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THE    PROFITABLE 
CULTURE    OF   VEGETABLES. 


FOR  GARDENERS  AND  AMATEURS. 


WOOD  AND  GARDEN:  Notes  and  Thoughts,  Practical 

and  Critical,  of  a  Working  Amateur.  By  GERTRUDE  JEKYLL.  With 
71  Photographs.  8vo,  6s.  net. 

HOME  AND  GARDEN  :  Notes  and  Thoughts,  Practical 

and  Critical,  of  a  Worker  in  both.  By  GERTRUDE  JEKYLL.  With  53 
Illustrations  from  Photographs.  8vo,  6s.  net. 

A    PRACTICAL    GUIDE    TO    GARDEN    PLANTS. 

By  JOHN  WEATHERS,  F.R.H.S.    With  163  Diagrams.    8vo,  21s.  net. 

A    PRACTICAL    GUIDE   TO    SCHOOL,    COTTAGE 

AND  ALLOTMENT  GARDENING.  By  JOHN  WEATHERS,  F.R.H.S 
With  66  Illustrations  and  Examination  Questions  oh  Cottage  Gar 
dening.  Crown  8vo,  2s.  6d.  net. 

GARDENING  IN  TOWN  AND  SUBURB.   By  HARRY 

H.  THOMAS,  Assistant  Editor  of  The  Garden.  With  17  Illustrations. 
Crown  8vo,  2s.  6d.  net. 

SPRING   FLOWERS  AT  BELVOIR  CASTLE:  with 

Directions  for  Cultivation  and  Notes  on  the  Gardens.  By  W.  H. 
DIVERS,  Head  Gardener  to  His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Rutland.  With 
32  Illustrations  from  Photographs  by  the  Author.  Crown  4to,  5s.  net. 

ROSES:  THEIR  HISTORY,  DEVELOPMENT  AND 

AND  CULTIVATION.  By  the  Rev.  JOSEPH  H.  PEMBERTON,  Presi- 
dent of  the  National  Rose  Society.  With  a  Frontispiece  in  Colour, 
9  Lithographic  Plates,  and  other  Illustrations  in  the  Text.  8vo, 
10s.  6d.  net. 

THE     AMATEUR     GARDENER'S     ROSE     BOOK. 

By  Dr.  JULIUS  HOFFMANN.  Translated  from  the  German  by  JOHN 
WEATHERS,  F.R.H.S.  With  20  Coloured  Plates  and  16  Woodcuts. 
.  8vo,  7s.  6d.  net. 

DISEASES  OF   PLANTS   INDUCED   BY  CRYPTO- 

GAMIC  PARASITES.  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Pathogenic 
Fungi,  Slime  Fungi,  Bacteria  and  Algie.  By  Dr.  KARL  FREIHERR 
VON  TUBEUF.  English  Edition  by  WILLIAM  G.  SMITH,  B.Sc.,  Ph.D., 
Lecturer  on  Plant  Physiology,  University  of  Edinburgh.  With  330 
Illustrations.  Royal  8vo,  18s.  net. 

A  POPULAR  TREATISE  ON  THE  PHYSIOLOGY 

OF  PLANTS.  By  Dr.  PAUL  SORAUER.  Translated  by  F.  E.  WEISS, 
B.Sc.,  F.L.S.  With  33  Illustrations.  8vo,  9s.  net. 


LONGMANS,  GREEN  AND  CO. 

LONDON,   NEW  YORK.   BOMBAY,   AND  CALCUTTA. 


THE 

PROFITABLE  CULTURE 

OF 

VEGETABLES, 


FOR  MARKET  GARDENERS,  SMALL  HOLDERS, 
AND  OTHERS. 


BY 

THOS.  SMITH, 

F.R.H.S., 

Manager  of  the  Pels  Fruit  Farm  and  the  Alayland  French  Garden. 
Author  of  "  French  Gardening." 


FULLY  ILLUSTRATED. 


LONGMANS,    GREEN    AND    CO., 

39,    PATERNOSTER    ROW,    LONDON^ 

NEW  YORK,  BOMBAY,  AND  CALCUTTA. 

1913. 


11  111  fares  the  land,  to  hast'ning  ills  a  prey, 
Where  wealth  accumulates  and  men  decay. 
Princes  and  lords  may  flourish  or  may  fade  ; 
A  breath  can  make  them  as  a  breath  has  made, 
But  a  bold  peasantry,  their  country's  pride, 
When  once  destroyed  can  never  be  supplied. "- 

GOLDSMITH. 


THIS   BOOK 

IS  DEDICATED   BY  THE  AUTHOR 
TO   HIS   FRIEND 

JOSEPH     PELS, 

IN   ADMIRATION   OF  THE  GALLANT  FIGHT 

HE   IS  MAKING 
THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 

TO   BREAK   DOWN 
THE    MONOPOLY   IN    LAND. 


359266 


PREFACE. 


IV  /TANY  years  of  practical  work  in  connection 
A  VI  wjth  market  gardening  and  small  holdings, 
both  in  actually  cultivating  the  soil  and  in  directing 
the  work  of  others,  have  made  me  familiar  with  many 
of  the  needs  and  difficulties  of  those  who  gain  their 
living  from  the  cultivation  of  small  areas  of  land,  as 
well  as  having  given  me  an  insight  into  the  factors 
which  lead  to  success. 

Amongst  the  greatest  difficulties  inexperienced  men 
have  to  contend  with  are  the  want  of  direction  as 
to  general  procedure  and  precise  advice  on  points  of 
detail.  Even  those  who  may  fairly  lay  claim  to  ex- 
perience often  find  themselves  in  doubt  on  subjects 
outside  the  usual  routine.  In  many  such  instances 
collections  of  handbooks  and  periodicals  on  gardening 
matters  are  cursorily  consulted,  but  it  is  seldom  that 
any  enlightenment  can  be  discovered  just  at  the 
moment  it  is  needed,  and  as  the  matter  is  usually 


viii.  PREFACE. 

urgent  such  vague  ideas  as  are  already  possessed 
constitute  the  only  guide.  As  a  consequence,  many  of 
the  operations  carried  out  under  such  circumstances 
come  to  an  unsatisfactory  conclusion. 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  supply  such  informa- 
tion as  the  grower  of  vegetables  is  likely  to  require  in 
connection  with  the  productive  part  of  his  business, 
from  the  preparation  of  the  soil  to  the  marketing  of 
the  produce.  Both  ordinary  and  intensive  culture 
are  dealt  with.  I  have  endeavoured  to  convey  the 
information  clearly,  in  full  detail  but  free  from  super- 
fluities, and  it  is  my  earnest  hope  that  it  will  be 
found  of  real  help. 

It  was  not  without  hesitation  that  I  decided  to  add 
another  to  the  long  list  of  books  on  horticultural 
subjects,  but  I  have  made  the  venture  because,  in 
spite  of  their  number  and  variety  and  the  great  value 
of  some  of  them,  I  have  hitherto  failed  to  find  one 
which  satisfies  me  as  being  just  the  book  those  en- 
gaged in  the  culture  of  vegetables  for  a  livelihood  are 
in  need  of.  The  result  may  easily  prove  that  I  also 
have  failed  to  produce  what  is  required,  but  I  shall  at 
least  know  that  I  have  tried,  to  the  best  of  my  ability, 
to  do  work  which  needed  doing. 

Throughout  the  production  of  the  book  practical 
friends  have  been  very  helpful,  and  I  have  consulted 


PREFACE.  ix. 

on  numerous  points  a  large  array  of  authoritative 
works,  the  titles  of  which  would  need  too  much  space 
to  enumerate. 

In  preparing  the  chapters  dealing  with  Soil  and 
Manures  I  have  drawn  freely  from  Mr.  A.  D.  Hall's 
books,  The  Soil  and  Manures.  The  section  on  Insect 
Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases  is  the  work  of  my  son, 
who  from  his  training  is  much  better  qualified  to  deal 
with  the  subject  than  myself ;  and  I  am  indebted  to  Mr. 
R.  Coates,  my  late  assistant,  for  compiling  the  Table 
giving  the  Approximate  Cost  of  Fertilizing  Units. 

Of  the  illustrations  of  Vegetables  the  large  majority 
appear  by  permission  of  Messrs.  Vilmorin-Andrieux 
£  Co.,  of  Paris ;  most  of  the  remainder  are  re- 
produced from  photographs  kindly  provided  by 
Messrs.  Sutton  &  Sons,  of  Reading ;  in  each  case 
this  is  indicated  at  the  foot  of  the  block.  Of  the 
illustrations  in  the  section  on  Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid 
Diseases,  three  have  been  supplied  by  Messrs.  West, 
Newman  &  Co.,  from  Miss  E.  A.  Ormerod's  book  on 

Agricultural  Entomology ;  eight  appear  by  permission 

/ 
of  Messrs.  Gurney  &  Jackson,  having  been  originally 

published  in  Mr.  John  Curtis's  Farm  Insects ;  the  re- 
mainder in  this  section,  with  twro  exceptions,  I  am 
enabled  to  show  by  courteous  permission  of  the  Board 
of  Agriculture,  which  Department  has  previously  used 


x.  PREFACE. 

them  to  illustrate  some  of  its  Leaflets,  but  in  order  to 
make  them  more  manageable  for  my  purpose  I  have 
had  all  those  depicting  fungoid  attacks  reduced  in 
size,  by  woodcuts  and  line  drawings. 

The  remainder  of  the  illustrations  throughout  the 
book  have,  with  very  few  exceptions,  been  prepared 
either  from  my  own  sketches  or  from  photographs 
taken  for  me  by  Mr.  E.  Garrett,  cashier  and  clerk  to 
the  Pels  Fruit  Farm,  to  whom  I  am  also  indebted  for 
much  valuable  help  in  reading  proofs. 


THOS.  SMITH 


Pels  Fruit  Farm, 

May  land,  Essex, 

April,  1911. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
INTRODUCTION 1-4 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  TREATMENT       5-21 

Origin  of  Soil — Composition  of  Soil — Subsoil — Drainage — 
How  to  Drain — Deep  Cultivation — Bastard  Trenching — Ridging—- 
Texture— Lime — Calcium  Carbonate — Gas-lime — Soil  Bacteria — 
Nitro-Bacterine  Cultures — Soil  Moisture — Autumn  Cultivation — 
Spring  Cultivation — Hoeing  and  Mulching. 

CHAPTER  III. 

MANURES  AND  FERTILIZERS     22-38 

Composition  of  Plants — Plant  Foods  in  the  Soil — Farmyard 
Manure — Green  Manure — Compost  Heaps.  NITROGENOUS  FER- 
TILIZERS :  Sulphate  of  Ammonia,  Mitrate  of  Soda,  Nitrolim,  Dried 
Blood,  Soot,  Rape  Dust,  Castor  Seed  Meal,  Shoddy.  PHOSPHATIC 
FERTILIZERS  :  Superphosphate,  Limphos,  Basic  Slag,  Bone  Meal, 
Bone  Flour,  Dissolved  Bones,  Phosphatic  Peruvian  Guano. 
POTASSIC  FERTILIZERS  :  Sulphate  of  Potash,  Muriate  of  Potash. 
Kainit.  COMPOSITE  FERTILIZERS  :  Peruvian  Guano,  Dissolved 
Peruvian  Guano,  Fish  Guano,  Meat  Guano.  Notes  on  the  Using 
of  Fertilizers — Valuing  Fertilizers — Approximate  Cost  of  Fertiliz- 
ing Units  (Table). 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  SMALL  HOLDER  AS  A  MARKET  GARDENER       ... ...    39-41 

Conditions  Necessary  to  Success— Capital  Required— Physique 
—  Industry  and  Concentration— Up-to-date  Methods  — Intensive 
Culture— Spade  Work. 

CHAPTER  V. 

SELECTION  OF  A  SMALL  HOLDING 42-45 

Situation— Aspect— Protection — Fences — Soil — Drainage  — 
Manure — Area — Tenure. 


xii.  CO  AM  TENTS. 

CHAPTER  VI.  PAGES- 

THE  BUSINESS  TO  BE  CARRIED  ON       46-49 

Divisions  into  which  the  Business  may  be  Separated — Grow- 
ing for  Market — Advantages  of  Specialization — Glutted  Markets — 
Need  for  More  Local  Markets — Growing  for  Private  Trade  — 
Regular  Supplies  and  Numerous  Varieties  Essential — Increased 
Cost  of  Production,  but  Better  Returns  and  Steadier  Market — 
Limited  Choice  in  Selection  of  Situation — Co-operation — Direct 
Supply. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

ROTATIONS  OF  CULTIVATION,  MANURING,  AND  CROPPING     ...    ...    50-52 

Reasons  for  Rotations — Difficulties  in  the  Way  of  a  Perfect 
Rotation — Why  under  certain  conditions  a  Strict  Rotation  is  not 
Essential — Rotation  of  Cultivation,  Manuring,  and  Liming — Test- 
ing for  Lime — Rotation  of  Crops. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
THE  LAYING-OUT,  CULTIVATING,  AND  CROPPING  OF  A  HOLDING...    53-62 

Ideal  Arrangement  for  a  Market  Garden  Holding — Plan — 
Rotations  of  Cultivation  and  Manuring — Intensive  Culture — De- 
tailed Explanations  of  Plans — Plans  of  Intensive  Cropping,  with 
Rotations  for  Three  Consecutive  Years. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

FRENCH  GARDENING     63-67 

Brief  Description  of  the  Principles  underlying  the  System 
and  of  the  Methods  adopted,  with  remarks  on  the  Capital  Required    • 
and  the  Financial  Prospects  of  Similar  Gardens  in  England. 

CHAPTER  X. 

FRENCH  GARDEN. — EQUIPMENT       68-80 

The  Light :  Structural  Details— The  Frame :  Structural  De- 
tails—The Cloche— Cloche  Carrier— Cloche  Peg— How  to  Store 
Cloches— How  to  Repair  Cloches— Mats— Frame  for  Mat  Making 
—  How  to  Make  Mats  —  Water  —  Plan  of  French  Garden  and 
Water  System — Equipment  of  Two-acre  Garden. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

FRENCH  GARDEN.— PREPARATION   81-84 

The  Beginning  of  the  Gardener's  Year  —  When  Material 
should  be  Obtained — Situation — Outbuildings — Drainage — Wire- 
worm — How  to  Prepare  the  Soil — How  to  Prepare  Compost  for 
Topping  Beds — Manure:  The  Kind  to  Use,  When  to  Get  it,  and 
How  to  Stack  it. 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XII. 
FRENCH  GARDEN. — PREPARING  PLANTS  FOR  EARLY  CROPS     ...      85-89 

Scheme  of  Cropping  —  Seed  Beds — Need  for  Attention  to 
Details  Emphasised  —  Raising  Plants :  Cauliflower,  Cos  and 
Forcing  Cabbage  Lettuce,  Hardy  Cos  and  Cabbage  Lettuce — 
Lettuce  Mildew  and  the  Preference  for  Cloches — Protecting  the 
Plants  from  Frost — How  Mats  should  be  Laid  so  as  to  Resist 
Strong  Winds. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

FRENCH   GARDEN.  —  CROPS  GROWN   ON   HOT-BEDS,   IN  COLD 

FRAMES,  AND  IN  THE  OPEN-AIR    90-100 

Intercropping  and  its  Limitations — The  Best  Time  for  Be- 
ginning Hot-beds.  HOT-BEDS  FOR  FRAMES  :  Arrangement  of 
Compost — Sowing  and  Planting — Routine  Work — Ventilation — 
Gathering  Radishes  and  Lettuces  —  Planting  Cauliflowers  — 
Dressing  the  Beds — Watering — Clearing  the  Beds — Alternative 
Crops— Turnips.  HOT-BEDS  FOR  CLOCHES  :  Compost— Arrange- 
ment of  Cloches — Sowing  and  Planting — Water  and  Ventilation 
— How  Cloches  are  Manipulated  for  Successional  Crops — Cover- 
ing and  Shading  Cloches  —  Clearing  the  Beds  —  Extra  Early 
Cauliflowers. 

PLAN  OF  FRENCH  GARDEN     101 

CHAPTER  XIV 

A  QUARTER-ACRE  OF  FRENCH  GARDEN     102-108 

Description  and  Explanation  of  Garden  —  Equipment  — 
Water — Manure — Prices  of  Produce — Average  Crops — Size  of 
Bunches — Details  of  Cropping — Estimated  Produce  and  Values 
—Summary  of  Returns — Estimated  Annual  Income  and  Expen- 
diture— Approximate  Cost  of  Equipment. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

INTENSIVE  CULTURE  ON  ALLOTMENTS  AND  COTTAGE  GARDENS  ...  109-117 

Forcing  on  Hot-beds  Unnecessary — Great  Increase  in  Quan- 
tity of  Produce— Essential  Features  of  the  System:  How  to 
Secure  Them  at  Small  Expense— Suggestions  for  Practical  Work 
with  Schemes  and  Diagrams  of  Intercropping. 

CHAPTER  XVI 

SEEDS,  SOWING,  THINNING-OUT,  AND  TRANSPLANTING 118-126 

The  Necessity  for  Good  Seed— Best  Varieties  to  Choose— 
Novelties — Testing  for  Germination — The  Seed  Bed  and  its  Pre- 
paration —  Sowing  —  Thinning-out  —  Transplanting  —  How  the 
Plants  should  be  Trimmed — Dibbers  and  How  to  Use  Them. 


XIV. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


PAGES. 


DEVICES  FOR  FORCING,  FORWARDING,  AND  PROTECTING    127-139 

Hot-beds:  How  to  Make  and  Manage  Them — Cold  Frames  : 
Their  Construction  and  Arrangement — The  Cloche  and  its  Uses 
—  Shields  of  Calico  and  of  Paper — Imitation  Cloche — Calico 
Screen  —  Movable  Shield  —  Straw  Mats  and  Suggestions  for 
Using — Glass-covered  Plant  Protector — Box  Plant  Protector — 
Glass-covered  Trench — Raised  Beds  with  South  Slope — Plan  of 
Cropping  the  Beds — Cheap  Method  of  Forcing  in  Pits. 


DETAILS  OF  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  VEGETABLES. 


PAGES. 

Artichoke  (Globe) 141-143 

Artichoke  (Jerusalem) 144 

Asparagus  145-154 

Beans  (Broad)  154-156 

Beans  (Dwarf  or  French)  ...  156-159 

Beans  (Runner)     159-161 

Beet 161-163 

Borecole,  or  Kale 163-165 

Broccoli  165-167 

Brussels  Sprouts 167-169 

Cabbage  170-172 

Cardoons     173-174 

Carrots    174-179 

Cauliflower 180-183 

Celery  184-195 

Celeriac   196 

Chicory    197-198 

Cucumbers  (Frame)    200-206 

Cucumbers  (Ridge) 207-209 

Endive     209-211 

Herbs  212-214 

Horse  Radish    215 

Lccks   .  ..216-217 


PAGES. 

Lettuce    218-224 

Melons  (Cantaloup) 224-230 

Mushrooms    230-242 

Mustard  and  Cress  242-244 

Onions     244-252 

Parsley    252-254 

Parsnips 254-255 

Peas     256-265 

Potatoes 265-283 

Radishes 283-286 

Rhubarb 287-294 

Salsify 294-295 

Scorzonera 296 

Savoy  Cabbage     296-297 

Seakale    298-308 

Shallots  308-310 

Spinach   310-314 

Spinach  (New  Zealand) 315 

Spinach  Beet 316 

Strawberries 317-335 

Tomatoes    336-356 

Turnips    357-362 

Vegetable  Marrows 362-365 


REMINDERS  OF  WORK  TO  BE  DONE,  MONTH  BY  MONTH   ... 
GRADING,  PACKING,  AND  MARKETING  .. 


...  367-381 
..  382-399 


CONTENTS.  xv. 

INSECT  PESTS  AND  FUNGOID  DISEASES  WHICH  ATTACK 
VEGETABLES. 

PAGES. 

INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS -.        400-402 

SPRAYING   MACHINES  AND  THEIR   USE,  WITH   MATERIALS  AND 

FORMULA 402-406 

Spraying  Machines  —  Applying  the  Wash  —  Materials  — 
INSECTICIDES:  Arsenate  of  Lead — Carbon  Bi-Sulphide — Helle- 
bore Powder — Lime  —  Nicotine  —  Paraffin  Emulsion.  FUNGI- 
CIDES: Bordeaux  Mixture  —  Cupram  —  Sulphate  of  Copper  — 
Sulphide  of  Potassium — Sulphur. 

INSECT  PESTS  *..       ...  406-423 

INSECTS  HARMFUL  IN  GENERAL:  Aphides — Chafer  Beetles 
— Daddy  Long  Legs  —  Diamond  Back  Moth  —  Flea  Beetles  — 
Millipedes  and  Centipedes  —  Red  Spiders — Slugs  and  Snails — 
Snowy  Fly — Surface  Caterpillars — Wireworms — Woodlice. 

INSECTS  WHICH  AFFECT  PARTICULAR  PLANTS:  Asparagus 
Beetle — Asparagus  Fly — Bean  Aphis — Beet  and  Mangold  Fly — 
Cabbage  Aphis— Cabbage  Butterflies  and  Cabbage  Moth— Cab- 
bage Root  Fly  and  Maggot — Cabbage  and  Turnip  Root  Gall 
Weevil — Carrot  Fly — Celery  and  Parsnip  Fly — Mushroom  Pest — 
Onion  Fly — Pea  and  Bean  Thrips — Pea  and  Bean  Weevils. 

FUNGOID  DISEASES .        424-436 

Asparagus  Rust — Bean  Pod  Canker — Beet  Rust — Cabbage 
Black  Rot — Celery  Leaf  Diseases — Club  Root  or  Anbury  (Finger 
and  Toe) — Cucumber  and  Melon  Mildew — Cucumber  and  Melon 
Rot — Lettuce  Mildew — Mint  Rust — Mushroom  Disease — Onion 
Mildew— Pea  Mildew— Potato  Black  Leg  or  Stem  Rot— Potato 
Black  Scab  or  Wart  Disease— Potato  Disease  (Blight  or  Rot)— 
Potato  Leaf  Curl— Potato  Scab— Potato  Winter  Rot— Sclerotium 
Disease — Strawberry  Leaf  Spot — Strawberry  Mildew — "  Potato 
Disease"  on  Tomatoes — Black  Spot  of  Tomatoes — Violet  Root 
Rot. 

MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION .,.•       ...  437-443 

Quantity  of  Seed  Required  to  Sow  an  Acre — Averages  of 
Yield,  Cost  of  Production,  and  Gross  Returns  per  Acre — Average 
Time  Required  for  Seeds  to  Germinate — Average  Longevity  of 
Garden  Seeds — Sizes  of  Flower  Pots — Number  of  Plants  for  an 
Acre — Receptacles,  Weights,  Measures,  and  Terms  used  in 
Marketing  Produce — Avoirdupois  Weight — Corn,  Dry,  or  Heaped 
.Measure — Long  Measure — Surface  Measure — Fertilizing  Values 
of  Poultry  Dung  and  Farmyard  Manure — Equivalent  Dressings 
from  One  Square  Yard  to  One  Acre — Weather  Indications. 

INDEX 444-451 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS,  DIAGRAMS,  AND  PLANS 451-452 


EXTRACT  from  Sowerby's  Thorough  Cultivation  :— 

If  you  cultivated  the  soil  with  the  same  skill  that  the  manufacturers 
conduct  their  businesses,  you  would  not  have  population  enough  to 
cultivate  the  land.  Lord  Ducie  has  given  the  same  opinion,  that  if  the 
land  were  properly  cultivated  there  would  not  be  sufficient  labourers  to 
till  it.  And  yet,  whilst  that  is  the  fact,  you  are  chasing  your  population 
from  village  to  village,  and  sending  the  people  away  to  the  Antipodes  ; 
whereas  if  your  lands  were  properly  cultivated  you  would  be  trying  to 
lure  them  back  as  the  most  valuable  part  of  your  possessions. 

EXTRACT  from  Kropotkin's  Fields,  Factories,  and  Workshops  : — 

(1)  If  the  soil  of  the  United  Kingdom  were  cultivated  only  as  it  was 
thirty-five  years  ago,  24,000,000  people,  instead  of  17,000,000,  could  live 
on  home-grown  food ;  and  that  culture,  while  giving  occupation  to  an 
additional  750,000  men,  would  give  nearly  3,000,000  wealthy  home  cus- 
tomers to  the  British  manufacturers. 

(2)  If  the  cultivable  area  of  the  United  Kingdom  were  cultivated  as 
the  soil  is  cultivated  on  the  average  in  Belgium,  the  United  Kingdom 
would  have  food  for  at  least  37,000,000  inhabitants  ;  and  it  might  export 
agricultural  produce  without  ceasing  to  manufacture  so  as  freely  to 
supply  all  the  needs  of  a  wealthy  population. 

(3)  If  the  population  of  this  country  came  to  be  doubled,  all  that 
would  be  required  for  producing  the  food  for  80,000,000  inhabitants 
would  be  to  cultivate  the  soil  as  it  is  cultivated  in  the  best  farms  of 
this  country,    in    Lornbardy,   and   in    Flanders,   and    to   utilise   some 
meadows  which  at  present  lie  almost  unproductive,  in  the  same  way  as 
the  neighbourhoods  of  the  big  cities  in  France  are  utilised  for  market 
gardening. 


THE    PROFITABLE 
CULTURE   OF   VEGETABLES. 


CHAPTER  I. 
INTRODUCTION. 

ALL  history  proves  that  a  nation's  well-being  depends  not 
upon  its  industrial  and  intellectual  pursuits  only,  but 
upon  a  judicious  combination  of  these  with  agriculture,  and 
that  the  neglect  to  cultivate  its  own  land  has  always  been  the 
prelude  to  a  nation's  downfall. 

The  worker  on  the  land  is  beyond  question  the  ultimate 
source  of  the  wealth,  stamina,  and  reproduction  of  every  nation, 
and  yet  for  more  than  two  generations  we  have  permitted 
the  rural  districts  of  the  British  Islands  to  be  become  steadily 
depopulated,  the  inhabitants  being  dispersed,  some  to  the 
slums  of  our  large  cities,  where  they  speedily  deteriorate  in 
character  and  physique,  and  others  to  lands  across  the  seas. 
This  depletion  of  the  country-side  has  gone  on  until  some 
districts  are  now  comparatively  destitute  of  young  able-bodied 
men,  most  who  remain  being  either  elderly  and  slow  or  in 
some  way  deficient.  The  extreme  gravity  of  such  a  state  of 
things  must  be  apparent  to  everyone  who  will  pause  to  give  it 
consideration,  matters  having  now  come  to  such  a  pass  that 
unless  the  outflowing  stream  of  humanity  is  speedily  checked 
the  decadence  of  England  as  a  great  nation  will  soon  be  within 
measurable  distance,  if  indeed  it  has  not  already  begun. 

Lack  of  opportunity  for  a  full  and  prosperous  existence  in 
close  relationship  with  the  land  has  undoubtedly  been  the  main 
cause  of  rural  decadence,  and  it  is  obvious  that  the  most  natural 
and  effective  means  of  restoring  the  necessary  balance  between 
town  and  country  is  to  afford  opportunities  for  such  an  exis- 
tence to  all  suitable  persons  desirous  of  obtaining  a  livelihood 
from  work  in  connection  with  agricultural  pursuits. 


2  '   '  -  -'The  Pr'ofiiac&e  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

That  the  rural  depopulation  problem  can  be  solved  in  no 
other  way  has  for  some  time  been  apparent  to  all  who  have 
been  sufficiently  interested  to  study  it,  and  it  is  becoming 
surely,  if  somewhat  slowly,  the  object  of  constructive  legisla- 
tion on  these  lines.  The  Allotments  Act  was  a  step  forward, 
.although  a  feeble  and  hesitating  one.  The  Small  Holdings  Act 
is  a  bolder  measure,  although  a  very  incomplete  one  when  the 
magnitude  of  the  problem  it  was  designed  to  solve  is  con- 
sidered, but  unfortunately,  modest  as  its  provisions  are  even 
when  carried  out  in  the  spirit  in  which  it  was  framed,  it  meets 
with  much  opposition,  both  active  and  passive,  from  those 
whose  duty  and  privilege  it  is  to  put  it  into  effective  operation. 

