I
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
Washington Academy of Sciences
Vol. XIII
1911
WASHINGTON
January-December, 191 i
4 /i $
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Anthropological Society of Washington.
Biological Society of Washington.
Botanical Society of Washington.
Chemical Society of Washington.
Columbia Historical Society.
Entomological Society of Washington.
Geological Society of Washington.
Medical Society of the District of Columbia.
National Geographic Society.
Philosophical Society of Washington.
Society of American Foresters.
Washington Society of the Archaeological Institute of
America.
Washington Society of Engineers.
in
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OFFICERS FOR 1911
President
F. W. Clarke
Vice-Presidents
From the Anthropological Society J. Walter Fewkes
Archaeological Society Mitchell Carroll
Biological Society David White
Botanical Society W. E. Safford
Chemical Society H. W. Wiley
Engineers Society M. 0. Leighton
Entomological Society A. D. Hopkins
Foresters Society Gifford Pinchot
Geographic Society Henry Gannett
Geological Society Alfred H. Brooks
Historical Society James Dudley Morgan
Medical Society Wilfred M. Barton
Philosophical Society Lyman J. Briggs
Corresponding Secretary Treasurer
Frank Baker Arthur L. Day
Recording Secretary
W. J. Humphreys
Non-resident Vice-Presidents Editor
H. F. Osborn, T. C. Chamberlain Barton W. Evermann
Managers
Class of 1912 Class of 1913 Class of 1914
L. A. Bauer Geo. M. Kober Frederick V. Coville
C Hart Merriam C. F. Marvin E. W. Parker
CONTENTS
Notes on the mammals of the Lake Maxinkuckee Region . . i
The collapse of recent beds at Staunton, Virginia . . . .35
Remarks on the fossil turtles accredited to the Judith River
formation 51
On the systematic value of Rana chinensis Osbeck .... 67
Price-list of publications 85
Index 99
ILLUSTRATIONS
Plates
I. Map of a portion of Staunton, Va 35
II. Two illustrations showing caving at Staunton, Va. . . 50
III. View showing an early stage of "cave-in" at Staunton,
Va 50
IV. Another view of " cave-in" at Staunton, Va 50
V. View showing crevice opening into lime-stone cavern at
Staunton, Va 50
VI. Osteological character of Rana chinensis Osbeck .... 67
VII
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. XIII, No. I, pp. i to 34. February 15, 191 1
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF THE LAKE
MAXINKUCKEE REGION.1
By Barton Warren Evermann and Howard Walton Clark.
While engaged in a biological survey of Lake Maxinkuckee,
Indiana, under the direction of the Honorable George M. Bowers,
U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries, we took occasion to observe the
various species of mammals occurring in that region and to make
notes concerning their abundance and habits. Special attention
was paid to those species such as the muskrat, mink and raccoon,
whose habits relate them ecologically to the fishes and other life
of the lake. Many observations were made and noted, however,
regarding other species. These observations seem worth putting
on record and this we have endeavored to do in the present paper.
Lake Maxinkuckee is a small glacial lake in the southwest corner
of Marshall County, Indiana. It is on the Terre Haute and Logans-
port Railroad (Vandalia Line), 34 miles south of South Bend,
Ind., 94 miles southeast of Chicago, and 149 miles north of Terre
Haute.
The lake is about 2f miles long and about i\ miles wide. The
total area of the lake is 1854 acres. The greatest depth is 89 feet,
and most of the lake is more than 25 feet deep.
The country surrounding the lake lies wholly in the glacial re-
gion of Indiana. The topographic features are somewhat varied.
There are numerous small hills with gentle slopes, and among them
1 Published by permission of the Honorable George M. Bowers, United States
Commissioner of Fisheries.
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., February, 1911.
2 EVERMANN AND CLARK
are a good many kettle-holes, some of considerable depth, and with
more or less water during wet seasons, while others are less deep
and usually dry. These kettle holes usually support a more or
less rank growth of vegetation consisting of grasses, sedges, bushes
and small trees, forming thickets very attractive to certain mam-
mals. The highest land anywhere about the lake is on the east
side where it rises 136 feet above the lake surface. There is about
the lake a good deal of marsh land; the most considerable areas
being that about Norris Inlet at the south end and that on the west
side surrounding Lost Lake and extending southward from it along
its outlet. Lost Lake is a small lake a few rods west of Lake Maxin-
kuckee; it is in fact an expansion of the Maxinkuckee outlet. Be-
tween the two lakes and bordering the outlet is Green's marsh which
consists of several acres of wet land. Just south of this is Green's
woods, an open woodland with little underbrush, where certain
animals are apt to be found. On the west side of the railroad and
facing it at the southwest corner of the lake is a large gravel pit
and with high bank on the west which is a favorite place for the
striped gophers. Southwest of this, a short distance, is Walley's
woods the largest and most virgin forest near the lake. At the
south end of the lake is Farrar's woods, smaller and less dense,
but with heavy underbrush. East of the north end of the lake is
a considerable acreage of open forest of large trees where raccoons,
squirrels and other arboreal species occur.
In the following list of species we have followed the nomenclature
and sequence of Dr Hahn's recent paper on mammals of Indiana.1
List of Species.
1. Didelphis virginiana Kerr.
Common Opossum.
According to old settlers the Opossum used to be common as
far north as northern Indiana, but disappeared from there many
years ago. In recent years they have been returning northward
xThe Mammals of Indiana, 33d Annual Report, Department of Geology and
Natural History of Indiana, 1908, pp. 417-663.
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF LAKE MAXINKUCKEE 3
and are now tolerably common throughout the northern part of
the state. About 1887 an old trapper near Fort Wayne caught one
and reported that it was the first he had seen for 20 years. No
more were seen in that region until about 1900, when they began
to be captured occasionally. In October, 1903, three were captured
in Walley's woods southwest of Lake Maxinkuckee and three
others were trapped at Norris Inlet. It was not seen by us at the
lake until the summer of 1906, when on August 5, an adult example
was found dead on the lake shore just north of the Outlet. On
October 30, 1906, another was seen in the possession of a boy at
Culver, who reported the capture of 3 on the previous night. One
is reported to have stayed under the Barr Cottage on Long Point
during the winter of 1906-7. About September 3, 1907, boys
living in Culver got an old Opossum with a number of young in
her pouch. They did not count the young, but let her go.
The northward movement of the Opossum seems to have been
general over the state. They are occasionally taken in Marshall
and adjoining counties. They are frequently seen at Fort Wayne,
Indiana, a few being captured every winter. Mr. J. J. Hildebrandt,
of Logansport, reported that some one had brought him about
October 1, 1904, an old Opossum and 12 young, the latter
about two-thirds as large as rats. The first night she killed 9 of
them. He kept the other three and the mother for about 3 weeks,
when he took them to the woods and turned them loose.
Devouring its young in captivity seems to be a common habit
of the Opossum, and almost everyone who has tried to keep them
together has had the young destroyed by the mother.
The Opossum is usually caught in this region for its fur. The
prices now obtained by the trappers are 15 to 25 cents. The t elts
are becoming more valuable every year, the prices brought in
the London market in 1910 for prime skins ranging from 45 cents
to $1.
The food of the Opossum is chiefly insects, though they are also
fond of pawpaws. They also feed to some extent upon the mussels
which they find in the lake. They are an innocent, harmless animal
and should be protected.
4 EVERMANN AND CLARK
2. Cervus canadensis (Erxleben).
Elk.
Remains of the Elk, especially the horns, are still occasionally
found in the peaty bogs in Marshall county, and attest the former
presence of this animal in the vicinity of the lake. They evidently
disappeared sometime before the deer. The antiseptic nature of
the peat has preserved these remains much longer than elsewhere,
so that the evidence of the animal's former occurrence remains much
longer in regions where there are peat-bogs than in other places.
Mr. S. S. Chadwick has in his possession part of an elk-horn 3 inches
across at the base and 22 inches long, found in low ground a few
miles southeast of the lake about 1904.
3. Odocoileus virginianus (Boddaert).
Virginia Deer.
Formerly Deer were common throughout Indiana but none has
been seen in recent years. Occasionally a deer is reported from the
Kankakee region west of Maxinkuckee but none of these reports
has been authenticated. It is said that one was killed in Jasper
county in 1890 and one seen in Newton county in 1891.1
4. Sciurus carolinensis leucotis Gapper.
Gray Squirrel.
Formerly the Gray Squirrel was very abundant throughout In-
diana and southern Michigan. Forty to fifty years ago squirrel hunt-
ing was an avocation in which nearly every farmer and farmer's
son, as well as many of those who dwelt in the villages and towns
engaged, and a poor marksman indeed was he who did not return
from a morning in the woods with the old muzzle-loader and any-
where from 6 to 20 squirrels. To be regarded as a real expert shot,
however, it was necessary to be able to "bark" the squirrel, that
is, to kill it simply by shooting through the bark of the limb on
1 Butler, Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1894, p. 83.
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF LAKE MAXINKUCKEE 5
which the squirrel happened to be sitting without actually hitting
the squirrel. There were in every community a number of such
expert squirrel hunters. In southern Michigan a large propor-
tion of the Gray Squirrels were black! while in middle Indiana a
black squirrel was not often seen. In the Maxinkuckee region
this squirrel is now a very rare species. Mr. Chadwick says he
knows of only 2 or 3 having been killed near the lake in the last 6
or 7 years. The only one ever seen by us in that region was ob-
served May 9, 1901.
5. Sciurus niger rufiventer E. Geoffroy.
Fox Squirrel.
Although formerly quite common in central and northern Indiana,
the Fox Squirrel was never so abundant as was the Gray Squirrel
when the country was new. But as the forests were cleared away,
farms opened up, and open woodlands and pasture lots became more
and more common features of the country, the Gray Squirrel be-
came practically extinct while the Fox Squirrel was more nearly able
to hold its own. albeit, even this species is far from being as abun-
dant as formerly. In the region with which the present paper
deals the Fox Squirrel was very rare until recently. None was
seen or heard of in 1899. In 1900 one was seen in Walley's woods
on September 28, and one near Delong the next day. The first
of these was killed by some one in October. Several were killed
by a local hunter in the fall of 1902. In 1904, Fox Squirrels were
occasionally seen. Two were killed November 29; one was seen
in the Assembly Grounds; on December 15 a large oak on Long
Point was cut down and was found to contain 2 Fox Squirrels,
probably young of the year, but fully grown. In the fall of 1905
3 or 4 were seen on Long Point. In 1906 two were killed south of
the lake September 12, two days later one was seen in Farrar's
woods, and on September 17 another was noted on the east side
of the lake. In the autumn of 1907 one or more were observed in
Green's woods. Doubtless it is no less frequent in the open woods
east of the lake.
The Fox Squirrel prefers the open woods and is rarely seen in
heavy, dense forests. Wherever there are a few large old trees with
6 EVERMANN AND CLARK
hollow limbs or trunks on the borders of cornfields there these
squirrels are apt to take up their homes if there be any in the neigh-
borhood. Unless disturbed the same pair will occupy the same
tree for several years, probably until they die or are killed.
These squirrels feed upon all sorts of nuts and are very destruc-
tive to the farmer's corn. In January, 1908, Mr. A. M. Evermann
observed Fox Squirrels near Burlington (56 miles south of Maxin-
kuckee) feeding upon the seeds of the cocklebur, Xanthium
strumarium. The squirrels would strip the burs from the plants
and carry them to a nearby log on which they would sit on their
haunches while they gnawed the burs and removed the seeds. At
the time the ground was covered with snow.
So far as we have been able to learn this habit of the Fox Squirrel
had not been previously observed.
6. Sciurus hudsonius loquax Bangs.
Red Squirrel.
The Red Squirrel, Pine Squirrel, Chickaree or Boomer, as it is
variously called, is a northern species which is gradually extending
its range southward in Indiana. Until within the last decade it was
rare or wholly unknown in most parts of the state south of Logans-
port, though it was not uncommon in the more northern counties.
On December 24, 1889, one was shot near Kewanna which is about
12 miles south of Maxinkuckee. It was regarded as a rarity in
that region. About 1900 one was seen near Frankfort, about 70
miles south of Maxinkuckee, the first ever noted in that county.
We have learned from Mr. Sidney T. Sterling of Flora, Carroll
County, that it has recently appeared in that county.
When we began our investigations at Lake Maxinkuckee, the
Red Squirrel was not common. In 1899 only one was seen, in
September, near Lake Manitou. On September 24, 1900, a young
one, just able to crawl about, was found on the ground in Farrar's
woods. It had probably fallen from the nest. It was taken home
and fed and soon became quite tame. It was not caged by us but
was permitted to run about the room, and soon became quite play-
ful and mischievous. One of its favorite positions was a seat on
one's shoulder where it soon called attention to itself by a gentle
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF LAKE MAXINKUCKEE 7
nipping of the ear of the person on whose shoulder it was sitting.
One or more were seen October i, 14, 19, and 30. In 1904, they
were more numerous; several were noted October 19 and 27 and at
various times thereafter until January 3, 1905, when we left the
lake, until August, 1906, from which month until October 31, several
were seen.
On September 13, 1907, and at various times thereafter until
the middle of November, one or more were seen on any day when we
cared to lookfor them. According to Mr. S.S. Chadwick they have
continued to increase up to the present time. Their favorite haunts
about Lake Maxinkuckee are the heavier woodlands at the south
end of the lake, Walley's woods, the timbered areas on the east
side and the groves north and east of the Academy grounds. Only
rarely have we seen it on Long Point, while on several occasions we
have observed it on the Tippecanoe River near Delong.
While the Red Squirrel is a merry playful little animal, there is
little else to commend it to one's favor. While its principal food
consists of nuts and seeds of various kinds it is very destructive
to birds' eggs and even young birds. It is also popularly thought
to drive the fox squirrel out of regions which it formerly occupied,
and there is probably a basis of fact in this belief. On account of
its small size it is not much hunted for food, although it makes a
very delicious stew.
7. Tamias striatus (Linnaeus).
Ground Squirrel.
The Ground Squirrel or Chipmunk is an interesting and familiar
little animal in all suitable situations in Indiana. Every farmer's
boy in the state knows it well. Wherever there are open woods or
pastures and old decaying trees, rocky ledges overgrown with vines,
fallen timber and brush piles, and Virginia rail fences that have not
been well kept, there the Chipmunk is quite sure to be found.
Though still abundant in most parts of Indiana they are less so
than formerly. At one time they were so numerous as to be re-
garded as a serious pest and bounties were paid for their scalps.
About Maxinkuckee they are still rather common and may be
seen almost anywhere about the lake and on adjoining farms.
8 EVERMANN AND CLARK
Nearly all portions of the lake shore are favorable. Wherever
there are old trees on the north, east and south sides, there you
may find Chipmunk families. The old oaks at the southwest corner
of the lake and those on Long Point have never, since our acquaint-
ance with the lake, been without their Ground Squirrels. The open
woods between the two lakes and Walley's woods are also favorite
situations. A visit to any of these regions would almost certainly
be rewarded by a glimpse of a pair or more of these merry creatures.
On Long Point several pairs usually have their homes, and from
May or June until late in October they may be seen chasing each
other along the fences or sitting at the root of some hollow old oak
where they often remain chirping hours at a time. During the
winter of 1900-1901, one had its home under the cottage in which
we lived. During the fall it was seen daily gathering nuts, seeds,
and grain which it stored for winter use. On bright sunny days it
worked persistently from early morning until evening, usually
stopping in the middle of the forenoon and again about two o'clock
in the afternoon to sit on the south steps of the cottage or at the
root of a gnarled old oak near by, where it would keep up an almost
incessant chirping for an hour or more. Toward evening it gener-
ally disappeared, not to be seen again until 7 or 8 o'clock next
morning. On dark and gloomy days it sometimes failed to appear.
On November 27 it went into winter quarters and was not seen
again until the twentieth of March following when it was seen
scurrying about as lively as ever. From that date on it and others
were noted occasionally on bright sunny days until warm weather,
when they might be seen every day, usually near the edge of their
burrows or other safe refuge into which they would scamper, on the
slightest alarm, with a rapid succession of sharp chipping noises.
During the summer and early fall they are ever in evidence and
are not easily frightened. As fall comes on and seeds and nuts
mature, these interesting little animals become more active and
very busy laying up their winter stores, stopping now and then to
bask in the sun, their crammed cheek-pouches giving them a com-
ical, mump-like appearance. At this time of the year they have a
call or note quite different from the sharp chipping noise usually
heard in the summer, it being a succession of hollow clucking sounds,
most interesting when heard at some distance through the autumn
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF LAKE MAXINKUCKEE 9
woods. A little later, toward the last of October, when frosts are
frequent and the days are chill, they may be seen only on those
days that are bright and sunny, usually sitting in the sun on the
root of some old hollow tree, chipping merrily. Still later, as cold
days become the rule, only the brightest days tempt them out;
then they sit quietly where the sun shines warmest, chipping not
at all or only now and then very mildly.
Following are some of our notebook records:
1899. — October 3, still out and busy gathering food. 1900. —
October 18 and 19, noisy about and under our cottage; October 22,
noted; 24th, one seen going under cottage; 25th, the one belonging
to our cottage was quite noisy for a while; 26th, 27th and 30th,
still out and noisy; November 3, 5, and 6, seen; 27th, seen for last
time. 1901. — March 20, the one under our cottage came out
today and scurried about as lively as ever. October 19-21, very
common on Long Point. At least 20 between our cottage and the
end of Long Point, all very busy garnering their winter stores, but
mixing a good deal of play with their work. 1902.- — June 19, two
seen on Long Point; 2 2d, one at tip of Point and several elsewhere.
1904.- — October 18, several seen; 19th, on early morning trip around
the lake saw only one; November 5, one seen. 1906. — September
17, several seen on east side; October 5, a few seen; 14th, a great
many seen on east side, all chipping merrily; 25th, caught one in
trap on Long Point; 30th, a very bright colored one seen. 1907. —
September 26, one heard and another seen on east side; 29th, one
heard at Walley's birch swamp; October 4, one seen on Long Point
rilling its pouches with ragweed seeds which it skillfully gleaned
from the standing weeds; 10th, one seen on Arlington coal bin,
and another with very full pouches basking on a rock near the
Duenweg cottage. Loud gun shots fired at coots near by did not
frighten it; 14th, one heard chucking near the birch swamp.
In some sections of its habitat the Chipmunk is said to be migra-
tory, but our observations lead us to believe it to be non-migratory
in Indiana.
The Chipmunk feeds chiefly upon nuts and seeds of various kinds.
In regions where beech trees are found their delicious nuts consti-
tute its principal food. Hickory nuts, particularly the thinner
shelled species, hazelnuts, acorns and corn are also highly prized.
IO EVERMANN AND CLARK
In the spring they may do some damage to the corn fields by dig-
ging up the newly planted grains; but this is infrequent and apt
to occur only when the field borders an open woods. As already
recorded, on October 4, we observed a Chipmunk going from one
ragweed to another, stripping off the seeds and cramming his
pouches with them; from which it appears that they are of some
value as weed-seed destroyers.
On the whole, the Chipmunk is a harmless and very cheery
little creature which, in moderate numbers, does little or no harm
and adds much to the attractiveness of any region.
8. Citellus tridecemlineatus (Mitchill).
Striped Gopher.
This gopher is an intrusion from the prairie fauna to the west-
ward of Maxinkuckee. It appears to be gradually extending its
range eastward. Thirty years ago it was very rare or entirely
unknown in Indiana except in the prairie counties along the western
border of the state. During 1883-1885 the senior writer of this
report had exceptional opportunities to become quite familiar with
all parts of Carroll County, which lies some 50 to 80 miles south
and a few miles west of Maxinkuckee, and in those years he saw a
total of only 3 or 4 pairs of Striped Gophers within its borders and
they were all in the extreme western part of the county where the
land is largely prairie. During many years of almost continuous
residence in that county (1858 to 1885) the species was never seen
east of the Wabash River, but recently it is said to have appeared
there. In Vigo County it was common from 1886 to 1891 and has
so increased in abundance since then as to have become a serious
pest.
In 1899 when our field work began at Lake Maxinkuckee the
Striped Gopher was rare in that region; in fact, only one or two pairs
were seen during that season. They had their home at the gravel pit
and were observed most frequently in August. In 1900 they were
more numerous. Besides the colony at the gravel pit, one or more
were seen occasionally further south along the railroad, several
about the sandy hills southeast of the lake, and now and then one
was noted on Long Point. In 1904 they had still further increased.
