting the depth of the water in the centre 
of the chasm. On the eastern side of the Barron River, 
Gum Tree Hill 1ises abruptly out of the river. 

What is the origin of this remarkable chasm? What 
is its age? It has none of the appearances of the voleanoes 
of the Tertiary basalts. It is newer than the quartz 
porphyries, and newer than the elvan porphyries. Being 
carved out of solid rock on the main back-bone of Aus- 
tralia, no other conclusion can be arrived at than that 
its origin was due to some violent volcanic action of deep- 
seated origin. There is no evidence of any falling in or 


£20, CRATER NEAR HERBERTON. 


denudation of the rock. There | is no rock such as limestone,,. 
soluable enough to account for the erosion of such a chasm. 
‘There is no evidence that the waters of the Barron River 
are affected. by or swallowed up even to the slightest degree 
by, the, Crater. No similar. vent or chasm is known to 
exist. _in, any other portion of the district. It is totally 
different tg Lake .Kacham, which is clearly the ruined 
voleano of the Tertiary period. But the Crater, might have 
been caused by the outburst of a period of voleanic, activity, 
Subsequent to:-the period of the-‘‘ massive porphyries,” 
and subsequent to the period of the elvan outbursts. . The 
only. appearance which lends a clue to the origin of-the. 
Crater is, that on the north-west side and-highest. side 
rounded stones of exceedingly porous:and vesicular. basalt 
are found. Altered zeolite ahs yi are embedded in all 
of the boulders. ; | 


On the eastern side of the Crater and right down to 
the edges of the rocky bed of the Barron River itself, there 
‘are in places small fragments of basaltic rock, and in other 
places up the river a few hundred yards, there is abundance 
of red chocolate soil. Now whether these apparently 
rounded, highly vesicular fragments of basalt have been 
ejected with great force up the vent of the Crater, it is 
impossible to say at present, until something further is 
known of the country further up the Barron River. This 
is a pathless jungle at present, and it will be probably 
‘many years before the country up the Barron River’ will 
be sufficiently opened up to speak with certainty. The 
writer has not observed such highly vesicular basalt in any 
other part of the district. Not far away, on the Western 
edge of the Hugh Nelson Range, the solid basalts of the 
later’ Tertiary period have flowed down from some old 
volcano. near the head of the Beatrice, very much along 
the course of the south branch of Nigger Creek, and finally 
spread. out over the bed of the old bed of the Wild River, 
and. have formed what is now known as the Herberton Deep 
‘Lead. The river beds were then wider than they are 
to-day, and probably the ranges were higher and the rain- 
fall greater. The basalts of these old lava flows are hard, 
compact basalts for the most part, and have no oe 
with the vesicular basalts of the Crater. 


BY R. ©. RINGROSE, M.A. aes 5 «| 


there is nothing extraordinary in finding a volcanic 
vent carved out of rock of a much older series. But it 
is not usual to find them in a condition much the same 
as when they were in their original state of activity, and 
unfilled by rock originally being rising columns of lava, 
or by falling debris and rocks, either hurled up the chimney 
itself and falling back into it, or from surrounding rocks 
shattered from explosions of steam and gases. There 
is no great quantity of debris found immediately round 
the Crater near Herberton. Denudation, no doubt, has 
‘worn away some of the volcanic deposits. But it is likely 
enough that volcanic ashes were ejected in large quantities 
with great force over a wide area. That the early flows 
of basalt broke through the underlying deep-seated rocks 
with great force is illustrated by the fact that a dyke of 
basalt, having no visible connections, has been exposed 
in solid porphyry country rock in one of the cuttings of 
the Herberton-Evelyn line near the great Northern Gully, 
in the town of Herberton, showing that the dykes burst 
through the most solid country rocks apparently from great 
depths. This is the only known instance of an isolated 
basalt dyke unconnected with ordinary basaltic outpour- 
ings, and evidently of the most deep-seated origin. 


The conclusions to be drawn from the observed facts 
of the Crater may be :— 


1. That the Crater is a volcanic vent, which is newer 
than the massive porphyries, and newer than the elvan 
series, and that all the facts point to its origin being caused 
by a violent manifestation of volcanic activity. 


2. Its origin may be older than the period of the 
Tertiary Volcanic system. 


3. It must have been a vent for steam gases and 
volcanic ejecta between the periods of the massive por- 
phyries, elvan period and the Tertiary volcanic period, 
nd it is conceivable that in some early portion of the 
Vertiary period. it was an outlet for voleanic bombs of the 
basaltic type, but it has no connection with and may have 
‘been closed up before the period of Lake Eacham and other 
Tertiary volcanoes. 


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NOTES ON SOME. ENTOZOA. 


a 


By T. HARYEY JOHNSTON. M.A., D.Sc. 
(Biology Dept., University, Brisbane). 


(Plates Il, ITI, IV, V). 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 26th June, 1912- 


Ophiotenia hyle, n. sp. 
(Pl. bE; Bigs.. 1,. 2). 


Host :—Hyla aurea ; specimens collected by Dr. 8. J. 
Johnston, of Sydney University, from frogs eaptured in 
the neighbourhood of Sydney. 


Length, over 6 cm. ; greatest breadth, about -75mm. 


The seolex is a rounded unarmed structure, :32 mm. 
in width, with four suckers, each about -11 mm. in diameter, 
and a rudimentary apical sueker or muscle plug. There 
may be a slight neck-like constriction, succeeded by a 
relatively long unsegmented region of about the same 
breadth as the scolex. Segmentation is of the usual type 
seen in the Proteocephalide. The proglottids do not project. 
aterally, nor do they vary much in width after sexual 
maturity has been reached. The genital pores are situated 
at about the middle of the segments and alternate irregu- 
larly. 


The muscular, nervous and excretory systems are of 
the general Proteocephalid type. The testes consist of 
numerous vesicles of about -08 mm. diameter, arranged 
dorsally in two wide lateral fields between which lies the 
uterus. These fields extend almost from the anterior 
border of the segment to the ovary. The vas deferens 
may be recognised as a coiled tube in the middle of the 
proglottis, lying above the uterus and passing laterally 
n close coils above and parallel to the vagina until it enters 
the cirrus sac within which the vas becomes thrown into 


G4 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA., 


a few rather wider convolutions. The greater part of the 
sac is occupied by the wide eversible unarmed cirrus which 
is capable of being everted to a length of ;20 mm., its width 
in such a state being about -033 mm. The cirrus sac, 
when the cirrus is at rest, is-a pyriform organ -14 mm. 
long and about -055 mm. wide in its inner. portion. ,The 
male pore lies postero-dorsally to the female _aperture, 
both terminating in a very short genital cloaca. 


The large bilobed ovary consists of numerous tubes 
whose terminations lie dorsally, the ovarian bridge being 
ventral. Its duct is short. Situated dorso-laterally in 
the cortex in the region of the longitudinal nerve are the 
vitelline follicles, each with a diameter of about ‘013 mm. 

The vagina is a wide tube lying antero-ventrally to 
the cirrus sac, narrowing somewhat as it passes inwards 
below~it and the vas deferens to bend backwards and travel 
above the uterus. Just in front of and above the ovary, 
there is a slight enlargement, the receptaculum seminis, 
followed by a narrowed portion or fertilising duct into 
which the oviduct enters. The shell gland lies in this 
region. ‘The uterus arises’ as a’ thin duct which passes 
forwards ventrally, along the mid-line, below the ovary 
and the vagina. Numerous’ short lateral diverticula 
appear at an early stage, and as egg-formation proceeds, 
these become much more prominent, until at length the 
uterus appears as a much-branched structure almost filling 
the medulla. The eggs measure from 15 to 19 micra in 
diameter, and the oncospheres from 7:5 to 11 micra. 
Vitellaria persist even in segments with fully formed embryos. 

Ophiotenia hyle appears to be the first adult cestode 
described from an Australian amphibian. 

La Rue (1911, p. 473), has recently subdivided the 
genus Proteocephalus, one of the genera being Ophiotenia, 
to which our form belongs. The differences between 
Acanthotenia and Ophiotenia are very slight. The latter 
might even be regarded as a subgenus of the former. 

Acanthotenia gallardi, Johnston. 
(Pl. ID; FWigs.’3, 4)- 

This cestode was described by me last year (191la, 
p. 175), under the name Proteocephalus gallardi, mention 
being made (p. 181) that it belonged to the subgenus 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC 65 


Acanthotenia. La Rue (1911) has recently dealt with 
the Proteocephalide, and has restored Linstow’s name 
(Johnston, 1909, pp. 112, 114) to full generic rank. He 
includes all the known Proteocephalids from amphibia 
and snakes under Ophiotenia, a genus whose members 
do not possess the tiny cuticular spines which occur on 
the anterior end of: species of Acanthotenia. Our form 
which infests several species of Australian venemous snakes, 
is, however, a typical Acanthotenia. It was originally 
described from Pseudechis porphyriacus and very shortly 
afterwards (Johnston, 1911), p. 239) was recorded from 
the tiger snake, Notechis scutatus, mention being made 
that a closely allied species parasitised two other snakes, 
Denisonia superba (p. 239) and Pseudechis australis. A 
careful comparison has led me to consider that all four 
snakes harbour the same species of cestode. The main 
difference seen is in regard to the number and shape of 
the testes, but the former is variable, while the elongate 
form of the glands as seen in specimens from the two last 
named snakes, is apparently due to imperfect preserva- 
tions, both series of specimens having been taken by me 
from the intestine of reptiles which had been preserved 
for some time in alcohol. The arrangement of all the 
organs aS seen in transverse sections, agrees entirely with 
that already figured (19lla, pl. vu., figs. 2, 3.) 


Acanthotenia tidswelli, Johnston. 


Specimens of this. tapeworm which is known to occur 
in Varanus varius (Johnston, 1909, p. 103), and in 
V. gouldit (19116, p. 242), have been collected from Bell’s 
monitor V. bellii, forwarded by Dr. T. L. Bancroft, from 
Eidsvold, Burnett River. This reptile harboured in its 
stomach several nematodes, Physaloptera varani ?, similar 
to those already recorded from the two above-named 
lizards, while in its blood there were present hemogregarines, 
Hemogregarina varanicola. 

Some authorities regard V. belliz.as being only a well- 
marked variety of V. varius. . 

Hymenolepis diminuta (Rud.) 

From rats, thus decumanus and M. rattus (Alexandrinus) 

caught in Brisbane. Not previously recorded from 


Queensland. 
E 


66 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA. 


Hymenolepis cartoca (Magalh.) 


From a domestic fowl, Brisbane. Not previously 
reported from Queensland. 


Hymenolepis megalops (Nitzsch). 


This species has been identified from material collected 
from a Black Duck, forwarded by Dr. Bancroft, Eidsvold 
and is now definitely recorded from this State. 


A new host for this parasite is the Teal, Nettion 
castaneum, specimens having been collected by Mr. C. J. 
Woollett near Cobar, N.S. Wales. 


The parasite under review was described by Krefft 
(1873, p. 220; Johnston, 1912, p. 33) as Tenia cylindrica, 
and is quite a different form to that described under the 
same name by Clerc (1902, p. 661), whose specimens came 
from a gull Larus canus. Clere’s species has been listed 
as Dilepis? cylindrica and Choanotenia? cylindrica, but 
since the specific name was already preoccupied in T'enia, 
the name clerci might be substituted for it. (Tenia 
clerci=Choanotenia ? clerci, nom. nov.) 

Diorchis flavescens (Krefft). 

Found by me in a Black Duck, Anas superciliosa, 
shot on the Burnett River. In company with this species 
of cestode were some trematodes, Hchinostoma sp. (sensu 
lato). 

Amebotenia cuneata (Linstow). 


Found in some fowls in Sydney and also in Brisbane. 
This small parasite had not been recorded as occurring in 
Australia. 

Bancroftiella glandularis (Fuhrmann). 


This cestode was originally described by Fuhrmann 
under the name of Anomotenia glandularis, from Herodias 
timoriensis, his material being collected in the East Indies. 
It is now recorded as infesting the Blue Crane, Notophoyx 
nove-hollandie, my specimens being collected by Dr. 8. J. 
Johnston near Gosford, N.S. Wales. I have the same 
species from this host from Queensland. 


It belongs to the genus Bancroftiella (Johnston, 1911c, 
p. 50). 


BY T. HARVEY .JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 67 


Tenia crassicollis, Rud. 
Found in a local cat (Brisbane). Not previously 
recorded from Queensland. 


Cysticercus fasciolaris, Rud. 

This bladderworm stage of Tenia crassicollis is fairly 
commonly met with in the liver of local rats (Mus decumanus 
and M. alexandrinus) and mice (M. musculus), but its 
presence in Queensland does not appear to have been 
reported. 

Dipylidium caninum (L.) 

A common parasite in local dogs and cats (Brisbane), 

but apparently unrecorded from this State. 


Diploposthe levis, Bloch. 


This large and interesting cestode has again been 
met with in a White-eyed Duck, Aythya australis, kindly 
forwarded by Dr. Bancroft from Ejidsvold. It is now 
definitely recorded from Queensland. Krefft, who 
described the parasite as Tenia tuberculata, did not refer 
to a definite locality, mentioning merely that his material 
was collected in either New South Wales or Queensland. 


Metroliasthes luweida, Ransom. 


Found in the domestic turkey, my specimens being 
collected in Sydney from material supplied by Mr. Thos. 
Steel, through the Bureau of Microbiology, Sydney. This 
identification constitutes the first record of the occurrence 
of the species in Australia. 


Davainea cesticillus, Molin. 

Has been identified from a local fowl (Brisbane). Not 

previously recorded from Queensland. 
Davainea tetragona, Molin. 

Has been found several times in local fowls (Brisbane). 
This species has been previously recorded by Dr. Sweet 
(1910, p. 243), as occurring in Rockhampton. 

Davainea varians, Sweet. 


This tiny parasite of domestic fowls has been described 
by Dr. G. Sweet (1910, p. 243), but it seems to me to. be 
synonymous with D. proglottina, which is admittedly a 
variable species. The main difference appears to be in the size 


65 - NOTES ON SOME ‘ENTOZOA. 


and form of the rostellar hooks, but it is often a difficult 
matter to figure these quite accurately, and the differences 
are small. The general anatomy is similar to that of 
D. proglottina. 
Cittotenia bancrofti, n. sp. 
(Pl V; Figs. 42, 45). 

This large cestode parasitises one of the small wallabies, 
Onychogale frenata, specimens having been collected for 
me by Dr. Bancroft (Burnett River District). The 
Jength is about 15 cm. and the maximum breadth 14 mm. 
The unarmed scolex is large, being 1:9 in diameter, and 
bears four powerful suckers, each about ‘72 mm. in 
diameter. There is no unsegmented neck region, the 
strobila consisting of very numerous narrow _leaf-like 
segments, which gradually increase in length and breadth 
as they pass backwards. The genital papilla les in the 
posterior half of each margin. 


The longitudinal musculature is very powertul, con- 
sisting of a broad zone of bundles lying in the inner portion 
of the cortex, the outer portion being free from them. The 
bundles on the outer edge of the zone are smaller than 
those lying nearer the well-developed transverse muscles. 
Dorso-ventral fibres are abundant. The dorsal excretory 
vessel is a small tube situated laterally from the larger 
ventral canal. The nerve lies just above, or at times 
dorso-laterally to, the dorsal vessel. The sex canals pass 
above both the excretory canals and the nerve, the male duct 
lying above the vagina. Both sex canals terminate in a 
common genital chamber which communicates with the 
exterior through the genital pore. 

Testes were not distinguishable in the specimens. 
There is a large cirrus sac in each half of the segment. Its 
length when the cirrus is at rest, is from ‘8 to 1 mm., and 
the breadth 019 mm. _ It possesses relatively thick muscular 
walls. The vas deferens forms a small closely-coiled mass 
near the inner end of sac, and after entering the latter, 
enlarges to form a vesicula seminalis. The cirrus may be 
everted to a distance of -30 mm. beyond the genital pore. 
It then appears as a wide organ (-14 mm. in width), covered 
with very numerous tiny spines so closely set as to give 
a stippled appearance. ; 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 69 


The female organs are duplicated and are somewhat. 
obliquely placed. The inner and anterior portion of the 
female complex consists of the ovary, while the more 
laterally situated posterior division consists of the vitellarium 
Separating the two is the receptaculum seminis. The vagina 
travels inwards behind and below the cirrus sac in a slightly 
sinuous course, becoming widened in its progress, its inner 
portion being the widest portion. As already mentioned, 
this receptaculum lies above and anterior to, the yolk 
gland. Each uterus arises as a transverse tube from which 
numerous processes or pouches develop anteriorly and 
posteriorly. The two uteri extend medianly and eventu- 
ally almost touch. I have not determined whether they 
ultimately fuse or not. 


The above description is of a preliminary nature. 


Dibothriocephalus felis, Creplin. 

This cestode is met with occasionally in cats. In 
addition to specimens from Queensland, I have others 
collected in Melbourne, in Sydney, and near Gosford, New 
South Wales. 


Cysticercoids of Hymenolepis diminuta and H. murina. 
(PL. Tile: Bie Tb). 

_ During the time that I was associated with the Govern- 
ment Bureau of Microbiology, Sydney, I had opportunity of 
examining some thousands of rat-fleas, the species repre- 
sented being almost entirely the three common fleas infesting 
Muride, viz., Xenopsylla cheopis, Ceratophyllus fasciatus 
and Ctenopsyllus musculi. In the last-named _ species, 
no parasites were found, while in the two former there 
were met with occasionally two distinct species of 
Cysticercoids as well as larval nematodes to be referred 
to later. Rarely, both the nematodes and one or other 
species of Cystercoid occurred in the one host, and also 
rarely, both species of Cysticercoid in the same Ceratophyllus, 

These cestode larval are identical with those described 
and figured by Nicoll and Minchin (1910, p. 9; text figs. 
1, 2, Minchin, 1909, p. 741), who proved experimentally 
that they were the Cysticercoid stages of two common 
rat-parasites, Hymenolepis diminuta and H. murina. They 
were found only in Ceratophyllus fasciatus and in about 


70 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA’ 


four per cent. of specimens examined. The former larva 
is pyriform, with an unarmed scolex and a fairly long tail, 
while the Cysticercoid of H. murina is rather broadér 
and shorter, has scolex armed with small hooks and 
possesses a short thick tail. 


Xenopsylla cheopis is thus a new host for these two 
larval forms, and the known geographical distribution 
is extended from Europe to Australia. As mentioned 
by Nicoll and Minchin, there is usually only one larva 
present at a time, but | have met with multiple infection. 
On one occasion there were found no less than nine Cysticer- 
coids of H. murina (see Fig. 11) in a Ceratophyllus fasciatus 
taken from Mas decumanus in Sydney (1909) ; on another 
occasion three larve: belonging to the same species were 
found in a Xenopsylla cheopis taken from Mus rattus, also 
in Sydney. One specimen, a H. diminuta Cysticercoid, 
was found in one flea, C. fasciatus, out of six sent to me in 
1910 from Melbourne for identification. 


The presence of these parasites was detected in 
specimens of fleas after clearing the latter and mounting 
them in long series in canada balsam. 


A record of the per centage infection was kept, but 
it has been mislaid. It was, I believe, about the same as 
that already recorded. 

Sparganum, sp. 
(Pl. IL; Figs. 5, 6). 

Cestode larve (plerocercoids) occur occasionally in 
certain parts of the body, mainly in the thigh muscles, 
of some Australian frogs, e.g., Hyla aurea and H. cerulea. 
I have examined specimens from the former host from Perth, 
West Australia, collected by Dr. J. B. Cleland, and from 
Sydney, N.S. Wales, collected by Dr. 8. J. Johnston, and 
by myself; and also from the latter host from Sydney, 
and from the Burnett River, Queensland, collected by 
Dr. Bancroft. The figures have been drawn from a specimen 
mounted by Dr. S. J. Johnston. 

The parasite has already been described by Professor 
Haswell (1890, p. 661), its occurrence in various localities 
having been noted by myself (1911b, p. 234) Prof. J. P. 
Hill (1905, p. 369) also has referred to it The general 


BY T, HARVEY JOHNSTON, M A‘. D.SC. 71 


appearance of the anterior end is shown in Fig: 5. The 
width is fairly uniform (-7 mm.) throughout the greater 
part of its length, the broadest portion being anterior 
(1-4 mm.) The length varies somewhat, some of the 
complete specimens examined measuring 47 mm. The 
posterior end is rounded (Fig. 6), and bears the excretory 
pore lying at the base of a small depression. The body 
is imperfectly ringed, and the cuticle is also thrown into 
small folds. 

Calcareous corpuscles are abundant. The longitudinal 
muscles. are arranged in a series of well-marked bundles. 
The excretory canals lie deeply, each being distant from 
the margin about a third of the body diameter. They join 
near the posterior end to form a very short common tube 
terminating at the excretory pore. The nervous system 
consists of a small mass just behind the slit-like depression 
at the anterior end, and of a pair of prominent laterally 
situated strands, as well as a pair of longitudinal nerves. 

Fasciola hepatica, Li. 

Specimens of the common liver fluke were forwarded 

from Ipswich, having been taken from sheep and cattle. 
Heterakis chenonetite, n. sp. 
(Pl. TV); Wigkevae,.oa). 

Last year, | took from the cecum of a wood duck 
Chenon:ztta jubata, near Sydney, a number of specimens 
of a small Heterakis, which appear to belong to a new species. 
The dimensions are :—Male—length, 6.8 mm.; _ breadth, 
-i9 mm.; female—length, 7-7 mm.; breadth, -26 mm. 
This species is thus slightly longer than H. bancrofti. 

The cuticle bears very fine annulations. The anterior 
end tapers rather rapidly from region of the nerve ring, 
while the posterior portion of the worm becomes gradually 
narrowed to terminate in small fine tail. The lips are 
equal in size, but are small. The excretory pore lies at 
‘422 mm. from the head end, in the same region as the 
nerve ring. The vulva is situated just behind the middle 
of the body (4-2 mm. behind the head). The anus in the 
female les at .53 mm. from the posterior end. 

The tail of the male terminates in a fine point. The 
ale are prominent and bear nine pair of papille, whose 
position is indicated in Fig. 30. Four pair are pre-anal 


72 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA. 


three pair lying just in front of and laterally to the 
prominent cloaca, while one pair lies laterally from the 
sucker of the post-anal papille; three pair are almost 
caudal in position, The sucker is situated at a considerable 
distance (194 mm.) in front of the cloaca, and appears 
as a prominent organ. The spicules are 1:17 mm. _ in 
length, and -013 mm. in breadth. The longer male spicule 
is strongly curved, and has a fairly uniform breadth (-008 
min.), but tapers slightly towards the extremity. The 
length is -48 mm. The shorter spicule has a length of 
.18 mm., and a breadth (in its midregion) of :012 mm., but 
the extremity is widened and rounded. 


The uterus contains eggs with vermiform embryos. 


Heterakis bancrofti, n. sp. 
(Pl IV; Figs. 28, 30). 


The cecum of the brush turkey, Catheturus lathami, 
is commonly infested by small nematodes, which at first 
sight remind one of Heterakis papillosa of the fowl. Dr. 
Bancroft has forwarded me material from the Burnett 
River district, while Mr. R. Dart has sent me material 
from Laidley. From all of the specimens, this species of 
nematode has been taken. It is therefore a common 
parasite of this host. Occasionally one finds in company 
with it a much larger Heterakis, described below as H. 
catheturinus, as well as a J'enia-like species of Hchino- 
rynchus, or, perhaps more correctly, Gigantorhynchus. 


Heterakis bancrofti has the following dimensions :— 
male—4.3 mm. long and -22 mm. broad ; female 6°25 mm. 
long, and -33 mm. broad. The anterior end tapers gradually 
while the tail of the female is rather short and sharply- 
pointed, that of the male being very narrow and delicate 
(Fig. 30). The vulva is situated at about the middle 
of the body, the excretory pore at -260--265 mm. from the 
anterior end, and the anus (in the female) at -91 mm. from 
the posterior extremity. 

There are three prominent lips of equal size, with deep. 
notches between them. The alimentary canal is of the 
usual Heterakis type. The nerve ring surrounds’ the 
pharynx at -16 mm. from the anterior end, and is situated. 
just in front of the excretory pore. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 73 


The male spicules are equal and relatively long. (-860 
mm.), sharp-pointed structures, the points being turned 
backwardly. Their form is indicated in Fig. 30. The 
sucker is chitinised and possesses a diameter of -073 mm, 
Its posterior margin is situated at about -035 mm. in front 
of the cloaca. Lying between it and the cloaca is a pair 
of pre-anal papille. The disposition of the papille around 
the lobed ale is indicated in the figure, there being two pair 
placed pre-anally, two pair post-anally, and two _ pair 
just near the junction of the ale with the narrow pointed 
tail. 

This species is associated with the name of Dr. T. L. 
Bancroft, who has rendered me considerable service in 
regard to material. 


Heterakis catheturinus, n. sp. 
(Pl. TEL > Figs.: 23, 25, PRIS Figs, 26; .27) 


As already mentioned, this large species may some- 
times be found in company with the commoner speciess 
H. bancrofti, infesting Catheturus lathami. My specimens 
have been collected from material forwarded by Dr. T. L. 
Bancroft from the Burnett River. Adult females may 
reach a length of 28 mm., males being somewhat shorter 
and attaining a length of 21 mm. 


The anterior end is rounded and narrow, while the 
posterior extremity terminates in a short pointed tail in 
both sexes. The three lips are equal in size, their 
characters being indicated in Fig. 24. The excretory 
aperture lies at a distance of -8 mm. behind the mouth.. 
The vulva is situated at about the middle of the body 
length, on a slight elevation. The anus is distant from the 
posterior extremity -40 mm. in the case of the male, and 
-86 mm. in the case of the female. At each side of the 
anterior end of the parasite, there is a ridge or ala, arising 
laterally just behind the mouth and travelling backwards 
for about two millimetres. The cuticle bears fine trans- 
verse rings. 


The alimentary canal is of the usual type, and is 
surrounded at -50 mm. behind the mouth by the nerve 
ring. | 


74 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA. 


The male spicules are slightly curved pointed rods, 
méasuring 1:05 mm. in length, and -022 mm. in width. 
The male tail is not prominent, the ale being narrow. 
The sucker lies at some distance (-275 mm.) in front of the 
cloaca. There are two pair of prominent pre-anal papille, 
a small unpaired median pre-anal, and a small unpaired 
post-anal papilla, followed by six paired post-anal papille, 
the arrangement of these sensory structures being indicated 
in the figure of the tail end of the male. (Fig. 25). 


Heterakis papillosa, Rud. 


A common parasite of poultry (Brisbane), but hitherto 
unrecorded from this State. 


Heterakis perspicillum, Rud. 


More commonly known as H. infleza. A fairly common 
but apparently unrecorded nematode infesting local fowls 
(Brisbane). 


Heterakis spumosa, Schneider. 


Present in Mus decumanus and M. rattus (Brisbane). 
Not previously recorded. 


Belascaris mystax, Rud. 


Formerly grouped with an allied round-worm parasitic 
in the dog, under the name of Ascaris canis. This species 
was found in a local cat, and has not been recorded as yet 
from this State. 

Toxascaris canis, Gm. 


Occurs in local dogs (Brisbane), but is apparently 
unrecorded until now. 


Ascaris spiculigera, Rud. 


Numerous specimens were taken by me from the 
oesophagus and stomach of, a cormorant, Phalacrocorax 
sulcirostris, and a darter, Plotus novehollandie, shot on the 
Burnett River, Eidsvold, by Dr. Bancroft. Ascaris, sp., . 
recorded by Krefft (1873, p. 213), from the latter host, 
belongs to the same species. 


Some parasites which I have collected near Sydney 
from the pelican, Pelecanus conspicillatus, are referred to 
the same species. They are rather larger, but appear 
to be specifically identical with the above. . 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON Mas, D sc 75 


A larger species of Ascaris from the stomach of 
Phalacrocorax carbo, shot by Dr. Cleland on the Hawkes- 
bury River, N.S. Wales, is of the same general appearance, 
but does not agree entirely with the available accounts 
of A. spiculigera. 

Amblyonema terdentatum, Linstow (1898, p. 470). 

This species of nematode has been found quite commonly 
by Dr. Bancroft and myself in the spiral valve of specimens 
of Neoceratodus forsteri, caught in the Burnett River. 
In company with it, on one occasion, there were found 
a few specimens of a small Amphistoma. 


Oxyuris obvelata, Bremser. 


Occurs in Mus decumanus, M. rattus and M. musculus 
in Brisbane. Not previously recorded. 


Trichosoma hepaticum, Raill. 


Found in the liver of Mus decumanus, M. rattus (alex- 
andrinus), and M. musculus in Brisbane. Its presence 
in Queensland was recorded by Dr. Bancroft (18936, p. 89), 
who described it from Mus rattus as Trichocephalus hepaticus. 
It was originally described by Railliet under the same 
specific name. 

Trichodes crassicauda, Bellingham. 

Occurs in the bladder of Mus decumanus (Brisbane). 

Not previously reported from this State. 
Spiroptera obtusa, Rud. 

From the stomach of Mus musculus, M. alexandrinus 
and M. decumanus in Brisbane. Apparently unrecorded 
from this State. 

Hystrignathus hystrix (Cobb). 

Cobb (1898, p. 315), originally described this species 
as Xyo hystrix, it being the type of his genus Xyo. A 
comparison of Cobb’s figure with those given by Leidy 
(1853, Pl. 7, Figs. 8, 9, 10), leads us to synonymise Xyo 
with Leidy’s Hystrignathus. 

Dr. Cobb did not actually give an account of his form, 
but defined it by means of his ‘“‘ nematode formula ” 
and a figure. The host is quoted as beetle, Passalus, sp. 
H. hystrix is a parasite of the large common passalid beetle, 
found in rotten timber, and’ identified for me by Mr. W. 


76 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA. 


Gurney, of the Entomologist’s Branch, Sydney, as 
Mastochilus, sp. It is under this host name that these 
tiny nematodes should be placed. 


My specimens were collected in various parts of New 
South Wales. 


Echinonema cinctum, Linstow. 

This roundworm was _ originally described as 
Hoplocephalus cinctus, by Linstow (1898, p. 469), from 
material taken in Queensland by Prof. Semon from a 
bandicoot, Permaeles obesula. It is now recorded, from the 
“native cat,’ Dasyurus viverrinus, my specimen of the 
parasite—a female—being collected from a dasyure secured 
by Mr. T. Steel, in a suburb of Sydney. 


Filaria websteri, Cobbold. 


This large nematode infests the bursa at the knee- 
joint of several kangaroos and wallabies. I have recently 
received specimens collected near Eidsvold by Dr. Bancroft 
from Macropus giganteus, M. dorsalis, and M. parryi. 


Habronema musce (Carter). 


The larval stage of this parasite, Habronema musce, has 
been met with in two species of flies, Stomoxys calcitrans 
and Musca domestica in Sydney, and in the latter in Bris- 
bane. As far as I know,: the larval form has not been 
previously recorded from Australia. 

Ransom (1911, p. 690), has recently shown that A. 
musce is the larval stage of a parasite which infests the 
stomach of the horse. 

A larval worm which has the general form and 
characters of the above species occurs in the head region 
of the common “ cattle fly,’ found frequenting, especially 
the eyes of cattle, in Queensland and determined as Musca 
vetustissima. I am indebted to Dr. Bancroft for specimens 
taken near Eidsvold in the Burnett River district of this 
State. 

Filaria clelandi, n. sp. 


(Pl. TL: Wipe. Sf Sa 
A single specimen—a male—was found by Dr. Bancroft 
in the peritoneum of a magpie, Gymnorhina tibicen, shot 


near Eidsvold. Its length is 27 mm., and its breadth 
-62 mm. The cuticle is quite smooth. The ends are 


\ 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. v1 


somewhat similar in appearance both being obtusely 
rounded, but the tail end is broader. At the head end are 
three papille placed laterally, while surrounding the mouth 
are three very slight pit-like depressions, with each of 
which is associated a highly refracting rod-like structure, 
apparently of a chitinoid nature. This bifurcates, each 
branch being relatively long. These six rods come into 
relation with the anterior end of the alimentary canal, 
where it meets the mouth cavity which has thus something 
of the character of a mouth capsule. The alimentary 
canal is of the usual filarial type ; the nerve ring surrounding 
it at a distance of -(027 mm. from the anterior end of the 
worm. The anus is subterminal, lying at only -08 mm. 
from the posterior end. 


No definite papille were recognised in the colacal 
region, though there appeared to be indications of a small 
pre-anal pair. The male spicules are relatively large and 
thick ; the longer being :75 mm. in length, sabre-like, 
twisted and with a broad lancet-like termination: while 
the other is also long, but is bent in a remarkable manner 
to form an elongate 8. The total length of the latter, 
including curves, is ‘60 mm. The general breadth of both 
spicules is the same (‘025 mm. ) 


T desire to associate with this species the name of my 
friend and former colleague, Dr. J. B. Cleland. We have 
already described two forms of larval filarie (Cleland 
and Johnston, 1910, p. 107), found in the blood of this host 
in N.S. Wales, but Dr. Bancroft (1889, p. 61), had already 
recorded the occurrence of larve in specimens taken in 
Queensland. Simultaneously with ourselves, Drs. 
Gilruth, Sweet and Dodd (1910, p. 236) described several 
different forms under the name, Microfilaria gymnorhine. 
It is inadvisable to confer specific names on larval filarial 
forms since it is not always an easy matter to associate 
a larva with the adult form; hence confusion in nomen- 
clature is more likely. As the specific name given includes 
more than one form, there need be no hesitation in naming 
the adult male which has been briefly described above. 


Plimmer (1912, p. 138) also mentions finding embryos 
in this host, his birds having died in the London Zoological 
Gardens. 


78 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA. 


Microfilaria -sp. 
(Pl. IIL; Figs. 16, 17). 


Filarial embryos have been found by Dr. J. B. Cleland 
and myself in Plotus novehollandie and Phalacrocorax 
sulcirostris, both shot on the Burnett River by Dr. Bancroft. 
These larve are relatively long (-163 to -236 mm.) and 
narrow (-004 to -006 mm), with a rounded anterior end 
and a pointed posterior extremity. A sheath is present. 


Filaria sp. 
(Pl. TH ; ‘Figs. 14, ‘15). 


I found several immature female filarize encysted in 
the subcutaneous tissues of a “ leather-head’’ Philemon 
citreigularis forwarded by Dr. T’. L. Bancroft from Eidsvold 
They were coiled up within fairly thick brownish cysts, 
only the head end protruding. Their length, when 
uncoiled, is 10:mm. ‘The cuticle is very distinctly ringed, 
the ridges being similar in general appearance to those 
present in species of Onchocerca. 

The anterior end is narrowed and bears six papille, 
while the posterior end is pointed. The anus lies at about 
-16 mm. from the latter. The nerve ring is situated at 
about -14 mm. from the head extremity. The mouth soon 
leads into the esophagus which in its turn communi- 
cates with the intestine. The excretory pore is situated 
in the region of the nerve ring. i 


Filaria, sp. 
(Pl. DV Bigs. BT38), 


A mature female worm, about 20 mm. in length, and -7 
mm. in maximum breadth was taken by Dr. J. B. Cleland 
from the subcutaneous tissues of a  honey-eater, 
Acanthogenys rufigularis, shot near Sydney, N.S. Wales. 

The anterior end is narrowed but terminates abruptly, 
while the posterior extremity ends in a short bluntly- 
rounded tail. The cuticle is practically smooth. The three 
lips are not prominent, but each bears a tiny papilla. Lying 
at a short distance behind the mouth are the excretory 
aperture (at -14 mm.), and the female pore (at -24 mm.) 
Lateral lines are relatively broad, the excretory vessels 
travelling within them in a _ sinuous course. The 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 19 


alimentary canal is of the usual filarial type, the ceso- 
phagus measuring -64 mm. in length. The anus lies very 
close to the posterior end, being only -130 mm. distant. 
The nerve ring is situated at -16 mm, from the anterior 
extremity. 

The two uteri which contain eggs with vermiform 
embryos within them, join to form a very short vagina 
near whose external opening are gland cells. The eggs 
in utero measure ‘050 by -028 mm. 

Filaria physignathi, n. sp. 
(Pl. Jl ; dies. 18,22). 

The presence of filarial embryos in the blood of 
Physignathus lesueuriit, Gray, has already been made known 
(Johnston and Cleland, 1911, p. 489), .while mention has 
been made (Johnston, 19115, p. 241) of the fact that the 
adults were found in the mesenteric veins by Dr. Bancroft. 
These adult worms, mainly females, were forwarded .to me 
and are.now dealt with under the name of Filaria physignathi. 
Filarial.embryos have ;been recently recorded as occurring 
in another Australian lizard, belonging to the same family, 
Amphibolurus barbatus, by Plimmer (1912, p. 139), whose 
specimens came from the London Zoological Gardens. 


The dimensions of the new parasite are as follows :— 
Male 12 mm. long, and -20 mm. broad; female, about 
36 mm. long, and -33 mm. broad. 


The following account is taken from a female. The 
diameter of the body is uniform, each end being bluntly 
rounded. Three small papille appear to be present at the 
anterior end. Lips are absent. The anus is. terminal, 
The vulva is situated at about 1:40 mm. from the head 
end, and lies on the summit of a small elevation surrounded 
by a definite depression. The excretory pore lies in front 
of the nerve ring, at about -130 mm. from the anterior 
extremity. The cuticle is not transversely striated, but 
is smooth and thin. 


There is no mouth cavity or pharynx. The cesophagus 
is -82 mm. in length, being surrounded at :180 mm. from 
the mouth by the nerve ring. Its front portion is rather 
wider than the remainder. Succeeding the cesophagus 
is the widened thin-walled intestine, which terminates at. 
the anus at the end of the worm- 


80 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA. 


The female glands and ducts are very extensive, coils 
being present close to the anus, while the common uterus 
—a wide tube—terminates close to the anterior end, as 
already mentioned. The lower parts of the female canal 
are crowded with free embryos of the type already 
described as occurring in the blood. Surrounding the 
vulva are numerous vaginal glands. The female aperture 
is very narrow. 


The male is quite small when compared with the 
female. The tail is spirally rolled. The cloaca les at 
-097 mm. from the blunt posterior end. The nerve ring 
lies at about -130 mm. behind the mouth. A coil of the 
testis approaches quite closely to the region of the nerve 
ring. The ale are very small and papille are poorly 
represented. There appears to be a pre-anal pair just 
antero-laterally to the cloaca, as well as two pair of post- 
anal papille just behind the cloaca. The spicules are rather 
small, the larger being -162 mm. long, slightly curved, 
and bearing a pointed extremity. The smaller is -081 mm. 
long, also slightly curved, but its extremity is widened, 
as often happens in Filariide. 


The specimens were collected by Dr. Bancroft from 
the water dragon, Physignathus lesueurii, on the Burnett 
River, near Eidsvold. 


Oxyspirura anthochere, n. sp. 
(Pl. IV; Figs. 34, 36). 


As far as 1 am aware, no nematodes have been 
described as infesting the eyes of native birds in Australia. 
Krefft (1873, p. 213), recorded the presence of Ascaris sp. 
from the eye of a gill-bird, Anthochera carunculata. I 
have already remarked (1910, p. 111), that the worms 
probably belong to the Filariide. An examination of 
Krefft’s specimens, through the courtesy of the Curator 
of the Australian Museum, Sydney, shows them to belong 
to that family, and apparently to Oxyspirura. In my list 
of entozoa known to infest Australian birds, I have 
recorded this form as Ceratospira anthochere. (19126, p. 111). 
The position of the female pore is posterior instead of 
anterior, hence the species must be transferred to 
Oxysprrura. 


BY -T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., DSC. 81 


The specimens had become dried up and are therefore 
of little value. The description given below is lacking 
in many details, but should allow the recognition of the 
species in the future. 


The length of the male is about 8-5 mm., and of the 
female 8 to 9 mm. The breadth of each is about -11 mm, 
The cuticle is finely striated transversely. The head 
end has suffered in drying. Neither lips nor papille are 
recognisable on the rounded anterior extremity, which is 
slightly -wollen when compared with the succeeding neck 
region. The posterior end of the female is sharp-pointed, 
the anus and the genital aperture lving at -194 mm. and 
-32 mm. distant. respectively, from the extremity. The 
cloaca in the male lies at -08 mm. from the tail end, which 
is spirally curved and is shorter than the female tail. No 
male papillze were discernible. 

A small mouth cavity is present. Surrounding the 
pharynx at a distance of -195 mm. from the anterior end, 
is the nerve ring. 

Larval nematodes tn fleas. 
CPLA NT pia k 2. LS). 

As a result of examining a large series of rat fleas, 
as mentioned earlier, the. presence of small coiled nematode 
larve, Agamonema sp., was detected in a goodly number 
of Xenopsylla cheopis, and—-on only one _ occasion— 
Ceratophyllus fasciatus, all the parasitised fleas coming 
from Sydney and district. As far as I am aware, the 
presence of larval nematodes in fleas, has not been recorded. 
Usually, there was only one present, but sometimes two, 
three or four, while on one occasion, no less than six of 
them were present in the body cavity of a male X. chcopis 
When compared with the size of the host, these larvaz 
are quite large as a glance at Fig. 12 will indicate. 

In nearly every. instance the parasite was closely, 
usually spirally, coiled and therefore very difficult to 
examine. Sometimes a relatively thick cyst enclosed it. 
Owing to their transparency, their presence is not detected 
unless the bodies of the fleas be either carefully teased up 
and examined in saline or other solution with a minimum 
amount of light, or the hosts be cleared and examined, 
very little light being allowed to pass through them. They 

- 


82 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA. 


are delicate, practically colourless worms 43 mm. in length 
and -042 mm. in width, which is uniform throughout the 
greater part of the body. The body bears delicate trans- 
verse rings. The posterior end tapers rapidly to become 
pointed, while the anterior extremity narrows more slowly. 
The whole larva bears a striking likeness to Habronema 
musce. {1 therefore consider it to be the young form of 
a Spiroptera sensu lato. 


The species of Sprroptera which infests rats and mice 
in Australia is S. obtusa. It is thus quite likely that the 
larve under review, belong to this species. The probability 
is suggested by the following facts :—S. obtusa is quite 
common here. [ts eggs pass to the exterior with the 
feces of the rat or mouse and come to reach the earth 
ju the rat holes, or elsewhere where the rat-fiea eggs are 
developing into larve. The latter are known to be able 
to ingest rat-cestode eggs with contained embryos, ¢.g., 
Hymenolepis diminuta and H. murina which also reach 
the exterior with the feces. It is thus not unlikely that 
the life history of S. obtusa is different from that of Habro- 
nema musce, whose eggs become ingested along with organic 
matter in horse manure by the fly larve (Musca domestica, 
Stomoxys calcitrans, and probably other flies). Maturity 
is reached by the ingestion of the intermediate host by 
the definitive host. As already mentioned, the larva is 
of the Sproptera form. It occurs fairly frequently, and 
is known to infest at least two species of rat fleas. 

The objection is, that the parasite occurs chiefly in 
Xenopsylla cheopis, a flea which lives ordinarily in tropical 
and subtropical regions ; and quite rarely in the common 
flea C. fasciatus which forms such a large percentage of the 
aphanipterous population of murids in temperate and 
subtemperate zones and in the colder periods of the year 
in sub-tropical areas. This objection does not appear 
to me to be a very serious one, as the parasite does not 
seem to have been recognised elsewhere, perhaps because 
unsuspected, perhaps because of the ditficulty in seeing it 
unless very little light be allowed to pass through the 
specimen. 

Stephanurus dentatus, Dies. 

The * kidney worm ”’ of pigs was recognised many years. 

ago in Queensland by Morris, in 1871, and by Bancroft 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc. 83 


(1893a, p. 258). My specimens were forwarded from 
Ipswich. Immature forms have been fouund by me in 
the liver. 

Agchylostoma caninum, Ercol. 

Found locally in dogs and cats. Its presence in dogs 
in Brisbane (presumably), is inferred from a statement 
by Dr. Bancroft (1901, p. 41), while I have recorded its 
occurrence in the dog in N.S. Wales and Victoria. As 
far as I am aware, this hook-worm is now recorded for the 
first time as parasitising cats in this continent. 


Gigantorhynchus moniliformis, Bremser. 


Occurs in Mus decumanus and M. alexandrinus in 
Brisbane, but apparently hitherto unrecorded. 


Echinorhynchus menure, n. sp. 
(Pl. TV; Figsa0s 40): 


A single specimen, 19 mm. in length and i:lmm. 
in breadth was taken from the intestine of a lyre-bird, 
Menura swperba, near Gosford, N.S. Wales. Owing. to 
the large number of eggs overlying the female organs, 
very little of the internal anatomy was recognisable. 


The parasite has a maggot-like appearance, being 
somewhat narrower at the anterior end. The body wall 
is thin and delicate and consequently readily distorted. 
The small tubular rostellum (Fig. 39) measures about -16 
mm. in diameter, and bears about seven whorls of very 
numerous, narrow, sharp-pointed hooks, each of which 
projects about -04 mm. beyond the surrounding collar. 
The proboscis sheath is relatively long. 


The only part of the female genitalia recognisable is 
the lower portion of the uterus, or perhaps more correctly, 
the vagina, which terminates at the gonopore, the latter 
lying at the base of a concavity. The elliptical eggs measure 
‘10 by -031 mm., and the embryos -068 by -019 mm. 


Echinorhynchus rotundocapitatus, n. sp. 
(Pits PVs ties 41). 
This species occurs commonly (Johnston, P.L.S., 
N.S.W., 1909, p. 590; P.R.S., Q’land, 1911, p. 238), in the 


rectum of the black snake, Pseudechis porphyriacus, Shaw, 
in various parts of New South Wales and Victoria. 


4 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA, 


The females may reach a length of 32 mm., the males 
being much smaller (12 mm. long). The body is firm and 
whitish, the cuticle being smooth or crinkled transversely: 
The proboscis is nearly spherical, measuring -76 mm. 
across, and bearing about seven spirally-arranged series 
of hooks, each series consisting of twelve to sixteen hooks" 
according to their position on the proboscis. The hooks 
are powerful structures, consisting of a relatively strong 
basal portion and of a stout backwardly-projecting hook, 
surrounded at its base by a small collar. The posterior 
end of the male is slightly narrowed, and bears the male 
gonopore. The extremity of the female is slightly swollen 
and bifid, there being two prominent lobes between which 
lies the genital aperture. 

The following account is taken from a male. The 
proboscis sheath is an elongate sac 1-6 mm. long. The 
lemmisci are extremely long, extending through the 
anterior three-fourths of the parasite. The two rounded 
testes lie just in front of the middle of the worm. Their 
long diameter is nearly a millimetre. The vasa deferentia 
unite to form a large swollen convoluted  vesicula 
seminalis, the lower part of which is a sac-like structure 
succeeded by the ejaculatory duct. The latter terminates 
at the small bursa which in turn communicates with the 
exterior through the male gonopore. 

The vagina or uterus is long and thin. Eggs measure 
-087 mm. in length, the embryos being -043 mm. long. 


Echinorhynchus, sp. 
(PI! TE 5° Figs? 95" 10). 


Last year, I found a larval echinorhynch encysted 
in the peritoneum lining the body wall of a common golden 
frog, Hyla aurea, near Sydney. The length, excluding the | 
rostellum which measures ‘72 mm. when everted, reaches 
1:53 mm. The rostellum bears about twelve whorls of 
hooks, each whorl consisting of about sixteen. The hooks 
(Fig. 10) possess a stout basal portion, and of a long sharp 
claw partly surrounded by a collar-like outgrowth of the 
rostellar cuticle. The entire hook, when measured from 
the point to the upper end of the base, reaches a jength of 
-150 mm.. of which -115 mm. protrudes. The rostellar 
sheath is relatively short, the lemmisci being much longer. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 85 


No sex organs were recognisable, but the specimen is. 
probably a female. Although a large number of frogs. 
were examined, parasite was found only once. It thus 
appears to be rare. I refrain from giving a specific name 
to this jarval form. 


LIST OF HOSTS AND THEIR PARASITES, REFERRED 
TO:.IN THIS PAPER. 


MAMMALIA :— 
Mus decumanus Hymenolepis diminuta 
(Hpimys norvegicus) Cysticercus fasciolaris 


Gigantorhynchus moniliformis 
Spiroptera obtusa 
Heterakis spumosa 
Oxyaris obvelata 
Trichodes crassicanda 
Trichosoma hepaticum 
Mus rattus (alexandrinus) Hymenolepis diminuta 
Cysticercus fasciolaris 
Gigantorhynchus moniliformis 
Spiroptera obtusa 
Heterakis spumosa 
Oxyuris obvelata — 
Trichosoma hepaticum 
Mus musculus Cysticercus fasciolaris 
Spiroptera obtusa 
Oxyuris obvelata 
Trichosoma hepaticum 
Canis famlaris Dipylidium caninum 
Agchylostoma caninum 
Toxocara (Toxascaris) canis 
Felis domestica Dibothriocephalus felis 
Tenia crassicollis 
Dipylidium caninum 
Agchylostoma caninum 
Belascaris mystax 


Sus scrofa, dom. Stephanurus dentatus 
Bos taurus, dom. Fasciola hepatica 
Ovis aries, dom. Fasciola hepatica 


Dasyurus viverrinus Echinonema cinctum 


86 NOTES 
Macropus giganteus 
Macropus dorsalis 
Macropus parryi 


Onychogale frenata 


AvEs :— 


Gallus domesticus 


Gallopavo meleagris 


Catheturus lathami 


Anas superciliosa 


Nettion castaneum 
Aythya australis 
Chenonetta jubata 
Notophoyx novehollandie 
Pelecanus conspicillatus 


Plotus novehollandie 
Phalacrocorax sulcirostris 


Phalacrocorax carbo 


Larus canus 


Gymnorhina tibicen 
Menura superba 
Philemon citreigularis 
Acanthogenys rujfigularis 


Anthochera carunculata 


ON SOME ENTOZOA, 


Filaria websteri 
F. websteri 
F. websteri 


Cittoteenia bancrofti, n. sp. 