But  even  were  the  Act  administered  with  enthusiasm,  pro- 
vision of  the  bare  land  is  not  enough  to  meet  the  necessities 
of  the  situation,  and  unless  something  more  is  done  progress 
must  be  very  slow  and  uncertain.  Men  there  are  in  plenty,  of 
the  most  suitable  type,  ready  and  indeed  anxious  to  change 
their  mode  of  life  and  settle  upon  the  land,  but  having  little 
or  no  capital  the  majority  are  effectually  debarred ;  of  the  few 
who  by  perseverance  and  strenuous  effort  are  at  length  enabled 
to  make  the  adventure,  most,  through  ignorance  of  the  business 
they  have  undertaken  or  from  lack  of  sufficient  means  to  bring 
it  to  a  successful  issue,  either  fail  disastrously  or  are  doomed 
to  a  life  of  unnecessary  privation  and  hard  unremitting  toil. 
It  appears  to  be  overlooked  that  dwelling-house,  out-buildings, 
tools  and  appliances,  manure,  and  in  some  cases  live-stock,  are 
needed  in  addition  to  land,  as  well  as  a  reserve  fund  to  fall 
back  upon  in  the  event  of  bad  seasons  in  the  early  years, 
and  this  calls  for  a  considerable  amount  of  capital  in  each 
case.  The  majority  of  the  men  most  suitable  for  the  purpose 
in  view  are  comparatively  poor — in  the  circumstances  it  could 
scarcely  be  otherwise — and  it  is  useless  to  expect  them  to 
finance  themselves.  It  is  obvious  that  if  the  Small  Holdings 
Act  is  to  have  any  real  chance  of  accomplishing  its  purpose  it 
must  not  only  be  administered  in  the  spirit  in  which  it  was 
conceived,  but  should  be  supplemented  by  a  fund  which  will 
place  such  capital  as  is  absolutely  necessary  within  the  reach 
of  eligible  men,  under  conditions  which  will  provide  for  its  re- 
payment within  a  reasonable  period. 


Introduction.  3 

Such  a  system  is  at  the  present  time  in  successful  operation 
in  New  Zealand,  and  the  experience  there  gained  will  prove  of 
the  utmost  value  in  inaugurating  a  similar  system  here,  but  in 
any  case  it  seems  a  mere  mockery  to  give  poor  men  access  to 
the  land  without  at  the  same  time  giving  them  access  to  capital 
with  which  to  develop  it. 

But  there  is  another  factor  of  success  which  may  still  be 
lacking  even  though  men  are  assured  of  access  to  both  land  and 
capital :  that  is,  the  knowledge  of  how  to  use  them  to  the  best 
advantage.  Without  such  knowledge  the  small-holder  is  in 
much  the  same  position  as  would  be  the  captain  of  a  well-found 
ship  who  was  trying  to  reach  harbour  on  an  unknown  and  dan- 
gerous coast  without  a  pilot.  He  might  by  great  good  fortune 
arrive  safely  at  his  destination,  but  it  is  much  more  probable 
that  he  would  meet  with  disaster  even  in  calm  weather,  and 
shipwreck  would  be  practically  certain  in  the  event  of  a  storm. 

This  points  to  the  necessity  for  some  systematized  method 
of  instruction  in  the  numerous  branches  into  which  agricul- 
tural pursuits  and  rural  industries  are  divided  and  sub-divided. 
With  such  instruction  to  supplement  the  provision  of  land  and 
capital  success  would  be  assured,  and  the  desert  country-side 
would  become  peopled  by  industrous,  thriving,  and  contented 
communities,  who  would  not  only  form  a  bulwark  to  the  state 
but  would  add  materially  to  the  wealth  and  prosperity  of  the 
nation. 

Within  recent  years  scientific  men  have  devoted  much  time  to 
the  study  of  the  soil. and  the  laws  and  conditions  which  govern 
its  fertility,  and  this  and  other  similar  invaluable  information 
should  be  made  known  to  all  who  are  engaged  in  the  business 
of  farming  or  gardening,  so  that  they  may  understand  the  true 
meaning  of  the  operations  they  are  engaged  in  and  of  the  laws 
which  underlie  them  and,  by  working  with  a  definite  purpose 
in  view,  the  more  easily  and  certainly  attain  their  object. 

The  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  beset  with  trials  even  for  those 
who  have  made  it  their  life's  business,  and  it  is  obviously  much 
more  difficult  for  a  person  with  little  or  no  experience.  It 
differs  from  most  other  occupations  in  that  it  deals  with  living 
things  and  ever-changing  conditions.  In  the  factory  and  work- 
shop the  materials  dealt  with  are  inert  and  the  conditions  fairly 


4  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

constant;  calculations  can  be  made  and  results  obtained  with 
a  near  approach  to  accuracy.  But  it  is  not  so  in  cultivating 
the  land.  In  this  case  it  is  impossible  to  forecast  the  result  of 
any  single  operation.  The  most  carefully  laid  plans  may  be 
made  abortive  by  the  vagaries  of  the  weather.  Insect  pests  are 
always  at  hand  to  take  a  heavy  toll  of  the  crop  unless  persistently 
battled  with,  and  fungoid  diseases  are  ever  lurking  near,  ready 
to  attack  any  crop  subjected  to  unsuitable  conditions. 

Happily,  there  is  another  and  brighter  side  to  the  picture, 
or  the  outlook  would  be  hopeless  indeed.  The  law  of  averages 
keeps  the  troubles  of  the  cultivator  within  reasonable  limits. 
There  are  in  the  long  run  few  things  more  dependable  than 
the  average  returns  from  the  soil  when  crops  are  afforded 
the  necessary  conditions  of  healthy  growth.  Just  as  climatic 
vagaries  and  the  numerous  other  difficulties  happen  with 
average  frequency,  so  in  like  manner  will  crops  properly 
handled  produce  an  average  of  successful  results.  Even  the 
prices  obtained  in  public  markets  come,  to  a  certain  extent, 
under  the  same  law — periods  of  glut  when  prices  are  low  being 
followed  by  periods  of  scarcity  when  prices  are  high — and  so 
we  get  from  men  of  experience  the  sound  advice  to  "  follow  the 
market,  good  or  bad  ";  that  is,  providing  a  wise  choice  is  made 
in  the  first  place,  the  same  staple  crops  should  be  steadily 
grown  season  after  season,  in  spite  of  a  fluctuating  market, 
and  the  total  cash  receipts  will  be  almost  certain  to  work  out 
satisfactorily  in  the  end. 

The  lesson  to  be  derived  from  this  is  that  difficulties  become 
manageable  when  faced  with  resolution  and  with  knowledge. 
Success  is  always  the  ultimate  outcome  of  sound  work  when 
the  end  in  view  is  understood  and  details  are  properly  attended 
to.  Spasmodic  effort  or  uncertainty  both  lead  to  failure ;  for 
success,  industry  and  attention  to  the  work  in  hand  must  be 
unremitting,  and  every  operation  carefully  studied.  Gardening 
is  always  more  or  less  intensive  culture,  and  differs  mainly  from 
extensive  farming  in  that  it  adds  to  such  culture  numerous 
small  but  highly  important  details,  to  omit  or  neglect  any  of 
which  frequently  means  loss  or  failure.  The  purpose  of  this 
book  is  to  supply  the  knowledge  necessary  in  one  branch  of 
agriculture— the  culture  of  vegetables  for  profit. 


CHAPTER  II. 
THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 

Origin  of  Soils — Composition  of  Soils — Subsoil — Drainage — How  to 
Drain — Deep  Cultivation — Bastard  Trenching — Ridging — Texture — 
Lime— Calcium  Carbonate— Gas-lime— Soil  Bacteria— Nitro-Bacterine 
Cultures — Soil  Moisture— Autumn  Cultivation — Spring  Cultivation — 
Hoeing  and  Mulching. 

ORIGIN  of  Soils. — The  accepted  doctrine  regarding  the 
origin  of  soils,  is  that  the  exposed  parts  of  the  primitive 
rocks  which  at  a  very  remote  period  in  the  history  of  the  earth 
formed  its  entire  surface,  were  broken  down  by  the  process 
known  as  "  weathering,"  or,  in  other  words,  by  the  action  of 
rain,  running  water,  alternate  heat  and  cold,  air,  and  by  the 
grinding  motion  of  glaciers. 

This  pulverised  material  was  carried  down  and  deposited  on 
the  plains  and  in  the  valleys  by  wind,  flood  and  gravitation,  and 
in  the  course  of  ages  the  earlier  deposits  again  became  con- 
solidated into  rocks  of  a  character  distinctly  unlike  those  from 
which  the  materials  forming  them  were  derived.  The  weather- 
ing process  persisted  throughout  the  ages  during  which  this 
re-formation  was  taking  place.  In  most  cases  the  disintegrated 
material  was  deposited  where  it  was  formed,  and  we  thus 
find  that  most  soils  bear  a  definite  relationship  to  the  rocks 
beneath  them.  In  other  cases  the  material  was  carried  away 
by  rivers  and  streams  and  deposited  in  low-lying  situations, 
often  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  place  of  origin, 
thus  accounting  for  instances  of  soils  unrelated  to  the  rocks 
underlying  them. 

The  next  step  in  the  process  of  soil  formation  is  obscure, 
involving  as  it  does  the  problem  of  the  origin  of  life  upon  the 
earth.  Some  hold  to  the  opinion  that  lichens  or  similar  low 
forms  of  vegetable  life  first  grew  upon  the  debris,  and  were  the 
forerunners  of  higher  forms,  whilst  others  contend  that  as 
vegetable  life  is  impossible  without  the  assistance  of  the  micro- 
organisms of  the  soil,  these  must  have  had  the  precedence. 


6  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

For  our  present  purpose,  however,  this  is  unimportant.  By 
their  life,  death  and  decay,  lichens  assisted  in  soil  formation 
and  made  the  existence  of  mosses  possible.  The  latter  in  like 
manner  added  to  the  bulk,  and  were  in  turn  followed  by  more 
highly-organised  plants  and  then  by  animals,  and  as  each  of 
these  in  turn  grew,  died  and  decayed,  the  mass  was  gradually 
increased  and  more  or  less  perfect  soils  were  produced  as  we 
know  them  to-day. 

Composition  of  Soils. — The  pulverised  rocks  which  thus 
form  the  base  of  all  soils  consist  of  various  mineral  or  inor- 
ganic compounds,  whilst  the  remains  of  animals  and  plants, 
consisting  of  organic  compounds,  form  the  remaining  portion. 
This  admixture  of  inorganic  and  organic  material  contains,  in  a 
crude  form,  the  foodstuffs  which  plants  absorb  from  the  earth. 
When  soils  are  chemically  analysed  it  is  seen  that  all  bear  a 
certain  resemblance  to  each  other  in  their  composition,  so  far 
as  the  ingredients  are  concerned.  There  is,  however,  a  very 
wide  variation  in  the  relative  proportions  of  these  ingredients, 
and  it  is  this  variation  which  makes  all  the  difference  between 
the  many  kinds  of  soil  with  which  cultivators  have  to  deal. 

Soils  are  classified  according  to  the  predominance  of  the 
clay,  sand,  lime,  or  vegetable  matter  which  they  may  contain, 
as  follows : — 

Clay  soils        containing  above  50  per  cent.  clay. 

Clay  loams      ,,  30  to  50        ,,         clay. 

Loamy  soils    ...     ,,  20  to  30        ,,          clay. 

Sandy  loams ,,  80  to  90        ,,         sand. 

Sandy  soils     ...          ,,  over  90        ,,         sand. 

Marly  soils      ,,  5  to  20        ,,          lime. 

CchCalkey08oils  }     -  above2°        "         lim£0r  Chalk' 

Vegetable  or     )     „  above    5        „         humus,  or 

peaty  soils     j  decayed  vegetable  matter. 

Every  known  soil  falls  within  the  limits  of  one  or  other  of 
the  above  classes,  or  of  their  gradations,  although  there  are 
many  intermediate  variations  between  one  type  of  soil  and 
another. 

The  fertility  of  any  soil  is  intimately  connected  with  its 
composition  and  texture,  apart  from  any  plant  foods  it  may 
contain.  A  soil  of  open  texture — due  to  a  large  proportion  of 
sand,  gravel,  or  chalk — is  easy  to  cultivate  but  has  very  little 


The  Soil  and  its  Treatment.  7 

retentiveness,  either  of  water  or  manure,  whilst  the  opposite 
extreme,  a  soil  of  close  texture,  due  to  a  large  proportion  of 
clay,  is  difficult  to  cultivate  owing  to  its  tenacity  and  "  sticki- 
ness "  when  wet. 

It  is,  therefore,  easy  to  understand  that  a  well-balanced 
mixture  of  sand,  clay,  and  humus — known  as  loam — is  the  best 
soil,  as  not  only  can  it  be  the  most  readily  cultivated  to  suit 
the  needs  of  the  majority  of  plants,  but  the  roots  can  easily 
work  their  way  through  it,  and  will  find  the  necessary  nutri- 
ment better  than  in  a  very  porous  soil,  which  is  liable  to 
become  too  dry,  or  in  a  close  impervious  soil,  which  in  dry 
weather  may  become  too  hard  for  the  roots  to  work  through 
and  in  wet  weather  may  become  waterlogged. 

Subsoil. — That  portion  of  the  soil  which  contains  the  mate- 
rial for  plant  nutrition  in  an  available  form  is,  as  a  rule,  seldom 
more  than  a  foot  in  depth,  and  is  calculated  to  average  no 
more  than  nine  inches.  Below  this  comes  the  subsoil,  of  which 
the  composition  and  structure  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 

When  a  loose  porous  soil  rests  upon  a  clay  subsoil  excessive 
drainage  is  checked  and  the  moisture  retained  is  of  great 
benefit  to  plants ;  or  when  a  retentive  clay  loam  rests  upon 
a  well-drained  gravel  or  sand  drainage  is  accelerated  and 
the  upper  soil  is  relieved  of  surplus  water.  Either  of 
these  conditions  may  be  said  to  be  good.  On  the  other 
hand  when  a  sandy  soil  rests  upon  an  open  gravel  or  a  heavy 
loam  rests  upon  an  impervious  clay  the  conditions  are  very 
unfavourable,  unless  means  are  taken  to  make  the  former 
more  compact  and  "  holding  "  and  to  improve  the  drainage  of 
the  latter.  . 

Drainage. — The  first  and  most  imperative  condition  of  soil 
fertility  is  drainage,  either  natural  or  artificial.  When  land  is 
in  need  of  drainage  there  is  no  work  the  cultivator  can  engage 
in  which  is  likely  to  give  him  so  good  a  return  for  his  labour. 

The  principal  effect  of  drainage  is  to  free  the  soil  from 
stagnant  and  surplus  water  and  to  induce  a  passage  of  air 
through  it,  aeration  of  the  soil  being  indispensable  to  the 
healthy  growth  of  plants.  If  water  cannot  pass  away  freely  it 


8  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

has  to  be  evaporated,  and  the  effect  of  evaporation  from  any 
surface  is  to  make  it  colder.  Therefore,  well-drained  soil  is 
warmer  than  that  which  is  undrained.  The  higher  tem- 
perature of  drained  land  has  been  frequently  proved  by 
experiment ;  it  has  been  shown  to  be  warmer  by  as  much  as 
six  degrees  over  that  of  adjoining  undrained  land,  and  in 
addition  the  temperature  of  the  air  immediately  above  drained 
land  is  also  several  degrees  warmer. 

Draining  should  not  be  done  without  careful  considera- 
tion. It  is  a  costly  operation  when  the  area  to  be  dealt 
with  is  large,  and  if  not  properly  done  may  be  practically 
useless.  Moreover,  there  are  many  soils  through  which  water 
percolates  with  sufficient  freedom  to  make  pipe-draining  un- 
necessary, and  some  others  of  a  very  open  nature  where  it 
would  be  harmful.  There  is  no  denying,  however,  that  heavy 
clays  would  be  improved  by  draining,  always  providing  that 
the  pipes  are  put  in  neither  too  far  apart  nor  too  deep.  Many 
of  the  drains  put  in  clay  land  by  Government  assistance  about 
fifty  years  ago  are  far  too  deep  and  too  wide  apart  to  be  of 
much  use. 

On  such  close-textured  tenacious  soils,  when  only  shallow 
cultivation  is  practised,  as  in  ordinary  farming,  the  custom  of 
laying  the  land  in  beds  or  "  stetches,"  with  furrows  between 
connected  with  cross-furrows,  or  "  water-furrows,"  is  usually 
found  sufficiently  effective  for  all  practical  purposes,  but  for 
garden  cultivation  on  such  soil,  where  deep  working  is  neces- 
sary, pipe-drains  should  never  be  omitted  and  the  cost  would 
soon  be  amply  repaid. 

How  to  Drain. —  At  various  times  there  has  been  great 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  direction  in  which  drains 
should  run — whether  in  the  direction  of  the  slope  or  obliquely 
across  it.  Experience  has  proved  that  it  is  best  to  lay  them 
in  the  direction  of  the  greatest  slope. 

Drains  are  ranged  under  three  classes — main-drains,  sub- 
mains,  and  small  drains.  The  mains  are  those  into  which  all 
the  other  drains  deliver  their  water,  and  which  lead  the  united 
flow  to  the  point  of  outfall ;  these  should  invariably  be  along 
the  lowest  part  of  the  field.  Sub-mains  should  be  laid  along 


The  Soil  and  its  Treatment.  9 

minor  or  secondary  low  places,  and  usually  empty  into  the 
mains,  but  sometimes,  when  the  contour  of  the  field  is  very 
uneven,  it  is  found  more  convenient  to  let  them  act  as  smaller 
mains,  with  a  separate  outfall.  Small  drains  should  not  enter 
the  larger  pipes  squarely,  but  at  an  angle  in  the  direction  of 
the  flow  of  the  water,  otherwise  there  is  a  liability  to  block 
with  silt  or  other  obstructions.  In  forming  junctions  between 
two  pipes  a  hole  should  be  made  through  the  larger  one  in 
a  position  which  will  bring  the  top  of  each  pipe  level,  the  lip  of 
the  small  one  being  introduced  into  the  larger  one  and  the 
place  of  junction  properly  covered  with  pieces  of  broken  tile 
to  keep  out  soil  and  silt. 


Plan  of  Draining  of  a  Field  with  undulating  surface. 
A— Main  drain.     B,  C— Sub-mains,  used  as  Secondary  Mains.    D— Stream. 

It  is  not  considered  good  practice  to  have  field  drains  longer 
than  250  yards  without  a  break ;  when  the  distance  is  greater 
than  this  an  intercepting  main  or  sub-main  drain  should  be  put 
in  n^ar  the  middle  of  the  field. 

The  drains  should  empty  at  one  or  more  main  outlets. 
Where  a  number  of  small  drains  enter  a  ditch  separately  some 
of  them,  sooner  or  later,  get  choked  by  rubbish  or  lost  sight  of. 
It  is  much  easier  to  attend  to  the  outlet  of  one  main  drain 
than  of  a  number  of  small  ones. 

Drains  in  clay,  if  well  laid,  will  work  fairly  well  with  a  fall  of 


10  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

1  in  100  for  the  mains  and  1  in  75  for  the  small  drains;  in 
lighter  soils  the  fall  should  be  more  than  this. 

In  stiff  clays  drains  should  not  be  more  than  2ft.  to  2ft.  Gin. 
deep  and  15ft.  apart.  In  porous  soil  with  a  good  fall  they  may 
be  put  in  about  3ft.  to  3ft.  Gin.  deep  and  20ft.  apart.  In  peaty 
soils  of  good  depth  the  pipes  should  be  one  or  two  sizes  larger 
than  usual  and  may  be  put  in  from  5ft.  to  6ft.  deep  and  about 
30ft.  apart. 

The  sizes  of  pipes  commonly  used  are :  for  small  drains  2in., 
for  sub-mains  3in.,  and  for  mains  4in.,  but  where  the  fall  is 
slight  it  is  advisable  to  use  pipes  a  size  larger  all  round. 

Where  clean  stones  are  plentiful  and  cheap  these  may  be 
used  instead  of  pipes,  laid  in  about  9in.  thick,  and  they  usually 
work  very  well. 

In  cutting  trenches  for  the  pipes  always  begin  at  the  outfall, 
which  should  be  at  least  Gin.  above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  to 
allow  for  silting.  Proper  draining  tools  should  be  used,  and 
the  bottom  of  the  trench  should  be  cut  only  just  wide  enough 
to  lay  in  the  pipes  easily  without  any  sideplay.  If  the  bottom 
in  any  place  should  be  cut  too  wide  the  pipes  must  be  fixed  in 
position  by  stones,  lumps  of  clay,  or  pieces  of  broken  pipe. 

Drain  pipes  sometimes  get  blocked  by  the  roots  of  trees 
and  deep-rooting  plants  and  grasses ;  it  is,  therefore,  advisable 
in  laying  them  to  keep  as  far  away  as  possible  from  such 
dangers. 

Deep  Cultivation.— When  in  addition  to  being  freed  from 
excess  water  by  drainage  the  soil  is  deeply-pulverized  the  good 
effect  is  increased  by  more  thorough  aeration  and  a  higher 
temperature.  This  is,  therefore,  the  next  step  in  promoting 
fertility,  and  indeed  the  full  effect  of  putting  in  drain-pipes 
cannot  be  secured  until  the  soil  is  brought  into  this  condition. 
When  this  is  done  an  enormously  increased  area  is  opened  to 
the  ramifications  of  the  roots,  which  penetrate  the  soil  in  all 
directions,  extracting  food  and  moisture  throughout  the  whole 
mass.  Seeds  sown  in  such  soil  germinate  sooner  and  stronger 
and  the  plants  grow  more  vigorously.  Whether  the  season  be 
wet  or  dry  land  which  is  drained  and  deeply  worked  shows 
earlier  and  better  crops  and  finer  fruits. 


The  Soil  and  its  Treatment.  11 

Mr.  A.  D.  HALL,  Director  of  the  Rothamsted  Experiment 
Station,  in  his  book,  The  Soil,  says  that  the  surfaces  of  the 
particles  in  one  cubic  foot  of  ordinary  light  loam  may  be  taken 
as  equal  in  area  to  one  acre !  When  the  full  significance  of 
this  statement  is  grasped  it  will  be  easy  to  realize  the  enor- 
mous difference  in  the  chances  for  free  vigorous  growth 
between  a  plant  in  thoroughly  cultivated  soil  and  one  in  a  soil 
which  is  shallow,  cobbly,  and  ill-worked. 

Bastard  Trenching. — The  most  satisfactory  method  of  deeply 
cultivating  large  areas  of  soil  for  gardening  is  by  "  bastard 
trenching,"  which  consists  of  breaking  up  the  soil  two  "  spits  " 
deep,  but  keeping  the  bottom  spit  still  at  the  bottom  and  the 
top  spit  at  the  top.  There  are  some  soils  where  the  top 
and  bottom  spits  could  be  reversed  with  good  results,  but 
such  are  seldom  met  with,  and  for  all  practical  purposes 
can  be  disregarded. 

The  top  soil  contains  plant  foods  in  an  available  form,  but 
the  underneath  spit  has  probably  never  before  been  exposed  to 
the  light  of  day  or  been  subjected  to  the  sweetening  and  fer- 
tilizing influences  of  the  weather ;  to  bring  such  inert  and 
barren  stuff  to  the  top  would  be  to  ruin  the  garden  for  many 
a  year  to  come.  In  the  course  of  time  deep  working,  with  the 
addition  of  manure,  will  aerate  and  sweeten  the  lower  soil  and 
improve  the  texture,  and  then  it  may  very  gradually  be 
brought  up. 

The  method  usually  adopted  in  bastard  trenching  is  illus- 
trated on  the  next  page,  the  explanation  being  as  follows : 
Divide  the  plot  into  two  by  a  line  down  the  middle,  then  at 
(A)  take  out  the  top  spit  a  yard  wide,  and  lay  it  down  at  (E). 
Now  break  up  the  bottom  spit  at  (A),  cover  it  with  manure, 
and  then  cover  this  with  the  top  spit  of  the  next  yard. 
Repeat  this  operation  to  the  end  of  the  first  section,  filling 
up  the  last  trench  (B)  with  a  yard  of  top  soil  from  the  same 
end  of  the  second  section  (c).  Work  back  along  this  section 
until  (D)  is  reached,  where  the  soil  (E)  is  used  to  fill  the  final 
trench  (D). 

This  work  should  preferably  be  done  in  the  autumn  or  early 
winter,  and  the  surface  left  rough,  so  that  frost  and  atmos- 


12  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

pheric  influences  can   have  full  effect  upon  it;  when  this  is 
done  the  physical  character  of  the  soil  is  greatly  improved. 


FIRST    SECTION. 


SECOND    SECTION. 


Plan  showing  method  of  Bastard  Trenching  a  large  piece  of  ground. 

Deep  cultivation  on  clay  soil  should  never  be  attempted 
until  provision  is  made  for  the  removal  of  surplus  water.  In 
many  instances  enthusiastic  novices  have  dug  such  land  two 
and  even  three  spits  deep,  but  by  neglecting  draining  have 
made  the  conditions  worse  than  they  found  them.  In  the 
absence  of  under-draining  deep  working  on  clay  soil  simply 
forms  a  basin  with  impervious  sides  and  bottom,  which  in  a 
wet  season  becomes  a  veritable  swamp.  When  pipe  drains 
are  omitted  the  land  should  be  laid  up  in  narrow  beds  with 
rather  deep  furrows  between  to  draw  off  the  water.  The  beds 
should  run  with  the  fall  of  the  land,  and  all  the  furrows  should 
be  connected  with  cross  furrows  which  lead  the  water  away 
from  the  cultivated  land  to  the  nearest  ditch  or  pond.  In  such 
a  case  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  an  even  fall  in  the  furrows 
so  that  the  water  can  get  away  readily,  and  the  soil  should 
never  be  worked  lower  than  the  depth  of  the  furrow. 

Ridging,  particularly  in  the  case  of  heavy  soil,  is  a  very 
valuable  method  of  laying  up  land  at  the  approach  of  winter ; 
by  this  means  a  much  greater  extent  of  surface  is  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  weather  than  when  the  land  is  laid  flat.  If 
the  ridges  are  not  too  wide  the  soil  gets  frozen  through,  the 
clods  broken  down,  insect  pests  destroyed,  plant  foods  liberated, 


The  Soil  and  its  Treatment.  13 

and  the  whole  thoroughly  sweetened ;  in  addition  the  surface 
soil  is  kept  dry,  and  when  the  ridges  are  pulled  down  in  the 
spring  after  one  or  two  drying  days  a  kindly  working  bed  is  at 
once  secured  either  for  seeding  or  planting. 

There  are  various  methods  of  ridging,  but  one  of  the  best  is 
the  following,  which  completes  bastard  trenching  and  ridging 
in  one  operation  : — 


Plan  showing  method  of  Bastard  Trenching  and  Ridging  in  one  operation. 

Mark  out  a  strip  2ft.  wide,  running  north  and  south,  along 
one  side  of  the  plot  (A)  then  take  off  the  top  spit  from  this  strip 
and  wheel  it  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  plot  (B)  ;  now  turn 
over  the  subsoil  at  (A)  first  removing  enough  from  (c)  to  (D)  to 
admit  of  easy  working,  returning  the  removed  portion  when  the 
end  of  the  trench  is  reached;  now  cover  the  worked  subsoil 
with  a  layer  of  manure  (the  manure  should  be  arranged  in 
several  convenient  rows  running  across  the  plot  from  east  to 
west) ;  now  remove  the  top  spit  from  the  next  2ft.  strip  (E) 
laying  it  ridge  shaped  (A)  on  (A),  and  the  first  strip  will  be 
completed.  Repeat  the  operations  on  each  strip  across  the 
plot,  using  the  soil  which  was  wheeled  to  (B)  to  cover  the 
manure  in  the  trench  at  (F).  The  work  is  then  completed, 
the  whole  plot  being  laid  in  alternate  ridge  and  furrow, 
running  north  and  south. 