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF LAKE MAXINKUCKEE II
On July 3 one was found dead on the railroad near Murray's where
it had evidently been killed by a passing train. One or more were
seen on Long Point, and in the autumn of 1906 several were ob-
served there. In 1907, soon after corn-planting, these little rodents
were found to have increased greatly in numbers about the gravel
pit. They became very destructive to the young corn in a field
nearby. They would pull up and eat the young plants. One
individual was seen to pull up 20 stalks. The owner of the field
shot 20 of them in May and early June. Many of them were old
ones while others were small and apparently young of the year.
The gophers of this colony had their holes or burrows in and about
the gravel pit. The colonies on the sandy farms south and south-
east of the lake had also increased considerably in numbers, as
had also that on Long Point. One was caught by a cat on Long
Point in June of that year. In 19 10 it was learned that they were
becoming more and more abundant every year. Several were seen
on Long Point. On the farms south, southwest and southeast of
the lake they are getting to be a pest. They are probably now found
west, north and east of the lake in suitable situations, but we have
not observed them there, as our field work has not recently extended
into those regions.
The Striped Gopher feeds upon young corn, wheat, oats, grass
and other tender plants, also upon grain and other seeds of various
kinds. It is very prolific and, once it has secured a foothold in any
locality, it is quite certain to become a serious pest sooner or later
unless drastic measures are taken to hold its numbers in check.
9. Marmota monax (Linnaeus).
Groundhog.
The Woodchuck, Marmot or Groundhog as it is usually called
in Indiana, is fairly common in most parts of the state. It most
delights in the more hilly districts covered with open forests or
grassy meadows, particularly those near fields of red clover. It
is not rare about Maxinkuckee. One or more pairs can usually be
found on the hillsides about Lost Lake, others in or at the edges
of the fields along the Outlet, several north and. east of the lake,
and a few in most other suitable situations. In 1900 one had its
12 EVERMANN AND CLARK
home in a burrow under one of the buildings on Long Point. In
the fall of 1904 some burrows were observed in the middle of a level
field, the holes going vertically downward several feet. This is
rather unusual, as the Groundhog almost invariably selects a hill-
side or bank in which to dig its burrow.
In May and early June, 1901, five were shot in Green's field near
the gravel pit, 2 of which were old females, and 3 were young.
About the last of June, 1901, a half-grown young was caught near
Lost Lake. When pursued it ran until overtaken, when it turned
and showed fight. August 25, 1906, several were noted in fields
near the railroad south of the lake. They sat up erect and watched
us go by. September 13, 1906, one was killed near Lost Lake.
September 22, 1907, several burrows, evidently of this animal, were
seen along fences between the lake and the tamarack swamp.
In the early spring, soon after the first warm days have come and
the only remaining reminders of the passing winter are a few snow
banks in protected places or occasional little flurries of snow, and
when the first green blades of grass are just peeping through the
matted dead grass of the previous year on warm hillsides and along
fence-rows, the first Groundhog of the season is apt to be seen.
He will most likely be found out in the open in some old meadow,
preferably a clover-field, and near his den. Here he appears early
in the afternoon when the sun shines warm on the hillside. He
comes out not only to feed upon the young and tender stems and
leaves of the clover and other early spring plants, but he also de-
lights to lie in the warm sunshine or to sit upright near his burrow
looking about over the fields and renewing his acquaintance with
the scenes which have remained only as a memory since he went
into winter-quarters the previous fall. Later in the spring and in
summer and fall, if you should be abroad in the early morning when
the sun is just showing and the dew still hangs heavy and sparkling
on the tender new grass, you will almost certainly be rewarded by
seeing one or more Woodchucks in any cloverfield you chance to
pass. Then they come out for their morning repast of red clover
stems and leaves, and the tender shoots of windflower and cinna-
mon fern. At this time they will be quite busy. When done feed-
ing they return to their burrows where they probably sleep until
one or two o'clock when they reappear, not so much for feeding as
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF LAKE MAXINKUCKEE 1 3
to bask in the warm sun or to look about over the country. Again
late in the evening, between sundown and dusk, they come out
again to feed. Then they usually remain out until nearly dark when
they are apt to retire to their burrows. They are, however, to some
extent nocturnal and may remain abroad well into the night.
The Groundhog is a pretty strict vegetarian, his food consisting
chiefly of red clover and the tender stems of grasses and other
plants. He will sometimes do damage to the young corn plants
and will, on occasion, feed upon the leaves of pumpkin, squash
and bean vines. They will sometimes visit the kitchen garden and
do more or less damage to the cabbage heads and celery. They
have also been known to visit apple orchards near their burrows and
feed upon such fruit as they could find on the ground. The only
real damage they do that is serious is that done to the clover-field;
all the rest is only occasional and may be regarded as negligible,
except perhaps the inconvenience caused by the holes they make
in the meadows and fields.
Dr. Merriam has observed1 that in the fall the Woodchucks tend
to leave the burrows in the open fields and go to those in the woods
in which they spend the period of hibernation, and our observa-
tions lead us to the same conclusion. Certain burrows in Walley's
and other woods which appeared to be deserted during the summer
showed evidences of being used early in the fall and those in the
fields had the appearance of having been abandoned in September
or early October.
On May 3, one was observed sitting at the mouth of his burrow
which was under a large stump. One of us slipped up from the
opposite side, and, looking over the stump, watched him for some-
time at very close range. He was very quiet and seemed to be
looking out across the field. When a small object was dropped
upon his nose he quickly turned his head sidewise and looked up
with an expression of curiosity, if not astonishment, on his face.
Not until the observer moved did he become frightened, when he
quickly disappeared in the burrow.
The Woodchuck produces 3 to 6 young in a litter, usually about
the last of April. We have some evidence indicating that two
1 Mammals of the Adirondacks, p. 241.
14 EVERMANN AND CLARK
litters may be produced in one season. On September 10 a young
Woodchuck not more than one-third grown was seen on an open
hillside where it was feeding on fresh grass. When chased it ran
quite swiftly. When overtaken it would change its course from
time to time. Finally when tired out it crouched down in the
grass, apparently attempting to hide from its pursuers. Its small
size suggested that it was born not earlier than the middle of July
or later.
The Groundhog as yet possesses little or no economic value.
Its pelage is coarse and contains little fur. The hide is tough and
ought to make a good quality of leather. The flesh is abundant
in quantity, sweet, palatable and very nutritious ; it ought to be
more extensively utilized as an article of food.
10. Sciuropterus volans (Linnaeus).
Flying Squirrel.
Wherever there are, about the lake, large old trees with hollow
trunks or limbs, one or more pairs of Flying Squirrels are likely to
be found. Striking such trees with an axe or maul will often induce
the squirrels to come out, especially if the tree is of proper size
and springy enough to vibrate well in response to blows. When
striking the tree is stopped, the squirrels usually return quickly to
their nest. By such devices as this, one is apt to discover that the
Flying Squirrel is a much more common animal in the neighbor-
hood than the number seen otherwise would indicate. On account
of its quiet, unobtrusive ways and its nocturnal habits it is not
often seen except by those who know its ways.
These squirrels usually make their nests in holes in old dead or
decaying trees; they may utilize a hollow limb, a decayed and hol-
lowed-out portion of the trunk or a deserted woodpecker hole.
Late in the fall, after the cottagers have left the lake and the cot-
tages have been closed for the winter, these resourceful little animals
sometimes take up their residence in the loft, cupboard or some
suitable box in the cottages. There they build their nests and
dwell cosily until the warm days of returning spring tempt them
to return to a hole in some scraggy old oak near-by, where they will
spend the summer.
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF LAKE MAXINKUCKEE 1 5
Occasionally, in the evening twilight or on moonlight nights, a
Flying Squirrel may be seen sailing in a gentle downward curve
from one tree to another, the start being made from well toward
the top of one tree and the place of alighting at a much lower point
on the other. There is something ghost-like in this gliding flight;
it is so unlike that of any other of our native creatures; there is
not only an entire absence of fluttering wings, but perfect silence.
While in their nests these squirrels do more or less squeaking.
On the night of September 21, 1903, one or more were heard in trees
in the Arlington hotel grounds. On November 27, 1904, the acci-
dental burning of two cottages on Long Point ignited some of the
surrounding trees, one of which contained a family of Flying
Squirrels. They did not leave their nest until fatally burned
when they leaped to the ground. On August 19, 1906, while rid-
ing along a road west of the lake a squeaking sound attracted atten-
tion to the base of a small scrub oak at the roadside. On examining
the place four young Flying Squirrels were discovered. They were
quite small and wholly naked. A storm had probably blown them
from their nest which was a large, globular affair, made of fibrous
material, situated in a crotch of the tree. While we were only a
few feet away, one of the parent squirrels, presumably the mother,
came down the tree and, taking the young in her mouth, carried
them, one at a time, back to the nest.
On April 16, 1890, one of us found a nest containing two young
Flying Squirrels, south of Terre Haute. The nest was in a wood-
pecker's hole about 20 feet from the ground in a maple. Upon
striking the tree the mother squirrel came out of the hole and flew
to another tree near-by, where she remained watching. Breaking
the snag at the hole the two young were removed and placed on the
ground. After a little time the old squirrel flew back to the snag
and seemed much disturbed by the changed appearance of things.
She looked all about and, finally discovering the young on the ground,
she came down, and taking one in her mouth, carried it to the top
of the snag from which she then flew with the young in her mouth
to another tree about 30 feet away. She ran up that tree to a
height of about 50 feet where she found a knot-hole in which she
placed the little one. In a moment she reappeared and flew back
to the snag for the other. In the meantime I had stationed myself
1 6 EVERMANN AND CLARK
near the young. After several advances and retreats she finally
came and seized the young in her mouth when I caught her in my
hand. When released she returned to the knot-hole with the young
squirrel. These dates (April 16 and August 19), are of interest in
showing so wide a range in the breeding season of the Flying
Squirrel.
On December 16, 1890, a family of six Flying Squirrels was found
by Mr. J. M. Beck near Burlington. They were all full-grown.
On Thanksgiving day, several years ago, Prof. U. O. Cox, then of
Farmland, Indiana, found 15 Flying Squirrels in a small rotten
stump a little higher than a man's head.
It is remarkable the number of Flying Squirrels that can be dis-
covered in any wood by knocking on the old dead snags or trees,
particularly in the spring. We have found them in old oaks, beeches,
maples, ash, willows, sycamores and hickories, as well as in various
old buildings. They seem to breed chiefly early in the spring,
about sugar-making time. A second or third litter may be pro-
duced later in the season.
Flying Squirrels make very interesting pets. Several years ago
one of us had two which were kept as pets for several weeks. They
had the freedom of one room in the house. During the day they
lay curled up in a box provided and made comfortable for that
purpose. At night, particularly before midnight, they would come
out to play about the room and to accept the nuts and other food
offered them. One night a drawer containing a number of bird-
skins was inadvertently left open. One of the squirrels got into it,
ate one of the skins and as a result died of arsenic poisoning.
11. Castor canadensis carolinensis Rhoads.
Beaver.
The Beaver was at one time pretty common in the northern part
of Indiana. There still exist vestiges of one or more beaver-dams
in the outlet between Lost Lake and the Tippecanoe River.
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF LAKE MAXLNKUCKEE 1 7
12. Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis (Fischer).
Common White-footed Mouse; Deer Mouse.
This is the common wild mouse of Indiana. At Maxinkuckee
it is abundant not only in the fields and woods but also about the
cottages around the lake. Any old pile of wood, boards, logs or
brush, stack of straw or hay, or shock of fodder, is almost sure to
contain at least one family of these beautiful and interesting little
animals. They may also be found in almost any old dead tree
whether in open wToods or dense forest, in which there are natural
hollows or deserted woodpecker holes.
Several examples were trapped in July at the cottage occupied
by us on Long Point. A male was captured October 20, 1906, at
the pond below Farrar's woods.
These mice feed largely upon beechnuts of which they often store
up considerable quantities for winter use. We have on various
occasions found more than a pint of beechnuts stored in a hole
in some old tree, evidently by these mice. They do not hibernate,
but remain quite active during even the most severe winters.
Their tracks may be seen in abundance on the snow. They also
feed on small snails and other small, delicate mollusks such as
Physa, Limna?a and Spha^rium. We have frequently found shells,
with the apex bitten off, in and about the nests of these mice.
They breed probably several times each season, as we have seen
young as early as March and as late as November. The number
of young produced in a litter ranges from four to six. We have
frequently caught old females with the young hanging to the teats
and carried them many rods before the young dropped off.
On two occasions when one of us put a shrew (Blarina brevi-
canda) in a box with a Deer Mouse the shrew killed and ate the
mouse.
The Deer Mouse is readily distinguished from related species.
It attains a length of 6.5 inches including the tail which is 3 to
3.25 inches long. In color it is yellowish brown, grayish, or fawn-
color; belly and feet pure white; tail less distinctly bicolor than in
the Michigan White-footed Mouse.
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., February, 191 1.
1 8 EVERMANN AND CLARK
13. Peromyscus maniculatus bairdi (Hoy & Kennicott).
Michigan White-footed Mouse.
This species is not as abundant as the Common White-footed
Mouse. It does not appear to venture into woodlands or swamps,
but seems to prefer dry, open situations such as the edges of fields
and grassy pastures. Its general distribution is more northern
than that of its near relative, P. leucopus noveboracensis. It is
very abundant in the sand dunes that border Lake Michigan.
At Maxinkuckee it is probably not uncommon, though we have
seen only 3 examples. One was found dead on the railroad track
November 3, 1904. Another captured at the gravel pit October
29, 1906, gave the following measurements: Length 118 mm.;
tail 48; hind foot 9; ear 10; girth 55. A third example was captured
November 3, 1906, in a cornfield east of the lake.
The young of this mouse differ from the adult in being drab in
color instead of yellowish-brown. On one occasion when trapping
these mice for specimens it was observed that they were quite
seriously infested by fleas. The examples thus afflicted could
usually be recognized at once by their having the hair gnawed or
scratched out from about the root of the tail.
This mouse can be distinguished from its more common relative
(the Common White-footed Mouse) by its smaller size, smaller
ears and feet, and shorter tail, the tail being more thickly hairy and
more sharply bicolor. The adult is yellowish-brown, With a sooty
dorsal band; belly white; feet not quite white; tail bicolor. Length
4§ inches, tail i| inches.
14. Microtus pennsylvanicus (Ord).
Field Mouse; Meadow Mouse; Vole.
The Meadow Mouse is abundant in all suitable situations about
the lake. The extensive areas of semi-marshy grassy land supply
an ideal habitat for this noxious but interesting little animal. Wher-
ever there are meadows or marsh ground covered with grasses
there these mice will be found, their labyrinthine runways forming
an intricate network under the dead grass where their nests are
numerous and usually quite conspicuous. These runways are very
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF LAKE MAXINKUCKEE 1 9
common in the low marshy meadows such as are usually submerged
during the winter and spring, during which time the mice must
retreat to higher ground. They do not hibernate but continue very
active throughout the winter. In the spring when the snow melts
away their runways that were under it become quite conspicuous.
This species is very destructive to grasses and other cultivated
crops. When the corn is cut and left in shocks in the field these
mice establish themselves in nearly every shock, building a nest
near the center and feeding destructively upon the corn. The
amount of damage done in this way to the average field of corn is
very considerable and far in excess of that done to the poultry
yard by the hawks which, if not destroyed by the farmer, would
do much to hold the Field Mice in check. The Marsh Hawk,
Sparrow Hawk, Pigeon Hawk and Cooper's Hawk, as well as the
various owls all prey on these mice.
On October 24, 1904, a Meadow Mouse was found on the lake
shore, beheaded, possibly by some bird of prey. November 1,
1904, a cat was seen with one. December n, 1904, one was seen
near a muskrat house in Norris Inlet marsh.
15. Fiber zibethicus (Linnaeus).
Muskrat.
The Muskrat is a familiar and well-known animal throughout
North America wherever there are marshes, ponds or streams.
Among the hundreds of small lakes and smaller ponds in northern
Indiana there is probably not one that is not the home of one to
several pairs of these interesting rodents. At and about Lake
Maxinkuckee it is quite common, albeit not often seen except
by the few elect who know when and where to look for it. In
the autumn and early winter, especially in the evening and early
morning, they may be seen swimming about or heard splash-
ing among the weeds near shore. It is at this time that they
begin to build their houses, and day by day those who pass along
the shores of the lakes or about the ponds and marshes may notice
the increase in size of the piles of Chara and rushes of which they
build their winter homes. These homes or houses are built almost
anywhere along the shore in shallow water or even well out in small
20 EVERMANN AND CLARK
shallow ponds wherever there is suitable building material con-
veniently at hand. Every Scirpus patch is likely to contain one
or more of these houses. On the west side of the lake we usually
found one in a small pond by the side of the railroad just north of
the Assembly grounds, two or three in the edge of the lake between
there and Culver, one near the Winfield cottage, one or more in
Outlet Bay, two or three between Long Point and Murray's, six
or more from Murray's to Norris Inlet, a score or more about Norris
Inlet, several along Aubeenaubee Creek and perhaps a dozen in
the northeast corner of the lake and along Culver Creek. A great
many are seen each year about Lost Lake and along the Outlet
throughout its entire length, even to Tippecanoe River. Each of
the marshes and ponds west of the lake has its share of nests and
each old kettle hole that is not too dry will have one or more.
While these are the usual places where the muskrats build their
houses, now and then a house is found in some quite unusual and
unexpected place. Among these are the cross-timbers under the
piers at the cottages about the lake. December 24, 1900, a com-
pleted nest was found resting cosily on cross-timbers under the
pier at the Lakeview Hotel. Though not large this nest was com-
pactly built. It was composed almost wholly of Chara and was a
foot or more above the surface of the water. November 2, 1904,
another nest was found in a similar situaton on cross-timbers at the
distal end of the Culver depot pier. This nest was quite large and
composed chiefly of Chara. When disturbed the owners of these
nests would drop quietly into the water and swim away.
Toward the last of October, 1904, a nest was found on the seat
of an abandoned boat near Murray's. This nest was newly built
and consisted chiefly of Chara and Scirpus stems. Later, when
the lake froze over it was deserted. Still another nest was found
on the top of a tree that had fallen into the lake, and yet another
on the boughs of a broken tree that extended into the water.
The most interesting and unique situation selected by a muskrat
for its house ever seen by us was a large dry-goods box which a
duck-hunter had anchored in Outlet Bay for use as a blind from
which to shoot ducks. The box was anchored some distance from
shore with the open side toward the shore. Bushes with leaves
still on were stuck in the lake about the box to aid in concealing
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF LAKE MAXINKUCKEE 21
the gunner and his boat, a half-inch manila rope being used to hold
the box at anchor. On visiting the blind one morning in October
more than a peck of fresh wet Chara was found in the box. The
amount was increased each night for the next few days until it con-
sisted of more than a bushel of material, almost wholly Chara.
One morning the box was missing and the next day it was found on
the east side of the lake where it had evidently been drifted by the
wind. An examination of the anchor rope disclosed the fact that
it had been gnawed in two by the Muskrat itself which thus set
its own home adrift.
The materials which the Muskrat uses in constructing its winter
houses are chiefly various aquatic plants such as Chara, water
lilies (both white and yellow), Potamogeton, Myriophyllum, Cera-
tophyllum, Scirpus, Typha, Iris, and the like, and our observations
lead us to believe that they utilize at least some of this material as
food. Along with these various plants will often be found stems
and sticks of various sizes. In Lost Lake some of the houses con-
tain a considerable proportion of mud.
During the summer the muskrats appear to subsist almost wholly
on vegetable matter. In the early fall they sometimes make forag-
ing trips to nearby gardens where they commit depredations on the
carrots, parsnips, beets, turnips and other succulent vegetables.
They also eat the seeds as well as the stems and roots of the yellow
and the white pond lilies. They gnaw the bark from the roots
and stems of Swamp Loosestrife (Decodon verticillatus) and the
Buttonbush {Cephalanthus occidentalis) . Later in the fall and
during the winter animal food enters more largely into their menu.