Hymenolepis carioca 
Davainea tetragona 
Davainea cesticillus 
Davainea proglottina 
Amebotenia cuneata 
Heterakis perspicillum 
Heterakis papillosa 
Metroliasthes lucida 
Heterakis catheturinus, n. sp. 
Heterakis bancrofti, n. sp. 
Echinorhynchus, sp. 


Hymenolepis megalops 
Diorchis flavescens 
Echinostoma, sp. 


Hymenolepis megalops 
Diploposthe levis 
Heterakis chenonette, n. sp. 
Bancroftiella glandularis 
Ascaris spiculigera 


Microfilaria, sp. 
Ascaris spiculigera 
Microfilaria, sp. 
Ascaris spiculigera 
Ascaris, sp. 

clerci, 


Choanoteenia nom. 


nov. 

Filaria clelandi, n. sp. 
Echinorhynchus menure, n. sp. 
Filaria, sp. 

Filaria, sp. 


Oxyspirura anthochere, n. sp. 


C.W., 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 87 


REPTILIA :— 


Varanus belli 


Physignathus lesueurii 
Pseudechis porphyriacus 


Pseudechis australis 
Notechis scutatus 


Denisonia superba 


AMPHIBIA :— 


Hyla aurea 


Hyla cerulea 


PISCES :— 


Neoceratodus forsteri 


INSECTA :— 


Mastochilus, sp. 
Musca domestica 

M. vetustissima 
Stomoxys calcitrans 
Ceratophyllus fasciatus 


Xenopsylla cheopis 


Hemogregarina varanicola 
Acanthotenia tidswelli 
Physaloptera varani % 
Filaria physignathi, n. sp. 
Acanthotenia gallardi 
Echinorhynchus rotundocapi- 
tatus, 1. sp. 

Acanthotenia gallardi 
Acanthotenia gallardi 


Acanthotenia gallardi 


Ophiotenia hyle, n. sp. 
Sparganum, sp. 
Echinorhynchus, sp. 
Sparganum, sp. 


Amphistoma, sp. 
Amblyonema terdentatum 


Hystrignathus hystrix 

Habronema musce (larva) 

H. musce (larva) 

HT. musce (larva) 

Hymenolepis diminuta 
(Cysticercoid) - 

Hym. murina (Cysticercoid) 

Agamonema sp. (? larva of 
Spiroptera obtusa) 

Hymenolepis diminuta 
(Cysticercoid) 

Hym. murina (Cysticercoid) 

Agamonema, sp. (? larva of 
Spiroptera obtusa) 


REFERENCE TO LETTERING. 


& anus; a.m.p., apical muscle plug; b., bursa: e¢., 
cirrus ; c.g., cerebral ganglion ; cl., cloaca ; ¢.s., cirrus sac ; 


cyst. .wall; cy., 


cysticercoid ; d.v., 


dorsal vessel ; 


88 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA. 


d.v.m., dorso-ventral muscle; e., egg; e.d., ejaculatory 
duct ; e.p., excretory pore; g.c., genital cloaca; gl.c., 
gland cells; g.p.. genital pore; int., intestine; l., lip; 
lem., lemniscus ; 1.1, lateral line ; l.m., longitudinal muscle ; 
n., nerve ; n.r., nerve ring; oes., cesophagus ; ov., ovary ; 
p-, p.l., p.2., etc., papillae ; ph., pharynx; p.s., proboscis 
sheath; r., rostellum; r.s., receptaculum  seminis; s. 
Sucker ; sh., sheath ; sp., spicule ; t., testis; tr. m., trans- 
verse musculature; u., uterus; v., vagina; v.d., vas 
deferens ; v.g., vitelline gland; v.s., vesicula seminalis ; 
v.v.. ventral ‘excretory vessel. 


Plate IT. 


| Ophiotenia hyle. 
Fig. 1. Scolex. 
Segment showing genitalia. 


bo 


Acanthotenia gallardi. 
Fig. 3. Segment showing genitalia. 
4. Trans. sect. of segment passing through 
genital ducts. 
Sparganum, sp. from Hyla. 
Fig. 5. Anterior end. 
6. Posterior end. 
Filaria clelandi. 
Fig. 7. Anterior end of a male 
8. Posterior end of a male. 
Echinorhynchus, sp. from Hyla. 
Fig. 9. Entire parasite. 
10. Hook from rostellum. 


Plate ITI. 


Hymenolepis murina. 
Fig. ll. Cysticerecoids in Ceatophyllus fasciatus 
Agamonema, sp. 
Fig. 12. Four encysted worms in Xenopsylla cheopis. 
13. <A parasite enclosed in a cyst. 


Filaria, sp. from Philemon. 
Fig. 14, Head end. 
15, "Pail. end. 
Microfilaria, sp. 
Fig. 16. From Plotus noveholiandie. 
17. From Phalacrocorax  suleirostris 


Fig. 


42. 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.S€. 


Filaria physignatni. 
Head end of male. 
Head end of female. 
Portion showing valva. 
Tail end of female. 
Tail end of male. 


Heterakis catheturinus. 
Anterior end of female. 
Lips. 

Tail end of male. 


Plate IV. 


Heterakis catheturinus. 
Tail end of female. 
Tail end of male. 
Heterakis btancroftt. 
Head end of male. 
Lips. 
Tail end of male. 
Heterakis chenonette. 
Anterior end of female. 
Lip. 
Posterior end of male. 
Oxyspirura anthochere. 
Head end of male. 
Tail end of male. 
Tail end of female. 


Filaria, sp. from Acanthogenys 


Anterior end of female. 
Posterior end of female. .~ 


Echinorhynchus menure. 


Anterior end of female. 
Posterior end of female. 


Echinorhynchus rotundocapitatus. 
Entire male worm. 
Plate V. 


Cittotenia bancrojti. 


Portion of segment showing one set 


genitalia. 


89 


of 


90 


1889 
1893a 
18936 
1901 
1902 
1898 
1910 


1910 


1890 
1905 


1911 
1909 
1910 
19lla 


19116 


NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA. 


43. Transv. sect. of segment. 
44. Longit. horiz. sect. of segment. 
45. Scolex. 


LITERATURE LIST. 


Bancroft—P.R.S., Queensland, 6, 1889, p. 58-62. 

Bancroft-—Austr. Med. Gazette, 12, 1893, p. 258. 

Bancroft—P.R.S., N.S. Wales, 27, 1893, p. 89. 

Bancroft—P.R.S., N.S. Wales, 35, 1901, p. 41-46. 

Clere—Zool. Anz., 1902. 

Cobb—Agr. Gazette, N.S. Wales, 9, 1898, p. 296-321. 

Cleland and Johnston—-P.R.S. South Austr., 34, 
1910, p. 100-114. 

Gilruth, Sweet & Dodd—P.R.S. Vict., 23, 1910, 
p. 231-241. 

Haswell—P.L.S., N.S. Wales, 5, 1890, p. 661. 

Hill—Intercol. Mid. Congr. (Adelaide), 1905, p. 369. 

Johnston & Cleland, see also Cleland & Johnston. 

Johnston & Cleland-——P.L.S., N.S. Wales, 36, 1911, 
p. 479-491. 

Johnston—P.R.S.. N.S. Wales, 48, 1909, p. 103-116. 

Johnston—P.R.S., 1, N.S. Wales, 44, 1910, p. 84-122. 

Johnston—Annals Q’land Museum, 10, 1911, p. 
175-182. 

Johnston-—P.R.S., Q’land, 23, 1911, p. 233-249. 


19llc Johnston—P.L.S., N.S. Wales, 36, 1911, p. 47-57. 


1912a 
19125 
1912c 
1873 
1851 


1898 
1909 


1911 
1909 
1910 


Johnston—Rec. Austr. Museum, 9, 1912, p. 1-35. 

Johnston—The Emu, Oct. 1912, p. 105-112. 

Johnston—The present paper. 

Krefft—Trans. Entom. Soc., N.S. Wales, 2, 1873. 

Leidy—Smithsonian Contrib. Knowl. 5 (2), 1853, 
67 pp. 

Linstow—In Semon’s Forschungsreisen, 5, 1898. 

La Rue—Studies Zool. Lab. Univ. Nebraska, No. 
95, 1909. 

La Rue—Zool. Anz., 38, 1911, p. 473-482. 

Minchin—P.Z.S. Lond., 1909, p. 741. 

Nicoll & Minchin—P.Z.S., Lond., 1910 (1911), p. 
9-13. 


1912 
1904 


1911 
1910 
1910 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 91 


Plimmer—J. R. Micr. Soc., Lond., 1912, p. 133-150. 

Ransom—Bull 60, B.A. Ind., Dept. Agr., U.S.A., 
p. 7-54. 

Ransom—Science, 34, Nov. 1911, p. 690-2. 

Sweet, Gilruth & Dodd, see Gilruth, Sweet & Dodd. 

Sweet—P.R.8., Vict., 23, 1910, p. 242-256. 


Prate: IT. 


Proc Roy. Soc. Q’Lanp, Vou. XXIV. 


eee \ ; : eat A / ° 
A a eee soos ° 8, i cg oR i) inn 02%c Re { of dg Baty ° £90 5 ; 
ie Xe ty , aa 
Oxo N' 1 
Oo sO Wf agony 0 = 
ato Yq 


POG, 9 420K 82 ? 
5 °Q90,.2Q0 7° 
OOD: °F s, 
howe ey 
SARsee gs var qin’ 


°0 O05 
Slee 9 
Aspen) 330 09 ee 9 0 oq 
. Sy . 
Vw SVE TY yi acavels 


sleek ee BS 


THT del 


Proc Roy. Soc. Q’ranp, VoL. EV. Prats III. 


ead 


pees ee as 
a a & ‘ 


\ / 


Proc. Roy. Suc. Q'Lann. Vou. XXIV. Prater LY. 


NOTES ON PORTION OF THE BURDEKIN VALLEY, 


WITH SOME QUERIES AS TO THE UNIVERSAL APPLICABILITY 
OF CERTAIN PHYSIOGRAPHICAL THEORIES. 


— 


By E. 0. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 


(Plates VI, VII, VIII, IX.) 


Read before the Royal Soctety of Queensland, October 2nd, 1912. 


——— 


THE advances made during recent years in the scientific 
interpretation of land forms, and through them of the 
comparatively recent geological history of land surfaces, 
have not been neglected by Australian scientists. Their 
work has already proved of great scientific value, but it 
is sadly hampered by the paucity of information concerning 
much of the continent, including the majority of Queens- 
land. 


Since the consideration of such knowledge as is avail. 
able concerning the drainage systems of the rivers has 
drawn particular attention to the courses of the Burdekin 
and Fitzroy, the writer has taken the opportunity, resulting 
from a recent visit to the most interesting part of the 
Burdekin’s course, to note some of its characteristics. 
As the observations made have led him to doubt the correct- 
mess of the interpretations put by some on the vagaries 
of the river as well as the universal applicability of certain 
physiographical theories, the opportunity is also taken 
to give the reasons for these doubts. 


While calling attention, in doing so, to the need for 
the utmost caution in applying physiographical reasoning 
to regions the geological structure of which is but 
imperfectly understood, it is very far from the writer’s 
intention to belittle, in any way, the value of physiographical 
studies and reasonings in regions whose outward features 
and internal structure are reasonably well known. | 


94 THE BURDEKIN VALLEY. 


Among the rivers flowing to the east coast of Aus- 
tralia, the Burdekin with 53,500 square miles is second 
only in catchment area to the Fitzroy, which drains 55,600 
square miles. These two rivers possess a certain amount 
of similarity in their systems, the complexity of which, 
as well as their magnitude compared with the other Pacific 
streams, has drawn the attention of students of Australian 
physiography. 


Of the large area occupied by the Burdekin basin, 
the writer is only ‘acquainted with that portion which lies 
within the Charters Towers and Ravenswood goldfields. 
This, however, includes the Burdekin falls and gorge, 
where the river passes through the Leichhardt Range, 
as well as portion of the so-called peneplain upstream 
from the falls, these two features being the ones to which 
most attention has been given.* 


The Charters Towers and Ravenswood goldfields 
consist mainly of granite, and possess an undulating surface 
whose monotony is broken by occasional ‘‘ monadnocks ” 
of more resistant rocks or by flat-topped “‘ mesas”’ of a 
sandstone which, in places, presents lateritic affinities. 
The undulating country descends gradually to the water 
courses which thus occupy wide and shallow valleys, con- 
veying the impression of great maturity in the cycle of 
erosion. 


In streams of great maturity, however, one naturally 
expects to find great widths of alluvial flats, but the 
Burdekin has, considering its magnitude, deposited very 
little alluvium. 


Another feature not altogether consistent with an 
advanced stage in the cycle of erosion, is formed by the 
rocky bars over which the river passes in not infrequent 
falls of up to 4 or 5 feet. 


*W. Poole, Notes on the Physiography of North Queensland, A.A.A.5., 
1909. 

C. Hedley. A Study of Marginal Drainage. Pres. Address, Linnean: 
Soc., N.S.W., 1911. 

G. Taylor, Physiography of Eastern Australia. Commonwealth 
Bureau of Meteorology. 

J. V. Danes, Physiography of North-Eastern Australia. Royal 
Bohemian Society of Sciences, 1911. 


BY E. O. MARKS, B.A.,: B.E. 95: 


Between these bars the river is a wide, sandy bed 
over’ which the water flows in a quiet and shallow stream 
from hole to hole. The fall of the river in the 95 miles, 
between Macrossan Bridge and the top of the falls, amounts 
to some 400* feet, an average of 4 feet per mile, which is 
ereater than would be expected of a stream of great 
antiquity. On the other hand the wide sandy bed and 
quiet stream, like the wide valley, give an impression of 
old age almost as strong as does a view from one of the 
few hills in the peneplain which the stream traverses. 


The Leichhardt Range through which the Burdekin 
has cut its gorge consists, from the gorge northwards to 
near Ravenswood, mainly of various, more or less altered 
felsitic lavas, tuffs and conglomerates. The country on 
the east side of the range has a general level some hundreds. 
of feet below that of the country on the western side, as 
would be expected when consideration is taken of the fact 
that the water of the streams on the western side has so 
much greater a distance to travel before reaching the sea 
than has water on the eastern fall. The eastern streams 
have, in some instances, eaten far back into the range as 
for example, near Ravenswood, where the head of the Kight- 
mile Creek has eaten back to the peneplain on the western 
side of the range. The divide here is not marked by any 
prominent ridge as viewed from the western side, but 
further to the east the mountains attain a much greater 
elevation than the divide. South of this the range does 
form the divide, and is considerably higher than the country 
either to east or west. 


As one travels southwards down the Burdekin from 
near Ravenswood, the Canton Range on the left, approach- 
ing within a mile of the river, is an offshoot of the main 
Leichhardt Range and is composed of felsites. Below 
Ravenswood station similar rocks constitute the Twins, 
and form a narrow belt which crosses the river and runs 
parallel to it on its western side for a few miles forming a 


*The levels of the country about the falls were taken with a single 
aneroid, and must be considered as approximate only. The weather 
conditions being normal and readings in the same place agreeing closely 
on different days, while the readings at Ravenswood, before and after 
an interval of three weeks. were also in accord, the writer is satisfied that 
the levels noted may be relied on as being reasonably close to the correct 
altitude. 


" 


96 THE BURDEKIN VALLEY. 
> 


line of prominent hills. Where the river is crossed the hills on 
each side of it, would form a gorge were not the width of 
the river greater than the length of the gorge. Had felsitie 
rocks occurred here on a more extensive scale, it seems 
reasonable to presume that a gorge would have existed. 
It follows, therefore, that the change again to granite 
country is the cause of the river valley widening out once 
more to seeming maturity as we proceed downstream. 
In the reverse order, it is not till a change of country once 
more occurs, and the hard felsite hills close in to the river 
that it enters the gorge and passes over the falls that have 
drawn the attention of physiographers. 


On the river’s first entering the gorge, the wide, sandy 
bed gives place to one of bare boulder-strewn rock over 
which, at ordinary times, the water flows in two streams 
for perhaps half-a-mile, and then with a drop of 50 or 60 
feet forms the two falls illustrated. Below these, within a mile 
and a-half, the river falls in three or four places another 
50 feet, passing through a rocky gorge whose width is the 
width of the river bed. The sides of the gorge can only be 
climbed here and there as the lower 100 feet or so are 
exceedingly steep where not perpendicular. Above thig 
the hills are rounded and rise to the height of some 500 
feet above the river on either side. 


Further down the river the valley widens out a little 
here and there, but for 20 miles the river winds its way 
through mountain ranges from 1500 to 2000 feet in height. 
The river bed is excessively rough ; and to travel down it 
can only be done on foot (sometimes, probably, with the 
assistance of the hands) and necessitates swimming the 
crocodile-haunted stream at frequent intervals, while to 
journey along the side of the river entails the ascending 
and descending of spur after spur and mountain after 
mountain. In the 20 miles of its course through the 
mountains, there are said to be very few places where 
cattle can get down to the river, so rough and steep are 
its banks. 


Though so rough as to its bed and steep as to its sides, 
no further falls are said to occur of more than a foot or two 
in drop before the river emerges from the ranges and once 
more assumes the even tenor of its journey to the sea. The 


BY. E. O. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 97 


-~writer did not follow the river further than about 6 miles 
below the falls, but noticed in one place that the river is 
‘divided by an island some 150 feet in height. 


It is to be pointed out that the falls total between 
100 and 150 feet, while the mountains and hills on either 
~side of the river are of much greater elevation than that 
part of the peneplain immediately to the west. Thus, 
-at the Suttor confluence the elevation is approximately 
‘350 feet above sea level, while the hills on either side of the 
‘gorge rise to elevations of 800 feet near the start and over 
'1500 feet lower down the river. 


Two creeks joining the river in this part of its course 
pass through gorges before doing so. One of them, Stones 
‘Creek, has the upper part of its course mainly in undulating 
granite country. Of the remainder of its course, part is in 
fairly open country composed of purplish felsitic tuffs and 
‘lavas, while the part: nearer the Burdekin, where the rocks 
are similar to those of the Burdekin gorge, lies also in an 
:almost impassable gorge. | 

The belt of country formed by the felsitic rocks prac- 
‘tically constitutes the Leichhardt Range between the Burde- 
‘kin Falls and Ravenswood. The country is exceedingly 
‘hilly, but the hills are rounded and with the exception of 
Mt. Bluey, as it is known locally, or Mt. Glenroy, as it is 
named on the maps, do not form prominent peaks above 
‘the general level of the range. The creeks occupy steep- 
-sided V-shaped valleys often difficult to travel along. 

At the heads of Glenroy and Stones Creeks areas of 
‘granite are marked by the change to the more undulating 
‘topography, that at the head of Glenroy forming a table- 
jand on the divide, a tableland from which the creek 
‘descends in a waterfall of 300 feet over exceedingly hard 
granite. 

Perhaps the most interesting example of contrast 
‘in topography between the two types of country. occurs at 
Plumtree Pocket, about 4 miles south-east of Ravenswood. 
This pocket is almost entirely surrounded by rounded 
hills or felsitic rocks traversed by narrow V-shaped valleys. 
The pocket itself, some 500 feet below the summit of the 
‘hills, is approximately 3 miles long by 1 mile wide and is 
-of the usual undulating granite country, almost if not 

6 


9S THE BURDEKIN VALLEY.: 


quite as ‘old.’ in appearance as is the peneplain west of the 
hills. -The creek draining it is also of the usual type tilk 
it Tapes its exit, when it passes between the felsitic 
hills in a V-shaped valley which is so steep and rough 
that one cannot ride a horse down it, the track leading 
from the pocket passing in preference over the hills. The 
granite which occurs in the ranges is not uniform in 
character, and in places weathers into rough, boulder- 
strewn hills, but- never with the narrow V-shaped valleys. 
peculiar to the felsites. 

The features presented in miniature by Plumtree Pocket 
are precisely similar to those exhibited by the Burdekin 
under similar conditions, but on a much larger scale, as 
well as by Stones and Glenroy Creeks. It is obvious that 
Plumtree Pocket owes its differentiations from the surround- 
ing hills only to the different weathering powers of the 
component rocks, and not in any way to a difference in age: 
of denudation. ‘a 

It appears to the writer necessary to apply this to the 
Burdekin and conclude that the contrast between the narrow 
gorge—the type of youth in denudation—and the pene- 
plain—the corresponding type of old age in denudation— 
is merely due to a difference in the weathering powers of 
the component rocks. 

The river, of course, has a history, and this may 
possibly yet be puzzled out, but in working out the puzzle: 
undue importance must not, in the writer’s opinion, be 
placed on the existence of the two types of land forms. 

Any discussion of the peculiarities in the directions 
of the tributary streams, the changes in direction of the 
Burdekin itself, or as to whether the Belyando-Suttor or 
the Burdekin above their confluence should be considered 
the main stream, has been purposely avoided in this paper, 
as the writer is only acquainted with such a small part 
of the systems, and information is so scant concerning 
the rest as to render any suggestions that might be made- 
of little value. 

As already hinted, the writer suspects that the so-called 
peneplain is in reality deceptive. That the slope of the 
river is greater than would be expected in advanced old 
age, the following table will show, and is an interesting 
comparison with other Queensland streams.- 


BY E. 0. MARKS, B.A:, B.E. ) OD» 


DECLIVITIES..OF SOME QUEENSLAND ‘RIVERS. 


Level Dit- Feet 
River. Locality. above | S| Ta eriroeate per 
nye fea. | ‘| mile. 


| eet. | Feet. | Miles. 
Burdekin -.. .. | Macrossan... ‘fe 695* 
| Falls (above) me 320*| 375 95.) 4-0 


Falls (below) Be Pa TP ane ee 
SHS ee atc cage Ce IO cated Gre By 
Belyando (branch at) | Alpha a | 1115*# | | 
and Suttor .. | Confluence with Bur: — Ls 
/ dekin = :. ph wes 765.| 260) 2-9) 
Cape Biwer 65 ‘oda! Cape River Railway. _ eI | 


Bridge .. Erte ol oo 
Burdekin confluenuce: 350°) 878 140 | 6:3. 


and Suttor 


~ Dawson ane Fitzroy Boolburra ..° 0: 156. | ~ | 
Sea .. % os 0} 156.) -180 | 0-9 
Nogoa, Mackenzie and) Emerald > ». wo} B28-/: 
Fitzroy: .. acer fA DOB 5 e% vs | 0 | 523.| 380 |.1-4: 
Brisbane (Marongi'| Harlin ~~ .. Be dnee) Stas 
Creek) [Seti . tanh ep ete Ohh ala+! 160 (be 
~ Condamine .. .. | Killarney~ .. oof L659 


Chinchilla -. F 964 | -595 |° 176 | 3-4. 
(Charley Creek). _ | 


Condamine, Darling; | Killarney .. >. | 1559 | 
&e. A siniy | ORS fs < “is ae 0 |-1559 | 2300 | 0-68 


Warrego: x; .. Charleville... ., S716. 4 
{Cunnamulla - .. 590'|. 286 , 150 | 1-8 
Thomson | Torrens Creek .. | 1466 


|" Longreach-.:-: .. | 580 | 886-| 240 | 3-7 


} 

la len SB Ate a eae a 

Note.—With the exception of those marked with am asterisk, which 

are aneroid measurements, the levels were supplied by the courtesy of Mr.. 

N. G. Bell, Chief Engineer for Railways. The distances were measured 
on the maps. 


The following figures, taken from Geikie’s Text Book. 
of Geology, are interesting: for' comparison: . 


| 
River.. Fall per mile in feet. 


Missouri 
Thames 
Shannon 
Volga e 
ste FoR Ppa 
Colorado: in its: Cations 


/ 
! 
| 


ee = eel) 
~1 bo +1 00 
bo St bo ot 


| 


‘100 THE BURDEKIN VALLEY. 


The conclusion arrived at in regard to the Burdekin 


“basin, that what would ordinarily be considered a youthful 
-and an ancient type of topography are really in all prob- 


: 


ability of the same denudational age, naturally leads one 
to review the reasoning on which physiographers have 
based their classification. For a summary of modern views 
on the processes: of stream- eresion,. one can hardly do 
better than refer to Mr. E.°C. Andrews’ ** Erosion and its 


Significance,” read before the Royal Soc. of N.S.W. in 1911. 


~The principles have mainly been evolved by American 


writers and are fascinatingly told in such works as Chamber- 
lin and Salisbury’s Geology ‘or W. N. Davis’ Physiography. 


A perusal of these writings shews that it is assumed 
that in a new or rejuvenated land surface. the action of 
denudation is in effect almost purely mechanical. It is 
not until the streams are “ graded,” and thus less active, 
that the relative importance-of weathering action is thought 
to be sufficiently great to be worth considering. 


This assumed predominance of mechanical action 
is certainly applicable in rocks which are physically soft, 
but chemically resistant to the atmospheric agencies, or 
to exceptional conditions in which stream action is very 


_ great compared with the decomposition resulting from local 


rainfall. Thus a large stream passing through an arid 
region, or a stream possessing such a fall that its corrosive 
power is very great compared with’ the work done on its 
valley sides by the rainfall would certainly approximate 
in its conditions to the hypothetical cases. 


An examination of the usual American illustrations 
show, in the majority of cases at:any rate, that the conditions 
are such as are mentioned above. For instance, the Grand 
Canon of the Colorado is formed by a powerful stream 
in a region of light rainfall, and is excavated in sedimentary 
rocks which probably are in their nature, mechanically 
soft but chemically resistant. 


In some text books, inorder to illustrate the principles 
of erosion, an island of regularly dome-shaped surface is 
supposed to have risen suddenly above-the sea and to be 
subjected to the action of the rainfall. In considermg 
its subsequent history only mechanical erosion is considered. 


BY E. O. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 101° 


If now we were to suppose that island to be composed 
of a rock, uniform in texture and so exceedingly hard, . 
physically, but so readily decomposable that the chemical 
action alone would be worthy of consideration, what different 
land forms would result as compared with the usual hypo- 
thetical developments ! 


Of course no rock known possesses these qualities 
in such extreme proportions, but different rocks do differ - 
very greatly in their relative powers of resistance to- 
weathering and to friction. The ratio exhibited between 
the resistance offered to these two destructive forces may 
be termed the weathering factor of the rock, a factor which 
would necessarily depend on the chemical or mineralogical 
composition and on the texture of the rock and would vary 
with conditions of climate. 


Some rocks, such as basalt or some coarse-grained 
granite, being exceedingly hard and resistant to mechanical 
action, are yet readily subject to disintegration by chemical 
means. It seems to the writer improbable that the forces 
of denudation would be capable under ordinary conditions . 
of inducing anything but rounded forms of a ‘‘ mature ”’ 
aspect in large areas of such rocks. 


We have, for instance, in North Queensland extensive - 
basalt tablelands which have been dissected by narrow 
gorges. These gorges have been cut in the arenaceous. 
strata below the basalt and are very narrow with precipitous - 
sides, while the watercourses on the surface of the basalt 
are mere shallow depressions almost to the edge of the- 
gorge. Residuals of basaltic lava flows of greater age: 
occur both in North and South Queensland, and possess, even 
where they have evidently been subjected to denudation : 
for long periods, gentle contours on their summits from: 
which the streams descend in waterfalls, being incapable - 
of cutting back gorges or narrow valleys in such rocks. 


In the same way the undulating character of part of 
the Burdekin Valley may be attributed to the weathering» 
factor of its component. granite, and not necessarily to a 
maturity which it may, but quite likely does not, possess. 
Of course such a granite, if on the edge-of a plateau where - 
streams are sufficiently swift and powerful to make light- 
of the natural hardness of the rock, would be- excavated! 


102 THE. BURDEKIN VALLEY. . 


‘into gorges, but the angle of.declivity necessary for the 
streams to form these gorges would cause them to. be short- 

While all denuding processes lead: eventually to the 
formation-of a plain or, in other words, the reduction of 
‘the surface to base»levels, and while an approximation 


to this result is an indication of great age in the cycle of | 


-erosion, the writer has come to the conclusion that the 
nature of some rocks.leads to their producing surfaces of 
low relief having a deceptive appearance of old age. 


If this view be correct, the greatest caution is necessary 
‘in making physiographical deductions from the mere exist- 
ance of what appears to be a peneplain, since, without a 
-close acquaintance with its geological structure, one could 
mot be certain that .it.is due to advanced old age in the 
«cycle of erosion. 


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A BEETLE THAT TAKES IN BALLAST. 


By Ff. P. DODD. 


(IKURANDA.) 


‘Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 27th, 
1912. | 


For some years past,: when collecting Coleoptera on 
the ranges in this and the Herberton districts, my sons 
vand I have frequently taken the females of the large and 
variable buprest, Stzgmodera regia, on the ground, always 
on hot days and when there was some dry dust or. fine 
sand, and, for some time, we were puzzled as to the meaning 
_of its presence there, seeing that the. beetle feeds upon 
the honey of various Eucalyptus trees., As the yellow 
beetles, and the yellow bands on the varieties gradually 
.-echanged to dull brown which is often the case with yellow 
colored beetles I usually eviscerated all of that color, 
in the hope of preventing such undesirable change. In 
operating upon Regia I often noticed and removed two or 
three little sacs of fine sand at the extreme tip of the abdo- 
men, but only in the females, invariably in those examples 
which were rather old and contained but few eggs. This 
peculiar habit warranted a little investigation, and, as we 
‘found other specimens on the ground, we endeavoured 
to ascertain how the sand was taken in. Though we 
seldom succeeded in approaching closely to the insects 
when on the ground, our presence of course alarming them, 
we were able to ascertain that they curve the abdomen 
close to the ground, and that the first pair of legs appear 
to be actively engaged.in kicking up the dust, the body 
.at the same time working backward and forward on the 
‘other legs. Whether the sand is sucked up by the abdomen- 


104 A BEETLE THAT TAKES IN BAILAST. 


tip direct from the ground, or is received by it from the- 
kicking front legs, | cannot say (their office may be merely 
to loosen the sand), but I may have further opportunities. 
of observing during the coming season. 


I know of several species of hovering flies (order Diptera), . 
which fly closely over the ground, and often drag their: 
abdomen-tips in the dust, and comparatively recently 
captured a female of a large species whilst so engaged, 
which I opened and found to contain a quantity of fine> 
earth or sand. 


The explanation of the beetle’s habit is, I think, quite 
clear, and, no doubt, the same applies to the flies too. The’ 
beetle is much in hilly country, where the winds are strong, 
and often blow in violent whirling gusts, which are apt- 
to, in fact do, frequently drive and whirl it and flies and 
other insects out and far from the trees in which they 
may be feeding. Our beetle, possessing a rather ample 
or balloon body, and having deposited most of her eggs, 
and consequently being so much lighter than before, now 
experiences great difficulty in recovering and flying back 
to trees in such winds. Moreover the wings of the Buprestide 
are generally short and narrow compared with beetles 
in other families, and the assistance of the elytra is 
invariably required when in the air, they being raised 
and held out to help support the insect, as during flight the 
body inclines downward. To overcome the drawbacks. 
mentioned the sand is taken in, which, lying at the extremity 
of the body, doubtless effectually ballasts the insect in its- 
beats and strugzles against adverse winds. 


The Cetonnide, another flower hunting family, possess - 
much larger flying wings, and do not require the support 
of the elytra, the wings being slipped out underneath, 
enabling the insects to bore their way horizontally and 
swiftly through the air. 


Several of the Buprestide are extraordinarily variable: 
in size and coloring. Regia is fairly even in size, except. 
that the females are larger than the males, but the elytra may 
be all yellow to deep red, or with two or three dark bands. 
with yellow to orange or dark red areas between. Four 
variable female specimens are forwarded for inspection.. 


A NOTE ON AUSTRALIAN PEDICULIDS. 


By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., DSc., and 
LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 27th, 
1912. 


No Pediculids have been described, as far as we know, 
as occurring on our native fauna, although it is likely that 
a few species will be found to infest the true Australian 
Muride. One is recorded below. Besides this, one may 
expect to find some on the various species of seals which,, 
at times, frequent parts of the Australian coast. Mar- 
supials apparently do not harbour true lice, their ecto- 
parasitic insects being Hippoboscids and Mallophaga; the 
latter, strange to say, belonging to that division of 
Mallophaga which is mainly parasitic on birds. The bats 
and flying foxes are parasitised by Nycteribids, as in other 
perts of the world. 


In this note, an attempt is made to give a census of 
the Pediculids known to occur in Australia. The presence 
of some species is recorded for the first time. 


MAN. 
Pediculus capitis, L. 
P. vestimenti, Nitzsch. 
Phthirius pubis, L. 

The presence of the first and third has _ been 
referred to on a few occasions in Australian medical 
journals. Mr. Froggatt (1907) and Mr. Lee (1908) 
also mention the three, but do not locahse them. They 
are all cosmopolitan species and occur in every State 
of the Commonwealth. There is no need to make: 
further reference to them. 


106 


AUSTRALIAN PEDICULIDS. 


Macaque Monkey (Macacus cynomolgus). 


Pedicinus euryqaster. 
¥ 


We have specimens from Sydney and Melbourne 
Zoological Gardens. 


Dog. 


Linognathus piliferus. 


N.S.W., Victoria, Queensland—not previously 
recorded though fairly common. The Mallophagan 
parasite T'richodectes canis (Tr. latus) also occurs on 
dogs in Sydney, but is not so frequently met with’ as 
the pediculid. 


Pic. 
Hematopinus suis, L. (syn. H. uriits). 

Tasmania. Victoria, N.S.W., Queensland, West. 
Australia. . Lea (1908, p. 105) recorded the presence 
of this common parasite in Tasmania. 

CATTLE. 


Linognathus vituli, lL. 
Hematopinus eurysternus, Nitzsch. 


The former, the calf louse, was _ incidentally 


‘recorded by one of us (Johnston, 1911, p. 217, foot- 


note—N.S.W.), and by Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. 29 ; 
1912, p. 28). We have specimens from N.S8.W., 
Victoria and Queensland. 

The latter species has been recorded by Gilruth 
and Sweet (1912, p. 28), presumably from Victoria. 
We have specimens from N.S.W., Victoria and Queens- 
land. 

Lea (1908, p. 104) records the presence of both in 
Tasmania. ; 


CAMEL (Dromedary). 


Hematopinus tuberculatus, Burm. 


We have identified as belonging to. this species 
some specimens found by Dr. J. By Cleland: on a camel 
imported into North West Australia from India. 
Neumann (1909, p. 497) gives a description and refers 
(p. 498) to the finding of this species, which normally 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 107 


parasitises the buffalo, on a camel in Australia 
(Nuttall’s collection). As Dr. Cleland forwarded 
specimens to Prof. Nuttall also, it may be. assumed 
with safety that it was these stragglers from West 
Australia that Neumann had before him. It is a pity 
that the name of the collector was not indicated, in 
the case of this interesting find. 


HORSE. 
Heematopinus asini, L. 
N.S.W.—Collected by Mr. A. 8S. Le Souef. 
Lea (1908, p. 104) mentions the species, but does 
not state whether it occurs in Tasmania. 


SHEEP. 
Linognathus ovillus, Neumann. 

N.S.W.; South Australia. Not — previously 
recorded from Australia. This parasite has been 
recognised by one of us as occurring, though rarely, 
on sheep in certain localities of New South Wales. 
Mr. Desmond, Government Veterinarian, Adelaide, 
has recently forwarded the same species for determina- 
tion, from two widely separated localities in South 
Australia. In 1906 Dr. Gilruth (1906, p. 309) met 
with it in New Zealand and figured it as Hematopinus, 
sp. Neumann later described it as H. ovillus, Gilruth 
giving a resume of the description in 1908. 


_ RABBIT. 


Hemodipsus ventricosus, Denny. 

N:S.W. This species is now recorded for the 
first time as occurring in the Commonwealth. Our 
specimens were collected in Sydney from rabbits sent 
from the southern district of N.S. Wales. 


MOovsE. 
Though pediculids have been carefully searched 
for, none have yet been found by us on this host. 


Rats. (Mus rattus (alexandrinus) and Mus decumanus.) 
Polyplax spinulosus, Burm. 
Recorded from both hosts, from Sydney; by one 
of us (Johnston, 1910, p. 20), who has specimens from 
Melbourne and Brisbane 180. oe oe ie species 
of rats. | ? ae 


rays “OG 4 | 


108 AUSTRALIAN PEDICULIDS. 


Neumann (1909, p. 515-7) has described a new 
species Hamatopinus (Polyplax) bidentatus as infesting 
a Mus rattus from Lake Torrens, South Australia 
(Rothschild collection). In conneetion with this form 
Dr. Cleland has made certain inquiries, the result of 
which has been to make known the following facts, 
Dr. Borthwick, Commissioner of Public Health, Adelaide, 
forwarded to the Hon. Rothschild, through Professor 
Stirling, Director of the Adelaide Museum, a collection 
of ectoparasites from rats. Amongst them were fleas 
from the common rats, and pediculids from a water 
rat, Hydromys chrysogaster, captured at Torrens Lake, 
a sheet of fresh water in the vicinity of Adelaide. Lake 
Torrens is a depression, sometimes containing saline 
water, in the central portion of South Australia. It is. 
safe to assume that this is the collection which Pro- 
fessor Neumann handled. The host of this new species 
of pediculid is thus an Australian rat and, not, as far 
as we are aware, the introduced house rat Mus rattus. 
Owing to the collector’s name not having been recorded 
along with the description, some difficulty might have 
been experienced in tracing the specimens but for Dr. 
Cleland’s kindness. One of us has received from the 
Bureau of Microbiology, Sydney, a_ pediculid, one 
millimetre long, taken from H. chrysogaster, caught om 
the shore of Sydney Harbour. The head is injured, 
but the general form of the parasite agrees with that 
described by Neumann. The sete on the pleura are 
longer in our specimen, as they extend beyond the 
stigmata. 


Water Rat. (Hydromys chrysogaster.) 
Polyplax bidentatus, Neumann. 
S. Australia, Sydney. 


(See under Mus rattus and decumanus.) 


No doubt many of the forms here recorded as occurring 
in certain States of Australia are also present in others. 


Mr. A. S. Le Souef and Dr. Cleland of Sydney, and Mr. 
Desmond, of Adelaide, have been kind enough to forward 
material to us. 


1907 
1906 
1908 
1911 
1912 
1910 


A911 
1908 


1909 


BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON, 109 


Froggatt—Australian Insects, Sydney. 

Gilruth—Ann. Rep. Dept. Agric., New Zealand, 1906. 

Gilruth—Ann. Rep. Dept. Agric., New Zealand, 1908. 

Gilruth and Sweet—Onchocerca gibsoni, ete—(Com- 
monwealth Gevt.), Sydney, 1911. 

Gilruth and Sweet—Proc. Roy. Soc., Victoria, 25, 
1912. 

Johnston—Ann. Rep. Bureau Microbiology, Sydney, 
1909 (1910). 

Johnston—Proc. Roy. Soc., Queensland, 1911, p. 207. 

Lea—Insect and Fungous Pests, etc., Hobart. 
Edit. 3. 1908. 

Neumann—Arch, d. Parasitol, 13, 1909, p. 497. 


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STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA, 
| PYRALID A, 


By A. JEFFERIS TURNER. M.D. F.E:S. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 27th November, 
3 1912. ' 


MANY species of this family, especially in the sub- 
families Pyranstine and Phycitine, have a wide distribution 
from Queensland through the Malayan Archipelago to 
China and India, and even to Africa. There is consequently 
in describing Australian species as new a risk of creating 
synonyms. J! hope I have not often erred in this direction. 
I have many species which I have thought it more prudent 
to leave undescribed. In some instances I have been 
able to send duplicate specimens to the British Museum, 
and so obtain the assistance of Sir Geo. Hampson’s 
valuable opinion. . 


Subfam. PHYCITINA. 


HYPSOTROPHA NIPHOPLEURA, W. sp. 
vipotAevpos, With snowy costa. 


g§ ¢. 10-14 mm. Head. fuscous.. Palpi fuscous ; 
in g moderate. (3), in @ long (6). Antenne fuscous ; 
in g with a broad notch containing rough scales on upper 
surface near base. Thorax fuscous. Abdomen grey, 
dorsum of basal segments ochreous. Legs fuscous. Fore- 
wings narrow, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, 
termen very obliquely rounded ; fuscous, in ? sometimes 
reddish-tinged ; a broad, white costal streak narrowing 
at base and apex, sometimes containing a fine central 
fuscous streak ; costal edge fuscous near base, sometimes 
as far as 2; cilia fuscous. Hindwings and cilia whitish. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.A. Port Darwin, from November to February ; a 
series received from Mr. Fe P. Dodd. 


412 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDPTERA (PYRALID2). 


HYPSOTROPHA NIPHOSEMA, 2”. Sp. 


viboonpos, Snow-marked. 


ft @. 18-20 mm. Head dark-fuscous. Palpi very 
long in both sexes (g 5, 9 7); dark-fuscous. Antenne 
fuscous: in ¢g thickened and dentate, with a broad notch 
filled with rough scales on dorsal surface near base. 
Thorax dark-fuscous. Abdomen grey; dorsum except 
near apex ochreous. Legs fuscous. Forewings narrow, 
‘costa moderately arched, apex round-pointed, termen 
very obliquely rounded ; dark-fuscous, in ? sometimes 
reddish-tinged ; a whitish or ochreous-whitish costal streak, 
narrower towards base, and ending in a point at apex ; 
-costal edge more or less fuscous ; cilia dark-fuscous. Hind- 
wings grey-whitish, darker towards apex ; cilia whitish. 

Like the preceding but considerably larger, the 2 
palpi longer, and the 7 antenne dentate. Vein 10 of 
‘forewings may be either stalked or separate, so that I 
‘doubt whether the genus Hypsotropha as defined by Hampson 
‘can be maintained. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 
N.A. Port Darwin. in November and December ; five 
‘specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


HyYPSOTROPHA DYSEIMATA, 2. Sp. 

dvuceatos, meanly clad. 

6 92. 15 mm. Head fuscous-whitish or ochreous- 
whitish. Palpi very long (¢ 4, 2 6); ochreous-whitish 
mixed with fuscous. Antenne ochreous-whitish, in ¢@ 
with a broad notch containing rough scales on upper surface 
near base, ciliations minute. Thorax ochreous-whitish. 
Abdomen ochreous-whitish ; dorsum of basal segments 
ochreous. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior and middle 
pairs fuscous in ¢. Forewings narrow, costa moderately 
arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; ochreous- 
whitish, sometimes reddish-tinged with some dark-fuscous 
scales ; a dark-fuscous subdorsal dot before middle, another 
before tornus, and traces of a dark-fuscous line between 
this and apex; a terminal series of dark-fuscous dots ; 
‘cilia ochreous-whitish. Hindwings grey; in Q whitish ; 
cilia whitish. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 


BY A. JEFFERIS' TURNER, M.D., F.E.S; 113: 


N.A. Port Darwin in October and December and! 
January ; a series received from. Mr. F. P.. Dodd. 


HYPSOTROPHA LAROPIS, n. sp: 
Aapwris, Of dainty appearance. 


Q. 17 mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi rather: 
long (4); whitish with a few pinkish scales. Antenne: 
ochreous-whitish. Thorax pinkish. Abdomen ochreous- 
whitish ; dorsum of basal segments’ ochreous. Legs: 
ochreous-whitish. Forewings very narrow, costa slightly 
arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; rose- 
pink, becoming whitish towards dorsum ; veins slenderly” 
whitish ; a broad white costal streak from base, narrowing 
to a point at apex, containing a costal and’ subcostal fine- 
pink lines ; cilia pink. Hindwings and cilia whitish. 

Type m Coll., Turner. 

N.A., Port Darwin, m November; one specimen: 
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


HYPSOTROPHA NEURICA,. n.. Sp.. 

veupixos, With marked. nerves.. 

S 24 mm. Head pinkish. Palpi. long (5) ; fuscous.- 
Antenne ochreous-whitish ; in g thickened. and dentate, 
with a broad groove containing rough scales on dorsal 
surface near base. Thorax, abdomen. and. legs pinkish-. 
grey. Forewings elongate, costa strongly arched, apex 
rounded, termen obliquely rounded ;: dull-pink, towards. 
termen, mixed with fuscous; area of. cell. and all veins 
ochreous-whitish ; cilia pinkish-white.. Hindwings grey ; 
towards base whitish ; cilia whitish.. 

Type in Coll., Turner.. 

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns,. in June ;. one specimen. 


ANERASTRIA SYSSEMA, 2.. Sp.. 

svoonpos, Similarly marked. 

Q 12-15 mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi in Q 
long (6); fuscous.. Antenne: whitish-ochreous. Thorax 
grey. Abdomen grey ; dorsum: of basal segments ochreous. 
Legs whitish-ochreous ; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings. 
narrow, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen 
obliquely rounded ; brown-whitish.; a broad: white costal: 
streak, narrowing towards base and apex, containing a 
few fuscous. scales towards apex ;. costal. edge’ narrowly 

E 


114 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDPTERA (PYRALID#). 


‘fuscous ; last costal, median, and submedian veins outlined 
by fuscous irroration; a fuscous terminal line; cilia 
-whitish irrorated with fuscous. Hindwings and _ cilia 
whitish. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.A. Port Darwin, in November and January; six 
-specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


ANERASTRIA METALLACTIS. 
Anerastria metallactis, Meyr., Tr. E.S. 1887, p. 262. 


Q 15-20 mm. Head, palpi, and antenne brown- 
whitish ; palpi long (5). Thorax brown-whitish. Abdomen 
whitish-ochreous. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior pair 
brown-whitish. Forewings elongate, not narrow; costa 
-gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; 
pale whitish-brown; most of the veins defined by whitish 
lines, which are powdered with fuscous scales ; a fuscous 
-spot at lower external angle of cell; cilia whitish. Hind- 
‘wings whitish-grey ; cilia whitish. | 

In spite of the difference in locality, I think this must 
be Mr. Meyrick’s species. 

N.A. Port Darwin, in October, November and December ; 
five specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd, N.S.W., 
Bathurst (Meyrick). 


ANERASTRIA ABLEPTA, 2. Sp. 
aBXexros, Inconspicuous. 


S Q 20-25 mm. Head and thorax brown-whitish- 
Palpi in ¢ rather long (4), in Q very long (7); brown- 
whitish, irrorated or suffused with fuscous. Antenne 
brown-whitish; in ~ thickened with minute ciliations, 
a broad groove containing rough scales on dorsal surface 
‘near base. Abdomen ochreous. Legs brown-whitish, 
‘sometimes irrorated with fuscous. Forewings elongate, 
-costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely 
rounded ; pale whitish-brown, with a few scattered fuscous 
scales; a median whitish streak along lower edge of cell 
to 3; veins towards termen sometimes obscurely whitish ; 
a terminal series of fuscous dots, often inconspicuous ; 
cilia whitish. Hindwings grey .or whitish-grey ; towards 
-base whitish ; cilia whitish. 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 115 


Vein 10 usually separate, in one specimen short- 
stalked. 
Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.A. Port Darwin, in November, December, and Feb- 
ruary. Q. Bunya Mts. -in December ; Brisbane in March ; 
Mt. Tambourine in November. 


ANERASTRIA ARGOSTICHA, 7. Sp. 

apyootixos White-lined. 

Q 14 mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi moderate 
(3) ; pale-fuscous, towards base whitish. Antennze whitish- 
ochreous. Thorax pinkish. Abdomen whitish; dorsum 
-of basal segments ochreous. Legs ochreous-whitish ; 
anterior pair pale-fuscous. Forewings moderately elongate, 
‘costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely 
rounded ; pinkish ; veins slenderly whitish ; a white median 
streak from near base to near termen, its anterior 3 edged 
‘dorsally with fuscous ; cilia whitish with a fuscous sub- 
basal line. Hindwings grey-whitish ; cilia whitish with 
-a pale-grey sub-basal line. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.A. Port Darwin, in December ; one specimen received 
‘from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


ANERASTRIA ’ ENERVELLA. 


Erythphlebia enervella, Rag., Rom. Mem. viii., p. 394, Pl. 39, 
f, 24. 


d 20-24 mm. Head and thorax pinkish. Palpi in ¢ 
‘rather long (4) ; pale-fuscous. Antenne whitish-ochreous ; 
‘in ¢ thickened, ciliations 3, with a dorsal groove filled 
with rough scales near base. Abdomen ochreous-whitish ; 
‘dorsum of basal segments ochreous. Legs pale-fuscous ; 
posterior pair mostly ochreous-whitish. Forewings 
moderately elongate, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, 
‘termen obliquely rounded; pinkish; veins whitish more 
-or less edged with fuscous scales ; a median whitish streak 
‘from near base to termen, becoming gradually broader 
to mid-disc and remaining broad to termen, from mid-dise 
‘it is divided by a fine median pinkish streak; a fuscous 
‘streak from base along lower edge of median streak to 
:middle ; .a terminal series of fuscous. dots; cilia pinkish- 


116 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID2). 


white. Hindwings whitish; an interrupted fuscous line 
along apical half of termen ; cilia whitish. 