Texture.— The  third  essential  to  soil  fertility  is  freedom  of 
texture  and  the  extent  to  which  its  mechanical  condition  is 
made  free-working  or  friable.  All  soils  must  be  made  friable 
before  they  can  become  fertile.  But  this  condition  of  friability 
must  not  be  in  excess ;  it  is  quite  possible  for  a  soil  to  be  too 
open.  Soils  containing  a  large  proportion  of  sand,  gravel,  or 
chalk  are  easy  to  cultivate,  but  through  being  too  open  in 


14  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

texture  part  with  their  moisture  too  readily,  and  the  crops  on 
them  are  therefore  very  liable  to  suffer  from  droughts  in  dry 
weather.  To  overcome  this  objection  measures  must  be  taken 
to  make  them  more  compact.  The  addition  of  powdered  chalk 
to  sand  or  gravel,  and  particularly  of  humus  to  all  three  will 
bring  about  the  desired  improvement.  Humus  can  be  added 
either  by  heavy  dressings  of  yard  manure  or  by  digging  or 
ploughing  in  at  intervals  quick-growing  green  crops. 

But  it  is  on  clay  soils  that  the  greatest  alteration  in  texture 
can  be  made.  Such  soils  are  tough  and  tenacious,  and  sticky 
in  wet  weather;  liable  to  crack  badly  and  to  set  into  hard 
lumps  when  the  weather  is  dry.  They,  however,  possess 
inherent  fertility  to  a  greater  degree  and  are  less  easily  ex- 
hausted than  light  soils.  They  are  capable  of  great  permanent 
improvement,  and  when  drained  and  deeply  worked  only  need 
to  be  made  friable  to  form  one  of  the  best  soils  for  the  growth 
of  vegetables  and  fruit. 

Lime. — It  has  been  said  that  clay  soils  are  a  storehouse  of 
plant  food,  the  key  to  which  is  not  always  forth-coming,  but, 
providing  the  preparatory  operations  already  indicated  have 
been  duly  performed,  the  addition  of  lime  to  clay  soil  will 
unlock  the  storehouse.  Under  the  influence  of  lime  such  soil 
will  become  crumbly  and  friable  and  less  retentive  of  water, 
so  that  it  lies  drier  and  warmer  and  is  fit  for  cultivation  earlier 
in  the  spring. 

Apart  from  its  physical  effect  lime  has  also  a  great  influence 
in  bringing  inert  plant  foods  into  an  available  condition ; 
on  this  subject  more  will  be  said  in  the  chapter  dealing  with 
manures. 

The  method  of  liming  formerly  in  vogue  consisted  in 
applying  large  quantities  at  long  intervals,  five  tons  per  acre 
not  being  an  unusual  quantity,  but  recent  investigation  and 
experiment  has  shown  that  lime  is  more  effective  if  applied 
in  much  smaller  quantities  at  frequent  intervals — say  5  to  10 
cwts.  per  acre  once  in  three  years — and  that  calcium  carbonate 
(ground  limestone  rock  or  powdered  chalk)  is  for  most  pur- 
poses quite  as  effective,  much  cheaper,  and  easier  to  apply 
than  quick-lime. 


The  Soil  and  its  Treatment.  15 

Calcium  Carbonate. — Quick-lime  is  obtained  by  "  burning  " 
or  heating  to  redness  any  form  of  carbonate  of  lime  (calcium 
carbonate).  Limestone  rock,  chalk,  marble,  seashells,  &c.,  are 
all  natural  forms  of  carbonate  of  lime.  The  lime  which  forms 
part  of  these  materials  is  combined  with  carbonic  acid; 
under  the  influence  of  great  heat  the  carbonic  acid  is  driven 
oft0  and  only  the  quick-lime  remains.  As  everyone  who  has 
any  practical  acquaintance  with  quick-lime  is  aware,  it  is 
only  kept  "  quick "  with  difficulty ;  if  it  is  exposed  to  a  damp 
atmosphere  it  rapidly  becomes  "  air-slaked  "  and  falls  to  a  fine 
powder. 

When  quick-lime  is  applied  to  the  soil  it  first  absorbs  water 
and  becomes  "  slaked  ";  it  then  gradually  unites  with  carbon 
di-oxide,  and  returns  to  its  original  form  of  calcium  carbonate. 
Until  this  last  change  takes  place  the  lime  remains  caustic  and 
when  in  this  condition  is  frequently  injurious  to  the  roots 
of  plants.  Therefore — unless  for  special  reasons,  such  as 
when  a  soil  is  infested  with  disease,  in  which  case  quick-lime 
is  best — it  is  better  and  generally  cheaper  to  apply  lime  in  the 
form  of  ground  limestone  or  chalk. 

Lime  in  any  form  should  not  be  buried  deeply,  as  it  has  a 
tendency  both  to  sink  further  into  the  ground  and  to  be  dis- 
solved out  of  the  soil  by  the  carbonic  acid  in  rainwater. 

Gas-lime  or  "  blue-billy "  is  an  evil-smelling  substance  pro- 
duced by  the  use  of  lime  in  purifying  coal-gas.  In  its  fresh 
state  it  contains  calcium  sulphide  and  sulphite  and  it  is  then 
deadly  to  both  plant  and  insect  life.  It  is  sometimes  applied 
fresh  to  ground  badly  infested  with  some  insect  pest,  in  which 
case  five  tons  to  the  acre  should  be  evenly  spread  and  imme- 
diately turned  under,  but  the  ground  cannot  then  be  cropped 
for  several  months  after.  By  exposure  to  the  air  the  poisonous 
substances  are  changed  into  sulphate  of  lime  and  it  can  then 
be  used  with  perfect  safety.  To  accomplish  this  change  in  the 
best  way  lay  the  crude  material  in  heaps  of  about  a  ton,  and 
after  a  month  or  so  mix  each  heap  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
soil,  such  as  ditch  cleanings  and  the  like.  Let  it  stand  in  these 
heaps  for  about  a  year  and  then  apply  the  mixture  at  the  rate 
of  four  tons  per  acre. 


16  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Soil  Bacteria. — The  soil  is  not  merely  an  inert  mass  of 
material  serving  as  an  anchorage  for  plants  and  a  storehouse 
of  the  food  which  the  plant  requires.  It  is  a  complex  workshop 
where  many  diverse  processes  are  continually  taking  place. 
Many  of  these  processes  are  chemical,  whereby  the  mineral 
compounds  derived  from  the  rock  debris  which  forms  the  base 
of  soils  are  brought  into  the  condition  of  solubility.  But  there 
are  also  many  other  processes  which  are  not  of  a  chemical 
nature.  The  surface  soil  is  continually  receiving  additions  of 
organic  matter,  such  as  decaying  vegetation,  falling  leaves,  the 
droppings  of  animals  and  birds,  as  well  as  the  manures  supplied 
during  the  operations  of  cultivation.  These  organic  materials 
rapidly  change  into  the  dark-coloured  body  known  as  humus, 
which  in  its  turn  is  further  changed  into  carbonic  acid,  water, 
and  nitric  acid.  All  these  changes  in  the  form  of  organic 
material  are  brought  about  by  certain  minute  micro-organisms 
known  as  soil  bacteria. 

These  bacteria  are  universally  distributed  throughout  cul- 
tivated soil ;  any  soil  in  which  they  are  not  present  would  be 
sterile.  They  occupy  the  surface  soil  in  almost  countless 
numbers,  as  many  as  four  millions  having  been  estimated  to 
occupy  one  cubic  inch.  Below  the  fertile  surface  soil  they 
rapidly  become  less  in  number,  comparatively  few  being 
present  in  the  subsoil,  which  helps  to  explain  why  subsoil  is 
sterile  when  brought  to  the  surface  before  deep  cultivation 
has  had  time  to  make  it  into  a  suitable  breeding  place  for 
bacteria.  These  organisms  are  most  active  in  a  temperature 
of  65  degrees  F.  They  cease  to  work  when  the  temperature 
falls  below  10  or  rises  above  100  degrees.  To  enable  them  to 
properly  perform  their  functions  it  »is  necessary  that  the  soil 
should  be  warm,  moist,  and  well  aerated,  also  that  a  certain 
amount  of  lime  is  present  as  a  base  to  neutralise  the  acids 
which  they  produce. 

Another  variety  of  these  bacteria  enters  into  a  sort  of  joint 
existence  with  plants  of  the  leguminous  species  (peas,  beans, 
clover,  tares,  &c.)  directly  helping  them  to  draw  from  the 
atmosphere  the  nitrogen  which  they  require.  The  bacteria 
form  colonies  or  communities  in  the  nodules  (little  warts  or 
lumps)  which  are  more  or  less  present  on  the  roots  of  all 


The  Soil  and  its  Treatment.  \^ 

leguminous  plants.  Many  cultivators  take  advantage  of 
this  fact  by  growing  and  turning  under  a  crop  of  legu- 
minous plants  as  green  manure  and  thus  add  to  the  soil  not 
only  the  necessary  humus  but  also  a  considerable  amount  of 
nitrogen. 

Nitro-Bacterine  Cultures. — These  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria 
have  been  artificially  cultivated  in  gelatine  broth  by  scientific 
men,  and  advantage  has  been  taken  of  this  circumstance  by 
others  to  extensively  advertise  similar  preparations  for  inocu- 
ulating  farm  and  garden  soil,  accompanied  by  the  statement 
that  greatly  increased  crops  of  leguminous  plants  would  result. 
The  writer  has  very  carefully  experimented  with  these  cultures 
but  in  no  case  has  he  found  that  the  crops  have  benefitted  from 
their  use.  Old  cultivated  soil  already  affords  such  a  suitable 
environment  for  nitro-bacteria  that  nature  has  already  provided 
them  in  as  great  numbers  as  the  surrounding  circumstances 
can  sustain.  The  only  method  of  profitably  increasing  their 
numbers  and  activity  is  by  proper  cultivation  and  manuring, 
which  temporarily  makes  their  environment  suitable  for  a  rapid 
increase,  hence  the  improved  crops  following  good  cultivation. 
When  working  of  the  soil  ceases  their  numbers  fall  to  normal. 
Nitro-bacterine  cultures  are  useless  unless  all  the  conditions  of 
healthy  plant  growth  are  present  and  with  these  conditions 
they  are  unnecessary. 

Inoculation  by  bacteria  cultures  would  no  doubt  be  of  great 
service  on  barren  soils,  such  as  newly  reclaimed  land  where 
nitrifying  bacteria  are  not  already  established. 

Soil  Moisture. — One  of  the  most  important  conditions  of 
fertility  in  soils  is  their  power  of  absorbing  and  retaining 
sufficient  moisture  for  the  needs  of  the  crops  they  bear.  A 
dry  soil  is  a  barren  one  no  matter  what  the  proportion  of 
plant  food  it  may  contain  or  how  good  its  physical  condition, 
and  it  will  not  grow  crops  until  moisture  is  present. 

It  is  considered  by  scientific  investigators  that  very  few 
cultivated  crops  attain  their  fullest  development  for  lack  of 
sufficient  moisture,  and  that  much  larger  crops  would  be 
obtained  if  plants  were  supplied  in  the  growing  season  with  all 


18  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

they  could  use.     Mr.  Hall,  of   Rothamsted,   an   authority  on 
soils  previously  quoted,  says: — 

"  In  all  cases  the  amount  of  water  transpired  by  the  crop  is  a  notable 
fraction  of  the  total  annual  rainfall,  particularly  so  in  the  case  of  a  root- 
crop  like  mangolds,  which  in  the  south  and  east  of  England  will  often 
require  a  full  half  of  the  total  rain  falling  within  the  year.  As  much  of 
the  rainfall  runs  straight  off  the  surface  into  the  ditches,  and  another 
portion  is  lost  to  the  land  by  percolation  into  the  springs,  as  again  a 
considerable  fraction  is  evaporated  at  certain  seasons  from  the  bare 
surface  of  the  soil,  it  is  evident  that  the  water  supply,  even  in  our 
humid  climate,  is  far  from  sufficient  for  the  maximum  of  production 
and  may  easily  fall  below  that  which  is  required  for  an  average  crop. 
Indeed  we  may  take  it  as  a  truism  that  the  crop  obtained  is  more  often 
determined  by  the  water  available  than  by  lack  of  the  other  essentials 
of  growth — light  and  heat,  manure,  &c.  Of  this  we  can  have  no  better 
proof  than  the  enormous  crops  grown  by  irrigation  on  sewage  farms. 
Where  the  conditions  are  favourable,  and  the  farm  is  situated  on  a 
free  draining  sandy  or  gravelly  soil,  so  that  the  water  can  be  often 
renewed  and  drained  away  to  keep  the  soil  supplied  with  air  as  well  as 
water,  the  production  of  grass,  cabbages,  and  other  green  crops  is 
multiplied  five  or  even  tenfold  by  the  unlimited  supply  of  water. 
Speaking  generally,  over  a  great  part  of  England,  where  the  annual 
rainfall  is  from  35  to  25  inches,  a  large  proportion  of  which  falls  in  the 
non-growing  season,  it  is  necessary  to  husband  the  water-supply,  and 
it  will  be  found  that  one,  at  least,  of  the  objects  of  many  of  our  usual 
tillage  operations  is  the  conservation  of  the  moisture  in  the  ground  for 
the  service  of  the  crop." 

This  evidence  is  corroborated  and  strengthened  by  that  of 
Mr.  F.  H.  KING,  Professor  of  Agricultural  Physics  in  the 
University  of  Wisconsin,  U.S.A.,  who  says,  in  his  book  on 
The  Soil  :— 

"  There  are  very  few  countries,  indeed,  where  the  distribution  of 
rainfall  in  time  and  amount  is  such  as  to  permit  fertile  soils  to 
produce  the  largest  crops  they  are  able  to  bear ;  and  this  being  true, 
those  soils  which  are  able  to  store  the  largest  quantities  of  rain  in  a 
condition  which  shall  permit  vegetation  to  use  it  to  the  best  advantage 
are  likely  to  be  the  most  productive." 

From  this  evidence  it  will  be  seen  how  extremely  important 
it  is  that  crops  should  have  all  the  moisture  they  need  at  the 
time  when  they  are  making  their  most  vigorous  growth.  In 
this  matter  land  which  has  been  drained  of  stagnant  water  and 
deeply  worked  shows  an  enormous  advantage  over  land  which 


The  Soil  and  its  Treatment.  19 

has  not  been  subjected  to  this  treatment,  whether  the  season 
be  a  wet  or  a  dry  one. 

Autumn  Cultivation.— Many  inexperienced  persons  have  the 
erroneous  impression  that  the  only  effect  of  putting  drain  pipes 
in  land  is  to  leave  it  drier,  but  that  is  a  very  one-sided  and 
incomplete  statement  of  the  case.  No  plants  will  thrive  in  a 
water-logged  soil;  although  they  need  abundant  supplies  of 
moisture  it  must  be  in  a  moving  condition  and  the  soil  in  which 
they  grow  must  be  aerated.  Land  which  is  pulverized  deeply 
has  an  immense  number  of  particles,  each  separated  from  its 
neighbour  by  a  tiny  air-space.  When  the  soil  is  broken  up'  in 
autumn  the  rains  of  winter  sink  in,  and  the  soil  becomes 
saturated  to  its  full  holding  capacity,  the  surplus  passing  off  in 
the  drains.  The  water  remaining  in  the  soil  is  held  in  suspen- 
sion as  a  film  coating  the  surfaces  of  the  soil  particles,  not  as  a 
body  of  water  in  which  the  soil  is  lying.  The  amount  of  water 
which  the  soil  will  hold  depends  upon  the  thoroughness  of  the 
pulverization.  When  soil  is  allowed  to  lie  untilled  through  the 
winter  water  lies  about  on  the  top  or  runs  off  into  the  ditches, 
and  although  the  surface  may  be  wet,  the  soil  below  holds  con- 
siderably less  water  than  if  it  had  been  broken  up. 

Not  only  does  drained  soil  when  properly  worked  absorb  and 
retain  a  large  quantity  of  moisture,  but  both  soil  and  water  are 
thoroughly  aerated,  by  the  air-spaces  between  the  particles 
and  by  the  free  oxygen  which  the  film-water  brought  down 
during  its  passage  as  rain  through  the  atmosphere. 

Spring  Cultivation. — Having  secured  an  abundant  supply  of 
moisture  in  the  soil  as  a  result  of  autumn  cultivation  it  is 
necessary  to  take  steps  to  retain  it  there  for  the  use  of  crops 
and  at  the  same  time  to  bring  the  surface  into  a  warm  and  dry 
condition  for  the  reception  of  seeds  as  early  as  possible  in  the 
spring. 

The  frosts  of  winter  will  have  made  the  surface  soil  friable 
but  the  action  of  later  rains  will  probably  have  beaten  down 
and  compacted  this  kindly  surface  so  that  it  is  "  run  together  "; 
if  left  undisturbed  in  this  condition  the  water  below  will  rise 
to  the  surface  by  capillary  attraction  and  a  continuous  evapo- 


20  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

ration  wi/I  take  place,  which  will  keep  the  surface  cold  and  will 
at  the  same  time  considerably  diminish  the  storage  of  water  in 
the  soil.  To  prevent  this  loss  of  water  and  to  make  a  bed 
suitable  for  the  reception  of  seeds  the  surface  soil  should  be 
moved  about  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  enough  to  bear  cultivation. 
The  stirring  of  the  soil  cuts  off  the  capillary  ducts  and  so 
prevents  evaporation,  besides  introducing  air,  drying  the 
surface,  and  making  the  soil  warmer.  This  early  aeration 
and  warming  of  the  soil  is  a  great  help  to  the  germination  of 
seed  and  promotes  vigorous  growth  by  encouraging  the 
nitrifying  bacteria. 

Hoeing  and  Mulching. — Having  prepared  a  loose  surface  of 
fine  soil  for  a  seed  bed,  it  is  often  necessary  after  sowing,  par- 
ticularly on  light  land,  to  press  the  surface  down  again  firmly 
by  rolling  or  treading  or  beating  with  the  back  of  a  spade. 
This  is  done  to  establish  a  connection  between  the  surface  and 
the  capillary  ducts  below,  so  as  to  cause  sufficient  moisture  to 
rise  again  for  the  germination  of  the  seed.  As  soon  as  the 
rows  of  seedlings  can  be  seen  the  surface  soil  should  again  be 
stirred  by  hoeing,  and  this  stirring  of  the  surface  soil  should 
be  persisted  in  at  frequent  intervals  during  the  summer.  The 
loose  tilth  which  hoeing  produces  upon  the  surface  practically 
forms  a  mulch  to  the  soil  below,  although  the  protecting 
medium  is  soil  itself.  In  fact,  anything  which  breaks  the  con- 
nection between  the  water-holding  soil  underneath  and  the 
evaporating  surface  would  serve  the  same  purpose,  some 
things  better,  perhaps,  than  loose  soil  does,  but  the  draw- 
back to  their  employment  is  that  they  prevent  the  continual 
stirring  about  of  the  surface.  By  this  means  aeration 
of  the  soil  and  distribution  of  the  nitrifying  bacteria  is 
effected ;  the  surface  layers  of  the  soil  become  warm  and 
this  makes  nitrification  active  and  so  brings  into  a  readily- 
available  condition  the  reserves  of  nitrogen  in  the  humus. 
Frequent  hoeing  preserves  soil  moisture,  increases  fertility, 
encourages  the  growth  of  plants,  and  prevents  weeds  from 
growing;  therefore  it  increases  the  crop,  saves  manure, 
keeps  the  ground  clean,  and  makes  the  total  work  lighter 
and  easier. 


The  Soil  and  its  Treatment.  21 

There  are  certain  crops  which  need,  for  best  results  (and  less 
than  the  best  should  not  satisfy),  considerably  more  moisture 
than  the  soil  alone  can  supply  in  an  ordinary  season.  In  such 
cases  a  mulch  of  straw  manure  is  decidedly  the  best.  When 
the  plants  have  begun  to  grow  freely  the  soil  should  be  hoed 
clear  of  weeds  and  should  then  receive  a  thorough  soaking  of 
water.  As  soon  as  the  surface  has  dried  stir  the  soil  again, 
then  lay  the  manure  well  over  the  roots  on  each  side  of  the 
row  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  inches.  This  mulch  not  only 
prevents  evaporation  but  also  yields  additional  plant  food  and 
is  useful  in  keeping  the  surface  cool  in  hot  weather.  Although 
the  plants  will  receive  great  benefit  from  a  mulch  of  manure 
alone,  even  if  no  more  water  is  given,  occasional  soakings  will 
yield  much  better  results. 


CHAPTER  III. 

MANURES  AND  FERTILIZERS. 

• 

Composition  of  Plants — Plant  Foods  in  the  Soil — Farmyard  Man- 
ure—Green Manure— Compost  Heaps.  NITROGENOUS  FERTILIZERS— 
Sulphate  of  Ammonia — Nitrate  of  Soda — Nitrolim — Dried  Blood — 
Soot— Rape  Dust— Castor  Seed  Meal— Shoddy.  PHOSPHATIC  FERTIL- 
IZERS— Superphosphate — Limphos — Basic  Slag — Bone  Meal — Bone 
Flour — Dissolved  Bones — Phosphatic  Peruvian  Guano.  POTASSIC 
FERTILIZERS  —  Sulphate  of  Potash  —  Muriate  of  Potash  —  Kainit. 
COMPOSITE  FERTILIZERS  —  Peruvian  Guano  —  Dissolved  Peruvian 
Guano— Fish  Guano— Meat  Guano.  NOTES  ON  THE  USING  OF  FER- 
TILIZERS—VALUING FERTILIZERS— TABLE  OF  UNIT-VALUES. 

Composition  of  Plants. — Every  plant  has  a  living,  organised 
body,  built  up  of  materials  extracted  partly  from  the  air  and 
partly  from  the  soil.  All  are  composed  of  the  same  ingredients, 
but  in  varying  proportions.  Nineteen  parts  out  of  twenty  of 
these  ingredients  consist  of  water  and  carbon.  The  supply 
of  water  needs  no  explanation.  Carbon  is  derived  from  the 
carbonic  acid  gas  of  the  atmosphere,  absorbed  through  the 
agency  of  the  leaves.  The  remaining  twentieth  part  is  made 
up  of  ingredients  taken  from  the  soil.  Most  of  these  in- 
gredients are  present  in  almost  all  soils  in  more  or  less  abund- 
ance, and  need  give  us  no  further  concern,  but  there  are  a  few, 
absolutely  essential  to  healthy  growth,  one  or  more  of  which 
are  seldom  present  in  available  form  in  sufficient  abundance 
to  produce  profitable  crops.  These  exceptions  are  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash,  sometimes  lime,  and  on  rare 
occasions  magnesia.  It  is  the  knowledge  of  how  to  make 
good  any  deficiency  of  these  materials,  in  a  way  most  likely 
to  secure  full  crops  economically,  without  impairing  the  con- 
tinued productiveness  of  the  soil,  which  constitutes  the  true 
science  of  manuring. 

Plant  Foods  in  the  Soil. — Although  it  is  necessary  for  the 
cultivator  to  supplement  certain  plant  foods,  it  must  not  on 
that  account  be  supposed  that  the  soil  is  comparatively 


Manures  and  Fertilizers.  23 

tute  of  them.  On  the  contrary,  the  upper  six  or  eight  inches 
of  soil  even  in  the  poorest  field  usually  contains  sufficient  of 
these  materials  to  provide  for  a  hundred  crops,  and  yet,  as 
we  know,  the  yield  is  unsatisfactory  unless  manure  is  added. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  although  the  soil  already  contains 
these  food  materials  they  are  present  in  such  a  form  that  the 
plant  cannot  immediately  make  use  of  them;  it  can  absorb 
them  only  as  they  become  soluble.  When  they  are  in  this  con- 
dition they  become  dissolved  in  soil-water  and  are  then  drawn 
into  the  plant's  system  by  the  fine  root-hairs.  The  condition 
of  solubility  is  brought  about  very  slowly  by  the  action  of  the 
atmosphere,  by  the  carbonic  acid  contained  in  soil-water,  by 
the  acid  sap  exuded  from  the  root-hairs  of  plants,  and  by  the 
work  of  soil  bacteria. 

Therefore,  the  elements  of  plant  food  in  the  soil  may  be  re- 
garded as  so  much  locked-up  capital,  only  a  small  portion  of 
which  is  available  at  any  given  time,  and  it  should  be  the  object 
of  the  cultivator  to  so  handle  this  capital  that  some  of  it,  and 
a  larger  quantity  of  it,  can  be  brought  into  immediate  use,  and 
by  manuring  to  supplement  such  available  foods  as  are  insuffi- 
cient in  quantity  for  a  full  and  paying  crop. 

When  proper  means  are  taken,  by  maintaining  the  soil  in  a 
sweet,  friable,  and  deeply-pulverized  condition,  to  increase  the 
available  plant  foods  less  manure  is  needed  and  better  crops 
are  grown.  Manure  can  never  take  the  place  of  cultivation ; 
indeed  its  full  effect  will  only  be  obtained  where  it  enters  into 
combination  with  good  cultivation.  Additional  plant  foods 
should  be  given  freely,  as  required,  but  it  must  be  constantly 
borne  in  mind  that  they  are  only  part  of  a  complete  whole. 

NITROGEN  is  the  most  important  element  in  plant  nutrition. 
Its  function  is  to  build  up  the  vegetable  part  of  the  plant. 
When  the  supply  is  insufficient  for  the  plant's  requirements 
growth  is  stunted  and  the  leaves  are  of  a  pale  and  sickly 
colour.  If  nitrogen  in  a  readily  available  form  is  supplied  to 
a  plant  presenting  this  appearance  its  growth,  which  before 
was  almost  at  a  standstill,  will  speedily  increase ;  the  plant  will 
show  greater  vigour  and  will  produce  larger  leaves  of  a  darker 
green.  This  result  must  not  lead  cultivators  to  suppose  that 
the  application  of  nitrogen  will  always  be  beneficial.  There 


24  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

are  some  cases,  as  for  instance  with  spring  cabbage  or  lettuce, 
where  an  extra  vigorous  vegetative  growth  is  to  be  desired, 
but  in  many  other  cases  a  too-abundant  supply  of  nitrogen 
would  be  harmful.  Other  plant  foods  such  as  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash,  &c.,  in  whatever  excess  they  may  be  present  in  the 
soil,  are  only  taken  up  by  the  plant  in  proportion  to  its  growth, 
which  is  dependent  upon  the  nitrogen  supply,  but  with  an 
excess  of  available  nitrogen  the  growth  is  luxuriant  and  sappy, 
and  susceptible  to  the  attacks  of  fungoid  diseases ;  maturity  is 
deferred  and  the  crop  is  badly  ripened.  Therefore,  when  the 
growth  of  the  plant  appears  to  be  healthy  and  sufficiently 
vigorous  applications  of  nitrogen  should  not  be  given  unless 
accompanied  by  other  ingredients  to  make  a  well-balanced 
plant  food. 

PHOSPHORIC  ACID  appears  to  have  the  function  of  causing 
fruitfulness.  Its  action  promotes  the  formation  of  flowers  and 
seeds.  Whilst  an  excesss  of  nitrogen  delays  maturity  the 
opposite  is  the  effect  of  phosphoric  acid  as  it  hastens  the  pro- 
cess of  ripening;  consequently,  when  plants  are  growing  too 
gross  and  sappy  an  application  of  a  readily-available  phosphatic 
manure  will  do  much  to  correct  this  tendency  and  restore  the 
balance.  Phosphates  also  have  a  beneficial  effect  in  en- 
couraging root-growth  in  young  plants. 

POTASH  plays  a  very  important  part  in  the  structure  of  plants. 
Whilst  nitrogen  promotes  the  growth  of  leaves,  with  that 
element  alone  they  would  lack  substance,  but  potash  adds 
strength.  It  assists  in  forming  the  fibre  of  the  plant,  making 
sound,  fruit-bearing  wood,  strong  tough  straw,  &c.  Potash 
also  forms  the  base  of  fruit  acids  and  flavours,  and  is  particu- 
larly active  in  the  formation  of  starch  and  sugar.  Whilst 
phosphoric  acid  is  active  in  the  formation  of  seed,  potash 
appears  to  be  responsible  for  the  pulp  of  the  fruit,  and  for  the 
starch  and  sugar  contained  in  potatoes,  beet,  &c.  It  also  makes 
the  plant  more  resistant  to  the  attacks  of  fungoid  diseases, 
and  has  a  marked  effect  in  promoting  the  growth  of  clover, 
peas,  beans,  and  all  leguminous  plants. 