We have found them feeding on dead coots and ducks that had
drifted ashore or which, wounded by some gunner, had escaped
among the weeds and sedges fringing the lake. They also feed on
turtles of various species which they find dead or which they them-
selves may kill. On several occasions we have found partly de-
voured turtles under circumstances which left no doubt as to what
had been feeding on them. December n, 1904, several dead
painted turtles and a few musk turtles were found near Norris
Inlet lying on their backs on the snow or ice, with the flesh wholly
or partly devoured, and Muskrat tracks leading to and from them
and all about. The most important element of the winter food of
22 EVERMANN AND CLARK
the Muskrat, however, is the freshwater mussels or Unionidae.
At various places along the shore, wherever an object projects out
into the water, such as a log or pier, or fallen tree-top, there will be
found in autumn or early winter a pile of mussel shells where
muskrats have been feeding. These piles are frequently of con-
siderable size, containing sometimes a bushel or more of shells.
September 24, 1907, one of these piles on Long Point was examined.
It was off shore several feet and in water 18 inches deep. About
one-half of the shells were examined critically and counted. There
were 532 shells, representing 4 species as follows: Lampsilis luteolus,
358; Unto gibbosus, 167; L. iris 6; and L. multiradiatus, 1.
During the fall these operations are probably confined to mussels
which they find in shallow water near shore. In winter, however,
when ice-cracks form and extend well across the lake, the Muskrats
go far out on the ice, dive through the cracks and bring up mussels
which they eat sitting on the ice. At such times they get mussels
at considerable distances from shore. In the first days of January,
1905, a broad crack formed in the ice from Long Point to the
Norris boat-house. On January 4, a Muskrat was seen at the edge
of this crack about 1000 feet from shore eating mussels. It would
dive through the crack and after a little while reappear with a
mussel. Sometimes it dived 5 or 6 times before securing one.
It would then sit up on its haunches, holding the mussel in its paws
and, by much clawing and chewing, finally succeed in opening the
shell and removing the meat, which it usually licked out quite clean.
In some cases the muskrat failed to get the shell open. Usually
the shells are but little or not at all broken; even the hinge still
holds and the shells are scarcely injured. It is our observation that
the Muskrat, by inserting its claws or teeth between the valves
succeeds in cutting or tearing loose the adductor muscles so as to
permit the valves to spring open. Another Muskrat was observed
further out on the same crack, a long distance from shore, and the
ice along the crack between the two was pretty thickly strewn with
shells. The Muskrats apparently do not care so much for mussel
gills filled with eggs or glochidia, as these were usually rejected.
The stomach of a Muskrat examined at Washington, D. C, late
in the spring was found well-filled with mussel remains. Muskrats
also feed to a considerable extent on fish, crawfish and frogs. We
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF LAKE MAXINKUCKEE 23
have on more than one occasion found partly devoured fish at their
feeding stations, and remains of fish, frogs and crustaceans in their
kitchenmiddens. We have never seen a Muskrat catch a live fish,
but have no doubt they do so. They certainly pick up freshly
dead fish which they chance to find.
At Lake Maxinkuckee the Muskrats raise at least two litters, and
probably three, each season. About the middle of June, 1901,
young muskrats about half-grown were seen swimming about or
sitting on their haunches on shore eating bits of lily roots. These
were probably of the first litter. On June 15, 1903, a nest with 5
young was found in a pile of brush on marshy ground on Long
Point. The young were evidently not more than a few days old,
as their eyes were not yet open. On May 31, 1 901, we caught one
about one-third or one-half grown on south shore of lake. Septem-
ber 5, 1906, saw 2 young not more than half grown. On another
occasion, a young one was seen on the shore near the Culver depot
pier and was almost caught before it took alarm. On another
occasion, a young one was seen to dive in shallow water south of
Green's pier. Upon wading out to where it dived a hole was seen
in the bottom, out of which the Muskrat soon came and was cap-
tured. From these data it is evident that at least 2 Utters per sea-
son are raised in this vicinity.
In the early winter, after ice has formed some distance out from
shore, Muskrats are often seen swimming under the ice. They
move along quite rapidly, and present a peculiar appearance, a
bubble of air at each nostril expanding and contracting as they
breathe, and a number of small bubbles on the fur giving them a
silvery color. Apparently the Muskrat before diving fills its lungs
with air, portions of which it exhales and rebreathes again. During
the time it remains as a bubble at each nostril it is purified through
its contact with the water and rendered fit for breathing again.
This peculiar habit would seem to account for the ability of the
Muskrat to remain under water so long. On one occasion (in De-
cember, 1904) when standing on the ice a peculiar sound was heard
beneath our feet. Upon investigation it was found to be caused
by a Muskrat gnawing at the under side of the ice. The sound
was like that made by a rat gnawing under a floor.
24 EVERMANN AND CLARK
At times the Muskrats make various noises. September 5, 1906,
two half-grown young were observed chasing each other and sing-
ing a long, shivering note, followed by mewings and squeakings and
other noises or calls. The shivering, singing noise was heard on
other occasions.
The Muskrat is the most valuable fur-bearing animal in the
Maxinkuckee region; indeed, it is the most valuable in the state.
Considerable numbers are trapped each year about the lake, the best
grounds being Norris Inlet and Lost Lake together with the Outlet.
We have been unable to obtain complete figures of the catch, but
have enough to show that it is important. In the winter of 1896-
1897 one trapper secured between 60 and 70 skins. One who trap-
ped only at Norris Inlet in the fall of 1900 had secured 30 pelts by
November 9, and another at Lost Lake had 50 by the same date.
Up to November first, 1903, two men trapping chiefly at Norris
Inlet had secured 103 pelts. They got 28 one night. Their entire
catch for the winter was 264 Muskrats, 4 Mink and 3 Opossums.
The Muskrat pelts brought them 10 to 15 cents each. The prices
now are much higher, ranging from 30 to 50 cents. Black pelts,
which constitute a small proportion of the catch, bring much
higher prices.
It has long been suspected that the Muskrat is the intermediate
host of certain parasites which are concerned in the production of
pearls in the Unionidae or freshwater mussels. The Muskrat
stomachs and intestines examined by us at Lake Maxinkuckee did
not enable us to demonstrate the truth of this theory. One stom-
ach examined contained no parasites of any kind. Another exam-
ined at Washington, D. C, contained a few parasites but none that
could be identified with the distomid which induces pearl-forma-
tion. A species of parasite, Monostomum affine Leidy, closely
related to the distomids was described from the gall-bladder of the
Muskrat. It is the intention to examine a considerable number of
stomachs at the first opportunity with a view to determining the
facts in this matter.
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF LAKE MAXINKUCKEE 25
16. Zapus hudsonius (Zimmermann).
Jumping Mouse.
This is another northern animal whose range southward reaches
northern Indiana. It is frequently reported from this part of the
state, particularly from the vicinity of Yellow River. It is also
said to be seen occasionally about Rochester a few miles southeast
of the lake. Our only definite record for the lake is of one found
dead near the ice houses on the west side of the lake August 26,
1906. This example gave the following measurements: length of
body, 80 mm.; tail 108 mm.; ear 5 mm.; hind foot 28 mm.
Erethizon dorsatum (Linnaeus).
Porcupine.
According to accounts given by old settlers in Indiana, the Por-
cupine was at one time not rare throughout the northern part of
the state. It was not uncommon for the inquisitive cow or the
dog to come home with its nose full of spines of the Porcupine.
It was the custom to hold the afflicted animal and pull out the spines
with pincers, as they stuck very tightly, while the suffering crea-
ture announced to the neighborhood the discovery it had made
that day. Troubles like this caused the settlers to wage a war of
extermination on the Porcupine, with the result that it is now rarely
or never seen. We have only one record of its recent occurrence
in this vicinity. According to Mr. S. S. Chadwick one was killed
a short distance west of Culver in the fall of 1887.
18. Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsi (Allen).
Rabbit.
The Rabbit or Cottontail is an abundant and well known animal
of the Maxinkuckee region. The large areas of uncultivated swamp-
land, abounding in tall grasses, sedges and small brushy shrubs, the
tamarack and other swamps, and the considerable tracts of timber,
often with heavy undergrowth, give a wide choice of location and
refuge. In all these Rabbits are usually quite abundant. Although
apt to be found almost anywhere, there are choice places where it
26 EVERMANN AND CLARK
is particularly common. Among these are the thickets, fields, and
Farrar's woods at the south end of the lake; the shores of Lost Lake
and the woods and fields from Green's to Walley's and beyond;
the fields, swamps and prairie westward to Manitou and Houghton
lakes, including the tamarack swamp; and the low ground along
Aubeenaubee Creek on the east side.
The following records made by us serve to indicate to some extent
the abundance of Rabbits in this region. They are by no means
complete, but simply show the observations of one or two persons
for portions of each of several years. During the fall of 1899 up to
January 21, one man who hunted only occasionally and only in the
immediate vicinity of the lake, killed 76 Rabbits. In 1901 they
were said to be plentiful in February and on December 10, one
hunter shoti9- On January 2, 1903, hunters obtained 2 1 in the vicin-
ity of Mud Lake near the head of Aubeenaubee Creek; December
14, 4 hunters got 20 and on December 30, one got 8. In 1904, 7
were killed December 8, 24 on December 13, and 2 on December 22.
In 1905 two were gotton November 27. In 1906, two on January
22, one seen July 21 and 29, and October 9, several on October 31 on
the east side, 2 on November 13, one on the 14th and 4 gotten on
the 20th. In 1907, a half-grown young was seen September n
and another September 20; another not more than one- third grown
was seen September 22.
In this region the Rabbit is hunted rather persistently every fall
and winter from October to February and the total number killed
is great; nevertheless the animals are so prolific that the supply
usually keeps up pretty well. During some years it is less abundant.
The season of 1908-9 was a period of scarcity. Generally these
periods last only for a single season, and the next season is one of
usual abundance. They are in best condition in November to Jan-
uary and these are the principal months when they are hunted.
Unfortunately a few local pothunters have been using ferrets, a
method which affords no sport, is entirely unsportsmanlike, gives
the Rabbit no chance, and which cannot be too severely condemned.
In this region the Rabbit breeds at least twice each season. The
first litter is produced early in the spring, usually in May, and the
young are half or two-thirds grown by the first or middle of July.
The second litter is probably produced in July or even as late as
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF LAKE MAXINKUCKEE 27
September, as we have seen half-grown and one-third-grown young
September n and 22. Heavy rains in the spring frequently flood
the breeding grounds with the result that many of the first litters
are drowned. This was particularly the case in 1902 when there
were unusually heavy rains in May and June, flooding all the low-
lands. That many young Rabbits were drowned is evidenced by
their scarcity in the fall and winter following.
Here, as elsewhere, the Rabbit causes some damage to young
fruit trees by gnawing the bark. The damage is greatest during
the winters of heavy and long-continued snows which cover up other
vegetation on which they would feed. The Lake Maxinkuckee
region, however, is not much given to orchards or horticulture and
the injury wrought by Rabbits is therefore not serious.
The Rabbit as an article of food is becoming more highly appre-
ciated in recent years and there is also an increasing market for its
fur. With proper laws providing adequate protection a large and
valuable catch could be made every year.
19. Lynx ruffus (Gueldenstaedt).
Wild Cat.
The Wild Cat or Lynx was probably not uncommon in this county
up to about 1850. They are now rarely seen. We have unauthen-
ticated accounts of their occurrence west of Lake Maxinkuckee as
late as 1870, or later. Dr. Hahn records the killing of one near
Oxford, Benton County, in 1905.
20. Vulpes fulvus (Desmarest).
Red Fox.
Formerly common throughout the state but now not often seen.
A few burrows believed to be those of Foxes were observed in Wal-
ley's woods and near the outlet, southwest of the lake. The only
Foxes actually seen by us about the lake were a family of 3 young
and their mother found April 18, 1901, in a den in Green's field
southwest of the lake. The old one was shot, and the three
young taken as pets. One of them promptly escaped, but the other
two were kept for several weeks when a second one escaped. The
28 EVERMANN AND CLARK
remaining one for some unknown reason became paralyzed in its
hind legs. It was permitted to go about as best it could, and finally
took up its residence among the bushes in Green's marsh. Here
the dog would occasionally go to tease it, but the young fox was
always able to keep the dog off. Late in the summer it disappeared
and was not seen again.
21. Canis occidentalis Richardson.
Timber Wolf.
The Timber Wolf or Big Gray Wolf was doubtless very abundant
throughout the wooded portion of Indiana in the early days. It
still occurs in some numbers in the more wild regions. Mr. Anton
Meyer tells us that he got a few pelts each winter up to 1905-6,
from the region northwest of Plymouth toward the Kankakee
marshes. During a visit to Starke County in 1906 we heard state-
ments to the effect that large wolves are occasionally seen and heard
in the vicinity of Knox. Dr. Hahn in his Mammals of the Kanka-
kee Valley states that the reports of the occurrence of the Timber
Wolf in that region are conflicting and that it may be that only the
Prairie Wolf is found there. Mr. Meyer, however, states positively
that he gets pelts of two different species, a "large gray timber
wolf" and a "smaller prairie wolf."
22. Canis latrans Say.
Prairie Wolf.
The Prairie Wolf, or Coyote as it is more commonly known in
the west where it is abundant, is not known to occur in the immedi-
ate vicinity of Lake Maxinkuckee. It is a species of the prairies,
occurring in some abundance in the prairie counties in the north-
west corner of the state, particularly in Benton, Lake, Newton,
Jasper and Starke counties. Dr. Hahn1 records a large number
from these counties. He also states that a pack of moderate size
was seen near Leesburg, Kosciusko County, in the winter of 1906-7.
1 The Mammals of Indiana, 33d Annual Report Dept. Geology and Natural History
of Indiana, 1908, pp. 562-565.
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF LAKE MAXINKUCKEE 29
Mr. Anton Meyer of Plymouth, Indiana, already quoted, informs
us that he usually gets a few small prairie wolf pelts each winter,
chiefly from Starke and Jasper counties. As the prairie of this
portion of the state reaches Lake Maxinkuckee it is quite probable
that this wolf occurs there. Dr. Hahn expresses the belief that the
Coyote has doubtless increased greatly in numbers in recent years
in the northwestern portion of the state and that its range is grad-
ually extending eastward.
23. Lutra canadensis lataxina F. Cuvier.
Otter.
The Otter was formerly not uncommon in this region, but it
is now very rare. One was caught on the Tippecanoe River just
below Delong about 1895. Mr. Anton Meyer, a fur buyer of
Plymouth, Ind., tells us that he gets 10 or 12 Otter skins each
year, chiefly from the Tippecanoe and Yellow rivers.
24. Mephitis mesomelas avia Bangs.
Skunk.
The Skunk or Pole Cat is not common in this region but it is
apparently becoming more frequent. We saw none in 1899 and
1900, but that the country was not wholly deprived of this interest-
ing animal was on several occasions made evident by the presence
of the well-known diagnostic odor.
On September 16, 1906, the mangled remains of one were found
on the railroad track near the gravel pit; it had evidently been run
over by a passing train. On September 20, 1907, a freshly skinned
skunk was seen in the possession of a hunter at Culver. The skin
was 22 inches long, and the tail 10 inches. The roots of the hairs
show through the skin so that the skin looks black under the black
parts and white under the white dorsal stripe.
The price of prime skunk pelts in this region has ranged from $1.00
to $1.75 during the last few years.
30 EVERMANN AND CLARK
25. Taxidea americana (Boddsert).
Badger.
Never more than very rare in Indiana and now probably extinct
in this part of the state. In 1893, Mr. S. D. Steininger, then of La
Grange County, reported that the Badger has been found in Elk-
hart, La Grange, Steuben, De Kalb, Noble and Kosciusko counties;
that four had been caught in La Grange County within the last 10
years, the last in 1887; that 3 were caught in the northeast part of
Elkhart County in 1888, and a black one in Noble County in 1880.
Various old residents say that it was formerly found in Marshall
County.
26. Lutreola vison lutreocephalus (Harlan).
Mink.
The Mink is not common in the immediate vicinity of Lake Max-
inkuckee, but it is said to be more plentiful a few miles to the west-
ward and along Yellow and Tippecanoe rivers. One was killed in
February, 1898, near the Winfield cottage; others were obtained
about the lake December 18, 1899, January 19, 1900, and Novem-
ber 9, 1900. On April 5, 1901, a skull of a female mink was picked
up near Lost Lake. A few were trapped in the winter of 1903-4;
3 at Norris Inlet in October, and one at the ice-houses December 14.
On December 17, 1901, a mink dragged 3 ducks from the ice on the
lake to a hole under a stone wall on Long Point.
In the winter of 1906-7, a mink track was observed on the shore
at the Shady Point cottage. The mink had gone south toward
Murray's until opposite the gravel pit when it went out on the ice
several rods to an open place where it evidently fed for a time, after
which it returned on the ice to the shore and then followed on south
along the lake shore nearly to Murray's where it was found under
the edge of the ice and killed. It was in some respects an abnormal
mink, the head and shoulders being unusually heavy, the body
short and thick like that of a coon, and the color jet black. The
pelt sold for $3.50.
On September 7, 1907, a very large mink was seen in Outlet
Bay between Chadwick's Hotel and the north end of the icehouses.
It was watched for some time and was evidently feeding. It would
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF LAKE MAXINKUCKEE 3 1
dive and remain under a few seconds, then come up not far from
where it went under. After remaining at the surface a minute or
two, swimming and turning about in a narrow area, apparently
eating what it had brought up, it would dive again. Often the
entire length from nose to tip of tail could be seen just above the
water surface. When it dived it humped its back, going under head
first, the entire length of the tail (except the tip) which seemed to
be quite long, often coming entirely out of the water.
After feeding for more than 20 minutes it swam to its burrow on
shore near the steamer slip. What it was feeding on was not deter-
mined.
In July, 1907, Dr. J. T. Scovell found a family of young minks
on the Tippecanoe River, below Delong. They were on a mass of
drift in the stream. They were moving about on the drift from one
part to another. As the boat approached, the two old minks swam
out toward it, and as the boat floated by they made a wheezy noise
which they continued until the boat was some distance below them
when they returned to the drift, into which the young had disap-
peared.
27. Putorius noveboracensis Emmons.
Weasel.
The Weasel is generally common throughout Indiana. It is not
rare about Lake Maxinkuckee, although it is not often seen.
August 3, 1899, one was found freshly dead at the edge of the lake
near Green's pier. An adult male was killed August 19, 1901, on
Long Point, where it had taken up a temporary residence under the
floor of a tent. Another fine large example was found dead near
the railroad, south of the lake, in December, 1904.
About July 15, 1902, Mr. S. S. Chadwick saw a weasel chasing a
rabbit. The rabbit came out upon the road on Long Point, turned
back toward the lake, and then ran south. Just then a Weasel
came along on the rabbit's trail. When it reached the road and saw
that it was being watched it stopped a moment, then, not at all
frightened, started on after the rabbit. Losing the trail it came
back and hunted about until it was recovered, then again followed
it by scent just as a dog would. The rabbit appeared greatly
frightened, its eyes popped and shining. The Weasel was very
quick and alert.
32 EVERMANN AND CLARK
28. Procyon lotor (Linnaeus).
Raccoon.
The Raccoon appears to be somewhat common, especially in the
large stretch of heavy woodland east of the lake. It also occurs
west of the lake as well as north and south of it, as evidenced by its
depredations in the cornfields at roasting-ear time, and, later in the
year, by the piles of shells it leaves from its feasts on freshwater
mussels, a habit it shares with the muskrat. In the spring of 1901
they were often heard at night, — a shivering call not unlike that of
the screech-owl. In January, 1904, one was caught near Monterey
and another was taken east of the lake in November. In 1906 one
was seen on east side, October 30. On September 7, 1907, five young
Coons about two-thirds grown were got from a tree on the east
side. The old ones escaped. Five days later 3 others were caught.
Mr. S. S. Chadwick says that the largest coon he ever saw weighed
18 pounds; this was in Pennsylvania.
In the Delphi Journal was recently noted the capture of a coon
near Russiaville, Howard County, Indiana, which weighed 34
pounds.
29. Blarina brevicauda (Say).
Mole Shrew.
On account of its nocturnal and underground habits the Mole
Shrew is not often seen and is therefore not very well or generally
known even to those living in localities in which it is really common.