N.A. Port Darwin, in February ; one specimen received 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. Q. Eumundi near Nambour, in 
December, one specimen. 


ANERASTRIA AN4EMOPIS, n. Sp. 


dvaipwris, pale, bloodless. 


Q 18 mm. Head, thorax and antenne brown-whitish. 
Palpi in Q moderately long (5) ; brown-whitish with some 
fuscous irroration. Abdomen ochreous-whitish ; dorsum 
of basal segments ochreous. Legs whitish ; anterior pair 
fuscous. Forewings moderately elongate, costa moderately 
arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown- 
whitish, with a few scattered dark-fuscous scales, mostly 
towards termen; a roundish suffused fuscous sub-dorsal 
spot before middle, and a second similar on dorsum before 
tornus ; cilia brown-whitish. Hindwings grey-whitish ; cilia. 
white, with a grey-whitish sub-basal line. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.A. Port Darwin, in November ; one specimen received 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


ANERASTRIA BALIORA, 2. Sp. 


BaX.opos, speckled. 


9 18 mm. Head and thorax pale-pinkish. Palpi 
in Q very long (8) ; pinkish-white suffused with pale-fuscous ; 
under surface whitish. Antenne whitish. Abdomen 
whitish ; dorsum of basal segments ochreous. Legs whitish ; 
anterior pair fuscous on dorsal aspect. Forewings elongate, 
costa rather strongly arched, apex round-pointed, termen 
slightly rounded, strongly oblique ; pale pinkish with afew 
scattered dark-fuscous scales ; all veins outlined in whitish ; 
a dark-fuscous dot on sub-median vein at +, and a second 
before tornus ; smaller dots on veins 2, 3, and 4 before their 
middle ; cilia white. Hindwings whitish ; cilia white. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns in November ; one specimen 
received from Mr, F. P. Dodd. 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 117 


ANERASTRIA ACROPH HA, 2. Sp. 

axpopaios, dusky at the apex. 

36 17 mm. Head and thorax pinkish-fuscous ; face 
with a long dense tuft of anteriorly projecting hair-like 
scales. Palpi fuscous; in g¢ moderate (34), terminal joint 
strongly down-curved. Antennz whitish-ochreous, towards 
base fuscous; in ¢ thickened and slightly dentate, with 
short ciliations (4), a broad sub-basal dorsal groove con- 
taining rough scales. Abdomen ochreous ; towards apex 
paler; under-surface fuscous. Legs fuscous. Forewings 
scarcely elongate, costa strongly arched, apex round-pointed, 
termen slightly rounded, strongly oblique ; whitish suffused 
with brown-pinkish ; irrerated rather densely with dark- 
fuscous seales towards base and termen ; towards the latter 
this tends to form interneural streaks, of which that running 
into apex is best marked ; cilia grey-whitish, at apex mixed 
with fuscous. Hindwings dark-grey; cilia whitish with 
a grey sub-basal line. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.A. Port Darwin, in November ; one specimen received 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


ANERASTRIA PLEUROCHORDA, 2. Sp. 


7Xevpoxopdos, With costal line. 

Q 22 mm. Head ochreous-brown ; face white. Palpi 
in Q long (5); brown. Antenne pale-brown. Thorax 
brown. Abdomen brown; dorsum of basal segments pale- 
ochreous. Legs fuscous ; [posterior pair broken]. Fore- 
wings elongate, costa rather strongly arched, apex rounded, 
termen obliquely rounded : pinkish-brown ; a broad costal 
whitish streak narrowing towards base and at apex; cilia 
whitish. Hindwings and cilia whitish. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 


Q. Stanthorpe, in January; one specimen. 


ANERASTRIA ERASMIA, 2. Sp. 


€pacp.os, lovely. 

Q 26 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax bright crimson- 
pink; palpi in Q long (5). Antenne ochreous-whitish. 
Legs pinkish; tarsi fuscous; posterior tibize and dorsal 
surface of tarsi ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate, 


118 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALIDA). 


costa strongly arched, apex round-pointed, termen but 
slightly rounded, oblique; bright crimson-pink ; towards: 
dorsum suffusedly whitish; a slender whitish median 
streak from near base to ?; cilia crimson-pink. Hindwings:. 
grey-whitish ; cilia whitish. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.Q. Herberton, in February; one specimen received. 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


POUJADIA CTENUCHA, 7. Sp. 


ktevovxos, bearing a comb. 


-G 17-18 mm. Head and thorax reddish-brown.. 
Palpi moderate (3); fuscous mixed with brown-whitish- 
Antenne with long pectinations (3), not extending to apex ; 
brown-whitish. Abdomen whitish; dorsum of basal 
segments ochreous. Legs whitish; anterior pair fuscous.. 
Forewings not elongate, costa gently arched, more strongly 
towards apex, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; 
ochreous-whitish or sometimes reddish ; variably irrorated 
and suffused with dark-fuscous ; usually a broad whitish 
costal streak from base to 2, containing some fuscous. 
scales, but often this is entirely obscured by the ground- 
colour; a terminal series of fuscous dots, sometimes 
obscure ; cilia whitish. Hindwings whitish, suffused with 
grey towards apex, and with a dark-grey terminal line not 
reaching tornus ; cilia whitish. 

218-20 mm. Palpi rather long (5). Forewings with 
less fuscous irroration; costal streak well-defined and. 
without irroration. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.A. Port Darwin, from September to January ; eight 
specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


POUJADIA LEUCONEURA, Nn. Sp. 


Aevxovevpos, White-nerved. 


Q 30 mm. Head and thorax pale-pinkish.  Palpi 
moderate (3) ; fuscous-whitish. Antenne white. Abdomen 
whitish ; dorsum of basal segments ochreous. Legs whitish. 
Forewings moderately broad, costa moderately arched, 
apex rounded-rectangular, termen slightly oblique, rounded 
beneath ; whitish-ochreous with some pink scales; all 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 119: 


veins outlined in white which is edged by interneural pale- 
fuscous streaks; submedian vein edged with pink and’ 
interrupted by a pale-fuscous dot at 4; a pale-fuscous: 
longitudinal streak through cell; cilia whitish. Hindwings: 
grey-whitish ; cilia whitish. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.A. Port Darwin, in March; one specimen received: 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


Gen. DIALEPTA, Nov. 

diadertos, very small. 

Tongue present. Palpi recurved, ascending, reaching 
vertex, tolerably pointed. Forewings with nine veins, 
3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 8 and 9 coincident, 10 separate. 
Hindwings with six veins, cell closed, 4 absent, 5 absent,. 
7 running into 8. 

DIALEPTA MICROPOLIA, n. sp. 

puxpotoAwos, Small grey. 

Q@ 8 mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi fuscous ; 
bases of joints whitish. Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs- 
grey with obscure whitish annulations. Forewings narrow, 
somewhat dilated posteriorly, costa slightly arched, apex 
rounded, termen obliquely rounded; grey mixed with. 
whitish ; a transverse grey line at + ; succeeded by a squarish 
orey subcostal spot ; an obscure sinuate grey subterminal. 
line ; an interrupted fuscous terminal line ; cilia grey with: 
whitish dots. Hindwings whitish-grey ; cilia whitish. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in November;  one- 
specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


GEN. ECBLETODES. 
Ecbletodes, Turn., P.R.S.Q., 1903, p. 124. 


Tongue well-developed. Antenne in ¢ slightly serrate- 
towards apex, ciliations minute. Palpi erect, appressed 
to frons, exceeding vertex, tolerably acute. Forewings. 
with 4 and 5 connate or short stalked, 9 absent, 8 and 10° 
stalked. Hindwings with 3 and 4 connate or stalked,,. 
5 absent, 7 running into 8. 

Allied to Hphestia and Homaosoma, but with very 
distinct neuration. The neuration is given erroneously 
in my original description. 


1120 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID #4). 


ECBLETODES ,NICTA, n. Sp. 


duvixtos, Obscure. 


6 2 14 mm. Head, antenne, thorax, and abdomen 
-ochreous-whitish. Palpi  ochreous-whitish with some 
fuscous scales. Legs ochreous-whitish ; anterior tibize and 
tarsi fuscous. Forewings narrow, costa rather strongly 
.arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; ochreous- 
whitish with some fuscous suffusion ; a fuseous spot on base 


- 


-of dorsum ; a broadly-suffused fuscious fascia from % costa 
to # dorsum ; followed by a pale line, beyond which terminal 
part of disc is suffused with fuscous ; cilia grey. Hindwings 


-and cilia grey. 
Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October, May and June ; 
‘Stannary Hills; eight specimens. 


ECBLETODES OTOPTILA, 7”. Sp. 
otomtiAos, With eared wing. 


g 12 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax brown-whitish 
mixed with fuscous. Antenne fuscous; ciliations in ¢@ 
imperceptible. Abdomen brown-whitish ; dorsum, except 
a series of median spots, fuscous. Legs brown-whitish 
mixed with fuscous. Forewings moderate, costa strongly 
arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown- 
whitish ; markings and a few scattered scales dark-fuscous ; 


-a very obscure sinuate line from % costa to 2 dorsum; a 
-Short longitudinal streak above middle of disc running mto 
ithis; a short oblique streak also running into it above 
‘dorsum; a terminal series of interneural streaks; cilia 
‘grey with whitish dots. Hindwings with a basal costal 
Jobe formed by an abrupt excavation of costa at }, containing 
.a curled tuft of long hairs, the costal portion of disc beyond 


‘vein 7 being not developed ; dark-grey ; cilia grey. 


Very obscure, but easily recognised by the highly 
‘peculiar hindwings, which are however probably only a 
-sexual characteristic. 


N.A. Port Darwin, in September ; one specimen received 
‘from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 121 


Grn. CRYPTADIA, nov. 
kK pUTTA@OLOS, hidden. 


Tongue well-developed. Palpi ascending, appressed 
‘to frons, reaching vertex ; terminal joint well-developed, 
tolerably pointed. Forewings with 3 and 4 stalked, 5 
absent, 8 and 9 stalked, 10 separate. Hindwings with cell 
very short (1); 2 from well before angle of cell, 3 and 4 
short-stalked, 5 absent, 7 running into 8. 


Best distinguished from Euzopherodes by the extreme 
shortness of cell of hindwing. 


CRYPTADIA XUTHOBELA, ”. Sp. 
fovfoBedos, with tawny weapons (palpi). 


Q 18-20 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Face and 
palpi orange-ochreous. Abdomen and legs fuscous. Fore- 
wings elongate, posteriorly dilated, costa strongly arched, 
apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; fuscous, with 
dark-fuscous dots; a dot on costa at 4, another above dorsum 
at 3, and a third between but slightly posterior to these ; 
a median discal dot; a dot on dorsum before tornus, 
another above this, and two in disc placed transversely, 
slightly: posterior to the preceding; cilia fuscous. Hind- 
wings grey-whitish ; cilia whitish. ; 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.Q. Kuranda, in September, October and March ; 
‘five specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


KUZOPHERODES SPODOPTILA, 2. sp. 
wmodoTTiAos, ashen-winged. 


6 14 mm. Head and thorax whitish-grey. Palpi 
fuscous ; apices of second and terminal joints whitish. 
Antenne whitish ; ciliations in ¢ 4}. Abdomen grey ; basal 
segments and tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs whitish-grey 
with fine fuscous irroration. Forewings narrow, costa 
rather strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely 
rounded ; whitish-grey with some fuscous irroration; a 
suffused sub-basal fuscous spot from costa, not reaching 
dorsum ; a similar suffused transverse fascia at 2; a fine 
fuscous line at ~ angled into a prominent posterior tooth 
in mid-disc ; an obscure terminal series of fuscous dots ; 


122 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALIDZ). 


cilia whitish-grey. Hindwings whitish ; suffused with grey 
towards apex and termen ; cilia whitish with a grey sub- 
basal line, at apex grey. 

In wing-shape this resembles H#. leptocosma, from which, 
however, it is very distinct. 

N.A. Port Darwin, in December; one specimen 
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


UNADILLA TRISSOMITA, 1. Sp. 
T PLO OPATOS, with three threads. 


S$ Q 16-18 mm. Head and thorax purple-reddish 
mixed with whitish ; face ochreous-whitish. | Palpi reddish- 
fuscous ; base, extreme apex, and most of internal surface 
whitish. Antenne and abdomen ochreous-whitish. Legs. 
ochreous-whitish ; tarsi fuscous with whitish annulations. 
Forewings narrow-elongate, apex rectangular, termen 
rounded, slightly oblique; purple-reddish mixed with 
fuscous ; three white longitudinal streaks ; first broad from 
1 costa to costa again at apex ; second rather above middle, 
slender and interrupted, from near base, not quite reaching 
termen ; third along fold, similar, from near base to beyond 
middle ; a dark fuscous terminal line ; cilia purple-reddish, 
apices partly fuscous. Hindwings whitish, tinged with grey 
towards termen ; cilia whitish. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October and May; two 
specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


UNADILLA ATECMARTA, nN. SD. 
atexpaptos, Obscure. 


Q 21 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen fuscous- 
whitish. Palpi fuscous. Antenne whitish. Legs whitish 
irrorated with fuscous. Forewings narrow-elongate, 
posteriorly dilated, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, 
termen obliquely rounded ; whitish irrorated with fuscous ; 
an obscure externally oblique fuscous line in middle of 
disc ; a fuscous subcostal dot at 3; a fine fuscous obliquely 
transverse line parallel to termen at %; an obscure inter- 
rupted fuscous terminal line; cilia pale-fuscous irrorated 
with whitish. Hindwings grey, thinly scaled ; cilia whitish 
with a grey sub-basal line. 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 123 


Type in Coll., Turner. 
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October; one specimen 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


Gen. MESEINIADIA. 


Tongue well-developed. Palpi recurved, ascending, 
reaching vertex, apex acute ; third joint in ¢ with a short, 
basal, anterior tuft. Antennal ciliations of ¢ extremely 
short. Forewings with 2 and 3 long stalked, 4 and 5 long- 
stalked, 8, 9, 10 stalked. Hindwings with 2 from near 
angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 7 anastomosing strongly with 8. 

Related to the following genus, but peculiar in the 
stalking of 2 and 3 of the forewings. 


MESEINIADIA INFRACTALIS. 
Nephopteryx infractalis, Wlk., Cat. Brit. Mus. xxx., p. 958. 


6 @ 12-13 mm. Head brown-whitish; face in ¢ 
dark fuscous. Palpi whitish ; outer surface of third joint 
fuscous. Antenne, thorax, and abdomen brown-whitish. 
Legs ochreous-whitish with some fuscous irroration. Fore- 
wings narrow, costa straight, gently arched beyond middle, 
apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown-whitish 
irrorated and suffused with brown ; markings dark-fuscous ; 
a dot on base of costa ; costal edge to 4 dark-fuscous ; an 
interrupted median streak, more or less marked, ending 
in terminal suffusion; a short streak on base of dorsum ; 
an oblique streak from } costa, bent in disc to become 
longitudinal, and ending in terminal suffusion; dorsal 
edge more or less dark-fuscous ;_ a large tornal dark-fuscous 
suffusion extending nearly to apex ; cilia grey. Hindwings 
whitish more or less suffused with grey; cilia grey. 

A very obscure little species easily recognised by 
structural characters. 

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October and May ; 
Innisfail in November; also from Borneo. 


Gren. ENCRYPHODKES, nov. 

éykpupwous, hidden. 

Tongue well-developed. Palpi ascending, appressed 
to frons, reaching vertex, tolerably acute. Forewings 
with 4 and 5 stalked, 8, 9, 10 stalked. Hindwings with 2 
from before angle of cell, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 7 anas- 
tomising strongly with 8. 


124 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID). 


ENCRYPHODES ZNICTOPA, ”. Sp. 
aiviktwros, obscure. 


Sg 15 mm. - Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen 
ochreous-whitish. Antenne pale-fuscous ; in ¢ thickened, 
ciliations imperceptible. | Legs ochreous-whitish. —Fore- 
wings moderate, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen 
obliquely rounded ; ochreous- whitish suffused with fuscous ; 
a straight oblique pale line from #2 costa to 3 dorsum, 
preceded by a fuscous suffusion; a slightly sinuate pale 
line from % costa to 2 dorsum:; cilia ochreous-whitish, apices 
fuscous. Hindwings grey; cilia pale-grey, bases ochreous- 
whitish. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October; one specimen 
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


EUZOPHERA STICHOSEMA, ”. Sp. 


otixoonpos, marked with lines. 


S$ Q 11-12 mm. Head _ fuscous-whitish; face 
ochreous-whitish. Palpi with a small anterior tuft of scales 
on second joint towards its apex ; fuscous-whitish mixed 
with fuscous. Antenne whitish; in ¢ thickened, minutely 
ciliated, and with fine dark-fuscous annulations. Legs 
whitish mixed with fuscous ; posterior pair mostly whitish ; 
tarsi fuscous annwated with whitish. Forewings dilated 
posteriorly, costa straight to middle, then strongly arched, 
apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown-whitish 
with some fuscous irroration ; two dark-fuscous transverse 
lines; first from mid-costa to mid-dorsum, outwardly 
curved ; second subterminal, straight; cilia grey. Hind- 
wings whitish, becoming grey towards apex ; cilia whitish, 
at apex grey. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

Q. Brisbane, in August and October; Rosewood in 
March; three specimens. 

HYPHANTIDIUM SERICARIUM. 
Hyphantidium sericariwm, Scott, P.Z.8., 1859, p. 207, Pl. 61, 
Euzophera microdoxa, Meyr., P.L.S., N.S.W., 1880, p. 231. 


Sir Geo. Hampson kindly identified one of my Port 
Darwin examples, and these correspond closely with Mr. 


; BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 125. 


Meyrick’s excellent description. It is the type species of 
the genus. 

N.A. Port Darwin; Q. Duaringa ; N.S.W., Wollombi ; 
T., Launceston. 


_ HYPHANTIDIUM ATERPES. 

ATEPTS, unpleasing. 

6 Q 1li-12 mm. Head and thorax brown-whitish. 
Palpi brown-whitish with some _ fuscous _ irroration. 
Antenne brown-whitish; in ¢ thickened and _ slightly 
serrate, ciliations imperceptible. Legs brown-whitish mixed 
with fuscous. Forewings dilated posteriorly, costa gently 
arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown- 
whitish irrorated with fuscous ; markings dark-fuscous ; a dot 
beneath mid-costa, a second in disc shightly below and posterior 
to this, and a third above mid-dorsum ; two dots placed 
transversely in disc at 3, the lower larger ; a finely dentate 
line from before apex to before tornus, and another more 
acutely dentate from apex to tornus ; cilia brown-whitish. 
Hindwings grey-whitish ; cilia whitish. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.A. Port Darwin, in October and January; twa 
specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


HYPHANTIDIUM SEMIFICTILE, ”. Sp. 


Semifictilis, half made of clay. 


6 14mm. _ Head ochreous-whitish. Palpi grey-whitish. 
Antenne grey ; ciliations in ¢ +. Thorax grey. Abdomen 
pale-ochreous. Legs grey ; posterior pair ochreous-whitish, 
tarsi on outer surface grey. Forewings moderate, costa 
gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; 
grey, finely irrorated with fuscous ; cilia grey. Hindwings. 
brownish-ochreous ; at apex grey; cilia pale-ochreous, 
at apex grey. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 


Q. Stradbroke Island, in September; one specimen. 


TYLOCHARES EREMONOMA, 1”. Sp. 
épnyovoyos, Awelling in the desert. 
Q 19 mm. Head whitish-brown. Palpi rather long 
(24), obliquely ascending, not appressed to frons, second 
joint very long, terminal joint very short 3, obtuse ; whitish 


t 


126 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID#). 


terminal joint and apex of second joint on external surface 
brownish. Antennze brown. Thorax brown. Abdomen 
ochreous-whitish. Legs [anterior and middle pairs broken] 
posterior pair whitish. Forewings narrow-elongate, slightly 
dilated posteriorly, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, 
termen obliquely rounded; reddish-brown; a_ very _ ill- 
defined broad costal streak from near base to near apex, 
white sparsely irrorated with reddish-brown ; cilia whitish- 
brown. Hindwings grey: ; cilia whitish. 
Type in Coll., Turner. 


Q. Adavale, in May; one specimen. 
‘TYLOCHARES HEMICHIONEA, ”. Sp. 


jpexvoveos, half-snowy. 
g 17 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax fuscous. 


Antenne fuscous; in ¢@ thickened and minutely ciliated. 
Abdomen brownish-grey, base of dorsum ochreous-tinged. 
Legs white with scanty brown irroration ; apical half of 
anterior and middle cox, anterior and middle femora 
except middle, anterior and middle tibize except apex and 
one or two white dots, and all tarsi, fuscous. Forewings 
narrow-elongate, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen 
obliquely rounded ; brown-fuscous with purple reflections ; 
a broad white streak from costa at + to apex, its dorsal 
edge ill-defined ; costal edge in middle } brown-fuscous ; 
cilia fuscous, bases whitish. Hindwings grey; cilia grey, 
paler towards tornus, bases whitish. 

Similar to the preceding but with very different palpi, 
the terminal joint being well developed (2) and rather acute. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October ; one specimen 
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


TRISSONCA ODONTOSEMA, 2. Sp. 

ddovtoanpos, tooth-marked. 

S Q 20-22 mm. Head brownish ; face whitish. Palpi 
whitish with brown irroration. Antenne pale-fusccus ; 
in ¢ much thickened with minute ciliations. Abdomen 
pale ochreous-brown. Legs whitish irrorated, except 
posterior pair with fuscous ; tarsi fuscous with whitish annula- 
tions. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa slightly arched, 
bee) aac diet i 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 127 


apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; whitish densely © 
suffused with fuscous ; costal area except basal fourth and 
apex mostly whitish ; a suffused oblique lne from } costa 
to mid-dorsum ; a pair of median discal dots placed trans- 
versely, sometimes obsolete; a finely dentate transverse 
line at 5; a terminal series of fuscous dots ; cilia fuscous- 
whitish. Hindwings with cell 4 or rather less, 2 from well 
before angle 3 and 4 separate but closely approximated 
at origin ; fuscous-whitish or fuscous ; cilia fuscous-whitish. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.Q. Kuranda near Cairns, in August, October and 
April ; five specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


PHYCITA OLIVALIS. 
Phycita olivalis, Hmps., Moths. Ind., iv., p. 92. 


N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in August, December and 
April; five specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


Besides the following I have many unnamed species 
of Phycita and Nephopteryx, which I think it wiser not to 
name at present. 


PHYCITA CRYPTADIA, 7. Sp. 
KpuTTaoLos, hidden. 


Q@ 25 mm. Head and thorax dark brownish-grey. 
Palpi’ brownish-grey, second joint irrorated with whitish. 
Antenne whitish-grey. Abdomen grey tinged with brown. 
Legs fuscous with obscure whitish irroration and annula- 
tions. Forewings elongate, posteriorly dilated, costa 
moderately arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; 
grey tinged with brown and mixed with whitish; a 
whitish transverse line from mid-costa to dorsum beyond 
middle, indented inwards above middle and again above 
dorsum ; beyond this are two rather large brown suffused 
spots placed. transversely ; a finely dentate whitish line 
from costa at 2 obliquely outwards, then bent parallel to 
termen, and ending in dorsum near tornus; a terminal 
series of dark-fuscous dots ; cilia grey with whitish points. 
Hindwings thinly scaled ; pale-grey, darker towards apex ; 
cilia whitish with a grey sub-basal line. 


128 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID2). 


Type in Coll., Turner. My second example is in the 
British Museum. 


N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October ; two specimens: 
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 

CRYPTOBLABES ALPHITIAS, ”. sp. 

dAqita, barley-meal. 

Q 12 mm. Head, palpi, antenne, thorax, and 
abdomen grey. Legs white irrorated with grey; tarsi 
grey with white annulations. Forewings narrow, somewhat 
dilated posteriorly, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ;: 
fuscous-grey, towards costa broadly irrorated with white ; 
a fuscous line from costa before middle to dorsum beyond. 
middle, interrupted beneath costa ; two fuscous discal dots 
at 3%, placed transversely, sometimes connected; a 
whitish line at *% parallel to termen, preceded by a fuscous 
line obsolete towards costa; a terminal series of fuscous 
dots; cilia pale-grey with white points. Hindwings- 
whitish ; veins outlined in grey; cilia whitish. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October ; one specimen: 
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


CRYPTOBLABES HEMIGYPSA, 2. Sp. 

npcyelos, half-chalky. 

gS Q 14-17 mm. Head, palpi, antenne, and thorax 
whitish-grey. Abdomen grey towards apex in ¢@ whitish.. 
Legs whitish irrorated with grey, and sometimes also with 
reddish. Forewings narrow-elongate, posteriorly slightly 
dilated, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen 
obliquely rounded ; pale grey, costa half broadly irrorated 
or suffused with white, sometimes also with some reddish 
scales ; a fuscous sub-costal spot at 4, sometimes indistinct ; 
two fuscous discal dots at 2, placed transversely ; an ill- 
defined fuscous transverse line at 2, parallel to termen, 
sometimes a similar sub-terminal line; a terminal series. 
of fuscous dots; cilia pale-grey, apices white. Hindwings 
thinly scaled, whitish; veins and margins outlined with 
grey; cilia whitish. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

Q. Brisbane, in August, September, and November 3. 
four specimens. 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 129 


GEN. MACROCHILOTA, nov. 
paxpoxetAoros, long-lipped. 

Frons oblique and flat. ‘Tongue present. Palpi very 
long, porrect densely hairy above and beneath. Maxillary 
palpi very short, filiform. Tibize with outer spurs not 
-exceeding $ length of inner spurs. Forewings with 4 and 
-5 stalked, 8 and 9 long stalked, 10 and 11 separate. Hind- 
wings with cell about 3, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 7 anasto- 
mosing with 8. 

MACROCHILOTA ARAZZOSTICHA, 2. Sp. 

A PALOTTLXOS, narrow-lined. 

Q 23-26 mm. ‘Head pale ochreous-grey. Palpi in Q 
‘7; pale-fuscous, inner surface whitish. Antenne and 
‘thorax pale ochreous-grey. Abdomen grey. Legs whitish- 
‘grey ; anterior pair grey. Forewings elongate, costa gently 
-arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; pale 
ochreous-grey ; three white lines partly edged with fuscous, 
-arising from a white sub-costal basal spot ; first line costal, 
leaving costal edge narrowly grey, running into second line 
before middle ; second line sub-costal, nearly approximated 
to first, ending on costa shortly before apex ; third line 
median, running along lower edge. of. cell, and ending on 
*termen above middle; sometimes posterior edge of cell 
and terminal veins are partly outlined with fuscous ; cilia 
pale-grey with white points. Hindwings whitish suffused 
‘with grey towards apex and termen, sometimes wholly 
‘grey ; cilia grey- whitish. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.S.W. Ben Lomond (4,500 ft.), in January ; three 
‘specimens, of which one is in the British Museum. 


Susp-Fam. GALLERIAN:. 
HETEROMICTA LEPTOCHLORA, 2. Sp. 


AertoxAwpos, Slightly green. 

g 24 mm. Head white. Palpi fuscous. Antenne 
white with dark fuscous annulations; in @ mnunutely 
ciliated. Thorax white with some faint green suffusion. 
Abdomen ochreous-whitish. Legs whitish irrorated with 
grey and annulated with dark fuscous. forewings rather 
‘elongate, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen 

J 


130 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID #4). 


rounded, slightly oblique ; whitish suffused with pale-green: 
and irrorated with grey; a transverse whitish line at 4 
‘forming three large dentations: a blackish oblique discal 
mark at middle preceded by a blackish dot ; a finely dentate: 
whitish line edged anteriorly by a fine grey line, from 2’ 
costa outwards, then bent in disc, and ending on + termen : 
beyond this is a greyish suffusion ; a terminal series of dark- 
fuscous dots; cilia grey mixed with whitish. Hindwings- 
grey, paler towards base; cilia whitish with a grey basal: 
line. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.Q. Herberton in January; one specimen received: 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 

DOLOESSA VIRIDIS. 
Viridis, Zel., Isis, 1848, p. 860. 
Thagora figurana, Wik., Brit. Mus. Cat. xxvii., p. 205,. 
Hmps., Ill. Het. ix. Pl. 157., f. 8. Moths Ind., iv., p. 5. 
N.Q. Cairns. Also from Java and Ceylon. 


| MELIPHORA MYRMECOPHILA, 7”. Sp. 

puppynKxodiAros, ant loving. 

Q 22mm. Head, palpi, antennz, thorax, and abdomen: 
fuscous. Legs fuscous irrorated and annulated with 
whitish. Forewings elongate-oval, costa strongly arched, 
apex rounded, termen very obliquely rounded; fuscous- 
with some dark-fuscous irroration especially towards base ; 
some dark-fuscous scales on termen:; cilia fuscous. Hind- 
wings with termen sinuate ; fuscous, paler towards base ; 
cilia fuscous. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.Q. Townsville, in October; one specimen received 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd, who found the rather hairy and 
somewhat smoky larve in the closed galleries of a tree ant 
(Crematogaster s.p.), Where they pupate, the saiall oval 
cocoons being peppered with smail fragments of bark. 


Gen. ACARA. 
Acara, Wlk., Brit. Mus. Cat. xxvii., p. 198, Hmps., Moths 
Tnd:..~Ivs5 der te 
Palpi clothed with long hairs. Antenne of ¢ minutely 
ciliated, with a tuft of long hairs from basal joint. Fore- 
wings with apex acute and produced ; lower angle of cell 
more or less produced, 2 from middle, 3 from ?, 4 and 5 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 13 


connate or separate, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 10 and 11 separate... 
Hindwings with 4 and 5 stalked, 6 and 7 stalked, 7 anas-- 
tomosing with 8. 
ACARA PSOLOPASTA, 2. Sp. 
Uvororactos, Sprinkled with soot. 


6 36mm. Head, palpi, antenne, thorax, and abdomen. 
and legs ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate, costa 
straight, before apex incurved, apex produced, bent costally, 
and acute, termen scarcely oblique, rounded beneath ; 
7 from 8 before 9; ochreous-whitish, suffused with pale - 
ochreous-grey, and sparsely irrorated with dark-fuscous : 
cilia pale ochreous-grey. Hindwings with termen rounded ;, 
ochreous-whitish ; cilia ochreous whitish. 

Type m Coll., Turner. 

N.Q. Atherton; one specimen. 


SuB.-Fam. CRAMBIN/. 
DipTYCHOPHORA LEUCOGRAMMA, . Sp. 

Nevkoypappos, inscribed with white. 

6 Il mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi whitish-- 
ochreous with pale-fuscous hairs. Antenne whitish ; ciliations. 
in ¢ very short (4). Thorax whitish-ochreous. Abdomen 
pale-fuscous, at base whitish-ochreous, tuft whitish. Legs. 
whitish. Forewings triangular, costa nearly _ straight, 
apex rounded, termen oblique, nearly straight, incised 
beneath apex ; fuscous mixed with whitish; a patch on 
base of dorsum and terminal half of disc, especially on 
veins, suffused with brownish-ochreous ; a median white: 
line from base to ¢ where in divides into two limbs forming 
a Y, costal limb ending beneath } costa, dorsal limb at 
mid-dorsum ; a white line from 2 costa curved outwards. 
and then parallel to termen and ending in 2 dorsum; an 
oblique white subapical costal streak nearly to termen ;. 
a few blackish scales on lower part of termen ; cilia brownish- 
ochreous, a leaden-fuscous sub-basal line not reaching 
tornus, apices fuscous at apex of wing, on costa before 
apex white. Hindwings with termen sinuate ; ochreous- 
whitish ; cilia ochreous-whitish, a pale-grey basal line on 
apex of wing. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

Q. Bribie Island, near Caloundra, Moreton Bay, ini 
September; one specimen. 


1132 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID 2). 


TALIS POLYARGYRA, 2. Sp. 
TOAVApPYUPOS, rich in silver. 
G 24-28:mm. Head pale brownish-ochrevus. Palpi 
-very long (8); pale-fuscous. Antenne grey; in ¢ serrate 
--with short ciliations (4). Thorax brownish-ochreous, with 
-a white posterior spot. Abdomen pale-ochreous.. Legs 
pale-fuscous ; posterior pair whitish-ochreous. Forewings 
-moderately elongate, costa gently arched. apex round- 
pointed, termen sinuate, slightly oblique; —brownish- 
ochreous ; markings silvery-white ; a whitish costal streak 
more or less defined: a broad median streak from base 
to end of cell edged with a few fuscous scales ; a fine streak 
along vein 2; five short broad interneural streaks beyond 
_ cell; veins beyond cell more or less outlined with fuscous ; 
a subterminal line from beneath apex nearly to tornus, 
interrupted by fuscous lines on veins; cilia whitish wilh 
silvery lustre, a fine fuscous: line at 4. Hindwings with 
~termen slightly sinuate; pale-ochreous; cilia whitish- 
_ ochreous. | 
Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.S.W., Glen Innes, in March; four specimens. 


Susp-Fam. PYRALINE. 

GEN. MICROCYTTARA, NOV. 
[ALKPOKUTTAPOS, small-celled. 
Frons flat. Tongue well-developed. Palpi moderate, 
--porrect ; second joint Jong, slightly ascending ; terminal 
joint short, stout, obtuse, slightly bent downwards. Thorax 
with a small posterior crest. Legs with outer spurs less 
- than 3 as long as inner spurs. Forewings elongate : without 
_ raised scales ; discocellulars very strongly curved inwards, 
2 from 3, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 approximated at 
‘ base from angle, 6 from upper angle connate with 7, 8, 9, 
which are stalked, 10 and 11 separate. Hindwings con- 
- siderably broader than forewings ; cell extremely short ('), 
discocellulars very strongly bowed inwards, strongly pro- 
duced at both angles, 3, 4 and 5 stalked, 7 anastomosing 
with 8 for some distance. 

This curious genus is not closely related to any known 

‘to me, but I think it may be regarded as a development 
. of Bostra with peculiarly exaggerated neural characters. 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. F33- 


MICROCYTTARA EUMEEES,. ”.. sp. 


EVLNKNS, of good length. 


Q 42 mm. Head, palpi, and antennz: brownish-grey.. 


Thorax brownish-grey, a large posterior spot and a small 
spot on base of each patagium fuscous. Abdomen 
ochreous-whitish irrorated with pale-fuscous, slightly tinged 
with ochreous on base of dorsum. Legs ochreous- 
whitish ; femora, tibiz, and first tarsal joints with oblique 
dark-fuscous rings. Forewings elongate-oval, costa strongly 
arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brownish- 
grey with slight fuscous and reddish-brown irroration ; 
markings fuscous ; an oblique line from + costa to } dorsum, 
indented inwards on fold; a median sub-costal spot; a 


sharply dentate line from 3 costa to 3 dorsum, bent outwards - 


in disc; a terminal series of dots ; cilia ochreous-whitish 
with some fuscous irroration. Hindwings- slightly sinuate 
beneath apex ; ochreous-whitish ; a fine interrupted pale- 
fuscous terminal line from apex for some distance ; cilia 
ochreous- whitish. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October ;- one specimen : 


received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


GEN. ODONTOPASCHIA. 


Odontopaschia, Hmps: 


Frons with an anterior tuft. Tongue present. Palpi. 


long, porrect ; second joint very long, with a short tuft 


at apex ; terminal joint short, slender, smooth.. Antenne - 


of ¢ unknown. Forewings with tufts. of. raised. 


Scales; 4 and 5 stalked, 7 absent, 8, 9, 10° stalked, 11 
Separate. Hindwings with 3 and 4 separate, 5 absent, 
7 anastomosing with 8. 


Type O. virescens, Hmps. from India. 


ODONTOPASCHIA ECNOMIA, 2... Sp. 


éxvopwos, Unusual, 


Q 20 mm. Head and thorax brown-whitish mixed | 


with dark-fuscous. Palpi 5; brown-whitish, outer aspect 


of second joint dark-fuscous. Antenne: brown;whitish.. 
Abdomen brown-whitish. Legs fuscous ; tarsi annulated. 


with whitish. Forewings triangular, costa scarcely arched, 


134 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID#). 


-apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique ; brown-whitish 
mixed and suffused with fuseous; a tuft of dark-fuscous 
“scales on middle third of dorsal margin; basal part of 
disc suffused with fuscous; a large raised sub-costal 
‘tuft of dark-fuscous scales at 4, and a second smaller 
beyond middle; a fuscous line from first tuft to ? dorsum, 
preceded by a pale line; a fuscous line from ? costa 
“Obliquely outwards, then acutely angled inwards and 
finely wavy to dorsum before tornus; a dark-fuscous 
terminal line; cilia brown-whitish with two dark lines. 
Hindwings with termen rounded, slightly wavy; grey, 
towards base paler ; cilia pale-grey. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.Q. Kuranda near Cairns, in December ; two specimens 
“received from Mr. F. P. Dodd, of which one is in the British 
Museum. 


Gen. SIALOCYTTARA, Nov. 


ciAoKkuTtapos, With greasy cell. 


Tongue well-developed. Palpi ascending, appressed 
to frons, much exceeding vertex ; posterior aspect of terminal 
joint and of apex of second joint clothed with long hairs, 
which in ¢ form dense tufts ; second joint in ¢ dilated 
to receive the brush-like maxillary palpi. Antenne of 2 
with fascicles of moderately long cilia, no process from 
basal joint. Thorax with a small post-median crest. 
‘Forewings of ¢ with cell on underside covered by modified 
greasy-looking scales, terminal area of wing abbreviated, 
and veins short ; 7, 8, 9 stalked. Hindwings broad ; in ¢ 
with modified scales along costa beneath ; 4 and 5 connate 
or short-stalked, 7 closeiy approximated to 8, not anastom- 
-osing. ; 

Near Heterobcla, Turn., but with peculiarly tufted 
palpi, and in ¢ with modified scale-areas and truncated 
‘forewings. 


SIALOCYTTARA ERASTA, 2. Sp. 
EpATTOS, beloved. 


Gg 28 mm. Head and palpi white mixed with dark- 
green. Antenne ochreous-whitish ; ciliations 2. Thorax 
-white mixed with dark-green and reddish-brown ; a central 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 135 


ereddish-brown spot. Abdomen white partly suffused with 
reddish-brown, with some blackish irroration on sides ; 
‘tuft pale-ochreous, towards apex fuscous. Legs white 
-mixed with reddish-brown and blackish ; tarsi dark-fuscous 
with white annulations. Forewings triangular, costa 
-straight, apex rounded, termen strongly bowed, slightly 
oblique ; greenish-grey with glossy reflections; a large 
snow-white spot on base of costa; some blackish and 
rreddish-brown scales on basal part of dorsum; a large 
dark-green central fascia, its edges very irregular, preceded 
by a snow-white spot on and beneath costa, and containing 
some blackish scales near posterior edge above and below 
-middle ; this is partly edged and intersected in middle by 
whitish-ochreous ; a dark-green spot surrounded by white 
-on costa at +; before this is a small similar sub-costal spot 
edged with whitish-ochreous; a third similar spot on 
dorsum near tornus; some pale reddish-brown suffusion 
towards termen; four leaden-fuscous spots on termen 
beneath apex ; cilia fuscous mixed with whitish and reddish- 
brown. Hindwings pale-reddish; near base becoming 
ochreous-whitish ; cilia whitish, towards apex barred with 


.fuscous. 


Q 30 mm. Head and thorax similar. Palpi ochreous- 
‘whitish. Abdomen whitish tinged with green: laterally 
-ehiefly dark-fuscous. Forewings more elongate-triangular ; 
a snow-white basal costal spot; base dark green to {; 
.central area white with dark-green blotches on mid-costa 


-and mid-dorsum; an indistinct dentate transverse line 
from ? costa, bent inwards beneath costal blotch and 
-ending on ? dorsum; terminal area dark-green, becoming 
fuscous towards termen. Hindwings white ; a large fuscous 
apical blotch continued as a narrow band along termen. 


Though very different I think these will prove to be 


Sexes. 
Types in Coll., Turner. 


N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in Julv (¢) and December 


-(Q)3 two specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


136 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID 4). 


Gen. AXIOCRITA, Nov. . 


a&ioxpitos, Worth choosing. 


Frons fiat. Tongue well-developed. Palpi slender,. 


ascending, very long ; second joint very long, much exceed- 
ing vertex ; terminal joint acute ; distal half of second joint 
and terminal joint with long hairs on posterior surface ; 


second joint in not dilated. Antenne in moderately - 
¥ 


ciliated, no antennal process. Abdomen with dorsal crests. 


on first two segments. Forewings with raised scale tufts ; 
4 and 5 separate at origin, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 10 closely 
approximated to them. Hindwings with 4 and 5 separate, 
7 anastomosing with 8. 

Allied to the preceding but differing in the neuration 
of the hindwings, and in the ¢ palpi. 


AXIOCRITA CATAPHANES, hl. Sp. 


xaTaparns, Conspicuous. 


¢ 25 mm. Head brown, on face mixed with whitish. 
Palpi very long (6); brown; extreme apex whitish. 
Antenne grey; in ¢ dentate, with moderate ciliations (1). 


Thorax brown with three whitish spots ,one posterior, . 


and one on each patagium. Abdomen fuscous; apex 
brownish ; bases of second and third segments whitish. 
Legs brown-fuscous ; base of anterior coxze white; tarsi 
with narrow whitish annulations. Forewings triangular, 


costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ; . 


fusecous ; base, a broad costal streak, a small area in disc, 
and veins towards termen suffused with dull ochreous- 


green ; six prominent scale-tufts ; first near base, white ;_ 


the remainder fuscous, three sub-costal. and two on median 
vein ; white dots on costa at !, #, and +; a white dot just 
posterior to basal tuft ; a faint, whitish, irregularly dentate 


line from sub-apical dot to before tornus; beyond this - 


terminal area is paler; cilia whitish barred with pale- 
fuscous. Hindwings bright orange-vellow ; a dark-fuscous 
terminal band, broad at apex, narrowing to tornus ; cilia 
fuscous. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in September ; one specimen : 


received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. ISF 


MACALLA MNIOMIMA, n. Sp. 

pviopipos, imitating moss. 

6 Q 23-25 mm. Head white with a green spot on 
crown. Palpi green with a few whitish scales. Antenne 
ochreous-whitish ; ciliations in 4 2; antennal process in 
6 green. Abdomen pale-green mixed with whitish. Legs 
whitish mixed with green and fuscous ;_ tarsi green-fuscous 
annulated with whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, 
costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, slightly 
oblique ; whitish densely suffused with yellow-green which 
is arranged in confused, broken, dentate or wavy transverse 
lines ; a dark-fuscous median spot at }; beyond this an 
incomplete wavy whitish transverse fascia, divided into 
two by a wavy green line; a dark-fuscous median sub- 
costal spot with a similar spot or suffusion between it and 
dorsum ; sometimes some patchy dark-fuscous suffusion 
towards termen ; cilia whitish with a basal series of yellow- 
green dots. Hindwings grey; cilia ochreous-whitish. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.Q. Atherton in February: four specimens. Also in 
British Museum from New Guinea. 


MACALLA CHLOROPHGNA, 2. Sp. 

xAwpodowos, green and red. 

gS Q 35-42 mm. Head, thorax, palpi. and antenne 
yellowish-green. Antennal ciliations in @ short  (%). 
Abdomen whitish partly suffused with pale-reddish, with 
a few fuscous scales. Legs ochreous-whitish. Forewings 
elongate-triangular, costa gently arched, apex rounded, 
termen bowed, slightly oblique ; whitish densely but patchily 
suffused with brownish-green ; a short transverse linear 
dark-fuscous discal mark beneath mid-costa ; a pale trans- 
verse line from ? costa to + dorsum, angulated outwards 
in middle, and succeeded by a darker shade containing 
some dark-fuscous scales; an interrupted dark-greenish 
terminal line; cilia whitish. Hindwings brownish-red ; 
a dark-fuscous terminal band, broadest at apex; cilia 
pale-reddish. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 


@. Mount Tambourine, in December and January ; 
two specimens. 


138 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID). 


MACALLA PELOSCIA, 2. Sp. 


zyA\ookws, With muddy shade. 


gd 25 mm. Head and thorax whitish mixed with 
dull-reddish. Palpi greenish with some whitish and 
towards apex with some dull-reddish scales. Antenne 
grey ; ciliations in @ short ($); antennal processes in @ 
whitish mixed with dull-reddish. | Abdomen ochreous- 
whitish. Legs ochreous-whitish irrorated with dull-reddish ; 
tarsi fuscous with whitish annulations. Forewings triangular, 
costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, slightly 
oblique ; whitish mixed with grey and dull-reddish; a 
darker dorsal shade containing some fuscous scales from 4 
nearly to tornus, extending half across wing ; a pale trans- 
verse line edged by dark lines at }, obsolete towards costa ; 
an obscure darker median discal spot; a whitish mark 
preceded by a dark mark on costa at 3; a darker sub- 
terminal shade; a terminal series of fuscous dots best 
marked towards apex; cilia whitish, with a pale-reddish 
basal line interrupted by fuscous dots. Hindwings pale- 
fuscous becoming darker towards termen ; cilia as forewings 
but basal line and dots much paler. 

Type in Coll., Turner. . 

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in December ; one specimen 
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


EPIPASCHIA POLYSCIA, 2. Sp. 
zodvek:os, very shady. 


S Q 25-28 mm. Head pale-brown ; face mixed with 
fuscous. Palpi pale-brown; second joint with obscure 
antemedian and subterminal fuscous rings ; terminal joint 
fuscous except apex. Antenne pale-brown ; ciliations in 
3 1. Thorax pale-brown. Abdomen brown-whitish with 
some fuscous irroration; dorsum tinged with ochreous. 
Legs brown mixed with whitish and annulated with fuscous ; 
tarsi fuscous with whitish annulations. Forewings. tri- 
angular, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, 
oblique ; brown-whitish irrorated with brown ; markings 
fuscous ; a spot on dorsum near base; a large triangular 
blotch on costa at +; a smaller blotch between this and 
dorsum ; an interrupted line from 2 costa to mid-dorsum ; 
a median sub-costal dot preceded by a crest of pale scales ; 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 139 


2 


a line from 3 costa obliquely outwards, bent inwards in 
«lise and ending on ? dorsum ; an ill-defined brown blotch 
containing some fuscous scales on costa near apex; a 
brown-fuscous terminal line interrupted on veins; cilia 
pale-brown, apices whitish. Hindwings fuscous; paler 
towards base; cilia as forewings but with basal fuscous 
bars on apical half of termen. 
Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in January ; four specimens 
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


EPIPASCHIA CHLOANTHES, 2. Sp. 
xAoavGyns, green. 


2 30 mm. Head fuscous-brown, sides of crown green. 
Palpi 2, third joint $; dark -fuscous ; basal half of second 
joint green; apices of second and third joints narrowly 
whitish. Antenne grey. Thorax green with a few fuscous 
scales. Abdomen green; a series of median dorsal dots 
and a few scattered scales brownish and fuscous. Legs 
whitish irrorated with purple-fuscous and annulated with 
dlark fuscous; external surface of middle tibiz green. 
Forewings elongate-triangular, costa gently arched, apex 
rounded, termen bowed, oblique; bright-green ; markings 
brownish-fuscous ; three dark-fuscous costal spots at 4, 
4, and 2; less defined spots on dorsum at } and +; a median 
discal dot with some irroration beneath it ; a line from third 
costal dot obliquely outwards, bent in disc, parallel to 
termen for a short distance, then bent inwards, and again 
to end in dorsum at 2 ; a large dark apical patch ; a small 
patch above tornus; a series of dark-fuscous terminal 
dots ; cilia pale-reddish, apices whitish, barred with fuscous, 
Hindwings whitish with a reddish tinge ; a suffused pale- 
fuscous terminal band ; cilia as forewings but fuscous bars 
inconspicuous. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in June; one specimen. 
ORTHAGA EXVINACEA. 


| er f 


Orthaya exvinacea, Hmps., Ill. Het. viii., p. 127, Pl. 154, 
f. 9. Mothes. Ind.,. iv., p. 125. 

6 Q 24-28 mm. Head grey-whitish. Palpi grey- 

whitish ; second joint with antemedian and_ subapical 


140 AUSTRALIAN LEPTDOPTERA (PYRALID2®). 


fuscous rings. Antenne grey-whitish; ciliations in ¢@ Ls 
Thorax grey-whitish. Abdomen whitish irrorated with’ 
fuscous and suffused on dorsum with oehreous. Legs: 
fuscous mixed with whitish ; tarsi fuscous with ochreous- 
whitish annulations. Forewings triangular, costa straight,. 
apex rounded, termen bowed, slightly oblique ; grey-whitish 
with some brownish and fuscous irroration ; basal fourth 
shows more brownish irroration; a _ transverse fuscous 
line at 4, often indistinct ; a fuscous line from 3 costa 
obliquely outwards, then bent inwards and either dentate: 
or lost in a dark-fuscous suffusion, then angled inwards, 
ending on dorsum near tornus; a slight purplish tinge 
on posterior part of disc ; an interrupted fuscous terminal 
line ; cilia pale-brownish barred with fuscous, apices. whitish. 
Hindwings fuscous-whitish ; darker towards termen ; cilia 
as forewings. 