Clay  soils  are  usually  rich  in  potash  in  a  state  of  combination  ; 
by  cultivation  sufficient  of  this  becomes  soluble  to  supply  the 
needs  of  most  crops,  but  there  are  some,  such  as  potatoes, 


Manures  and  Fertilizers.  25 

tomatoes,  onions,  and  beet,  which  receive  great  benefit  from 
an  application  of  potash  even  when  grown  on  clay;  on  such 
soils,  however,  potash  salts  should  not  be  used  too  frequently 
on  the  same  plot,  as  they  have  a  tendency  to  destroy  the  tex- 
ture, causing  the  soil  to  lie  wet  and  sticky.  Potash  is  usually 
deficient  on  soils  containing  much  sand,  gravel,  peat  or  chalk, 
and  these  would  produce  better  crops  if  they  received  a 
moderate  dressing  of  potash  salts  annually. 

LIME  is,  in  varying  degrees,  an  essential  constituent  of  all 
soils,  but  there  are  few  which  would  not  benefit  by  a  periodical 
dressing  for  the  purpose  of  improving  their  physical  condition 
as  well  as  developing  their  fertility.  Lime  releases  the  dor- 
mant plant  foods  in  the  soil,  rendering  them  available.  Soils 
which  contain  an  excessive  proportion  of  humus  develop  acids 
which  are  poisonous  to  plant  life ;  when  lime  is  applied  to 
such  soils  these  acids  are  rendered  harmless  and  the  soil  is 
made  sweet.  Lime  is  necessary  as  a  base  to  satisfy  the  re- 
quirements of  certain  artificial  manures  and  is  a  preventive 
of  several  fungoid  diseases.  It  is  readily  dissolved  by  the 
carbonic  acid  gas  brought  down  by  rain-water  and  so  is  con- 
stantly being  carried  away  in  drainage  water ;  it  also  has  a 
tendency  to  sink  in  the  ground  from  mechanical  reasons, 
hence  the  necessity  for  its  frequent  renewal. 

MAGNESIA  is  usually  present  in  most  soils  in  sufficient 
quantity  for  all  ordinary  purposes.  It  is  an  important  consti- 
tuent in  soils  where  vines  are  grown,  and  where  this  culture  is 
intended  it  would  be  wise  to  procure  an  analysis  of  the  soil 
before  planting.  Kainit  contains  about  14  per  cent,  of  sulphate 
of  magnesia,  and  when  this  potash  salt  is  used  to  soil  it  ensures 
the  presence  of  sufficient  magnesia  for  all  ordinary  crops. 

Farmyard  Manure  is  the  name  given  to  the  liquid  and  solid 
excrements  of  the  different  animals  on  the  farm,  mixed  with 
litter  of  some  kind,  usually  straw.  It  varies  very  much  in 
character  and  composition,  according  to  the  age  and  .variety 
of  the  animals  producing  it,  the  kind  of  food  given,  the  quantity 
and  kind  of  litter  used,  and  the  treatment  it  receives  after 
being  made ;  even  when  the  manure  produced  is  of  a  high 
fertilizing  value  it  becomes  much  poorer  when  allowed  to  over- 
heat or  by  long  exposure  to  rains. 


26  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables, 

Taking  the  average  of  a  large  number  of  analyses  of  farm- 
yard manure,  it  is  found  that  in  each  ton  there  are — 

15  Ibs.  Nitrogen,      7  Ibs.  Phosphoric  Acid,      11  Ibs.  Potash. 
To  obtain  the  same  fertilizing  materials  in  a  concentrated 
form  there  would  be  required — 

65  Ibs.  Sulphate  of  Ammonia  (at  £12  per  ton)      6  11£ 

56  !bs.  Superphosphates  (28%  soluble  at  52/6  per  ton)    ...  1     3£ 
22 &  Ibs.  Sulphate  of  Potash  (at  £11  per  ton)  2    2£=10/5£ 

As  farmyard  manure  can  usually  be  bought  at  from  5s.  to  6s. 
a  ton  delivered,  it  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  the  plant 
foods  it  contains  cost  only  about  half  as  much  as  when  bought 
in  a  concentrated  form.  But  on  the  other  hand  some  of  the 
constituents  of  farmyard  manure  are  very  slow  in  action,  whilst 
a  large  proportion  of  the  nitrogen  it  contains  is  never  re- 
covered in  the  crop  at  all — not  more  than  half  of  the  pro- 
portion recovered  from  some  of  the  concentrated  nitrogenous 
fertilizers — so  that  the  difference  in  cost  is  not  so  great  as  at 
first  sight  appears.  But  in  addition  to  its  value  as  a  direct 
feeder  of  plants,  its  beneficial  effects  upon  the  soil  can  scarcely 
be  exaggerated.  It  gives  cohesion  and  water-retaining  power 
to  sands  and  makes  clays  more  open  and  friable.  It  provides 
humus  and  encourages  the  multiplication  of  beneficial  bacteria. 
Its  weakness  as  a  complete  fertilizer  lies  in  its  deficiency  in 
phosphoric  acid,  and  to  a  lesser  degree  in  its  rather  small 
proportion  of  potash.  The  best  results  are  therefore  obtained 
when  its  ingredients  are  supplemented  by  concentrated  fer- 
tilizers in  the  proportions  required  by  the  needs  of  each  crop. 

Soils  which  regularly  receive  liberal  applications  of  farmyard 
manure  are  very  responsive  to  cultivation  and^ield  early  crops, 
besides  being  tillable  in  almost  any  kind  of  weather.  It  must, 
therefore,  be  conceded  that  although  many  market  gardeners 
use  manure  rather  extravagantly  they  have  some  justification. 
But  when  land  has  had  heavy  and  continuous  dressings  for  a 
number  of  years  it  becomes  "  manure  sick'1  and  no  longer 
yields  good  crops ;  the  humic  and  other  acids  with  which  it  has 
become  overcharged  are  detrimental  to  soil  bacteria,  and  as  a 
consequence  the  decay  of  organic  matter  is  checked.  The 
remedy  is  to  cease  manuring  for  one  season,  and  to  dress  the 
soil  with  lime  instead;  this  neutralizes  the  acids,  sweetens  the 


Mamires  and  Fertilizers.  27 

soil,  allows  the  free  entry  of  oxygen,  and  enables  the  bacteria 
to  fully  resume  their  functions.  To  allow  the  soil  to  get  into 
this  condition  suggests  bad  management;  a  judicious  use  of 
fertilizers  to  supplement  the  manure,  with  frequent  light  appli- 
cations of  powdered  limestone  (calcium  carbonate)  would  main- 
tain fertility  constantly  at  its  highest  pitch. 

Green  Manuring  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  farmyard 
manure  where  that  material  is  difficult  or  expensive  to  obtain.  It 
is  good  for  both  light  and  heavy  soils.  The  crops  most  suitable 
for  this  purpose  are  mustard,  rape,  tares,  peas,  or  clover  ;  these 
are  grown  until  just  before  the  flowering  stage  is  reached,  then 
rolled  down  flat  and  dug  or  ploughed  in.  This  method  of 
manuring  not  only  adds  humus  to  the  soil,  but  also  the  soluble 
plant  foods  which  the  crop  collects  during  growth,  and  which 
otherwise  may  be  washed  out  by  rains  when  the  soil  is  left 
bare.  The  leguminous  or  pod-bearing  plants  have  the  property 
of  collecting  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere  by  means  of  micro- 
organisms attached  to  their  roots,  and  when  these  are  used  for 
green  manure  the  soil  is  additionally  enriched. 

Compost  Heap. — Upon  every  holding  a  heap  should  be  made 
of  vegetable  refuse,  annual  weeds,  ditch  cleanings,  road  scrap- 
ings, and  other  similar  materials.  To  this  should  be  added  the 
ashes  and  charred  refuse  from  the  fires  made  of  tree  prunings, 
tomato  and  potato  haulms,  &c.  This  heap  should  be  turned 
occasionally,  and  at  each  turning  a  generous  sprinkling  of 
powdered  limestone  should  be  added. 

In  this  way  a  large  quantity  of  valuable  fertilizing  material 
can  be  accumulated  in  the  course  of  a  year. 

NITROGENOUS    FERTILIZERS. 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia  is  derived  from  the  distillation  of 
coal,  during  the  manufacture  of  coal  gas.  It  should  contain 
20  per  cent,  nitrogen,  equal  to  24|  per  cent,  ammonia.  It  is  a 
fine  salt,  generally  grey  or  yellow,  sometimes  blue,  and  is 
easily  dissolved  in  water.  It  is  quite  as  effective  and  almost  as 
quick  in  action  as  nitrate  of  soda,  but  is  much  more  destructive 
of  lime  in  the  soil,  and  when  it  is  frequently  used  liming  should 
on  no  account  be  omitted. 


28  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

From  1  to  2  cwts.  to  the  acre,  or  from  I  to  T  oz.  per  square 
yard,  may  safely  be  given,  preferably  in  two  or  three  separate 
applications  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  weeks,  after  growth 
has  begun.  Evenness  of  distribution  is  important  and  this  is 
made  easier  and  more  certain  by  mixing  with  two  or  three 
times  the  bulk  of  fine  dry  soil,  sand,  or  ashes. 

Nitrate  of  Soda,  imported  from  Chili,  is  a  crystalline  salt, 
of  a  whitish  colour,  formed  by  the  combination  of  nitric  acid 
and  soda.  It  is  sold  on  a  basis  of  95  per  cent,  nitrate  and 
5  per  cent,  impurities;  it  contains  15|  per  cent,  nitrogen, 
equal  to  19  per  cent,  ammonia.  It  acts  very  quickly,  becoming 
at  once  available  as  plant  food.  It  should  only  be  used  when 
plants  are  growing,  or  much  of  it  may  be  wasted,  as  it  is  very 
easily  washed  out  of  the  soil  by  rain.  On  clay  soils  it  has 
the  effect  of  releasing  inert  potash,  which  is  an  additional 
advantage,  but  it  should  not  be  used  on  the  same  plot  too 
frequently  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  destroy  the  texture  of  clay 
soils,  making  them  "  run  together." 

Crush  finely,  then  mix  and  use  in  the  same  quantities  and  in 
in  the  same  manner  as  sulphate  of  ammonia. 

Nitrolim  is  a  new  fertilizer  in  which  nitrogen  from  the 
atmosphere  has  been  chemically  fixed.  It  is  a  dark  grey, 
powdery  substance,  containing  about  18  per  cent,  nitrogen, 
equal  to  22  per  cent,  ammonia,  and  20  to  30  per  cent,  of  quick- 
lime. In  amount  of  nitrogen  it  is  thus  mid-way  between 
sulphate  of  ammonia  and  nitrate  of  soda;  it  is  used  in  a 
similar  way  and  is  said  to  be  as  effective  as  either.  The  free 
lime  which  it  contains  should  make  it  very  suitable  for  heavy 
soils. 

Dried  Blood,  when  a  good  sample,  is  a  very  valuable  source 
of  nitrogen,  of  which  it  usually  contains  about  11  per  cent., 
equal  to  13  per  cent,  ammonia.  It  is  moderately  quick  in 
action,  lasting,  and  does  not  wash  out  of  the  soil.  It  is  a  very 
suitable  nitrogenous  manure  to  use  with  potting  soil  or  under 
glass.  It  may  be  used  at  the  rate  of  from  f  to  li  ozs.  to  the 
square  yard. 


Manures  and  Fertilizers.  29 

Rape  Dust  is  made  from  the  residues  of  rape  seed  after 
crushing  for  the  extraction  of  oil ;  also  from  waste  fragments 
of  rape  cake.  It  contains  about  5  per  cent,  nitrogen,  and 
small  quantities  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  It  quickly 
decomposes  and  supplies  nitrogen  to  the  plant  throughout  the 
season.  For  equal  quantities  of  nitrogen  it  is  almost  as 
quickly  effective  as  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
over  either  of  which  it  has  the  advantage  of  being  organic  and 
so  improving  the  texture  of  the  soil ;  for  the  same  reason  it 
is  good  for  use  under  glass.  It  cannot  be  washed  out  by  rain. 
Some  growers  consider  rape  dust  to  be  useful  for  the  eradica- 
tion of  wireworm. 

Use  5  to  10  cwt.  per  acre  or  2  to  4  ozs.  per  square  yard. 

Castor  Seed  Meal  is  very  similar  in  composition  and  action 
to  the  above,  and  is  used  in  a  similar  way. 

Soot  is  a  very  useful  nitrogenous  manure.  It  is  not  possibfe 
to  give  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  contained  in  soot,  because 
scarcely  any  two  samples  are  alike,  some  containing  a  large 
proportion  of  ashes  or  other  useless  material.  It  is  usually 
sold  by  the  bushel,  which  is  of  variable  weight,  about  28lb. 
being  the  average;  as  a  general  rule  the  lighter  a  bushel 
weighs  the  more  valuable  is  the  soot,  because  it  is  puren  Soot 
is  very  useful  as  a  top-dressing  in  spring,  or  at  any  time  when 
the  crop  needs  pushing  along  gently.  It  has  a  distinctly 
beneficial  effect  upon  heavy  soil  by  lightening  the  texture; 
also  by  darkening  the  colour  of  soils  it  causes  them  more 
readily  to  absorb  and  retain  sun  heat  and  thus  raises  the 
temperature.  Soot  is  very  distasteful  to  slugs  and  is  useful 
to  ward  off  such  things  as  celery,  carrot,  and  onion  fly,  by 
dusting  over  the  foliage  when  it  is  wet  with  dew. 

Shoddy  or  Wool  Refuse  is  composed  of  fragments  of  wool 
which  are  too  short  or  otherwise  unsuitable  for  re-spinning,  as 
well  as  any  form  of  waste  from  silk  or  wool  which  is  no  longer 
profitable  to  work  into  cloth.  It  also  frequently  contains  rags, 
hair,  flock  dust,  fur  waste,  cloth  clippings,  and  other  similar 
materials,  together  with  an  admixture  of  dirt.  Its  composition 
is  very  variable  and  it  may  contain  from  5  to  15  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen.  It  is  a  slow  and  lasting  manure  and  is  used  by 


30  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

many  hop  and  fruit  growers  as  a  substitute  for  farmyard 
manure,  1  ton  of  good  shoddy  being  regarded  as  equal  to  10 
tons  of  manure.  It  should  be  applied  early  in  the  winter  and 
ploughed  or  dug  in  as  soon  as  possible. 

PHOSPHATIC    FERTILIZERS. 

Superphosphate  is  usually  made  from  mineral  phosphates, 
or  coprolites,  ground  finely  and  treated  with  sulphuric  acid  to 
render  it  soluble.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  grey  friable  powder 
containing  phosphates  in  variable  quantities,  usually  varying 
between  20  and  40  per  cent.,  36  per  cent,  being  about  the 
standard.  The  price  is  governed  by  the  amount  of  phosphates 
which  are  soluble.  It  is  an  acid  manure  and  is  most  suitable 
for  application  to  calcareous  and  loamy  soils,  or  any  which 
contain  a  fair  proportion  of  carbonate  of  lime.  When  used  on 
heavy  clays,  or  on  sands,  gravels,  or  peats  deficient  in  lime  its 
use  should  always  be  preceded  by  liming.  It  is  most  effective 
when  applied  in  the  autumn  but  is  very  useful  in  spring. 

Use  4  to  6  cwts.  per  acre,  or  1|  to  2|  ozs.  per  square  yard. 

Limphos  is  a  new  fertilizer  containing  40  per  cent,  phos- 
phates, a  part  of  which  is  immediately  available  whilst  the 
remainder  becomes  gradually  soluble  during  the  growing 
season  and  so  feeds  the  plant  continuously.  It  also  contains  35 
per  cent,  of  lime,  which  makes  it  additionally  valuable  for  use 
in  conjunction  with  fertilizers  which  require  lime  as  a  base 
before  they  can  become  effective.  \ 

Use  3  to  5  cwts.  per  acre,  or  1  to  2  ozs.  per  square  yard. 

Basic  Slag  is  a  by-product  obtained  in  iron  and  steel  smelting 
processes.  It  comes  on  the  market  in  the  form  of  a  dense 
black  powder,  and  as  its  value  largely  depends  upon  the  fineness 
to  which  it  is  ground  it  should  be  guaranteed  to  have  passed 
through  a  seive  containing  10,000  holes  to  the  square  inch.  It 
should  contain  at  least  from  17  to  20  per  cent,  soluble  phos- 
phates, besides  40  to  50  per  cent,  lime,  14  per  cent,  iron,  and 
5  to  6  per  cent,  magnesia.  On  heavy  or  peaty  soils  it  is  much 
better  than  superphosphate,  providing  sufficient  moisture  is 
present;  on  dry  soil  it  is  practically  useless.  It  is  slow  in 
action  and  should  always  be  applied  in  autumn. 

Use  5  to  10  cwts.  per  acre,  or  2  to  4  ozs.  per  square  yard. 


Manures  and  Fertilizers.  31 

Bone  Meal  and  Steamed  Bone  Flour  each  contains  a  small 
variable  amount  of  nitrogen,  but  this  is  not  in  a  very  active 
condition,  and  so  far  as  immediate  results  are  concerned  both 
should  be  considered  solely  for  their  value  as  phosphatic 
manures.  They  should  be  bought  upon  analysis ;  the  former 
should  contain  about  45  per  cent,  and  the  latter  from  55  to  60 
per  cent,  of  calcium  phosphate,  of  which  rather  less  than  one- 
half  is  soluble.  Bones  act  best  on  light,  free-working  soils; 
on  heavy  soils  they  are  very  slow.  Bone  manures  may  be 
considered  as  the  best  phosphatic  fertilizers  for  soils  which  are 
too  poor  in  lime  to  be  suitable  for  superphosphate  and  too  dry 
for  basic  slag. 

Use  4  to  8  cwts.  per  acre,  or  li  to  3  ozs.  per  square  yard. 

Dissolved  Bones  is  the  trade  name  for  a  substance  obtained 
by  the  treatment  of  bones  with  sulphuric  acid  to  make  the 
phosphates  soluble.  \  It  is  a  rather  damp  and  sticky  material  and 
should  be  mixed  before  use  with  sifted  dry  soil  or  something 
similar  to  make  it  handle  better.  It  usually  contains  about 
20  per  cent,  soluble  phosphates  and  2  per  cent,  nitrogen.  It  is 
the  best  phosphatic  manure  for  use  on  chalky  ground, 

Use  4  to  8  cwts.  per  acre,  or  li  to  3  ozs.  per  square  yard. 

POTASSIC    FERTILIZERS. 

Sulphate  of  Potash  is  one  of  several  potassic  salts  obtained 
from  the  Stassfurt  mines,  in  northern  Germany.  All  of  these 
salts  are  white,  grey,  or  pink  gritty  powders  which  dissolve 
readily.  Sulphate  of  potash  contains  about  50  per  cent,  pure 
potash.  It  mixes  well  with  other  fertilizers.  It  is  the  best  for 
use  on  heavy  soils  and  under  glass,  and  should  always  be  used 
in  preference  to  the  muriate  where  quality  of  produce  is  of 
importance. 

Like  all  the  potash  salts  the  sulphate  is  most  effective  when 
applied  in  autumn,  but  may  be  very  usefully  applied  in  spring, 
at  the  rate  of  1  to  2  cwts.  per  acre,  or  \  to  1  oz.  per  square 
yard,  using  the  smaller  quantity  on  clay  soils. 

Muriate  of  Potash  contains  about  45  per  cent,  pure  potash. 
With  the  exceptions  mentioned  above,  it  is  used  on  all  crops  in 
a  similar  way  and  in  the  same  quantities  as  the  sulphate. 


32  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Kainit  contains  about  12£  per  cent,  pure  potash,  14  per  cent, 
sulphate  of  magnesia,  and  34  per  cent,  common  salt/  It  should 
always  be  used  in  autumn  so  that  the  rains  of  winter  can  wash 
away  some  of  the  injurious  salts;  it  is  then  a  very  valuable 
fertilizer,  being  especially  beneficial  to  clovers,  mangolds, 
potatoes,  asparagus,  &c.,  and  to  any  crop  needing  magnesia  as 
well  as  potash.  Kainit  is  also  credited  with  the  property  of 
checking  both  insect  and  fungoid  pests  in  the  soil.  On  heavy 
soil  it  should  not  be  used  too  frequently  on  the  same  plot  as  it 
destroys  the  texture. 

Use  at  the  rate  of  from  3  to  5  cwts.  per  acre,  or  1  to  3  ozs. 
per  square  yard. 

MISCELLANEOUS    FERTILIZERS. 

Peruvian  Guano  is  a  fertilizing  material  consisting  almost 
wholly  of  the- accumulated  excreta  of  sea-birds,  found  on  the 
islands  and  sea-coast  of  the  comparatively  rainless  districts  of 
Peru.  The  highest  class  of  the  original  deposits  has  become 
exhausted,  and  since  then  much  of  that  obtainable  has  had  a 
very  low  percentage  of  nitrogen.  In  recent  years,  however, 
new  deposits  have  accumulated  and  supplies  with  a  high  per- 
centage of  nitrogen  are  again  obtainable.  The  best  guano  is  a 
light  grey  powder  and  contains  about  16  per  cent,  nitrogen  and 
9  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid,  but  the  bulk  of  the.  best  imports 
contains  rather  less  than  half  this  quantity  of  nitrogen.  As  a 
rule  both  the  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  in  the  lower  grades 
are  much  less  soluble  than  in  the  richer  ones,  which  also 
makes  them  still  less  desirable. 

In  a  good  guano  the  fertilizing  properties  are  well  balanced, 
some  of  them  being  immediately  available  whilst  the  remainder 
come  into  use  continuously  and  equably,  feeding  the  crop  from 
seed  to  maturity.  It  is  a  safe  manure  and  may  be  used  with 
all  crops. 

To  avoid  chances  of  adulteration  Peruvian  guano  should 
always  be  bought  in  the  sealed  bags  in  which  it  is  distributed, 
and  it  should  be  accompanied  by  a  guaranteed  analysis. 

Equalized  Peruvian  Guano  is  prepared  by  adding  sulphate 
of  ammonia  to  guanos  rich  in  phosphates  and  poor  in  nitrogen. 


Manures  and  Fertilizers.  33 

Dissolved  Peruvian  Guano  has  been  treated  with  sulphuric 
acid  to  fix  the  ammonia  so  that  it  will  not  escape  into  the  air 
and  to  make  the  insoluble  phosphates  available.  It  usually 
contains  about  6  per  cent,  nitrogen  and  10  per  cent,  phos- 
phoric acid.  It  is  a  very  useful  manure. 

Any  of  the  above  guanos  may  be  used  at  the  rate  of  5  to  10 
cwts.  to  the  acre,  or  2  to  4  ozs.  to  the  square  yard,  worked  into 
the  top  soil  during  preparation  for  sowing  or  planting ;  or  1  oz. 
to  the  square  yard  may  be  used  as  a  top  dressing  and  watered 
in  about  once  every  two  weeks. 

Phosphatic  Guano  contains  a  large  proportion  of  phosphates, 
varying  from  30  to  50  per  cent.,  and  a  small  proportion  of 
nitrogen,  varying  from  1  to  5  per  cent.  These  guanos  are  a 
very  useful  substitute  for  superphosphates,  especially  under 
glass,  where  they  are  to  be  preferred  because  they  are  organic 
and  free  from  acid. 

Use  about  4  cwts.  per  acre,  or  1|  ozs.  to  the  square  yard. 

Fish  Guano  is  made  from  fish  residues.  It  contains  between 
6  and  9  per  cent,  nitrogen  and  from  13  to  20  per  cent,  phos- 
phoric acid.  When  it  is  to  be  used  alone  it  should  be  spread 
and  turned  in  as  soon  as  received,  but  if  one  of  the  potash  salts 
is  mixed  with  it  a  much  better  balanced  manure  is  obtained 
that  will  keep  better.  It  is  fairly  quick  in  action  though 
rather  slower  than  Peruvian  guano,  and  it  feeds  the  plants 
throughout  the  season. 

Apply  a  few  weeks  before  sowing  or  planting  at  the  rate  of 
5  to  10  cwts.  per  acre,  or  2  to  4  ozs.  per  square  yard. 

Meat  Guano  is  prepared  from  slaughter-house  refuse.  It  is 
very  variable  in  composition,  some  samples  containing  as  high 
as  12  per  cent,  nitrogen  and  30  per  cent,  phosphates.  A  good 
standard  sample  known  as  Fray  Bentos  Guano  contains  7  per 
cent,  nitrogen  and  30  per  cent,  phosphates.  Like  fish  guano 
this  should  be  turned  under  at  once,  and  not  allowed  to  lie 
about  on  the  top  of  the  soil  or  loss  will  result ;  birds  eat  both 
greedily. 

Use  in  a  similar  way  to  fish  guano,  varying  the  quantity 
according  to  analysis. 


34  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Mixtures  of  Manures. — In  mixing  manures  together  great 
care  must  be  exercised.  If  the  wrong  kinds  are  put  together 
certain  chemical  reactions  will  take  place  and  much  loss  will 
result. 

The  following  mixtures  may  be  made  with  safety : — 
Superphosphates  with  Sulphate  of  Ammonia. 
Bones  with  Nitrate  of  Soda  or  Sulphate  of  Ammonia. 
Bones  with  Basic  Slag. 
Basic  Slag  with  Nitrate  of  Soda. 
Fish  Guano  with  any  Mineral  Fertilizer. 

,  Phosphatic  Guanos  with  Nitrate  of  Soda  or  Sulphate  of  Ammonia. 

Kainit  with  Basic  Slag. 

The  following  mixtures  should  not  be  made : — 

Farmyard  Manure  with  Lime. 

Guano  with  Lime. 

Guano  with  Basic  Slag. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  with  Superphosphates. 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia  with  Basic  Slag. 

Kainit  with  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

NOTES  ON   THE   USING  OF   FERTILIZERS. 

Whenever  artificial  fertilizers  are  used  an  ample  supply  of 
moisture  and  a  well-pulverized  soil  are  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance. Moisture  by  its  dissolving  action  renders  the  manure 
soluble  and  brings  it  into  a  condition  to  be  easily  assimilated 
by  the  roots  of  plants. 

No  fertilizer  can  be  effective  unless  it  reaches  the  roots  of 
the  plants,  therefore  pains  must  be  taken  to  distribute  it 
evenly  over  the  whole  ground.  To  do  this  properly  with  small 
quantities  of  a  highly-concentrated  material  is  very  difficult 
unless  fine  dry  soil,  sand,  ashes,  or  something  similar  is  added 
to  increase  the  bulk. 

Fertilizers  which  are  readily  soluble  can  be  scattered  over 
the  surface  and  the  first  rains  will  distribute  them  uniformly 
through  the  soil.  Fertilizers  slowly  soluble  should  be  turned 
under  at  once,  so  that  the  soil  constituents  can  immediately 
begin  to  act  upon  them. 

A  quick-growing  plant  needs  a  fertilizer  which  is  more 
readily-available  than  does  one  which  occupies  the  ground  for 
a  long  period. 


Manures  and  Fertilizers.  35 

Quickly-available  nitrogenous  fertilizers  should  preferably 
be  applied  in  several  small  dressings  at  short  intervals,  but 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  apply  them  too  late  in  the  season, 
or  there  will  be  excessive  growth  of  leaf  and  stem  and  the 
maturing  of  the  crop  will  be  retarded. 

When  the  ripening  of  a  crop  is  delayed  beyond  the  normal 
period  a  dressing  of  a  quickly-available  phosphatic  fertilizer 
will  help  to  put  matters  right. 

On  soils  of  loose  texture  and  small  retentive  power  it  is  best 
to  use  those  fertilizers  which  are  not  too  readily  soluble,  in 
order  that  the  losses  caused  by  heavy  rains  shall  be  as  small 
as  possible. 

Liquid  manures  should  only  be  used  during  the  growing 
period,  and  then  at  frequent  intervals  in  a  very  diluted  form, 
alternating  with  occasional  soakings  of  clear  water. 

VALUING    FERTILIZERS. 