It is probably not uncommon about Lake Maxinkuckee. We have
records of 1 2 specimens, of which 9 were found dead as follows : one
in road south of Arlington, in August, 1899; one on lake shore Octo-
ber 20, 1900; one near Fort Wayne, October 1, 1906; one near Wi-
nona, October 2, 1906; one south of Arlington, October 9, 1906; one
at icehouses, October 22, 1906; one on Long Point, October 29, 1906;
one on Long Point, September 25, 1907; one in road on Long Point,
October 13, 1907. One was caught in a trap on west side of lake,
November 1, and another on Long Point, October 22, 1906. One
was caught by a cat, October 3, 1906.
Special search would no doubt have enabled us to find many more
specimens of this curious little creature.
NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF LAKE MAXINKUCKEE 33
The stomach of the one caught October 22, contained many para-
sites resembling tapeworms. The one found October 29, was lying
at the edge of the water and was covered with leeches.
Why these little creatures are so often found dead is not well
understood. It has been suggested that the fetid odor of this ani-
mal, particularly the male, causes it to be rejected by animals which
would otherwise prey upon it, and that those found dead are indi-
viduals which have been caught by hawks or owls and dropped
after discovering the disagreeable odor possessed by the little ani-
mal which the hawk or owl at first thought would prove a delicious
titbit.
The carnivorous, bloodthirsty nature of the Mole Shrew has been
noted by many observers. On two different occasions we put a
Mole Shrew in a box with a white-footed mouse and in each case the
shrew killed and ate the mouse. Others have recorded similar
experiences. One observer records the fact that a Mole Shrew ate
three times its own weight of meadow mice in 24 hours.
30. Scalops aquaticus machrinus (Rafinesque).
Common Mole.
The Mole is very common about this lake. Its burrows may be
seen in all suitable places. The loose, sandy soil is particularly
well adapted to their habits. They are usually abundant on Long
Point, also along the railroad, in the fields and open woodlands
about the lake, in the Academy grounds, and in fact in all situations
in the country where the conditions are favorable. Their burrows
are often seen along the railroad, and frequently they are seen to
pass from one side of the track to the other, passing under the rails
between the ties.
Several were caught during our stay at the lake. When a cap-
tive mole is released it does not attempt to escape by running away
but at once begins to dig or burrow, and in an incredibly short time
it has sunk into the ground and entirely disappeared.
The popular prejudice against the mole based on the belief that
it is injurious to vegetation is entirely unjustified. Moles are
insectivorous in their habits and do not eat garden plants or vege-
tables at all. The only possible harm they cause is the slight injury
34
EVERMANN AND CLARK
they sometimes do to lawns by their burrows. This, however, is
infinitesimal in comparison with the great good done by ridding the
fields, gardens and lawns of noxious worms, insects and larvae.
31. Myotis lucifugus (Le Conte).
Little Brown Bat.
The Little Brown Bat is quite common about the lake. They
first appear early in April and remain out at least until November.
We have definite records of April 10, June 23, September 17, Octo-
ber 9, and November 1.
On still evenings from May to October, just as the twilight deep-
ens and objects at a distance become indistinct, these little crea-
tures come out from their hiding places and may be seen circling
in and out among the cottages and trees, and now and then out over
the lake in their search for food. Rarely are they seen before sun-
down, but on moonlit nights we have seen them out over the lake
as late as eleven o'clock.
Proc. Wash. Acad. Set , Vol. XII
Plate
MAP
OF A PORTION OF
STAUNTON, VA
SHOWING RELATION OF CAVED
AREA TO THE. STRIKE AND
DIP OF LIMESTONES
BY
E.M. KINDLE AND P. V. ROUNDY
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. XIII, No. 2, pp. 35-49. Pls. I-V. May 15, 191 1.
THE COLLAPSE OF RECENT BEDS AT STAUNTON,
VIRGINIA1
By EDWARD M. KINDLE
U. S. Geological Survey
During the month of August, 1910, a series of cavernous openings
in the ground was developed in the central part of the city of Staun-
ton, Va. These have been widely described in the daily press as the
" Staunton cave-in" (Pis. II-V). The first three openings to appear
have been described by Mr. F. B. Van Horn,2 of the U. S. Geological
Survey. Since the publication of Mr. Van Horn's paper additional
caving, and the completion of a series of drill holes by the city engi-
neer to determine the limits of the solid bed rock, have shown more
fully some of the essential facts relating to the character and direc-
tion of the underground channel responsible for the caving. Some
record and discussion of these additional data and of the writer's
geological observations made during a visit to the scene of the caving
seems desirable. The underground stream involved in the "cave-
in" illustrates in its direction and development certain controlling
factors to which attention will be invited in the course of the dis-
cussion, which are absent in the case of most of the underground
streams familiar to the writer.
The city of Staunton is situated in a limestone region, being under-
laid by the Shenandoah limestone of Cambro-Ordovician age. This
1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.
2 Engineering News, Sept. 1, 1910.
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., May, 191 1.
35
36 KINDLE
limestone has a thickness of not less than fifteen hundred feet,'
and owing to inclination of its strata probably extends several times
that depth below the surface at Staunton. In this, as in most other
limestone regions, subterranean streams play an important role
in the drainage system. In the Carboniferous limestone region
of Kentucky the location of hundreds of sub-surface stream chan-
nels is marked by caves mouths and sink holes. "In three
counties in the vicinity of Mammoth Cave, over five hun-
dred caves are known to exist."4 In considerable areas with
which the writer is familiar in the limestone region of southern
Indiana, more than 90 per cent of the rainfall is carried off
by underground streams. Such streams collect the surface
waters largely through the agency of irregular hopper-shaped
depressions called limestone sinks or sink holes. In the earliest
stage of the development of a sink hole the rainwater seeps through
a crevice or joint in the limestone to a lower level. Gradually the
passage way thus begun increases in size. At the same time the
corrosion of the limestone goes on at the surface rather more rapidly
in the immediate vicinity of the crevice than elsewhere. This
solvent action of the surface waters, either alone or in conjunction
with the breaking down of cavern roofs, in time develops the
inverted cone-shaped depressions so characteristic of most limestone
regions. The limestone sinks, though apt to be irregular in shape,
generally approach more or less closely a circular outline at the top.
In the Shenandoah valley these depressions generally attain a
depth of from 20 to 80 feet and a width of from 60 to 300 feet.
It happens not infrequently that the outlets connecting the bot-
tom of the sink hole with the subterranean stream become choked
up and the sink becomes a pond or small lake. Nearly all ponds in
limestone regions have had this origin. Such a pond, if the outlet
at the bottom remains closed for a sufficiently long period, eventu-
ally becomes silted up or filled with marl and is transformed into a
marsh, and sometimes even into dry land, through the complete
filling of the depression and the reestablishment of surface drainage.
Such a cycle is liable to be interrupted at any time through adven-
3 Folio U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 14.
4 Caves and cave formations of the Mitchell limestone; F. C. Greene, Proc. Ind.
Acad. Sci., 1908, p. 176.
COLLAPSE OF RECENT BEDS AT STAUNTON' 37
titious reopening of the outlet. In such a case the limestone sink
resumes its original function of catch-basin for surface waters.
It happens that a small portion of the central part of the town of
Staunton is located on a tract of land which has passed through
the geologic cycle outlined above. The reopening and enlarge-
ment of the original outlets of the limestone sink which was the fore-
runner of the marl bed underlying this part of Staunton, led to the
caving of the soft marl and gave to the residents of the city their
first knowledge of the presence of this subterranean stream. The
caved area lies near the lower end of a small valley traversed by one
of the minor tributaries of Lewis Creek. This stream has been con-
fined to a conduit of masonry throughout most of the lower part of
its course in the city. At, and above the caved pits (PL I), the
valley has a very low grade for half a mile or more and is nearly
flat in cross-section for a width of three to five hundred feet. On
both sides of this comparatively flat area the land rises one hundred
feet or more in gentle hill slopes, showing frequent outcrops of the
underlying limestone. In the bottom of the valley the limestone
is buried nearly everywhere by several feet of superficial deposits
of clay and marl. A short distance below the caved holes the grade
of the valley is very much steeper than above. In fact the abrupt
change of grade here would probably justify the use of the term
"hanging valley" for the small valley near the lower end of which the
superficial beds collapsed. Previous to the accumulation of the
marl beds it had evidently been a closed valley. The abrupt change
in the grade of the valley is undoubtedly due to the diversion of the
water of the valley stream to a subterranean stream prior to the
accumulation of the twenty to sixty feet of clay and marl which
now forms the bottom above the abrupt grade. This diversion
must have been through limestone sinks which developed in the
vicinity of the holes recently caved in the marl beds. At some
remote period outlets to the limestone sinks were closed and a large
pond occupied the portion of the valley above Frederick street.
The great numbers of freshwater shells in the marl beds afford
indisputable evidence of the pond conditions under which the marls
accumulated. It was during this stage in the history of the valley
that the soft marl and clay beds were deposited above the tempora-
rily closed subterranean channel, a superposition which brought
38 KINDLE
disaster to a portion of the town which was eventually built upon
them.
In company with Mr. P. V. Roundy the writer visited Staunton
about one week after the crater-shaped openings began to develop.
The following account of the development of the first three is based
upon information furnished by Mr. C. E. Ashburner, City Engineer,
and the account published by the Staunton Spectator. The facts
regarding the last of the series to develop were furnished by Mr. J.
Yost on whose property it occurred.
The initial caving occurred on the morning of August 11. The
occupants of a building on the south side of Baldwin street "heard
a crash as if under their feet and suddenly the building shook and
the pavement sank about 4 feet." The photograph (PI. II, fig. 1),
shows this hole in this first stage of development. After its sudden
beginning this first break progressed gradually. "The sinking of the
ground continued constantly and in less than an hour it had sunk
10 feet and the radius of the cave-in was 30 feet. Every now and
then the dust would rise, showing that fresh caving was going on."
Near the center of the ground included in the first break stood a
tree 25 feet in height. "In less than two hours this tree had entirely
disappeared." A few hours later the lateral enlargement of this
first break carried down a two-story house about 25 by 35 feet in
dimensions. Like the tree, this house passed out of sight in the
cavernous opening. This building is shown in PI. II, fig. 1. About
two hours after the first break a second occurred on the opposite side
of Baldwin street and diagonally across from it (PI. I). It is de-
scribed as a sudden break which was accompanied by a loud report.
It was at first a hole about 4 feet square in the pavement directly
in front of the fire engine house. This increased by lateral caving
at irregular intervals until it reached nearly across the street in one
direction and under the fire engine house in the other, resulting in
the ultimate destruction of the building. This second hole is shown
in the foreground of PL II, fig. 2.
A few hours after the first break appeared, the third and largest
of the holes began to develop about 75 feet to the southwest of the
first Baldwin street hole. Its dimensions at the top were about
60 by 90 feet. This third slip of the ground carried with it three
trees and a portion of a dwelling. The top of one of these trees
COLLAPSE OF RECENT BEDS AT STAUNTON 39
which later completely disappeared is seen in PI. III. The major
part of one of the foundation walls of a house occupied by Mr.
Todd went down with this break. PI. V shows the character of the
crevice in the limestone into which the engulfed materials dis-
appeared as seen under the Todd house. For a short time after
the caving began no water could be seen in the chasm but it rose
gradually until, at the time of the writer's visit, it stood within
23 feet of the surface of ground, or almost at the top of the limestone
channel seen in PL IV. The rate of inflow into this and the
adjacent "cave-ins" (PI. I), Nos. i and 2, is estimated at 40 gallons
per minute by Hon. J. Yost. The depth of the cavern into which
the superficial deposits have slumped has been shown by sounding
to be at one point at least 150 feet.
With the development of the third chasm caving ceased, save for
occasional slumping of the walls, for more than two weeks. On
August 27, however, a fourth opening appeared on the opposite
side of Lewis street from the third hole, on the grounds of Mr.Yost.
This hole was cistern-shaped, from 10 to 12 feet in diameter and 18
deep. Still later an artificial excavation about 20 feet in width was
made by the city across Lewis street over the line of the crevice
opening into the cavern below for the purpose of arching it. Except
for the slumping of one of the sides of this excavation in which a
workman lost his life, no caving has occurred since that of
August 27.
The openings in the streets have been filled in after archl g the
walls of the limestone crevice leading to the cavern below with
concrete. On the property of Mr. Yost a cement arch was extended
the entire length of the area disturbed by the caving. The work
on the Yost property was accomplished without any surface excava-
tion, it being carried out by tunneling over the line of the limestone
crevice from the base of a shaft. This was sunk on the inner side
of the "cave-in" on the Yost property to a depth of 44 feet. The
excavation showed the limestone walls to be separated by an aver-
age width of 3 to 4 feet, the space narrowing downwards. This
space was filled by tough, red clay. The width of the open interval
between the limestone walls in hole No. 3 (PI. I) is evidently much
greater than this if we judge from the size of the trees and house
which were engulfed. The only "cave-in" which still remains open
40 KINDLE
is hole No. 3 on the Wilson property. On account of the attempt
which was made to save the Todd house, which stands partly over
this hole, by building a cement pillar foundation on the limestone
below the marl beds, the water was prevented by pumping from
rising to its normal level till recently. Since pumping has ceased
the water has risen to within 6 feet of the surface in this hole.
The section exposed by the slumping of the soft beds into the cav-
ernous limestone shows at the top 1 to 4 feet of dark brownish earth
and clay. Below this is a bed which is mainly an ash-gray marl
containing great numbers of minute fresh water shells. Some beds
of yellow clay are inters tratified with the marl. These marly beds
have a thickness of from 20 to 50 feet. The well at the ice plant is
reported to have passed through about 12 feet of marl underlain by
14 feet of clay. The shaft on the Yost property is reported to have
penetrated only clay. Previous to caving the soft marl appears to
have been prevented from slumping into the limestone channel by
a tightly packed tough limestone clay. A small collection of shells
was obtained from the marl beds by the writer. These have been
determined by Dr. Paul Bartsch who has furnished the following
list of the species represented:
Bythinella nickliniana Lea
Planorbis bicorinatus Say
Planorbis parvus Say
Pisidium sp.?
These all represent living species which are common to the streams
and ponds of the southeastern states, thus indicating the post-
Plistocene or recent age of the beds.
A question of primary geologic as well as practical interest in
connection with the caving is the direction followed under the town
by the underground stream or cavern which is responsible for the
caving. A brief examination of the bed rock stratigraphy in the
vicinity of the caved area suggests that the underground course
of this stream or cavern may be determined from stratigraphic
data within the probable limits of future caving. The basis of this
deduction will appear from a brief statement of the general factors
controlling underground erosion in limestones and the particular
factors which are chiefly effective in this case. It is a familiar fact
that "the primary cause of motion in underground waters is gravi-
COLLAPSE OF RECENT BEDS AT STAUNTON 4 1
tation." In a limestone region the movement of underground waters
following the line of least resistance, is controlled almost entirely
by joint planes and bedding planes. Where the rocks are tilted
only moderately, or not at all, the joint planes generally exercise by
far the greater influence on the movement of the underground waters
and consequently upon the direction of subterranean channels.
If, however, the beds are highly inclined or vertical, the surface
waters have a strong tendency to descend along bedding planes,
and joints have less influence in directing their movement. The
efficiency of bedding planes in controlling the movement of under-
ground waters is clearly stated as follows by Bain: "Bedding
planes between strata are natural division planes and under the
slightest stress or the action of solutions they afford openings of
even greater extent than fault planes."5
When the joints intersect at various angles, as is frequently the
case, the courses of the underground streams controlled by them
will be irregular. Where the joints are uniform in direction the
underground streams are likely to show a corresponding uniformity.
This is illustrated by the caves in the Mitchell limestone in Indiana
and Kentucky according to Mr. F. C. Greene. In this formation
the joints have a general east and west and north and south direc-
tion. "Thus young caves and many which are older follow approx-
imately straight north and south and east and west lines and have
right-angled turns."6
When, however, the direction of the movement of underground
waters is controlled by nearly vertical bedding planes the horizon-
tal flow will follow the direction of strike, and the resulting sub-
terranean channels will necessarily follow in the main the strike
of the beds. The subterranean channel disclosed by the caving
marl and clay beds at Staunton illustrates this type of stream. Exam-
ination of the strike and dip of the rocks in all directions within
a radius of a few hundred yards from the caved area showed the
beds to be inclined everywhere at a high angle, usually 750 to 90. °
(PI. I.) The strike within the limits of the city has a uniform direct-
5 Preliminary Report on the lead and zinc deposits of the Ozark region; H. F. Bain,
C. R. Van Hise and G. J. Adams; 22nd Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. II, 1901,
p. 97.
8 Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1908, p. 178.
42 KINDLE
ion, being almost due northwest and southeast. The well marked
and highly inclined bedding planes and the absence of any very
prominent system of joints afford the factors which, without any
knowledge from observation, might be used to predict the probable
direction of any underground stream or cavern. It was not sur-
prising therefore, to find that the direction of the subterranean
channel as exposed by the " cave-ins" coincided with the strike of
the beds in its vicinity. Moreover, the sides of the limestone chan-
nel descended where they could be observed, at an angle and in a
direction similar to that of nearby outcrops of the limestone and
evidently conform rather closely to bedding planes. (PL V.)
At the time of the writer's visit all of the limestone channel which
was exposed had a direction of N. 480 W. The close agreement
between the direction of the exposed channel and the strike of the
rocks, and the evident predominant influence of strike and dip on
underground drainage led the writer at the time of his visit to sug-
gest to the city engineer that in all probability any future "cave-
ins" would be on or very near the 480 line passing through the first
series of "cave-ins." This prediction seems to be verified by the
alignment of a test drill hole which failed to reach bedrock, in Lewis
street at the southwestern end of the earlier series of cavings, and
by the last of the "cave-ins." Both of these were reported to be
exactly on the 480 line by the city engineer.7 As already stated
the crevice thus located in Lewis street was uncovered by excavating
and arched with concrete across the width of the street in order to
forestall any possible further caving. Through the series of holes
caved in the marl and the drill records we have definite knowledge
of the position and direction of the subterranean channel for a dis-
tance of nearly 400 feet in a perfectly straight line (PL I). A large
number of test drillings has been made on both sides of this line
by the city engineer and the post-office authorities. All of these
have struck bed rock between 20 and 50 feet below the surface
except as noted above. These records, together with the fact that
the exposed portions of the limestone crevice into which the clay
and marl beds have slumped have in no case been outside the 480
line, seem to demonstrate that the course of the underground
7 Letter of Aug. 31, 1910.
COLLAPSE OF RECENT BEDS AT STAUNTON 43
stream coincides with the direction of the strike and is determined
by it.
While the primary factors which lead up to the caving, or made it
possible, are those which have been outlined it is less easy to state
definitely what was the immediate cause of the caving. Various
causes may lead to the reopening of the outlets of a silted-up lime-
stone sink. Among these may be mentioned the burrowing of
rodents or crawfish. A very small opening through the clay plug
at the bottom of a closed sink hole might enlarge rapidly by the
downward rush of ponded water. The gradual enlargement of the
underground channel by solution of its walls and roof and the con-
sequent breaking down of parts of its roof is in continuous though
exceedingly slow operation in all caverns occupied by streams.
The influence of a flooded condition of the underground channel,
causing it to soften and erode rapidly any clay fillings in its roof
might, in some cases, be effective in causing collapse of superficial
beds. Another factor known to be effective in producing collapse
in some regions is the general lowering of the ground water level.
In the zinc district of southwestern Missouri, where limestone sinks,
both filled and unfilled, are a characteristic feature of the topography,
Mr. C. E. Siebenthal informs me that extensive pumpingin connec-
tion with mining operations is a generally recognized cause of the
collapsing of caves as well as caving in of silted-up sink holes.
Having in mind some of the factors which may produce collapse
as outlined above we may consider which, if any, has probably
been the cause of caving at Staunton. One of the causes which has
been suggested as the effective agency in producing the caving is the
very heavy rain which occurred at Staunton shortly before the
development of the caved holes. A flooded condition of the under-
ground stream would tend undoubtedly to soften the clay filling of
the limestone crevice as well as increase its weight. But this factor
must have been active at intervals for centuries at least without
producing caving, and probably can hardly be regarded as more than
a minor contributory cause at most. As an accessory to whatever
may have been the primary cause of the initiation of caving there
has been also the constantly present factor of vibration resulting
from street traffic and the operation of a street car line across the
line of caving.