Sir Geo. Hampson tells me that mine agree with Indiam 
and Ceylon specimens. 

N.A. Port Darwin, in October and November ; four 


ral 


specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


ORTHAGA AMPHIMELAS, 2. Sp. 
dpoipedas, black all round. 


Sg 24 mm. Head grey. Palpi with second joint 
dilated at apex, terminal joint very short, stout, obtuse = 
dark-fuscous. Antenne fuscous; ciliations in gL. 
Thorax blackish. Abdomen grey-whitish densely irrorated 
with dark-fuscous. Legs dark-fuscous mixed, and _ tarsi 
annulated, with fuscous. Forewings elongate-triangular, 
costa straight, apex rounded, termen bowed, slightly 
oblique ; dark-fuscous ; a broad whitish suffusion on middle 
third of costa ; markings blackish ; an indistinct transverse 
line at 4; a dot beneath mid-costa; a line from 3 costa 
obliquely outwards nearly to mid-termen, there forming 
a rounded projection, angulated inwards above dorsum, 
which it joins near tornus ; a few white scales near termen ; 
ciia fuscous, bases barred with brownish, a few whitish 
points on apices. Hindwings fuscous-whitish; darker 
towards termen ; cilia white with a fuscous basal line. 


The form of the postmedian line of forewings is dis- 
tinctive. In the palpi this species agrees with the preceding. 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 14] 


Type im Coll., Turner. 


N.A. Port Darwin, in December ; one specimen received 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


ORTHAGA BRYOMIMA, 2. sp. 

Bpvopipos, like moss. 

¢ 23mm. Head. thorax, and palpi green. Antenne 
grey: ciliations in g 1. Abdomen whitish mixed with 
dark-fuscous. Legs greenish; posterior pair mostly 
whitish ; tarsi annulated with dark-fuscous. Forewings 
triangular, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen 
bowed, oblique ; green mixed with whitish-green and with 
some blackish irroration ; first line indistinct, represented 
by some confused blackish irroration ; a median subcostal 
blackish discal tuft of raised seales; second line from 2 
costa, green, traversing a whitish-green blotch obliquely 
outwards, then curved inwards and ending. on dorsum 
at +; above dorsum it is preceded by a blackish blotch 
with suffused edges ; an interrupted dark-fuscous terminal 
line; cilia very pale reddish barred with dark-fuscous. 
Hindwings fuscous, becoming whitish towards base ; cilia 
as forewings. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

Q. Montville (1500 ft.), on Blackall Range, near 
Nambour, in October; one specimen. 


GEN. ENCHESPHORA, ‘nov. 

eyyerhopos, Spear-bearing. 

Tongue well-developed. Palpi moderate, porrect ; 
second joint slightly ascending, rough-haired above towards 
apex ; terminal joint short, broad. obtuse, down-curved 
Maxillary palpi broadly dilated at apex. Forewings with 
4 and 5 approximated for a short distance, 7, 8, 9, stalked, 
10 and 11 separate but approximated. Hindwings with 
4 and 5 approximated, 7 anastomosing shortly with 8. 

The characters of the ¢ are not known. In other 
respects, the genus is allied to Doddiana, but differs in the 
more normal neuration. | 

ENCHESPHORA POLIGPHANES, 2. Sp. 
zodwopavys, OL grey appearance. 


2 33 mm. Head, thorax and antennze whitish-grey 
Face and palpi fuscous. Abdomen grey with a series of 


142 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALIDZ). 


large dark-fuscous median dorsal spots. Legs fuscous ; 
tarsi annulated with ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate- 
triangular, costa straight for 3, then gently arched, apex 
rounded, termen slightly bowed, oblique; whitish-grey, 
with some dark-fuscous markings and trroration; an 
obliquely transverse bar from dorsum near base, not reaching 
costa; a median subcostal dot; a large apical blotch 
produced along termen ending above tornus in a small 
terminal enlargement ; a terminal series of dark-fuscous. 
spots; cilia whitish-grey. Hindwings  fuscous; paler 
towards base and suffused with pale-reddish towards 
dorsum ; a short pale line parallel to termen beneath middle ; 
cilia whitish with a pale-fuscous sub-basal line. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.A. Port Darwin, in December ; one specimen received 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 

Sus-Fam. PYRAUSTIN 2. 
Gren. AUCHMOPHOBA, Nov.. 

atypopoBos, tearing drought. 

Frons flat. Tongue obsolete. Palpi rather long ; 
second joint porrect, with a dense tuft of long hairs beneath : 
terminal joint erect, very slender, acute. Maxillary palpi 
dilated. Antenne of ¢ simple, minutely ciliated. Legs 
long and slender; inner spurs longer than outer. Fore- 
wings with 5 absent (coincident with 4), 10 separate. 
Hindwings with 4 and 5 stalked. 7 anastomosing with 8. 

Perhaps nearest Nannomorpha, Turn., but. there are 
important differences both in the palpi and neuration. 

AUCHMOPHOBA TYNNUTA, 2. Sp. 

TvVVOVTOS, SO little. 

S 10-11 mm. Head fuscous mixed with whitish ; 
face whitish. Palpi whitish ; tuft on second joint partly 
fuscous. Antenne whitish annulated with  fuscous ; 
ciliations in ¢ 4}. Thorax fuscous mixed with whitish. 
Abdomen fuscous annulated with whitish. Legs fuscous ; 
posterior pair, except tarsi, whitish. Forewings elongate- 
triangular, costa rather strongly arched, apex rounded, 
termen excavated in middle ; fuscous mixed with whitish ; 
a transverse line at 34, dentate beneath costa; four pairs 
of short white streaks from costa, first strongly outwardly 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 143 


oblique at 4, second less oblique at middle, third trans- 
verse at ?, fourth transverse sub-apical; a fuscous sub- 
terminal line; cilia whitish, bases and apices fuscous. 
Hindwings with termen indented at + from apex ; whitish ; 
a fuscous suffusion on dorsal part of disc before middle, 
a broad terminal suffusion, and a small suffusion on tornus ; 
cilia as forewings. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

Q. Stradbroke Island, in August; six specimens, 
taken in a swamp at dusk. 

AGROTERA GLYCYPHANES, %. Sp. 

yAvkvuparys, Of Sweet appearance. 

Q 22 mm. Head pale-yellow with two _ posterior 
orange spots ; face with three orange dots, one on upper 
and two on lower edge. Palpi pale-yvellow with four orange 
bars on outer surface, the last apical. Antenne pale- 
brown ; basal joint pale-yellow with an orange dot at apex- 
Thorax pale-yellow reticulated with orange. Abdomen 
whitish-ochreous, dorsum of basal segments barred and 
of apical segments suffused with orange. Legs whitish ; 


: 
anterior and middle tibize suffused with orange; 
anterior tarsi white except two apical segments which 
are dark-fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa straight for 
%, then strongly arched, apex rounded, termen slightly 
bowed, oblique; pale-brown with a purple gloss; basal 
third pale-yellow reticulated with orange, bounded by 
a crenate orange line; a large round pale-vellow spot 
beneath costa at 3, edged and irrorated with orange; a 
similar but much smaller spot beneath this ; a pale-orange 
streak along costa from + to apex ; a fine fuscous line from 
2 costa obliquely outwards then bent to form a quadrangular 
projection, bent again to beneath second spot, thence to # 
dorsum ; an interrupted fuscous terminal line ; cilia whitish 
with a brown sub-basal line. Hindwing with termen 
slightly sinuate; as forewings; but basal patch defined 
only towards dorsum; no subcostal spots; postmedian 
line edged externally with orange, and with three confluent 
vellow spots on dorsal extremity. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.A. Port Darwin, in January ; one specimen received 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


144 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALIDZ). 


DICHOCROCIS XANTHIAS, ”. sp. 
Eavoos, vellow. 


Q 27 mm. Head, palpi, antenne, and _ thorax 
ochreous. Abdomen ochreous; apices of segments and 
underside white. Legs whitish-ochreous ; posterior pair 
white. Forewings triangular, costa straight for 3, then 
strongly arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ; 
yellow; basal 4 ochreous; markings pale-fuscous; an 
irregularly dentate transverse line from { costa to } dorsum 
limiting basal ochreous patch; a large transversely oval 
discal spot beneath mid-costa ; a broad fascia from ? costa 
to 2 dorsum, attenuated at each end; a more suffused 
terminal band connected with preceding in middle ; cilia 
ochreous, apices whitish. Hindwings with termen slightly 
sinuate ; whitish-yellow : an indistinct pale-fuscous trans- 
verse median discal mark at 3, a terminal band from apex 
narrowing to a point at mid-termen ; cilia as forewings. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in March ; two specimens 
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. of which one is in the British 


Museum. 
DICHOCROCIS LEPTOPHAES. 1” Sp 
Aextodays, slightly shining. 


2 28 mm. Head, palpi, and antenne fuscous-whitish. 
‘Thorax pale-fuscous with slight purple lustre. Abdomen 
pale-fuscous ; apices of segments and underside whitish. 
Legs white ; anterior femora and tibiz and basal part of 
middle tibie grey. Forewings triangular, costa straight 
for 2, then strongly arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, 
oblique ; pale-fuscous with slight purple lustre ; a roundish 
whitish spot beneath origin of vein 2, and another in end 
of cell beneath mid-costa ; a suffused whitish spot on mid- 
costa close to preceding ; a small whitish spot in disc beneath 
3 costa ; cilia whitish interrupted with fuscous. Hindwings 
fuscous-whitish with slight purple lustre ; cilia as forewings. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 


Q. Stradbroke Island ,m February; one specimen 
unfortunately in poor condition taken among tropical 
‘scrub. 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 145 


Gren. GLYCYTHYMA. 


This genus (Tr. R.S.S.A., 1908, p. 91) must be 
dropped. The type, chrysorycta, Meyr., has the ¢ antennz 
formed just as in rheonalis the type of Nacoleia. The 
other species, thymedes, is a synonym of leonina, Butl. 


NACOLEIA SYNGENICA, n. sp. 
TUVYEVLKOS, akin. 


Q 23 mm. Head and antenne brown-whitish. Palpi 
fuscous; under-surface white except towards apex. 
Thorax pale-brown. Abdomen pale-brown, with dark- 
fuscous lateral lines; apices of segments and underside 
white. Legs whitish; tarsi brown-whitish; anterior 
tibize fuscous except at apex ; middle femora with a fusceus 
blotch on inner side beyond middle. Forewings elongate- 
triangular, costa straight for 3, then arched, apex tolerably 
acute, termen slightly bowed, oblique; pale-brown; a 
squarish white spot in disc before middle, slightly biconcave ; 
lines blackish ; first from } costa to 4 dorsum, slightly curved 
outwards ; second finely dentate, from 3 costa towards 
‘tornus, before reaching it bent inwards to beneath end of 
cell, then bent again and ending on § dorsum ; an interrupted 
terminal line; cilia fuscous, bases barred with whitish, 
-above tornus wholly whitish. Hindwings fuscous, towards 
base whitish ; lines dark-fuscous ; first from } costa to 3 
dorsum, outwardly curved ; second dentate, from 2 costa, 
bent rather outwards in disc, obselete towards dorsum ; 
-cilia as forewings but more whitish towards tornus. 

Best distinguished from rh@onalis by the single whitish 
‘spot on forewing. 


N.Q. Atherton, in June; one specimen. 


NACOLEIA MELANAUGES, 2”. sp. 


peravavyns, dark. 


Q 20mm. Head ochreous-whitish mixed with fuscous : 
‘face fuscous. Palpi fuscous; base beneath whitish. 
Antenne fuscous, towards base whitish. Thorax and 
abdomen dark-fuscous. Legs ochreous-whitish.  Fore- 
wings elongate-triangular, costa with basal 3 slightly 
concave, strongly arched before apex, apex rounded, termen 
“rather strongly bowed, oblique; dark-fuscous ; lines but 

K 


146 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID 2). 


slightly darker and very obscure ; a transverse line at } ;. 
a whitish subcostal dot about }; postmedian line from #4 
costa, wavy, bent above tornus to below end of cell, and 
again to 3 dorsum; edged posteriorly by a few whitish 
dots, and on costa by a short whitish streak ; cilia dark- 
fuscous. Hindwings rather narrow and elongate, termen 
sinuate ; dark-fuscous, towards base mixed with whitish ; 
first line distinct, curved, from 4 costa to ? dorsum ; second 
line obsolete ; cilia dark-fuscous, between tornus and mid-- 


termen whitish except bases. 
Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in June ; one specimen, 


TYSPANODES PHAOSTICHA, 2. Sp. 


PULogTixos, dusky-lined. 


¢6 Q@ 25-28 mm. Head ochreous; face whitish- 
ochreous. Palpi fuscous ; beneath whitish-ochreous except 
towards apex. Antenne whitish-grey; ciliations in ¢ L.. 
Thorax ochreous ; tegule and bases of patagia wholly or 
partly dark-fuscous. Abdomen ochreous, dorsum except 
at base suffused with fuscous. Legs ochreous-whitish ;. 
anterior pair except tarsi fuscous ; all tarsi annulated with 
fuscous. Forewings oval-triangular, costa rather strongly 
arched, apex obtusely rounded, termen bowed, oblique ; 
reddish-ochreous, with numerous’ fuscous  inter-neural. 
streaks variably developed; a whitish patch on termen. 
from below middle to tornus; the fuscous streaks do not 
quite reach termen ; cilia fuscous, on tornal patch whitish.. 
Hindwings ochreous-yellow ; a dark-fuscous apical blotch, 
prolonged as a band more or less along termen, sometimes 
not reaching tornus ; cilia on apical half of wing fuscous, 
beneath this whitish, on tornus and dorsum ochrecus-. 
yellow. 


Ab. Forewings wholly suffused with dark-fuscous. 
Type in Coll., Turner. 
N.Q. Evelyn Scrub, near Herberton, in December. 


Q. Eumundi, near Nambour, in October. Five speci- 


mens, | 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 147° 


SYLEPTA SYMPHONODES, 7. sp. 

cvppovodns, harmonious. | | 

Sg @ 28 mm. Head, thorax, palpi, and antenne- 
yellow. Antennal ciliations in ¢ 1. Abdomen, vellow ; a 
pair of basal fuscous dots on dorsum of third segment ; . 
sides and underside whitish. Legs whitish; anterior 
pair tinged with ochreous ; apex of anterior tibiw# fuscous. 
Forewings triangular, costa straight for ?, then strongly 
arched, apex rectangular, termen slightly bowed, oblique ;. 
yellow ; markings fuscous ; a sub-basal dorsal dot; an 
outwardly curved line from { costa to } dorsum; an, 
outwardly crescentic discal mark beneath mid-costa; a 
line from ? costa, bent outwards in disc and with three- 
dentations, then bent inwards to beneath discal mark, 
again curved, with a small posterior tooth above dorsum, 
ending on ? dorsum ; traces of a pale-fuscous terminal line- 
best marked near tornus ; cilia pale-vyellow. Hindwings 
as forewings but without basal line. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in December and May; 
four specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd, of which. 
one is in the British Museum. 


SYLEPTA TRACHELOTA, ”. sp. 
tpaxndotos, With conspicuous throat. 


Q 30-38 mm. Head and palpi ferruginous-brown.. 
Pectus with a large fan-shaped patch of white scales 
immediately behind palpi. Thorax  ferruginous-brown ;. 
posterior edge brown-whitish. Abdomen fuscous-brown 4 
basal segments ferruginous; underside whitish. Legs 
brownish ; anterior pair and all tarsi fuscous with whitish 
annulations. Forewings triangular, costa straight for 2, 
then strongly arched, apex rectangular, termen bowed, 
oblique ; bright ferrugimous mixed with ochreous-yellow ; 
markings dark-fuscous ; a sub-basal dorsal dot; a waved 
transverse line at !}; a round sub-costal dot at +, and a 
transverse median sub-costal mark in disc; a line from 3 
costa, irregularly dentate, displaced outwards in middle, 
then bent inwards to beneath discal mark, and again bent 
to mid-dorsum ; a broad fuscous terminal band touching 
posterior line on projection. only ; a series of dark-fuscous- 


148 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID#). 


terminal dots on veins ; cilia fuscous. Hindwings fuscous 
more or less suffused with ferruginous ; an oblique dark- 
fuscous mark at } towards costa; a postmedian line at 2, 
_displaced outwards in middle, the projection with three 
‘rounded dentations; this line is edged posteriorly with 
ochreous ; terminal dots and cilia as forewings. 


Type in Coll.. Turner. 


N.Q. Evelyn Scrub, near Herberton, in October and 
November ; four specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd, 
of which one is in the British Museum. 


SYLEPTA SPILOCROSSA, ”. Sp. 


o7mtX0KpoT mos, with spotted border. 


g Q 18-20 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax fuscous 
mixed with whitish. Antenne grey, annulated with dark- 
‘fuscous ; ciliations in g 1. Abdomen fuscous; apices of 
second, third, sixth, and seventh segments white; tuft 
ochreous-whitish. Legs whitish annulated with dark- 
fuscous. Forewings elongate, ovate-triangular, costa 
straight at base, moderately arched beyond middle, apex 
. obtusely rounded, termen slightly bowed, oblique ; whitish 
suffused with brownish-fuscous ; markings dark-fuscous ; 
sometimes a dark basal patch; a transverse line at. }; a 
rather broad reniform discal spot beneath mid-costa, its 
centre brownish; two or three brownish-centred costal 
spots variably developed; posterior line from # costa 
‘towards tornus straight and finely dentate ; then obtusely 
- curved to below discal spot, again curved to end in dorsum 
at 2, a small posterior tooth above dorsum; a terminal 
_series of dots; cilia whitish, bases brownish-tinged, with 
.a median series of fuscous dots alternating with those on 
termen. Hindwings as forewings but without discal mark ; 
first line from $ costa to 3 dorsum; second line from 4 
-costa, bent outwards in middle and then dentate, towards 
but not reaching tornus. 


Not closely allied to any other species known to me, 
and not quite certain in its generic position. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in June and October ; 
“three specimens. 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 149% 


GEN. ELLOGIMA, nov. 
eAAoyipos, noticeable. 


Frons flat, oblique. Tongue well-developed. Palpi 
moderate, porrect ; second joint thickened with appressed 
hairs. above and.- beneath; terminal joint short, acute.. 
Antenne of ¢ thickened and bent downwards at 4, with 
dense short hairs on underside of bend. Forewings with 
obtusely rounded apex; 8, 9, 10. stalked. Hindwings - 
with discocellular very oblique, 3, 4, and 5 from angle, 
and 7 anastomosing with 8 for some distance. 

Allied to Camptomastyx, Hmps., but with much shorter: 
palpi. 

ELLOGIMA MACROPERALIS. 
Piletocera macroperalis, Hmps., Tr. E. 8., 1897, p. 214. 


¢ 18-20 mm. Head fuscous. Palpi fuscous ; under- 
surface except apex white. Antennze fuscous ; ciliations. 
in ¢ Il. Thorax and abdomen fuscous. Legs whitish. 
Forewings elongate, costa strongly concave in middle, 
strongly arched before apex, apex very obtusely rounded,,. 
termen slightly bowed, oblique ; fuscous with darker lines ; 
an irregularly wavy, fine, obscure, transverse line at 1; 
a suffused discal spot beneath mid-costa ; postmedian line: 
more distinct, finely dentate, from 3 costa, produced out-- 
wards in mid-dise, then bent inwards to beneath discal’ 
dot, and again bent to ? dorsum ; apical area suffused with 
leaden-fuscous ; cilia pale-fuscous with a darker sub-basal 
line. Hindwings fuscous ; lines obsolete ; cilia as forewings. 

N.Q. Cooktown; Kuranda near Cairns, in October: 
and December; Q. Brisbane, in November and January. 


GEN. METALLARCHA. 
Metallarcha, Meyr., Tr. E. 8., 1884, p. 331. 

This genus and the allied endemic genera require 
careful differentiation from each other, and from Lowostege, 
Hb. (Phlyctenodes, Gu.), of which the two species affinitalis _ 
Led., and massalis, Wlk., occur in Australia. ; 

I suggest the following scheme of differentiation :—- 

A. Maxillary palpi not dilated. 

B. Frons with a short, stout, acute prominence, 

nearly forming an equilateral triangle 
Loxostege, Hb-- 


1150 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID A). 


BB. Frons with a very long, flattened, acute 


prominence + eb .. Panopsia, 7.g. 
‘BBB. Frons with a moderately long. cone-shaped, 
blunt prominence - .. Metallarcha, Meyr. 


‘BBBB. Frons with a moderately long, abruptly 
truncate prominence excavated at apex 
| Criophthona, Meyr. 
AA. Maxillary palpi dilated at apex. Frons 
with a moderately long, cone-shaped, blunt 
prominence T ae .. Conoprora, 7.9. 


To the genus Panopsia besides the type calliaspis, 
Meyr., are to be referred tetraplaca, Meyr., pseliota, Meyr., 
-and goudii, Low. 


GEN. METALLARCHA. 
Metallarcha, Meyr., Tr., E.S., 1884,p. 331. 


Frons with a moderately long, cone-shaped, blunt 
‘prominence. Tongue well-developed.  Palpi rather long, 
porrect, long-haired beneath; terminal joint concealed. 
Maxillary palpi not dilated at apex. Antenne of ¢ simple, 
shortly ciliated. Tibiz with outer spurs shorter than 
inner. Neuration normal. 

Type M. diplochrysa, Meyr., To this genus I refer 
also epichrysa, Meyr., eurychrysa, Meyr., crocanthes, Low., 
and /eycodetis, Low. 


METALLARCHA PHZENOLIS, 2. Sp. 
daworts, light-bringing. 


6 Q 15-16 mm. Head yellow. Palpi  fuscous ; 
‘beneath whitish-ochreous. Antenne pale-fuscous ; ciliations 
in ¢ #1. Thorax yellow; shoulders narrowly leaden- 
fuscous. Abdomen pale-ochreous. Legs  pale-ochreous ; 
anterior pair leaden-fuscous. Forewings elongate-triangular, 
costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen strongly 
oblique, in g nearly straight, in Q bowed; whitish 
irrorated with leaden-fuscous, more densely so on costa ; 
markings bright orange; a broad streak along dorsum 
‘from base to 3, abruptly truncate ; a fascia from dorsum 
just before middle nearly to but not reaching mid-costa ; 
-a second fascia from costa before apex almost to tornus, 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 151 


slightly curved inwards ; (cilia abraded). Hindwings and 
-¢ilia pale-ochreous. | 
Type in Coll., Turner. 


Q. Adavale (western interior), in April ; two specimens. 


CRIOPHTHONA DELOTYPA, 2. Sp.: 


-dyAoturos, Clearly marked. 


Q 16mm. _ Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi pale-fuscous ; 
undersurface white. Antennz whitish-ochreous. Thorax 
whitish-ochreous with a few fuscous scales.’\”~-Abdomen 
-othreous-whitish ; apices of segments narrowly’ ‘fuscous. 
Legs ochreous-whitish. Forewings — elongate-triafhgular, 
costa slightly sinuate, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ; 
whitish-ochreous with slight fuscous irroration ; markings 
-dark-fuscous ; a dot on dorsum near base; a line from } 
-costa, bent outwards in disc, and then straight to } dorsum ; 
a longitudinally oval pale-centred sub-costal spot at 45 
a similar spot beneath mid-costa, transversely oval; a 
-sinuate line from 2 costa, bent outwards in  mid-dise, 
parallel to termen for a short distance, then bent sharply 
inwards to beneath median spot, and bent again to end 
in = dorsum; an interrupted terminal line ; cilia whitish. 
Hindwings as forewings, but without discal spots; first 
line from 4 costa to dorsum near tornus ; second line forming 

2 


three large dentations, from 32 costa to termen beyond 
tornus ; terminal line not interrupted. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.Q. Stannary Hills; one specimen received from 
Dr. T. Bancroft. 


CRIOPHTHONA CELH,NOPHAES, 2. Sp. , 
KeAawogdans, dusky. 


Q 25 mm. Head, thorax, and antennez _ fuscous. 
Palpi fuscous; beneath white. Abdomen _ pale-fuscous ; 
-apices of all but basal segments whitish. Legs white ; 
_all femora and anterior aspect of anterior tibiz and tarsi 
‘fuscous. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa nearly 
straight, apex rather acute, termen bowed, oblique ; fuscous ; 
first line and discal spot obsolete ; a finely dentate dark- 
fuscous line from + costa towards tornus, near this bent 


152 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID#). 


inwards, and again downwards to ? dorsum ; an interrupted 
dark-fuscous terminal line; cilia fuscous. Hindwings. as. 
forewings, but postmedian line indistinct. 


Much larger than the other species but agreeing: 
structurally. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 


Q. Stradbroke Island, in February ; one specimen. 


GEN. CONOPRORA, Nov. 


Kwvorpwpos, With cone-shape prow. 


Frons with a moderately long cone-shaped frontal 
process. Tongue well-developed. Palpi moderate, porrect ; 
second joint rather long with dense hairs above and 
beneath ; terminal joint concealed. Maxillary palpi dilated 
with hairs. Antenne of g simple or slightly dentate, 
with short or moderately long ciliations. Legs with outer 
spurs rather shorter than inner. Neuration normal. 


Differs from Criophthona in the frontal process not. 
being truncate, from Metallarcha in its being proportionately 
shorter, stouter, and more obtusely pointed, from both 
in the dilated maxillary palpi. 

Type C. ecista. 


CONOPRORA ECISTA, 2. Sp. 
NKLOTOS, very small. 


6 Q@ 10-12 mm. Head fuscous mixed with whitish. . 
Palpi moderately long (3); fuscous, beneath white. 
Antenne pale-fuscous; in ¢@ thicker, annulated with 
whitish, and with moderately long ciliations (1). Thorax 
fuscous. Abdomen fuscous mixed with whitish. Legs. 
grey-whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, apex rounded, 
termen® slightly bowed, oblique; whitish irrorated with 
fuscous, less so towards dorsum ; markings dark-fuscous ; 
slightly outwardly oblique lines from 4 and mid-dorsum, 
not reaching costa; a wavy line from + costa to before- 
tornus; cilia whitish, with a basal row of dark-fuscous. 
dots. Hindwings fuscous; lines indistinct or obsolete ;. 
cilia as forewings. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.A. Port Darwin, in October, November and Decem- 
ber ; three specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 153. 


CONOPRORA CELIDOTA, n. sp. 
knAwooros, blotched. 


6 9mm. Head whitish. Palpi dark-fuscous ; beneath 
white. Antenne whitish ; in ¢ slightly dentate with very 
short ciliations (4). Thorax fuscous. Abdomen fuscous. 
mixed with whitish. Legs whitish ; anterior pair fuscous ; 
anterior tarsi with whitish annulations. Forewings. 
elongate-triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, 
termen bowed, oblique ; dark-fuscous mixed with whitish ; 
lines obsolete ; a quadrangular whitish blotch on dorsum 
before tornus ; a median white dot in disc above this, 
surrounded by fuscous ; cilia fuscous, with an interrupted 
basal whitish line. Hindwings grey; an obscure whitish 
blotch in disc above tornus ; cilia as forewings. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.A. Port Darwin, in December ; one specimen received 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


CONOPRORA ANERASMIA, 2. Sp. 


avepacp.os, unlovely. 


2 11 mm. Head, antenne, thorax, and abdomen 
fuscous. Palpi moderate (23) ; fuscous, beneath whitish 
Legs whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa nearly 
straight, apex rounded, termen slightly bowed, oblique ; 
fuscous, markings obsolete ; a darker dot on + costa from 
which a faint dentate transverse line can be traced for a 
short distance; cilia fuscous with a darker basal line. 
Hindwings and cilia as forewings. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.A. Port Darwin, in December ; one specimen received 
rom Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


CONOPRORA TRIPLEX, ”. Sp. 


Triplex, threehold. 

36 2 14mm. Head whitish, posteriorly fuscous. Palpi 
moderately long (¢24, Q 3); fuscous, beneath white. 
Antenne fuscous-whitish ; in ¢ very shortly ciliated (4). 
Thorax and abdomen whitish. Legs whitish. Forewings 
elongate-triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, 
termen bowed, strongly oblique ; three oblique fuscous lines, 
first from +} costa to 4 dorsum, second slightly beyond 


454 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID42:). 


middle, third from + costa to before tornus ; an indistinct 
interrupted terminal line; cilia whitish. Hindwings grey- 
whitish ; cilia whitish. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 


@. Adavale, in April; two specimens. 


CONOPRORA BALIOCROSSA, ”. Sp. 
Pudwo«Kpoooos, with spotted border. 


g¢ 17-20 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi 23: 
fuscous ; beneath with basal half white. Antenne fuscous ; 
ciliations in g¢ 4. Abdomen fuscous ; apices of segments 
whitish. Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish; tarsi 
annulated with whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, 
costa nearly straight, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ; 
fuscous mixed with whitish, appearing rather dark-grey ; 
darker along costa; markings dark-fuscous; a line from 
1 costa to 4, dorsum outwardly curved; a median line 
from mid-costa to 2 dorsum, interrupted beneath costa 
by a slender reniform whitish annulus with dark-fuscous 
centre ; an irregularly dentate line from ? costa to tornus ; 
a fine terminal line; cilia pale-fuscous with a basal series 
of whitish dots. Hindwings fuscous ; cilia as forewings. 

Larger than the other species and with the maxillary 
palpi less dilated, but agreeing in the shape of the frontal 
process. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 


Q. Stradbroke Island, in November ; three specimens. 


Gen. METASIA. 
Metasia, Gn., Delt. and Pyr., p. 251., Hmps., P.Z.8., 1899, 
p. 236. 
Frons with a rounded or very shortly conical pro- 
jection. 


To this genus I refer ach@alis, Wik., in spite of its 
somewhat larger size and brighter colouring as: compared 
with the other species.. 


METASIA THELCTERIA, 7. Sp. 
GeAxrypios, Charming. 


6 18 mm. Head and thorax yellow. Palpi 2; yellow, 
base beneath white. Antenne whitish; ciliations in @ 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 155 


minute. Abdomen whitish-ochreous. Legs white. Fore- 
wings triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, 
termen bowed, oblique; vellow ; markings blackish, very 
distinct ; a dot on dorsum at }, a second beneath costa 
at 4, and a third in disc between but rather internal to 
these ; a dot beneath mid-costa: a slender line from 2 
costa, bent slight outwards in disc, then parallel to termen, 
until bent inwards beneath discal dot, then abruptly bent 
and dentate to } dorsum; a series of terminal dots ; cilia 
fuscous-whitish. _Hindwings fuscous-whitish ; a few pale- 
fuscous terminal dots; cilia fuscous-whitish, becoming 
ochreous-whitish towards termen. 
Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.A. Port Darwin, in February ; one specimen received 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


METASIA GALBINA, 2. Sp. 

‘Galbinus, yellowish. 

Q 16 mm. Head, antenne, thorax, and abdomen 
pale-ochreous. Palpi 2);  brownish-ochreous, beneath 
white nearly to apex. Legs whitish-ochreous. Forewings 
elongate-triangular, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, 
oblique ; ochreous- yellow marking fuscous, indistinct ; a dot 
on fold with some fuscous scales between it and dorsum 
representing first line; a very faint annular discal spot 
beneath mid-costa; a finely dentate line from ? costa, 
bent slightly outwards in disc, parallel to termen for a 
short distance, then bent inwards to beneath discal spot, 
again bent, and ending on 2 dorsum; an interrupted 
terminal line; cilia fuscous-whitish. Hindwings as fore- 
wings, but without first line and discal spot. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.A. Port Darwin, in November ; one specimen received 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


NOORDA HEDYPHAES, 7. sp. 
idupans, Sweetly shining. 
Q 16-17 mm. Head and thorax whitish-yellow ; base 
of patagia ferruginous. Palpi ferruginous irrorated with 


fuscous, internal surface white. Antenne whitish-yellow. 
Abdomen whitish-yellow, sides and under-surface white. 


156 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID 2). 


Legs white ; anterior femora and tibiz ferruginous-fuscous. 
Forewings triangular, costa staight to near apex, apex 
round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique; 10. separate but 
very closely approximated to 8, 9; whitish-yellow with 
an oily gloss:;.a ferruginous costal streak from: base to 3, 
extreme costal edge dark-fuscous to same extent; three 
dark-fuscous dots, first sub-costal at + touching costal streak, 
second on dorsum at 4, third in middle of dise at lower 
angle of cell; a crimson termimal band edged by a dark- 
fuscous line acutely indented on vein 4; within band is a 
suffused subterminal fuscous. line, beyond which termer 
is pale-crimson with darker interneural dots ; cilia yellow, 
apices paler. Hindwings with termen: well rounded: ;. white, 
semitranslucent ; a median crimson spot on termen bounded 
by a dark-fuscous line except costally, where it is continued. 
by a pale-fuscous band nearly to apex.;. cilia white, bases 
on apical half of wing yellowish. 

Allied to N. fessalis, Swin. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.A. Port Darwin, in September and November ;. 
three specimens recerved from Mr. F. P.. Dodd. 


MYRIOSTEPHES XUTHOSPILA,. 2.. S/p.. 
EovBoomAos, tawny-spotted. 


6 Q 12-13 mm. Head orange-ochreous ; face dark- 
fuscous. Palpi 2, dark-fuscous ; beneath whitish-ochreous. 
from base to middle of second joint. Antenne dark-fuscous ; 
ciliations in g minute. Thorax dark-fuscous. Abdomen 
yellow-ochreous ; bases of segments  dark-fuscous. on. 
dorsum. Legs dark-fuscous annulated with whitish-ochreous ;. 
posterior pair whitish-ochreous. Forewings triangular, 
costa straight, slightly arched towards apex, apex round- 
pointed, termen nearly straight, moderately oblique ; 
blackish-fuscous with orange-ochreous. spots ; a sub-basal 
spot on dorsum extending 2? across disc; a rather large 
roundish spot on mid-dorsum ; a triangular spot on costa 
at 2; a smaller spot on tornus, more or less confluent with. 
a spot just above it; cilia blackish-fuscous.. Hindwings 
and cilia dark-fuscous. 

Tvpe in Coll., Turner. 

N.A. Port Darwin, in December and Mareh; two 
specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 157 


MYRIOSTEPHES ARGYPHEA, 2. Sp. 

apyveos, Silver-white. 

6 2 12 mm. Head dark-fuscous. Palpi 2; dark- 
fuscous. Antenne pale-fuscous ; in ¢ serrate and minutely 
ciliated. Thorax dark-fuscous; patagia snow-white. 
Abdomen pale-ochreous. Legs dark-fusecous ; middle tarsi 
with slender whitish annulations ; posterior. pair whitish ; 
posterior tarsi beneath fuscous barred with whitish. Fore- 
wings triangular, costa gently arched, more strongly in 9, 
apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique ; snow-white ; 
a dark-fuscous streak on costa to middle ; a broad median 
fascia, its costal half dark-fuscous, dorsal half orange- 
ochreous ; a broad sub-terminal orange-ochreous fascia, 
suffused with dark-fuscous towards apex, bounded by a 
finely waved dark-fuscous line ; a white dot on costa before 
apex ; a white streak on termen, but terminal edge fuscous ; 
cilia ochreous. Hindwings grey; cilia ochreous-whitish, 
tipped with grey at apex. 

This and the two following species are closely allied, 
but distinct. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.A. Port Darwin, in February and March; two 
specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


MYRIOSTEPHES CATAXIA, n. Sp. 


kataéios, Of good worth. 


dg 9-10 mm. Head white. Palpi 23; dark-fuscous ; 
inner aspect of maxillary palpi white. Antenne fuscous- 
whitish; in ¢@ slightly serrate and minutely ciliated. 
Thorax white; patagia crossed -by a pale fuscous bar. 
Abdomen whitish. Legs dark-fuscous with white annula- 
tions ; posterior pair except tarsi whitish. Forewings 
triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, termen 
slightly bowed, slightly oblique; snow-white with pale 
ochreous-fuscous fascie; first fascia sub-basal, slender, 
expanded at extremities, with a blackish dot on middle 
of posterior margin ; second fascia at 4, broad, its anterior 
edge partly outlined with blackish ; third fascia-at 4, broad 
with very irregular margins, enclosing a white dot on costa, 
its anterior edge partly outlined with blackish, its posterior 
edge giving off a process to mid-termen; a sub-terminal 


158 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID2). 


and terminal series of fuscous dots; cilia whitish, bases: 
dark-fuscous. Hindwings pale-grey ; cilia whitish, bases 
pale-grey. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.A. Port Darwin, in February ; four specimens received: 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


MYRIOSTEPHES POLYZELOTA, 2. Sp. 


rodvGyAwros, Much desired. 

¢ 10 mm. Head white. Palpi 23; dark-fuscous.. 
Antenne fuscous; in 4 slightly serrate and minutely 
ciliated. Thorax fuscous ; patagia pale-fuscous. Abdomen 
pale-fuscous ; dorsum of first segment whitish. Legs 
dark-fuscous with whitish annulations; posterior pair 
except tarsi whitish. Forewings triangular, costa slightly 
arched, apex round-pointed, termen slightly bowed, 
moderately oblique ; white with dark-fuscous fascie partly 
edged with blackish ; a small basal fascia connected with 
second fascia by a costal streak ; second fascia at 4, rather 
broad, its edges irregularly dentate; third fascia at #, 
irregularly margined, enclosing a white dot on costa, con- 
nected by a bar with mid-termen; a dark-fuscous sub- 
terminal line ; cilia fuscous. Hindwings grey ; cilia whitish,. 
bases grey. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 

N.A. Port Darwin, in January and February; two 
specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


MYRIOSTEPHES EPARGYRA, 2. Sp. 


érapyvpos, overlaid with silver. 

3} 10 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen reddish-brown. 
Palpi 24; reddish-brown. Antenne reddish-brown ; ing 
slightly dentate and minutely ciliated. Legs reddish-brown. 
Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex round 
pointed, termen bowed, oblique ; reddish-brown with silvery 
white fascie ; first fascia sub-basal, rather obscure, not 
quite reaching costa ; second fascia from 3 costa to $ dorsum, 
its posterior edge wavy ; third fascia narrow, sub-terminal,. 
interrupted in middle ; cilia whitish, bases fuscous. Hind- 
wings brown-whitish ; a fine fuscous line at 3 and another 
on termen, neither reaching dorsum ; cilia as forewings. 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 159 


type in Coll., Turner. 


N.A. Port Darwin, in February ; two specimens received 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


Gen. EMPHYLICA, nov. 
éudbudixos, Of the same race. 


Frons with a rounded short conical projection. Tongue 
well-developed. Palpi rather long, porrect, densely clothed 
with appressed hairs, terminal joint concealed, slightly 
turned downwards. Maxillary palpi large, triangularly 
dilated. _Neuration normal. Tibiz with outer spurs about 
half-inner. | 


Allied to Myriostephes which it resembles in the tri- 
angular maxillary palpi, but with a conical frons like that 
of Loxostege. 


EMPHYLICA XANTHOCROSSA, 2. Sp. 
cavOoxpoccos, vellow-edged. 


Q 14mm. Head pale-ochreous. Palpi orange-ochreous 
at base white. Antenne fuscous, towards base ochreous. 
Thorax ochreous; patagia fuscous;  pectus white. 
Abdomen fuscous ; base, sides, and tuft ochreous ; beneath 
whitish-ochreous. Legs whitish-ochreous; middle pair 
white ; anterior tarsi with white annulations. Forewings 
elongate-triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex 
round-pointed, termen slightly bowed, rather strongly 
oblique ; purple-reddish ; a large triangular orange spot 
on costa beyond middle ; cilia orange. Hindwings whitish- 
ochreous ; a broad pale-fuscous terminal band; terminal 
edge orange except towards tornus ; cilia orange, on fornus 
pale-fuscous. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 


N. A. Port Darwin, in November and January ; two 
specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


| HELIOTHELA FLORICOLA, 7. sp. 

Floricolus, flower-haunting. 

¢ 10-12 mm. Head blackish. Palpi blackish ; lower 
surface of second joint except at apex and base of third 
joint white. Antenne blackish;  ciliations minute. 
Thorax and abdomen blackish. Legs blackish ; tarsi with 
obscure whitish annulations. Forewings oblong, posteriorly 


160 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID). 


dilated, costa straight, apex rounded, termen bowed, scarcely 
oblique ; blackish with a few white scales; a white spot 
variably developed on ? costa reaching half across disc ‘ 
lines black; first from } costa to 4 termen, outwardly 
curved ; second from ? costa towards tornus, bent inwards 
around white spot, and then downwards to 2 termen ; 
cilia blackish, apices whitish. Hindwings blackish ; a pure 
white spot from mid-costa reaching middle of disc ; some- 
times also a smaller spot above and external to tornus ; 
cilia as forewings. 


Q differs as follows :—14-16 mm. Hindwings without 
white spot, but with a few scattered whitish or ochreous 
scales in disc. 


Types in Coll., Turner. 


N.S.W. Mt. Kosciusko (5000 to 6000 ft.), in March ; 
a series taken flying in the sunshine and resting on the 
flower heads of Composite. 


Fam. PTEROPHORID. 


PLATYPTILIA EUCTIMENA, 2. Sp. 
EVKTLLEVOS, well-built. 


g Q 24-26 mm. Head brownish. Palpi short (14), 
slender; brownish, internal surface whitish. Antenne 
brownish ; ciliations in ¢ 34. Thorax brownish. Abdomen 
brownish ; base and under-surface brown-whitish. Legs 
fuscous-brown ; tarsi whitish. Forewings pale-brownish 
with some whitish irroration ; a median fuscous dot at 4 
‘and two fuscous dots just before cleft ; a short whitish streak 
-on sub-apical part of costa ; a fine whitish line across costal 
segment shortly before apex ; cilia brown-whitish, a series 
“of basal fuscous dots, one on mid-dorsum, one on dorsum 
-at 3, one on tornus, one on apex of dorsal segment, and 
‘one on lower angle of costal segment, two fuscous streaks 
one before last-mentioned dot and one at apex. MHind- 
wings brown; cilia pale-grey. 


Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in June. Q. Brisbane, 
in May; Toowoomba, in November. Four specimens of 
«vhich one is in Coll., Meyrick. 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 161 


Fam. ORNEODIDA. 


Three Australian species of this very curious family 
have been described, and [ am now able to add a fourth 
and fifth. 


ORNEODES PYGM42ASA. 


N.A. Port Darwin.; N.Q. Cairns, Townsville; Q. 
Brisbane, Toowoomba. 


ORNEODES PHRICODES. 


I have bred this species from larve feeding in the 
flowerbuds of Tecoma jasminoides growing in the wild. 


N.Q. Cairns, Herberton, Townsville. Q. Nambour, 
Brisbane, Mt. Tambourine, Southport. 


ORNEODES XANTHODES. 
N.Q. Townsville. 


ORNEODES ACASCAA, %. sp. 

axackatos, delicate. 

9 9 mm. Head, thorax, palpi, and antenne white. 
Palpi moderate, ascending ; terminal joint about 3 second. 
Abdomen whitish with several median reddish-fuscous dots 
Legs white. Forewings white ; markings very pale reddish- 
fuscous : first segment with a broad fascia beyond middle 
and a second before apex; other segments with similar 
markings but much less pronounced ; cilia white. Hind- 
wings white; segments barred at intervals by fuscous 
irroration ; cilia white. 

In size and fragility this agrees with O. pygmea. 

Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.Q. Cardwell, in ‘August; one specimen. 


ORNEODES AGAPETA, n. sp. 

avarytos, lovely. 

36 17 mm. Head white: face grev with some white 
scales. Palpi short, ascending ; terminal joint 1, whitish. 
Antenne grey-whitish ; in ¢@ finely serrate and minutely 
ciliated. Thorax and abdomen white. Legs white ; anterior 
pair suffused with fuscous anteriorly. Forewings white ; 
costa interruptedly fuscous ; first segment with four or five 
pale-fuscous bars in posterior half; bars formed by dark- 
fuscous irroration on second, third, fourth, and fifth 

rg 


162 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID 2). 


segments before middle; broad pale-fuscous fascie edged 
by dark-fuscous scales on second and third segments at 3, 
on fourth and fifth segments at }?. and on sixth segment 
at 2; pale-fuscous sub-terminal bars and dark-fuscous 
terminal dots on all segments; cilia white, on apices of 
segments pale-fuscous. Hindwings as forewings but ante- 
median bars nearer to base, and with a faintly-marked 
series of median bars. 


Near O. xanthodes though very different in coloration. 
Type in Coll., Turner. 


N.A. Port Darwin, in April; one specimen received 
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 


ADDENDUM. 


Sub. Fam. CRAMBINE. 
Gen. ORESSAULA nov. 


éperoavdos , dwelling in the mountains. 


Frons flat, hairy. Tongue well-developed. Palpi 
moderately long, porrect, densely clothed with very long 
hairs beneath, terminal joint concealed in hairs. Maxillary 
palpi well-developed, ending in a dense tuft of very long 
hairs. Antenne, in ¢ with paired tufts of long cilia. 
Thorax hairy, especially on under-surface. Legs with outer 
spurs 2 of inner. Forewings with 2 from }, 3 from shortly 
before angle, 4 from angle, 5 from shortly above angle, 
7 and § stalked. Hindwings with median vein densely 
pectinated ; discocellulars very strongly oblique, dorsal 
edge of cell more than twice costal; 4 and 5 connate or 
short-stalked, 6 from junction of upper and middle third 
of discocellulars well-separated from 7; 7 anastomosing 
at a point or very shortly with 8. 


_ A primitive type with the neuration and pectination 
of hindwing of Talis, but in wing-shape and general appear- 
ance more suggestive of one of the lower Pyranstine. The 
general hairiness is rather chiracteristic of mountain forms. 


BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 165 


ORESSAULA LACHN#A, 2. sp. 


AaXVALOS , hairy. 

o Q 24-28 mm. Head dark-fuscous with a few whitish 
hairs. Palpi dark-fuscous; internal surface whitish. 
Antenne dark-fuscous, ciliations in @ 2. Thorax dark- 
fuscous. Abdomen dark-fuscous: beneath mixed with 
whitish. Legs dark-fuscous mixed with whitish ; under- 
surface aiid spurs whitish. Forewings broadly triangular, 
costa somewhat arched at base, then straigh , apex rounded, 
termen bowed, oblique ; dark-fuscous irrorated with pale- 
ochreous ‘and more sparsely with milk-white scales ; cilia 
fuscous, apices whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded ; 
ochreous-fuscous, towards base dark-fuscous; cilia as 
forewings. 

Type in Coll., Lyell. 

V. Mount Hotham, in February ; six specimens. Mr. 
Geo. Lyell writes: “‘1 took this species flying close to the 
ground on the extreme summit of Mount Hotham (just 
over 6,200 feet). 1 was a fast bustling flyer, and on account 
of its sombre colour, somewhat difficult to follow with the 
eye. A fortnight’s stay at Mount St. Bernard, at a couple 
of hundred feet lower elevation, failed to find it.’’ 


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THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK. 


By J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.I.C. 
and L. A. MESTON. 


PLATE X. 


{Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, July 31st, 1912.) 


At the Australasian Association for the Advancement 
of Science Meeting in Brisbane in 1909, a paper was read by 
Mr. Henderson on “‘ The Freezing Point of Milk ; Its Usein 
the Detection of Added Water ”’ and the paper was published 
in the printed Proceedings of that meeting. 


So many inquiries were subsequently made for copies 
of the paper that the Authors’ Copies have long since 
been exhausted, and it was thought advisable to put on 
record a more complete description of the work done on 
the subject at the Government Chemical Laboratory, 
Brisbane, and to record the results of the practical working 
of this process in a Foods Laboratory for over five years. 


A short paper on the same subject by the same author was 
published in Vol. XIII. ot the Australasian Association for 
the Advancement of Science. 


No article of food has caused more trouble to food 
analysts than milk, firstly owing to the extremely import- 
ant place it holds as an article of diet, and then owing to 
the great variations in its composition. Attempts to 
regulate the quality by fixing a minimum standard at 
once led to the watering down of rich milk to that low 
standard. 


166 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK. 


The legal standard for milk in Queensland is :—** Milk 
shall be the normal, clean, and fresh secretion obtained by 
completely emptying the udder of the healthy cow, properly fed 
and kept, excluding that got during fifteen days immediately 
before, and ten days immediately following on, parturition. 
It shall contain not less than eight and five-tenths per centum 
of milk solids not fat, three and three-tenths per centum of milk 
fat, and not less than twelve parts per centum of total solids ; 
its freezing point shall not be higher than 0°55°C below zero.” 

This is a distinct advance on the old 8.5 Solids not 
Fat and 3-0 per cent. Fat standard which almost invariably 
permitted the addition of at least 4:0 per cent. of water 
without the mixture falling below the standard. The 
average of the milk supply of Brisbane is 8-9 per cent. 
Solids not Fat, and 4:1 per cent. of Fat. 


So far as we know this is the first occasion in the history 
of milk control that the freezing point has actually been 
included in the legal minimum standard, though on the 
continent of Europe its use by food analysts in judging 
the quality of milk is by no means new. It is worthy of 
note that in Queensland there is no “‘ appeal to the cow.” 
The law provides not only that the milk shall be pure and 
clean and from healthy cows, but that it shall reach the 
above noted composition. Pure milk, which owing to its 
being derived from herds of unsuitable breed or from herds 
badly fed, falls below the prescribed standard may not 
be sold in Queensland. 