As  a  general  rule  it  will  be  found  to  be  more  economical  to 
purchase  fertilizing  materials  of  high  grade.  Bulk  is  desirable 
to  ensure  evenness  of  distribution,  but  as  the  fertilizing 
elements  occupy  very  little  space  it  is  more  economical  to  buy 
them  concentrated  and  so  save  carriage  and  cartage  expenses, 
afterwards  giving  bulk  by  the  addition  of  dry  earth,  sand,  coal 
ashes,  or  any  similar  substance. 

When  fertilizers  are  purchased  they  must  always  be  accom- 
panied by  a  guaranteed  analysis,  according  to  the  Fertilizers  and 
Feeding  Stuffs  Act.  This  analysis  must  be  given  in  terms  and 
percentages  of  nitrogen,  soluble  phosphates,  and  pure  potash. 

Many  of  the  forms  of  analysis  given  are  misleading,  and 
by  a  bold  array  of  figures  cause  the  inexperienced  to  imagine 
that  a  poor  material  is  a  comparatively  rich  one.  For  in- 
stance, not  only  is  the  amount  of  nitrogen  stated  but  also  its 
equivalent  in  ammonia,  which  is  merely  expressing  the  same 
value  in  another  way  with  larger  figures ;  then  the  soluble  and 
insoluble  phosphates  are  given  and  this  is  frequently  followed 
by  total  phosphates,  which  again  is  a  repetition ;  pure  potash 
will  be  re-stated  as  sulphate  of  potash,  and  the  whole  has  a 
bewildering  effect  upon  the  unwary. 


36  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

In  calculating  the  value  of  a  manure  from  analysis  all  equi- 
valents should  be  ignored,  and  a  judgment  formed  solely 
upon  the  nitrogen,  soluble  phosphates,  and  pure  potash.  If 
these  are  satisfactory  the  insoluble  phosphates  may  then  be 
taken  into  consideration,  as  some  portions  become  slowly 
soluble  when  buried  in  the  soil,  and  they  therefore  have  a 
certain  value,  but  not  enough  to  influence  a  decision  as  to  the 
value  of  the  active  ingredients. 

It  is  very  desirable  that  the  purchaser  should  be  able  to 
judge  accurately  of  the  comparative  money-value  of  different 
samples  of  ready  mixed  fertilizers,  as  well  as  to  be  able  to 
calculate  what  an  equal  fertilizing-value  in  materials  would 
cost  if  bought  separately  and  mixed  at  home.  This  is  done  by 
ascertaining  the  cost  of  a  unit  of  each  of  the  different  fertilizing 
constituents  and  adding  these  costs  together.  The  unit  is  the 
one-hundredth  part  of  a  ton,  and  the  cost  of  a  unit  is  known  as 
the  "  unit-value."  The  cost  of  a  unit  is  arrived  at  by  dividing 
the  market  price  of  a  ton  of  material  by  the  percentage  it  con- 
tains of  the  particular  fertilizing  constituent  required. 

For  instance,  supposing  it  is  desired  to  find  the  fair  price 
of  a  mixed  mineral  fertilizer  containing — 

Nitrogen          5  percent. 

Soluble  Phosphates  ...       17 

Insoluble         „  ...         3        „ 

Potash  6        „ 

What  has  to  be  decided  is,  What  is  a  fertilizer  containing 
the  above  ingredients  worth?  The  percentages  shown  here 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  unit-value ;  the  item  "  nitrogen, 
5  per  cent."  means  that  the  mixed  fertilizer  in  question  con- 
tains that  amount  of  nitrogen,  and  the  object  is  to  ascertain 
what  that  amount  of  nitrogen  would  cost  if  bought  in  the  form, 
say,  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  or  nitrate  of  soda. 

The  nitrogen  in  this  fertilizer  will  be  derived  from  sulphate 
of  ammonia,  which  contains  ammonia  equal  to  20  per  cent, 
nitrogen,  and  costs  at  present  market  prices  about  £12  per 
ton;  the  unit-value  is  ascertained  by  dividing  £12,  the  price 
of  a  ton  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  by  20,  the  percentage  of  the» 
nitrogen  it  contains;  the  result  is  12s.,  which  represents  the 
unit-value  of  nitrogen  derived  from  sulphate  of  ammonia. 


Manures  and  Fertilizers.  37 

The  phosphate  ingredient  will  probably  be  derived  from 
superphosphates,  costing  £2  2s.  per  ton,  and  containing  30  per 
cent,  total  phosphates,  of  which  26  per  cent,  is  soluble  and  4 
per  cent,  insoluble.  The  unit-value  is  ascertained  by  dividing 
the  price,  £2  2s.,  by  26,  the  percentage  of  soluble  phosphates ; 
the  result  is  Is.  7d.,  which  is  the  unit- value.  The  insoluble 
phosphates  in  superphosphates  are  regarded  as  valueless. 

The  potash  ingredient  will  probably  be  derived  from  sulphate 
of  potash,  which  contains  50  per  cent,  pure  potash  and  costs 
£9  10s.  per  ton.  By  dividing  £9  10s.  by  50  we  arrive  at  3s.  9d. 
as  the  unit-value  of  potash  derived  from  sulphate  of  potash. 

We  can  now  form  a  clear  judgment  of  the  fair  price  of  the 
mixed  fertilizer,  thus: — 

Nitrogen,  5  per  cent.,  at  12s.  for  each  unit— 

5  times  12s.  =         £3     0    0 

Soluble  Phosphates,  17  per  cent.,  at  Is.  7d. 

for  each  unit — 17  times  Is.  7d.  =       1     611 

Insoluble  Phosphates  (valueless)  ...     ...     ... 

Pure  Potash,  6  per  cent.,  at  3s.  9d.  for  each 

unit— 6  times  3s.  9d.  -          126 

Add  25  per  cent,  to  cover  mixing,  bags,  waste, 

carriage  and  profit       1     7     7 

£6  17     0 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that,  at  present  market  prices,  a  manure 
of  the  fertilizing  value  of  that  under  examination,  when 
compounded  of  mineral  ingredients,  ought  not  to  cost  more 
than  £6  17s.  per  ton,  carriage  paid  to  the  purchaser's  nearest 
railway  station.  When  the  fertilizer  is  compounded  of  organic 
ingredients  the  unit-values  will  average  about  25  per  cent, 
higher. 

In  judging  the  money-values  of  manures  it  must  be  con- 
stantly borne  in  mind  that  the  unit-values  will  vary  as  the 
market  prices  of  the  materials  fluctuate.  They  do  not  include 
the  cost  of  carriage,  and  they  are  based  on  the  price  of  mate- 
rials when  bought  in  quantity. 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


APPROXIMATE  COST  OF  FERTILIZING  UNITS. 

The  following  Table  of  Unit  Values  is  based  upon  London  market  cash  prices,  as  quoted  in  April,  1910,  for  materials 
at  makers'  works  or  at  ports  of  discharge.  To  ascertain  the  value  of  a  mixed  fertilizer  multiply  the  percentages  of  the 
guaranteed  constituents  by  their  value,  then  add  all  together,  and  add  a  further  25%  to  cover  cost  of  mixing,  bags,  carriage 
to  purchaser's  station,  and  maker's  profit  ;  this  should  give,  approximately,  the  fair  price,  carriage  paid. 

H 

D 

N 

(X 

o 
o 

•a 

_ 
*o                     ON  ON  ts                         ON  ON  ON  ON 

NOTE.  —  The  unit-values  will  change  as  market  prices  fluctuate.  The  fertilizing  ingredients  in  manures  of  organic  origin 
arc  worth  more  than  similar  ingredients  of  mineral  origin,  though  in  several  cases  they  are  not  worth  the  difference  shown. 

—  •  «" 

HI 

•d   .   .uw^r   .       .en  wo   .   .  en  rx  o"m  •«•  en  en 

•        '  ~*  —  «  ~H        •        '        '                                 :        :                    ** 

1-M 

Soluble 
Phos- 
phates 

*d..ts    O...        .ON        ... 

*                      W 

Nitrogen 

-dONt>   vo  vo  o  o  en  vo  vo  vo  vo  vo  oo  en  CN 

^THCM     NOIC>tsCnt^CNC>tsC>VONO 

1-1  C«  !•*  1-1  1^  1-1^  1-1 

GUARANTEED  ANALYSIS. 

If 

«  1 
1 

0 

^p    •    •©"To    •    •    -i/iooo    •    •    -omooccic    • 

^  :    :eco^    :    :    :  rf«x>  c^    :    :    :  cc  c^  M  -5<  ^  cc    : 

CO 

o      .3} 
•C       .0 

1 

o     .-co     O      OO'*'' 

Equal  to 
Nitrogen 

QMCO    oo  oo  oo  o  ^  m  co  co  cc  co  ^  «  x> 

71     fH                                                                                                                                  — 

Ammonia 

H(M                                                        H(N 

C     -  p£ 
O  93  §    7   . 

C  •  -<   j^   CXcgs 

T.0«oo«ooooooooo.ooeoooo 

•    •    •    •    :    T3-T3    •    •    •    • 

•::::::::::::   :   :  .2  >:;:: 

c  :  i   :::-   i  :::::   ::?§:::  i 
:       :*lJ3   :  ;  :ra  :  :  :  8^3  S  ': 

C           !/>•              .CJ03..03C3              -o 
r^    ^    O       "              •  4-J    C^3       "       *    fj    O       "       "    O 

'  ill 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE    SMALL    HOLDER   AS    A    MARKET 
GARDENER. 

Conditions  necessary  to  Success  —  Capital  Required — Physique — 
Industry  and  Concentration — Up-to-date  Methods — Intensive  Culture 
—Spade  Work. 

THE  ultimate  success  of  the  man  who  undertakes  market 
gardening  as  a  means  of  obtaining  a  livelihood  largely 
depends  upon  his  fitness  for  the  work.  It  is  an  occupation 
which  calls  for  judgment,  foresight,  resourcefulness,  untiring 
industry,  and  unfailing  optimism.  If  he  is  endowed  with  these 
qualities  his  prospects  of  success  will  then  depend  upon  his 
aims,  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  manner  in  which  he 
intends  to  realise  them,  and  the  means  at  his  command. 

Before  embarking  upon  the  serious  business  of  cultivating 
the  soil  for  a  living,  a  man  ought  to  have  in  hand  not  only 
enough  capital  to  provide  for  rent,  tools  and  appliances, 
manure,  seeds,  and  live-stock,  but  also  sufficient  for  his  family's 
maintenance  for  at  least  one  year.  Although  the  average 
returns  from  well-cultivated  land  may  be  calculated  with  a 
near  approach  to  accuracy  when  taken  over  a  sufficient 
number  of  years,  the  returns  in  any  given  year  are  very 
uncertain  because  of  irregular  climatic  conditions.  If  the 
holding  is  a  newly-formed  one  the  first  year's  occupation  of 
it  is  sure  to  be  beset  with  innumerable  unforeseen  items  of 
expense ;  if  fruit  trees  are  planted  upon  a  portion  of  the 
holding  these  will  be  several  years  before  yielding  any  appre- 
ciable return  for  the  capital  and  labour  expended  upon  them, 
and  the  cultivated  land  will  probably  require  a  season  or  two 
to  bring  it  into  good  condition.  In  addition,  there  is  always 
the  possibility  that  the  first  season  may  be  an  exceptionally 
cold  or  wet  one,  with  the  returns  from  crops  much  lower  than 
was  calculated  upon,  and  if  this  should  be  the  case  disaster 


40  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

will  not  be  far  away  unless  there  is  some  reserve  fund  to  fall 
back  upon.  Even  if  success  is  attained  in  the  end  lack  of 
sufficient  capital  must  entail  much  unnecessary  privation  and 
toil  in  the  early  years. 

Few  men  have  any  conception  of  the  labour  required  to 
make  a  small-holding  successful.  Given  a  strong  constitution 
the  work  is  healthful  and  adds  to  length  of  years,  besides 
being  pleasant  enough  when  one's  mind  and  body  have  become 
accustomed  to  it;  but  it  is  never  other  than  laborious.  No 
one  should  undertake  to  cultivate  the  soil  for  a  living  for  the 
first  time  after  middle  age,  and  at  no  time  is  the  work  suitable 
for  men  of  poor  physique.  The  long  hours  of  labour  and  the 
exposure  necessary  to  success — for  many  of  the  operations, 
such  as  summer  planting,  are  best  done  during  rain — must 
tell  heavily  against  a  feeble  constitution. 

Still,  when  all  has  been  said  there  still  remains  the  undeni- 
able truth  that  the  most  potent  factor  in  the  whole  situation  is 
the  man  himself.  Many  a  one  has  started  in  a  very  modest 
way  and  by  concentrating  his  energies  upon  only  so  much  of 
his  holding  as  the  means  at  his  command  would  enable  him  to 
do  well,  and  adding  to  his  income  by  working  for  others  in  his 
spare  time,  has  extended  his  operations  as  his  experience  and 
profits  have  grown,  until  at  last  he  has  attained  an  assured 
position.  It  must  therefore  suffice  to  utter  a  grave  warning 
to  those  who  contemplate  such  an  undertaking  that  it  should 
not  be  entered  upon  without  the  fullest  and  most  careful 
consideration. 

Under  any  circumstances  the  best  must  be  constantly  striven 
for  if  lasting  success  is  to  be  achieved.  Spasmodic  effort  will 
not  do ;  industry  and  attention  to  the  work  in  hand  must  be 
unremitting,  and  every  operation  carefully  studied.  The  man 
who  means  to  prosper  must  learn  and  put  in  practice  the 
principles  underlying  the  production  of  profitable  crops — soil 
management,  manuring,  the  rotation  of  crops,  the  manipula- 
tion of  tools  and  appliances,  the  methods  of  combatting  plant 
pests,  besides  the  general  routine  of  work  in  the  garden ;  last, 
but  by  no  means  least,  he  must  learn  the  best  methods  of 
marketing  his  crops  after  he  has  produced  them. 

Intensive  culture  should  also  receive  serious  attention.     It 


The  Small-holder  as  a  Market  Gardener.  41 

yields  remarkable  results  as  compared  with  ordinary  culture, 
and  its  special  value  to  the  small-holder  lies  in  the  fact  that 
its  principles  can  be  more  readily  and  less  expensively  applied 
on  a  small  than  on  a  large  scale.  It  is  a  system  in  which 
personal  care  is  an  extremely  important  factor  of  success,  and 
it  is  just  this  personal  attention  which  the  small-holder  is  in  a 
position  to  give. 

Modern  investigations  confirm  tne  experience  of  past  gener- 
ations that  the  proper  use  of  the  spade  by  manual  labour  is 
the  best  means  of  increasing  the  productive  power  of  the  soil, 
and  no  mechanical  appliance  yet  devised  is  equal  to  it  for 
efficient  work.  Cultivated  soil  teems  with  minute  organisms 
which  are  constantly  engaged  in  maintaining  its  fertility,  and 
spade  cultivation  surpasses  every  other  method  in  producing 
the  conditions  in  which  these  indispensable  bacteria  multiply 
most  rapidly.  As  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  by  hand  labour  is 
a  necessary  part  of  intensive  work,  that  becomes  an  additional 
reason  why  this  system  of  culture  should  appeal  strongly  to 
the  small-holder. 


CHAPTER  V. 
SELECTION   OF  A  SMALL   HOLDING. 

Situation — Aspect — Protection — Fences — Soil — Drainage — Manure — 

Area — Tenure. 

THE  first  condition  of  success  in  a  small  holding  is  that  it 
should  be  in  a  suitable  situation.  Mistakes  in  this  matter 
may  cause  failure  even  when  all  other  conditions  are  favour- 
able. The  best  position  is  undoubtedly  one  within  a  few  miles 
of  the  market  which  is  to  be  supplied,  and  this  is  especially 
necessary  when  the  main  produce  consists  of  bulky  green 
vegetables  or  quickly  perishable  articles,  or  when  it  is  intended 
to  develop  a  connection  with  shops,  hotels,  and  restaurants. 

Land  near  a  large  town  will  probably  be  highly  rented,  but 
a  few  extra  pounds  a  year  for  rent  is  a  small  matter  in  com- 
parison with  the  constant  saving  in  cartage  and  charges  for 
railway  carriage,  besides  the  great  convenience  of  being  able 
to  take  produce  to  its  destination  by  road  at  any  time  most 
suitable  to  the  grower  or  his  customer.  It  also  frequently 
happens  that  owing  to  scarcity  or  unusual  demand  prices  in 
the  markets  are  much  higher  on  some  days  than  on  others 
and  when  the  holding  is  situated  within  a  few  miles  these 
increased  rates  can  be  at  once  taken  advantage  of.  Besides 
this,  manure  can  frequently  be  drawn  back  on  the  return 
journey  and  so  obtained  at  a  tithe  of  what  it  would  cost  if 
brought  by  rail. 

If  a  holding  cannot  be  secured  near  a  populous  centre  the 
next  best  situation  is  one  near  a  railway  station  which  gives 
facilities  for  the  conveyance  of  produce  at  reasonable  rates 
to  a  number  of  provincial  markets.  Such  a  position,  although 
not  so  good  as  one  near  a  large  town,  has  usually  the  re- 
compense of  a  much  better  atmosphere  and  cheaper  land. 
A  situation  of  this  kind  would  be  suitable  for  the  lighter  and 
more  valuable  crops  and  those  not  quickly  perishable,  or  for 
a  direct  supply  business  in  small  parcels  by  rail  or  post. 


Selection  of  a  Small  Holding.  43 

The  aspect  of  the  land  is  of  great  importance,  as  it  may 
make  the  difference  of  a  week  or  more  in  the  maturing  of  a 
crop  even  in  the  same  locality,  and  it  is  surprising  what 
a  few  days  difference  will  effect  in  the  prices  realised  for 
early  produce.  A  square  or  oblong  and  fairly  level  piece  of 
ground  is  the  best  for  general  purposes,  as  it  is  the  most 
convenient  form  for  ease  and  economy  of  working  and  the 
soil  is  not  liable  to  be  washed  away  by  heavy  rains,  but  for 
intensive  work  a  gentle  slope  towards  the  south  will  greatly 
assist  in  securing  early  produce  both  from  frames  and  from 
the  open.  Providing  there  is  protection  from  cold  winds  a 
slight  turn  towards  the  south-east  has  some  advantages  over 
a  full  south  aspect ;  the  morning  sun  will  then  get  sooner  into 
frames  in  the  early  part  of  the  year,  and  during  the  heat  of 
summer  the  full  glare  of  the  sun  is  off  the  frames  earlier  in 
the  afternoon,  thus  giving  the  plants  more  time  to  recover 
from  intense  heat.  Failing  either,  a  turn  to  the  south-west  is 
not  to  be  despised.  The  worst  aspects  are  those  where  the 
whole  or  greater  part  of  the  land  has  a  decided  inclination 
towards  the  north,  north-east,  or  north-west,  but  where  the 
ground  is  undulating  such  slopes  can  be  turned  to  good  account. 
In  such  a  case  the  warmest  spots  would  be  selected  for  the 
earliest  crops,  the  main  crops  would  be  put  in  a  good  open 
position,  and  the  crops  which  stand  in  the  open  through  the 
winter  would  go  on  the  northerly  slopes ;  in  this  position  they 
would  be  more  likely  to  pass  safely  through  a  severe  winter, 
because  if  they  get  frozen  they  can  then  thaw  out  gradually 
before  coming  under  the  full  power  of  the  sun,  the  sudden 
thaw  which  comes  when  the  sun's  rays  strike  the  plant  doing 
more  damage  than  the  actual  freezing. 

Protection  from  cold  winds  is  very  necessary  if  forcing  and 
the  production  of  early  vegetables  is  to  form  part  of  the 
business ;  this  may  be  obtained  by  rising  ground  or  a  belt  of 
trees  on  the  north  and  east,  or  by  a  wall  or  close  boarded  fence 
all  round ;  but  protection  does  not  imply  a  position  hemmed 
in  and  overshadowed  by  tall  trees  or  buildings,  where  sun- 
light is  obstructed  and  the  atmosphere  is  stagnant.  For  the 
production  of  good  vegetables  full  sunlight  and  a  buoyant 
moving  air  are  essential,  besides  which  insect  and  fungoid 


44  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

pests,  particularly  the  latter,  flourish  most  in  dull  confined 
places. 

Good  sound  fences  round  the  holding  are  not  merely  desirable 
but  are  absolutely  necessary,  and  if  not  already  in  existence 
will  mean  a  serious  item  of  expense  to  the  tenant,  unless  an 
an  arrangement  can  be  made  for  the  owner  to  bear  the  cost. 

The  best  soil  for  general  purposes  combined  with  intensive 
culture  is  a  moderately  light  loam  of  good  depth.  It  is  not 
easy  to  secure  a  holding  with  such  a  soil  and  all  other  essential 
conditions;  therefore  one  must  be  content  with  the  nearest 
approach  to  it.  Most  soils,  however  unpromising,  can  be 
brought  into  fertile  condition  by  draining,  frequent  deep 
working,  liming,  and  the  addition  of  heavy  dressings  of  animal 
manure,  but  any  substantial  improvement  can  only  be  brought 
about  slowly  and  is  frequently  a  very  costly  business.  The 
man  with  small  means  should  avoid  thin  shallow  soils,  very 
open  and  dry  sandy  or  gravelly  soils,  and  heavy  undrained 
clays,  also  run-down  derelict  land  which  is  frequently  little 
else  than  a  nursery  ground  for  twitch,  thistles,  briars,  rabbits, 
and  other  abominations  from  the  gardener's  point  of  view; 
such  land  would  sometimes  cost  more  than  the  freehold  is 
worth  to  bring  it  into  good  condition, 

Whatever  may  be  the  description  of  soil  it  should  have  good 
drainage,  either  natural  or  artificial.  If  it  is  in  need  of 
drainage  and  that  expensive  operation  has  to  be  undertaken 
by  the  tenant  there  should  be  some  allowance  made  or  some 
important  advantage  should  be  present  as  a  compensation. 
When  draining  has  to  be  done  care  must  be  taken  to  see 
that  there  is  fall  enough  to  enable  the  water  to  get  away 
easily ;  drain-pipes  in  the  land  are  of  no  use  without  a  proper 
outfall.  Low  damp  situations  and  water-logged  soils  which 
cannot  easily  be  drained  should  always  be  avoided,  no  matter 
how  cheap  or  well-situated  the  land  may  be. 

An  unlimited  supply  of  good  water  is  essential,  especially 
where  intensive  work  is  to  be  carried  on,  as  copious  waterings 
must  often  be  given  to  these  crops.  Apart  from  the  domestic 
supply  this  may  be  obtained  from  river,  stream,  or  pond,  or 
from  public  water  mains;  water  from  wells  should  only  be 
used  in  the  last  resort,  as  it  frequently  contains  salts  which 


Selection  of  a  Small  Holding.  45 

are  injurious  to  plant  life.  Rainwater  is  the  best,  particularly 
for  seedlings  and  plants  in  frames,  and  provision  should  be 
made,  where  none  already  exists,  for  catching  and  storing 
the  rain  which  falls  on  the  roofs  of  the  various  buildings. 

High  cultivation  and  early  crops  must  usually  be  accom- 
panied by  a  plentiful  use  of  manure,  therefore  the  possibility 
of  obtaining  a  cheap  and  abundant  supply  must  be  carefully 
enquired  into.  The  quantity  required  will  depend  upon  the 
kind  of  culture  undertaken.  To  carry  out  the  scheme  sug- 
gested later,  of  fruit  and  vegetable  growing  combined  with  a 
little  intensive  culture  on  seven  acres,  about  one  hundred  tons 
will  be  required  annually,  but  if  a  larger  space  is  occupied  by 
intensive  work  the  amount  of  manure  required  will  be  in- 
creased proportionately. 

Too  much  land  should  not  be  taken.  Capital  sufficient  to 
properly  work  five  or  six  acres  would  be  totally  inadequate 
for  ten  or  fifteen  acres  in  the  same  branch  of  culture,  and 
whilst  success  might  be  attained  on  the  small  area  the  attempt 
to  work  the  larger  plot  with  insufficient  capital  would  probably 
end  in  failure. 

Finally,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  tenure  of  the  land  is 
secure  and  properly  safeguarded. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
DISPOSAL    OF    PRODUCE. 

Divisions  into  which  the  Business  may  be  Separated — Growing  for 
Market  —  Advantages  of  Specialization — Glutted  Markets  —  More 
Markets  Needed — Growing  for  Private  Trade — Regular  Supplies  and 
Numerous  Varieties  Essential — Increased  Cost  of  Production  but 
Better  Returns  and  Steady  Market — Limited  Choice  in  Selection  of 
Situation — Co-operation — Direct  Supply. 

HAVING  secured  a  suitable  and  well-situated  holding,  the 
next  step  is  to  decide  upon  the  particular  branch  of 
market  gardening  to  be  undertaken,  and  this  matter  requires 
much  thought  and  careful  calculation  before  a  decision  is 
come  to. 

There  are  two  distinct  divisions  into  which  the  business 
of  market  gardening  may  be  separated  —  that  of  growing 
produce  for  sale  in  public  markets  and  that  of  growing  it  for 
sale  in  particular  or  special  markets. 

In  growing  for  public  markets  the  crops  from  any  particular 
place  are  limited  in  number,  and  are  individually  much  larger 
in  extent  than  when  grown  for  private  trade,  the  aim  being  to 
produce  at  stated  times  large  supplies  of  those  things  for 
which  the  land  is  best  adapted  or  for  which  the  situation  is 
most  convenient.  In  many  districts  predominating  crops  are 
a  very  noticeable  feature,  and  this  is  also  the  case  with 
many  individual  market  gardens  worked  on  a  large  scale — 
certain  main  lines  are  made  a  specialty,  and  this  method  is 
found  to  be  the  most  profitable.  Crops  in  which  bulk  is  small 
in  relation  to  value,  or  those  which  need  not  be  put  on  the 
market  immediately  they  have  matured,  are  frequently  grown 
in  favourable  situations  remote  from  the  markets,  providing 
there  is  convenient  access  by  railway,  but  most  ordinary 
green  vegetables  are  grown  within  a  comparatively  few  miles 
of  the  greatest  centres  of  population,  where  labour  is  plentiful, 
manure  can  be  got  on  the  ground  cheaply,  and  the  produce  is 


Disposal  of  Produce.  47 

conveyed  to  market  by  road.  Under  such  circumstances  the 
prices  obtained  for  bulky  green  crops  are,  on  the  whole,  pro- 
fitable, but  the  same  prices  might  be  absolutely  ruinous  to  a 
grower  whose  land  is  situated,  say,  fifty  miles  away. 

With  specialisation  the  varieties  of  crops  are  fewer  in 
number  and  are  therefore  easier  to  cultivate  and  to  handle, 
nor  is  the  skill  required  so  great  or  so  varied  as  when  more 
numerous  varieties  in  smaller  quantities  have  to  be  raised 
in  regular  succession  ;  besides  which  neither  time  nor  ability 
are  called  for  in  effecting  sales,  as  this  is  done  by  the  regular 
commission  salesmen  in  the  markets. 

The  grower  who  adopts  this  method  of  business  can  confine 
his  attention  almost  entirely  to  the  work  upon  his  holding, 
with  very  obvious  advantages.  The  great  drawback  is  that 
the  choice  of  markets  is  comparatively  limited,  the  number 
of  markets  available  to  most  growers  being  much  too  few  to 
deal  effectively  and  satisfactorily  with  main  crop  supplies,  with 
the  result  that  they  become  congested  long  before  the  demand 
of  the  consumer  is  satisfied.  In  most  cases  the  produce  must 
be  sent  when  ready,  no  matter  what  the  state  of  supply  and 
demand  may  be,  and  it  is  sold  for  whatever  it  will  bring.  If 
it  should  arrive  on  a  glutted  market,  the  prices  realised  may 
be  entirely  unremunerative  or,  as  sometimes  happens,  there 
may  be  no  price  at  all. 