44 KINDLE
The small surface stream which flows through the caved valley
and very near the "cave-in" which was first to develop has been
suspected of being the cause of the trouble by some of the local
students of the problem. The hypothetical manner in which the
stream may be supposed to have accomplished the caving was by
partial discharge of its water through some originally small adventi-
tious outlet into the portion of the limestone cavern under Baldwin
street. This flow, gradually increasing from a slight seepage at
first to a discharge sufficient to have considerable erosive power on
the marl, gradually undermined the street till the collapse resulted.
The result of this first "cave-in," which may be considered to com-
prise the nearly adjacent holes Nos. i and 2 (PI. I) was to block or
dam the subterranean stream till it rose to the level of the marl and
clay beds above the limestone. The water thus dammed may be
supposed to have softened the superficial beds brought in contact
with it and have lead to the successive development of holes Nos.
3 and 4. The numbering of these holes on the map (PI. I) cor-
responds to the order in which they developed. This hypothesis
calls for a stream in the cavern flowing northeast. We are without
definite information regarding the direction or the movement of
water in the cavern, a current guage having failed to register any
current. If this explanation of the caving were correct, careful
examination of the artificial conduit of the stream in the vicinity
of the caving should indicate the supposed diversion of water. A
close examination of the conduit for this purpose by the city engi-
neer, however, failed to show any such divergence. This hypothe-
sis, therefore, appears to be supported by no ascertained facts, and
it affords no explanation of the very suggestive sequence of
events represented by the beginning of caving shortly after the
starting of a high power pump nearby.
Another theory of the cause of the caving which requires consider-
ation has been proposed by Hon. J. Yost. The well at the Smith
ice-plant which is located about 150 feet from the line of caving,
according to this theory, served to connect the strong stream near
the bottom of the 800-foot well with the cavern under the " cave-
ins" which previously had been empty or only partially filled with
water. During the month which passed between the completion
of the well and the installation of the 100-gallon pump, this cavern
COLLAPSE OF RECENT BEDS AT STAUNTON 45
was filled from this new source through channels connected up by
the well. As a result the clay and superficial beds over the lime-
stone crevice leading to this newly filled reservoir were softened
and weakened. As a consequence of this softening collapse resulted
when the ioo-gallon pump was started and the buoyant support of
the water removed. The detailed evidence on which this explan-
ation rests is best stated in Mr. Yost's words. In a letter to the
writer December 12, 1910, Mr. Yost says:
"He (Mr. Smith, owner of ice-plant well) states that at 125 feet he
struck a stream of 5 gallons per minute, and the water rose in his well
to within 24 feet of the surface. He then drilled down to 793 feet where a
15 inch crevice was encountered and a stream. He continued his drilling
to 801 feet. The water rose to within 15 feet of the surface, or 9 feet higher
than it had been before. The pump with the apparatus with which he
drilled would only lift about 35 gallons. He installed another pump of
between 50 and 65 gallon capacity, and with this, in 36 hours, reduced the
water to 59 feet from the surface. For one month, pending the arrival
of his new pump, the water was undisturbed and again rose to within 15
feet of the surface. The new pump had a capacity of 100 gallons. This
was operated for 108 hours and reduced the water in the well to 100 feet
from the surface. The first water drawn with the new pump was murky
and continued so until the evening before the " cave-in, ' ' when it became
clear. The next morning, when he noticed it, it was muddy, and about
9 o'clock, the first cave-in occurred. He was ordered to stop pumping
and did so. Two days later, he tried to pump, but could not. A
month later, the Superintendent of City Water undertook to clear out the
well. He lowered a f inch pipe to the 800 foot level and turned the city
water (pressure about 70 pounds) into it. The discharge into the pipe
was 3 gallons per minute. At the same time, Smith operated his pump
and drew out about 8 gallons per minute — the 5 gallons from the 125 feet
opening plus the inflow of the city water. Apparently, the well at the
800 foot level was closed.
Smith then tried by the aid of air pressure and the pressure of the city
water to open his well, but failed.
This record of the Smith well tends, in my mind, to substantiate the
theory outlined in my letter to you on Monday. (That the stream
encountered by Smith at the 800 foot level was diverted into the crevice
under the Todd house). It shows that Smith never had 100 gallons as
supposed. What has bothered me, heretofore, has been to account for
the supposed one hundred gallons from the well, when the flow from the
Todd hole was scarcely one-third of that quantity. This explains it.
The stream he struck at the 800 foot level could not have been more than
35 or 40 gallons. For more than a month after he struck this stream it
probably emptied into the Todd hole. Thence it rose in the adjacent
cavity and gradually saturated the roof to within 15 feet of the surface.
46 KINDLE
The roof, thus weakened, gradually dropped down. This would account
for the rumblings and mysterious noises noticed by the tenants of the
Todd house for some time before the cave-in. Then, with his large pump,
Smith drew that water off suddenly, and the roof gave away. Since that
time the 35 gallons has been running into the Todd hole and this inflow
and sudden evacuation caused the trouble.
I have endeavored to recall all of the circumstances and incidents
connected with the trouble and nothing presents itself to me which nega-
tives this theory, except one possible incident:
At the Clem Ice Factory, in the Valley 600 or 800 feet north of the school
house, there are four shallow wells, ranging from 16 feet to 20 feet in
depth. On the night following the slump, the pump in the deepest well
failed to catch the water for an hour or one and a half hours. The same
thing occurred the following night. Mr. Clem does not know whether
or not any of the other walls were affected. I cannot attach great im-
portance to this incident. The water was low for only i-| hours at most
and that may have been because he was drawing harder at that par-
ticular point. The fact that he dug four wells and uses them all tends to
show that one of them could easily be temporarily exhausted."
As previously pointed out by Van Horn8 the data given by Mr.
Yost seem to establish clearly the fact of direct connection between
the stream tapped at 790 feet by the deep well and the water in
the cavern under the "cave-in."
But the vital question in any interpretation of this relationship
in explaining the caving is, did the water enter a previously empty
cavern through the agency of the 800-foot well, as Mr. Yost sup-
poses, or did pumping the well empty the cavern which was previously
full and which had never before been drained ? It is the writer's
view that the latter supposition is much the more probable. This
probability is indicated by the fact that when the pumping ceased,
which was utilized to lower the water in the "cave-ins" during the
process of arching with cement the openings in the streets, and at
the Todd house the water rose nearly to the surface in hole No. 3.
The rise was very rapid, 3 to 4 feet per hour, or about 35 gal-
lons per minute, till it stood within 10 feet of the surface.
Above this point the rise was very much slower, about 5 to 6
feet per day, until it reached within 5 or 6 feet of the surface,
"it was still rising at about this rate when pumping was resumed,
and has since continued." (Letter from J. Yost, April 22.)
If this water had entered the "cave-in" through the deep
8 Mining and Engineering News; Sept. 1, 1910.
COLLAPSE OF RECENT BEDS AT STAUNTON 47
well, as supposed by Mr. Yost, there should have been no
such difficulty as is reported in pumping from the well after
the caving ceased. This rise of water in the "cave-in" doubt-
less represents the original level of ground water previous to
the caving. If this is true it follows that the roof of the cavern
received a certain amount of support from the water which filled it
previous to the caving. If we suppose the normal development of
the cavern to have reached the point where the strength of the
materials comprising its roof made them barely self-sustaining,
the withdrawal of this hydrostatic support, however slight it may
have been, combined with the rapid subsurface erosion of the
marl which may have resulted, would have served as a trigger
to start the collapse of the roof. Caving as a probable result of
the withdrawal of such support is not only a theoretic but an ob-
served fact in some mining districts, as will be seen from the
following quotation from Smith and Siebenthal.9
"Where caverns are below the ground-water level and full of water
the water helps support the weight of the roof. Where the balance is
nicely adjusted and the roof is only just self-sustaining, if the water be
withdrawn the cave will collapse. In a number of cases in the Joplin
district such collapsing has followed the lowering of the ground-water
level by pumping in the deeper mines. Without doubt many "natural
caves" have in the geologic past resulted from the draining of caverns
by elevation of the land and other causes, and have developed into closed
valleys."
The above statement is substantiated by Bain10 who cites in the
following quotation specific instances where collapse has resulted
from the withdrawal of hydrostatic support in the lead and zinc
region of southwestern Missouri.
-B1
"An interesting phenomenon of the Joplin caves is the fact that in them
the weight of the roof is occasionally partly supported by the hydro-
static pressure of the water When the water is pumped out the roof may
fall in. This occurred at the Budweiser mine at Tuckahoe. Near the
9 Smith and Siebenthal; Joplin District Folio Missouri-Kansas; U. S. Geol. Surv.,
Bull. 148, 1907, p. 8.
10 Preliminary report on the lead and zinc deposits of the Ozark region, H. F. Bain.
With an introduction by C. R. Van Hise and chapters on the physiography and geol-
ogy by George I. Adams, 22d Ann. Rep. Director U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. PI, 1901, p. no.
48 KINDLE
Sand Ridge mine, at Aurora, great cracks similar in appearance to those
formed by earthquakes developed in the summer of 1900 as pumping
lowered the ground-water level. Near Carl Junction a section of rail-
way track at one time sank, presumably as the result of pumping, in this
instance some distance away."
Another example of this kind of collapse is furnished by the fol-
lowing account'1 of a cave-in which occurred at Neck City, Mo.,
early in January of this year.
"A hole opened under the mill pond and a great elm tree was swallowed
into the earth, in a natural cave so large that nothing remained visible
of the tree when workmen arrived on the scene at 7 a.m.
"Some time between the night before and 7 o'clock yesterday morning
the bottom of the pond went it, presumably as a result of water having
been pumped from beneath, though no mine drifts exist beneath the
cave.
"A tape line set down into the cave to a distance of 84 feet failed to
touch bottom, though the nature of the hour-glass cave prevented a
close scrutiny from the top."
From the cases cited above it will be seen that the caving of the
roofs of natural caverns is a rather familiar phenomenon in the zinc
region of Missouri where there appears to be no question regarding
its dependence upon extensive pumping. In the light of these anal-
ogous cases it is hardly possible to ignore the suggestiveness of the
fact that the caving at Staunton followed five days after the oper-
ation of the ico-gallon pump at the ice plant began. That the
pumping and caving bear the relation of cause and effect seems to
the writer most probable.
The lowering of the water level in the cavern which resulted from
the operation of the ice plant pump it is believed not only removed
the buoyant support of the water from the beds forming the roof,
but probably initiated strong downward currents through subsur-
face channels, thus carrying downward soft beds which had partially
filled the interstices of the limestone roof and others above it,
and which would otherwise have remained undisturbed. The in-
tensified movement of downward trending waters through the
marl resulting from the drainage of the limestone cavern below
these beds may have developed fair-sized cavities in the marl
11 Joplin (Mo.) News Herald, Jan. 15, 1911.
COLLAPSE OF RECENT BEDS AT STAUNTON 49
above the limestone roof of the cavern before the larger breaks
in the limestone roof occurred. Such a temporary cavity in the
marl superimposed upon the limestone cavern might, when it
collapsed, precipitate tons of clay and marl with destructive
effect upon the limestone roof which, under normal conditions,
would have remained stable for ages. That the marl beds held abund-
ant water for such streams, if their development were stimulated and
an outlet provided by withdrawing the water from the cavern
beneath a portion of the beds, is indicated by the fact that a pump
at the Clem ice factory with a capacity of 50 gallons per minute
draws its water from these beds. Desication resulting from the
lowering of the ground water and the consequent shrinkage of the
materials which filled the old outlets of the original sink hole may
also have been a factor, though probably a minor one, in starting
the caving. Consideration of all the available evidence which has been
given appears to point to the lowering of the level of groundwater
by pumping as the most probable immediate cause of the caving.
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci.. Vol. XIII.
Plate II.
F>g. 1 Showing first stage of the caving and a house and tree which were engulfed.
Fig. 2 View of two of the holes in Baldwin Street, taken after the disappearance of the
house shown In Fig. 1 .
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIII.
Plate III.
£*
View showing an early stage of "cave-in" No. 3.
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIII.
Plate IV
View of hole No. 3 after the disappearance of the shade tree
seen in fig. 1, plate 2, and the rise of the water.
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci.. Vol. XIIi.
Plate V.
\9¥ ' i'llMHP
.
'IS
w''t » .
1
.
Wb
X
Jr^^^H|^9
W®m
E • v
K
*-
X,\NI
Wj.
<
y
View showing the crevice opening into the limestone cavern under the Todd house.
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. XIII, No. 3, pp. 51-65. August 15, 191 1
REMARKS ON THE FOSSIL TURTLES ACCREDITED TO
THE JUDITH RIVER FORMATION.1
By F. H. Knowlton.
In my paper entitled The Stratigraphic Relations and Paleon-
tology of the 'Hell Creek beds,' 'Ceratops beds' and their equiva-
lents, and their reference to the Fort Union Formation,2 I made,
among others, the following statements regarding the turtles of
the Judith River formation: "It has recently been confidently
asserted on eminent authority that the turtles of the 'Ceratops
beds' are very closely related to those of the Judith River formation;
in fact that several species are identical, and others so close as to
be separated with difficulty. Fortunately the work of Hatcher,
published as late as 1905, has left us with a very complete annotated
list of the Judith River forms, which makes a valuable basis of com-
parison of the two faunas. It needs, however, but a cursory exam-
ination to show that at least half of the species listed as belonging
to the Judith River do not belong to this fauna at all, but come from
the Fort Union, Arapahoe, etc., or are so fragmentary as to be
unidentifiable. . . . Any comparison of the turtles of the Ju-
dith River formation with those of the 'Ceratops beds' as tending
to support the Cretaceous age of the latter, does not make a very
impressive case."
1 Published with the permission of the Director of the United States Geological
Survey.
2 Wash. Acad. Sci., Proc, vol. xi, 1909, pp. 235, 236.
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., August, 1911.
51
52 KNOWLTON
Lack of space at that time precluded the full presentation of the
data on which the above statements were based. Inasmuch as
this mild remonstrance does not appear to have attracted attention,
and since the turtles are still being used to "prove" close relation-
ship between the Judith River and Lance ("Ceratops beds") for-
mations, it seems opportune to set forth the facts as they are. In
a paper3 just published Dr. O. P. Hay writes as follows: "My
study of the fossil turtles indicates that the species of these animals
rarely pass from one epoch to another. If they have ever done so
they passed from the Judith River into the Lance Creek epoch.
There are five or six species of Judith River turtles which are rep-
resented in the Lance Creek and Hell Creek beds by turtles of iden-
tical or very closely related species."
In the following pages it is proposed first to take up the species
of turtles mentioned by Hatcher4 as belonging to the Judith River
formation, and to indicate the type locality for each species as well as
its subsequent distribution so far as this is a matter of published
record. Later in this paper the species enumerated by Doctor Hay
will be similarly treated, and finally some remarks will be presented
on the results of this showing.
Turtles of the Judith River Formation Enumerated by
Hatcher.
1. Trionyx foveatus Leidy [Aspideretes foveatus (Leidy) Hay].
Type locality: "Bad Lands of the Judith River, Nebraska
Territory." Fragments collected by Doctor Hayden and named
and described by Doctor Leidy in 18565. Subsequently Leidy
figured two of the type specimens, together with another specimen,
identified doubtfully as the same species, from Long Lake below
old Fort Clark on the Missouri River, North Dakota, the latter
belonging to the Lance formation. On this point Hatcher says:
"Considering the difference in the age of these deposits, it is quite
8 Where do the Lance Creek ("Ceratops") Beds belong, in the Cretaceous or in the
Tertiary? Indiana Acad. Sci., Proc, 1909 (issued Oct. 1910), p. 21 (of reprint).
* U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 257, 1905, pp. 72-80.
8 Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., Proc, vol. viii, 1856, p. 73.
TURTLES OF JUDITH RIVER FORMATION 53
probable that had better material been at the disposal of Doctor
Leidy he would have found them to be at least specifically distinct."
Specimens identified by Cope as Trionyx foveatus were collected
by Sternberg in the Judith River area in 1876; it does not appear to
have been found by Stanton and Hatcher when they visited the
area in 1905. This species was reported by Marsh from the "Cera-
tops beds" near Denver, Colorado, but according to Hay these
specimens "belong probably to Aspideretes beecheri" a species from
the Lance formation of Converse County, Wyoming. Trionyx
foveatus has also been identified by Lambe from the Belly River
beds of the Red Deer River region in Canada, and by Barnum Brown
in the "Hell Creek beds" (= Lance formation) of Montana.
From this review it appears possible that there are two and quite
likely three species confused under the name of Trionyx foveatus,
and hence any conclusion as to which part of the "species" belongs
to the Judith River, and which to the Lance formation, must be a
matter of more or less doubt.
2. Trionyx vagans Cope [Aspideretes? vagans (Cope) Hay].
Type locality: Bijou Basin (Bijou Creek), 40 miles east of Den-
ver, Colorado, in beds regarded by Cross as probably Arapahoe in
age. It was also reported by Cope from near the mouth of the
Bighorn River, Montana, and near Long Lake, North Dakota,
both localities in beds belonging in all probability to the Lance
formation. Apparently on the basis of Lambe's reporting it from
the Belly River beds of the Red Deer River in Canada, it was in-
cluded by Hatcher in his list of Judith River species, though Hatcher
himself points out the obvious distinctness between the type speci-
mens and the specimens so identified by Lambe. Hay has referred
Lambe's specimens to another species, and hence all pretense of
Trionyx vagans as a Judith River species disappears.
3. Plastomenus coalescens Cope. [Aspideretes coalescens (Cope)
Hay].
Type locality: "Bad Lands south of Woody Mountain, latitude
490," longitude about 1060, Assiniboia, Canada.
54 KNOWLTON
Much confusion has arisen concerning this species, which can only
be eliminated by a review of all the earlier references to it in the
literature of the subject. It was first mentioned but without
description in a list published by Cope in 1875,6 an^ was ^U^Y
described later in the same year in an obscure paper published
as an appendix to Dawson's Report on the Geology and Resources
of the Region in the vicinity of the Forty-ninth Parallel, etc.7
Still later in 1875 this description was copied word for word, but
without reference to either of the two preceding places of publica-
tion in Cope's Vertebrata of the Cretaceous Formations of the
West.8 In the Report where it was first described the locality was
given as The Bad Lands south of Woody Mountain, latitude 490,
a locality confirmed by Dawson in his description of the geology
of the region.9 Dawson also mentions other vertebrate remains
with which it was found associated, as well as several species of
plants, and refers the beds to the "Lignite Tertiary," and in the
latest published geological map of Canada,10 the area is still colored
as "Laramie," which in the writer's opinion is the approximate
equivalent of the Fort Union of the United States.
The confusion dates from the moment when Cope transferred the
original description to his "Vertebrata of the Cretaceous Formations
of the West," where as regards the locality he says: "This species
is found .... near the Milk River in British America," where
it was "collected by George M. Dawson .... near Woody
Mount." As a matter of fact Woody Mountain (or Woody Mount)
is more than 150 miles east of the valley of Milk River where it crosses
the international boundary, and there is not the slightest evidence
that it came from Milk River. But because it was supposed by
subsequent writers that Woody Mountain was in the Milk River
Valley, it was assumed that the age must be Judith River! Thus
Hatcher,11 who was apparently in ignorance of the original place of
publication says: " This species is founded on fragments . . . .
6 Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., Proc, 1875, p. 9.
7 Brit. N. A. Bound. Com., Montreal, 1875. Appendix B, p. 337.
8 Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., vol. 2, 1875, p. 92.
9 Brit. N. A. Bound. Com., Montreal, 1875, p. 105.
10 Western Sheet, 1901.
11 U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 257, p. 74.
TURTLES OF JUDITH RIVER FORMATION 55
collected by George M. Dawson near Milk River in Canada, from beds
referred by Cope to the ' Transition series, probably the Fort Union
or Lignite epoch,' but now known to belong to the Judith River."
This error is also perpetuated by Hay in his Fossil Turtles of North
America,12 who, although obviously familiar with the original place
of publication, still gives the locality as "in the basin of Milk River,
south of Wood Mountain, Assiniboia, British Columbia."