In the paper above referred to it was pomted out 
that the attempts to solve the problem of added water in 
milk by treatment of the milk serum had all proved of 
little practical value. The refractive index method of which 
most was expected has been shown to be of little use. The 
index reading varies between thirty-nine and _ forty-six, 
which means that a rich 46 milk might- have nearly 20 per 
cent. of water added to it ere falling below the 39 minimum. 
Apart from the manipulation difficulties which are not 
small, the range of readings on genuine milk makes the 
process of little value. 

Since E. Beckmann (Milch Zeitung, 1894) drew atten- 


tion to the constancy of the freezing point of milk, and 
Winter in 1895 reported his work confirming it, the results 


BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.I.6., AND L. A. MESTON, 167 


of hundreds of thousands of analyses have added to the 
certainty of the position. The freezing point of fresh milk 
from a ae of cows seems never to vary further than from 
—0-55° C. —0°56° C. with a mean of —0°555° C.. The 
. maximum Fee represents about 2 per cent. of added 
water, while the working error of the process is less than 
0-5 per cent. of added water. 


Betore dealing with the details of the method, it might 
be well to note the reasons for the constancy of the freez- 
ing point of a substance of such variable composition as 
milk. 

The freezing point of a solution of a substance in water 
depends mainly on the number of crystalloid ions dissolved 
in the solution. 


Substances which are not in solution, like fat, do not 
affect the freezing point. As fat is the most variable 
component of milk, the most varying factor is removed 
from affecting the result. Substances also which are in 
‘colloid ” solution such as the albumenoids affect the 
freezing point either not at all or only to a very slight extent, 
and in any case as the molecular weight of the albumenoids 
is very high, their relative effect on the freezing point is 
very small. i 

Thus the second most variable constituent of milk 
does not appreciably affect the result. The milk sugar 
content of milk is fairly regular, bet again we are dealing 
with a substance of high molecular weight and with a 
correspondingly small effect on the freezing point. 


It will thus be evident that we get down to the small 
proportion of other constituents ere we get the substances 
which control the freezing point, and it seems that these, 
as in the blood of nearly all animals, are almost perfectly 
constant in proportion. 


The freezing point of milk is, therefore, not in any 
degree whatever a measure of the proportion of Total Solids 
or Solids not Fat present. 


We have found milks of known genuine origin from 
small herds, with Solids not Fat 9-7 per cent. and 7-6 per 
cent. as well as those of normal composition give exactly 
—0:555° C. freezing ‘point. 


168 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK. 


The following references to work done on the freezing 
point of milk are worth noting :— 

Dr. Barthel (‘‘ Methods used in the Examination of 
Milk and Dairy Products, 1910’) refers to the freezing 
point of milk as follows :— 

“'This method of determining the amount of added 
water is very simple and perfectly reliable if carried out. 
carefully. It is remarkable that it has not found more 
general application, for it not only shows that water has 
been added, but gives also the amount with accuracy. 
The author has experimented with this method and is 
quite satisfied that the results are reliable, and that in agree- 
ment with Winter and Parmentier, Schnorf, and others, 
pure unadulterated milk never has a higher freezing point 
than —0-:54° C. This is independent of breed, individuality, 
sexual excitement, the amount of fat, etc., but avery small 
addition of water at once raises the freezing point.” 


J. Cornalba (‘‘ On the Milks of Lombardy, Chemiker 
Zeitung, 1907-1909 *’) shows the constancy of the freezing 
point to fall between —0°55° C. and --0:56° C. He also 
points out that colostrum with salts ranging between. 0-9 per 
cent. and 1:12 per cent. gave normal freezing points. 


J. Winter and E. Parmentier obtained from single 
cows freezing points varying from —0°54° C. to —0°57° C. 
The mixed milk from a herd never rose above -—-0°55° ©. 


or fell below —0:56° C. 


P. Ducross and H. Imbert (Bull. Sciences Pharmacal, 
1905) obtained a value of -——-0°533° C. from a sick cow and 
a sample of milk from a cow in calf gave a freezing point 
of —0°535° C. 

Beckmann & Jordis (Forschungs berichte uber Lebens- 
mittel, 1895, Vol. II.) found the average freezing point 
to be —0°554° C. 

It seems that for the mixed milk of a herd there is 
variation between only —0°55° C. and —0°56° C., but for 
milk from single cows in a diseased or abnormal state 
wider variations may occur. 


_ The freezing point method places us in a sound position 
ag regards the milk control. In the past, on the old standard 
an honest milk vendor was liable to be prosecuted for 


BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.1.C., AND L. A. MESTON. 169 


selling as watered milk, genuine milk which simply failed 
to reach the legal standard. On the freezing point test, 
we have been able to warn three vendors in the last three 
years that the milk they were vending was genuine but 
below the Jegal standard, and that they had better take 
steps to improve their herds by feeding or “ culling ” in 
order to meet the standard. 


It has been pointed out by one or two critics of the 
freezing point method that the results can easily be masked 
by the addition of substances which depress the freezing 
point. 


Any of the substances likely to be used in this direction 
can be readily detected by an analyst. Many tests at the 
disposal of the analyst are liable to be masked, and it is 
part of his duty to look out for this masking, as for example 
the masking of the heat test of explosives by the addition 
of mercuric chloride, the masking of Becchi & Halphen 
reactions for cotton seed oil by boiling the oil and other 
treatment, and the masking of MHehner’s reaction for 
formaldehyde by adding sodium. nitrite. 


The freezing point is such a sensitive test however 
that if the ordinary dairyman did start tampering with 
the milk he would either add too little to cover the addition 
of water or add too much and make the freezing point 
abnormal. 


For the last four years in the Government Chemical 
Laboratory, Brisbane, every legal sample of milk for prose- 
¢cution purposes has been checked by this method, and most 
of the results are shown in Tables A. B., and C. 


Table A. shows results obtained on legal samples of 
milk taken during the last three years, wherein an increased 
acidity had developed. When the milk becomes acid the 
larger molecules are decomposed into a number of smaller 
ones. The osmotic pressure increases and the freezing 
point is further depressed. Without this knowledge the 
results in Table A. would, make it appear that some of 
the samples were abnormal before watering, while others 
were only slightly above the legal standard of 85 S.N.F. 
The added water, however (calculated on the minimum 


170 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK. 


proportion of 0-5 per cent. nitrogen and 0-7 per cent. ash,: 
found in normal milk), is higher than that estimated from: 
the freezing point of the sample. 


We have not done sufficient work to enable us to say 
whether any definite relationship exists between the. 
depression of the freezing point and the increase of acidity. 
It is very doubtful if any constant factor could be obtained 
to correct for the acidity as the fermentation products 
would vary with the nature of the ferment and the time and 
temperature of the reaction. Barthel states that the 
percentage of water can be determined fairly accurately 
if the acidity is 20° (Thorner) by adding 5 per cent. to the 
result of Winter’s formula. Figures obtained by us, on a 
small number of samples only, indicate that 1 per cent. 
increase of acidity covers the addition of 0-5 per cent. of 
water. It is to be noted that any error introduced by the 
increased acidity is entirely in favour of the milk vendor. 


TABLE A. 


| 


> 
oO 
S. 
= | 
O 


| Total | Fat. | Solids | Nitro- Ash ccs. Freezing | Added a 

| Solids not Fat} gen n NaOH Point. ,0: eae 

|. per per per per per lio oY 6 cn z al 

| cent.:| cent. | cent. cent. cent. | per 100 | 8-5S.N.Fi 3S 2h 

| | c.cs. milk Pts 

EPP R ERIC Pato —— | — > —_—— ——| — — | -—_. —-_ oO 

| ee aa 

11-6 | 3-3. 8-3. | 0-47 | 0-68 | 20-0 :| —0-340 | (2-3 | 1:8 
124.) -4°2°.18-2) | 0-47.) 0-66) |.18-4)) 0-517). aT eee 
D7 BO 18 +1 0:45 | 0-66 | 17-0 | —0-537 4°02 t 
12-2 | 4-1 | 8-1 0-46 | 0-68 | 15-6 | —0-515 4-8 | 6-4: 
10:8 | 3-0 |7-8 | 0-44 | 0-62 | 20-0 | —0-500 | 8-3 / 9-1] 
10-6") °3-0 > | 7-6 0-42 | 0-63 | 24-0 | —0-527 | 12-9 | 4-1 
9-5 ).2-0 17-5 0-41 | 0-64 | 17-6 | —0°520 | 11-8 | 5-4 
8-8 | 2-5 16-3 | 0-36 | 0-50 | 17-6. | —0-435. | 25-5 [20-9 


The acidity of milk is determined by Dr. Chapman’s 
method, using 25 c.cs. of milk, 100 c.cs. of water, and 1.c.c. 
of 0-1 per cent. of phenol phthalein solution and titrating 
with » NaOH. The normal acidity of milk by this method 
is about 13-5 c.es. 2, NaOH per 100 c.cs. of milk. 


BY J. BROWNIE HENDERSON,, F.1.C., AND L. A. MESTON, 


TABLE B. 


171 


Showing results from legal samples of milk obtained 
during the last three years, containing 8:5 per cent. and 
over of Solids not Fat. 


Total Solids 
Solids Fat not Fat 
pel per cent. per 
cent | cent. 
| 
= Gd OE 
14-8 5-1 | 9-7 
Pee a ees OG 
130% |) A] 9-5 
13-4~'| 4-1) 9-3 
13-3 | 4:1 9.2 
14-2 | 5-0 | 9-2 
Bee | aes 9-1 
13-3 | 4-2 9-1 
i2-8 | 3-7 9-] 
fees hs BZ 9-() 
my 5] 9-0 
| 14-4 | 5-4 9-0 
2 a ee eg 9-0 
12-4 3-4 9-0 
13-5 4-5 9-0 
12-9 3-9 9-0 
12-8 3°8 9-0 
13-0 4-] 8-9 
13°] 4-2 8-9 
{13-2 4-3 8-9 
| 12-9 4-0 8-9 
13-3 4-5 8-8 
11-3 2-5 8-8 
12-8 | 4:0 8-8 
12-5 | 3-7 8-8 
12-8 | 4:0 8-8 
13-3 | Ro eas 
14-6 A-8e |. 8-8 
13-6 | 4-8 8-8 
12-9 | 4-1 8:8 
12-6 | 3-9 8-7 
13:3 | 4-6 8-7 
\ 12-4 / 3°7 Sek 
12-9 | 4-2 &-7 
13-3 4-6 8-7 
19-2 173-5 8°7 
12-6 | 4-0 8-6 
12-4. | 3-8 8-6 
| ee am eee, 3 8-6 
12-2 | 3°6 8-6 
feee 36 8-6 
il Sow | acl 8-6 
12-2 3-6 8-6 
12-3 Here Sie. 7 | 8-6 
/12-6 =| 4-0 8-6 
11-3 2-8 8-5 
11:5 3°0 8°5 
12-2 3°7 8+5 
2b As eee i 


Nitrogen | 


per 
eent. 


Or 
~! 


0+50 


Q- 


ls’ 


I 
Or 


| 


Freezing 


R« 


—0 
—0 


ryint. 


i Ou Se St St Ot St Str Ot G1 


COT Ss See 
Ot St Cr Sr Or 


St St 
ie 

Sto 
= 


-550 
-550 
°547 
°DAT7 
“545 
ain 4 
-532 
*530 
-560 
»5D50 
» HAT 


Added 
HO 
calculat- 
ed on, P 
——()"550C 
per cent. 


0-9 
a 


0-9 


m bo 


on be 
.. ome one 6 


Ie Oo 


| 
| 


172 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK. 


TABLE B—Continvgep. 


Added 
Total Solids | Nitrogen Ash HO 
Solids Fat not Fat Freezing calculated 
per per cent. per per | sper Point. on F.P. 
cent. cent, cent. | cent. —0°55°C, 
| per cent. 
12-1 3°6 | 85 —0.544 1-0 
11:7 3-2 | 8-5 0-69 —(,544 1-0 
12-0 3°5 | 8-5 —0-542 | 1-4 
12-4 3-9 | 8-5 | —0-+540 1-8 | 
12-0 2-5 | 8-5 | 0-7 0-540 | 1-8 
12-6 40h)! BFR I —0+540 1-8 | 
12-2 3-7 | Bh —0-+535 2°7 
12:1 | 3-6. | 85 | | —0-532 | 3-2 | 
| 12-9 4-4 | 85 | 0 +530 3-6 
12-5 4-0 | 855 | | 0-580 3-6 
12-1 36 | 85 | | — 0-530 3°6 
| 12-4 3-9 | 85 | O47 | OFT +528 | 4-0 
12-3 3°S 85 0°7 —0 +527 4-1 
| 12-3 ae. 8S | —0-593 | 4:8 
12°5 4-0 | 85 0-71 —0-520 5-4 
| 12-6 4°] | 8-5 | 0-74 —0 +520 | 5-4 
! . i 


SUMMARY OF TABLE B. 
Results from 64 legal samples of milk obtained during 
the last three years, containing from 8-5 to 9-7 per cent. 
of Solids not Fat. | 


6 Samples 9-2 to 9-7 per cent. Solids not Fat. All normal Freezing Point. 


3 Samples 9-1 per cent. Solids not Fat 2 normal Freezing Point. 
1 1-2 % Water. 

8 Samples 9-0) per cent. Solids not Fat 5 normal Freezing Point. 
3 less than 1°, Water. 

4 Samples 8-4 per cent. Solids not Fat 2 normal Freezing Point. 
2 less than 1-5 % Water. 

9 Samples 8-8 per cent. Solids not Fat = 4 norma] Freezing Point. 
5 from | to 5-4, Water. 

6 Samples 8-7 per cent. Solids not Fat 3 normal Freezing Point. 
3 from 2 to 7%, Water. 

9 Samples 8-6 per cent. Solids not Fat 5 normal Freezing Point. 
4 from | to 3-6 % Water. 

19 Samples 8-5 per cent. Solids not Fat 3 normal Freezing Point. 


16 from 1 to 5-4 % Water. 


The amount of watering is not appreciable until the 
Solids not Fat figure falls below 8-9 per cent., although there 
are genuine milks on every figure from 8°5 to 8-9 per cent. 
Solids not Fat. The greatest proportion of adulteration 
falls on the 8-5 figure, only 3 samples being genuine out of 
19 received. The actual proportion of added water read off 
from Winter's table is given, as obviously for this comparison 
any working error of the process should not be taken into 
account. 


BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.I,C., AND L. A] MESTON 173 


TABLE C, 


Showing results from legal samples of milk obtained 
during the last three years, containing under 8-5 per 
cent. of Solids not Fat. 


| Added | Added 


i 
Solids | HO | H-0 
Total Fat Not |Nitrogen} Ash | Acidity | ealey- \Caleu- 
Solids Fat Freezing | | Jateq | lated 
per per per per Point. | ‘on 8.5 | _on 
cent. cent. per cent. cent. oC | S.N.F.| F.P 
cent | per per 
| | 
| cent. | cent 
alg Sah RCA Naat ick 2 ara el ae a a 
| | 
11-8 | 3-5 | 8-3 | 0-40 | 0-70 | —0-520 | 2-6 5-4 
Pie ds 4 893.- | O60 | 0-68 | —0-485 | 14-t | 3-0 | 11-8 
11-1 | 2-8 | 8-3 | 0-45 | 0-66 | —06-480 | 30>) a2. 
11-6 | 3-3 | 8-3 | 0-49 | 0-69 | —0-490 | 3-1 | 10-9 
12-5 | 4-3 | 8-2 | 0-43 | 0-68 | —0-495 | 13-6 | 3-4 | 10-0 
11-6 | 3-4 | 8-2 | 0-48 | 0-70 ] --0-530 3-5 | 3-6 
10-, | 2-5 | 8-2 | 0-41 | 0-68 | —0-528 3-8 1050 
11-5 | 3-3. | 8-2 | 0-49 | 0-66 | —0-530 | 14-0 | 4-0 3°6 
11-3 |3-2 |8-1 | 0-47 | 0-70 | —0-594 14-5 | 467 
11-5 | 3-4 | 8-1 | 0-47 | 0-66 | —0-480 4-6 | 12-7 
11-2 | 3-1 | 8-1 | 0-48 | 0-68 | —0-510 4-7 m2 
11-9 | 3-8 | 8-1 | 0-44 | 0-68 | —0-520 | 14-0 | 4-7 5-4 
12-0 | 3-9 | 8-1 | 0-47 | 0-70} —0-505 12-0 | 4-7 8-1 
11-4./ 3-3 | 8-1 | 0-48 | 0-68 | —0-517 | | 4-7 5-9 
11-1 | 3-0 | 8-1 | 0-46 | 0-71 | —O-510 | 5-0 7-2 
11-6 | 3-5 | 8-1 | 0-47 | 0-72 | —0-520 | 5-0 54 
11-1 | 3-0 | 8-1 | 0-46 | 0-71 | —0-510 5-0 7-2 
11-4 | 3-4 | 8-0 | 0-47 | 0-69 |. —0-497.| 13-2 | 5-9 9-6 
11-8 | 3:8 | 8-0 | 0:44 | 0-67 | —0-505 | 12-0 | 5-9 8-1 
1f-0°.|-3-0 | 8-0 | 0-49~ | 0-72 ; —0-525 | 12-0 5-9 4-5 
11:1 | 3-1 | 8-0 | 0-44 | 0-69 | —0-515 | 12:0 | 5-9 6-3 
10-9 | 2-9 | 8-0 | 0-48 | 0-63 : —0-475 5-9 | 13-6 
10-5 | 2-6 | 7-9 | 0-41 | 0-70 | —0-460 | 6-6 | 16-5 
11-0 | 3-1 | 7-9 | 0-45 | 0-64 | —0-490 7-1 | 10-9 
11-2 | 3-3 | 7-9 | 0-45 | 0-65 | —0-470 | 7-1 | 14-5 
11-0 | 3-2 | 7-9 | 0-46 | 0-62 | —0-475 7-9 | 13-6 
11-5 13-7 17-9 | 0-44 0-67.| —0-500 | 12-8 | 7:6 | 9-1 
11-8 |3-9 | 7-9 | 0-44 | 0-67 | —0-495 | 7-3 | 10-0 
11-0. | 3-2. | 7-8 | 0-45. | 0-68 | —0-472 8-2 | 14-1 
11-3 | 3-5 | 7-8 | 0-47 | 0-63 | —0-458 | 12-4 | 8-2 || 16-8 
11-6 | 3-8 | 7-8 | 0-46 | 0-64 | —0-507 | 8-2 77 
10-9 | 3-1 | 7-8 | 0-48 | 0-64 | —0-496 | 12-0 | 8-2 | 9-8 
11-3 | 3-6 | 7-7 | 0-44 | 0-62 | —0-505 | 12-8 | 8:8 8-1 
11-5 | 3-8 | 7-7. | 0-44 | 0-61 | —0-452:) 12-4 |10-1 17-7 
11-2 | 3-5. 17-7 ' 0-46 | 0-63 | —0-470 | 9-4 | 14-5 
es |. 3:6 7-7 "| 0-46 .| 0-65), 0 77 | 14-0 | 9-4 | 13-2 
10-6 | 2-9 | 7-7 10.45 0-67 | —0-494 9-4 | 10-1 
11-2 .|.3-5 «| 7-7 .|.0-46 | 0-66 | —O-484 9-4 | 11-9 
TOPE abel TT | 0-45 0-63 | —0-492 Y-4 10-5 
11-8 | 4-1 | 7-7 | 0-47 | 0-65 | —0-470 | 9-4 | 14-5 
11-2 | 3-6 | 7-6 | 0-44 | 0-60 | —0-475.| 13-2 {10-1 3-6 
10-2 | 2-6 | 7-6 | 0-41 | 0-65 | —0-465 | 13-0 (10-1 15-5 i) 
11-6 | 4-0 | 7-6 | 0-49 | peel —O-502 | 12-0 10-4 8-7 | 
| | 


174 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK. 


TABLE C.—Contrinuep. 


| mas Added | Added 
Sotids F:0 H;0O 
Total Fat not |N itrogen, Ash : : Acidity | caleu- | calecu- 
| Solid® Fat Freezing lated | lated 
1 per per per per Point. | on 8°5 on 
i cent. cent. per cent. | cent. | eC. S.N.F.| F.P. 
i cent. per per 
| | cent cent. 
10-6 | 3-0 | 7-6 | 0-43 | 0-64 | —0-502 10-6 | 8-7 
10-8 3°35 1:5 0-46 0-65 | —O-467 11-8 | 15-] 
10-9 | 3-4 | 7:5 |.0-44 | 0-62 | —0-448 112-2 | 184 
| 10-2 | 2-8 | 7-4 | 0-41 | 0-63 | —0-500 ! 13-0 1. Oe14 
| 10-2 | 2-9 | 7-3 | 0-42 | 0-61 | —0-477 [14-1 | 18-2 
| 39-1 | 9-8 | 7-3 | 0-41 | 0-60 | —0-455 | 12-8 |14-1 | 17-3 
| 9-7 | 2-4.) 7-84 | 0-62 | —0-455 14-1 | 17-3 
| 10-1 | 2-9 | 7-2 | 0-42 | 0-60 | —0-451 5-3 | 17-9 
10:0 | 2-8 | 7-2 | 0-41 | 0-58 | —0-433 | 12-0 [15-3 | 21-2 
| 9-4 | 2-3 | 7-1 | 0-48 | 0-58 | —0-425 16-1 .| 22-7 
10-1 | 3:0 | 7-1 | 0-41 | 0-64 | —0-440 16-1 | 20-0 
1 10-0 | 3-0 | 7-0 | 0-41 | 0-56 | —0-433 7-7 | 21-2 
1 10-0 | 3-0 | 7-0 | 0-38 | 0-54 | —0-425 \17+7 | 22-9 
| 10-4 | 3-5 | 6-9 | 0-44 | 0-61 | —0-430 | 9-2 [18-2 | 21-8 
| 9-6 | 2-8 | 6-8 | 0-39 | 0-57 | 0-425 | 120-5 | 22-7 
| 8-9 | 2-2 | 6-7 | 0-38 | 0-56 | —0-420 | 14-0 [21-2 | 23-6 
1 °9-8 13-6 | 6-2 | 0-41 | 0-54 | —0-407! 8-0 (26-8 | 25-9 
| 7.7 | 1-9 | 5-8 | 0-36 | 0-48 | —0-377| 9-2 |31-8 | 31-4 
| 5-9 | 1-9 | 4-0 | 0-25 | 0-37 Rouend 52-4 | 53-6 
| 5B 1-5 | 3-8 | 0-23 | 0-33 ee 55-2 | 60-0 | 
i | 


SUMMARY OF TABLE C. 


Results from legal samples of milk obtained during 

the last three years. 

In 54 samples out of 63 the water shown by the freezing point is from 
0-2 per cent. to 9-9 per cent. higher than that shown when calculated 
on 8-5 per cent. Solids not Fat, the average being 4 per cent. In 5 cases, 
the calculation of added water on 8-5 per cent. Solids not Fat and the 
freezing point are practically identical. 

Tn the other 3 cases the added water on 8-5 per cent. Solids not Fat 
is from 1-7 to 3-9 per cent. lower than by the freezing point. In the 
3-9 per cent. case the acidity was not determined. 


A. A. Bonnerna (Zeitzchrift fur Nahrungs und Genus- 
mittel, 1908, X.V., page 34) points out an inaccuracy im 
Winter’s formula for calculating the percentage of added 
water : 

Suppose a milk to contain W per cent. of water, 
then the cyrstalloids which cause the depression of the 
freezing point in 100 grams of milk are dissolved in W 


BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.1.C., AND L. A. MESTON by 33 


grams of water. If X grams of water are now added 
to 100 grams of milk, the cyrstalloids are dissolved in 
(W + X) grams of water. 


Now let D be the observed freezing point of the 


diluted milk expressed in — degrees Centigrade then 
0-55 X W 
pt EU —W 
D 


As the value W can easily be. calculated when the 
percentage of Fat and the specific gravity are known, the 
value of X can also be obtained. 

This formula, however, is not accurate from a theoretical 
point of view, because on diluting with water the electrolytic 
and hydrolytic dissociation of the salts is increased and 
consequently the freezing point decreased. This error 
is, however, sufficiently compensated for practical purposes 
if the calculation is based on the volume instead of the 
weight. The error thus introduced compensates the one 
arising from the increased dissociation. 


Kxamples of Bonnerna’s Formula. 


MILK, 
Specific Gravity .. ae .. 1:0142 
Total Solids (weighed) .. car BRD 
Freezing Point .. Ss -. . —0.255 
0-55 X 94-] 
X =———_—-—_-— —94-] 


-=/203 —94-1) X 100 


SS 


==93-64 per cent. Water by weight, 


53-64 X 1-0142 = 54+4 per cent. Water by volume against 53:7 
per cent. Water by volume calculated by Winrter’s formula, 


MILK. 
Specific Gravity .. a «.. 1-0298 
Total Solids - * eG YT 
Freezing Poimnt./... os 420° 0" 026 
0-55 X 88-03 
xX =——_—__—_—_— 88:03 
0-526 


=4-35 Water by weight. 


—4-48 Water by volume against 
4-32 Water by volume according to Winter’s Formula. 


176 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK. 


The following is a description of the method and 
apparatus that have been used in the Government Chemical 
Laboratory, Brisbane, for the last three years. The 
diagrammatic sketch shows the arrangement of the very 
simple apparatus required. 


“A.” ig a stand made of wood 1 ¢.m. thick, 30 e.m. 
high, 31 ¢.m. wide and 18 ¢.m. deep. Two rests “B”™ 
at a height of 9 c.m. carry a movable shelf “ C.” on which 
the vessel containing the freezing mixture stands. We 
use a porcelain beaker “ D.”’ 16 c.m. high by 10 ¢.m. wide 
for a freezing vessel, and tie around it for insulation, a roll 
of flannel to the thickness of about one inch. 


A circular hole ** E.” centrally situated in the top of 
the stand carries the milk tube “ FF.” We use a flat bottomed 
tube 14 c.m. deep and 3 ¢.m. diameter for holding the milk 
sample. We find it much easier to get agreeing results 
with this size of tube than with the longer round bottomed 
tube recommended by Winter. 


The indiarubber cork has two perforations for carry- 
ing thermometer and stirring rod_ respectively. 


The first thermometer we used was a Beckmann 
graduated in ,\,ths.. The special thermometer devised 
by Winter for this work was subsequently obtained from 
Paris, but we found the Beckmann easier to read. For 
the last year, a thermometer graduated in ,},ths, a 
degree covering 8°5 c.m. of the stem, and specially made 
for us of normal glass by the V.F.L. has been used and gives 
‘splendid results. The trouble of having to occasionally 
readjust the mercury of the Beckmann has been avoided, 
while the true zero point which is determined afresh, at 
least once every day on’ which the thermometer is used, 
has not varied more than 0-02° C. A small telescope “H”” 
is used for reading the thermometer. The telescope is 
mounted on the stand in the usual manner. ‘The 
stirrer ‘‘K.”’ is a brass rod 2 m.m. in diameter, the spiral part 
being partly flattened out and armed with four small points 
of wire to break up the ice formed in standardising. 


In practice, 50 ces. of each milk to be tested is put into 
a tube, titted with a cork, and the tubes are put into crushed 
ice and allowed to remain there (generally standing in the 


BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F£.1.C., AND L. A. MESTON 177 


ice chest) until required. By this means the freezing 
of each sample is started close to 0° C. While the samples 
are cooling, the freezing mixture is prepared. The ice is 
conveniently prepared from the ice block by means of the 
usual ice plane. Alternate layers of ice and salt (3: 1) are 
added until the porcelain beaker is filled. When about 
half filled, an empty “ milk ” tube is put into the middle 
of the beaker and the mixture packed around this tube. 
On removing the empty tube when the beaker is filled, there 
is no difficulty in inserting the tube containing the milk 
sample. After filling the beaker, the shelf is put in position 
on the rests and the beaker put on it. A tube containing 
a sample is then put through the hole in the top of the 
stand into the freezing mixture. The indiarubber cork 
is inserted, carrying the thermometer and -+the stirrer. 
The thermometer has been so adjusted that the bottom 
ot the thermometer is about 2 c.m. from the bottom of the 
tube when the cork is in position. 

The stirrer is now worked up and down continuously 
at the rate of from one to two complete movements per 
second to preveut the formation of a solid block of frozen 
milk in the tube as the temperature falls. As a rule the 
mercury will rapidly fall to a point below the true freezing 
point of the milk (surfusion of the milk), and then rapidly 
rise and become almost stationary ; the highest point of 
the rise after the fall will be found to be very close to the 
true freezing point. When the tube has become partly 
filed with finely broken up frozen crystals-—(experience 
with the method soon enables one to judge of the correct 
proportion of crystals to have in the liquid)—the porcelain 
beaker containing the freezing mixture is removed by 
withdrawing the shelf C and lowering the beaker and 
the hand put round the tube ‘*G.” so that its warmth may 
cause a rise in temperature, the stirrer being worked very 
gently until there is a rise of about ,2,ths on the thermometer 
scale. The hand is now removed and the milk well stirred 
so as to surround the thermometer bulb with crystals of 
frozen milk. 

The stirring is stopped and the temperature observed- 
the mercury will slowly fall, and when it becomes stationary 
the reading is taken, but should not be taken as final unless 
if remains constant for at least two minutes. 

Wi 


178 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK. 


The position on the thermometer scale of the freezing 
point of water is determined in exactly the same way as 
in the case of milk, distilled water being first placed in one 
of the tubes “ F.”’ and cooled in a mixture of ice and water. 
Particular care, however, must be taken to break up the 
ice formed and to prevent the formation of a shell of ice 
round the sides and bottom of the tube. The fine ice should 
extend from the surface to the bottom of the thermometer 
bulb to ensure a good reading. It is much easier to deter- 
mine the freezing point of a milk than that of water, owing to 
the fact that “ milk” crystals are easily kept small, while 
water always tends to freeze in one lump. “lhe difference 
between the freezing point of the distilled water and that — 
of the milk on the thermometer, gives the freezing point 
of the milk. 

For deducing the proportion of added water from the 
determined freezing point, the following table, extended from 
Winters, is used. 


BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.1.C., AND L. A. MESTON 


179 


Table giving the number of ccs. of added water per 
Lhitre of Milk examined, corresponding to the temperatures 
—°550 to —°351° C. (Les nouveaute’s chimiques pour, 1905 


page 276, par Winter.) 


— 


. bad hm 4 
eee hee e| 2 S C S 
S 8 ge g S Fen o, meee SS 
; Zz = eS i ee |e 
235 [ees |S35| See |ESS( sas | ETE 
BPs | SHS Seal SESW SES] Heal aes 

=] ete oH | Om om] (| oO 
SGQ | adel Ssoo| as || S52) S_& || Soe 
S@,/|s Siiagenl] aut las2z!l 3S i asa 
So hoe | Soa ise Hl hes. Se eS s 
ace tela |e o| 2S BH #|/ 2s a & 
So | we on od meee Eo 
Be e/18 S) © ni x 
eu e Qa (am) = (ax) 

i} 

550 0 510 (ee "470 | 145°4 430 
°549 1.8 509 74°5 469 | 147°3 429 
548 3.6 508 76°4 “468 | 149°1 428 
° 547 5.4 507 78°2 "467 | 150°9 427 
*546 7.3 506 80°0 || °466 | 152°7 426 
545 9,1 505 81°8 “465 | 154°5 425 
544 | 10.9 504 83°6 || °464 | 156°3 424 
543 | 12.7 503 85°4 °463 | 158°2 423 
542 | 14.5 502 87°3 ‘462 | 160°0 422 
541 | 16.3 501 89°1 “462 3) L618 421 
540 | 18.2 || -500 | 90:9 || -460 | 163-6 || -420 
539 | 20.0 499 | 92°7 || °459 | 165-4 || -419 
538 | 21.8 498 94°5 || °458 | 167°5 °418 
bon | 23.0 497 96°4 || °457 | 169°1 417 
536 | 25.4 496 98°2 456 | 170°9 416 
535 | 27.2 || -495 | 100°0 “A255: lene "415 
534 | 29.1 494 | 101°8 "454 | 174°5 414 
533 | 30.9 493 | 103°6 453) |) LiGee 413 
532) | 32.2 492 | 105°4 4527 | Ss a 412 
531 | 34.5 491 | 107°2 451 | 180°0 411 
530 | 36.4 || -490 | 109°1 450 | 181°8 410 
529 | 38.2 489 | 110°9 449 | 183°6 409 
528 | 40.0 498 | 112°7 448 | 185°4 408 
527 | 41.8 487 | 114°5 447 | 187°3 "407 
526 | 43.6 486 | 116°4 446 | 189°1 “406 
525 | 45.4 485 | 118°2 445 | 190°9 “405 
524 | 47.3 484 | 120°0 444 | 192°7 404 
523 | 49.1 483 | 121°8 443 | 194°5 °403 
522 | 50.9 482 | 123°6 442 | 196°4 “402 
Bee 52.7 481 | 125°4 441 198°2 “401 
520 | 54.5 480 | 127°3 440 | 200°0 400 
519 | 56.3 479 | 129°1 439 | 201°8 *399 
"518 |.58 52 478 | 130°9 438 | 203°6 *398 
olr |, 60.0 ATE \eloged 437 | 205°4 °397 
516 | 61.8 || -476 | 134°5 || -436 | 207-3 | 396 
515 | 63.6 475 | 136°4 435 | 209°1 °395 
514 | 65.4 || °474 | 138°2 434 | 210°9 *394 
518 | 67.3 || -473 | 140°0 430 [20S 2e °393 
512 | 69.1 472 | 141°8 432) | 204-5 *392 
*51T 70.9 AG le L43°7 431 216°4 °391 


added 


Water in 1 Litre of 


of 
Sample. 


ces 


283° 


~ 

on 

i=) 
PADSWEUNTNOR WE AODWODW PUNTO OR AODONW ROINTORM OO RO DOb 


285° 


287°3 
289-1 


Temperature 


observed. 
Degrees below zero. 


*361 
*360 
*359 
*358 
*357 
*356 
355 
“354 
°353 
*352 
*351 


ecs of added 
Water in 1 Litre of 


Sample. 


DOW MUAAMSHWRADONEUTSHWRADON ROUSE WRADONRAIS 


180 THE PREBZING POINT OF MULK 


' SUMMARY. 

(1). We find that the freezing point of pure fresh milk 
saroples from herds of cows in Southern Queensland never 
shows & greater variation than from —055°C to —0-56°O, 
the mean being —O0:525°C. This is exactly in accord with 
Continental experience. 

(2). The freezing point determines with accuracy, the 
proportion of water added to any milk from a herd, and 
distinguishes with sbsolute certainty the watered rich milk 
from the naturally poor milk. 


Proc. Roy. Soo., Vou. XXIV. Prara X~ 


er. 


On ee 


en 


. 


~ PROCEEDINGS 


| ROYAL SOCIETY 


OU eta Sree ND. 


! 


VOLK. 


1914, | | | 


; PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY 
, | 
4 - H. POLE #.CO., PRINTERS, ELIZABETH STREET, BRISBANE. 


My 
VEE NU Ve: 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


ROYAL SOCIETY 


OF 


QUBEPNSLAN DTD. 


VOLi gaex NY . 


PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY 
BY 


H. POLE & CO., PRINTERS, ELIZABETH STREET, BRISBANE 


1914. 


Bist = = 


Royal Society of Queensland 


Patron: 
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WILLIAM MacGREGOR, 
M.D., G.C.M.G., C.B., Etc. 


OF FIGEreswe1913. 


President: 
H. C. RICHARDS, M.Sc. 


Vice-President : 
J. SHIRLEY, D. Sc. 


Hon. Treasurer: Hon. Secretary: 
J. C. BRUNNICH, F-I.C. F. BENNETT. 


2 


Hon. Librarian: 
T. HARVEY-JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc. 


Members of Council: 
E. C. BARTON, A.M.I.C.E. E. H. GURNEY 
P. L. WESTON, B.Sc., B.E. PROFESSOR PRIESTLEY 
J. F. BAILEY. 


Trustees: 
HON. A. NORTON, M.L.C. JOHN CAMERON 
HON. A. J. THYNNE, M.L.C. 


Hon Auditor: 
GEO. WATKINS. 


CONTENTS. 


Tue INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE AS A FAcTOR IN 


NATIONAL PROGRESS (Presidential Address) — 


P. L. Weston, B. Sc., B.E., 26th March, 1913 


On AN EASY AND CERTAIN METHOD OF HATCHING 


CeRATODUS Ova—Thos. L. sae M.B., 29th 


April, 1913 


THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF QUEENSLAND 
GasTEROPODA —John Shirley, D.Sc., F.M.S., 
27th June, 1913 ue iy 


NOTES ON THE CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDE OF EREMO- 
PHILA MacuLata— Frank South, BSe; FT Aes 
26th August, 1913 


THE PLANTS OF Mast-HeEap IsLanp— H. A. Longman, 
27th June, 1913 


UNDERGROUND WaTERS (1.)—Thomas Parker, F.GS., 
27th May, 1913 


UNDERGROUND WartTERS (II.)— Thomas Parker, F.G.S., 
26th August, 1913 


Pace 


vl 


13 


17 


25 


31 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF '\HE 


Annual Meeting of Members, 


Held at University on Wednesday, March 26th, 1913, 
at 8 p.m. 


The Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the 
‘Queensland University, Wednesday, March 26th, 1913, 
at 8 p.m. The President (P._L. Weston, B.Sc., B.E.) 
occupied the chair, and there was a good attendance of 
members. 


Apologies from Messrs. W. R. Parker and J. Shirley, 
D.Sc., were read. : 


The Minutes of the previous Annual Meeting were read 
and confirmed. 


The Hon. Secretary then read the accompanying Report 
for 1912, which was adopted on the motion of Mr. E. @. 
Barton, seconded by Mr. F. Bennett. The’ Financial 
Report (as herewith), was moved by Mr. J. C. Briinnich 
(Hon. Treasurer), seconded by Mr. Weston, and carried. 

Mr. J. B. Henderson, F.I.C., urged the necessity of 
binding much of the Library matter when funds allowed. 
The Secretary urged that this could not be done till the 
membership increased, as the expense of publishing 
valuable papers absorbed practically all the revenue. 
Mr. E. C. Barton suggested popular science lectures, and 
personal propaganda as means towards increasing the 
membership. 


To tHE MEMBERS OF THE Royat Socrery or QUEENSLAND. 
Your Council have pleasure in submitting their Report for 
the year 192. 
The Ordinary Monthly Meetings have been held as shown 
in Appendix B. 
Eight Council Meetings have been beld during the year, at 
which the attendance was as shown in Appendix A. 


ii. REPORT OF COUNCIL. 


During the year 17 members were admitted, and 5 re- 
signed. This shows a satisfactory increase in the membership. 
We have no deaths to regret. . 

C. Hedley, Esq., F.L.8., was elected an honorary member. 
We have now on our Roll 14 honorary members, and ordinary 
members, 112. See Appendix D. 

Special inducements were offered to Science students at the 
University, but there was not the response expected. This may 
come after the present year, when the Science students, having 
finished their University Course, will have time for original 
research work 

Vol. XXIII. part ii. of our Proceedings was issued during 
the year, and proved a valuable volume, several of the articles 
published arousing wide-spread interest and remark. The forth- 
coming volume is likely to be of considerable scientific value, 
and will give evidence of a valuable year’s work. 

As foreshadowed in our last Report, considerable expense 
was entailed in connection with the Library. £4 was spent in 
shifting it, and £12 in re-arranging, the latter work beiny yet to 
be completed. Dr. Harvey Johnston took charge in place of 
Mr. C. T. White, on the removal of the Library to the Univer- 
sity. The services of Mr. White in the past are thankfully 
acknowledged, and the energetic efforts of Dr. Harvey Jonnston 
much appreciated. The systematic acknowledgment of all 
-HMxchanges received has increased the Librarian’s Postage 
Account. During Dr. Harvey Johnston’s absence, Mr. D. C. 
Gillies is acting as Librarian. 

The increase in Library expenses has lowered our 
Credit Balance despite the increased membership, but this 
expense will not recur. The forthcoming volume of Proceedings 
is to be issued without delay, at an earlier date than usual, and 
it would help the Council to defray its cost if subscriptions were 
forwarded earlier than usual. The President’s Address and this 
Report will not appear in the volume, as that would delay its 
issue, but in the next volume. 

Our Representatives at the Melbourne Meeting of the Austr. 
Assn. for the Ad. of Science were Professor Priestley and H. C. 
Richards, M.Sc. 

PERCY L. WESTON, B.Sc., B.E., 
President. 
FY BENNETT, Hon. Seeretary 


3rd. February, 1913. 


REPORT OF COUNCIL. iii. 


APPENDIX A. 


ATTENDANCE oF CounciL, 1912. 


slial 
Office. Name. fn a Remarks. 
of | © 
oS | as 
President .. | P.L. Weston, B.Se., B.E.| 6 
Vice-President .. | H. C. Richards, M.Se. .. 7 
Hon. Treasurer | J. C. Briinnich, F.I.C. 5 
Hon. Secretary.. | F. Bennett 9 
Hon. Librarian |T. Harvey Johnston, 5 | 
M.A., D.8e. / 
ee Brownlie Henderson,,; 7 | 
gate he Be 0 
Members of J. Shirley, D.Sc... 5 eel 
Council Prof. Priestley ... 1 
K. H. Gurney 7 
J. F. Bailey 2 


APPENDIX Bb. 
List or Papers, Erc., Reap purine 1912. 


No.| Date. Title. Author. 
1912. 
1 | Mar 25 | National Waste (Presidential Address)| J. Brownlie Hender- 
son, F.1.C. 
2|Apl 24|1 An Extinct Crater near Herberton | R. C. Ringrose, M.A. 
2 Critical. Census of Australian 


Mallophaga T. Harvey Johnston,. © 
List of Mallophaga found i) M.A., D.Se., and 


vo 


Native and Introduced Animals L. Harrison. 
in Australia 


3 | May 29/1 Revision of Queensland Lichens | J. Shirley, D.Sc. 
2 Exhibit—New Mineral from North | F. E. Connah, F.I.C. 
Queensland P iy 
3 Exhibit—Entozoa . ie .. | T. Harvey Johnston, 
, D.Se.. 
4 |June26|1 Entozoa .. 8 ite -. | T. Harvey Johnston. 
M.A., D.Sc. 
2 Freshwater Fish of i poem Allan McCulloch. 
3 Ceratodus .. ‘ oe -- | D. O’Connor 
5 | July 31 | 1 Queensiand Shells.. : 
2 Exhibit—A Poisonous J. Shirley, b.w . 
don 
3 The Freezing Point of Milk ... | O. Meston & J. Brown- 


lie Henderson, F.I.C. 
6 | Oct 2 The Burdekin Valley and Certain| E. O Marks, B.A,. 
Physiographic Theories. . ns B.E. 


A Beetle that takes in Ballast .. | F. P. Dodd. 

Notes on the Westralian egskg A. Jeffries Tarner,. 
tera (Pyralide) .. ; M.D., F.E.S. 

3 Census of Australian Pediéulids. . T. Harvey Johnston, 

M.A., D.Se. and L. 

Harrison 


Ne 


"CI6L ‘You YIET ‘oungstsg 
‘40pIpNP “UOTT ‘SNIMLVA\ ‘OUX) 


‘WaINsvaLy, ‘Uo “O'T | ‘HOINNNAG “O ‘f "4991100 PUNOJ puv poULMeX 4] 

L 6 ShIF ay Hee 

8 0 OF ee ee ee ee ee oe ee s0uBl[eg 

f) OT 0 ee ee ee ee ee sesivyg yurg “cc 

0 G 0 ee e- e- ee ee ee xoq Ja4jo'T “cc 
4 o: OL 0 "* ‘Og JO “Y 04} 1OJ UoOSSY ‘UysNY JoJ BuyUIIg “ 
5 er" 5* te 3c Arvaqvy Buisavire-sy ‘* 
eB 00 Ff ee ee ee ee ee ArBaquy jo EY UR GTS) «ss 
8 0 0 I *? ee ee ee ** *. Ia BIIIBO é 
5 ae ee 2 ‘ ‘ysug AWJ0g puv oseysog [Rieuar ‘ 
a 9 ra T ee e- e- ee ee ee 90uBANSUT cé ; 
Ee ; 9. “re +s of ba $3 ey sesuedx y 0 «G10 4 om o a0 Be "+ harejoroag “ 
2 a8vqISOg S,UBIIBIGIT OSTB ‘ssuIpeed01g Jo asuysog ‘ S-— Te ip we ME he if sdulpseoo01g jo [vg ‘* 

Sag Phe re: oa seeTjoN Ayqyuoy Jo eduysog “ GET GR a Bare i Ee suoydiosqng “ 

9-91.60: °°" rs o ** (og pu ojog) Suyuig &g Tae es Me “3 :* "* qrodoy yse] wor1y ooURleg OT, 

ps F “Doe ge 

‘SENANASUNASICT "SLU HOR 
I) TE 
SIGE «BOK 9843 AOJ CLNAWALYLS IVIONWNIA 
"ANWISNAANO FTO ALAIOOS IWAOHN FHL 

> 


‘O XIGNUddv 


> 


REPORT OF COUNCIL. ¥ 


APPENDIX D. 
LIST OF MEMBERS. 


(1912.) 


Honorary AND CorRRESPONDING Mempers (14.) 


Dr. Cockle; A. Liversidge, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S.; Rev. F.R. M. Wilson 
J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.; H. J. Jensen, D.Sc; Rev. G Brown, D.D.; A. Gibb- 
Maitland, Government Geologist, W.A.; Professor E. W. Skeats; Professor- 
EK. H. Rennie ; Professor J. A. Pollock; Dr. K. Domin. (Czech University),. 


Prague; Dr. Danes (Czech University), 


David, C. Hedley, F.L.S. 


Ornpinary Mempers (112) ; 


Archer, R. S. 

Badger, J. 8. 

Ball, L.C., BE. 
*+Bailey, F. M., F.L.S., C.M.G. 
Bailey, J. F. 

Barton, E. C., A.M.I.C.E. 
Bell; byte. 

Bennett, F. 

Briinnich, J. C., F.I.C. 
Brydon, Mrs. 

Bundock, Miss Alice 
Bundock, C. W., B.A. 
Byram, W. J. 
+Cameron, John 
Cameron, W. E., B.A. 
Colledge, W. R. 

Collins, Miss Jane 
Collins, R, M. 

Connah, F. E., F.I.C. 
Cooper, Si: Pope A., C.J. 
Costin, C. W. 

Cowley, R. C. 

Dempsey, J. J. 


Denham, H. G., M.A., D.Sc.,Ph.D. 


Dunstan, Benj. 

Eglinton, Dudley, F.R.A.S. 
Eglinton, Miss Hilda 
Elkington, J. S.C, M.D., D.P.H. 
Fewings, P. P. 

Forrest, Hon. E. B. 

Fraser, C. S. 

+Gailey, Richard 

Gibson, Hon. Angus, M_L.C. 
Gore-Jones, E. R. 
Greenfield. A. P. 

*+Griffith, Sir S. W. 
Gurney, E. H. 

Halst:-ad, W. H 
Hamlyn-Harris, R., D.Se., 


F.R.M.S., F.L.S., F.E.S. 
Harvey- Sabuskon, T., M.A., D.Se. 
Henderson, J. Brownlie: F.I.C. 


Hirschfeld, Eugen, M.D. 
Holland C. W. 
Hopkins, G., M.D. 


*Members of Philosophical Society. 


Prague; Professor T. Edgeworth 


Live Memperrs (14) 


Hiilsen, R. 

Hunt, G. W. 

Illidge, Rowland 

fdecs, Bo OL. Le DEG 
E-R.G:S. 

Jackson, A. G. 

Johnston, Jas. 

Kenny, F. Hamilton, M.D. 

Lambert, C. A 

Lennon R. T. 

Lindsay, W. 

Longman, H A. 

Lord, F. 

Love, Wilton, M.B. 

Lueag, T. P., L.B.C:P. 

Lusby, 8S. G., M.A. 

Lyons, R. J., B.A. 

His Excellency Sir William: 
MacGregor, M.D., D.Sc.,. 
G.C.M.G! C.B., &c. 

Marks, Hon. C. F., M.D., M.L.C.. 

Marks, E. O., B.A., B.E. 

May, H. W., B.E. 

May, T. H., M.D. 

Michie, J. L., M.A. 

Murray-Prior, Mrs. 

McCall, T., F.I.C. 

McConnel, E. J. 

McConnell, Eric W. 

McConnel, J. H. 

Morris, Leon, A.M.I.C.E., Eng. 

Morton, C. R. 

+Norton, Hon. A., M.L.C. 

Oakes. A. W.. B.A. 

Pani): EC. PhD. 

Parker. 'l'., F.G.S. 

Parker, W. R. 

Parnell, 'T' , M.A. 

Plant, Hon. E. H. T., M L.C. 

Pound, C. J., F.R.M.S. 

Priestley, H. J., M.A. 

*Raff, Hon. Alex, M.L.C. 

Rands, W. H., F.G.S. 

Reid, D. E. 

Kichards, H. C., M.Sc. 


+Life Members. 


Vi. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 


List of Members—(Continued) 


! 