An  alternative  method  is  that  of  direct  sale  to  shops,  hotels, 
restaurants,  or  private  customers.  When  this  line  of  business 
is  adopted  it  is  necessary  to  produce  a  wide  range  of  varieties, 
combined  with  uniform  and  regular  supplies.  The  grower 
cannot  restrict  his  crops  to  those  for  which  his  soil  and  situ- 
ation are  best  adapted;  to  create  and  maintain  a  thriving 
business  he  should  be  prepared  to  supply  most  of  the  veget- 
ables and  fruits  required  by  any  ordinary  household,  and  to 
grow  these  well  on  soil  which  in  the  case  of  many  of  the 
crops  is  not  the  most  suitable,  calls  for  considerable  skill 
and  resourcefulness.  Additional  time  and  ability  are  also 
needed  to  find  and  secure  regular  customers.  It  is  obvious 
that  a  considerable  amount  of  time  must  be  occupied  in 
disposing  of  the  produce  in  this  manner  and,  of  course,  this 
seriously  curtails  the  amount  of  work  which  the  grower 


48  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

can  do  upon  the  land  and  unless  he  is  blessed  with  children 
who  are  old  enough  to  render  him  efficient  assistance,  or  has 
some  other  source  of  help  within  his  family  circle,  he  will 
have  to  engage  paid  labour.  This  all  tends  either  to  decrease 
the  output  or  to  increase  the  cost  of  production.  As  a  recom- 
pense this  outlet  for  the  produce  is  free  of  the  ruinously  low 
returns  which  too  frequently  come  from  a  glutted  market,  and 
the  grower  is  usually  able  to  obtain  prices  which  are  fairly 
steady  and  remunerative. 

The  particular  branch  which  will  be  adopted  by  the  small- 
holder may  be  decided  by  circumstances  over  which  he  has 
little  or  no  control.  In  many  cases  he  is  obliged  either 
to  take  whatever  land  is  offered  him  by  the  authorities  of 
his  district,  or  other  bodies  or  persons  who  have  the  disposal 
of  land  for  this  purpose,  or  go  without  a  holding.  Although 
such  land  may  not  exactly  conform  to  his  ideal  either  as 
regards  quality  or  situation,  it  may  yet  be  good  in  many 
respects  and  capable  of  being  worked  to  profit  along  some 
lines,  although  not  those  desired.  If  a  holding  is  taken  under 
such  circumstances  and  it  is  situated  in  a  locality  where 
market  gardening  is  already  carried  on  it  would  be  wise  to  be 
guided  by  the  practice  of  the  neighbourhood,  at  any  rate  until 
experience  is  gained  and  personal  initiative  is  safe. 

It  is  obviously  impossible  to  indicate  any  particular  branch 
of  the  market  gardening  business  which  would  be  the  most 
suitable  in  all  circumstances,  but  it  is  certain  that  isolated 
individuals  on  holdings  at  a  distance  from  markets  will  find  it 
almost  impossible  to  compete  successfully  with  growers  who 
work  large  areas  with  every  advantage  in  the  way  of  labour- 
saving  appliances.  That  being  so,  it  would  appear  that  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  at  least  until  the  number  of  small  local 
markets  is  greatly  increased  (and  such  a  development  is  ex- 
tremely desirable)  the  most  promising  methods  by  which  to 
dispose  of  produce  are  either  co-operation  or  direct  supply. 
Co-operative  distribution  appears,  theoretically,  to  make  it 
possible  for  small-holders  to  secure  some  of  the  advantages 
arising  from  an  aggregation  of  capital,  but  such  schemes  are 
still,  more  or  less,  in  the  experimental  stage  and  are  not  suffi- 
ciently numerous  at  present  to  be  of  any  assistance  to  the 


Disposal  of  Produce.  49 

majority  of  small  growers.  The  remaining  alternative  is  that 
of  direct  supply,  either  by  post  or  rail  or  by  personal  dealing 
with  customers.  In  this  direction  there  is  a  practically  un- 
limited demand  for  produce  of  good  quality,  and  this  method 
of  disposal,  if  followed  with  energy  and  persistence,  should 
lead  to  success. 

A  scheme  for  laying-out  a  holding  in  a  manner  suitable 
for  this  class  of  business  as  well  as  for  market  work,  together 
with  full  details  of  rotations  and  cropping,  will  be  found  in 
Chapter  VIII,  whilst  full  details  of  intensive  work  will  be 
found  in  Chapter  IX. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ROTATIONS  OF 
CULTIVATION,  MANURING,  AND    CROPPING. 

Reasons  for  Rotations  —  Difficulties  to  the  Gardener  of  a  perfect 
Rotation — Why  under  certain,  conditions  a  strict  Rotation  is  not 
essential — Rotation  of  Cultivation,  Manuring  and  Liming — Testing 
for  Lime — Rotation  of  Crops. 

ONE  of  the  first  principles  of  agriculture  is  that  one  crop 
shall  not  be  allowed  to  follow  another  of  the  same  kind 
on  the  same  soil.  The  basis  of  this  principle  is  that  although 
all  cultivated  plants  extract  the  same  foods  from  the  soil  there 
is  a  considerable  variation  in  the  quantities  they  use  of  any 
given  kind — one  variety  using  nitrogen  in  abundance,  another 
phosphates,  and  a  third  potash,  so  that  to  avoid  an  undue 
depletion  of  any  one  food  element,  and  to  maintain  a  fairly 
correct  balance,  it  is  necessary  to  change  the  crops  about, 
or,  in  other  words,  to  have  a  rotation. 

Another  important  reason  for  a  rotation  is  that  a  change  of 
crop  assists  to  keep  in  check  the  insect  and  fungoid  pests  with 
which  most  cultivated  plants  are  afflicted. 

Not  only  does  a  rotation  assist  to  preserve  a  proper  balance 
between  the  plant  foods  in  the  soil,  and  to  keep  in  check  the 
numerous  pests,  but  as  different  crops  need  widely  varying 
methods  of  cultivation,  manuring,  and  tillage,  by  moving 
them  about  so  as  to  gradually  apply  the  different  operations 
to  the  whole  area  the  soil  is  kept  in  a  sweet  and  wholesome 
condition,  it  is  more  easily  kept  free  of  weeds,  and  the  cultiva- 
tor is  enabled  to  maintain  its  texture  and  fertility  on  a  much 
smaller  outlay  for  manure  and  labour. 

But  a  perfect  rotation  is  practically  impossible  to  the  gar- 
dener who  is  obliged  to  produce  a  large  variety  of  crops  in 
constant  succession  from  a  small  area.  Not  only  has  he  to 
intercrop  in  order  to  make  the  most  of  the  space  at  his 
command — and  intercropping  practically  means  that  distinct 


•Rotations,  &c.  51 

classes  of  plants  are  standing  together  on  the  same  bed — but 
the  most  carefully-planned  scheme  is  liable  to  disarrange- 
ment by  unsuitable  weather,  the  attacks  of  birds  or  of  insects, 
and  other  unforeseen  circumstances  which  may  make  it  neces- 
sary at  short  notice  to  discard  one  crop  and  substitute  another 
of  an  entirely  different  kind. 

There  are  also  difficulties  in  the  way  of  arranging  a  perfect 
rotation  arising  from  the  fact  that  the  gardener  must  grow  the 
various  classes  of  crops  in  very  unequal  proportions  to  suit 
the  demand.  Fortunately,  whilst  he  cannot  altogether  ignore 
rotations  he  is  not  bound  to  them  to  nearly  the  same  extent 
as  is  the  farmer.  By  deep  and  thorough  cultivation  and  by 
systematically  fertilizing  the  soil  he  can  make  it  capable  of 
continuously  carrying  crops  in  a  way  which  cannot  be  done 
under  shallow  culture.  A  deeply  worked  and  well  fertilized 
soil  will  yield  good  crops  in  any  season,  even  if  a  strict  rotation 
is  not  followed,  whereas  a  shallow  soil  in  a  dry  season  may  be 
frequently  more  or  less  of  a  failure  in  spite  of  a  rotation.  The 
fact,  however,  still  remains  that  the  productiveness  of  the 
soil  and  the  health  and  vigour  of  the  crops  are  better  main- 
tained when  a  rotation  of  cultivating,  manuring,  and  cropping 
is  carried  out 

This  fact  should  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  when  planning 
successional  crops.  By  a  carefully-arranged  system  it  it  quite 
possible  to  secure  the  advantages  of  a  rotation  whilst  escaping 
any  bad  consequences  which  may  arise  from  its  omission. 
This  desirable  result  may  be  secured  by  dividing  the  vegetable 
garden  into  three  equal  parts,  each  part  to  be  bastard  trenched 
and  liberally  dressed  with  farmyard  manure  once  every  three 
years.  In  the  intervening  years  ordinary  digging  or  ploughing 
with  a  dressing  of  lime  would  follow  the  trenching,  and  similar 
cultivation  with  fertilizers  would  follow  the  lime. 

By  this  arrangement  the  soil  is  kept  in  high  condition  on 
the  least  expenditure  of  labour  and  manure.  Every  part  of 
the  ground  is  deeply  worked  periodically,  whilst  the  farmyard 
manure  which  is  given  at  the  same  time  keeps  up  the  neces- 
sary supply  of  humus.  Lime  follows  the  manure  because  it 
makes  available  the  inert  plant  foods  in  the  manure  which 
were  left  behind  by  the  previous  crop,  besides  keeping  the  soil 


52  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

sweet  and  friable.  Fertilizers  follow  lime  because  several  of 
them  need  lime  as  a  base  before  they  can  become  available 
as  food  for  the  plants. 

It  is  assumed  that  most  soils  will  be  benefited  by  frequent 
light  dressings  of  lime  in  some  form — either  quicklime,  ground 
limestone,  or  chalk.  Peaty  and  clay  soils  would  certainly  be 
greaty  improved  by  making  liming  a  part  of  the  rotation. 
There  are,  however,  some  which  already  contain  sufficient 
lime.  This  is  easily  ascertained ;  shake  up  about  an "  ounce 
of  soil  in  a  small  quantity  of  water,  then  add  a  little  hydro- 
chloric acid  (this  can  be  obtained  from  any  chemist).  If  there 
is  a  brisk  effervescence  sufficient  lime  is  present,  but  if  there 
is  little  or  no  effervescence  then  it  may  be  taken  for  granted 
that  dressings  of  lime  will  be  beneficial. 

Of  course  it  is  not  intended  that  such  a  scheme  of  manuring 
should  be  rigidly  adhered  to.  It  would  be  impossible  and  in- 
advisable to  confine  either  manure,  lime,,  or  fertilizers  strictly 
to  the  sections  assigned  to  them.  A  mulch  of  manure,  an 
additional  dressing  of  fertilizer,  or  a  sprinkling  of  lime  or  soot 
may  be  given  to  any  of  the  crops  as  the  necessity  arises. 
When  this  allowance  is  made  the  scheme  will  stand  as  a  work- 
able and  economical  basis  for  a  rotation.  But  farmyard 
manure  must  be  applied  with  no  niggardly  hand  to  the  section 
which  is  double-dug.  No  system  has  been  or  can  be  devised 
which  will  enable  good  crops  to  be  continuously  grown  unless 
the  land  is  kept  in  "good  heart."  For  heavy  or  peaty  soils 
at  least  thirty  tons  to  the  acre  should  be  given,  and  for  light 
soils  no  less  than  fifty  tons.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
Lime  and  lime  without  manure 
Will  make  both  farm  and  farmer  poor. 

The  crops  should  be  so  arranged  that  they  systematically 
follow  the  rotation  of  cultivation,  placing  them,  as  far  as  is 
practicable,  on  the  sections  which  have  been  treated  most 
in  accordance  with  their  requirements.  Their  positions  would, 
however,  be  regulated  largely  by  the  necessity  for  a  regular 
succession  and  constant  supplies.  A  detailed  plan  for  cropping 
on  these  lines  is  given  in  the  following  chapter. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  LAYING-OUT,  CULTIVATING,  AND  CROPPING 
OF  A  HOLDING  OF  FOUR  ACRES. 

Ideal  Arrangement  for  a  Market  Garden  Holding  —  Plan  —  Rota- 
tions of  Cultivation  and  Manuring  —  Intensive  Culture  —  Detailed 
Explanation  of  Plans — Plans  of  Intensive  Cropping,  with  Rotations 
for  Three  Consecutive  Years. 

r"PHE  market  garden  which  is  intended  to  produce  a  constant 
1  succession  of  vegetables  needs  very  careful  planning,  not 
only  to  ensure  a  suitable  rotation,  with  economy  of  labour  and 
manure,  but  also  to  utilize  the  best  aspects  and  most  protected 
positions  for  the  earliest  crops.  As  every  situation  has  its  own 
special  features  which  must  be  dealt  with  on  the  spot,  it  is 
impossible  to  do  more  here  than  give  an  indication  of  the  points 
it  is  necessary  to  observe.  This  is  the  purpose  the  following 
suggestions  are  intended  to  serve. 

The  Plan  on  the  following  page  shows  an  oblong  plot  of  four 
acres,  broad  sides  facing  north  and  south.  The  shape  of  the 
plot  is  important,  a  square  or  oblong  being  much  more  conve- 
nient and  taking  less  labour  to  cultivate  and  plant  than  one  of 
irregular  shape,  with  numerous  odd  corners.  The  size  is 
quite  immaterial,  and  the  same  arrangement  would  do  equally 
well  for  twenty  or  fifty  acres,  though  four  acres  appears  to  be 
a  convenient  size  for  a  small  holding  worked  intensively  and 
growing  both  vegetables  and  fruit.  If  worked  as  it  ought  to  be 
to  bring  the  greatest  return  for  capital  and  labour  expended,  it 
is  certainly  large  enough  to  fully  employ  and  ensure  a  comfort- 
able living  to  a  shrewd  hard-working  man  with  a  helpful  family, 
assisted  by  a  horse  and  occasional  labour  from  outside. 

On  the  west,  north,  and -east  sides  fruit  trees  and  bushes 
occupy  one-and-a-half  acres.  These  will,  after  a  few  years, 
afford  an  appreciable  amount  of  shelter  to  the  remaining  por- 
tion of  the  ground.  The  whole  plot  has  a  full  exposure  to  the 
south ;  it  is  very  important  that  nothing  should  be  permitted 
to  obstruct  full  sunlight  to  the  main  crops. 


54 


Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


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Laying-out  and  Cropping.  55 

Across  the  north  side  of  the  enclosed  portion,  within  the 
shelter  of  the  trees,  is  a  border  for  early  spring  crops.  This 
position  admits  full  sunshine  and  secures  whatever  shelter 
from  the  cold  north  winds  the  trees  and  bushes  can  give,  but 
to  make  the  protection  effective  a  row  of  straw-covered  hurdles 
should  be  placed  along  the  north  side  of  the  bed  until  the 
weather  becomes  mild. 

On  the  east  side  about  a  quarter  of  an  acre  is  filled  with  such 
crops  as  asparagus,  seakale,  rhubarb,  and  artichokes. 

On  the  south-west  corner  a  cottage  with  flower  garden,  out- 
buildings, packing  shed,  &c.,  are  shown  abutting  on  the  high 
road ;  these  take  up  about  a  quarter  acre.  The  frame  ground 
or  French  garden  takes  another  quarter,  whilst  a  quarter  is 
allotted  to  seed  beds,  plant  beds,  herb  beds,  the  early  border 
and  paths.  The  advantage  of  this  arrangement  is  that  the 
gardener's  cottage  is  in  the  midst  of  all  the  things  which  are 
likely  to  require  his  personal  attention  at  a  moment's  notice, 
whilst  the  west  side  of  the  holding  has  the  advantage  of 
catching  the  first  rays  of  the  morning  sun. 

A  plot  of  one-and-a-half  acres  is  thus  left  in  an  open  and 
sunny  position,  but  protected  on  three  sides  from  cold  winds; 
this  is  intended  for  vegetable  crops.  The  plot  is  divided  into 
three  sections  of  half  an  acre  each.  One  of  these  sections  will 
each  year  in  turn  be  bastard  trenched  and  heavily  dressed  with 
farmyard  manure — at  the  rate  of  from  thirty  to  fifty  tons  per 
acre,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  land.  The  remaining  two 
sections  will  be  dug  or  ploughed  in  the  ordinary  manner,  the 
one  which  was  double  dug  and  manured  the  previous  year 
receiving  a  dressing  of  ground  lime,  and  that  which  received 
lime  the  previous  year  now  getting  fertilizers,  in  kind  and 
quantity  as  required  by  the  individual  crops.  This  rotation  of 
cultivation  will,  of  course,  not  be  complete  until  the  third  year, 
and  as  a  preliminary,  before  the  rotation  is  begun,  the  whole  of 
the  ground  must  be  well  manured,  giving  only  thoroughly 
decayed  stuff  to  the  sections  reserved  for  roots. 

A  system  of  cropping  suitable  to  the  suggested  cultivation 
is  shown  in  the  Plans  appearing  at  the  end  of  this  chapter, 
each  of  which  gives  the  cropping  of  the  same  plot  in  the 
first,  second,  and  third  years  respectively.  On  each  plot  there 


56  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

are  three  sections  of  half-an-acre  each,  with  ten  divisions  in 
each  section,  each  division  representing  the  twentieth  part  of 
an  acre  or,  say,  a  piece  of  land  300ft.  long  by  7ft.  3in.  wide.  All 
the  crops  are  planted  in  long  rows,  running  north  and  south, 
an  arrangement  which  allows  the  sunlight  to  play  equally  on 
both  sides  of  the  row,  and  makes  the  work  of  cultivation,  either 
by  horse  or  hand  labour,  much  easier  than  when  the  crops  are 
put  in  beds. 

The  system  of  cropping  and  intercropping  shown  here, 
although  not  so  highly  intensive  as  French  gardening,  is 
planned  so  that  the  crops  appear  in  regular  and  constant 
succession  ;  they  follow  each  at  such  frequent  intervals  and 
overlap  in  such  a  way  that  the  soil  is  made  to  yield  all 
that  it  appears  capable  of  bearing  economically.  To  carry 
it  out  satisfactorily  the  ground  must  be  prepared,  the  seeds 
sown,  and  the  plants  set  each  at  their  appointed  time;  then, 
under  normal  conditions,  there  will  be  no  confusion,  and 
neither  space  nor  effort  will  be  wasted. 

The  scheme  is  particularly  suitable  for  a  garden  which 
produces  to  supply  private  customers  or  shopkeepers  direct, 
but  with  such  modifications  as  may  be  necessary  in  the 
number  and  variety  of  the  crops,  it  is  equally  applicable  to  a 
business  where  the  whole  of  the  produce  is  sent  to  market. 
By  observing  the  respective  proportions  the  scheme  can  be 
used  on  any  scale,  either  large  or  small,  and  could  be  very 
successfully  worked  in  a  kitchen  garden  or  allotment. 

In  actual  working  it  may  be  found  that  the  area  allotted  to 
each  vegetable  is  too  much  in  some  cases  and  too  little  in 
others.  The  demand,  which  will  vary  according  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  locality,  will  soon  make  this  point  clear. 
In  making  any  alteration  the  succeeding  crops  need  careful 
consideration. 

DETAILS  OF   ROTATION   AND  CROPPING. 

The  scheme  is  based  upon  a  system  of  cultivation  whereby 
one-third  of  the  land  is  bastard  trenched  (or  subsoil  ploughed) 
and  manured  each  year,  so  that  deep  working  and  manuring 
are  repeated  on  every  part  of  the  land  once  every  three  years. 
In  the  intervening  period  the  sections  are  worked  in  the  usual 


Laying-out  and  Cropping.  57 

manner,  whilst  lime  and  fertilizers  are  given  to  the  various 
crops  as  they  may  be  required. 

The  land  is  supposed  to  be  newly-broken,  and  in  order  to 
make  a  satisfactory  beginning  the  whole  is  thoroughly  manured 
before  any  cropping  is  begun — not  less  than  thirty  tons  an 
acre  where  the  land  is  heavy  and  of  fair  quality,  nor  less  than 
fifty  tons  an  acre  to  poor  or  light  land.  The  explanation  of  the 
cropping  rotation  is  as  follows : — 

Divisions  1  and  2. — These  are  planted  with  early  potatoes ; 
after  the  potatoes  are  lifted  strawberry  runners  are  planted  in 
August;  between  the  rows  of  strawberries  winter  spinach  is 
sown  in  September  and  turned  in  early  in  April.  In  the  second 
year  the  strawberries  fruit,  and  winter  spinach  is  again  sown 
between  in  September.  The  third  year  the  strawberries  bear 
for  the  second  time,  and  are  then  destroyed,  thus  completing 
the  rotation.  On  studying  the  Plan  it  will  be  seen  that  when 
the  rotation  is  complete  strawberries  occupy  two  divisions  on 
each  section — on  one  section  they  are  newly  planted,  but  on 
the  other  two  sections  there  are  always  strawberries  in  bearing. 

Division  3. — Mint  is  planted  here,  and  remains  until  the  end 
of  the  third  year,  when  it  is  lifted  for  forcing.  In  the  same  way 
as  strawberries,  mint  is  planned  to  occupy  a  place  on  each 
section,  in  different  stages,  one  being  cleared  and  one  replanted 
each  season^  To  give  these  two  subjects  entirely  fresh  ground 
after  bastard  trenching  any  section  the  arrangement  of  the  crops 
on  the  section  should  be  reversed  from  right  to  left,  1  taking  the 
place  of  10,  2  that  of  9,  and  so  on. 

Divisions  4,  5,  and  6. — Second  early  potatoes  are  planted  on 
4  and  5  and  shallots  on  6;  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  cleared 
cabbage  is  planted  18in.  apart  in  the  row  on  4,  and  15in. 
apart  in  the  row  on  5  and  6,  with  2ft.  space  between  the  rows. 
In  each  of  these  spaces  a  row  of  colewort  is  set,  1ft.  apart. 
From  December  onwards  the  "  collards "  are  cut  and  sold. 
In  February  broad  beans  are  dibbled  between  the  cabbages  in 
the  rows  on  4.  The  ground  between  the  rows  on  all  three 
divisions  is  dug  and  limed,  Early  in  May  French  beans  are 


58  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

sown  on  4  so  that  when  the  cabbages  are  gone  broad  and 
French  beans  stand  in  alternate  rows.  When  these  are  cleared 
from  this  division  the  ground  is  pointed  over  and  worked  down 
fine  and  onions  are  sown.  On  5  main-crop  and  late  peas  are 
sown  from  March  to  May ;  these  may  be  grown  without  sticks 
to  occupy  the  whole  space,  or  on  sticks  with  radish,  lettuce, 
spinach  and  turnips  between  alternate  rows.  On  6  runner 
beans  are  sown  early  in  May ;  these  are  to  be  grown  without 
sticks,  the  points  of  the  shoots  being  taken  out  to  keep  them 
dwarf.  In  the  spring  of  the  third  year  the  onions  on  4  are 
thinned ;  part  are  left  standing  to  make  bulbs  and  the  remainder 
are  bunched  and  sold.  When  peas  and  runner  beans  are 
cleared  from  5  and  6  in  the  second  year  the  ground  is  dug  and 
dressed  with  a  fertilizer,  then  planted  in  October  with  suitable 
varieties  of  cos  and  cabbage  lettuce  in  rows  3ft.  apart.  In  the 
following  February  the  spaces  between  the  rows  are  sown  with 
radish  and  spinach,  which  come  off  in  time  to  allow  the  ground 
to  be  prepared  on  5  for  vegetable  marrows  and  ridge  cucumbers 
and  on  6  for  tomatoes.  If  the  district  is  too  far  north  for 
tomatoes  to  ripen  this  division  may  be  filled  with  transplanted 
onions,  or  potatoes,  or  short-horn  carrots. 

Divisions  7  and  8. — Autumn  cauliflowers  are  planted  on  7 
and  summer  cabbage  on  8 ;  both  are  planted  2ft.  6in.  between 
the  rows,  and  a  crop  of  turnips  is  taken  from  between.  As 
soon  as  the  ground  is  cleared  it  is  dug  and  limed  and  lettuces 
are  set  out.  At  frequent  intervals  during  February  and  March 
first  and  second  early  peas  are  sown.  After  these  the  ground 
is  dressed  with  a  suitable  fertilizer,  well  hoed,  and  planted  with 
Brussels  sprouts,  broccoli,  savoy,  and  kale,  with  parsley  and 
cabbage  lettuce  seed,  mixed  together,  sown  between  the  rows, 
the  lettuce  being  thinned  to  1ft.  apart  as  soon  as  it  can  be 
handled.  After  the  brassicas  are  cleared  in  the  following  spring 
the  ground  is  thoroughly  worked  and  planted  with  main-crop 
potatoes,  dressed  with  fertilizer. 

Divisions  9  and  10. — On  these  two  sections  lettuce  plants  are 
set  out  in  February  and  autumn-sown  cauliflower  plants  set 
amongst  them  in  March.  The  cauliflower  are  cleared  early  in 


Laying-out  and  Cropping.  59 

July,  when  the  ground  is  immediately  prepared  for  celery  in 
trenches ;  after  the  planting  of  the  celery  is  completed  lettuce 
are  set  out  and  spinach  and  radish  sown  between  the  trenches. 
The  following  season  spring-sown  onions  occupy  these  two 
divisions,  and  in  the  third  season  they  are  filled  with  carrots, 
parsnips,  beet,  and  leeks. 

This  completes  the  three-years'  rotation  on  the  first  section ; 
on  examination  of  the  Plan  it  will  be  seen  that  the  second  year 
crop  on  the  first  section  is  that  of  the  first  year  on  the  third 
section,  whilst  the  crop  of  the  third  year  on  the  first  section  is 
that  of  the  first  year  on  the  second  section,  with  this  slight 
difference,  that  until  the  rotation  is  established  some  temporary 
crops  are  grown  on  the  second  and  third  sections  in  the  first 
and  second  years  only ;  from  the  third  year  onward  the  crops 
and  rotation  as  explained  above  in  detail  occupy  in  turn  the 
sections  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram. 


First 

Second 

Third 

Section. 

Section. 

Section. 

1 

3 

2 

2 

1 

3 

3 

2 

1 

1 

3 

2 

2 

1 

3 

3 

2 

1 

The  method  of  cropping  the  bed  for  the  earliest  spring  crops 
and  the  treatment  of  asparagus,  seakale,  rhubarb,  artichokes, 
&c.,  will  be  found  in  the  cultural  details  given  later. 


60 

PLAN    OF   ROTATION  AND   INTENSIVE   CROPPING. 

FIRST   YEAR  (newly-broken  ground). 
FIRST  SECTION,  Bastard  Trenched  and  Manured. 


1  Early  Potatoes        | 
2  Early  Potatoes         j 

Followed  by  Strawberries, 
with  winter  Spinach  between. 

3  Mint 

4  Second  Early  Potatoes 

1                              Followed  by  Colewort  and 
spring  Cabbage. 

5  Second  Early  Potatoes 

6  Shallots                                   j 

7  Autumn  Cauliflowers     } 

betw^n.                 Followed  by  winter  Lettuce. 

8  Summer  Cabbage 

q  Early  Lettuce 
Early  Cauliflower  between 

(Followed  by  Celery  with  summer  Lettuce,  Radish, 
and  Spinach  between. 

in  Early  Lettuce 
Early  Cauliflower  between 

SECOND  SECTION,  Bastard  Trenched  and  Manured. 


11  Spring-sown  Onions      )                    LT^sj 
\                   part  of 

two  spaces  of  Onions  are  not 
the  rotation,  but  are  used  to  fill 
ground  until  the  second  year, 
Strawberries  follow  E.  Potatoes. 

12  Spring-sown  Onions      j                    when\ 

13  Brussels  Sprouts                          Temporary  crop  -^n  the  rotation  this  space  is 

14  Vegetable  Marrows  and  Cucumbers 

Temporary  crop. 

15  Radishes  with  Spinach  between,  followed 

by  Tomatoes 

16  Main-crop  Potatoes 

Temporary  crop. 

17  Main-crop  Potatoes 

18  Main-crop  Potatoes 

19  Parsnips,  Beet,  Leeks 

20  Carrots 

THIRD  SECTION,  Bastard  Trenched  and  Manured. 


21  Main-crop  Potatoes 


22  Main-crop  Potatoes 


These  Potatoes  are  not  in  the  rotation, 
they  will  be  followed  by  Onions  and  in 
the  third  year  the  rotation  crops  will 
be  Strawberries  after  Early  Potatoes, 


23  Runner  Beans 


Temporary  crop  ;  in  the  rotation  this  space  is 
reserved  for  Mint. 


...  Broad  Beans 
French  Beans 


Followed  by  Autumn-sown  Onions. 