The above exposition would seem effectively to dispose of the
claim for Judith River age of the type material of Plastomenus
coalescens, though it might possibly be considered to figure as a
Judith River species if Doctor Hay's reference to it of a specimen
identified by Lambe as Trionyx vagans is of valid standing. That
is to say Lambe collected a large, finely preserved specimen, which
he identified as Cope's Trionyx vagans, in the Belly River deposits
in the region of the Red Deer River, below Berry Creek, in Alberta.
Concerning this Doctor Hay says :18 "The present writer, regarding
Cope's type of Trionyx vagans as too small and imperfect a fragment
for satisfactory comparison with materials from any region, except
the type locality in Eastern Colorado, is compelled to seek for some
more probable disposition of Mr. Lambe's fine specimen. Since
the plastron of Cope's Plastomenus coalescens indicates a large tri-
onychid which lived in approximately the same region and in the
same geological period, it appears to be best to refer the Red Deer
River carapace to the same species." It appears, then, that the
study of these specimens themselves is not sufficient to determine
whether Lambe's specimen is really referable to Cope's species, so
the burden is placed on stratigraphy!
4. Plastomenus costatus Cope.
Type locality: "Bad Lands south of Woody Mountain, latitude
49°-".
This species was found in the same locality and horizon as the
last, and the same confusion and compounding of error has resulted.
Simply because Woody Mountain was supposed to be in the valley
12 1908, p. 489.
15 Op. cit., p. 489.
56 KNOWLTON
of Milk River it followed that the age must be Judith River ! Upon
this assumption alone rests the claim.
This species has been found by Barnum Brown in the Lance
formation ("Hell Creek beds") 12 miles south of the Missouri
River, on Hell Creek, Montana. This locality is about 100 miles
directly south of the type locality in Canada.
5. Plastomenus punctulatus Cope.
Type locality: Bijou Creek, 40 miles east of Denver, Colorado,
in beds that are of Arapahoe age according to Whitman Cross.
Cope also states that he had the same species from beds at Long
Lake, "Nebraska" (now North Dakota), the age of which is Lance
formation.
Hatcher's reason for including this species in the Judith River
fauna is interesting. He quotes14 Cope's statement, evidently from
his Vertebrata of the Cretaceous Formations of the West, to the
effect that it was "found in association with the preceding species,"
which, in this book happens to be Plastomenus costatus, but in the
place where P. punctulatus was originally described,15 the "preced-
ing species" happens to be Trionyx vagans, the status of which has
already been considered above. As the original description was
transcribed without change from the Annual Report into the Mono-
graph the error arose as stated above and as has been pointed out
by Doctor Hay. Plastomenus punctulatus can, therefore, lay no
claim to having been found in the Judith River.
6. Plastomenus insignis Cope.
Type locality: Bijou Creek, 40 miles east of Denver, Colorado.
This species was introduced into the Judith River fauna by
Hatcher16 who, consulting Cope's Vertebrata only, and ignoring the
original place of publication, concludes that by "inference" it came
from south of Woody Mountain, and if from this locality it was
assumed, as in the cases of the several species above considered, that
u U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 257, p. 74.
,:,U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv. Terr., Ann. Rept., 1873 (1874), p. 453.
16 U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 257, p. 75.
TURTLES OF JUDITH RIVER FORMATION 57
it must be of Judith River age. It is clear enough when the original
description is consulted that this species came only from Bijou
Creek, Colorado, and this is confirmed by Doctor Hay who has
examined the type now in the American Museum of Natural His-
tory and finds it labeled in Cope's handwriting as " Plastomenus
insignis. 10-9-1873, Colorado." It is therefore to be excluded from
the Judith River fauna, but not for the reasons given by Hatcher.
7. Adocus lineolatus Cope.
Type locality: Bijou Creek, 40 miles east of Denver, Colorado,
in beds believed to be Arapahoe in age. Also reported by Cope
from the mouth of the Bighorn River, Montana, and it appears in
his list of Judith River vertebrates, though according to Hatcher
this last reference is probably "due to an oversight." Fragments
that have been identified as this species have been found by Lambe
in Belly River beds of Red Deer River, Alberta, by Barnum Brown
in the Lance formation on Hell Creek, Montana, and by others in
the "Ceratops beds" (Lance formation) of Converse County,
Wyoming. Hatcher has expressed as his opinion17 that the refer-
ence of Lambe's specimens "may be incorrect" and Doctor Hay18
says: "It is the writer's opinion that it is unsafe to identify as
belonging to Adocus lineolatus specimens from the Judith River and
Laramie beds before far better materials of the species have been
collected from the type locality." He adds: "It is improbable
that the same species continued from the Judith River epoch to
the Arapahoe epoch," which latter, be it remembered, is the prob
able age of the type material.
8. Basilemys ogmius (Cope).
Basilemys variolosa (Cope).
Type locality: "From six miles west of the first branch of Milk
River, near latitude 490," in the province of Alberta, British America.
Because this locality is in the vicinity of Milk River it has been
assumed by Hatcher and others that the age must be Judith River,
17 U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 257, p. 76.
18 Fossil Turtles of North America, p. 248.
58 KNOWLTON
but a careful reading of Dawson's account19 of the geology of the
place where he actually obtained the specimens shows that in all
reasonable probability it should be referred to the "Ceratops beds,"
that is the Lance formation. Dawson considered the beds as "be-
longing probably to the base of the Lignite Tertiary," and compares
them to the beds south of Woody Mountain, adding: "The bones,
in the manner of their preservation, much resemble division /3 of
the Bad Lands south of Woody Mountain, which these beds may
possibly represent." The lithology is described as similar in the
two areas, and associated with the remains of the turtles Dawson
reports finding many bones of dinosaurs, and large Unio shells.
In any event it seems unsafe to refer these beds to the Judith River
merely on geographical position and without corroborative data.
The type specimens of Basilemys ogmius are said to be very poor,
and Doctor Hay states that : " It is doubtful whether new materials
could be identified by means of the type." However this may be,
this species has been combined with Basilemys variolosa (Cope),
which has as its type locality "Bad Lands of the Judith, Montana,"
and was described a year or more later. Material that has been
identified as Basilemys (or Adocus) variolosa has been mentioned by
Lambe from the Belly River beds of Red Deer River, Alberta, and by
Hatcher in the Judith River formation of Montana. It seems not
improbable that there may be two species represented, but in any
event it would appear that the undoubted Judith River material
has been that identified with "B. variolosa" whereas the B. ogmius,
being very poor, has not been certainly recognized.
The conclusion reached is that that part of the "species" named
"B. ogmius" came from beds that are not certainly of Judith River
age, and has not been subsequently recognized, while the part
known as "B. variolosa" came from beds of Judith River age, and
is the only part of the "species" that has been distinguished by later
authors.
9. Basilemys imbricarius (Cope).
Type locality: Judith River Basin, Montana, in beds of the
Judith River formation; it has not been found elsewhere. It was
founded on very unsatisfactory materials, according to Doctor Hay.
19 Brit. N. A. Boundary Com., 1875, p. 130 et seq.
TURTLES OF JUDITH RIVER FORMATION 59
10. Polythorax missouriensis Cope.
Type locality: Judith River Basin, Montana, in beds of the Ju-
dith River formation. It has not been reported from any other
locality or horizon.
11. Baena antiqua Lambe.
Type locality: Red Deer River, Alberta, British America, in
beds supposed to be of Belly River age; it has not been obtained
elsewhere.
12. Baena hatcheri Hay.
Type locality: South side of Lance Creek, opposite mouth of
Dogie Creek, Converse County, Wyoming, in beds of the Lance
formation ("Ceratops beds").
A specimen from the Belly River beds of the Red Deer River,
Alberta, was referred to this species by Lambe,20 and it was upon
this ground that it was included by Hatcher21 in the Judith River
fauna. Later, however, Doctor Hay" referred Lambe's specimen
to a totally different genus and species (Boremys pulchra), and
hence Baena hatcheri is to be eliminated from the Judith River
fauna.
13. Neurankylus eximius Lambe.
Type locality: Red Deer River, Alberta, British America, in
beds regarded as of Belly River age; it is monotypic and has not been
collected elsewhere.
There is one na'ive bit of history connected with this genus that
should not be omitted. Doctor Hay in his Fossil Turtles of North
America (p. 93) remarks as follows: "Mr. Lambe placed the genus
provisionally among the Chelydridae, but as no genera of this family
are known from deposits older than the Tertiary and as the type has
some resemblance to the Baenidae, which flourish at that time, it
seems better to refer Neurankylus to this family until more is known
about it."
20 Cont. Canadian Pal., vol. 3, 1902, pt. ii, p. 43.
21 U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 257, p. 79.
22 Fossil Turtles of North America, 1908, p. 92.
60 knowlton
Turtles Mentioned by Hay as Tending to Show Identity
or Close Similarity Between Species of the Judith
River and Lance Formations.
Following is the list of six species given by Doctor Hay23 and of
which he says: "I shall take pains to give some details."
1. Compsemys obscura (Leidy).
Type locality: Near Long Lake, on the Missouri River below
Fort Clark, North Dakota, in beds regarded as belonging to the
Lance formation. It has otherwise been collected only in beds of
the Lance formation ("Hell Creek beds") on Hell Creek, Montana.
This species was included by Cope24 in his list of Judith River
vertebrates, but without giving any evidence in support of such
reference, and presumably on the authority of Cope's list it is in-
cluded by Osborn25 in his list showing the "distribution of the land
and fresh-water Cretaceous vertebrates in the west," as occurring
in Montana and hence "by inference" in the Judith River fauna.
Compsemys obscura as well as its companion species, C. victa, was
excluded from the Judith River fauna by Hatcher, who says, "In
no descriptions of either of these species can I find any suggestion
that remains of either have been described from Montana." That
C. obscura is properly excluded from the Judith River is shown by
Doctor Hay, who says,26 "This species is included by Cope in his
list of Judith River fossils, but the writer knows of no specimens
that confirm the statement." Curiously enough, however, this
species is the first one given by Doctor Hay27 as occurring in both
Judith River and Lance formations!
2. Compsemys victa Leidy.
Type locality: Long Lake, on the Missouri River below Fort
Clark, North Dakota, in beds regarded as belonging to the Lance
formation, that is the same locality and formation as the last.
^Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci., 1909, p. (of reprint) 21.
24 U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv. Terr., Bull. vol. 3, 187, p. 573.
25Cont. Canadian Palcont., vol. 3, 1902, pt. ii, p. 12.
26 Fossil Turtles of North America, 1908, p. 236.
17 Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci., 1909, p. (of reprint) 21.
TURTLES OF JUDITH RIVER FORMATION 6 1
The history of this species is much the same as that of the last,
except that specimens identified under this name have a somewhat
wider distribution. It was included by Cope in his list of Judith
River vertebrates, but, as stated under the last species, was ex-
cluded from this fauna by Hatcher. It is accepted by Doctor Hay28
as of Judith River age on the ground that it was found in the region
about Milk River, Alberta. This occurrence in the "Milk River
region" is traceable to Dawson's Report on the Geology and Re-
sources in the Vicinity of the Forty-ninth Parallel, but, as in the
case of Plastomenus coalescens, a reading of the geological part of
the report shows that it came from south of Woody Mountain,
and 150 miles east of the Valley of Milk River, in beds of "Lignite
Tertiary" age.
This species was reported by Cope from supposed Arapahoe
deposits east of Denver, Colorado, and is said to be "very common
in the Lance Creek beds," of Converse County, Wyoming. It
was also found by Brown in the Lance formation ("Hell Creek
beds") on Hell Creek, Montana, and an allied but undescribed
species is reported by Doctor Hay from the Fort Union.
From this brief exposition it is clear that Compsemys victa must
be excluded from the Judith River fauna, and the only horizons in
which it is authenticated are Arapahoe and Lance formations. In
the treatment of this species in his Fossil Turtles of North America
(p. 234), Doctor Hay opines that there is so much difference in age
between Judith River, Arapahoe and Denver, and Lance formations
that it is "not improbable" that three species are represented in-
stead of one. Again would the responsibility be shifted from paleon-
tology to stratigraphy!
3. Aspideretes foveatus (Leidy) Hay.
The status of this species has been already considered under its
synonym, Trionyx foveatus, ante, p. 52.
4. Aspideretes beecheri Hay.
Type locality: East side of Lance Creek, Converse County,
Wyoming, in beds belonging to the Lance formation. Two cara-
28 Fossil Turtles of North America, p. 234.
62 KNOWLTON
paces from the Judith River of Fish Creek, Montana, have been
referred to this species by Doctor Hay, who makes the following
statement concerning them: "No characters are observed which
serve to distinguish these carapaces from that of the type of A .
beecheri. It is not improbable, however, that they belong to a
distinct species."
5. Adocus lineolatus Cope.
The status of this species has been considered, ante, p. 57.
6. Basilemys variolosa (Cope).
This has already been considered at length under its synonym
Basilemys ogmius, p. 57.
Discussion of Evidence Regarding "Judith River" Turtles
as Brought out in the Foregoing Review.
On combining the lists given by Hatcher and Hay it appears
that sixteen species of turtles have been accredited to the Judith
River formation. Of these sixteen species it has been demonstrated
that only three species have the type specimens from the original
Judith River area in Montana, while two additional species have
the types from the Belly River ( = Judith River?) of the Red Deer
River region of Alberta. The three species from Montana are the
following :
Trionyx foveatus
Basilemys imbricarius
Polythorax missouriensis
The two Canadian species are:
Baena antiqua
Neurankylus eximius
Of the remaining species four, as follows, have the types described
from Bijou Creek, Colorado, in beds supposed to be of Arapahoe
age:
Trionyx vagans
Plastomenus punctulatus
Plastomenu sinsignis
Adocus lineolatus
TURTLES OF JUDITH RIVER FORMATION 63
The types of two species came from south of Woody Mountain,
Assiniboia, in beds referred to the "Lignite Tertiary" by Dawson,
Cope, and others, but are now considered to belong to the Lance
formation. They are:
Plastomenus coalescens
Plastomenus co status
From Long Lake, North Dakota, in beds of the Lance formation,
the following types are supplied:
Compsemys obscura
Compsemys victa
The types of two species were obtained from the Lance formation
of Converse County, Wyoming:
Baena hatcheri
Aspideretes beecheri
The remaining species is Basilemys ogmius which as already
shown is of mixed position. Strictly speaking the type came from
near Milk River, Alberta, in beds that are probably younger than
the Judith River, while B. variolosa, the "species" with which it
has been combined, came from the Judith River formation near
Judith River, Montana.
A further analysis of the evidence adduced indicates that the
following species should be excluded from the Judith River fauna
on the sufficient ground that they do not occur in beds of this age :
Trionyx vagans
Plastomenus costatus
Plastomenus punctulatus
Plastomenus insignis
Baena hatcheri
Compsemys obscura
Compsemys victa
To return again to the five species having their type locality in
Judith River and Belly River beds, it appears that the four follow-
ing have never been found outside the Judith River or Belly River
horizons.
Basilemys imbricarius
Polythorax missouriensis
Baena antiqua
Neurankylus eximius
64 KNOWLTON
The fifth species— Trionyx foveatus — is the only one that appears
to be distributed into higher beds, but it will be recalled on refer-
ring to the discussion of this species on page 53, that, while it has been
reported from Long Lake, North Dakota, Hell Creek, Montana,
and near Denver, Colorado, both Hatcher and Hay have expressed
the opinion that there may be two and possibly three species confused
under this name, each being confined to one of the three horizons
involved.
The following forms, although having their types from beds
higher than the Judith River formation (Arapahoe, Lance formation
etc.), appear on more or less questionable evidence to have ranged
downward into the Judith River :
Plastomenus coalescens (?)
Adocus Uneolatus (?)
Aspideretes beecheri (?)
The reasons why these are regarded as questionably present in
the Judith River formation are set forth in the discussions of these
species in the preceding pages. Not a single one has a clear title.
Conclusions.
1 . The Judith River fauna has had accredited to it by Hatcher
and Hay at least sixteen species of fossil turtles.
2. Of these sixteen species seven are to be excluded on the suffi-
cient ground that they do not occur in beds of Judith River age.
3. Of the nine remaining species that may have a more or less
valid claim to membership in the Judith River fauna, five have
their type localities in beds of Judith River and Belly River age, and
four in horizons above that of the Judith River.
4. Of the five typically Judith River species, four are absolutely
confined to these beds, while the remaining one which has an alleged
higher range, is shown to be probably a composite species possibly
including three species which correspond respectively to the three
horizons involved.
5. Of the four species, the types of which came from post- Judith
River beds, and which are claimed to range downward into the
Judith River, not a single one enjoys a clear title to be so regarded.
TURTLES OF JUDITH RIVER FORMATION 65
6. It is plain, then, that the comparisons that have been made
between "Judith River" turtles and those of higher horizons (Lance
formation, "Laramie," "Ceratops beds," "Hell Creek beds,"
"somber beds," etc.), have not been made with species that really
belong to the Judith River fauna, but with forms that actually
belong to these higher beds. It is not to be wondered at that such
a comparison has resulted in showing "identity" and "striking
similarity," since it is in accord with the ancient axiom, that " Things
equal to the same thing are equal to each other."
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. XIII, No. 4, pp. 67-84 PI. vi November 15, 191 1
ON THE SYSTEMATIC VALUE OF RANA CHINENSIS OSBECK.
By Dr. Stefan Bolkay.
In an article which I published in"Allattani Kozlemenyek (3)", I
separated as a distinct species Rana ridibunda from Rana esculenta.
After the publication of that paper Professor Dr. Mehely directed
my attention to a frog found in China and Japan which is men-
tioned in literature, according to Boulenger, as a variety of R. escu-
lenta (Rana esculenta chinensis Osb.), but which, however, as
Professor Mehely observed, can be separated with more right from
R. esculenta than is R. ridibunda.
A short time afterward my article appeared in German also (4) ,
and was commended by Wolterstorff who wrote as follows on that
subject: "As soon as we acknowledge the right of a species for Rana
ridibunda we must do the same with more reason still for Rana
chinensis, a fact also recognized not long ago by Stejneger."
Wolterstorff considers this same question in one of his articles,
published in 1906, and there expresses his conviction that Rana
chinensis is a well-defined subspecies.
Quite recently Leonhard Stejneger, the American herpetolo-
gist, described Rana chinensis as a distinct species under the name
Rana nigromaculata Hallowell.
The first author who describes Rana chinensis is Osbeck. He
mentions as the sole peculiarity distinguishing it from R. esculenta
the fact of its having six toes of which the sixth is the shortest.
Schlegel finds it quite similar to R. esculenta. Maack alludes
to it as R. esculenta var. japonica Hallowell and describes it under
the two names R. marmorata and R. nigromaculata. Peters and
Cope go furthest, placing it in an other genus, the former mentioning
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., November, 191 1.
67
68 BOLKAY
it as Hoplobatrachus reinhardti, the latter under the name Tomop-
terus porosa. Lataste calls it R. esculenta marmorata. Boulenger
refers to it at first as R. esculenta var. japonica, then as var. nigro-
maculata, and quite lately as var. chinensis Osbeck.
R. chinensis has been mentioned only once in Hungarian literature,
Professor von Mehely describing as R. esculenta var. chinensis the
three specimens collected at Peking by the Zichy expedition.
The great confusion existing in literature upon that question,
as well as the statements by Professor von Mehely and Professor
Wolterstorff, induced me to study the Chinese frog. My aim is
to point out, with especial regard to the osteological marks, the
systematic position of R. chinensis, and to prove at last that the
Chinese frog has nothing to do with R. esculenta, and that taking
all of its characteristic features into consideration, it can be placed
near to R. ridibunda Pallas.
I find it necessary to give a detailed description of the species,
improved and completed by the result of recent observations made
upon specimens from the Hungarian National Museum as well as
upon others from China bought at Magdeburg from Wolterstorff.
Having pursued my investigations in the Hungarian National
Museum, I wish here to express particular thanks to Professor von
Mehely for the kind assistance he lent me in my work, allowing me
the benefit of the Museum's material as well as giving me most
valuable information.
RANA CHINENSIS Osbeck.