Riddell, R. M. +Stevens, Hon. E. J., M.L.C. 
+Roe, R. H., M.A. Sutton, A., M.D. 
Ryan, J. P., M.D. tSutton, J. W. 
Sankey, J. R. Swanwick, K. ff., B.A., L.L.B. 
Saunders, G. I., B.E. Taylor, Hon. W. F. ., M.D., M.L.C. 
Schild, S. D., A.S.A.S.M. Thynne, Hon. A. J.. M.L.C. 

(Adelaide) furner, A. Jefferis, M.D., F.E.S. 
+Schneider, H., M.A. Watkins, Geo. ‘ 
Shirley, John, D.Sc. +Weedon, Warren 
Smith, F., B.Sc., A.I.C. Weston, P. L., B.Se., B.E. 
Spark, E. J., M.D. White, C. T. 
Spenceley, T. White, Jean, D.Sc. 
+Steele, T., F.L.S., F.E.S. Willcocks, G. C. 


Steele, B. D., D.Se. 
” Assoc1aTE MEMBER, 
Gillies, D. C. 

Miss Freda Bage, M.Sc., and A. B. Walkon were pro- 
posed as new members, by Messrs. Henderson and Richards, 
respectively. Mr. J. W. Watkins, proposed by J. Shirley, 
D.Sc., was unanimously admitted as a member. 


The President then delivered his retiring address. 


THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE AS A FACTOR IN 
NATIONAL PROGRESS. 


The subject which I have chosen for my address is 
perhaps of too technical a nature to prove of general in- 
terest on such an occasion, but, as it rarely falls to the 
lot of an engineer to have the honour of presiding over 
this society, the choice of an engineering subject might 
be excused just for once. In vain did | search for some 
subject of a more suitable and catholic a nature, such as 
the question of national waste which produced such an 
interesting and instructive address from our preceding 
president, Mr. Henderson. My subject to-night is in one 
particular direction a sequel to Mr. Henderson’s address, 
inasmuch as it deals with means for minimising the na- 
tional waste in one important direction—viz., fuel con- 
‘sumption. 

My theme deals with the influence of the internal 
combustion engine on national progress and develop- 
ment. It is perhaps hardly necessary to point out that. 


| Life Members. 


BY P.-L. WESTON, . BSC., B.E. VII. 


the onward march of civilisation is marked by an ever 
insistent demand for power. The immense progress of 


the past century is largely to be attributed to the de- 
velopment of the steam engine, which has reigned su- 


preme as a prime mover or machine for the production 
of mechanical power since the days of Watt. There are 


many signs, however, that this supremacy is being seri- 
ously challenged by the internal combustion engine, 
mainly by reason of its superior efficiency as a heat en- 
gine or apparatus for turning the energy of fuel into 
mechanical power. We know from a study of the theory 
of heat engines that of the total energy to be derived 
from the combustion of fuel not more than about 15 
per cent. can be converted into mechanical work by the 
combination of a steam boiler and steam engine or tur- 


bine, whereas with an internal combustion engine as 


much as 35 per cent. of the fuel energy can be converted 
into useful work. Hence it is safe to assume that the 
promise of the future lies with the engine having the 
higher intrinsic efficiency, and in the same way as the 
19th century can be aptly ealled the steam age so the 
20th century seems destined to merit the designation of 
the gas age. The term gas engine can for the sake of 
brevity be used to inelude all forms of internal combus- 
tion engines. 


Except in a few favoured localities where water 
power is available power has to be mainly de- 


‘rived from the combustion of fuel of various 


kinds, of which coal is the chief. Consequently 
one of the most important of a nation’s assets 
lies in its stores of fuel and the rate of consumption is 
so rapid that the question of the conservation of fuel 
resources is one of ever increasing urgency. From time 
to time we have pointed out the inevitability of the early 
depletion of our coal and other natural fuels, especially 
of the higher grades, but unfortunately too little heed is 
paid to this matter of vital national importance. Fortun- 
ately much of the present waste of fuel can be minimised 
by the adoption of the internal combustion engine, with its 
superior economy and adaptability to use low grade fuels, 
which are at present discarded. The economic import- 


VIII. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


ance of doing this can hardly be over-estimated. Owing 
to a number of varying factors this problem presents it- 
self in a different aspect in every country. 


In Australia, with its limited population and manu- 
racturing industries, together with a fairly plentiful 
supply of coal, the necessity for economising fuel has not 
been so pronounced as in most other older countries. 
Consequently we are far behind these places in the use 
of the gas engine. I faney we hardly realise the extent 
of the development that has taken place on the Con- 
tinent in this direction. In order that success can be 
achieved with gas engines of any considerable size the 
local conditions have to be carefully taken into account, 
more especially with regard to the nature of the avail- 
able fuel. Very little has so far been done in Australia 
in this direction, and there is scope for much investiga- 
tion of local coals, ete. Other countries, notably Ger- 
many, under stress of dear fuel conditions, have success- 
fully utilised fuels which previously were of no commer- 
cial value. For instance, gas engines are being success- 
fully operated on mine refuse containing as high as 80 
per cent. of non-combustible matter, and peat and hg- 
nite containing 50 per cent. of water. 


Such fuels are absolutely useless for steam-raising 
purposes. The waste gases from coke ovens, blast fur- 
naces, and even copper smelters are also very extensively 
used for operating gas engines. We have had pointed 
out to us the possibility of more economically using Ips- 
wich coal for various power requirements in Brisbane by 
generating electricity at the pit’s mouth from inferior 
fuel instead of transporting higher grade coal to the me- 
tropolis. Of the economy and feasibility of such a scheme 
there can be little doubt in the technical mind, ‘but 
before such a project can eventuate it is generally neces- 
sary for the public to appreciate the value of the pro- 
posal. In the case of water power, the man in the street 
rarely fails to discern the potentialities of a handy water- 
fall, and henee it is usually comparatively easy to get 
such a scheme developed. For instance, if we had a 
Barron Falls at Ipswich it would no doubt have been 
harnessed for Brisbane’s needs long ago. It may ocea- 


BY P. L. WESTON, B. SC., B.E. x* 


sion surprise to many to learn that even in our present 
state of knowledge power could probably be produced 
by gas engines at Ipswich at a price which would com- 
pare with the cost of the average water power scheme 
with its expensive hydraulic engineering works. Water 
power is comparatively scarce in Australia, and for that 
reason our engineers should be fully alive to the possi- 
bilities of the gas engine as a source of cheap power. 

In this respect I may mention that the manufacture 
of calcium carbide, which is usually considered to be 
commercially possible only when cheap water power is 
available, is now being successfully carried on in New 
South Wales with gas engines using coke as fuel. There 
seems to be every probability of metallurgical coke being 
produced at Ipswich in large quantities in the near fu- 
ture, and the generation of power from the oven gases 
would appear to be a natural sequel. When one looks 
into the commercial use of gas and other internal com- 
bustion engines the most noticeable feature is the rela- 
tive searcity of engines of large or even moderate size. 
The cause of this is that all internal combustion engines: 
show up to best advantage when in comparatively small 
units, say, below 200 horse power. Larger units show 
ao inerease, either in fuel consumption or first cost per 
brake horse power, while increase of size is accompanied. 
by greatly increased difficulty of construction and opera- 
tion. 

This is in marked contrast to the steam engine, and 
more especially the steam turbine, as, in both these types 
of prime movers increase of size is accompanied by de- 
crease of fuel consumption and capital cost per horse- 
power, while difficulties of construction and operation 
do not materially increase. As a result gas engines over 
about 200 horse-power capacity are almost as rare as 
steam turbines under this capacity. These intrinsic dif- 
ferences between gas and steam engines are due solely 
to the higher temperature of the working fluid in the gas 
engine. In the steam plant the fuel is burnt in the boiler 
furnaces at a temperature of, say, 1200 degrees Centi- 
grade, and the heat transmitted.to the working fluid, 
steam. which enters the engine at, say, 200 degrees Centi- 
grade. 


x. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


In the internal combustion engine the working fluia 
is air, which is heated by the direct combustion of the 
fuel inside the cylinder to as high as 1700 degrees or 1800 
degrees Centigrade. Since the working parts could not, 
for obvious reasons, be allowed to attain this tempera- 
ture, the positive cooling of the cylinder walls is a prac- 
tical necessity. In the steam engine the temperatures 
are easily dealt with, and the abstraction of heat from 
the cylinder walls is to be avoided as being merely a 
source of waste. 


Since increase of cylinder dimensions means a de- 
erease in the ratio of area of cylinder walls to eylinder 
volume, it will be seen that, whereas this condition is 
desirable in a steam engine, in a gas engine it merely 
leads to practical difficulties in keeping the temperature 
of the working parts within a practical limit. For in- 
stanee, when the diameter of a gas engine cylinder is 
greater than about 20in. it becomes necessary to water 
cool the moving piston, whereas in smaller sizes water 
jacketting of the cylinder walls is quite sufficient. In 
large cylinders also the increased thickness of metal re- 
quired to resist the explosion pressure leads to liability 
to severe internal strains, due to unequal expansion of 
the metal, and pistons and cylinders have frequently 
eracked from this cause. In addition to the above 
troubles with large gas engines, the fuel used in the 
majority of the larger size units was either coke oven 
gas or blast furnace gas, and it was not properly realised 
that efficient purification of such gas was necessary to 
avoid fouling of the engine. 

The result has been that the large gas engine has in 
the past gained an unenviable reputation for unrelia- 
bility of operation. Profiting, however, from past experi- 
ences, designers have now been able to produce large 
gas engines for various classes of land service which ap- 
proach very closely the reliability of operation of good 
steam engines. It must not be supposed, however, that 
the one class of engine will satisfy all classes of service. 
Many of the failures to secure satisfactory service have 
been due to the attempt to apply the one class of engine to 
all classes of work. Now, in steam engine practice, very 


BY P. L. WESTON. B.BC., B.E. XI. 


widely differing types of engine have been evolved for dif- 
ferent kinds of work and the same process of evolution 
is now taking place, and already many standard designs 
have been produced. The largest engines at work are 
those to be found in most modern iron smelting works in 
America and on the Continent. In the largest of these 
installations the power of the engines aggregates 
150,000 horse power. The economy of using the gases 
escaping from the blast furnaces has in many cases re- 
duced the cost of the production of pig-iron by 2 or 3 
per cent. 

The efforts of designers are now being mainly con- 
ecentrated on the problem of adapting the internal com- 
bustion engine in large sizes to marine work. This is a 
matter which I think is worthy of special comment on 
this oceasion, because probably the most noteworthy en- 
gineering achievement of the term of my presidency has 
been the birth of the motor ship. The pioneer ship of 
any considerable size to be fitted with internal combus- 
tion engines was the Zealandia, launched early in 1912; 
and during the same year no less than nine other ocean- 
going ships were launched. It is perhaps a matter for 
national regret that, though the British engineer led the 
way in the development of the marine steam engine, and 
later on the marine steam turbine, yet in the matter of 
the marine internal combustion engine the pioneers have 
been chiefly Swedish, German, and other continental 
engineers. There is, however, every indication that the 
English engineer and shipowner will before very long 
make up the leeway, and it is pretty safe to prophesy 
that before long the public will have to get reconciled to 
the disappearance of the familiar funnel from the ocean 
tramp and other low powered craft. Whether it will be 
feasible to produce internal combustion engines of suit- 
able size for the high powered liner and battleship is a 
matter about which it would now be premature to ex- 
press an opinion, It must be remembered that the work- 
ing fluid in an internal combustion engine is actually 
white hot flame, and when one considers the amount of 
heat being produced in the numerous furnaces of a big 
liner and realises that to produce the same power in an 


XII. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


internal combustion engine approximately half as mucky 
heat has to be generated as white hot flame inside the 
cylinders themselves, the problem of doing so is seen to: 
be of no mean order. 


At present the marine engine is invariably of the: 
Diesel oil engine type, and so far satisfactory operation: 
has been secured in sizes up to 200 to 300 horse power 
per cylinder. As the Diesel engine is unique among in- 
ternal combustion engines, and has only recently become 
prominently under the notice of the lay public, a brief 
description of its peculiar features may not be out of 
place. In other forms of internal combustion  en- 
gines, the fuel which may be combustible gas or oil 
in a state of vapour or minutely subdivided is: 
drawn into the eylinder together with the air 
necessary for combustion. This charge of explosive mix- 
ture is then compressed by the return stroke of the piston 
and caused to ignite at the proper instant by electric 
spark or other suitable means. 


In the Diesel engine, however, the fuel charge is not 
admitted to the cylinder until the end of the compressiom 
of the cylinder charge. The compression of any gas is 
accompanied by rise of temperature, and in the case of 
the Diesel engine the compression is carried to such a 
degree that the air in the cylinder is red hot before the 
oil fuel is injected into it. In this way ignition and per- 
fect combuston are secured without any separate ignition 
device. Incidentally a higher degree of economy in fuel 
consumption is secured by the high compression pres- 
sure than is possible in other forms of internal combus- 
tion engines and, more important still, cheap erude oils: 
and even tar oils can be readily used. The consumption 
of oil per brake horse power is less than half a pound 
per hour as compared with, say, three times this weight. — 
of coal which the steam engine requires for the same out- 
put. The gain in saving of cargo space by the adop- 
tion of the Diesel engine is then obvious and also the 
desirability of eliminating the steam boiler and the stok- 
ers to feed it. | 


BY PLL. WESTON, B. SC., B.E. XIII. 

There are other advantages, such as the ease of 
handling liquid fuel and the instant readiness for start- 
ing of the Diesel, as compared with the time required to 
get up steam in a boiler. It seems improbable that the 
steam turbine will be superseded by the internal com- 
bustion engine for some time to come where very large 
' powers are concerned, but the present limits are bound to 
be exceeded, and the present rate of the development of 
the latter engine is surprisingly rapid. Perhaps here in 
Australia we can hardly realise the progress béing made 
on the other side of the world in this direction, and 


especially on the Continent. It is a remarkable fact that 
in Germany the manufacture of steam engines has almost 


been abandoned, and the works are turning out instead 
gas and Diesel engines, the latter mostly adapted to 
operate on tar oil. There are approximately 30 German 
firms manufacturing Diesel engines, while Britain has 
only three makers. 


Much work remains to be done in connection with 
investigating the best means of utilising various classes 
of fuel in internal combustion engines. In Germany a 
State commission has been constituted to deal with this 
problem. This is an example which might well be fol- 
lowed in every country, since each locality has its own 
particular kinds of fuel. Ordinary bituminous coal ean 
be prepared for use in internal combustion engines in 
several ways. It can be gasified in various forms of pro- 
ducers, which turns both the fixed carbon and the vola- 
tile constituents into fixed gases, or other forms of pro- 
ducers may be used, which leave the tarry vapours to 
be condensed into creosote, benzol and other distillate oils. 
The benzol will no doubt very largely replace petrol for 
motor car engines and similar purposes, while the heavier 
oils ean be used in Diesel engines. It is obvious that 
liquid fuel can be transported with much greater ease 
than coal, so that the tendeney of the future will be 
to abandon the present wasteful method of mining only 
the choicest portions of the coal seams and transporting 
the solid fuel over long distances. Instead, the whole 
of the seam will be utilised for the production of power 
at the pit’s mouth, and for the various liquid fuels and 


xIV. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


other by-products. Already the available supplies of 
petroleum oils are unable to cope with the demand, and 
prices are on the increase, so that sooner or later other 
sources of oil must be pressed into the service. 


Turning now to a consideration of the more common 
applications of the internal combustion engine, we find 
that for small powers it stands practically unchallenged 
as a prime mover. For ordinary industrial work up to, 
say, 200 horse power gas engines with suction gas pro- 
ducers using anthracite, coke, or charcoal, have become 
extremely popular, and form very convenient and econo- 
mical sources of power. It is not, however, yet fully 
recognised by the public that such plants have certain 
peculiar limitations with regard to overload capacity 
and behaviour when running on varying loads. 

There is also a more or less popular impression that 
these plants can be successfully run by unskilled attend- 
anee. As with other classes of comparatively high grade 
machinery proper reliability of service can only be en- 
sured by having suitably trained attendants. In Aus- 
tralia at any rate the supply of really capable gas engine 
attendants is somewhat limited, with the result that com- 
plaints of unreliability are not common, especially with 
units of any size. While the cause of trouble is very 
often due to unskilful engineering in selecting the plant, 
or in the manner of erection, or even in the design or 
manufacture of the plant, still, with a properly trained 
man in charge, reliable operation can generally be ob- 
tained such as would compare favourably with steam 
plant. 


It is to be hoped that the facilities now being of- 
fered by technical education will be effective in remedy- 
ing the deficiency in the near future. In this connection, 
I may remark in passing that some four years ago I had 
the privilege of inaugurating what I believe was the 
first course of technical classes in Brisbane dealing with 
the internal combustion engine. The present trend of 
practice is towards the use of cheaper fuels, such as bitu- 


BY P. L. WESTON, B.SC., B.E. Xv. 


minous coal, wood, ete., which have been previously found 
difficult to gasify in the ordinary form of updraught pro- 
ducer without including tarry vapours which affect the 
running of the engine. 

A number of different types of producer have been 
designed to obviate this difficulty, and it is perhaps 
worthy of special mention, that one of the most pro- 
mising designs originated in New Zealand, and is coming 
into local use. This development, if it proves as success- 
ful as present indications promise, will still further popu- 
larise the suction gas plant, especially in fairly moderate 
sizes where the cost of fuel begins to be a considerable 
item. The influence of such a cheap and convenient 
souree of power for comparatively small installations is 
no mean factor in the development of every country, and 
more especially in a comparatively young and sparsely 
populated country lke Australia. The small manufaec- 
turing concern, the butter factory, the irrigation plant 
of the farmer, the isolated electric light installation are 
familiar instances of its ready application. In many 
other countries the Diesel oil engine is a close competitor 
of the suction gas plant for such work, but locally the 
comparatively high cost of oil, and the uncertainty of 
supply, have put it at a disadvantage. It is in the sphere 
of portable work of all kinds, however, that the internal 
combustion engine has made its influence most felt. It 
is almost unnecessary to mention its use for motor 
car, motor boat, and aeroplane work. So great has been 
» the demand for engines for these purposes that already 
a very high degree of excellence has been attained in 
the design and manufacture of petrol engines of these 
types. 

a critical examination of, say, a modern aeroplane 
or high-class automobile engine discloses a truly cour- 
ageous piece of machinery, which for lightness of con- 
struction in relation to output would have been econ- 
sidered mechanically impossible a few years ago. The 
demand for materials of the highest possible strength 
has led the metallurgist to produce various alloys of iron 
and other metals, usually termed alloy steel, which pos- 
Sess extraordinary strength and toughness. For in- 


XVI. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


stance, we have nickel steel, with an elastic limit of 70 
tons per square inch, chrome vandium spring steel which 
will permit twice the working extension in a spring that 
ean be endured by an ordinary carbon steel spring, and 
a host of other alloy steels with peculiar properties for 
the particular service for which they were produced. 
In addition, machinery has been perfected for obtaining 
extreme acenracy of workmanship in machining parts 
of engines and motor cars in general. For instance, 


hardened steel balls for ball bearings are guaranteed to 
be accurate in diameter to within’ one-ten-thou- 
sandth (.000lin.) of an inch. In fact, not only do we 
owe to the internal combustion engine the whole of the 
motor ear industry, but mechanical engineering gener- 
ally has advanced in innuimerable ways in response to 
the demands of ‘the motorist. The mechanical achieve- 
ment represented in, say, a modern racing ear, is to say 
the least of it, rather surprising. We take a flimsy-look- 
ing engine, mount it on a springy platform, make it 
develop very considerable power by getting, say, twenty 
explosions per second behind a piston, which is subjected 
to, say, a thrust of two tons each time, and let the whole 
power station on wheels fly along at speeds of approach- 
ing 100 miles per hour, or higher than the fastest steam 
locomotive. Of the value of motor transport little need 
be said, as we see its use extending every day, and we 
have now the motor car, motor lorry, fire engine, tractor, 
railway autocar, motor cycle, and a host of other pos- 
sible applications of the ever-ready little engine. 


Australia with its immense distances affords a wide 
field of usefulness for all kinds of motor transport. Few 
‘station homesteads are without their motor cars, and the 
motor tractor is beginning to be widely adopted, especi- 
ally in dry country, where the steam traction engine is at 
a disadvantage. For railway work it appears most prob- 
able that certain classes of traffic can be better handled 
by the railway autocar than by the steam locomotive, 
and experiments in this direction are shortly to be made 
on the Queensland railways. Where the traffic does not 
warrant the use of long trains, a single motor coach can 
be used to advantage, the cost of working being less, 


BY P. L. WESTON, B.SC., B.E. XVII. 


owing to the abolition of the stoker, and the engine is 
always ready for starting without the necessity for in- 
eurring stand-by losses as with a steam locomotive. There 
is also the absence of grit or sparks, and the problem of 
taking in fuel and water is much simplified. I under- 
stand the use of internal combustion engines is sug- 
gested on the transcontinental railway, owing to the 
searcity of water along certain sections of the route. 
Though I understand the autocars now being procured 
by the Railway Department were intended for trial in 
country districts where traffic is infrequent, this system 
seems to me to be very promising for suburban traffic in 
order that a quick service could be maintained. The 
Enoggera line, for instance, would benefit greatly by a 
more frequent service than is warranted at present with 
the ordinary steam train. The high cost of oil fuel in 
Australia is, however, a serious drawback. One respect 
in which the internal combustion engine is inferior to 
the steam engine is in the ease with which the latter can 
be started and stopped. This necessitates the use of 
special means of transmitting the power from the engine 
to the wheels, a frequent method being to do this elec- 
trically, an arrangement which gives great flexibility of 
control, which is of special value for high speed work 
with frequent stops. For work of all kinds where small 
power is required, engines using petrol and paraffin prac- 
tically hold the field except, of course, where electric 
supply is available. 


In these days of high wages every effort should be 
made to supplant manual labour by power as far as 
practicable, and new uses for the internal combustion 
engine are being found every day. In building opera- 
tions, for instance, hoisting of materials, mixing up of 
concrete, sawing and dressing of timber, and stone dress- 
ing tools should be power driven whenever there is any 
quantity of such work to be done. 


One future sphere of usefulness for small engines is — 
for producing electric light in small: isolated installa- 
tions such as a country hotel or station homestead. The 


remarkably high efficiency of the modern metal filament ” 
B 


XVIII. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


lamp has enabled such an arrangement using storage 
batteries to commercially compete with acetylene and 
other forms of lighting and when this is realised by the 
public small electric lighting schemes will become very 
popular. While-on this subject I may be permitted to 
remark that in the matter of electric lighting in this 
State we are decidedly behind the times in many re- 
spects. 


A prominent visitor recently remarked to me on 
the public lighting of the Brisbane streets, or rather on 
the comparative absence of such in the main streets, and 
on taking a house in New Farm expressed surprise that 
electric supply was not available in the suburbs. In 
the question of electric supply our provincial towns are 
very much behind those of the other Australian States, 
where small electric supply schemes are being installed 
in large numbers, the source of power being in most 
cases suction gas plants. Why Queensland should be 
so less progressive in these respects than the Southern 
States I fail to understand, more especially as the climatic 
conditions render electric lighting and fans highly de- 
sirable. 


However, it is gratifying to note signs of a spirit of 
inquiry and progress in our citizens as evinced, for in- 
stanee, in matters of education and sanitation, and I 
hope that now the spirit of unrest, which spells the dawn 
of progress has been engendered further advancement 
will not be long delayed. We may even hope for the 
adoption of a decimal system of weights, measures, and 
even money, for the establishment of a rational system 
of training our artisans now that the old apprenticeship 
system is dead, for direct railway connection across the 
river and the proposed standard gauge line along the 
coast to New South Wales, for a new town hall, for re- 
vision of the Electric Light Act and the Local Authori- 
ties Act in so far as it debars local authorities from 
establishing electric supply schemes, and we may even 
hope to secure proper public recognition of the value 
and the status of the engineer. | 


BY P..L.. WESTON? B.EC., B.E: XIX... 


Returning now to our original theme, and summing 
up, the internal combustion engine has already become a 
factor of great economic importance in our national 
life, and before long it promises to become the chief 
agency for turning the useful energy of fuel to account 
unless the dream of the scientist of turning the energy 
of fuel direct into electricity without first producing 
mechanical work is realised. 


With regard to general design of internal combustion 
engines, the present standard design of reciprocating en- 
gine is not likely to be drastically altered unless the pre- 
sent fundamental principles of operation are abandcned,. 
since its performance very closely approaches in effi- 
ciency what is theoretically possible under the cireum-. 
stances: The possibility of the evolution cf a gas tur-. 
bine is often mentioned, but when the problem is eare- 
fully examined it does not look very promising. There- 
is, however, a special form of engine for pumping pur- 
poses which is most interesting, and bears little resem-. 
blanee to the ordinary form of engine. This is the 
Humphrey gas pump, in which there is no piston in the 
ordinary sense of the word, its place being taken by the- 
fluid to be pumped, which is subjected directly to the 
force of the explosion in a closed chamber. In this way 
there is a practical elimination of working parts, and as. 
the apparatus takes the place of both an engine and a 
pump, a very high efficiency is possible, and these plants: 
have been successfully used for very large installations. 


In conclusion, I may remark that fire has been the 
servant of man since the dim days of our prehistoric 
ancestors, and its uses have been multiplied through the- 
ages, contributing in no small degree to the advancement 
of civilisation. A new era was heralded when mankind 
learned how to harness steam, the product of the two- 
opposing elements, fire and water, and extract its latent 
energy by the steam engine. Now another era has been 
instituted by the subjection of our willing slave in a 
more direct manner in the internal combustion engine. 


In the one case we imprison him within the walls of 
a furnace made of refractory materials, but now we have. 


XxX. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


bottled him up inside the metal walls of the engine it- 
self, like one of the genii of mythical fancy pent up in a 
magic jar, and ever struggling to escape from his prison. 

With the aid of our tame giant we are enabled to 
outstrip the fastest steed on land, the fish in the sea, 
and the bird in the clouds, so there are no more king- 
doms for us to invade and conquer. How mueh further 
progress will be made it is impossible to predict, except 
to venture the opinion that, while steam still holds the 
field in most cases where large powers are required, this 
supremacy will shortly be seriously challenged by its 
more modern rival. In this development the services of 
the engineer will be largely dependent on the researches 
of the chemist into matters pertaining to the treatment 
of fuels, and on the-metallurgist for the production of 
special alloys and other materials to resist the onerous 
conditions of service. 

Mr. Henderson moved a vote of thanks to the President 
for his interesting and valuable address. 

The following o‘tice-bearers were declared elected 
unopposed for 1913 :— 

President—H. C. Richards, M.Sc. 

Vice-President—J. Shirley, D.Sc. 

Hon. Treasurer—J. C. Briinnich, F.1.C. 

Hon. Secretary—F. Bennett. 

Hon. Librarian—T. Harvey Johnston, D.Sc. 

Assistant Hon. Librarian—D. C. Gillies. 

A ballot among J. F. Bailey, E. C. Barton, A.M.1.C.E., 
E. H. Gurney, Professor Priestley, P. L. Weston, B.Sc., B.E., 
R. Hamlyn-Harris, D.Sc., resulted in the election of the five 
former as Councillors. 

Mr. G. Watkins was re- aiched Hon. Auditor. 

The new President was then inducted to the chair, 
and returned thanks for his election. 

The Report from the Delegates to the Melbourne 
Meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science was read. 3 

On the motion of Mr. Barton, the President and Mr. 
Weston were deputed to meet the Decimal Ass3ociation’s 
representatives on =o Ast, 1913, and the meeting term- 
inated. : 


ON AN BASY AND CERTAIN METHOD OF 
HATCHING CERATODUS OVA, 


By THOS. L. BANCROFT., M.B. Edin. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, April 29, 1913. 


Hitherto only a very few of the Ceratodus ova obtained 
each season hatched out* and it was generally considered 
by myself and others, who have made the attempt, that 
the ova were easily injured by handling or that strong 
light quickly killed them or that a large proportion were: 
infertile, that it was essential for success to keep them 
in running water or the water changed for fresh every day. 


Semon in his work ‘In the Australian Bush,” p. 90,. 
says :—‘* The eggs of Ceratodus are extremely frail and. 
tender. If the water in which I kept them ior breeding 
purposes became too warm or there happened to be too 
many in one vessel or if I did not take care to remove 
every dead egg immediately, all the eggs died off rapidly. 
This circumstance formed a great hindrance to my embryo- 
logical collecting.” 

Having made the discovery that when more than 
three ova were placed in the same glass jar all of them 
perished, and that with two or three ova success occasionally 
followed ; it occurred to me that if each egg could be kept 
separately in a jar of water of its own, any that were then 
alive would probably develop. For this purpose I gathered 
together over a hundred pickle “bottles, filled them with 
river water and placed each bottle inside a jam tin to exclude 
light, old rusty tins from the rubbish heap were requisitioned ; 
the tins with their bottles were placed on and under a 
table in a corner of the verandah and screened from the light 


* Proc. lioy. Soc. Queensland Vol. xxur., p. 251. 


2 HATCHING CERATODUS OVA. 


with afew corn sacks. Into each bottle one egg was dropped. 
Upon examination of the ova in a week’s time almost every 
one was noticed to be alive ; this is easily seen by observ- 
ing the change in shape of the yelk from the round to pear 
shape (see figure, b and c). In three weeks’ time the little 
fish had left their gelatinous envelopes. A bit of conferva 
was then dropped into each bottle for food ; shortly after- 
wards the little fish were noticed to have insinuated them- 
selves in the conferva and even when the latter had floated 
to the top, as occasionally occurred, the fish were able to 
find it. The bottles were disturbed as little as possible 
and the water was not changed nor added to, and at the 
end of four weeks, although the water had diminished by 
evaporation to less than half, it made no difference what- 
ever. 


The little fish after a week’s sojourn in the pickle 
bottles were removed to glass cells of a half to a gallon of 
water capacity, prepared with some clay at the bottom 
and conferva; ten fish were put into each vessel. Some 
of the jars were placed in a tub of water so as to keep them 
cool. Some were left on the table and in these the fish 
thrived equally well, but a time came when the whole 
lot suddenly died one day, and it was thought from the 
water getting too warm. Some fish were put into a wooden 
tub, it was half a wine cask; I had used it before as an 
aquarium ; it was cleaned out and filled with river water 
and some conferva and pieces of floating green water weed 
put in; no clay or sand; it was so arranged that any 
insect enemies might be easily detected; it was partly 
covered over with a board to exclude light. The tub was 
placed inside a galvanised iron wash tub containing water, 
the idea being to prevent evaporation from the wood. 


The fish for the most part lie quietly at the bottom ; 
they never bury themselves in the clay and never come 
to the top to breathe air. At night time they are more 
active ; in one glass jar, which was totally immersed in 
a tub of water, the little fish escaped into the tub during 
the night.. 


No attempt was made to feed the fish otherwise than 
with conferva. There is evidently some other food neces- 


BY THOS. L. BANCROFT, M.B., EDIN. 3 


sary for their well-being, and possibly they need cooler 
and deeper water than I was able to give them. 

The fish, whether in glass cells or in the tub, rapidly 
increased in size to three-quarters of an inch in length 
and up to two months ; after that time they were noticed 
to become sluggish and emaciated and began to die off, 
and at the end of three months all had died. 


I am of opinion that were the Ceratodus reared even 
up to two months and then liberated in a suitable artificial 
lagoon, that a large number would survive. 


oe eo < 


A—Appearance of fresh egg, life size, 

B—End of one week. 

C—End of second week. 

D—Empty envelope showing exit hole. 

E—Young Ceratodus just emerged; will often go back into gelatinous 
envelope if disturbed, 


THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF 
QUEENSLAND GASTEROPODA. 


By JOHN SHIRLEY, D.Sc., F.M.S. 
(SENIOR INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS.) 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, June 27th, 1913. 


The number of aquatic gasteropods, reported as inhabit- 
ing Queensland waters, amounts in all to 1,619 species 
Mr. Charles Hedley published a list* and supplementt 
of 1328 species ; and, in papers read before this Society, 
the writer has suppled lists containing 291 additional 
names. 

A study of the geographical distribution of these 1619 
gasteropods has revealed some interesting facts. One of 
the most striking is the similarity of the molluscan faunas 
of the Indian and Pacific Oceans ; no less than 520 Queens- 
land species, or nearly one-third of the whole, having this 
extremely wide range. It, therefore, seems likely that the 
two oceans have been in free and uninterrupted connection 
for many geological ages, since many species, which are 
at home in both oceans, belong to such genera as TJ'urbo.{ 
Trochust and Phasianella, known to extend back to Devonian 
times ; others as AHaliotis, Nerita, Litorina, Strombus, 
Triton, (Cymatium), Dolium (Tonna), Sigaretus, Mitra, 
Cancellaria and Murex® to Cretaceous times ; while Liotia, 
Terebellum, Ranella, (Bursa), Marginella, Engina and 
Purpura date from the Eocene epoch. Very few genera, be- 
longing to the two oceans in common, appeared later than 
the Miocene era. 


*Proc. Aust. Assoc., Vol. XII., pp. 343-371. 
Loc. cit., pp. 809-810. 

tTryon, Vol. I., p. 57, says “ Silurian.” 
°Tryon, Vol. L., p. 57, says “ Jurassic.” 


6 DISTRIBUTION OF QUEENSLAND GASTEROPODA. 


Just as the most westerly region in which the Malay 
race exists is the island of Madagascar, so this Indo-Pacific 
molluscan region, with its centre of distribution in Malaysia, 
has for its western frontier the eastern coast of Africa, 76 
species found on the northern or eastern coasts of Queensland 
being reported from such distant localities as Natal, Mada- 
gascar, Mozambique and Zanzibar. ~ Acommon shell of our 
EBarricr Reef—Septa aquatile, Reeve, better known as 
Triton pilearis, L., is reported from the following localities : 
—Natal, Seychelles, Red Sea, China, Japan, Philippines, 
Australia, the Sandwich Islands, and, still stranger from 
Florida and Erazil. The genera best represented and most 
widely spread are Cerithium, Strombus, Conus, Ovula and 
Purpura (Thais). 


This great province, formed of the two oceans that have 
no north and south barriers, and in which therefore the great 
equatorial current is not deflected into frigid regions,: ex- 
tends also into the Red Sea, where 147 species are common 
to that sea and to the shores of Queensland. The genera 
best represented are :—Cer.thium, Strombus, Triton (Cyma- 
tium), Ranella (Bursa), Conus, Pyramidella, Drillia and 
Mitra. So strong is the relationship between the Red Sea 
molluscs and those of Queensland, that of 573 species, enumer- 
ated in Issel’s Malacologia del Mar Rosso, no less than 133, 
inhabit the seas of our State. It is necessary to mention 
that Issel’s list contains bivalves as well as gasteropods. 


Woodward* in his Manual of the Mollusca, says, “ of 
the 408 mollusca of the Red Sea collected by Ehrenberg 
and Hemprich, 74 are common to the Mediterranean 
from which it would seem that these seas have communicated 
since the first appearance of some existing shells. Of the 
species common to the two seas, 40 are Atlantic shells 
which have migrated into the Red Sea by way of the 
Mediterranean, probably during the newer Pliocene period ; 
the others are Indo-Pacific shells which extended their 
Tange to the Mediterranean at an earlier age.” Fishery 
points out that this statement is in part incorrect, some 
of the so-called Red Sea shells having been collected off 


*Reprint of 4th Edition, 1890, p.-73. 
+Manuel de Conchyliologie, p. 159. 


BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC., F.M.S. 7 


the Syrian and northern Egyptian coasts. The Revd. 
A. H. Cooke, says* that “of 818 shells collected by 
Macandrew at Suez, 17 are undoubtedly Mediterranean.” 


It would be well to try and ascertain in what geologic 
age the great equatorial current swept in an unchecked 
stream across the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic Oceans, 
carrying with it the vivifying warmth acquired in its long 
course through tropical seas. In the Cretaceous age the 
southern type of the system attained a great development 
on both sides of the Mediterranean basin, and covered a 
vast area of the north of Africa. In the Sahara region, 
forming the interior of Algeria, it extends in broad plateaus, 
ending in abrupt escarpments, showing the varied outlines 
that might have been an old shore line. In these rocks 
the various Cretaceous subdivisions from the Neocomian 
upwards have been recognised. One important member 
of the system forms the upper part of the ‘“‘ Nubian Sand- 
stone,’ which is so important a factor in determining the 
character of the landscape in north-eastern. Africa. This 
formation extends eastwards into Syria, and is found in 
the region of the Lebanon. In the Eocene epoch the most 
widely distributed marine deposit is represented by the 
nummulitic limestone, which extends from the Alps to the 
Caucasus, through northern Africa, from Persia to the 
Suleiman Mountains, and is found again in China and 
Japan. Lyellt says of it—‘‘The nummulitic limestone 
is of world-wide extent, and contains many corals of large 
size, of genera now common in tropical seas, some of the 
same fossil species ranging from Scinde in India tothe 
West Indies.” A. Geikiet believed ‘‘ that the open Cre- 
taceous sea must have stretched through the heart of the 
Old World.” 


The Cretaceous fauna, as seen in European forma- 
tions, includes such genera as Strombus, Fusus, Fasciolaria, 
Oliva, Pleurotoma and Conus, and, in India, Cyprea and 
Voluta, which in the present age are most abundant 
in warm seas. In Eocene times the affinities of the 


«Cambridge Natural History, Molluscs and Brachiopods, p. 369. 
+Principles of Geology, Vol. L., BE 207. 
tGeology, p. 325. 


ds DISTRIBUTION OF QUEENSLAND GASTEROPODA. 


Kuropean molluscan fauna, with those families now 
inhabiting the Indian and Pacific Oceans, becomes 
uch closer, the most prominent forms  represent- 
mg the following genera :—Cancellaria, Fusus, Oliva, 
Voluta, Conus, Mitra, Rostellarva, Pleurotoma, Cyprea, 
Scalaria (Epitonium), ete. 


In these two periods, when the connection between 
the Indian and Atlantic Oceans, across Northern Africa and 
the basin of the Mediterranean, appears to have been wide 
and complete, the climate must have greatly modified by 
the flow of a vast current warmed in equatorial regions ; 
and, though there are undoubtedly other causes that have 
modified terrestrial climate since Miocene times, sufficient 
stress does not seem to be given to the presence in recent 
times of the two great barriers, the isthmuses of Suez and 
Panama. These, by causing the equatorial current to be 
deflected, first round Cape Agulhas and then round Cape 
Horn, united with the influence of the west wind drift, 
change it to a cold current on the southern and western 
extremities of Africa and America. 


When we contrast the climate of British Columbia 
with that of Labrador in the same latitude, we have 
evidence of the striking results caused to the one by the 
warm Japan current of the Pacific, and to the other by the 
cold Labrador current that sweeps down from the Arctic 
into the Atlantic. 


Wallace* expresses his belief in a former connection 
of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans thus :—‘** We also know 
that a little earlier, in Eocene times, tropical Africa was cut 
off from Europe and Asia by a sea stretching from the 
Atlantic to the Bay of Bengal, at which time Africa must 
have formed a detached island-continent such as Aus- 
tralia is now, and probably, like it, very poor in the higher 
forms of life. 


Huxley} also expresses the same opinion, as follows :— 
‘There is every reason to believe that both Hindustan, 
south of the Ganges, and Africa, south of the Sahara, were 
separated by a wide sea from Europe and North Asia during 


*Island Life, p. 418. 
+Anniversary Address to the Geological Society, 1870. 


BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC., F.M.S. 9 


the Middle and Upper Eocene epochs. . . . . Some 
time during the Miocene epoch, the bottom of the Num- 
mulitic Sea was upheaved, and converted into dry land, 
in the direction of a line extending from Abyssinia to the 
mouth of the Ganges. 


The earth movements that severed the connection of 
the north-west portion of the Indian Ocean with the 
Mediterranean, caused the Red Sea to retreat to its present 
limits, but it still maintained its union with the great Indo- 
Pacific province, and the character of its molluscan fauna 
remained unchanged. The Mediterranean Sea no longer 
traversed by a warm equatorial current, lost most of its 
genera that are typical of the Indian, Malaysian and Aus- 
tralasian sub-regions, and, maintaining its connection with 
the Atlantic, gave to its mollusca a northern facies. The 
presence of isolated species belonging to tropical genera 
like Fasciolaria, Cancellaria, Sigaretus, Cymbium, Cyprea, 
Marginella, Mitra, Cassis and Pisania, is strong testimony 
that the Meditrranean region was formerly a part of the 
great waterway of the equatorial current. 


To the north of Australia the extension of the typical 
molluscan fauna of Queensland is equally wonderful. The 
Philippine Islands lie 3,500-4,000 miles from our shores, 
yet the appearance of its molluscan fauna would be per- 
fectly familiar to the Queensland collector. Of our 1,619 
species of Gasteropoda, no less than 673, or over 40 per 
cent., are known to inhabit the shores of this distant archi- 
pelago. Of 18 additional species to our fauna, found in 
collections sent down from Murray Island, Normanton 
and Torres Straits, no less than half are also reported from 
the Philippines, showing that the affinities are still greater 
if we make the comparison between the shells of our northern 
coast and those of this distant group of islands. Wallace’s 
Line, though it may separate land faunas of very dissimilar 
nature, forms no hindrance to the spread of marine 
molluscs. | 


As American collectors reveal to us the wealth of 
material which the Philippine Archipelago affords, as settle- 
ment progresses in Northern Australia, and when the 
discovery of intermediate forms has reduced the number 


10 DISTRIBUTION OF QUEENSLAND GASTEROPODA. 


of supposed species, the two faunas will show still more 
striking points of agreement. 


The only inference to be drawn from this remarkable 
similarity in marine life is that, however much the areas 
of the intervening islands may have been extended or 
diminished in the successive geological epochs, between 
Queensland’ and the Philippines an open sea has been main- 
tained through a vast series of years. | 


Wallace, when accounting for the differences in animal 
life of the land faunas of the various East Indian Islands, 
sheds some light on the question under discussion in the 
following statement :—‘‘ Beginning in late Miocene times, 
when the deposits on the south-east coast of Java were 
upraised, we suppose a general elevation of the whole of 
the extremely shallow seas uniting what are now Sumatra, 
Java, Borneo, and the Philippines with the Asiatic con- 
tinent, and forming that extended equatorial area in which 
the typical Malayan fauna was developed. After a long 
period of stability, giving ample time for the specialisation 
of so many peculiar types, the Philippines were first separated, 
then at a considerably later period, Java; a little later, 
Sumatra and Borneo; and finally the islands south of 
Singapore to Banca and Billiton.’ 


In other directions the same conclusions must be made. 
As the islands of Melanesia and Polynesia come under . 
European influence and their molluscan life is made known, 
the astonishing range of species found on our shores is 
extended. Of 487 species or marked varieties collected 
by Mr. C. Hedley at Funafuti, one of the Ellice Islands, 
no less than ‘261 also inhabit Queensland ; and a definite, 
but decreasing relationship is shown as we study the marine 
shells of New Caledonia, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, the Paumotus 
and the Sandwich Islands. 


-Darwin,* in his ‘‘Voyage of a Naturalist,” states that 
of 90 shells collected by Cummings at the Galapagos, 25 
are found on the west coast of South America, and 18 are 
natives of the Low Archipelago or of the Philippines. The 
Galapagos group therefore marks the junction between the 
Western South American and Indo-Pacific provinces ; the 


*Sir John Lubbock’s Edition, p: 285. 


—_ er ey ee 7 


BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC., F.M.S. 1k 


stretch of deep sea parallel to, and west of the Andes, separat- 
ing two very different conchological faunas. 


A study of the molluses of the Pacific coast of Mexico 
and Central America shows that 17 species known in Queens. 
land also inhabit those distant waters. They are in some 
cases of genera like Hipponix, Cheilea and Ianthina, which, 
from their mode of life, are easily and widely spread - 
but include others such as Natica, Drwpa (Ricinula), and 
Pyrene (Columbella) which have no special means of dis- 
persal in adult life. 


Of the barrier between the equatorial portions of the 
Pacifc and Atlantic formed by Central America and the 
Isthmus of Panama, Geikie* says :—‘‘ While the fishes 
and molluscs. living in the seas on the two sides of the 
Isthmus of Panama are on the whole very distinct, a few 
shells and a large number of fshes are identical ; whence 
the inference has been drawn that though a. broad water- 
channel originally separated North and South America in 
Miocene times, a series of elevations and subsidences has 
since occurred, the most recent submersion having lasted 
but a short time, allowing the passage of locomotive fishes, 
yet not admitting of much change in the stationary molluscs. 
Of species found on the Atlantic side of America, in the 
West Indies, Florida and Brazil, 35 are also found in 
Queensland ; two of these are reported doubtfully, and 
may be rejected; the remainder include species of Fis- 
surella, Hipponix, Litorina, Tectarius, Planaxis, Epigrus, 
Rissoina, Intiopa, Cerithium, Llanthina, Epitonium (Scalaria), 
Cymatium (Triton), Distortrix, Septa (Triton), Cassis, Tonna 
(Dolium), Trivia, Oliva, Murex, Hydatina and Pyrene 
(Columbella). 


Geikie’s use of the term “stationary molluscs” is 
rather misleading. It may be true that they deserve that 
title in adult life, but the immature mollusc in the veliger 
period is a great traveller, floating over widespread areas 
before coming to rest. Many of these juvenile forms, 
before their proper place in molluscan history was under- 
stood; have been regarded as species, and given such. names 
as Macgillivrayia Sinusigera, etc. This power of ranging 


*Geikie, Text Book of Geology, I., 391. 


12 DISTRIBUTION OF QUEENSLAND GASTEROPODA. 


widely over ocean waters is also possessed by the sea creatures 
formerly placed in a separate class as Pteropoda, but now 
regarded as molluscan forms whose life-cycle has been 
arrested at the free floating marine stage. The Rev. A. 
H. Cooke,* M.A., states the case as follows :—‘‘ The 
Pteropoda are a group whose true relations are masked 
by the special conditions of their existence, which has 
tended towards the development of certain organs, the so- 
called ‘ wings’ and the shell, which give them an apparent 
symmetry ; this symmetry disappears on a close investi- 
gation of the internal organs.” This author reduces the 
Pteropoda to a sub-class of the mollusca. 


Recapitulating, the aim of this paper is to show from 
the distribution of Gasteropods, geographically and 
geologically, that the shell-fish of the great Indo-Pacific 
province were almost universally spread through warm 
temperate and equatorial regions to the end of Eocene 
times ; but that the north and south barriers, formed by 
the elevations that produced the Isthmuses of Suez and 
Panama, limited the range of species to the two oceans 
that are connected in tropical areas, and by giving rise to 
modifications of climate in the Atlantic and Mediterranean 
basins, caused great changes in the character of their 
molluscan faunas. 


eens a ETE 


*Cambridge Natural History; Brachiopods and Molluses, p. 435. 


NOTES ON THE CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDE OF 
KREMOPHILA MACULATA, 


(NATIVE FUCHSIA.) 


By FRANK SMITH, B:Sc., F.1.C. 


(Read before the Royal Society of Queenslard, 26th August, 
1913.) 


THE occurrence of an hydrocyanic acid yielding glucoside 
in a member of the exclusively Australian natural order 
Myoperinae, Eremophila Maculata, was first noted by the 
author and J. C. Briinnich, F.I.C. (Queensland Agric. 
Journ. XXV., 291) in November, 1910, in pursuance of 
an enquiry into the cause of mortality among stock on 
Carondotta and Roxbrugh stations in the Boulia district. 


In the interim an attempt has been made to isolate 
the glucoside, and though unsuccessful, it is proved to be 
one of the Amygdalin group, probably difficultly crystal- 
lisable, and yielding on decomposition with emulsin 
benzaldehyde, hydrocyanic acid and reducing sugar. 


The observation that the glucoside and the enzyme 
necessary for its decomposition occur separately in leaves 
and fruit respectively, could not be confirmed on subsequent 
specimens of the plant. Though not actually resulting 
in the separation of the glucoside in the pure state, the 
details of the experimental work performed may be cited. 


EXPERIMENTAL. 


Onc kilo of dried leaves including a small quantity 
of fruit, after preliminary extraction with petroleum ether, 
was thoroughly extracted with 90 per cent. alcohol, and 

c 


’ re 


? 


14 CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDE OF EREMOPHILA MACULATA 


the resinous material obtained on evaporation of the solvent 
treated with water. The aqueus solution, precipitated 
by basic lead acetate, and excess of lead removed by H.S, 
was concentrated under diminished pressure, taken up in 
aleohol and finally extracted with ethyl acetate. 


The brown syrup obtained on evaporation of the solvent 
showed no sign of crystallisation even on standing several 
months, and was without appreciable reducing action on 
Fehling’s solution. 

It was furthertaken up in water when addition of acetate 
of lead produced further small quantity of yellow precipitate. 


The solution freed from lead and concentrated to a 
syrup was repeatedly taken up in alcohol and fractionally 
precipitated by addition of ethyl acetate and ether when 
small quantities of resinous material were deposited. 


The decanted liquor on concentration in partial vacuo 
did not crystallise. nor could crystallisation be obtained 
by use of a mixture of ethyl acetate and toluene as recom- 
mended by Herissey (J. Chem. Soc. Abr., 110, pt. 1, 31). 


An attempt was made to prepare the acetyl derivative 
of the glucoside by boiling a quantity of the crude syrup 
with acetic anhydride. The oil obtained by pouring into 
water was washed with 5 per cent. sodium hydroxide 
solution to free from acidic substances and finally thoroughly 
with water. 