25  Main-crop  and  late  Peas. 


26  Runner  Beans. 


Followed  by  Cabbage  Lettuce. 


27  First  Early  Peas,  followed  by  Brussels  Sprouts 


28  Second  Early  Peas,  followed  by  Broccoli, Savoy,  and  Kale 

29  Spring-sown  Onions 


L  Parsley  and  Cab.  Lettuce 
[    sown  together  between, 


30  Spring-sown  Onions   '• 


61 
PLAN    OF   ROTATION   AND   INTENSIVE   CROPPING. 

SECOND    YEAR   (incomplete  rotation). 
FIRST  SECTION,  Dug  and  Dressed  with  Lime. 

1  Strawberries      ) 

I  hirst  year  or  Fruiting. 

2  Strawberries     )  Winter  Spinach  between- 


I    3  Mint 


i^c     -^r-KK^        A  n  i          <-    '  Broad  Beans  between  Cabbage  (,  Followed  by 

4  Spnng  Cabbage  and  Colewort    -(  French  Beang  between  rows       f  Autumn-sown  Oni 


,  Spring  Cabbage  and  Colewort  Followed  hv  Cos  I  ptturp 

5  Main-crop  and  late  Peas  between hollowed  by  Cos  Lettuce. 


Followed  by  Cabbage  Lettuce. 


7  First  Early  Peas,  followed  by  Brussels  Sprouts |_    Parsley  and  Cab   Lettuce 

sown  together  between. 

8  Second  Early  Peas,  followed  by  Broccoli,  Savoy,  and  Kale  j 


9  Spring-sown  Onions 


10  Spring-sown  Onions 


SECOND  SECTION,  Bastard  Trenched  and  Manured. 


11  Early  Potatoes         ) 

Followed  by  Strawberries, 


12  Early  Potatoes         |  with  winter  Spinach  between. 


13  Mint 


14  Second  Early  Potatoes 


,5  Second  Earty  Potatoes 


16  Shallots 


17  Autumn  Cauliflowers     \ 

Retween  Followed  by  winter  Lettuce. 

18  Summer  Cabbage  >  Between. 


,Q  Early  Lettuce 

Early  Cauliflower  between  I         Followed  by  Celery  with  summer  Lettuce,  Radish, 
<20  Early  Lettuce  j  »nd  Spinach  between. 

Early  Cauliflower  between . 


THIRD  SECTION,  Dug  and  Dressed  with  Fertilizers. 


21   Sorine-sown  Onions       ^  These  Onions  are  not  in  the  rotation; 

the  rotation  crops  for  these  two  spaces 
•r)  «:„,.•  r\   •  ™Ul    be    begun  next  season   by   Early 

22J>pnng.sown  On.ons      I Potatoes  followed  by  Strawberries^ 

Temporary  crop ;  in  the  rotation  this  space  it 
23  Vegetable  Marrows  and  Cucumbers  reserved  for  Mint. 


24  Autumn-sown  Onions,  thinned  out. 


25  Transplanted  Onions,  sown  previous  autumn.  Temporary  crop. 


27  Brussels  Sprouts  ) 

Followed  by  main-crop  Potatoes. 

28  Broccoli,  Savoy,  and  Kale   ' 


29  Parsnips,  Beet,  Leeks 
j  30  Carrots 


62 

PLAN   OF   ROTATION  AND  INTENSIVE  CROPPING. 

THIRD    YEAR  (rotation  now  complete). 
FIRST  SECTION,  Dug  and  Dressed  with  Fertilizers. 


1  Strawberries     \ 

Winter  Spinach  between, 
ear  of  Fruiting,  after  fruiting  cut  out. 

Second  5 
2  Strawberries      ) 

3  Mint,  lift  in  November  for  forcing 

4  Autumn-sown  Onions,  thinned  out. 

-  Cos  Lettuce 
Radish  or  Spinach  between 

Followed  by  Vegetable  Marrows  and 
Ridge  Cucumbers. 

fi  Cabbage  Lettuce 
Radish  or  Spinach  .between 

Followed  by  Tomatoes. 

7  Brussels  Sprouts                  *| 

Followed  by  Main-crop  Potatoes. 

8  Broccoli,  Savoy,  and  Kale  J 

9  Parsnips,  Beet,  Leeks 

10  Carrots 

SECOND  SECTION,  Dug  and  Dressed  with  Lime. 


11  Strawberries            "| 

First  year  of  Fruiting. 
Winter  Spinach  between. 

12  Strawberries 

13  Mint 

14  ^nrintf  Pahha^.  and  Tnlpwnrt    fBroad  Beans  between  Cabbage^)            Followed  by 
14  Spring  Cabbage  and  Colewort    [French  Beans  between  rows     }  Autumn-sown  Onions 

,-  Spring  Cabbage  and  Colewort 
Main-crop  and  late  Peas  between 

Followed  by  Cos  Lettuce. 

]e  Spring  Cabbage  and  Colewort 
Runner  Beans  between 

Followed  by  Cabbage  Lettuce. 

17  First  Early  Peas,  followed  by  Brussels 

Sprouts                  Y     Parsley  and  Cab.  Lettuce 

18  Second  Early  Peas,  followed  by  Broccol 

sown  together  between, 
i,  Savoy,  and  KaleJ 

19  Spring-sown  Onions 

20  Spring-sown  Onions 

THIRD  SECTION,  Bastard  Trenched  and  Manured. 


21 

Early  Potatoes         \ 

Followed  by  Strawberries, 
with  winter  Spinach  between. 

22 

Early  Potatoes         ) 

28 

Mint 

24 

Second  Early  Potatoes        \ 

Followed  by  Colewort  and 
spring  Cabbage. 

25 

Second  Early  Potatoes 

26 

Shallots 

27 

Autumn  Cauliflowers    ) 

bItweePn                   Followed  by  winter  Lettuce. 

28 

Summer  Cabbage           j 

2* 

Early  Lettuce 
Early  Cauliflower  between  1 

Followed  by  Celery,  with  summer  Lettuce,  Radish, 
and  Spinach  between. 

M 

Early  Lettuce 
Early  Cauliflower  between 

Alter  a  Section  is  trenched  change  the  crops  over  from  one  side  to  the  other. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
FRENCH    GARDENING. 

"While  science  devotes  its  chief  attention  to  industrial  pursuits,  a 
limited  number  of  lovers  of  nature  and  a  legion  of  workers  whose  very 
names  will  remain  unknown  to  posterity  have  created  of  late  a  quite  new 
agriculture,  as  superior  to  modern  farming  as  modern  farming  is  superior 
to  the  old  three  fields  system  of  our  ancestors  .  .  .  They  smile  when 
we  boast  about  the  rotation  system  having  permitted  us  to  take  from  the 
field  one  crop  every  year,  or  four  crops  each  three  years,  because  their 
ambition  is  to  have  six  and  nine  crops  from  the  very  same  plot  of  land 
during  the  twelve  months.  They  do  not  understand  our  talk  about  good 
and  bad  soils  because  they  make  the  soil  themselves.  .  .  ."- 

KROPOTKIN,  Fields,  Factories,  and  Workshops. 

IT  was  not  until  Kropotkin  brought  the  achievements  of 
the  Paris  maraicher  in  the  cultivation  of  vegetables  pro- 
minently before  the  notice  of  British  readers  that  much 
attention  was  paid  in  this  country  to  the  system  of  intensive 
culture  now  popularly  known  as  "  French  gardening."  Follow- 
ing the  publication  of  his  book  interest  was  gradually  aroused, 
until  at  length  a  body  of  English  horticulturists  visited  the 
Paris  gardens  to  inquire  into  the  matter  for  themselves.  As 
a  result,  gardens  were  laid  out  and  equipped  on  similar  lines 
in  1905  at  Evesham  in  Worcestershire,  and  in  1906  at  Mayland 
in  Essex,  followed  by  a  number  of  others,  large  and  small,  in 
various  parts  of  the  country. 

Since  that  time  French  gardening  has  been  made  responsible 
for  many  exaggerated  statements,  especially  relative  to  the 
profits  to  be  derived  from  it,  and  many  entirely  unsuitable 
persons  have  thus  been  induced  to  spend  their  capital  in 
projects  which  will,  it  is  to  be  feared,  in  many  cases  end  in 
serious  loss. 

But  intensive  culture  needs  no  bolstering  up  by  exaggeration. 
Providing  the  gardener  is  experienced  and  the  situation  suitable 
the  crops  which  can  be  obtained  under  this  system  are 
astounding  to  a  person  who  is  only  acquainted  with  ordinary 


64  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

methods.  Under  such  conditions  it  is  not  at  all  difficult  to 
take  six  or  seven  crops  in  the  season  from  the  same  soil,  and 
moreover  the  produce  is  earlier,  of  better  average  quality, 
stands  thicker  on  the  ground,  and  brings  higher  prices  than 
does  that  grown  in  the  usual  way. 

Cultivation  on  similar  lines  to  those  followed  in  the  Paris 
gardens  has  been  carried  on  for  generations  in  many  English 
gardens  to  a  very  limited  extent  and  for  special  purposes,  but 
French  gardeners  have  elaborated  the  culture  into  a  system 
which  embraces  the  whole  garden  and  the  year  round,  until 
it  has  developed  into  an  important  national  industry  which 
produces  both  for  home  production  and  for  export. 

When  first  the  French  system  of  growing  early  salad  crops 
was  brought  prominently  before  public  notice  many  English 
gardeners  asserted  that  our  climate,  being  humid  and  scant 
of  sunlight  in  the  winter  and  early  spring  months,  was  quite 
unsuitable  for  this  culture.  Experience  has  proved  that 
this  objection  is  mistaken ;  during  the  few  years  in  which 
the  system  has  been  in  operation  here  on  a  commercial 
scale  there  has  been  no  difficulty  in  placing  on  the  market 
early  produce  quite  equal  in  every  respect  to  that  which  is 
imported. 

If  the  wonderful  crops  obtained  by  the  maraichers  cannot  be 
ascribed  to  their  climate  neither  can  their  natural  soil  be  held 
accountable,  because  after  a  garden  has  been  in  operation  for 
a  few  years  the  original  soil  is  scarcely  brought  into  use  at  all. 
In  old-established  gardens  the  whole  of  the  open  ground  is 
practically  a  mass  of  light  vegetable  mould,  a  foot  or  more  in 
depth.  This  mould  was  originally  introduced  into  the  garden 
as  straw  manure  for  hot-beds,  but  time  and  use  have  broken 
up  and  decomposed  it  so  thoroughly  that  it  has  become  a  light, 
rich,  porous  soil,  and  the  use  of  this  material  for  all  cultural 
purposes  makes  the  maraichers  quite  independent  of  the 
natural  soil.  So  systematic  has  the  manufacture  of  this 
artificial  soil  become  that  it  is  a  regular  stipulation  that  each 
may,  on  quitting  his  tenancy,  carry  his  soil  to  a  certain  depth 
away  with  him. 

The  Paris  gardens  are,  as  a  rule,  comparatively  small, 
varying  from  half  an  acre  to  two  acres  in  extent.  Each  is 


French  Gardening.  65 

surrounded  by  stone  walls  which  reflect  the  light  and  heat  of 
the  sun  and  keep  out  the  cold  biting  winds  of  spring.  For  the 
earliest  crops  the  soil  is  warmed  by  beds  of  slowly-fermenting 
manure  which  retains  some  degree  of  warmth  until  the  sun 
gets  powerful  in  the  spring.  The  plants  on  these  warm  beds 
are  protected  by  frames  or  bell-glasses  which  retain  the  heat 
and  moisture.  On  cold  nights  and  during  hard  weather  these 
appliances  are  covered  closely  with  straw  mats  to  conserve  the 
heat  and  to  keep  out  frost.  Later  in  the  season  the  plants  are 
grown  entirely  in  the  open-air,  but  whether  in  the  open  or 
under  glass  they  are  never  allowed  to  receive  a  check ;  they 
are  kept  steadily  and  rapidly  moving  from  the  time  they  are 
set  out  until  the  crop  is  gathered. 

In  these  gardens  it  is  an  almost  invariable  rule  to  grow  to- 
gether on  the  same  bed  two  or  more  crops,  one  of  which  is 
quickly  ready  whilst  the  other  matures  more  slowly ;  by  careful 
management  this  intercropping  is  accomplished  without  over- 
crowding and  with  very  little  inconvenience. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  of  success  in  securing 
numerous  and  abundant  crops  consists  in  giving  the  plants  all 
the  water  they  require  during  the  growing  season.  Under 
ordinary  cultivation  very  few  plants  get  anything  like  the 
quantity  of  water  they  need  to  bring  them  to  perfection,  but 
in  the  French  garden  their  requirements  in  this  respect  are 
most  assiduously  attended  to.  The  earliest  crops  on  hot-beds 
seldom  need  watering,  enough  moisture  being  present  in  the 
manure  to  fully  supply  them,  but  later  crops  and  those  which 
stand  in  the  open  during  the  summer  months  are  watered 
systematically;  not  in  driblets,  just  to  keep  them  alive  during 
a  drought,  but  in  daily  soaking  showers.  This  watering  is  per- 
sisted in  unless  the  weather  sets  in  really  wet,  occasional  slight 
falls  of  rain  being  taken  little  notice  of.  The  result  is  contin- 
uous and  rapid  growth.  Needless  to  say,  under  such  circum- 
stances ample  drainage  must  be  provided,  particularly  on  heavy 
soil.  No  plants  will  thrive  when  their  roots  are  waterlogged. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  whole  system  is  comprised  in 
the  provision  of  shelter  and  protection,  warm  and  rich  soil, 
abundant  moisture  and  good  drainage,  with  a  careful  arrange- 
ment of  inter-  and  successional  cropping. 


66  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Every  detail  of  work  and  every  appliance  used  is  specially 
adapted  to  the  purpose  it  has  to  serve,  and  is  the  result  of 
continuous  improvement  through  many  years  of  experience. 
Only  a  limited  range  of  crops  is  grown  in  one  garden,  and  by 
the  gardener  devoting  himself  entirely  to  these  he  becomes 
super-skilled  in  producing  them.  In  the  particular  kind  of 
French  garden  which  is  being  imitated  in  so  many  places  in 
England  at  the  present  time  the  production  of  early  salad 
crops,  followed  in  summer  by  cantaloup  melons  or  cucumbers, 
is  made  the  principal  feature. 

The  arrangement  of  the  garden  is  planned  so  that  the  whole 
area  is  used  to  its  utmost  capacity  for  the  production  of  crops 
in  regular  sequence,  without  waste  of  time,  labour,  or  space. 
It  is  divided  into  equal  sections,  each  of  which  will  accom- 
modate a  certain  number  of  frames  or  bell-glasses.  On  some 
of  the  sections  these  appliances  are  placed  over  hot-beds,  on 
others  they  cover  cold-beds,  whilst  the  remaining  sections  are 
planted  with  open-air  crops.  The  hot-beds  are  put  on  a  fresh 
section  each  winter,  so  that  they  pass  regularly  round  the 
garden,  enriching  and  cleansing  the  ground  as  they  go. 

In  every  garden  water  is  conveyed  by  underground  pipes  to 
numerous  convenient  points,  so  that  every  part  of  the  garden 
can  be  watered  easily  by  means  of  a  hose-pipe.  Large  quan- 
tities of  good  straw  stable  manure  are  used  annually,  as 
much  as  five  hundred  tons  per  acre  being  not  unusual.  In 
some  of  the  larger  gardens  a  light  tramway  is  laid  to  facilitate 
the  removal  of  manure,  soil,  and  produce  from  place  to  place. 

It  will  be  obvious  that  a  large  amount  of  capital  is  required 
to  equip  and  carry  on  a  French  garden  of  from  one  to  two 
acres — so  much  that  such  an  undertaking  is  quite  impossible 
to  a  person  of  limited  means.  The  sum  needed  will  vary  con- 
siderably according  to  circumstances  and  situation,  but  the 
average  is  not  likely  to  be  less  than  £800  per  acre  to  start 
and  carry  on  through  the  first  season,  whilst  the  annual 
expenses  afterwards  for  labour,  manure,  rent,  water,  carriage, 
and  sundries  will  probably  run  to  quite  £350  per  acre. 

It  naturally  follows  that  the  returns  must  be  very  high  to 
make  such  a  business  profitable,  but  the  difference  between 
expenditure  and  income  is  not  so  much  in  the  grower's 


French  Gardening.  67 

favour  as  to  warrant  the  absurdly  high  expectations  which 
have  been  encouraged  in  connection  with  this  culture.  The  w 
first  three  years  of  a  newly  formed  garden  cannot  show  much, 
if  any,  profit  at  all,  because  during  that  time  great  quantities 
of  manure  must  be  brought  into  the  garden  so  as  to  hasten  the 
formation  of  that  artificial  soil  which  is  one  of  the  necessary 
conditions  of  success,  and  in  other  ways  the  expenditure  is 
above  the  average,  whilst  production  has  not  reached  the  maxi- 
mum. Three  years  ago  (1907)  the  expected  net  profit  of  the 
maraichers  amounted  to  between  £50  and  £60  an  acre,  which 
is  not  particularly  high  considering  the  large  amount  of  capital 
at  stake,  and  as  good  English  produce  realised  equal  or  better 
prices  than  the  imported,  such  a  profit  might  reasonably  be 
expected  by  the  proprietors  of  well.-managed  and  well-situated 
gardens  in  England.  Since  that  time,  however,  the  price 
obtained  in  Coven t  Garden  market  for  early  salads  has  shown 
a  decided  downward  tendency,  owing  probably  to  increased 
supplies,  whilst  the  cost  of  manure  is  rising.  As  a  consequence 
the  expectation  of  profits  must  be  now  set  lower  than  was  the 
case  three  years  ago. 

French  gardening,  as  a  specialised  business,  is  therefore 
not  to  be  recommended  except  under  really  favourable  con- 
ditions, but  the  system  is  rich  in  hints  and  suggestions  of 
great  value,  which  can  be  turned  to  profitable  account  by  the 
market  gardener.  It  may  not  be  wise  to  undertake  on  an  ex- 
tensive scale  the  culture  of  very  early  out-of-season  vegetables 
which  entail  so  much  expense  for  appliances,  manure,  and 
labour,  but  the  culture  is  remunerative  when  conducted  on  a 
small  scale  to  supply  a  known  demand,  whilst  there  is  not 
the  least  doubt  that  crops  which  are  ready  a  week  or  two 
before  those  produced  under  ordinary  conditions  can  be  made 
to  pay  the  grower  handsomely.  In  the  following  chapters  the 
appliances  and  methods  which  contribute  to  this  desirable 
result  will  be  described  and  discussed. 


CHAPTER  X. 
FRENCH  GARDEN.— EQUIPMENT. 

The  Light :  structural  details — The  Frame  :  structural  details—- 
The Cloche— Cloche  Carrier— Cloche  Peg— How  to  Store  Cloches- 
How  to  Repair  Cloches — Mats — Frame  for  Mat-making — How  to  Make 
Mats — Water — Plan  of  French  Garden  and  Water  System — Equip- 
ment of  Two-acre  Garden. 

EVERY  intensive  grower  of  vegetables,  no  matter  how 
small  his  garden  may  be,  needs  some  means  of  raising, 
growing-on,  and  hardening-off  plants  so  as  to  have  them  ready 
for  setting  out  in  their  permanent  quarters  in  the  open  as  soon 
as  the  weather  conditions  permit  with  safety.  This  need  is 
even  more  imperative  when  crops  are  intended  to  be  ready  for 
use  some  time,  whether  it  be  long  or  short,  before  those  which 
are  produced  under  normal  conditions.  By  the  use  of  various 
protective  appliances  the  gardener  becomes,  in  a  measure, 
independent  of  season  and  climate. 

Amongst  the  numerous  devices  which  are  used  for  this 
purpose  nearly  all  have  glass  interposed  between  the  plant  and 
the  natural  weather  conditions.  In  most  cases  the  glass  is  kept 
in  position  by  means  which  cause  some  hindrance  to  the  full 
and  free  access  of  daylight  to  the  plants  under  protection, 
and  in  every  case  where  green  vegetables  are  being  grown  all 
such  hindrances  to  light  increase  the  difficulty  of  producing 
a  really  first-class  sample. 

For  this  reason,  amongst  many  others,  the  "  frame  "  is  one 
of  the  most  serviceable  appliances  the  intensive  gardener  can 
use.  The  plants  in  them  can  be  kept  near  the  light,  within  a 
few  inches  of  the  glass,  where  they  grow  practically  as  robust 
and  sturdy  as  they  do  later  in  the  open-air,  and  their  needs 
can  be  easily  attended  to,  whether  it  be  watering,  ventilating, 
or  transplanting.  In  frames  crops  can  be  forced,  forwarded, 
or  protected  to  perfection ;  they  can  be  kept  in  use  the  year 
round,  they  can  be  easily  moved  from  place  to  place,  and  they 
are  cheap. 


French  Garden. — Equipment.  69 

The  dimensions  of  the  frame  are  regulated  by  the  size  of  the 
lights  in  use.  The  size  of  these  is  immaterial,  providing  they 
are  serviceable  and  convenient;  but  whatever  the  size  used 
they  should  be  uniform  and  interchangeable.  When  the  lights 
and  frames  in  a  garden  are  of  varying  sizes  the  result  is 
frequent  confusion  and  loss  of  time. 

If  frames  and  lights  are  to  be  made  or  bought  it  would  be 
advisable  to  have  them  somewhat  of  the  size  and  construction 
of  those  used  in  the  French  garden,  as  these  possess  several 
advantages  over  ordinary  ones.  They  are  of  a  size  which 
makes  it  possible  for  one  man,  whenever  necessary,  to  move 
them  from  place  to  place,  and  where  much  of  the  work  has 
frequently  to  be  done  single-handed  the  advantage  of  this  is  at 
once  apparent.  These  French  garden  lights  are  made  with 
narrower  styles  than  ordinary  ones,  and  have  tee-iron  sash 
bars,  both  of  which  differences  have  the  effect  of  admitting 
more  light,  but  as  it  is  not  easy  to  get  such  improvements 
unless  orders  are  placed  for  fairly  large  quantities,  it  will  be 
best  for  the  man  in  a  small  way  to  be  content  with  those  made 
from  material  stocked  by  any  horticultural  builder,  especially 
as  excellent  results  can  be  obtained  from  their  use.  The 
dimensions  following  are  calculated  from  stock  material. 

The  Light  should  be  made  to  take  four  rows  of  21oz.  glass, 
lOin.  wide  by  12in.  deep,  with  |in.  overlap;  this  gives  sixteen 
panes  to  a  light,,  and  allowing  for  the  wood  gives  a  light  3ft. 
llin.  wide  and  4ft.  Sin.  deep.  The  glass  must  be  bedded  in 
putty,  and  should  also  have  top  putty,  so  as  to  prevent  "  drip." 
Each  light  should  before  use  have  three  coats  of  paint  or  two 
coats  of  Stockholm  tar  put  on  hot.  Once  each  year  every 
light  should  be  cleaned  and  re-painted,  and  all  putty  made 
sound  where  it  is  in  any  way  faulty. 

The  "  horn "  or  projecting  wood  at  each 
corner  of  a  light  which  is  left  to  strengthen 
the  mortice  and  tenon  joint,  should  not  be 
more  than  lin.  long,  otherwise  it  interferes 
unduly  with  the  pathway  between  the  frames, 
.which  would  have  to  be  wider  than  necessary, 
"Horn"  of  Light.  an(j  so  vaiuable  space  would  be  wasted. 

Two  handles  are  fixed  on  each  light,  one  at  the  top  and  one 


70  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

at  the   bottom,  on  the   upper   surface, 

about   lin.  from  the  edge.     These  are 

made  of  iin.  round  iron,  and  fit  into 

galvanized     screw-eyes.       In     putting 

on    the    handles    the  "eyes"  are    first 

screwed   into   position  and  the  handle  Handle  of  Light. 

is  bent  a  little  in  the  middle  so  as  to  get  the  ends  into  the 

eyes,  when  a  sharp  tap  with  a  hammer  in  the  middle  of  the 

handle  makes  it  secure;  when  not  in  use  the  handle  lies  flat 

on  the  frame. 

Unglazed  lights  of  this  size  can  be  bought  in  moderate  quan- 
tities at  3/9  to  4/-  each,  and  the  remainder  of  the  material 
(paint,  putty,  glass,  handles  and  tacks)  will  bring  the  total  cost 
to  about  7/-.  If  the  prepared  wood  is  bought  and  the  lights 
made  at  home  the  total  cost  of  each  will  be  about  5/6. 

The  Frame  is  made  of  unplaned  lin. yellow  or  red  pine  boards. 
It  is  made  to  take  three  lights,  which  touch  each  other  when 
on  the  frame,  having  no  "  runners  "  to  divide  them,  and  they 
come  flush  with  the  outsides  of  the  frame  all  round;  allowing 
for  three  lights  of  the  size  given  the  frame  will  therefore  be 
lift.  9in.  long  by  4ft.  3m.  wide,  outside  dimensions.  The  back 
is  9in.  high  and  the  front  7in.,  whilst  the  ends  are,  of  course, 
cut  to  slope  from  9in.  to  7in. 

At  each  corner  of  the  frame,  inside,  is  an 
oak  leg,  2|in.  by  2£in.,  to  which  the  boards 
are  firmly  nailed  or  screwed.    This  leg  comes 
within  iin.  of  the  top  of  the  frame  and  pro-        Leg  of  Frame 
jects  Ijin.  below  it. 


Frame  and  Lights. 


Fren  ch  Garden. — Equip  men  t. 


71 


Stops. 


Two  movable  wooden  cross  bars,  or  supports,  2in.  by  2in., 
on  which  the  sides  of  the  lights  rest,  divide 
the  frame  into  three  equal  parts ;  they  have 
iron  ends,  as  shown  in  the  sketch,  to  hook  over 
the  frame  board ;  these  ends  must  be  let  into 
the  edge  of  the  board  so  that  they  come  flush.  cross  Bar. 

Six  iron  "  stops  "  are  fixed  to  the  top  of  the 
front  board  of  the  frame,  two  for  each  light 
(see  sketch);  these  are  held  in  position  by 
one  strong  nail  in  the  long  end,  which  goes 
inside  the  frame.  Or  the  simple  piece  of  bent 
iron  will  answer  the  same  purpose  but  is 
more  likely  to  work  loose  after  a  time.  The 
purpose  of  these  is  to  prevent  the  light  from  slipping  when  it 
is  held  up  at  the  back  while  attending  to  the  plants — all  work 
in  the  frames  whilst  the  lights  are  on  being  done  from  the 
back  (see  illustration  on  next  page). 

The  cost  of  the  wood,  iron,  nails,  &c.,  for  one  frame  of  the 
dimensions  given  will  be  about  6/-. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  this  frame  is  much  shallower  than  .the 
ordinary  garden  frame,  and  is  very  little  higher  at  the  back 
than  at  the  front.  This  enables  the  plants  to  be  grown  near 
the  light  and  so  kept  sturdy ;  as  they  become  in  danger 
of  touching  the  glass,  the  frame  is  raised  from  the  bed 
a  little  at  a  time,  with  hooks  made  for  the  purpose  (see 
sketch).  A  tight  wad  of  manure  is  placed  under  each 
leg  to  give  it  a  solid  base  to  rest  upon,  and  the  space 
between  the  bottom  of  frame  board  and  bed  is  filled  up 
with  fresh  manure. 

To  preserve  the  frames  paint  them  with  Stockholm  tar, 
applied  hot.  Limewash  mixed  with  carbolic  acid  (half  a  pint 
to  20  gallons),  or  with  sulphate  of  copper  (41bs.  to  20  gallons) 
is  effective  not  only  for  preserving  the  frames  but  also  for  des- 
troying any  spores  of  fungi  which  may  have  lodged  on  the 
wood;  it  should  be  renewed  each  season.  Neither  creosote, 
gas-tar,  or  any  wood  preservative,  unless  guaranteed  not  to 
contain  creosote,  should  be  used  on  the  frames,  or  the  poisonous 
fumes  which  these  give  off  when  the  sun  is  shining  will  cause 
serious  injury  to  the  plants. 