Synonymy.1
1765. Rana chinensis Osbeck, Reise Ostind. China, I, (p. 244);
Voy. China (Engl, ed.), I, 1771, p. 299 (Canton, China).
1906. Rana esculenta subsp. chinensis Wolterstorff, Abhdl. Berichte
d. Mus. f. Natur. und Heimatkunde zu Magdeburg, Bd.
I, Heft 3, 1906, pp. 135-143-
1907. Rana nigromaculata, Stejneger, Herpetology of Japan and
adjacent Territory, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 58, p. 94,
pi. 10, fig. 1.
1 For complete Synonymy see Stejneger, Herpetology of Japan, cited above.
the systematic value of rana chinensis osbeck 69
Description.
Vomerine teeth in two slightly oblique groups between the choanae
very seldom extending to the line joining the posterior border of the
choanae. The male's head is generally narrower, that of the female
rather broader than its length. The snout is pointed and projects
beyond the mouth; the distance from the anterior corner of the eye
is always longer than the eye's horizontal diameter; canthus ros-
tralis strongly marked; loreal region slanting, rather sunken; nostrils
considerably nearer to the eyes than to the tip of the snout; inter-
orbital space contained about one and a half times in that between
the nostrils and about twice in the breadth of the upper eyelid;
(these measurements are subject to slight variations.) Tympanum
well developed, its horizontal diameter longer than the vertical,
equal to two-thirds, at most, to three-quarters of the diameter of
the eye.
The fingers of the fore limbs are rather pointed, the first longer
than the second; the subarticular tubercles are prominent, and well
developed.
The hind limbs being carried forward along side of the body the
tibio-tarsal joint reaches the posterior corner of the eye, or at
most to between the anterior corner of the eye and the nostril;
tibia always much shorter than the fore limb, or the foot measured
from the outer meta-tarsal tubercle; when the hind limbs are bent
at right angles to axis of body, heels never do meet; toes entirely
webbed; the subarticular tubercles small and not very prominent;
the inner meta-tarsal tubercle (Plate VI, fig. i) very large, project-
ing, compressed, on both sides, hard and sharp, twice as long as
high; its length contained 1-1. 8 times in length of inner toe and 4. 8-7. 5
times in that of the tibia; it is most characteristic, that the inner
meta-tarsal tubercle is never parallel with the length-axis of the
sole but invariably forms a greater or smaller angle with it. It is
very characteristic, further, that the inner meta-tarsal tubercle
never adheres to the base of the thumb but is attached to it in a
mobile way with a web, spreading between it and the thumb. At
the root of the fourth (longest) finger there is always a small,
roundish outer meta-tarsal tubercle.
70 BOLKAY
The glandular lateral folds are well developed, their width being
at least equal to one-third of an upper eyelid, not seldom, however,
attaining the entire breadth of it; the distance between the lateral
folds, — measured on the scapular region, — is contained 43—5! times
in whole length of head and body.
On the back, on both sides of dorsal line, longitudinal dorsal folds,
which vary in length but are always sharply projecting; these are
generally disposed in six longitudinal rows, on the anterior part of
the back, and in eight on the posterior part of it; breadth of one
fold amounts to about half of inter-orbital space, greatest length, to
twice the length of the upper eyelid, frequently, however, equal to
4^. The back of one of the specimens found at Pingshiang, besides
the usual folds, is covered with innumerable small warts, which make
it look unusually warty.
Chin, throat and fore part of belly smooth; sides of body and lower
hind part of thighs alone somewhat granulated, the hind part of
belly crosswise slightly wrinkled.
Color (taken from spirit-specimens): Back brownish olive,
sprinkled with black spots; the latter present three main types:
either unequally rounded as in our R. esculenta, or lengthwise ex-
tended (specimens from Japan) or again are they of such a shape as
we never meet with in our R. esculenta viz. in most of the Chinese
specimens the black spots widen horizontally.
The vertebral line is pale blue and varies in breadth; the dorso-
lateral folds of same color ; on the canthus-rostralis , beginning at the
end of snout, passing across the eye, above the tympanum and at
the back of it, runs the black stripe which reaches down behind the
angle of the mouth; along the outer side of the dorso-lateral folds,
the black spots most frequently melt into a single black stripe; on
sides of body large, irregular black spots are to be seen, which often
unite into a large black stripe between the articulation of the two
extremities; the upper edge of the stripe is undulating and from the
lower one, following close upon each other, several branches extend
towards the belly. The dark spots on the edge of the upper lip
never unite into a single dark stripe.
Upper surface of limbs, tibias, and feet crossed by dark bars.
In Japanese specimens we find the dark crossbars of the upper
THE SYSTEMATIC VALUE OF RANA CHINENSIS OSBECK 7 1
limbs and tibias invariably detached into blotches.2 The hind part
of the thighs is whitish-grey with dark marblings; belly uniform
white, border of lower jaw, however, together with throat region,
breast, both sides of belly and thighs, slightly marbled with a darker
tint. The vocal sacs are blackish-grey.
Osteological characters. The skull (Plate VI, fig. 2) presents partly
the characteristic marks of esculenta and partly those of R. ridibunda,
general form narrow and longish; becoming (gradually) narrower
and pointed in front, always narrower than it is long; the cranium
cerebrate is comparatively higher than in R. esculenta. The pars
facialis of the maxillary much higher than with the esculenta.
Nasals narrow and meeting at a sharp angle in the middle line, join-
ing each other in a broad ridge, contrarily to the arrangement in
R. esculenta in which they are broad, meeting at a blunt angle
and generally not in contact on the middle line.
The two borders of the fronto-parietals are — in old examples —
quite parallel, in younger ones slightly converging forwards; breadth
of their inter-orbital space — measured in the middle — is contained
3-3.5 times in its length; posterior border almost straight; upper
surface very slightly sunken, sutura-sagittalis always entirely ossified.
With R. esculenta the fronto-parietals' two outer borders are never
parallel, becoming conspicuously narrower towards the front.
Their breadth between the orbits, measured in the middle is but
2.5-3 times contained in their length; their back edge is always un-
dulating; their upper surface is deeply sunken; sutura-sagittalis
open from os ethmoideum until about the middle.
Tectum synoticum always triangular, whilst in R. esculenta it is
invariably quadrangular.
Prooticum always shorter and broader than in R. esculenta. The
tympanicum presents in its formation such differences as separate
most markedly the skull of R. chinensis from that of R. esculenta.
The forepart of the tympanicum, the zygomatic process, is straight,
narrow and long, just reaching the half of the longitudinal diameter
of the orbit, sometimes even extending rather beyond it; never
curved inwards, being on the contrary, always expanded in front, its
7 Stejneger (p. 98) mentions specimens from the collection of Dr. Smith and
Owston, from Shikoku Islands and Mount Fuji in which the dark blotches on the
hind limbs melt into quite distinct crossbars.
72
BOLKAY
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THE SYSTEMATIC VALUE OF RANA CHINENSIS OSBECK 73
foremost end, consequently, never extending into the orbit. This
is also the reason why the posterior corner of the inner branch of
tympanicum forms a still blunter angle than in R. esculenta. The
back branch of the tympanicum is still shorter than in R. esculenta,
so that the straight line connecting the articulations of the two jaws
invariably crosses the condylus. The plate of the inner branch of
the tympanicum is always shorter than in R. esculenta.
The intermaxillary's (fig. 3) inner border never sinks so deep as
it does in R. esculenta.
The vomerine teeth lie between the choanal in two small, semi-
circular groups inclining towards each other at a very slight angle;
the group of teeth are always separated by a larger space than is the
case with R. esculenta in which the inner edges of the teeth groups
sometimes almost meet — and never attain the straight line con-
necting the posterior border of the choanal.
The palatines differ from those of R. esculenta in as much as they
bear on their exterior side a rough, prominent bony crest.
Median branch of os parabasale is in general narrower and more
rounded than in R. esculenta. Foramen occipitale magnum in old
individuals, oval, in very young ones, round.
If we survey (fig. 4) the skull from the back joining the tympani-
cum's two posterior corners by a line, it will just about cut
across the middle of foramen magnum. In R. esculenta in 90 per
cent of the cases this line touches the upper border of the foramen
magnum; with R. ridibunda the mentioned line invariably crosses
the upper third of the foramen magnum.
The vertebral column (excepting the length of the urostylus) is
as long as the skull. Characteristic differences are to be found on
the second, third and eighth vertebrae. Whilst, with R. esculenta
the diapophysis of second vertebra presents a cylindric shape
(fig. 5), with only a few unimportant protuberances towards the
center of the front border, the diapophysis of second vertebra
of R. chinensis is fiat and presents a well developed bony crest on its
anterior border (fig. 6). This bony crest is to be found in R.
ridibunda also. The outer half of the diapophysis of the third
vertebra is carved out, shovel-like (fig. 7). On the median side of
its posterior edge a projecting bone ridge extends to the base of the
diapophysis. This bone ridge is to be found neither in R. escu-
lenta nor in R. ridibunda.
74 BOLKAY
The diapophysis of the eighth vertebra (fig. 8) generally curves
backwards, median side also expanding wing-like backwards.
It is worth mentioning that the processi spinosi of the vertebrae
are longer on R. chinensis than on either R. esculenta or R. ridibunda.
If we join, by a straight line, the back borders of the processi obliqui
on the second, third and fourth vertebras we shall find that the
processi spinosi invariably extend beyond this line. On R. escu-
lenta and R. ridibunda the processi spinosi generally touch that line,
sometimes ending a good deal before it.
The urostylus is as long as the vertebral column.
If we examine the pelvis (fig. 9) so that the symmetric plane
passing through the symphysis is parallel with the base we will
find the following peculiarities: pelvis 1. 2-1.3 times as long as the
vertebral column; ilium in its general form straight, the extremities
touching the sacral vertebra, being alone slightly curved downwards;
upper ridge of the ilium's crest straight and the angle of it which
declines towards the acetabulum forms only just a somewhat larger
angle than a rectangle. This declining angle is smooth, or presents
a hardly visible distended margin ; if we draw on the ridge of the
ilium crest a line parallel to the base of the pelvis, this fine will
just be reached by the upper corner of the crista ischio-pubica.
In R. esculenta (fig. 10) the pelvis is 1. 06-1. 2 times as long as the
vertebral column; the ilium is curved, the upper ridge of its crest
is rounded and the corner declining towards the acetabulum forms
a very blunt angle. This declining corner presents a strongly
distended margin and consequently under this margin at the base
of the ilium we find a somewhat deep cavity; if we draw on the ridge
of the ilium crest, a line parallel to the base of the pelvis, we shall
notice that the upper corner of the crista ischio-pubica remains far
under that line.
The most interesting of the tarsus bones is the so-called praehallux
(fig. n) which is a large, flat spade-like bony plate, growing rather
thick towards its base; its outer surface somewhat convex, whilst
the inner one is very slightly concave; its greatest breadth equal to
two-thirds of its length, the latter to two-thirds to three-fourths
of the length of first meta-tarsal bone. In R. esculenta the praehallux
(fig. 12) is a flat, thin bone plate; greatest breadth half its length,
length half that of the first meta-tarsal bone.
THE SYSTEMATIC VALUE OF RANA CHINENSIS OSBECK
75
In both species we find the praehallux joined to the tibiale by an
intercalated bone, the tibiale being formed by the following principal
elements: tarsale prcehallucis, centrale and tarsale I .
Under the second and third meta-tarsal bones we find the tarsale
II. and 777.; the fourth and fifth meta-tarsal bones are joined to the
fibulare by the so-called ligamentum tarsi supplcus.
Measurements of skeleton in mm.
MEASUREMENTS IN MM.
Length of skull
Breadth of skull....
Interorbital space. . .
Columna vertebralis
Urostylus
Humerus
Radius-ulna
Manus
Pelvis
Femur
Tibia
Tarsus
Pes
KIUKIANG
28
27-5
4
29
20-5
23 -5
IS
18
38
38.5
39
18
4i-5
PINGSHIANG
24
21
3
23s
22
18
15-5
28. s
29
29
14
35
PINCSHIANG
21
20
3
20.5
20
16
io-5
14
26
3i
3i
13-5
355
Rana chinensis Osb.
Rana ridibunda Pall.
1. Head narrow, long and 1. Head broad, short and
very pointed at the end. tip of snout bluntly rounded.
2. Inter-orbital space 2. Inter-orbital space
equal to half the breadth equal to one third the
of upper eye-lid.
3. Heels never meet when
hind limbs are bent at right
angles to axis of body.
4. Bending the hind
limbs forward along the
side of body thetibio-tarsal
joint reaches the posterior
corner of eye or can pro-
long itself beyond to space
between the anterior corner
and nostrils.
breadth of upper eye-lid.
3. Heels always overlap
when hind limbs are bent
at right angles to axis of
body.
4. Bending the hind limbs
forward along side of body,
the tibio-tarsal joint reaches
with the female, the back
corner of eye, with male the
end of snout.
Rana esculenta Linn.
1. Head comparately nar-
row, tip of snout ending in
blunt point.
2. Inter-orbital space
equal to half or frequently
to three quarters the breadth
of upper eye-lid.
3. Heels never meet when
hind limbs are bent at right
angles to axis of body.
4. Bending the hind
limbs forward along side
of body the tibio-tarsal
joint reaches, on the female
the space between the tym-
panum and posterior corner
of eye, on the male, — at the
utmost — space between the
anterior corner and nostrils.
76
BOLKAY
5. The inner meta-tarsal
tubercle is very large, pro-
jecting, compressed on both
sides, hard and sharp;
always a good deal longer
than the distance between
the subarticular tubercle
of first toe and inner meta-
tarsal tubercle, frequently
equal to length of first
toe.
6. The subarticular tu-
bercles on toes of hind
limbs small and only
slightly projecting.
7. The vocal sacs are
blackish grey.
8. The spaces between
the dusky marbling on the
back surface of thighs is
filled (according to Bou-
lenger) by a yellow color.
9. The dark spots of
back, — on Chinese speci-
mens— expand horizontally.
10. Fold on the back, be-
tween the two dorso-lateral
folds in 6-8 longitudinal
rows, varying in length.
n. Skull invariably nar-
rower than long, very point-
ed at the end.
12. Vomerine teeth never
meet the line joining pos-
terior border of choance.
13. The nasals form a
sharp angle towards each
other and meet in a broad
ridge on middle line.
14. Side borders of fron-
to-parietals parallel with
upper surface slightly
sunken in.
15. Tectum synoticum tri-
angular.
5. Inner meta-tarsal tu-
bercle small, of a flattened
cylindrical form not very
projecting, always shorter
than space between the
sub-articular tubercle of
first toe and inner meta-
tarsal tubercle.
6. The subarticular tu-
bercles on toes of hind
limbs larger and more pro-
jecting.
7. Vocal sacs blackish
grey.
8. Spaces between dark
marbling on back surface
of thighs is never filled
with a sulphuric color.
9. It is rare that the dark
spots of back expand hori-
zontally and that happens
only in a small degree.
10. No glandular dor-
sal folds on back.
11. Skull invariably
broader than it is long, in
front gradually narrowing.
12. Vomerine teeth ex-
tend slightly behind the
level of choance.
i,,. The nasals form a
rectangle or a somewhat
blunt angle and meet in a
broad ridge on the middle
line.
14. Side borders of fron-
to-parietals converging for-
wards, upper surface deeply
hollowed.
15. Tectum synoticum tri-
angular.
5. Inner meta-tarsal tu-
bercle large, compressed
on both sides, projecting;
always longer than dis-
tance between the subartic-
ular tubercle of first toe and
inner meta-tarsal tubercle.
6. The subarticular tu-
bercles on toes of hind
limbs are largest and
strongly projecting.
7. Vocal sacs milky white.
8. Spaces between dark
marbling on back surface
of thighs always filled with
sulphur colored spots.
9. The dark spots on
back never expand hori-
zontally.
10. No glandular dorsal
folds on back.
11. Skull generally as
broad as long, front part
forms a sudden point.
12. Vomerine teeth gen-
erally touch the line joining
the posterior border of
choance.
13. The nasals form a
blunt angle and do not
meet on the middle line.
14. Side borders of fron-
to-parietals converge con-
spicuously forwards, upper
surface deeply hollowed.
15. Tectum synoticum
quadrangular.
THE SYSTEMATIC VALUE OF RANA CHINEXSIS OSBECK
77
16. Foramen magnum
oval.
17. The processus zygo-
maticus of tympanicum ex-
pand forwards, just reach
to half the length of orbit.
18. Back corner of inner
branch of tympanicum forms
very blunt angle.
io. Back branch of tym-
panicum very short so that
the condylus always extends
beyond line joining the
articulation of jaws.
20. If we join by a line
the posterior corners of
inner branch of tympani-
cum, this line invariably
crosses foramen magnum in
the middle.
21. Diapophysis of sec-
ond vertebra flat, outer
side of front border presents
a prominent long crest.
22. Outer side of diapo-
physis of third vertebra is
carved out shovel-like and
on median side of back
border a strong, project-
ing bone ridge extends to
the base of the diapophysis.
23. Diapophysis of eighth
vertebra generally curved
backwards median side ex-
panding wing-like, back-
wards.
24. Processi spinosi of
vertebrae longer.
25. If we draw on pelvis
on the upper border of
ilium crest a line parallel
to base of pelvis, this line
will just be attained by
upper corner of crista ischio
pubica.
16. Foramen magnum
oval.
17. The processus zygo-
mattCUS of tympanicum
curved inwards invariably
extends beyond half the
length of orbit.
18. Back corner of inner
branch of tympanicum fre-
quently forms a sharp
angle, rather projecting
backwards.
19. Back branch of tym-
panicum long, so that the
line joining the articulation
of jaws remains far behind
the condylus.
20. If we join by a line
the posterior corners of
inner branch of tympani-
cum this line generally
crosses foramen magnum in
its upper third.
21. Diapophysis of sec-
ond vertebra cylindrical,
outer side of front border
presents a slight bony crest.
22. Outer side of dia-
pophysis of third vertebra
shovel-like carved out.
16. Foramen magnum of
a somewhat circular form.
17. Processus zygomati-
cus of tympanicum curved
inwards, does not even
reach the half of length of
orbit.
18. Back corner of inner
branch of tympanicum forms
a blunt angle.
19. Back branch of tym-
panicum shorter, conse-
quently the line joining the
articulation of jaws just
meets the back border of
condylus.
20. If we join by a line
the posterior corners of
inner branch of tympani-
cum this line just touches
the upper border of fora-
men magnum.
21. Diapophysis of sec-
ond vertebra cylindrical,
towards middle of outer side
we notice a slight protuber-
ance.
22. Outer side of diapo-
physis simply flattened.
23. Diapophysis of eighth
vertebra expanding back-
wards in the form of a wing.
24. Processi spinosi of
vertebrae shorter.
25. If we draw on pelvis
on the upper border of
ilium crest, a line parallel
to base of pelvis, the upper
corner of crista ischio pubica
will remain much below this
line.
23. Diapophysis of eighth
vertebra of a cylindrical
form
24. Processi spinosi of
vertebrae shorter.
25. If we draw on pelvis
on the upper ridge of ilium
crest, a line parallel to base
of pelvis, the upper corner
of crista ischio pubica will
remain much below this
line.
78 BOLKAY
If we look back on the above tables as well as on the osteological
characteristics and description of the Chinese frog we shall find that,
owing to all its distinctive features R. chinensis can be placed near
to R. ridibunda Pall, and that neither R. esculenta nor var. lessonce
seems designated for a closer comparison with it.
Up to now, the glandular folds on the back were alone considered
as easily distinguishable characteristic marks; I find, however, that
the most important amongst the outer distinctive features are:
the general shape of the head, color of vocal sacs, shape of spots on
the back and, finally, the formation of inner meta-tarsal tubercle.
The head is comparatively very narrow and the snout ends in a
very marked point.
My experience is that we never meet with R. esculenta having
a similarly narrow head or pointed snout. Needless to say that in
that respect the Chinese frog differs still more from Rana ridibunda.
The vocal sacs are of a dusky grey and in that feature it quite re-
sembles R. ridibunda.