It was completely soluble in ethyl acetate, chloro- 
form, ether, and 95 per cent. alcohol, and evaporation of 
the last mentioned solvent vielded a quantity of rhombic 
crystals. These were purified by two crystallisations from 
hot 95 per cent alcohol and were found to melt sharply 
at 123 degrees C. 

This melting point isidentical with that of tetra-acetyl- 
prulaurasin, though from its sparing solubility in cold 
alcohol and its crystalline form it could not be identified 
with that substance. The amount available did not permit 
of further experimental work. Cooling of the mother 
liquors to—5 degrees C. gave a further quantity of similar 
crystals, and also a small quantity of needles, apparently 
orthorhombic, though it was found impracticable to effect 
the separation of the two substances. 


BY FRANK SMITH, B.SC., F.I.C. 15 


Caldwell and Courtauld (J. Chem. Soc., 107, 91, 666) 
state that tetra-acetyl-prulaurasin separates from concen- 
trated alcoholic solution in orthorhombic needles at— 5 degrees 
C., and that prulaurasin is difficultly crystallisable. 
Prulaurasin, therefore, is probably present in Eremophila 
maculata. 


A portion of the crude syrup (9 grms. in 50 ces. of water) 
was decomposed by :05 grm. of Merck’s emulsin and dis- 
tilled in steam. The distillate contained hydrocyanic 
acid and benzaldehyde, the latter being positively identified 
by the formation of its phenylhydrazone (M.Pt. 153 degrees 
C.). The’liquid from the distillation flask was found to 
reduce Fehling’s solution strongly, and after precipitation 
with lead subacetate yielded with phenylhydrazone the 
typical osazone of glucose. 


v= 


oP Mba 
Py ery or Bar 
“ar ane” 


el Rath. Ff 


THE PLANTS OF MAST-HEAD ISLAND. 


By H. A. LONGMAN. 


(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, June 27th, 1913.) 


MvucuH prominence has been given of late years to the 
study of island floras, perhaps the most noted instance 
being that of Krakatau* In 1883, the entire vegetable 
life there was blotted out of existence by lava streams, 
the result of a volcanic eruption so gigantic that the sound 
of it travelled 3,000 miles and was heard here in Queens- 
land. Yet to-day this island is so thickly clothed with 
vegetation that in places it is almost impenetrable, and 
an object lesson has been given of the manner in which 
organisms re-establish themselves on island homes. The 
interest taken in ‘the flora of Krakatau is an incentive 
to Australian botanists to note the growth of vegetable 
organisms on those islets of our Great Barrier Reef which 
are known to be of comparatively recent origin. 


The respective theories of elevation and depression, 
formulated by Murray and Darwin, to account for the 
growth of coral islands, and somewhat strenuously advocated 
by adherents of each school, are now found to be both correct. 
Whilst certain coral atolls are due to depression, others 
are indubitably formed by elevating influences. The 
whole of the Barrier Reef region is, of course, the result 
of subsidence, but varying factors have contributed to- 


*New Flora of Krakatau, A. Ernst; English trans. A. C. Seward, 
Cam. Univ. Press, 1908. 


Some doubt has been expressed as to whether the nuts of Oocos 
nucifera, Linn., the cocoanut palm, ever germinate naturally when cast 
upon a beach, and in the majority of cases they evidently fail so to do. 
But in the Flora of Krakatau definite evidence is given that a large number 
of these valuable palms have established themselves on that island by 
natural methods. 


18 PLANTS OF MAST-HEAI) ISLAND. 


wards the formation of its many islands. Mr. Charles 
Hedley*, to whom we are indebted for considerable inform- 
ation respecting Mast-Head Island, considers that it was 
formed by the action of tides in the shallow waters. Drifts 
of sand apparently develop, and through the interaction 
of lime and water a core of rock is formed. Depositions 
of matters are constantly added to its bulk, until we have 
an island centre, and a lagoon, suitable for the growth 
around of a wonderful world of coral organisms. The 
island sand is soon enriched by the excretz of birds and 
it forms a ‘fit soil for the development of a wealth of 
vegetable life. The great Greeks who worshipped art 
conceived their goddess of love and beauty as rising from 
the pure waters of ocean. And is not much of the glamour 
and fascination experienced by visitors to one of these 
coral islands on the Barrier Reef due to the fact that these 
little paradises are sea-born—the work of the waves and 
of ocean organisms 4 


Mast-Head Island is situated just outside the Tropic 
of Capricorn, 31 miles from the mainland near Port Curtis, 
and is but 160 acres inextent.+ The outstanding feature 
of its botany is the luxuriance attained, although com- 
paratively few forms participate. Apparently the 
potentialities of the environment, so far as Phanerogams 
are concerned, are utilised to almost the same extent as 
though treble the number of forms were competing for 
sustenance. We have here a striking illustration of the 
advantages to an individual species of an island habitat 
where the struggle for existence is less keen than on the 
mainland. Of the first plants established, a very large 
proportion of offspring must have survived. We may 
expect in such insular floras opportunities for the develop- 
ment of variations which the curtailing influences of Natural 
Selection might stamp out in less congenial habitats. The 
position is somewhat analogous to some of Luther Bur- 
bank’s experiments, where, in order to get all possible varia- 
tions, the fullest scope is given to every seed of the selected 
plant. Both in botany and zoology we find island varieties 
of mainland species. A surprising number of specimens 


*Proc. Lin. Soc., N.S.W., 1906, Vol. XXXI., part 3 
Commonwealth Year Book, 1912, p. 60. 


BY H. A, LONGMAN. 19 


from island habitats appear in records with ne specific 
name attached or are noted as varieties. This 1s par- 
ticularly true of the Challenger Volume by Hemsley, on 
Insular Floras. In certain species a change in environ- 
ment tends to increase variability, and this is surely true 
of many plant immigrants on islands. 


The study of insular floras reveals successive stages in 
plant colonisation. My list from Mast-Head, numbers only 
twenty-six species, two of which are but carpological and 
represent unestablished forms. There may be, of course, 
additional annual plants, not found during our visit.* 
We may anticipate that a census taken some years hence 
will show an increase, even though some species fail to 
survive. The majority of the plants found are naturally 
conspecific with those on the adjacent coastal districts. 
With these the most interesting point is not a mere 
enumeration of names, but an inquiry as to the method 
of colonisation. Primary importance should be given 
to ocean currents. I was fortunate in securing a pod of 
Castanospermum australe, A. Cunn., the Moreton Bay 
Chestnut, which had been washed high on the beach, and 
which in the ordinary course of things might have taken 
root and flourished. Our veteran botanist, Mr. F. M. 
Bailey+, has noted a fruit of Parinarium lauri:num, a Rosace- 
ous tree found in Fiji and the Samoan Islands, which was 
secured in a similar position on the island in 1907. In 
this connection it is interesting to remember the experi- 
ments of Darwin, Guppy, Ch. Martins and others, demon- 
strating that long immersion in sea water fails to rob many 
seeds of their vitality. Casuarine and Pandani flourish 
on coral sand debris, and are usually among the first comers 
brought by ocean currents. Associated with them is the 
common seashore grass, T'huarea sarmentosa, which has 
valuable binding properties in loose sand. Mast-Head 
is circled by a gray-green belt of Casuarina equisetifolia. 
The small cones of these trees sink in the water when green, 
but when somewhat dry they float and retain their vitality 
for several days. Other plants in my list, the seeds of which 
probably reached the island by ocean currents are Sophora 


*Qid. Univ. Biol. Students’ Trip, Sept., 1912. 
TQlid. Agric. Journ., Feb., 1907, p. 76. 


20 PLANTS OF MAST: HEAD ISLAND. 


tomentosa, Abutilon muticum, Sesuvium portulacastrum, 
Tribulus cistoides, Tournefortia argentia, Ipomea Pes- 
caprae, I. Turpethum, Boerhaavia repanda, Euphorbia atoto. 

As an interesting sidelight on the growth of know- 
ledge on this point, it is worth while noting an article by 
Charles Moore on the flora of Lord Howe Island, read before 
the Royal Society of N.S.W., and published in their Trans- 
actions of the year 1871, in which he frankly expresses 
his disbelief in the agency of ocean currents except in the 
case of such fruits as the cocoa-nut. 


Several species are stated to have the advantage 
of two methods of transport. The seeds of Cassytha are 
found in the crops of carpophagous birds and are also 
said to be conveyed by ocean currents. The same applies 
to the seeds of many grasses. 


Some seeds are unquestionably transported in eartli 
adhering to the roots of trees, sent adrift by storm or flood, 
and which find a resting place on the beaches of islands. 
The amount of timber seen in the drift zone at Mast-Head 
was remarkable. The island is celebrated for its multi- 
tudes of birds, and by their agency some of its plants must 
have been introduced. Birds are usually credited with 
the transport of the inland portion of an island flora. In 
dealing with so small an island, the term inland flora, 
in contradistinction to the drift zone and the strand area, 
seems a little incongruous, and except that at Mast-Head 
the Pisonia trees were found in the centre, and Casuarinas 
on the shores, no rigid demarcation should be made. Among 
the fruits eaten and dispersed by birds may be mentioned, 
in addition to Cassytha and the grasses, Ficus (two species) 

_and Solanum nigrum, but for want of fuller knowledge on 
this subject, I do not care to add to the list. Banfield* 
has compared Pisonia Brunoniana to the fabled Upas tree 
because the viscid substance coating its seeds is comparable 
to birdlime and it ensnares and occasionally causes the 
death of small birds. So many insects perish in the gummy 
envelopes that Banfield asks whether it may not be to the 
advantage of these seeds to have animal matter present 
to assist them in germinating. J. A. Leachtf refers to the 


** Confessions of a Beachcomber,” p. 207. 
7° An Australian Bird Book,” p. 36. 


BY H. A, LONGMAN. 21 


** wonderful partnership’ between the noddies and this 
tree, adding, *“‘ The birds are sometimes so loaded and clogged 
with these fruits that they are incapable of flight.” 

The seeds of some of the smaller plants are often con- 
veyed in mud attached to birds, and in this connection 
we have Darwin’s classic illustration of 82 seeds germinating 
from a ball of hard earth found on the leg of a partridge. 
The well-known Plumbago zeylanica, which is firmly estab 
lished at Mast-Head, has a glandular calyx surrounding 
the fruit and which falls off with the ripening seeds. This 
sticky calyx is doubtless responsible for the transfer of 
seeds, for this widely-spread species is found in most of 
our scrubs. 

It is with disidence that one mentions the possibility 
of wind dispersal in regard to the plants in my list. Of 
the two Composites found on the island, the Wedelia has 
no pappus, but the seeds of Gnaphaliwm luteo-album, a 
very common weed, may well have been blown from the 


Fy | 
mainland. 


As Mast-Head has been visited at various times by 
camping parties, it is by no means unlikely that man himself 
has unintentionally been responsible for the conveyance 
of some species. 

Only one parasitical plant was found, that being 
Cassytha filiformis. Species of Loranthus are very com- 
monly found on Casuarinas, but they have as yet failed 
to establish themselves at Mast-Head. 

No fungi, lichen or mosses were noted ; perhaps the 
season and the time of the year were partly responsible, but 
no careful search was made for such small forms as usually 
escape ordinary notice. 

A large number of Mast-Head plants represent very 
widely-spread species, and among them are some of the 
most successful colonists of the vegetable world. Touwrne- 
fortia argertea was collected by Darwin at the Keeling 
or Cocos Islands, 600 miles from the nearest land. Taking 
the areas of Continental Asia, Polynesia, Australia, Africa 
and America, as tabulated by Hemsley, we find that seven 
of our plants have the full range : Tribulus cistoides, Suphora 
tomentosa, Sesuvium vportulacastrum, Boerhaavia repanda, 
Achyranthes aspera, Cassytha filiformis and Casuarina 


og. PLANIS OF MAST-HEAD ISLAND. 


equisetifolia. Several of the other species are also widely 
dispersed, and it is thus evident that this island has been 
reached by some of the most ubiquitous of plants. 


One of my specimens, Stenotaphrum subulatum, an 
ally of the Buffalo grass, is a new record for Australia. It 
is a common grass in New Guinea and Fiji, and will doubt- 
less before long establish itself on our mainland. A variety 
allied to this species was secured from the south-eastern 
Moluccas during the Challenger expedition and may prove 
to be intermediate between subulatum and americanum. 


Leaving on one side the fruit of Castanospermum 
australe, we have only three Mast-Head species which 
should be classed as truly endemic to Australia. These are 
Euphorbia eremophila, Ficus opposita and Pandanus pedun- 
culatus. 

As several Pandani are mentioned from islands in the 
Pacific but with no specific name attached, the range of 
this last species may need to be enlarged. According 
to Bentham our Abutilon muticum agrees with specimens 
from tropical Asia, generally referred to A. asiaticum* 


My thanks are due to Mr. F. M. Bailey and his assist- 
ant, Mr. C. T. White, for help with one or two difficult 
specimens. I should also like to take this opportunity of 
expressing my obligations to Mr. J. H. Maiden for his ever- 
ready assistance to botanical workers. 


Order CRUCIFERZ. 
Senebiera integrifolia, D.C., var. scaber, Bail.t 
(R.A.O.U., Excur. 1910. Not seen in 1912.) 
Order MALVACEZ. 
Abutilon muticum, G. Don. 
Order ZYGOPHYLLEA. 
Tribulus cistoides, Linn. 
Order LEGUMINOSA. 
Sophora tomentosa, Linn. 
Castanospermum australe. A. Cunn. (Fruit only.) 
Order ROSACEA. 
Parinarium laurinum, A. Gray (Fruit only.)t 


*Benth. Fl. Austr., i, 204. 
+Qld. Agric. Journ., Nov., 1910, p, 234. 
tfyld. Agric. Journ., Feb., 1907, p. 76. 


BY H. A. LONGMAN. 2a 


Order FicorpE2. 
Sesuvium portulacastrum, Linn. 
Order ComMposiIT&. 
Gnaphalium luteo-album, Linn. 
Wedelia (not seen by writer; noted by ornitho- 
logists ; probably W. biflora, D.C.). 
Order PLUMBAGINE®. 
Plumbago zeylanica, Linn. 
Order BoRAGINE®. 
Tournefortia argentea, Linn. 
Order CONVOLVULACES. 
_LIpomea Pes-caprae, Roth. 
Ipomea Turpethum, R. Br. 
Order SOLANACE. 
Solanum nigrum, Linn. 
Order NYcTAGINE®. 
Boerhaavia repanda, Willd. 
Pisonia Brunoniana, Endl. 
Order AMARANTACES. 
Achyranthes aspera, Linn. 
Order LAURINE. 
Cassytha filiformis, Linn. 
Order URTICACES. 
Ficus opposita, Miq. 
Ficus, sp. 
Order EUPHORBIACEZ. 
Euphorbia atoto, Forst. 
Euphorbia eremophila, A. Cunn. 
Order CASUARINE. 
Casuarina equisetifolia, Forst. 
Order PANDANACES. 
Pandanus pedunculatus, R. Br. 
Order GRAMINEZ. 
Thuarea sarmentosa, Pers. 
Stenotaphrum subulatum, Trin. 


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UNDERGROUND WATERS. 


(WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SOUTH AUSTRALIA AND 
QUEENSLAND.) 


By THOMAS PARKER, F.G:S. 


——_— 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, May 27th, 1912. 


RESEARCHES IN GREAT BRITAIN. 


A @QREAT impetus to the study of underground waters 
—that is, water subterranean, sub-artesian, and artesian 
-—was given by the researches in Great Britain of the 
British Association for the Advancement of Science. A 
Research Committee was appointed in 1874, and their 
work was spread over a number of years. At the com- 
mencement of that committee’s investigations a list of 
questions was sent out to voluntary observers in different 
parts of the country. These questions had relation to the 
wells in their localities, the depths, and yields of water, 
the variations of the water levels in the wells in dry and 
wet seasons, and other important points. At an early 
stage of this inquiry the decision was arrived at that the 
source of underground waters was the rainfall by percola- 
tion from the surface. 


NortTErs on SoutH AUSTRALIA. 


About this time I was engaged in making engineering 
‘surveys in connection with water conservation and irriga- 
tion in various localities in South Austrajia. During this 
work I met some striking instances of the great amount 
of percolation of the rainfall below the surface of the country, 
In the Willochra Valley, during the great drought of 1885-6, 
the ground in many parts was covered with large cracks 
and fissures, extending down into the subsoil for a con- 
siderable depth. From this I concluded that, during the 


26 UNDERGROUND WATERS. 


season of heavy rainfall which followed, a very great pro-. 
portion of the rainfall would disappear underground. Here 
is another instance of excessive percolation. In the bed 
of the Wakefield River, during a dry season, I noticed a 
large number of wide cracks in the river bed, into which 
during the next flood the water poured, and arrested the 
river channel flow for some time. This shows what large 
quantities of the rainfall percolates and goes underground. 
These observations of great percolation confirmed my 
opinion, largely held by others, that underneath the beds 
of most rivers and streams there is a subterranean stream 
following a direction and gradient similar to that of the 
river at the surface. 


URGING THE COLLECTION OF DATA. 


In South Australia I found that, with the exception 
of rainfall records, there were at that time little data upon 
which to base conclusions as to the feasibility of works 
of water conservation and irrigation. In order to arrive 
at a thorough knowledge of the underground waters I 
urged on the Government the great need of systematic 
gauging of the water flowing in the rivers, and showed 
that this work, and the measurement of evaporation and 
absorption, were quite as important as the survey of the 
lands and the mineral-bearing areas of the country. Soon 
after this the work of gauging the rivers of South Australia 
was initiated. 1 made similar recommendations in Queens- 
land about five years ago, and I am pleased to hear that 
river gaugings have since been begun in this State. 


UNSCIENTIFIC SEARCH FOR UNDERGROUND 
WATER. 


The search in South Australia for suitable sites for 
bores and wells at the dates referred to had not been always 
conducted under the guidance of recognised scientific 
principles. Artesian. water had been found in some 
localities, and a speculative use of the boring rod was 
frequently made. The tendency was to take the most 
hopeful view of the prospect in connection with many 
of these earlier ventures in search of water. The professor 


of the divining rod was then, and even up to the present is, 
too much in evidence. 


BY THOMAS PARKER, F.G.S. ! 27 


e 

I may here relate an interesting test I had the oppor- 
tunity of making of the work of a divining-rod practitioner. 
One of these had applied to the South Australian Govern- 
ment to be appointed as water finder. The matter was 
referred to me for inquiry and report. I proceeded with 
the diviner and a number of interested visitors to the Plain 
of Adelaide. After a locality was selected for the test 
the operator moved about with the rod held in his hands 
in the usual way. At the bending down of the forked 
twig at certain spots 1 had pegs driven to mark the places. 
I next proposed to sink bore holes at these spots marked 
by the pegs, having with me some men and boring appliances. 


Before beginning the borings I asked the practitioner 
of the rod what was his opinion about the points which 
the rod had passed over without turning down. Did he 
consider water could be found under these places? After 
having this question put to him more than once, the operator 
at length declined to answer. Several of the visitors from 
other States agreed with me that it was a fair inquiry 
to make. The only reply obtainable was: He considered 
it was only a catch question. 

I then had borings made, both at the points marked 
by the pegs and at two other points where the rod passed 
over without turning down. The result-was that, the ground 
being soft and the boring easy, water was soon reached, 
being found at a shallow depth. The borings went on, 
and water was reached at a similar depth at all the places, 
as water prevailed under the locality generally. 


The conclusion I arrived at was that the turning 
down of a divining rod, by whatever force it may be pro- 
duced, is not a reliable guide to the presence of water 
under the surface at the spot where the rod turns down. 


UNDERGROUND WATER EXPLORATIONS SCIENTIFICALLY 
GUIDED. 


A very important question may be asked here. What 
progress has been made in Australia towards a scientific 
method of exploring for underground water supplies, artesian 
or otherwise, previous to sinking or boring? As far as I 
have ascertained neither America nor Australia can report 
much progress towards a solution of the problem. In a 


Cy UNDERGROUND WATERS. 


D 


\ 


recent official report in the United States it is stated ‘‘ Much 
blind optimism prevails on this subject.’’ This is also 
true, to a large extent, of Queensland, with the exception 
of some able work done by the Geological Department. 
Measuring evaporation and gauging the run-off in the 
rivers have been left undone until recently. I began this 
work in South Australia 25 years ago. Such data are 
necessary to solve the problems of the source of the 
artesian wells, and the permanency or otherwise of their 
flow. 
A METHOD oF EXPLORATION. 

I would again emphasise the importance’ of the 
question: what is the best scientific method of explora- 
tion for underground waters ? As a contribution to the 
answer to this I shall now describe some work I undertook 
some years ago in that direction. I had to examine the 
Willochra Valley, in South Australia, where a water supply 
was required for railway purposes. I was instructed to 
make an engineering survey, and report on the proposed 
construction of a large dam on the Willochra Creek to 
conserve water in the valley. I found the locality, after 
examination and survey, not at all suited for that kind of 
scheme, and considered a work of that nature probably 
would prove an abortive one. 


Before preparing my report, I decided to examine 
the neighbouring Coonatto and Flinders Ranges. To enable 
me to decide on the probability of discovering an under- — 
ground supply of water there, 1 took levels of the mountain 
slope with the aneroid barometer, measured the depth 
of some wells, in the foot hills, yielding good potable water. 
From these and other data obtained in the locality I pre- 
pared a hydro-geological sketch section across the valley. 
In this section I indicated the underground water surface 
or line of saturation. This was obtained by joining the 
points, indicating the water level in the wells. Then, 
inferentially, I indicated the probable course of the under- 
ground water, by producing this line of saturation down 
to the bottom of the valley, intersecting the line of railway 
at the township of Bruce. I then reported on the 
probability of underground water being found near the 


BY THOMAS PARKER, F.G.S. 29 


railway at the depth indicated in my sketch section. On 
a bore being sunk there, good water was found at about 
the depth indicated in my section. I adopted the system 
whilst in South Australia up to 1889, a step in advance 
of the old haphazard method. 


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UNDERGROUND WATERS 


(In SourH AUSTRALIA AND QUEENSLAND.) 


By THOMAS PARKER, F.G.8. 


Read before the Royal Society of Queensland Auqust 26th, 
1913. 


FurRTHER NOTES ON SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 


ANOTHER stream of underground water, which I ex- 
amined during my water explorations in South Australia, was 
from acatchment on Mount Lofty. This stream, though not 
artesian, was of interest as showing the grade of the under- 
ground flowing water. Coming from the range behind 
Adelaide, it passed thence under that city, towards the 
sea, and at increasing depths along the line of its flow. 
The depth at Glen Osmond, on the foot-hills, was 40ft. 
from the surface ; at Adelaide, 70ft.; at Kilkenny, nearer 
the sea, 118ft.; and under Port Adelaide probably at a 
greater depth, as a bore made at the port down to 100ft. 
from the surface did not reach the underground water. 
It is most probable that this underground water passes 
under the sea bottom of the Gulf of Saint Vincent, and 
finds an outlet further seaward. 


A WATER-LOGGED VALLEY IN QUEENSLAND. 


One of my first studies of the underground waters 
of Queensland was the large subterranean storage of water 
on the western side of Rockhampton. This extends to 
Warren, on the Queensland Central Railway, a distance of 
18 miles. The water is found at a depth from the surface 
of about 22ft. As the rise of the surface between the two 
places just named is 150ft., the slope of the surface of this 
underground water will be about 8.3f{t. per mile, and the 
water must be a flowing stream. Some years ago I made 
an examination of this body of water by means of bores, 


32 UNDERGROUND WATERS. 


trial shafts, and surface surveys, and found the storage 
an extensive one, and the water in the drift sand had been 
tested in one locality to a depth of about 50ft. of water 
and find sand. I afterwards had an opportunity of deter- 
mining the source of the supply as coming from the moun- 
tains near Stanwell, Mount Morgan, and Lion Mountain. 
Near Stanwell a large number of creeks unite, and the 
combined waters percolate under the sandy bed of Neerkol 
Creek. In the lower part of the valley of this creek, right 
on to Rockhampton, the water flow is mostly underground. 
The stream appears to pass under the flats west of Rock- 
hampton, and the railway at Yeppen, and probably finds 
its way into the Pacific Ocean. 


THe ARTESIAN WELLS OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND. 


The advancing surveys and delimitation of the great 
Australian basin enable us now to form some conception 
of the paramount interest which Queensland has in the 
artesian water question of Australia. The total area of 
this basin is about 481,000 square miles, of which near 
three-fourths is in Queensland, and the remainder in New 
South Wales and South Australia. Since the discovery 
of the existence of this immense basin some hundreds of 
artesian wells have been sunk, and the daily flow was given 
recently as 529 million gallons ; this, however, is probably 
only a fractional part of the water percolating on the 
catchment, going down to maintain the flow of the under- 
ground streams, so that the artesian wells are not likely 
to diminish in yield for want of water to maintain their 
supply. The prominent features of these wells are the 
great diversity of chemical contents of the waters, the 
varieties of rocks bored through, and the temperature of 
the waters at the surface. At Longreach, for instance, 
where I designed and carried out works for laying on the 
bore water to the town, the water is of high temperature, 
also is so high in saline contents as to render it unsuitable 
as a potable water. Still, it is found most pleasant for 
bathing, of great use for domestic purposes, for fire ex- 
tinction, andfor manufacturing purposes. The beds passed 
through by the. boring were mostly shales down to the 
water-bearing beds. 


BY THOMAS PARKER, F.G.S. 30 


OUTLETS TO THE CCEAN. 


Another condition of these artesian waters’ is that 
they find an outlet to the sea at points greatly distant 
from the locality of their intake. Mr. A. Gibb, Maitland, 
formerly of the Geological Department of Queensland, 
some years ago reported on the leakage of Queensland 
artesian waters into the sea. He said that, as is the case 
in Queensland, nearly all the important artesian water 
basins cf the world leak into the sea, or present facilities 
for the escape of water at a lower level than that at which 
it isreceived. My researches in South Australia and Central 
Queensland also lead me to the same conclusion that the 
ocean is largely the ultimate destination of underground 
waters. Keasoning then, as I think one may, from the 
analogies of artesian basins in other countries, it appears 
a safe inference that the underground waters of Western 
Queensland are not a motionless reservoir of water, but a 
moving stieam; a stream passing onward through the 
porous 1ocks and the fissures and openings of the several 
rock formations in which the water is found. 


Is CLOSING OF ARTESIAN WELLS DIMINISHING THEIR FLOW 2 


It is well-known that the flow of artesian wells in 
Queensland and New South Wales has diminished during 
recent years. The most common cause of reduced flows, 
according to some American experience, is improper casing, 
and these have existed from the beginning of the well. 
In other cases the failure of flow is ascribed to poor jointing 
or packing. In other instances a friable rock has been 
fractured by the boring tools, and this part of the bore 
has been subjected to caving. 


From these and similar causes the leaks around the 
casing or into adjoining porous beds may easily cause a 
diminution cf the flow, or lead to the total loss of the flow 
of the well. 


Some remarkable evidence on this question has been 
given by Mr. R. S. Symmonds, of New South Wales, which 
goes to prove that closing down artesian bores. is ‘an 
injurious practice. Mr. Symmonds describes 19 bores 
in which the closing of the valve at the surface was followed 
by a rush of water outside the bore, causing permanently 


34. UNDERGROUND WATERS. 


decreased flow. After explaining in detail the injuries 
to the bores through closing the valves, he remarks, ‘“ It 
is quite possible, indeed very probable, that this (closing 
down the valves) is the true reason why many of the flows 
are diminishing.”’ 

In the case of the Longreach town bore, Central 
Queensland, I found on examining it, before beginning 
the reticulation works of the town from the artesian bore, 
the water was flowing almost as much outside the bore 
easing as within it. Evidently some injury had been done 
previously to this bore, probably through a shock from 
water ram. The depth to the water-bearing bed is about 
2400ft. ; the pressure of the water at the surface was about 
75lbs. to 9Olbs. per square inch. The shock from water 
ram which oceurs when a bore is valved down, would be 
a heavy one, and most probably sufficient to burst the 
casing, and cause a diminution of the flow inside the bore 
casing, and also make the water leak away underground. 
It is well known that if a valve in a line of system or water 
pipes be suddenly closed while the water is flowing freely 
under pressure, such sudden closing of the valve will pro- 
duce a strain upon the pipes far greater that that due to 
the static head of water. I have known cases where town 
water pipes were burst by the closing of the street valve, 
and water ram caused by such closing. The bursts occurred 
so frequently that the matter was investigated by me, 
and it was found the bursts of pipes were caused by closing 
a hydrant valve from time to time, and the pipes were also 
found weak through corrosion. In the case of an artesian 
bore well, the bursting of the casing pipe, from water ram 
and corrosion of the pipe, would show by water coming 
up outside the casing, or the water would find an escape 
underground into some porous beds of rock, or some open- 
ings in the shale, or some permeable rock through which 
the bore has passed. 


WastTE CAUSED BY RESTRICTION OF FLOW. 

From inquiries I have made respecting some of the 
artesian bores of Queensland I consider the facts and 
conditions point strongly in the direction of the conclusion 
that the diminished flow of artesian wells is mostly caused 
by the closing down of the valves, and thereby bursting 


BY THOMAS PARKER, F.G.S. 30 


weak or corroded casing pipes. I know one district in 
Western Queensland where galvanised wrought iron pipes 
have been so corroded by the surface soil contents that 
the pipes have become worthless by corrosion within two 
years. Where the casing pipes of artesian wells have 
suffered by corrosion the shock of closing down the valve 
at the surface will easily cause the rupture of the casing, 
and bring about the diminished flow of the wells already 
described. It would appear, then, that the practice of 
valving down adopted to prevent waste of artesian water is 
more likely to have a contrary effect, and rather cause a 
diminished flow at the surface, and bring about a real 
waste of the water underground. It may here be asked, 
What is a waste of the water of a flowing artesian well ? 
Evidently the opinion in some quarters hitherto has been 
this, that by allowing the unrestricted flow of the bores 
to the surface much of the water is wasted. Hence the 
decision to restrict the flow. But I think if the facts and 
arguments I have presented were taken into account, and 
fuller inquiry made, it would be found that this unrestricted 
flow of existing bores is not a waste of the water, although 
at the first glance it may appear so; also that valving 
down existing bores does not conserve the underground 
supply. It should be remembered that the closing down of 
a bore and stopping the flow, even if it could be done without 
a water ram shock and consequent damage to the bore, 
does not necessarily conserve the water. All the time the 
bore is closed the opening at the ocean end of the under- 
ground stream is there. The water into which the bore 
has originally pierced is not a closed reservoir, but a flow- 
ing stream, though moving slowly, hence no water is being 
actually conserved whilst the bore is closed at the surface, 
for the stream below is passing the locality of the bore all 
the time. The water, as before, is flowing down the incline 
between two watertight strata, which form a kind of water 
pipe, but one, however, which is open at the lower end. 
When it is considered what a very large amount of money 
has been expended on artesian wells in this State, and that 
the maintenance of that water supply in the arid western 
areas is of vital public importance, the question of the di- 
minishing flow of the well should be thoroughly investigated. 


—- 


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Royal Society of Queensland. 


mo 


fe -INDEX 


| 
| 
| ~ VOLUMES | to XXV_ 


INCLUSIVE. 


HON. -EDITOR. 


Bri shine; 


COMPILED BY 
A. B. WALKOM, B.Sc., 


: BR. Poum & Co,, Printers, Hlizabeth Street. 
bea : hte 1914. 
A eee llama == i - : 2 4 / 
Pig fect Me aie g ee ee : 
eS et foe tet tn ee - 


Peters 
2s 


THE 
Royal Society of Queensland. 


INDEX 


TO PAPERS IN 


VOLUMES I to XXV_ 


INCLUSIVE. 


COMPILED BY 


A. B. WALKOM, BSc., 
HON. EDITOR. 


Brisbane, 
3. Pour & Co., Printers, Elizabeth Street. 


1914. 


DATES OF PUBLICATION OF VOLUMES. 


pies cee 
Vou. I. Parts 1, 2, 3. 1884. Part 4. 1886. 
I. Part 1. 1885. Part 2. 1886. 
iil 1887 
IV 1888 
¥; Parte 1, 2, 3, 4. 1888. Part 5. 1889. 
Vi Parts 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. 1889. 
Vil. 1891. 
VIIl. Parts 1, 2. 1891. Parts 3, 4. 1892. 
1X. 1893. 
b & 1894. 
Ai; Part 1. 1895... Part 2. 1896. 
XI. 1897. 
XIU. 1898. 
XIV. 1899. 
RY; 1900. 
XVI. 1901. 


bo 


EV ti. Part 1. 1902. Part 1903. 


XVIII. 1904. 


XIX. Part 1. 1905. Paet 2. 1906 
xX. 1907. 
XXI. 1908. 
XXII. Part 1. 1909. Part 2. 1910. 
XXIII. Part 1. 1911. Part 2. 1912. 


XXIV. 1913" 
KY. 1914. 


Nore.—Some volumes were published in parts, others complete. In the following 
index the Roman numeral represents the number of the volume, the 
figure in brackets the number of the part, and the final number the 
page; eg., I (1) 1 means Vol. I., part 1, page 1, and X 40 means. 
Vol. X., page 40. 


INDEX. 


A number of papers of which the title only, or an abstract of two or three 
lines, has been printed are marked with an asterisk. 


A.A.A.S. Report of delegates to, VIII 
(4) 122, *X 40. 

Aboriginal Customs in N. Queensland. 
XT 33. 

drill. 


Description of an, XIII 
87. 


languages of E. Australia com- 
pared. XII 11. 

s. Notes on the, of Stradbroke 
and Moreton Islands. VIII (2) 40. 
Social and Individual nomen- 
clature of the N.W. Central Queens- 
land, XIII 39. 


Aborigines. Food of the. of Central 
Australia. I[ (3) 104. 
On an undescribed class _ of 


rock-drawings of, in Q. I (2) 45. 
*Stone cooking holes of the 
Australian, XV 3. 


Acacia delibrata. On the discovery of 
saponin in, IV 10. 
— melaleucoides, Bail. 
of, V (3). 121. 
Notes on, V (4) I48. 
S. Occurrence of 
Australian, and Albizzias. 
Acarus. On an, associated 
diseased condition in the 
IV 106. 
Address, Inaugural, I (1) 3. 
* Ailanthus imberbiflera, var macartneyt. 
Constituents of the resin of, XI (2) 


Description 


saponin in 
XIT 103. 
with a 
banana. 


42. 

Albatross Bay and the Embley and Hey 
Rivers. XII 42. 

Albizzias. Occurrence of saponin in 


Australian acacias and, 
Aneitia graffet and its allies. V (5) 162. 
Angophoras. Gums of Eucalypts and, 
VIII (2) 37. : 
Anopheles pictus. Notes on a malaria- 
carrying mosquito (,) XVI 45. 


Anthills. Note on the meridional, of the 
Cape York Peninsula. NII 99. 
Anthracite in a fissure lode. XXIII (2) 


131. 


XIT 1053. , 


Anthropological notes of 50 years ago. 
XXII (1) 107. ‘ 

Ants. Judicial entomology and- on an 
unrecorded habit of white, 1V 119. 

Notes on Queensland, I. Harvest- 
ing ants. II (2) 146. ; 

———— On a sense of hearing in, I (2) 79: 

Arauearia. Notes on the resins of two- 
Queensland species of, VII (1) 1. 


bidwilli. On the resin of, Xf 

(1) F2: 
Armit W E. Notes on the philology of 
the islands adjacent to the SE. 


extremity of New Guinea. II (1) 2. 
The Papuans : comparative notes on 
various authors, with original 
observations. II (2) 78. 
Artesian Basins. The geological structure: 
of extra-Australian, XII 17 
Wells and Water. II (2) 208. 
water by the 
Hwang-Ho Rivers. 
AAT: 25. 


* 


as illustrated 
and Yane-tse 


Stratigraphical notes on 
the Georgina Basin with special refer- 
ence to the question of, XI (2) 70. 

The submarine leakage 
of, XII 59. 
A post-Pliocene, III 42. 
VIII (4) 114. 
Atherinidz#. Notes on some Australian, 
XXIV 47. . 
Australia. The building of, X XI 57. 
The building of E., XXIII 
(2) 149. | : 
*__ ns. The supposed 
the, XI (2) 46. 
their life-history and effects. 


Artiodactyle. 
Asbestos. 


descent of 


* Bacteria : 
& 34. 

* Bacteriological knowledge as applied to: 
the human race. X 34. 

Baiera bidens. XII 74. wi 

Bailey F. M. A contribution towards a 
flora of Mt. Perry. I (2) 61, Botanic 
notes. XI (1) 14, Concise . history 
of Australian Botany... VEIT (2) 


| INDEX. 


Bailey VF. M.—Continued. 


xvi, Contributions to Queensland 
Flora I (1) 9, I (2) 84, I (3) 148, 
Contributions to the New Guinea 
Flora. XVIII 1, Description of a 
new Eucalypt. X 17, Description 
of Acacia melaleucoides, Bail. V (3) 
121, Description of the Queensland 
form ot Nipa fruticans. V. (4) 146, 
Sxhibit of a bunya nodule. X 53, 
*Exhibit of new and _ interesting 
plants. X 37, Fasciation in 
Bouvardia triphylla, Salisb. ITT 153, 
Fasciation in Sicyos angulata, Linn. 
T (2) 102, Excursion to Eumundi. 
X 51, Notes on Acacia melaleucoides. 
V (4) 148, *Notes on fresh Queens- 
land plants. X 101, Notes on some 
plant specimens collected by Dr. T. 
Baneroft on the Diamantina. VIII. 
(4) 128, Notes on the vegetation of 
New Guinea. XIV 14, Obituary 
notice of Dr. Chas. Prentice. X 50, 
Speeimens of Blackall Range plants. 
VIII (4) 136. 


‘Bailey J. F. The introduction of econ- 
omic plants into Queensland. XXII 
(2) 77. 

Ball L. C. Anthracite in a fissure lode. 
XXIIE (2) 131. 

Bancroft J. An inquiry into the maize 
disease of the Caboolture District. 
Ill 108, An unusual agency in the 
destruction of marine mollusca. 
IV 26, Experiments with Indian 
wheats in Queensland. I (4) 176, 
Food of the aborigines of Central 
Australia. I (3) 104, Obituary 
notice of N 102, Presidential 
address (1885) [1 (2) 67. 


aS ap. Distillation ‘of ‘native 
essential oils from a commercial 
aspect. VII (1) 6, On a method by 
which a pure water-supply. could be 
obtained for Brisbane. XV 83, 
On a weak point in the life-history of 
Neoceratodus forstert, Krefft. 
MXIT (2) 251, On an easy and 
certain method of hatching Cera- 
todus ova. XXV 1, On Echino- 
coceus ina wallaby. VII (1) 31. On 
Filarie of birds. VI (1) 58. On 
Hematomonas of rat’s blood. V (1) 
31, On the discovery of saponin in 
Acacia delibrata. IV 10. On the 
physiological action of Cyrtocarya 
australis. IV 12, On the physio- 
logical action of Daphnandra 
yepandula. ¥V 13, On the poisonous 
property of Nicotiana suaveolens. 


Bancroft 'T. L.—Continued. 


IV 9, Preliminary notes on some new 
poisonous plants. VIII (2) 35, 
Psoriasis in horses. VIII (3) 665, 
Strychnine, a useless remedy in 
snakebite. VIII (2) 29. 


Barramundi. Description of a new 
species of true, Osteoglossum jardinii 
from N. Queensland. VIII (3) 105, 


Bartley N. Gold occurrence in Queens- 
land. LV 124, The first discovery of 
gold in Queensland. IV 114. 

Basalt. Contemporaneous, im 
Gympie Formation. XII 95. 

Bees. Notes on, and wax-scales. XIV 1. 

Bennett E. J. 
IV 129. 

F. Botany of Irvinebank and 

its neighbourhood. XIX (1) 65, 

Permo-Carboniferous fossils from 

Banana (Abstract). XI (2) 47, 

Probable outcrop of the Blythes- 

dale Braystone south of its supposed 


the 


Observations on cataract. 


boundary. XIII 23. 
Dr. George. Obituary notice of, 
i ee ff 


Berge J. S. See Ringrose R. C. ete. 

Bernays L. A. Description of exotic 
fruits new to Queensland. I (3) 136, 
Gruinea grass (Panicum maximum) ; 
its history. cultivation and value. 
VIII (2) 51, Notes on the palm, 
Caryota wrens. LIT 33, On the palm, 
Raphia (Sagus) ruffia. IL (2) 210, 
Presidential Address. Lit » Ee. 
Sechium edule (Chayote). Its intro- 
duction into Queensland—cultiva- 
tion and uses. VII (1) 41, The 
economic aspects of entomology. 
Tr. (2): 43: 

Birch C. W. de B. Sesbania, a native 
fibre-producer. I (2) 101. 

Birds. Additions to the list of fossil, 
VI (1) 55. 

Description of new, from Herberz- 

VI (5) 242. 

On Filariew of, VI (1) 58. 

On the migration of, at Cape 

York Peninsula. I (2) 93. . 

The, of Charleville. III 23. 

The, of the Chinchilla district. 

IE (2) 117. 

of Central Queensland. V (1) 14. 

*Blackman F.A. The effect of advanced 
bacteriological knowledge as applied 
to the human race. X 34. 

Blake E. C. See Shirley J. and Blake. 


ton. 


INDEX. 


Blythesdale Braystone. Probable out- 


crop of, south .of its supposed 
boundary. XIII 25. 
Bora ring. A, in the Albert Valley. 


XXII (1) 103. 

AE CD dA. 

* Botanical excursion to Burleigh Heads 
and the Macpherson Range. X 02. 


Botanic notes. 


_- work. A review of recent. in 
Australia. IX 12. 

Botany. Concise history of Australian, 
VIII (2) xvi. 

of Irvinebank and its neigh- 

bourhood. XIX (1) 65. 

Bouvardia triphylla, Salish. Fasciation 
in, IIT 153. 

Braula ceca, a bee parasite. ITV 17. 


*Brigalow. The chemistry of, 
XI (2) 56. 

Broadbent K. Birds of Central Queens- 
land. V (1) 14, On the migration of 
birds at Cape York Peninsula. 
I (2) 93. The Birds of Charleville. 
II 23, The birds of the Chinchilla 
District. If (2) 117. 

Broun N. W. *Further notes on crater 
lakes at Ban Ban. XI (2) 88, On 
the discovery of two crater lakes 
and other evidences of volcanic 
activity near Ban Ban. X 44. 

Brownlee J. H. See Ringrose R. C. etc. 

Briinnich J. C. Graphical and mechan- 
ical aids to calculation. XXI 33, 
The land we live on. XXII (1) 37. 

V (4) 148, VI (1) 76, 


gum. 


Bryological notes. 
VI (2 & 3) 104. 
Building stones of St. John’s Cathedral, 
Brisbane. XXIII (2) 199. 
Exhibit of a, nodule. 
XI (2) 45. 


X 53. 


Bunya. 


— bunya nuts. 


Burbung of the Wiradthuri tribes. 
XVI 35. 

Burdekin Valley. 
the, XXIV 95. 

Butterflies. List of, of the 
District. XIII 89. 


New species of Queensland, VI 
(2 & 3) 117. 

Byram W. J. Recent aspect 
Theory. XVI (1): v. 


Notes on portion of 


Brisbane 


of the Cell 
The begin- 


nings of Life. XV 5. 
Caffein-yielding plants. XI (2) 82. 
*Callophyllum inophyllum. Resins of, 

XII 10. 

Cameron J. Presidential Address. 


<0 (1) a. 


i 


5 
Canarium mulleri, (Bail.). On the oleo- 
resin of, VILT (3) 95. 

Cancer On the prevalence of, in Aus” 
tralasia. X 65 & 89. 
Caryota urens. Notes on the palm, 

lit 33: 
Cassowary. On the Australian, 
varius australis) X 59. 


( Cas- 

Casuartus australis. On the Australian 

Cassowary, X 59. 

lV 

Cave-drawings. On aboriginal, on the: 
Palmer goldfield. XI (2) 91. 


Cataract. Observations on, 129. 


Caves. Description of some, near Cam- 
ooweal. XY 87. 

Cell Theory. Recent aspect of the, 
RVI (1) v. 

Ceratodus. On an easy and certain 
method of hatching, ova. XXV lI. 


Oo 


Report on preservation of, XII 
101. 
forstert. X AO. 


post- Pliocene. 


1 (1) 40. 


On the occur- 
Til 141. 


Noto- 


Chanos salmoneus, Forsk. 
rence of, in Moreton Bay. 
The lesser, of the 
Ke OLS. 
The discovery of chicken, in 
XI (2) 77. 
Cinnamomum oliveri, Bail. The sassafras 
trees of Queensland and _ the 
chemistry of, XI (1) 20. 
Clarke A. W. Reply to Lindon’s note. 


Chelonians. 
therium drifts. 
Cholera. 


Queensland. 


IV 112, The Mineral Scolecite 
occurring in granite, Charters 
Towers. IV 109. The occurrence: 


of triclinic felspars in the granite of 
Charters Towers. IV 131. 
Climate. The influence of the, of Queens- 
land on its inhabitants of Kuropean 
origin and their descendants. XI 
(2) xxiii. 
s of the geological. past.. XXII 


(2) 59. 
*Coalfields. On the oldest worked, of. 
China. XIII 38. 


Cobalt ore. On the mineral resources of 
Kilkivan, Wide Bay, and. on the 
recent discovery of, in that district.. 
III 129. 


Cognac. Distilling, from sugar and. grape- 
juice. XI (2) 57. 

Colledge W. R. Notes on a_ brush- 
tongued mosquito. XXIII (1) 121,. 
Notes on a malaria-carrying mos- 
quito ( Anopheles pictus).. XVI 46, 


f 
‘Colledge W. R.—Continued. 


Notes on a species of sandfly. XVII 
(1) 17, Notes on an apparently new 
species of hyaline Daphnia, XX 58, 
Notes on Brisbane pond-life. XXII 
(1) 35, Notes on the rotifers or 
wheel animalcule of Brisbane. 
XXIII (1) 87, Notes on the Scots 
Gray Mosquito (Culex mucidus 
alternans, Westwood) XVIII 67. 
Observations on the life-history of 
the common mosquito, XV 111. 


V (5) 161. 
Colocasia imacrorrhiza. On the curative 
properties of the cunjevoi, I] (2) 211. 


Collurinel: sibila sp. nov. 


Colour sight and colour — blindness. 
XVIII 29. 
Cones. Notes on poisonous, X 38. 


*Conglomerate. The, rocks of Wild R. 
XI (2) 56. 

CConnah F. E. Chillagoe garnet rocks: 
XXII (1) 31, Estimation of Zine in 


copper ores by Potassium ferro- 
cyanide. XXIT (2) 65. 

‘Cosside. Australian woodboring, XVII 
(2) 161. 

‘Coxen Mrs. C. Meteorological Notes. 


V (5) 158 VI (2 & 3) 122, VIII (2) 
56, Notes on floods in the Brisbane 
R. X 32, Notes on poisonous Cones. 
X 38, Notes on the Cypree. X 35, 
Obituary notice on Dr. G. Bennett. 


X 37, Rainfall at Bulimba. XJ (2) 
LOS, CET LY SBS 55, 


Temperature of the capital of each 


colony in Austraha during 1898. 
XIV 54. 
‘Crater near Herberton. XXIV 57. 


*Crater lakes. Further note on, at Ban 
Ban. XI (2) 88. 
On the discovery of two, 


and other evidences of volcanic 


activity near Barn Ban. X 44: 
‘Crocodiles. Australian, XVIIL 201. 
‘Crookshank E. M. Science and _ the 

State, with special reference to 


Tuberculosis and the public health. 
XVII (2) 25. . 
Culex mucidus alternans, Westwood. 


Notes on the Scots Gray mosquito, 
XVIII 67. 

‘Cunjevoi. On the curative properties of 
the, (Colocasia macrorrhiza) IT (2) 
211. 

‘Cyclone. On the Bowen, of 30th Janu- 
ary, 1884. I (1) 30. 


‘Cypree. Notes on the, X 35. 


| 


INDEX. 


Cyrtocarya australis. On the physio- 
logical action of, IV 12. 

Danes J. V. Physiography of some 
limestone areas in Queensland. 
XXIII (1) 75. 

Daphnandra repandula. On the physio- 
logical action of, [V 13. 


Daphnia. Notes on an apparently new 
species of hyaline, XX 53. 


Davis H. L. Description of an antique 
plaque. XIII 29. 

Deglutition in the freshwater snake. 
I (2) 82. 

Dendrobium cincinnatum, sp. noy. I (3) 
113. 

Dendrolagus. Notice of a probable new 


species of, IIT 11. 