As regards the spots on the back it differs very markedly from
esculenta, as already mentioned the spots on the back — on some of
the specimens from China— broaden in horizontal direction, giving
the back the appearance of being horizontally striped. On other
specimens from China the spots are entirely similar in form and dis-
position, to those of our esculenta. The spots on the specimens from
Japan present quite a different shape, extending, generally length-
wise on the back, the cross-bars dividing into spots on thigh and
tibia, in opposition to the Chinese specimens on which these cross-
bars invariably form an uninterrupted dark line. The Chinese
frog therefore, as regards the shape of its spots, could be said to
somewhat approach the typical R. ridibunda in which the spots
of the back frequently broaden horizontally.
Finally, I consider the most important mark to be the inner
meta-tarsal tubercle — not meaning thereby its proportions as do
Boulenger and his adherents — but most especially taking into con-
sideration the differences manifested in its formation and its bio-
logical role. These differences separate insuperably Rana chinen-
sis from the group of either esculenta or ridibunda. As I already
remarked in the above description, the chief difference between the
meta-tarsal tubercle of Rana chinensis and that of esculenta and
THE SYSTEMATIC VALUE OF RANA CHLNENSIS OSBECK 79
var. lessonce, lies in the fact that it is never parallel to the length axis
of sole, but invariably closes on it at a larger or smaller angle, and that
it never stands vertically on the surface of sole but always so to say
leans against it. The most striking difference, however, is — as also
Wolterstorff already recorded — the fact of the meta-tarsal tuber-
cle not adhering to the base of thumb, being independently movable
and that of a web extending between it and the thumb. The above
also justifies Osbeck's statement of the Chinese water-frog having
six toes as in this case the meta-tarsal tubercle can truly be con-
sidered as a sixth toe transformed into a burrowing implement.
The edge of the meta-tarsal tubercle is very sharp on the Peking
andTsingtau specimens and quite resembles the meta-tarsal tubercle
of Pelobates fuscus. This edge is never as sharp on the Pingshiang,
Kiukiang and Japan specimens.
The dimensions of the meta-tarsal tubercle frequently vary on
specimens from Peking and Tsingtau; it attains the length of the
thumb ; on specimens collected at other places it is a good deal shorter,
but it is never contained twice in the length of the thumb. As
regards its role in biology, this peculiarity is in itself reason enough
for R. chinensis to be separated as an independent species.
Once their pools dried up, our esculenta and ridibunda generally
wander further on in search of new waters. Not so with R. chinensis
which burrows itself in the ground as soon as water is wanting.
Dr. Kreyenberg (17, p. 136) at Tsingtau, found frogs burrowed
under the ground and he writes further on about the Chinese frog
digging itself under the earth on the rice fields once the water there
has dried up.
It is interesting to notice here that these frogs do not bury them-
selves thus in exceptional cases, but do this regularly with the be-
ginning of the dry season; this being recorded from the surroundings
of Peking and Tsingtau most likely happens elsewhere also and
seems sufficient explanation of the fact that the meta-tarsal tubercle
on the specimens from the above named places is so particularly
well developed and so excellent a burrowing implement. It is not
improbable that in some parts of those countries this burrowing is
only exceptional (the specimens of Kiukiang and Pingshiang do
not present so sharp a meta-tarsal tubercle) and it is most likely
80 BOLKAY
that in some parts R. chinensis lives an exactly similar life to that
of our R. esculenta (Killing, Masempho).
In Wolterstorff's already mentioned article (17, p. 140) we read
that the meta-tarsal tubercle of ridibunda, esculenta, and var.
lessonce stands in contrary proportion to the length of the tibia,
that is to say, that the larger the meta-tarsal tubercle, the
shorter the tibia and reciprocally. He explains this occurrence by
the law of correlation; according to his opinion the R. ridibunda' s
leaping faculties are increased through the tibias' length, whilst
those of esculenta and var. lessonce are augmented by the larger size
of the meta-tarsal tubercle. He then continues saying: "If the
R. chinensis also belonged directly to this series of development,
then — considering the size of the meta-tarsal tubercle — the tibia
ought to be shorter still, yet just the contrary is stated as it is longer."
Wolterstorff further remarks that when hind limbs are bent at right
angles to axis of body the heels meet or even rather extend beyond
each other. This is stated by Boulenger also (6).
On the specimens examined I found that the heels never meet.
The reason of this can easily be explained by the Chinese frog's
peculiar mode of life. As its burrowing faculties gave it the pos-
sibility of remaining in its accustomed place in spite of the water
drying up, there was no necessity for wandering, thus its leaping
faculties did not particularly develop whilst it possesses the bur-
rowing-faculty's requisites, viz.: thickly set, strong hind limbs.
I shall refer later on to the great modification, which wandering
may cause in the length of the hind limbs.
After this I am not astonished, that Bedriaga's (17, p. 140)
Ordos' specimen was found similar in the length of the hind limbs
to var. lessonce of Norfolk.
Referring to the explanation given on the skeleton's distinctive
features, I must here again insist upon the fact that they are —
according to my opinion — the most important, as the skeletons
which I prepared all present the above mentioned characteristic
marks, although they belonged to frogs originating from different
places. The particularities most worthy of attention are on the
skull: the position of nasals, the shape and dimensions of the zygo-
matic process as well as the fact of the condylus always extending
beyond the line joining the articulation of the jaws, finally the shape
THE SYSTEMATIC VALUE OF RANA CHINENSIS OSBECK 8 1
and position of the vomerine teeth group. The bony ridge visible
on the diapophysis of the third vertebra of the vertebral column, as
well as the characteristics in connection with the pelvis, are also
exceedingly important marks.
I cannot, after these results, accept Wolterstorff's opinion (17,
p. 139) that the Chinese frog is a now-arising, not yet fully expressed
species, whose characteristics in the formation of the legs have not
yet quite developed in each specimen. With regard to the meta-
tarsal tubercle, my conviction is that it has reached its full develop-
ment, but that, owing to climatic conditions and natural surround-
ings it varies in formation according to countries.
If we look back upon what has been said above, it becomes imme-
diately clear to us that the Chinese frog bears the mixed charac-
teristics of R. ridibunda and R. esculenta, and it is just this mixture
of distinctive features which proves that we have to do with inde-
pendent species. This is also confirmed by its geographic dis-
tribution. The Chinese frog is to be found — as is reported — from
Vladivostok in the North down to Bangkok in the South, and from
Japan westwards to the 105-no0 eastern longitude. In opposition
to this Rana esculenta, respectively the var. lessonce, is to be found
until the 300 eastern longitude, whilst ridibunda is met with as far
as Persia. The fact of its geographic distribution being confined
within such definite limits, seems to be a proof more, that R. chin-
ensis belongs to an independent species as it were difficult to sup-
pose that alone one variety of esculenta lived on such an immense
territory, within so great a distance of the circle limiting the typical
form's natural boundaries. If R. chinensis meets with any western
species it can only be with Rana ridibunda. Boulenger supplies
us in his work "The Tailless Batrachians of Europe," with a map
(p. 263) marking the esculenta group's geographic distribution.
Wolterstorff remarks (17, p. 142) that on this map he finds the
limits of Rana ckinensis' geographic distribution rather far extended
westwards. My opinion is that the distance between these two
species is not even as great as that, but that they most likely directly
meet somewhere. This question could only be solved by a minute
investigation in the regions of Asia Minor and Tien-san.
My studies on the Chinese frog have led me to the conclusion that
it is not the Chinese frog which originates from R. esculenta or R.
82 BOLKAY
ridibunda, but on the contrary both R. esculenta and R. ridibunda
from Rana chinensis.
I wish to support this supposition by the inner meta-tarsal tubercle.
As is already known the inner meta-tarsal tubercle of frogs has de-
veloped from the ancestral thumb, the former sixth toe. If during
the development of the body any part of it is arrested in its growth
and decays, it regenerates no more. This is the fact on which I
found my explanation. In the above description I have already
pointed out the fact that the meta-tarsal tubercle of the Chinese
frog is truly no meta-tarsal tubercle at all, but a real finger connected
by a web to the present thumb. The Chinese frog, influenced by
surroundings and climatic conditions, adapted itself to the already
mentioned peculiar mode of life and its ancestral thumb just only
transformed itself so far as to become its burrowing implement.
In opposition to this it is quite evident that the meta-tarsal tu-
bercle of Rana ridibunda and Rana esculenta has quite degenerated
inasmuch as through adaptation to new conditions, it increases its
dexterity in leaping. On account of this, therefore, it would be
impossible to suppose that the Chinese frog's meta-tarsal tubercle
together with the web between it and the first toe is a new acqui-
sition.
I found on Bufo viridis Laur. a most convincing proof of the
change in the hind limbs caused by wandering. In one of my
articles (p. 166) whilst comparing the Bufo viridis of county
Gomor (Hungary) to Bufo viridis of Konia (Asia Minor) I pointed
out the fact of the specimens from Asia Minor having comparatively
a good deal longer hind limbs than those from the county Gomor.
After the publication of that article my friend Mr. D. v. Foldvary
who undertook a journey in Asia Minor in the year 1906, informed
me having repeatedly met in the deserts with Bufo viridis, wander-
ing in search of new pools after their former resorts had dried up.
It seems likely therefore, that the hind limbs of the specimens
from Asia Minor were thus developed in consequence of this fre-
quent wandering, and it is to be presumed that Hungarian speci-
mens have shorter hind limbs, because they never wander. Taking
these above facts into consideration it will seem more probable still
that Rana ridibunda and Rana esculenta were derived from the
Chinese frog whilst this latter was extending westwards; the in-
THE SYSTEMATIC VALUE OF RANA CHINENSIS OSBECK 83
fluence of surroundings and climatic conditions then co-operated in
the formation of the longer hind limb and with it the greater facil-
ity to leap. This opinion of mine differs very essentially from
WolterstorlT's (17, p. 139) who wishes to prove by the Chinese
frog's example the way in which a former leaping-frog gradually
transformed itself into a burrowing-frog. He mentions as an ex-
ample the Pelobates genus, which he believes to have originated in
that same manner.
This seems refuted according to my opinion by the very fact of
such frogs, as bearing the ancestral characteristic features — (as the
Pelobates for instance) — being none of them agile leapers in opposi-
tion to the undoubtedly younger race of Ranae fuscae, of which
every representative is most dexterous in leaping.
LITERATURE
1. Bedriaga, J. V.
1898. Wisseuschaftliche Resultate der von Przewalski nach Central-
Asien unter nommenen Reisen. — III. Bd. 1. Abth., Amphibien
u. Reptilien, Lief. 1. St. Petersburg.
2. Bolkay, S.
1907. Adatok Gonior-Kishont varmzye herpetolo-ziajshoz — Allattain
Kozlemenyek, VI.
3. 1907. A tair beka (Rana ridibunda Pall.) faji jogosultsojs. Allat-
tain Kozlenieuyek VI.
4. Bolkay, St. V.
1908. Uber die Artberechtizung des Flussfrosches (Raus ridibunda
Pall— )"Lacerta" No. 13. "Wochenschrift," V. Jahrz.
5. Boulenger, G. A.
1882. Catalogue of the Batrachia Salientia in the collection of the Brit-
ish Museum, London.
6. 1891 A Contribution to the Knowledge of the races of Rana esculenta
and their geographical Distribution. Proc. Zool. Soc, London.
7. 1896-1897. The Tailless Batrachians of Europe, I., II., London.
8. Cope.
1868. Second supplement on some new Raniformia of the Old World.
Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci.
9. Hallowell
1860. Rep. upon the Rept. of the North Pacific Exploration. Proc.
Phila. Acad Nat. Sci.
10. Lataste, F.
1880. Batrachiens et Reptiles recueillis en chine por M. V. Collin de
Plancy. Bull, de la Soc. Zool. de France.
11. Maack,
1859. Voy Amour.
84 BOLKAY
12. Mehely, L. O.
1901. Zichy's Dritte Asiatische Forschungsreise II., p. 62.
13. Osbeck.
1765. Ruse nach Ostindien und China, Rostock.
14. Peters.
1867. Sitzber. Ak. d. Wiss. Berlin.
15. Schlegel.
1836. Fauna japonica, Rept.
16. Stejneger, L.
1907. Herpetology of Japan and adjacent Territory. — Smithsonian
Institution, Washington.
17. Wolterstorff, W.
1906. Uber die von Herrn Dr. Kreyenberg in Ostasien gesane melten
Frosch-und Schwanzlurche. — Abhandl. u. Breichte d. Museums
f. Natur und Heinistkunde zu Magdeburg, I. Bd., 3 Heft.
18. 1908. Bemerkungen zu Bolkay: Tiber die Artberechtigung des Fluss-
frosches. — Lacerta No. 14, "Wochenschrift," V. Jahrg.
Explanation of Plate VI.
Fig. 1. First toe of hind limb, with shovel-like inner meta-tarsal tubercle. Peking.
X 1.5.
Fig. 2. Skull, upper view. Kiukiang. X 1.5.
Fig. 3. Skull, under view. Kiukiang. X 1.5.
Fig. 4. Skull, back view. Kiukiang. X 1.5.
Fig. 5. Second vertebra of Rana esculenta L. upper view. Barias, (Hungary).
X 2.
Fig. 6. Second vertebra, upper view. Kiukiang. X 1.5.
Fig. 7. Third vertebra, upper view. Kiukiang. X 1.5.
Fig. 8. Eighth vertebra, upper view. Kiukiang. X 1.5.
Fig. 9. Pelvis from side. Kiukiang. Nat. Size.
Fig. 10. Pelvis of Rana esculenta L. from side. Barias (Hungary). Nat. size.
Fig. 11. Bones of tarsus. Kiukiang. X 3.
Fig. 12. Tarsal bones of Rana esculenta L. Rimanambat. (Hungary.) X 3.
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci.. Vol. XIII
Pi ate VI.
AUTHOR DEL.
Osteologfical characters of Rana chinensis and Rana esculenta.
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INDEX
Adocus lineolatus 57, 62
aftine, Monostomum 24
americana, Taxidea 30
antiqua, Baena 59
aquaticus machrinus, Scalops 33
Ashburner, C. E. 38
Aspideretes beecheri 53, 61
foveatus 61
avia, Mephitis mesomelas 29
Badger 30
Baena antiqua 59
hatched 59
bairdi, Peromyscus maniculatus 18
Bartsch, Paul, 40
Basilemys imbricarius 58
ogmius 57
variolosa 57, 62
Bat, Little Brown 34
Beaver 16
Beck, J. M. 16
beecheri, Aspideretes 53, 61
bicorinatus, Planorbis 40
Big Gray Wolf 28
Blarina brevicauda 32
Bolkay, Dr. Stefan 67
Bowers, George M. 1
brevicauda, Blarina 32
Bureau of Fisheries 1
Bythinella nickliniana 40
canadensis carolinensis, Castor 16
Cervus 4
laxatina, Lutra 29
Canis occidentalis 28
carolinensis, Castor canadensis 16
leucotis, Sciurus 4
Castor canadensis carolinensis 16
Cat, Pole 29
Wild 27
Cephalanthus occidentalis 21
Cervus canadensis 4
Chadwick, S. S. 4, 5, 7, 25, 31, 32
chinensis, Rana 67
Chipmunk 7
Citellus tridecemlineatus 10
Clark, Howard Walton 1
coalescens, Plastomenus 53
Collapse of recent beds at Staunton, Va
35
Commissioner of Fisheries 1
Common Mole ^^
Opossum 2
White-footed Mouse 1 7
Compsemys obscura 60
victa 60
costatus, Plastomenus 55
Cottontail 25
Cox, U. O. 16
Decodon verticillatus 21
Deer Mouse 17
Virginia 4
Didelphis virginiana 2
dorsatum, Erethizon 25
Elk 4
Erethizon dorsatum 25
Evermann, A. M. 6
Evermann, Barton Warren 1
eximius, Neurankylus 59
Fiber zibethicus 19
Field Mouse 19
floridanus mearnsi, Sylvilagus 25
Flying Squirrel 14
Fossil turtles 51
foveatus, Aspideretes 61
Trionyx 52
Fox, Red 27
Fox Squirrel 5
fulvus, Vulpes 27
gibbosus, Unio 22
Gopher, Striped 10
Groundhog 11
Ground Squirrel 7
Gray Squirrel 4
Greene, F. C. 41
Hahn, Dr. 27, 28
hatcheri, Baena 59
Hay, O. P. 52
99
IOO
INDEX
Hildebrandt, J. J. 3
Hoplobatrachus reinhardtii 68
hudsonius loquax, Sciurus 6
Zapus 25
imbricarius, Basilemys 58
insignis, Plastomenus 56
iris, Lampsilis, 22
Jumping Mouse 25
Kindle, Edward M. 35
Knowlton, F. H. 51
Lake Maxinkuckee 1
Lampsilis iris 22
luteolus 22
multiradiatus 22
lataxina, Lutra canadensis 29
leucopus noveboracensis, Peromyscus 17
leucotis, Sciurus carolinensis 4
lineolatus, Adocus 57, 62
Little Brown Bat 34
loquax, Sciurus hudsonius 6
lotor, Procyon 32
lucifugus, Myotis 34
Lutra canadensis lataxina 29
Lutreola vison lutreocephalus 30
lutreocephalus vison, Lutreola 30
luteolus, Lampsilis 22
Lynx ruffus 27
machrinus, Scalops aquaticus ^3
Mammals of Lake Maxinkuckee 1
maniculatus bairdi, Peromyscus 18
Marmot n
Marmota monax 1 1
Maxinkuckee Lake 1
mammals 1
Meadow Mouse 18
mearnsi, Sylvilagus floridanus 25
Mephitis mesomelas avia 29
mesomelas avia, Mephitis 29
Meyer, Anton 28, 29
Microtus pennsylvanicus 18
Mink 30
missouriensis, Polythorax 59
Mole, Common, $$
Shrew 3 2
monax, Marmota 11
Monostomum affine 24
Mouse, Common white-footed 17
Deer 17
Field, 18
Jumping, 25
Meadow 18
multiradiatus, Lampsilis 22
Muskrat, 19
Myotis lucifugus 34
Neurankylus eximius 59
nickliniana, Byrhinella 40
niger rufiventer, Sciurus 5
nigromaculata, Rana 67
noveboracensis, Peromyscus leucopus 17
Putiorus 31
obscura, Compsemys 60
occidentalis, Canis 28
Cephalanthus 21
Odocoileus virginianus 4
ogmius, Basilemys 57
Opossum 2
Otter 29
parvus, Planorbis 40
pennsylvanicus, Microtus 18
Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis 1 7
maniculatus bairdi iS
Planorbis bicorinatus 40
parvus 40
Plastomenus coalescens 53
costatus 55
insignis 56
punctulatus 56
Pole Cat 29
Polythorax missouriensis 59
Porcupine 25
Prairie Wolf 28
Price list of publications
Procyon lotor 3 2
Psidium sp (?) 40
punctulatus, Plastomenus 56
Putorius noveboracensis 31
Rabbit 25
Raccoon 32
Rana chinensis 67
nigromaculata 67
Red Fox 27
Squirrel 6
reinhardtii, Hoplobatrachus 68
Roundy, P. V. 38
ruffus, Lynx 27
rufiventer, Sciurus niger 5
Scalops aquaticus machrinus 33
INDEX
IOI
Sciurus carolinensis leucotis 4
hudsonius loquax 6
niger rufiventer 5
Sciuropenterus volans 14
Scovell, Dr. J. T. 31
Shrew, Mole 32
Skunk 29
Squirrel, Fox 5
Flying, 14
Gray 4
Ground 7
Red 6
Staunton, Va., Collapse of recent beds at
35
Steininger, S. D. 30
striatus, Tamias 7
Striped Gopher 10
Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsi 25
Tamias striatus 7
Taxidea americana 30
Timber Wolf 28
tridecemlineatus, Citellus 10
Trionyx foveatus 52
vagrans 53
Unio gibbosus 22
vagrans, Trionyx 53
variolosa, Basilemys 57, 62
verticillatus, Decodon 21
victa, Compsemys 60
Virginia Deer 34
virginiana, Didelphis 2
virginianus, Odocoileus 4
vison leutreocephalus, Lutreola 30
volans, Sciuropterus 14
Vole 18
Vulpes fulvus 27
Weasel 3 1
White-footed Mouse, Common 17
Wild Cat 27
Wolf, Big Gray 2S
Prairie. 28
Timber 28
Woodchuck n
Yost, J. 39, 45
Xanthium strumarium 6
Zapus hudsonius 25
zibethicus, Fiber 19
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