De Vis C. W. A conspect of the genus 
Heteropus. 1 (4) 166, A further 
account of Prionodura newtoniana. 
VI (5) 245, A possible source of 


Isinglass. | (2) 58, A post-Plocene 
Artiodactyle. Ill 42, A whale 


(Ziphius layardi, Flower) recently 
stranded near Southport. I(4) 174, 
Additions to the list of fossil birds. 
VI (1) 55, Australian ancestry of 
the crowned pigeon of New Guinea. 
V (4) 127, Ceratodus forsteri, post- 
Pliocene. I (1) 40, Collurinela 
stbila, sp. nov. V (5) 161, Degluti- 


tion in the freshwater snake. I (2) 
82, Description of a species of 
Eleotris from Rockhampton. II (1) 


32, Description of new birds from 
Herberton. VI (5) 242, Nest of 
Philemon corniculatus, Lath. I (2) 
58. Notes on the fauna of the Gulf 
of Carpentaria. I (3) 154, Notice of 
a fish, apparently undescribed. I 
(2) 144. Notice of a probable new 
species of Dendrolagus. II 11, On 
a bone of an extinct eagle. VI (4) 
161, On a femur, probably of 
Thylacoleo. 11 122, On a fossil 
Saurian. II (2) 181, On a lizard 
and three species of Salarias. II (1) 
56, On a naked-eyed scink, appar- 
ently new. V (5) 160, On a new 
form of the genus Therapon. I (2) 
56, On a new species of Hoploce- 
phalus. 1 (2) 100, On a new species 
of Hyla. I (3) 128, On a third 
species of the Australian tree 
kangaroo. IV 132, On an anomalous 
snake. I (2) 58, On an extinct genus 
of mammal. V (5) 158, On an 
extinct mammal of a genus appar- 
ently new. IV 99, On an extinct 
monotreme (Ornithorhynchus agilis) 


INDEX. 7: 


De Vis C. W.—Continued. 


II (1) 35, On apparently new’ species 
. Of; ,Halmaturus. I (3) 107, On 
bones and teeth of a large extinct 
lizard. TEL (1) 25, On Diprotodon 
ménor, Hux. V. (2) 38, On Megalania 
and its allies. VI (2 & 3) 93, On 
new Australian lizards. I (2) 53, 
On new fish from Moreton Bay. 
I (3) -144, On new Queensland 
Lizards. I (2} 77, On new species 
-of Australian lizards. I (2) 97, 
On the genera Nototherium and 
Zygomaturus. V (3) 111, On the 
mandible of Zygomaturus. XI (1) 95, 
On the Phalangistida of the Post- 
Tertiary, period in Queensland. 
VI (2 & 3) 105, Perameles bougain- 
vilht, Q. & G.I (2) 101, The lesser 
Chelonians of the Nototherium 
drifts. X 123, The Moa (Dinornis) 
in Australia. I (1) 23, The ribbon 


fish. VIET (4) 109. 
Dinornis. The Moa (,) in Australia. 

Eh) 23: 
Diprotodon minor, Hux. V (2) 38. 
Disease garden. A, XIX (2) 73. 

s. Inseets and, X XI 99. 

*______ Prevention of infectious, X Il. 
= The serum treatment of infec- 


tuous, XI (1) Ll. 

Dodd F. P. Reptile that takes in ballast 
XXIV 103 

Dodgson F. H. Some abandoned gold- 
fields of the old World. XI (2) 59. 

BDomin K. Queensland plant associa- 
tions. XXIII (1) 57. 

Duffield A. J. Notes on the inhabitants 
of New Ireland and its Archipelago. 
I (3) ENS. 

Eagle. On a bone of an extinct, VI (4) 
161. 

Echinococcus in a wallaby. VII (1) 31. 

MEX (2) iv. 

Description of a species of, 

11 (1) 32. 

the, of the 

( Ostrea 


Education in Queensland. 


Hleotris. 
from Rockhampton. 
Embryology. Notes on 


Australian rock Oyster 
glomerata), VII (1) 33. 


Entomologica. Miscellanea, XV 133. 

Entomology. Judicial, and on an 
unrecorded habit of white ants. 
Ly 119. 


The economic aspects of, IL (1) 
13. 


‘of a teatree swamp. XV 1 


Entozoa. A census of Australian Rep- 
tilian, X XIII (2) 233. 

Notes on some, XXIV 63. 
Eremophila maculata. On the cyano- 
genetic glucoside of, XXV_ 15 
*Eucalypti. Drought 
perties of. X 13. 
Eucalypt. Description of a new, X 17. 


resisting _pro- 


s. Gums of, and Angophoras. VITI 
(2) 37. 


Exploration in W.A. XVI 9. 
*Explosives. Notes on some modern, 
XVI 7. 
The detection of mercury in, 
EMT 51. 


Falconer J. Artesian wells and water. 
II (2) 208, Queensland gold deposits. 
I (3) 131, Water Supply: Springs 
and their origin. J (1) 28. 

Fasciation in Bouvardia triphylla, Salish. 


IIL 153. 

Fauna. Notes on the, of the Gulf of 
Carpentaria. I (3) 154. 

Felspars. The occurrence of triclinic, 


in the granite of Charters Towers. 
FV. 131. 


Field Naturalists’ Section. Excursions 
VI (1) 64, to Ashgrove. VI(2 & 3) 


123, to Brookfield. VI (1) 65, to 
Caboolture. V (4) 137, to Eumundi. 
X 51, to Peechey’s Scrub. V (4) 
144, IV 135, to Pimpama, VI (5) 
252, to Sunnybank. VI (5) 255, to 
Upper Ithaca Creek. VI (2 & 3) 
125, togWoolston. V (5) 175. 
Report of, V (2) 70. 
Filariw of birds. VI (1) 58. 
Filter. An efficient automatic 
X XJ 45. 

The domestic water, XI (2) 49 
Notice of a, apparently  un- 
described. It (2) 144. 

On. acclimatisation in Queens- 
land. III 139. 

On new, from Moreton Bay. I 
(3) 144. 

The ribbon, VIII (4) L109. 
acclimatisation in Queensland. 


sand, 


Fish 


XIT 108. 
poison. A, of the aborigines. 
XI (2) 88. 
Fishes. New genera and species of, 
7. He. ep 


New Genera and species of, 


Queensland, X XI 87. 


8 INDEX. 


Fishes. On new or insufficiently de- 
scribed, XXIYIM (1) 1. 


On some new, from the Queens- 
jand coast. XXIII (1) 85. 


Some new pediculate, XX 17. 


Symbranchiate and Apodal, new 
to Australia. XX 1. 


Floods. Notes on, in the Brisbane R. 
a 2, 

Flora. A contribution towards a, of 
Mt. Perry. +1 (2) 61,11 (1) 41. 

* - Additions to the fossil, of 
Queensland XIII 38. 

Contributions to the New 

Guinea, XVIII 1. 

— Queensland, I (1) 9 [ (2) 84, I 
(3) 148. 

* — on Moreton, I. X 17. 

Flying fox. The,; its habits and 
depredations. XII 49. 

Forests. On the decadence of Aus- 
tralian, III 15. 

Fossils. Permo-Carboniterous, from 


Banana (Abstract) XI (2) 47. 


Fowl-enteritis in Brisbane. XIII 51. 


Fox H.W. On indelible writing inks. 
111 149. 

Frog. A new tree, from Brisbane. XX 
ol. 

Frost. 


On the possibility of preventing 
damage by, XVIT (2) 101. 

Fruits. Description of exotic, new to 
Queensland. I (3) 136. 


Fryar W. Remarks on the temperature 
of the earth as exhibited in mines, 
with special reference to some 
Gympie mines. VII (1) 12, On the 
mineral resources of Kilkivan, Wide 
Bay. and on the recent discovery 
of cobalt ore in that district. IT 
129. 

Garnet rocks. Chillagoe, XXII (1) 31. 

Gastropoda. The geographical distribu- 
tion of Queensland, X XV 5. 

Gems. Queensland, XX 61. 


Geological Survey. The establishment 
of a, in Queensland. II (2) 198. 


Geology and mineral deposits of the 
country around Herberton, Watson- 
ville and Chillagoe. XIV viii. 

Geology of Glasshouse Mts. XXI 27. 

Gold. Observations on the occurrence 
of, at Mt. Morgan, near Rockhamp- 
ton. I (3) 141. 

Queensland, deposits. 


1 (3) 131. 


Gold. The first discovery of, in Queens-- 
land IV 114. 


occurrence in Queasnsland. 

124. 

fields. On some abandoned, 

the Old World. XI (2) 59. 

Goldie J. The people of New Georgia. 
XXIT (1) 23. 

Grape vines. The native, of America 
and Australia. WITT (3) 101. 
Graphical and mechanical aids to cal- 

culation. XXI 33. : 
Gregory A.C. Inaugural address. . 1 (1)> 

3, Observations on the occurrence: 

of gold at Mt. Morgan, near Rock- 


1y" 


of- 


hampton. I (3) 141. 

Guinea grass. (Panicum maximum) ; its. 
history, cultivation and value. 
VIII (2) 51. 

*Gum. The chemistry of  brigalow:- 


XI (2) 56. 
*___s, Chemistry of some undescribed,. 
XI (2) 62. 
of eucalypts and Angophoras- 
VIII (2) 37. 


Gympie Formation. Contemporaneous. 
basalt in the, XII 95. 


Hematomonas. On, of rat's blood. V 
(si. 
Hall E. and Stokes H. G. Ashestos.. 


VIII (4) 114. 
Halmaturus. On apparently new species. 
of I (3) 107. 


Hann F. Exploration in W.A. XVI 9. 
Harrison L. See Johnston T. H. and 
Harrison L. 


Hawkins Mrs. From Sydney _ to- 
Bathurst in 1822. XVIIT 95. 
Health. Summer heat and, (Abstract). 


I (4) 173. 


Hedley C. A list of landshells recorded 
from Queensland. V_ (2) 48, 
Anatomical notes on the Helicide. 
VI (1) 62, VI (5) 249, Anetha 
graffer and its allies. V (5) 162,. 
Description of a new slug, with 
notes on other terrestrial mollusca. 
V (4) 150, Note on Mr. Tryon’s 


errata. V (5) 179, Notes on 
Queensland landshells. VI (2 & 3): 
100, Notes on the Heélicide. VI 


(2 & 3) 120, Uses of Queensland 
plants. V (1) 10. 


Helicidz. Anatomical notes on the,. 
VI (1) 62, VI (5) 249; Notes on,. 
VI (2 & 3) 120. 


INDEX.. % 


Henderson, J. B. Domestic water supply 
in Brisbane with special reference 
to the presence of Zinc. XVII (2) 
131. Education in Queensland. 
XIX (2) iv, The detection of Mercury 
in explosives. XXI 51. See also 
Meston and Henderson. 

Hepatics. On the mosses and, of the 
Synopsis, Queensland Flora. V (3) 
116. 

Hepialide. 
XVI 65. 

Hemalus (2) virescens (VD bld). The larval 
structure of, XV 89 

Hesperidw. Descriptions of some new 
species of Australian, VI (4) 146. 


Australasian © woodboring, 


Heteropus. A conspect of the genus, 
I (4) 166. 
Hirschfeld,, EK. Inspection of meat. 


XI (2) 62, Obituary notice of Dr. 
J. Bancroft. X 102, On the prev- 
alence of Cancer in Australasia. 
X 65, X 89, *Prevention of infec- 
tious diseases. X 11, Preventive 
measures against the spread _ of 
Tuberculosis. XVI 1, *The serum 
treatment of infectious diseases. 
XI (4) 11. 

Holocephalus. Descriptions of new 
snakes with a synopsis of the genus. 


I (3) 138. 


Hoplocephalus. On a new species of, 
I (2) 100. 
Horses. Psoriasis in, VIII (3) 65. 


Hybridisation. 
I (4) 161. 
Practical, (Abstract). 


A plea for the, of plants. 


11 (2) 141. 


Hyla. On a new species of, I (3) 128. 

Ichthyology. Studies in the, of Queens- 
land. XVIII 7. 

Illidge R. Entomology of a teatree 


swamp. XV 1, List of butterflies 
ot the Brisbane District. XIII 89, 
Life history etc. of timber moths. 
XIV 21, Miscellanea entomologica, 
XY 133, Notes on Lepidoptera from 
the vicinity of Brisbane, whose 
larvie feed on Loranthus. XX 33. 
and Quail A. Australasian wood- 
boring Hepialide. XVI 65. 
Australian woodboring 
Cosside. XVII (2) 161. 
T. On Ceratodus forstert. X 40. 
Immunity : natural and acquired. XVII 
(2) 128. 
Inks. On indelible writing, [11 149. 
Insects. Colouration’ of, XI (2) 66. 


| 


XXI- 99. 
International Catalogue. A reply to 
some critical notes on the Queens- 


Insects and diseases. 


land volume of the, of scientific 
literature. XV 75. 
Tsinglass. A possible source of, I (2) 53. 


Jabiru. Nest and eggs of the, II] 139- 


R. L. Note on the discovery of 
organic remains in the Cairns Range- 
XII 47. Note on the meridional 
anthills of the Cape York peninsula. 
XII 99, On a new Queensland 
locality for Zygomaturus, Macleay. 
X 120, On aborignial cave-drawings 
on the Palmer goldfield X1{ (2) 91, 
Presidential Address XI (1) vii, 
Stratigraphical notes on _ the 
Georgina Basin, with special refer- 
ence to the question of artesian 
water. XI (2) 70, The submarine 
leakage of Artesian water. XII 59. 


Jaggard W. N. JMesoplodon layardi. 
I (2) 58. 

Jardine expedition from Rockhampton 
to. York. -X AIL (1) 1 

Jensen H. I. Origin and occurrence of 
phosphate rock and the possibility 
of finding phosphate deposits in 
Australia. X XII (2) 69, The building 
of E. Australia. XXIII (2) 149, 
The climates of the geological past. 
XXII (2) 59. 


Jobnston T. H. A census of Australian 
reptilian entozoa. XXIII (2) 233, 
Notes on some entozoa. XXIV 63, 
On the occurrence of worm-nodules 
in cattle. XXIII (2) 207. 

and Harrison IL. 
Queensland Mallophaga. XXIV 1, 
A list of Mallophaga. XXIV _ 16, 
A note on Australian Pediculicds. 
XXIV 105. 

Jones P. W. 
XXI 49. 


Kangaroo. On a third species of Aus- 
tralian tree, 1V 132. 


Jack 


A census of 


A new test for mercury 


Keys J. A contribution to the flora 
of Mt. Perry. II (1) 41. 
T. BP. Description of some 


caves near Camooweal. XV 87. 
Kissack A. H. The Savo megapode. 
I (4) 18]. 
Knight C. A description of new species 
of Parmelia from Victoria. I (5) 114, 


Lagoon. Description of a typical Queens- 
land, (Enoggera Reservoir) XIX (2) 
105. 


10 


INDEX. 

*Lakes. Further notes on crater, at | Leichhardt Dr. Ludwig. Unpublished 

Ban Ban. XI (2) 88. lecture by, X 46. 
On thé discover or Hae beer: Lepidoptera. Descriptions of Queens- 
and other evidences of volcanic land, XIIT 59. | 
activity near Ban Ban. X 44. New species of Australian 
macro-, VITT (3) 57. 

Lauterer J. Anatomical and chemical New species of Queensland 
researches on the parasitic phanero- XV 137 Shia lt) : j 
gams of Queensland. XI (2) 75, ; 

A new method of assaying tannates. (Rhopalocera). Note on some 


XI (2) 43, Bunya bunya nuts. XI 
(2) 45, Caffein-yielding plants. XI 
(2) 82, Chemical affinities between 
Rutacez and Umbellifere. XII 72, 


*Chemistry of some undescribed 
gums. XI (2) 62, *Comparative 


grammar and vocabulary of the 
Yogum and Yaggara languages. 
XI (2) 102, *Constituents of the 
resin of Ailanthus imberbiflora vay. 
macartneyt. XI (2) 42, Distilling 
cognac from sugar and grape-juice. 


eae wr A ran sy & * Drought-resisting 
properties of Eucalypti. X 13, 
*Exhibits of plants possessing or 


credited with medicinal properties. 
X 36, Gums of eucalypts and Ango- 
phoras. VIII (2) 37, *Native 
astringent medicines and tanning 
materials of Queensland. XI (2) 
46, Native medicinal plants from 
Queensland. X 97, Naturalised and 
acclimatised plants in various parts 
of the world.. XVIII 55, New 
investigations on  Rickets and 
Macrozamia. SIV 5, New native 
medicinal plants of Queensland. 
XII 92, *Notes on a new worm 
discovered in Moreton Bay oysters. 
XIIL 25, Occurrence of saponin in 
Australian acacias and albizzias. 
XIE 103, On leprosy in the north 
of Europe, and its contagious 
character. X 14, On Queensland 
scorpions. X 19, *On Queensland 
wines. X 44, *On some new species 
of Queensland spiders. X 34, On 
the resin of Araucaria bidwilli. XI 
(1) 12, *Resins of Callophyllum 
inophyllum. XII 10, Snake-poison 
v. Strychnine. VIII (2) 32, The 
aboriginal languages of E. Australia 
compared. XII 11, *The chemistry 
of Brigalow gum. XI (2) 56, *The 
poisonous principle of Wacrozamia 
spiralis, X1(2) 90, The sassafras tree 
of Queensland and the chemistry 
otf Cinnamomum oliveri, Bail. XI 
(1) 20, *The supposed descent of 
the Australians. XI (2) 46, *Unpub- 
hshed songs and corroborrees. XI 


(1) 13. 


undescribed Australian, VI (5) 263. 


Notes on, from the vicinity of 
Brisbane whose larve feed on 
Loranthus. XX 33. 


On 34 new species of Australian, 

VIII (3) 68. 

Queensland, XVI 73. 

Studies in Australian (Pyralidz) 
XXIV III. 

Leprosy. Ethnography of, in the Far 
East. XIII 1. 

On, in the north of Europe, and 


its contagious character. X 14. 
Lichen. Additions to the, flora of 
Queensland. V (1) 7, V (2) 72, VI 


(2 & 3) 115. 


Note on a remarkable, growth 
in connection with a new species of 
Sticta. VII (1) 8. 

Supplement to the, flora of 
Queensland. XXIV 23. 

The, flora of Queensland, with 
descriptions of species. V (3) 78, 
VI (1) 3, VI (4) 129, VI (5) 165. 
Notes on, in N.S.W. V1(2 & 


Lichens. 
3) 85. 
On some Victorian, X 54. 


from Warwick and neighbour- 
hood. VIII (4) 132. 
XVI vii. 
The beginnings of, XV 5. 


Lindon E. B. A catalogue of such 
minerals as are at present known in 
*Q. with their principal associations 
and places of occurrence. IV 32, 
Note on A. W. Clarke’s paper on 
Scolecite. IV 111, On native zinc 
in Queensland. III 154, On the 
occurrence of Topaz in association 
with tin. JII 155. 


Lizard. On a, and three species of 
Salarias etc. II (1) 56. 


On bones and teeth of a large 
extinct, II (1) 25. 
s. On new Australian, I (2) 53. 


On new Queensland, I (2) 77. 


Life, chiefly bacterial. 


INDEX. 


Lizard. On new species of Australian, 
T (2) 97. 


Locust. A, plague on the Lower Her- 
bert. I (2) 59. 
Longman H. A. The plants of Masthead 
ae? XOEV “Tk 
Love W. W. R. Immunity, natural and 


acquired. XVII (2) 123. 
Lucas T. P. A _ few scientific notes 


taken during the present drought. 
XVII (2) 97. The colouration of 
insects. XI (2) 66, Descriptions of 
Queensland Lepidoptera. XII 59, 
New species of Queensland butter- 
flies. VI (2 & 3) 117. New species 
of Queensland Lepidoptera. XV 
137, On 34 new species of Aus- 
tralian Lepidoptera. VIII (3) 68, 
Queensland Lepidoptera. XVI 73, 
*Scrubs and the part they play in 
the mitigation of tropical floods. 
XIV 2, Six new species of Rhopal- 
ocera. VI (4) 155, The flying fox : 
its habits and depredations. XII 49. 
MacGregor 8. Observations on extinct 
volcanoes in Victoria. X 47. 


Mackie R. C. Anthropological notes otf 
“~ 930 years ago. XXIII (1) 107. 


Macrozamia. New investigation on 
Rickets and, XIV 5. 
- spiralis. The poisonous prin- 


ciple of, X1'(2) 90. 


Maiden J. H. Notes on the resins of two 
Queensland species of Araucaria. 
VII (1) 1. On the oleo-resin of 
Canarium mullert Bail. VIIL (3) 95. 

Maitland A. G. The geological structure 
of extra-Australian artesian basins. 
MILE. 

Maize disease. An inquiry into the, of 
the Caboolture District. III 108. 

Malaria. Mosquitoes and, XV 7l. 

Mallophaga. 
XXIV 1. 

A list of, XXIV 16. 


A census of Queensland, 


Mammal. On an extinct genus of, V 
(5) 158. 
On an extinct, of a genus 


apparently new. [V 99. 


Marks E. 0. Notes on portion of the 
Burdekin Valley. XXIV 93, Notes 
on the geological age of volcanic 
activity in S.E. Queensland. XXIII 
(2) 139. 

Martin S. G. The principal causes of 

mortality. in Queensland. XVII 
(4) lL. 


| 


li 


Mathews R. H. Aboriginal customs in 
N. Queensland. XIII 33, Burbung 
of the Wiradthuri tribes. XVI 35, 
Rock-carving by the Australian 
aborigines. XII 97, *Stone eceoking- 
holes of the Australian aborigines. 


XV 23. 
*McCall T. Notes on some modern 
explosives. XVI 7. 


McCulloch A. R. Notes on some Aus- 
tralianJAtherinidie. XXIV 47. 
*Meat. The inspection of home and 

export, supply. XVI 44. 
Inspection of, XI (2) 62. 
* Medicines. Native astringent, and 
tanning materials of Q. XI (2) 46 
Megalania. On. VI (2 
& 3) 93. 
The Savo, I (4) LSI. 
Mental development in animals. 


and its allies. 


Megapode. 
XX 41. 
A new test for, X XI 49. 

The detection of, in explosives. 
XXI 51. 

Mesoplodon layardi. 1 (2) 58. 

Meston A. On the Australian Cassowary 
(Casuarius australis). X 59. 


Mercury. 


©. and Henderson J. B. The 
freezing point of milk. NXIV 165. 
Meteorological notes. V (5) 158, VI 


(2 & 3) 122, VIII (2) 56. 
Micro-organisms from the Brisbane air. 
XII 77. 
Migration of birds. On the, at Cape 
York Peninsula. I (2) 93. 
Milk. The freezing point of, XXIV 165. 
Mineral. On the occurrence of a green, 


in the schists of Adelaide St. Bris- 
bane.<s’ me Bl. 


Resources. On the, of Kil- 
kivan, Wide Bay and on the recent 


discovery of cobalt ore in that 
district. III 129. 
Minerals. Catalogue of, known in 
Queensland etc. IV 32. 
List of, Walsh and _ Tineroo 
Districts, N.Q. XV 47. 


Miskin W. H. A revision of Australian 
Sphingide. VIII (1) 1, Descrip- 
tions of some new species of Aus- 
tralian Hesperide. VI (4) 146, 
Further notes on Australian 
Sphingide. VIII (3) 60, New 
species of Australian macro-Lepidop- 

tera. VIIL (3) 57, Note on some 
undescribed Australian Lepidoptera 


12 
Miskin W. H.—Continawed. 


(Rhopalocera) VI (5) 265, Papilio 
parmatus, G. R. Gray, at Mackay. 
IV 17, Revision of Australian 
species of T'ertas, with deseriptions 
of some new species. VI (5) 256. 


Moa. The, (Dinornis) in Avwstralia, 
L(t) 2: 
Mollusea. Additions to the marie, of 


Queensland. XXIII (1) 93. XXTV 
OD. 


An 


destruction 


a - unusual agency in the 
of marine,’ IV 26. 
Description of a new slug, with 
notes on other terrestrial, V (4) 150. 
Monctreme. On an_ extinet, (Oxn- 
thorhynchus agilis). Il (1) 35. 
Mortality. The principal causes 
in Queensland. XVII (1) 1. 


Mosquito. .Notes on a_ brush-toneued,. 
| 


MATT) Vo. 


of, 


Notes on a_malaria-carrying,. 

( Anopheles pictus). XVI 45. 
——— Notes on the Scots Gray, 
(Culex mucidus  alternans. West- 


wood), XVIII 67. 

- Observations on the life-history 
of the common, XV 111. 

XV 71}. 


es and malaria. 


Mosses. On the, and Hepaties of the 
Synopsis, Queensland Flora. VY (3) 
116. 

Moths. Life-history ete. of timber, 


XIV 21. 
Mud eruptions. Hot springs and, on 
the Lower Flinders R. I (1) 19- 


Mueller F. von. Dendrobium cincinnatum, 
sp. nov. I (3) 113, Description of 
a new tiliaceous tree from N.E. 
Australia. IT (2) 141. 

Natural History collection. Preliminary 
observations on a, VI (5) 219. 
Neoceratodus forsteri, Krefft. On a 

weak point in the life-history of, 
XXII (2) 251. 
New England, N.S.W. XVII (2) 71. 


New Georgia. The people of, XXII (1) 
23. 

New Guinea. Notes on a trip to, Il 2. 

New Ireland. Notes on the inhabitants 
of, and its archipelago. I (3) 115. 

Nicotiana suaveolens. On the poisonous 
principle of, [V 9. 

Nipa fruticans. Description of 
Queensland form of, V (4) 146. 


the 


= SS 


INDEX. 


Norton A. *A trip to the Darling» R. 
N.S.W. in 185% X 101, Mentab 
development in animals. XX 41, 
New England, N.S.W. XVII (2) 71, 
Notes on a living tree stump. ITI 38,. 
Notes on travel, Brisbane to Port 
Curtis by land in 1861. XTX (2) 91, 
Notes on travel, 1859-60. XVIITS81,. 
On the decadence of the Australian , 
forests. III 15, *Parthenogenesis. 
and bisexual characteristics. XIII 
32, Presidential Address. IV 94, 
VIII (2) x, Settling in Queensland, 
and the reason for doing 30, XVII 
(2) 147, The Jardine expedition from: 
Rockhampton to C. York, 1864. 
XXII (1) 1, Tuberculosis. X 105. 


Nototherium. On the genera, 
Zygomaturus. Vo (3) Wd. 
O'Connor D. acclimatisation in 
Queensland. XII 108, On ‘fish 
acclimatisation in Queensland. UT 
139, The oceurrence of Chanos 
salmoneus, Forsk, in Moreton B.. 
IIT 141, Report on preservation of 
Ceratodus. XII 101. 


Ovilby J. D. A new type of tree-frog 
from Brisbane. XX. 31,. Australian 
crocodiles. XVIII 201,. Catalogue: 
of the Kmydosaurian and _ testu- 
dinian reptiles of New Guinea. XIX 
(1) 1, New genera and species of 
Queensland fishes. XXI 87, New 
genera and species of fishes. XXI 1, 
Ona new Terapon, from Stanthorpe 
District. XX 37, On new or 
insufficiently described fishes. 
XXIII (1) 1, On some fishes from 
the Queensland coast. X XIII (1) 85, 
Some new pediculate fishes. XX 17,. 
Studies in the Ichthyology of 
Queensland. X. VIII 7,.symbranchiate, 
and apodal fishes new to Australia. 


b. 9. SB 


and 


Fish 


Oils. Distillation of native essential, 
from a commercial aspect. VIL 
(1) 6. 


Olsson-Seffer P. On the possibility of 
preventing damage by frost. XVII 
(2) 101. 

Organic remains. Note on the occurrence 
of, in the Cairns Range. XII 47. 

Ornithorhynchus agilis. On an extinct. 
monotreme, I1 (1) 35. 

Osteoglossum jardinii.. Description of a 
new species of true barramundi, 
from N. Queensland. VIII (3) 105. 

Ostrea glomerata.. Notes on the embryo- 


logy of the Australian rock oyster, 
VII (1) 33. 


INDEX. 


Palm. Notes on _ the, 
‘HET 33. 

On the, Raphia (Sagus) ruffia. 
WT (2) 210. 

Palmer E. Hot springs and mud erup- 
tions on the Lower Flinders R. 
i (1) 19, Notes on a great visitation 
of rats in the N. and N.W. plain 

_ country of Queensland in 1869 and 

1870. II (2) 193, Notes on bovine 
pleuro-pneumonia. IV 20. 


Caryoia wrens. 


Parcun maximum. Guinea grass (,)5 
its histery, cultivation and value. 
VIUIT (2) 51. 

Papillo parmatus. 
Mackay. IV 17. 

Papuans. The,: comparative notes on 

, various ‘authors, with omrginal 
observations. II (2) 78. 

Parasitic scourge. A, of warm climates. 
XI (2) 99. 

Parasite. Braula ceca, a bee, IV 17. 


Parker T. Underground waters. XXV 
25 & 31. 


Parmelia. A description of new species 
of, from Victoria. I (3) 114. 


*Parthenogenesis and bisexual charac- 


G. R. Gray, at 


teristics. XIII 32. 

‘Pediculids. A note on Australian, 
XXIV 105. 

Perameles bougainwillii, Q. & G. I (2) 
101. 

Perspatus. On, and its occurrence in 
Australia. IV 78. 

Perishable articles of food. On. the 
preservation of, by refrigeration. 
III 49. 

Permo-Carboniferous fossils from 


Banana (Abstract). XI (2) 47. 
_ Pettigrew W. On the curative properties 


of the cunjevoi (Colocasia macro- 
rrhiza). It (2) 211. 


Phalangistide. On the, of the post- 

' Tertiary period in Queensland. 
VI (2 & 3) 105. 

Phanerogams. 
researches 
Queensland. 


Anatomical and chemical 
on the parasitic, of 
XI (2). 75. 
Philemon corniculatas, Lath. 
F (2) 58. 
Philips G. On the comparative 


necessity for the drainage of dray- 
roads and railroads. VIII (4) 137. 


P ayo Notes on the, of the islands 
. to the S. E. extremity of New Guinea. 
II (1) 2. 


Nest of, 


PPonmiecd 


13 
Phesphate rock. Origin and  oceur- 
rences of, and the possibility of 
finding phosphate deposits in 
Australia. XXII (2) 69. 
Photomicrography and photo-micro- 
metry. XVI 61. 


Physiography of some limestone areas 
in Queensland. XXIII (1) 75. 
Pigeon. Australian ancestry of the 

crowned, of New Guinea. V (4) 127. 


Pink J. A plea for the hybridisation of 
plants. I (4) 161. Practical hybrid- 
ization. I] (2) 141. 


Plant. Queensland, associations. 
(1) 57. 
*_____«. Exhibit of new and interesting, 


mad 


XXIIt 


* 


SIL ALM. 


Introduction of economic, 
Queensland. XXII (2) 77. 
Native medicinal, from Queens- 
land. X 97. 
Naturalised 
in various 
XVIII 55. 
New native medicinal, of Queens- 
land. XII 92. 
* Notes 
X 101. 


Plants. Preliminary note on some new 
poisonous, VIII (2) 35. 


Insectivorous. 


into 


and acclimatised, 
parts of the world. 


fresh 


on Queensland. 


Specimens of Blackall Range, 
VIII (4) 136. 


Uses of some Queensland. V (1) 


10. 


of Masthead J. XXV 17. 


possessing or credited 
medicinal properties. X 36. 
Notes on some, col- 
T. Bancroft on the 
VIIT (4) 128. 

Plaque. —_ Description 
XIII 29. 
Pleuro- pneumonia. 

in Queensland. 
Pond-life. 
(1) 35. 
Potts J. W. 

Guinea. 


with 


Plant specimens. 
lected by Dr. 
Diamantina. 


of an antique, 
Notes on bovine, 
IV 20. 
Notes on Brisbane, XXII 
Notes on a trip to New 
Hit 2. 

Fowl-enteritis in Brisbane. 
XIII 51, Notes on the cattle tick. 
XIV 28, On Trypanosoma and 
their existence in the blocd of 
Brisbane rats. XIX (1) 33, The 
discovery of chicken cholera in 


4 INDEX. 

Pound C..J.—Continued. - | Rhopalocera. Six new species of, VE 
Queensland. XI (2) 77, The Stock-~; (4) 155. _ i 
Owners’ indebtedness to the micro- | Richards H. C. The building stones of 
scope. XIII vi, Tuberculin; its St. John’s Cathedral, © Brisbane. 
history, preparation and use. XIV XXIII (2) 199. wes 
39 Rickets. New investigation on, and 

Prentice Dr Chas. Obituary notice of, Macrozamia. XIV 5. f 
X 50. _ Ringrose R. C. Crater near .Herberton. 

Prionodura newtoniana. A further XXIV 57. Notes on the congiom- 


account of, VI (5) 245. 
*Proteacex. Peculiarities of the flowers 
of the order, XIII 32. 

Protoplasm. The nature and origin of 
living matter. (,) XV 27. 
Pseudomorphism in minerals. [I (1) 

Psoriasis in horses. VIII (3) 65. 


Pterophyllum. Two new species of, XII 


89. 

Pyralidze. A preliminary revision of the 
Thyridide and, XVIII 109, XIX 
(1) 39, XIX (2) 89. 


Quail A. See Illidge and Quail. 
The larval structure —_ oof 
Hepialus (2) virescens (Dbid.) XV 89. 
Quinnell W. C. *The inspection of 
home and export meat supply. 
XVI 44. 

Radford H. W. Summer heat and 
health. (Abstract). I (4) 175. 
Rainfall. The, at Brisbane and its 

periodicity. IT (2) 176. 


at Bulimba. XI (2) 103, XII U11, 
XIII 88, XIV 55. 

Rands W. H. Contemporaneous basalt 
in the Gympie Formation. XII 95. 

Raphia (Sagus) ruffia. On the palm. 
I (2) 210. 


Rats. Notes on a great visitation of, 
in the N.W. plain country of Queens- 
land in 1869 and 1870. II (2) 195. 

Reptile that takes in ballast. XXIV 
103. 

s. Catalogue of the Emydosaurian 
and testudinian, of New (Guinea. 
XIX (1) 1. 

*Resin. Constituents of the, of AWdanthus 
imberbiflora, var. macartneyi. XI 
(2) 42. 

On the, 

x1 iy 

On the 


of Araucaria bidwilli. 


oleo-, of Canarium 
mullert (Bail). VILL (3) 95. 

—s. Notes on the, of two Sere 
land species of Araucaria. VII (1) 1. 


erates and sandstone series of the 
Wild R. Valley and of the head- 
waters of the Walsh R. XII 54, 
*The conglomerate rocks of ‘Wild 
R. XI (2) 56, The establishment 
of a Geological Survey in Queens- 
land. IJ (2) 198. 


Berge J. S. and Brownlee J H. 
List of minerals, Walsh and Tinaroo 
districts. XV 47. 

Roads. On the comparative necessity 
for the drainage of dray, and rail, 
VIII (4) 13 oy 

Rock-carving by the Australian aborig- 
ines, XII 97. 

Rock Drawings. On an _ undescribed 
cla’s e ‘of aborigines in Queens- 
land. I (2) 45. 

Experiments with, XI186. 


Description of an aboriginal 
XIII 87, Notes on savage life 


Rontgen rays 
Roth W. E. 
drill. 


in the early days of W. A. settle- 
ment. XVII (2) 45. Social and 
individual nomenclature of the 
N.W. Central Queensland aborigines. 
XIII 39. 

Rotifera. A list of Queensland, VI (1) 
70. ; 


On certain, found in the ponds. 
of the garden of the Acclimatisation 
Society, Brisbane. IV 28. 

Rotifers. Notes on the, or wheel animal- 
cule of Brisbane. XXIII (1) 87. 


Rutacex. Chemical affinities between, 
and Umbelliferze. XII 72 

Salartas. On a lizard and cheaes species 
of, ete. II (1) 56. 

Sandfly. Notes on a species of, XVII 
(1) 17. 

Sankey J. R. Queensland gems. KX 

Ol. -* ; 

Saponin. Occurrence of, in Australian 


——— of (as snophyllum. XIE 3 


10. 


acacias and albizzias. XII 103.. 


On the discovery of, in Acacia 
delibrata. IV 10. 

Sassafras trees of Queensland and the 
chemistry of Cinnamomum oliwert, 
Bail. XI (1) -20. 


INDEX. 


Saurian. On a fossil, {1*(2) 181. 


Savage life in the early days of W.A. 
settlement. XVIT (2) 45. 


Saville-Kent W. Description of a new 
species of true barramundi, Osteog- 
lossum jardinii, from N. Queens- 
land. VIII (3) 105, Notes on the 
embryology of the Australian rock- 
oyster (Ostrea glomerata). VII (1) 
33, Preliminary observations on a 
natural history collection. VI (5) 

219, Presidential Address. VII (2) 


17. 

Science. Progress in Australia. XII 
viil. 

Scink. On a naked-eyed, apparently 
new. V (5) 160. 

Scolecite. Note on a paper on the 
mineral, by A. W. Clarke. IV 111. 


On the mineral, occurring in 
Granite, Charters Towers. IV 109. 


Reply to E. B. Lindon’s note 
on Clarke’s paper on the mineral, 
IV 112. 

Scorpions. On Queensland, X 19. 

Scortechini Rev. Benedict, Obituary 
notice of, IV 2. 

The, and its nature. 


TI (1) 


Sea-scum. 
18. 


Sechium edule (Chayote). Its introduc- 


tion into Queensland—cultivation 
and uses. VII (1) 41. 
Sesbania, a native fibre-producer. I (2) 


101. 
Settling in Queensland and the reason 
for doing so. XVII (2) 147. 


On the disposal of, X 21. 
Shells. Errata in list of land, recorded 
from Queensland. V (4) 131. 


A list of land, recorded from 

Queensland. V (2) 45. 

- Notes on Queensland land, VI 
2 & 3) 100. 

Shirley J. A bora ring in the Albert 
Valley. XXIII (1) 103, A fish 
poison of the aborigines. XI (2) 88, 
A reply to “ Some critical notes on 
the Queensland volume of the 
International Catalogue of Scien- 
tific literature.” XV 75, A review 
of recent botanical work in Aus- 
traha. IX 12, Account of Field 


Sewage. 


Naturalists’ Excursion to Peechey’s © 


Scrub. IV 135. *Additions to the 
fossil flora of Queensland. XIII 38, 
Additions to the Lichen flora of 
Queensland. YV (1) 7, V (2) 72, VI 
{2 & 3) 115, Additions to the marine 


15 


Shirley J.—Continued. 


Mollusca of Queensland. XXIII (1) 
93, XXTV 55, Australian vegetation 
and its geological development. 
XVI 39, *Bacteria: their _life- 
history and effects. X 34, Field 
Naturalists’ Section Excursion to 
Caboolture. V (4) 137, *Flora of 
Moreton I. X 17, *Insectivorous 
plants. XII 111, Liechens’ from 
Warwick and neighbourhood. VIII 
(4) 152, Mosquitoes and malaria- 
XV 71, Note on a fossil wood from 
Mt. Astrolabe, New Guinea.’ XIV 
3, Notes on bees and wax-scales. 
XIV 1, *On a botanical excursion 
to Burleigh Heads and the Mac- 
pherson Range. X 32, On Baiera 
bidens. XII 74, On some Victorian 
lichens. X 54, Report of delegates 
to A.A.A.S. ~ VIII (4).122, *X. 40, 
Supplement to the Lichen flora of 
Queensland. XXIV 23, The geo- 
graphical distribution of Queens- 


land Gastropoda. XXV 5, The 
Geology of Glasshouse Mts. XXI 


27, The Lichen flora of Queensland 
with descriptions of species. V (3) 
78, VI (1) 3, VI (4) 129, The lichen 
flora of Queensland. VI (5) 165, 
The native grape-vines of America 
and Australia. VIII (3) 101, Two 
new species of Pterophyllum. XII 
89, Vocabularies of the Gowrburra 
and Koolaburra tribes. XII 1. 


Shirley J and Blake E. C. *Peculiarities: 
of the flowers of the order Prote- 
ace. XITT 32. 

Sicyos angulata. Linn. 
Tt (2) 102. 

Sillago bassensis.. On the common 
whiting of Moreton B. (,) XVII (2). 
175. 

Simmonds J. H. Field Naturalists” 
Section Excursions. VI (1) 64, VI 
(2 & 3) 123, V (4) 144, V (6) 42, 
VI (1) 95, VI (2 & 3) 125. 

Skertchley 8S. b. J. *Artesian water as 
illustrated by the Hwang-Ho and 
Yangtse Rivers. XIII 25, Ethno- 
graphy of leprosy in the Far East. 


Fasciation in. 


XIII 1, Geology and mineral 
deposits of the country around. 
Herberton, Watsonville and 


Chillagoe. XIV viii, *On the oldest- 
worked coalfields of China. XIIL 
38, The building of Australia. XXI 
57. ; 
Smith F. On the cyanogenetic glucoside- 
of Evemophila maculata. XXV 13. 


16 


Snake. Deglutition in the freshwater, 
T (2) 82. 


On an anomalous, I (2) 58. 


bite. Strychnine, a useless remedy 

in, VIII (2) 29. 

poison v. Strychnine. VIII (2) 32. 

Snakes. Descriptions of new, with 
synopsis of the genus Holocephalus. 
IT (3) 138. 

Spicer E. On a sense of hearing in ants. 
I (2) 79. 

*Spiders. On some new species of Queens- 
land, X 34. 


Sphingide. A revision of Australian, 
VIII (1) 1. 

——— Further notes 
VIII (3) 60. 


Springs. Hot, and mud eruptions on the 
Lower Flinders R. I (1) 19. 


on Australian, 


r Supply : , and their origin. 
T (4) 28. 
Sticta. Notes on a remarkable lichen 


growth in connection with a new 
species of, VIT (1) 8. 

Stockowners’ indebtedness to the micro- 
scope. XIII vi. 


Stokes H. G. 
green mineral 
Adelaide St. Brisbane. 
see Hall E. 


Stratigraphical notes on the Georgina 
Basin, with special reference to the 
question of Artesian water. XI (2) 


70. 


Strychnine—a useless remedy in snake- 
bite. VIII (2) 29. 


Snake-poison v., VIEL (2) 32 


Sutton J.  W. Experiments with 
Réntgen rays. XII 86, Presidential 


On the occurrence of a 
in the schists of 
X 1), also 


Address. XV x. 

Tannates. A new method of assaying, 
XT (2) 43. 

Taylor W. F. On the disposal of 
sewage. X 21, The influence of 


the chmate of Queensland on its 
inhabitants of European origin and 
their descendants. XI (2) Xxill, 
Public abattoirs and the prevention 
of tuberculosis. XV 95, The 
domestic water filter. XI (2) 49, 
Water supply for domestic use. XI 
(2) 27. 


‘Temperature of the capital of each colony 
ain Australia during i898. XIV 54. 


Re 


INDBX. 


‘femperature of the Earth. Remarks on 
the, with special reference to some 
mines on the Gympie goldfield. 
VI (1) 12. 

Terapon. On a new, from Stanthorpe 
District. XX 37 

Trias. Revision of Australian species 
of, with descriptions of new species 
VI (5) 256. 

Therapon. 

[ (2) 56. 


Thomson J. A disease garden. XIX 
(2) 73, Colour-sight and colour-blind- 
ness. XVIII 29, Life, chiefly 
bacterial. XVI vii, Photo-micro- 
graphy and __ photo-micrometry. 
XVI 61. 


Thorpe J. On the Bowen cyclone of 
30th January, 1884. I (1) 35. 


V.G. A list of Queensland Rotif- 
era. Vi (1) 70, On certain Rotifera 
found in the ponds of the garden — 


On a new form of the genus. 


of the Acclimatisation Society, 
Brisbane. IV 28 

Thylacolco. On a femur, probably of, 
Til 122. 

Thryidide. A preliminary revision of 
the Australian, and Pyralidz. 


XVITT 109, XTX (1) 39, XIX (2)'89. 


Tick. Notes on the cattle, XIV 2 

Tiliaceous tree. Description of a new, 
from N.E. Australia. II (2) 141. 

Title of the Society. Correspondence 
relating to the, II (2) 64. 

Tolson J. On the preservation of 
perishable articles of food by 
refrigeration. III 49. 

Topaz. On the occurrence of, in 
association with tin. III 1565. 
Tosh J. R. On the common whiting of 
Moreton B. (Sillago bassensis) 

XVII (2) 175. 

Travel. Notes on, XVIII 81. 

Notes on, Brisbane to Pt. 
Curtis by land in 1861... XIX (2) 91. 
Tree-stump. Notes ona living. III 3s. 


Trigonometrical Survey of Queensland. 
Short account of the measurement 
of the baseline. IJ (2) 127. 


Tryon H. A locust plague on the 
Lower Herbert. I (2) 59, Braula 
ceca, a bee parasite. IV 17, 
Errata contained in list of land- 
shells recorded from Queensland. 


INDEX. 


Tryon H.—Continued. 


V (4) 131, Judicial entomology 
and on an unrecorded habit of 
white ants. IV 119, Notes on 


Queensland ants, I. Harvesting ants 
II (2) 146, Obituary notice of Rev. 
Benedict Scortechini. [V 2, On an 
acarus associated with «w diseased 
condition in the banana. IV_ 106, 
On an undescribed class of rock- 
drawings of aborigines in Queens- 
land. I (2) 45, On Peripatus and its 


occurrence in Australia. IV _ 78, 
The seascum and its nature. II (1) 
18, 

Trypanosoma. On, and their existence 
in the blood of Brisbane rats. XIX 
(1) 33. 

Tuberculin: its history, preparation 
and use. XIV 39. 

Tuberculosis. X 103. 


Preventive measures against the 
spread of, XVI 1. 


Public abattoirs and the pre- 
vention of, XV 95. 


Science and the State, with 
special reference to, and the public 
health. XVII (2) 25. 


Tully W. A. Short account of the 
measurement of the baseline in 
connection with the trigonometrical 
survey of Queensland. II (2) 127. 


Turner A. J. A_ parasitic scourge of 
warm climates. XI (2) 99, A pre- 
liminary revision of the Australian 
Thryidide and Pyralide. XVIH 
109. XIX (1) 39, XIX (2) 89, 
Insects and diseases. ML GS: 

Micro-organisms from the Brisbane 

air. XII 77, Remarkable reaction 

of the typhoid bacillus. XIII 26, 

Studies in Australian Lepidoptera 

(Pyralide). XXIV 111, The nature 

and origin of living matter (proto- 

plasm). XV 27. 


Typhoid. Remarkable reaction of the, 
bacillus. XIIT 26. 
Unmbelliferz. Chemical affinities 


between Rutacee and, XII 72. 
AAV 25 & Sl. 


Albatross Bay and the 
XII 42. 


Australian, and its geo- 
XVI 39. 


Underground waters. 
Urquhart F. C. 
Embley and Hey Rivers. 


Vegetation. 
logical development. 


hg 

Vegetation. Notes on the, of New 
Guinea. XIV 14. 

Vocabularies of the Gowrburra and 


ALLL 


Volcanic activity. Notes on the veo- 
logical age of the, in S.E. Queens- 


land. XXIII (2) 139. 


Koolaburra tribes. 


Volcanoes. Observations on extinet, in 
Victoria. X 47. 

Wagenknecht B. The rainfall at Brisbane 
and its periodicity. IL (2) 176. 


Wallaby. Echinococcus in a, VII (1) 31. 
Wallmann H. F.  Pseudomorphism in 
minerals. I (1) 32. 


An efficient automatic 
sand filter. XXI 45, Description 
of a typical Queensland lagoon 
(Inoggera Reservoir). XIX (2) 105. 


Wasteneys H. 


Water.” An unexpected source of, in 
the bush. I (4) 175. 


supply. Domestic, in Brisbane, 
with special reference to the presence 
of zinc in tank waters. XVII (2) 
131. 


a pure, 
Brisbane. 


On a method by which 
could be obtained for 


XV 83. 


: Springs and their origin. 


I (1) 28. 


for domestic use. 


XI (2) 
27. 

Watkins G. Notes on the aboriginals 
of Stradbroke and Moreton Is. 
VIII (2) 40, Report of Field Natur- 
alists’ Section. V (2) 70. 


Weston P. L. The internal combustion 
engine as a factor in National Pro- 


gress. XXV vi. 
Whale. A, (Ziphius layardi, Flower), 


recently stranded near Southport. 
I (4) 174. 


Wheats. Experiments with Indian, in 
Queensland. I (4) 176. 


White W. T. Nest and eggs of the 
Jabiru. IL] 139. 


Whiting. On the common, of Moreton 
B. (Sillago bassensis). XVII (2) 175. 


Wild C. J. Bryological notes. V_ (4) 
148, VI (1) 76, VI (2 & 3) 104, On 
the mosses and hepatics of the 
Synopsis, Queensland Flora. V (3) 
116, 


18 INDEX. 


Wilson F. R. M. Notes on a remarkable 
lichen vrowth in connection with 
a new species of Sticta. VII (1) 8, 
Notes on lichens in N.S.W. VI 
(2 & 3) 85. 


* Wines. 


Wood. Note on a fossil, 
Astrolabe, New Guinea, 


*Worm. Notes on a new, discovered in 
Moreton b. oysters. XIII 25. 


On Queensland. X 44. 


from Mt. 
XIV & 


nodules. On the occurrence of, 
in cattle. XMXEL (2) 207. 


Zinc. Estimation of, in copper ores by 
Potassium ferryocanide. XXII (2) 
65. : 
On native, in Queensland. III 
154. 


Ziphius layardi, Flower. A whale (,) 
recently stranded near Southport. 
I (4) 174. 

Zygomalurus. On a new Queensland 
locality for, Macleay. X 120. 

On the Notothertum 

and, V (3) LLL. 


On the mandible of, XI (1) ‘5. 


genera 


. 
.~ ~ ers 
Bm ynt 
~ , oe 
>> 
. 


VM 


6746