72 


TheoProfitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


French  Garden. — Equipment.  73 

When  the  lights  are  in  use  they  have  frequently  to 
be  opened  for  ventilation  at  varying  distances,  accord- 
ing to  the  state  of  the  weather.  To  effect  this  readily 
a  "  prop,"  shaped  so  that  it  can  be  used  in  several  ways 
to  make  a  different  size  of  opening,  accompanies  each 
light.  A  useful  size  for  this  is  a  piece  of  wood  lOin. 
long,  2in.  wide,  and  lin.  thick,  with  a  rebate  4in.  deep 

,    •  i  t      ,     |  Prop  for 

cut  in  one  end,  as  sketch.  Light. 

The  Cloche  or  bell-glass  is  an  appliance  of  special  impor- 
tance. It  is  not  so  useful  as  the  frame  for  general  purposes, 
but  is  even  better  for  some  things,  such  as  cos  lettuce.  It  is 
always  ready  for  use,  it  is  never  the  worse  for  wear,  and  with 
care  breakages  seldom  occur.  There  are  several  sizes  in  use, 
but  the  one  most  generally  employed  is 
16iin.  across  the  bottom,  15in.  high,  and 
weighs  about  5|lbs.  Cloches  of  about 
this  size,  made  in  England,  cost  about 
1/4  each;  they  may  be  imported  from 
France  in  quantity  at  an  inclusive  cost 
of  about  I/-  each.  They  are  usually 

The  Cloche.  ,  ..,          ,         ,  ,,  ,      ,     .,     . 

made  with  a  knob  on  the  top,  but  it  is 

best  to  buy  them  with  this  removed,  as  they  are  not  only 
cheaper  so,  but  the  knob  sometimes  causes  damage  to  the 
plants  by  acting  as  a  lens  in  the  sunshine ;  without  the  knob 
they  also  pack  better  for  travelling  and  store  away  better  and 
safer  when  out  of  use. 

Cloches  should  be  lifted  by  pressing  a  hand  to  each  side. 
They  are  carried  about  the  garden  on  a  contrivance  called  a 
"  cloche-carrier,"  which  is  a  frame-work  of  wood  with  a  space 
at  each  end  on  which  to  place  six  cloches,, three  and  three,  back 
to  back,  or  twelve  in  all.  There  is  a  space  in  the  middle  for 
the  workman  to  stand  in  and  he  raises  the  carrier  by  a  handle 
on  each  side.  The  illustration  on  the  next  page  gives  a  very 
good  idea  of  the  construction  of  the  cloche-carrier  and  the  way 
in  which  it  is  used. 

When  a  cloche  is  in  use  it  is  necessary  to  tilt  it  frequently 
on  one  side  or  another,  according  to  the  direction  of  the  wind, 
for  the  purpose  of  ventilation.  To  enable  this  to  be  done  a 
"  cloche-peg  "  always  accompanies  a  cloche  in  use.  It  is  made 


74 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


French  Garden. — Equipment. 
from  a  piece  of  wood  about  1ft.  long, 
l|in.  wide,  and  fin.  thick;  it  is  pointed 
at  one  end  to  push  into  the  soil  easily, 
and  has  two  or  three  notches  cut  in  the 
upper  part  for  the  cloche  to  rest  upon 
at  the  height  required. 


75 


Tilted  Cloche. 


Cloches  packed  away. 


Cloche  Peg. 

When  cloches  are  not  in  use  they 
should  be  stacked  away,  four  or  five 
one  above  the  other,  standing  up- 
right, with  a  small  square  piece  of 
thin  wood,  about  2|in.  by  2iin.  and 
|in.  thick,  put  between  each,  on  the 
top,  to  prevent  their  touching.  They 
should  never  be  packed  away  on  their 
sides,  or  many  get  broken  or  cracked 
through  jarring,  or  if  they  are  laid 
outside  the  rain-water  which  collects  in  them  may  freeze  and 
break  the  glass. 

When  cloches  get  broken,  providing 
they  are  not  shattered,  they  may  be  re- 
paired by  rubbing  a  mixture  of  white 
lead  and  gold  size  on  the  broken  edges, 
pressing  them  together,  and  binding 
them  by  running  along  the  joint  a  strip  Repaired  cioche. 

of  broad  tape  well  smeared  with  the  mixture.      Cloches  re- 
paired in  this  way  are  almost  as  good  as  new  ones. 

When  cloches  are  used  in  large  numbers,  twenty-seven  may 
be  calculated  as  occupying  the  same  space  as  one  three-light 
frame  of  the  customary  size,  though  only  twenty-six  can  be  put 
in  the  space  of  a  single  frame.  The  slightly  smaller  frame 
planned  to  be  used  here  only  affords  space  for  twenty-four 
cloches.  They  are  placed  in  beds  of  three  rows,  with  a  narrow 
path  between  each  bed,  arranged  with  the  cloches  in  the  middle 
row  falling  between  those  in  the  two  outer  rows,  as  shown  in 
the  diagram  on  page  98. 


76  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Mats.— Where  frames  and  cloches  are  used  the  mat  is  indis- 
pensable, particularly  during  cold  weather.  When  there  is  any 
fear  of  frost  these  appliances  must  be  covered  up  closely  every 
night,  and  sometimes  also  in  the  daytime  if  the  weather  is  very 
severe.  Later  in  the  season,  when  the  sun  gets  powerful,  mats 
are  useful  to  give  shade  for  a  few  hours  in  the  middle  of  the 
day  to  seedlings  and  newly-set  plants  in  frames  to  save  them 
from  scorching.  Useful  mats  of  various  kinds  can  be  bought 
at  very  moderate  prices,  but  it  is  strongly  recommended  that 
the  gardener  of  limited  means  should  make  his  own.  When 
made  at  home  they  cost  considerably  less,  they  can  be  made  to 
any  size  or  thickness  required,  and  a  useful  occupation  is  found 
for  slack  times  in  winter  when  work  on  the  land  is  impossible. 
For  a  very  moderate  outlay  a  number  of  good  warm  mats  can 
be  accumulated  which  will  be  found  of  incalculable  service  for 
numerous  protective  purposes.  Mats  may  be  made  of  any 
material  which  is  cheap,  convenient  to  use,  and  affords  efficient 
protection.  Straw  answers  to  this  description ;  any  kind  will 
do,  but  rye  straw  is  much  the  best,  as  it  tougher,  more  flexible, 
and  more  durable  than  any  other. 

Whenever  possible  hand-threshed  straw  should  be  used,  as 
that  which  is  threshed  by  machine  is  badly  broken,  but  at  the 
outset  this  will  probably  be  the  only  sort  obtainable.  Where 
there  is  ground  to  spare  or  arrangements  can  be  made  with  a 
neighbouring  farmer  it  is  a  good  plan  to  grow  a  patch  of  rye 
for  the  especial  purpose  of  mat-making.  It  should  be  cut 
before  the  grain  is  formed,  so  that  it  does  not  require  threshing ; 
whatever  straw  is  used  it  is  much  the  best  when  gathered  in 
this  way  as  it  then  lies  perfectly  straight  and  unbroken  and  no 
grain  is  left  in  the  ear  as  an  attraction  for  mice. 

Mat  Frame. — The  only  appliance  it  is  necessary  to  have  is  a 
mat  frame.  Several  different  contrivances  are  used  for  this  pur- 
pose but  the  one  depicted  on  the  following  page  is  as  good  as 
any  and  is  quite  simple,  both  to  make  and  to  use.  It  is  made  of 
four  pieces  of  wood,  Sin.  broad  and  lin.  thick.  The  size  of  the 
mats  to  be  made  regulates  the  dimensions  of  the  frame ;  for  the 
purpose  in  view  a  frame  5ft.  6in.  long  and  4ft.  Gin.  broad  will  be 
required*  Along  the  middle  of  the  top  and  bottom  boards  five 
stout  nails  must  be  driven  at  lOin.  apart,  leaving  them  projecting 


French  Garden. — Equipment.  77 

about  2in.  Tarred  string  is  tied  to  each  nail  at  the  top  then 
brought  down  tightly  and  tied  to  the  corresponding  nail  at  the 
bottom.  To  each  bottom  nail  a  further  piece  of  string,  12ft. 
long,  is  left  attached,  each  of  which  is  wound  round  a  short 
piece  of  green  wood  with  a  slit  in  one  end,  in  which  the  string 
is  fixed  to  keep  it  from  unwinding. 


Frame  for  Mat  Making. 

Mat  Making — After  having  shaken  out  of  the  straw  any 
small  and  broken  pieces,  lay  a  bundle  at  each  side  of  the 
frame  arranged  straightly,  with  the  butt-ends  all  one  way. 
Then  take  as  much  as  can  be  held  between  finger  and  thumb, 
and  lay  it  on  the  lower  board,  resting  on  the  nails,  with  the 
butt-ends  level  with  one  outer  edge ;  repeat  this  with  another 
bunch  but  place  the  butt-ends  level  with  the  opposite  edge. 
Hold  the  straw  near  the  middle  with  the  left  hand  and  with 
the  right  pass  the  centre  ball  of  string  over  the  straw  and 
under  the  upright  string,  bringing  it  back  under  itself  so  that 
it  will  draw  up  and  hold  tight.  Repeat  this  with  all  the  other 
strings.  Lay  on  more  straw,  as  before,  and  repeat  the  tying, 
always  taking  the  middle  string  first.  Lay  the  straw  in  equal 
bunches  and  draw  each  down  firmly  upon  the  previous  one  so 
that  the  mat  will  be  made  of  an  even  thickness  of  about  lin. 
throughout.  When  the  top  row  of  nails  is  reached  the  xnat  is 
finished  off  by  firm  knots,  and  the  sides  are  then  trimmed  level 


78  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

with  shears,  leaving  it  about  5ft.  6in.  by  4ft.  6in.  One  ton  of 
straw  should  make  about  250  mats  of  this  size.  The  materials 
for  each  will  cost  about  3d. 

Before  using,  the  mats  should  be  dipped  in  a  solution  of 
copper  sulphate  (7lbs.  to  25  gallons  of  water).  This  toughens 
the  straw,  retards  decay,  and  destroys  any  spores  of  fungi 
which  may  be  present.  The  dipping  should  be  repeated  each 
season.  After  dipping,  the  mats  should  be  thoroughly  dried. 
When  not  in  use  they  should  be  dried,  rolled  up,  and  stored 
under  cover. 

Water. — A  practically  unlimited  supply  of  good  water  is 
essential  to  French  gardening.  The  numerous  and  abundant 
crops  which  are  produced  by  this  system  depend  for  their 
rapid  and  perfect  growth  upon  ample  supplies  of  moisture — 
indeed,  the  close  planting  and  intercropping  which  is  so  marked 
a  feature  of  the  system  could  not  possibly  be  brought  to  a  suc- 
cessful issue  without  the  assistance  of  regular  and  copious 
waterings.  To  make  this  possible,  a  system  of  pipes  is  laid  in 
the  earth  for  the  conveyance  of  water,  with  hydrants  or  stand- 
pipes  at  suitable  intervals,  so  that  every  part  of  the  garden  can 
be  conveniently  watered  with  a  moderate  length  of  hose-pipe. 
The  quality  of  the  water  is  an  important  matter,  and  it  should 
be  proved  by  analysis  suitable  for  the  growth  of  plants  before 
the  expense  of  laying  pipes  is  undertaken. 

When  good  water  from  public  mains  can  be  obtained  at  a 
reasonable  price  it  will  usually  be  found  to  be  a  convenient 
source  of  supply,  but  failing  this  it  is  necessary  to  raise  the 
water  into  a  tank  elevated  sufficiently  to  ensure  a  good  pressure 
to  every  part  of  the  garden. 

The  choice  of  motor  for  raising  the  water  needs  careful  con- 
sideration;  a  pump  worked  by  wind  has  attractive  features, 
but  a  serious  objection  to  its  use  is  that  the  wind  is  most  likely 
to  fail  in  hot  weather,  just  at  the  time  when  abundant  supplies 
of  water  are  most  needed,  and  unless  the  storage  tank  is  large 
enough  to  hold  sufficient  water  to  tide  over  a  period  of  calm, 
the  crops  might  be  seriously  damaged.  In  very  hot  dry  weather 
it  is  not  unusual  to  use  as  much  as  10,000  gallons  of  water  per 
acre  of  garden  in  one  day,  so  that  when  the  means  of  elevating 
the  water  depends  solely  upon  wind  power,  it  is  obvious  that 


French  Garden. — Equipment. 


79 


either  the  storage  tank  must  be  very  large  and  correspondingly 
expensive,  or  the  crops  run  grave  risk  of  going  short  of  water 
at  the  time  they  need  it  most.  There  are  many  suitable  engines 
driven  by  oil,  petrol,  gas,  hot-air,  steam,  or  electricity,  any  of 
which  will  be  found  more  dependable  than  an  engine  driven  by 
wind,  and  where  one  of  these  is  used  a  tank  holding  5,000 
gallons  per  acre  of  garden  will  be  found  large  enough. 

For  a  garden  of  two  acres  the  supply  pipe  from  tank  to 
ground  should  be  4in.  in  diameter,  mains  3in.,  branches  2in., 
stand-pipes  or  hydrants  liin.,  with  liin.  cocks  or  taps,  and  the 
hose-pipe  should  be  the  same  size.  This  arrangement  will 
ensure  ample  pressure  and  permit  of  several  hose-pipes  being 
in  use  simultaneously.  The  plan  below  shows  the  general  lines 
on  which  a  French  garden  is  laid  out,  with  the  arrangement  of 
water-pipes. 


ai 

i 

D  0  Tubs  | 

•W^eT 

BORDER     FOR 

c 

iniv  CROPS 

1 

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i 

i 

Hot  beds  for  Eirlj  PI 

•  nn 

i 

i 

i 

| 

Spice  lor  Minurc  int 

SoU 

1 

•    HjdrsnH 
-  —  —  Witcr 

Pipes 

• 

i 

I 

i 

i 

1 

i 

j 

5 

i 

1 

I 

i 

1 

i 

1 

1 

| 

1 

I 

1 

1 

BORDER  TO 

R   I 

ABLY  CROPS 

80  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

In  French  gardening  nothing  is  done  by  haphazard,  hence 
the  hydrants  have  a  definite  position.  In  comparison  with 
ordinary  gardening  this  system  calls  for  a  large  expenditure 
on  labour,  and  unless  great  care  is  exercised  the  cost  of  this 
may  easily  become  prohibitive  in  spite  of  the  large  returns. 
To  keep  such  expense  within  reasonable  limits  nothing  must 
be  omitted  which  will  facilitate  the  various  operations  and  so 
save  labour.  To  this  end  the  garden  is  laid  out,  as  shown  on  the 
plan,  in  sections  of  equal  size,  the  dimensions  being  regulated 
by  the  size  and  number  of  the  frames  in  use.  When  the  system 
is  properly  carried  out,  the  various  crops  each  occupy  a  given 
spot  in  turn,  and  so  the  frame  bed  gradually  passes  round  the 
whole  of  the  garden.  In  a  full-sized  garden  each  section  is  of 
a  width  to  take  five  3-light  frames  end  to  end.  A  water-pipe 
is  laid  between  each  section,  along  the  edge  of  a  3ft.  wide  path 
which  runs  between  them  and,  providing  the  frames  are  of  the 
dimensions  given — lift. 9in.  long — the  branch  pipes  would  thus 
be  62ft.  apart.  Hydrants  are  fixed  on  each  of  these  pipes  at 
regular  intervals — usually  one  for  each  five  rows  of  frames. 
As  the  frames  are  4ft.  Sin.  wide,  and  a  space  of  about  lOin.  is 
allowed  between  the  rows,  this  fixes  the  positions  of  the  hy- 
drants at  25ft.  Sin.  apart  on  each  branch. 

In  planting  open-air  crops,  an  18in.  path  is  left  opposite  each 
hydrant,  to  facilitate  watering ;  where  this  is  not  convenient  a 
reel  is  fixed  at  the  corner  of  the  bed,  round  which  the  hose-pipe 
can  be  drawn  without  any  fear  of  damaging  the  plants.  The 
hose-pipe  should  have  a  rose  fixed  to  the  end,  free  from  taps 
or  anything  which  may  obstruct  a  full  flow  of  water. 

Equipment. — The  following  is  a  list  of  the  tools  and  material 
required  for  the  complete  equipment  of -a  garden  of  two  acres: 
210  3-Light  Frames         2  30  ft.  length  Hose-pipe    2  Fine,  2  Coarse  Rakes 
2,800  Cloches  with  rose  ends  Garden  Line 

1,000  Mats  4  Water  Cans  (3  gal.)         Soil  Firmer 

4  Manure  Baskets        2  Hose-pipe  Reels  Measuring  Rod 

4  Basket  Stands  4  Manure  Forks  Plant  Marker 

2  Hand  Barrows  2  Bent  Forks  Planting  Boards 

2  Cloche  Carriers         4  Spades  Washing  Brushes 

Cloche  Pegs,  Props     2  Shovels  Gravel  Screen 

2  Frame  Hooks  4  Hoes,  4  Trowels  Wheelbarrow 

4  Dibbers  (2  sizes)        Soil  Thermometer  Raffia,  Wood-wool  and 

Plant  Pots  Horse,  Cart,  and  Wagon        Packing  Paper 


CHAPTER  XI. 
FRENCH  GARDEN.— PREPARATION. 

The  Beginning  of  the  Gardener's  Year — When  Material  should  be 
Obtained — Situation — Outbuildings — Drainage — Wireworm — How  to 
Prepare  the  Soil  —  How  to  Prepare  Compost  for  Topping  Beds  — 
Manure :  The  Kind  to  Use,  When  to  Get  it,  and  How  to  Stack  it. 

THE  French  gardener's  year  begins  in  September,  when 
seed  is  sown  for  the  lettuce  and  cauliflower  plants  which 
are  wintered  in  frames  and  under  cloches,  and  by  that  time  all 
the  preparatory  work  should  be  either  completed  or  in  a  very 
forward  condition.  For  this  reason  work  on  the  land  should 
be  commenced  in  the  previous  spring. 

The  lights,  wood  for  frames,  and  straw  for  mats  should  be 
obtained  in  the  previous  winter,  so  that  no  opportunity  shall 
be  lost  of  getting  these  appliances  ready  -for  use.  Cloches 
should  be  ordered  by  June  at  latest,  otherwise  the  numerous 
orders  for  autumn  delivery  may  prevent  their  being  received 
in  time ;  it  would  be  a  serious  matter  if  either  cloches  or  frames 
were  not  at  hand  when  wanted  for  seedlings  in  the  autumn. 

The  situation  and  aspect  of  the  garden  and  the  quality  of  the 
soil  have  been  fully  dealt  with  in  previous  chapters,  and  it  is 
expected  that  the  points  there  emphasised  have  received  due 
attention.  It  is  presumed  also  that  the  garden  is,  as  it  ought 
to  be,  either  adjoining  or  within  a  short  distance  of  the  house 
of  the  gardener,  so  that  the  plants  may  receive  immediate 
attention  in  any  emergency.  Close  by  there  should  be  a  roomy 
well-lit  shed  where  vegetables  can  be  washed  and  packed,  tools 
and  stores  locked  up,  and  the  necessary  work  of  making  and 
mending  performed  when  it  is  unfit  to  work  in  the  open.  If 
such  a  building  does  not  exist,  one  should  be  erected. 

If  the  soil  is  naturally  well-drained  that  will  be  an  important 
point  secured  at  the  outset,  but  if  there  is  any  doubt  whatever 
about  this  matter  drainage  must  be  the  first  thing  to  receive 
attention,  as  success  would  be  impossible  on  cold,  inert,  water- 
logged land.  If  the  soil  is  heavy  neither  time,  trouble  or  ex- 
pense should  be  spared  to  ensure  good  drainage. 


82  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

If  the  ground  is  old  pasture  it  will  probably  be  more  or  less 
infested  with  wireworm,  and  these  pests  will  be  sure  to  cause 
serious  losses  unless  some  decided  means  are  taken  to  get 
rid  of  them.  By  far  the  best  plan  to  effect  this  is  to  skim  off 
the  turf  and  burn  or  char  it  black.  When  this  is  done  there 
is  not  only  an  assurance  that  the  garden  is  started  free  of 
noxious  insects  and  fungi,  but  if  the  soil  is  heavy  its  texture 
will  be  much  improved  and  the  inert  potash  it  contains  will  be 
rendered  available  for  plant  food.  Failing  burning,  one  of  the 
advertised  wireworm  specifics  should  be  used. 

With  the  exception  of  the  two  sections  reserved  for  hot-beds 
the  whole  of  the  ground  must  be  bastard  trenched,  and  a 
dressing  of  good  rich  manure  at  the  rate  of  two  tons  to  each 
section,  worked  in  between  the  top  and  bottom  spits.  If  the 
land  is  in  grass,  and  burning  is  not  to  be  resorted  to,  the  top 
two  inches  should  be  skimmed  off  at  each  spit,  chopped  up  and 
put  directly  on  the  manure,  and  then  covered  with  the  next 
spadeful  of  top  soil,  adding  a  wireworm  specific  according  to 
the  directions  of  the  manufacturers. 

After  the  soil  has  been  weathered  for  some  time  it  must  be 
dug  over  again,  half  a  spit  deep,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  sod 
and  manure  which  lies  below  the  top  spit.  The  proper  con- 
dition of  the  soil  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance  and  no 
effort  must  be  spared  to  bring  this  condition  about.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  several  crops  of  first-class  quality  are  to  be 
taken  from  the  same  plot  of  ground  in  the  same  season,  and 
to  accomplish  this  the  soil  must  be  not  only  well  manured  but 
it  must  also  be  mellow  and  friable.  Plants  cannot  reach  per- 
fection unless  all  the  conditions  of  growth  are  favourable, 
and  experience  proves  that  the  texture  and  friability  of  the  soil 
are  of  far  greater  importance  than  its  character.  Every  particle 
of  soil  contains  plant  food,  and  it  should  therefore  be  thoroughly 
worked  before  planting,  so  that  the  delicate  rootlets  can  pene- 
trate it  in  all  directions. 

Manure  for  making  hot-beds  should  be  brought  into  the 
garden  at  convenient  times  from  the  end  of  September  until 
the  beds  are  started.  The  Paris  gardeners  accumulate  it  all 
through  the  summer,  bringing  it  in  load  by  load  on  the  return 
journey  from  market.  It  is  stacked  in  long,  narrow,  high 


French  Garden. — Preparation.  83 

ridges,  with  a  sharp-pitched  top  to  throw  off  rain.  Stored  in 
this  way  there  is  very  little  fermentation  or  decay  and  it  does  not 
lose  much  of  its  virtue.  When  the  ridges  are  large  ventilating 
shafts  are  made  in  them  as  they  are  built,  every  10ft.  or  so,  to 
prevent  overheating.  These  shafts  are  made  by  placing  the 
manure  round  a  bushel  basket  (or  anything  similar,  a  little 
wider  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom)  as  the  stack  is  built, 
raising  the  basket  each  time  the  manure  approaches  the  rim. 
When  the  hot-beds  are  made  equal  quantities  of  the  newest 
manure  and  that  which  has  been  stacked  the  longest  are  mixed 
together,  and  it  is  found  that  the  heat  produced  by  this  mixture 
is  milder  and  more  lasting  than  when  fresh  manure  is  used 
alone.  Where  tree-leaves  are  easy  to  obtain  in  quantity  they 
may  be  substituted  for  about  half  the  quantity  of  manure  in 
making  the  hot-beds,  and  will  give  equally  good  results. 

The  quantity  of  manure  required  for  the  early  hot-beds  in 
the  present  scheme,  and  for  raising  seedlings  in  spring,  is 
about  70  to  80  tons.  Of  this,  about  one-half  should  be  accumu- 
lated by  the  end  of  December,  and  the  remainder  brought  in 
during  January,  but  if  there  is  any  uncertainty  about  getting 
the  fresh  manure  when  it  is  wanted,  it  would  be  much  better  to 
have  the  whole  quantity  stacked  beforehand  than  to  run  the 
risk  of  the  beds  being  delayed  through  waiting  for  the  manure. 
A  further  30  to  40  tons  will  be  required  by  the  beginning  of 
April,  for  making  the  beds  for  cucumbers  and  melons. 

The  manure  should  be  that  from  ^tables  where  corn-fed 
horses  are  bedded  with  straw.  There  should  be  no  peat,  saw- 
dust, shavings,  or  rubbish  mixed  with  it. 

In  the  French  garden  the  soil  which  is  solely  used  for  making 
seed  beds,  covering  hot-beds,  and  for  surfacing  all  beds  before 
plants  are  set  out  is  made  from  exhausted  hot-bed  manure. 
This  is  repeatedly  turned,  beaten  about  and  broken  up,  and 
finally  passed  through  a  screen  to  free  it  from  lumps.  It  has 
then  somewhat  of  the  appearance  and  character  of  fine  leaf 
mould.  The  results  from  the  use  of  this  material  are  all  that 
can  be  desired.  Seeds  germinate  in  it  quickly,  evenly,  and 
strongly ;  seedlings  lift  with  a  mass  of  fibrous  roots,  and  plants 
grow  quickly  and  mature  early. 

After  the  first  season  the  old  hot-beds  will  put  sufficient  of 


84  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

this  material  at  the  disposal  of  the  gardener,  but  as  a  prelim- 
inary it  will  be  necessary  to  procure  some  substitute.  Where 
manure  from  old  mushroom  beds  can  be  obtained  it  would 
answer  the  purpose  admirably,  and  twenty  loads  should  be  got 
and  worked  up  as  described  above.  Failing  that  about  ten 
loads  of  thoroughly  decayed  stable  manure  should  be  procured 
in  the  spring.  Make  this  into  a  compact  heap,  shaking  it  out, 
breaking  the  lumps,  and  damping  it  well  as  the  work  proceeds. 
Repeat  this  operation  several  times  during  the  summer,  doing 
all  possible  to  hasten  its  disintegration.  As  autumn  approaches 
it  must  sifted  through  a  gravel  screen  and  the  fine  portion  well 
mixed  with  an  equal  bulk  of  sifted  garden  soil. 

The  mixture  or  compost,  if  of  a  nice  moisture  throughout, 
should  be  made  into  a  large  ridge,  with  a  sharp-pitched  top  to 
throw  off  rain.  If  rather  dry  it  should  be  left  spread  out  until 
well  moistened  by  rain,  then  ridged  up.  It  will  then  be  ready 
to  use  at  any  time  for  the  purposes  mentioned  above.  The 
rough  material  which  failed  to  pass  through  the  screen  can  be 
re-made  into  a  heap  for  further  treatment  during  the  winter. 

This  compost  should  be  ready  for  use  by  the  end  of  August. 
By  this  time  frames,  lights,  cloches,  and  mats  should  also 
be  ready  and  close  at  hand,  with  the  woodwork  of  the  lights 
well  painted,  the  glass  cleaned,  and  the  cloches  washed,  so  that 
they  will  admit  all  the  light  possible  during  the  dark  days  of 
winter.  Seeds  should  have  been  purchased,  tools  procured, 
and  the  ground  thoroughly  prepared,  so  that  the  work  of  seed 
sowing,  plant  raising,  and  the  setting  out  of  hardy  plants  to 
stand  in  the  open-air  beds  through  the  winter,  can  proceed 
without  any  hindrance. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

FRENCH  GARDEN.— PREPARING  PLANTS  FOR 
EARLY  CROPS. 

Routine  of  Wintering  Plants — Cauliflower — Cos  and  Forcing  Cab- 
bage Lettuce — Hardy  Cos  and  Cabbage  Lettuce — Lettuce  Mildew  and 
the  Preference  for  Cloches — Protecting  the  Plants  from  Frost — How 
Mats  should  be  Laid  so  as  to  Resist  Strong  Winds. 

'"PHE  equipment  and  preliminary  preparation  of  our  French 
1  garden  are  now  completed,  and  we  have  arrived  at  the 
month  of  September.  This  is,  for  practical  purposes,  the 
beginning  of  the  French  gardeners'  year,  as  in  that  month 
active  operations  are  commenced  by  raising  Cauliflower  and 
Lettuce  plants  to  provide  a  supply  for  the  earliest  crops  of 
the  following  spring.  Instructions  for  the  preparation  of  seed- 
beds, sowing,  and  transplanting,  will  be  found  in  Chapter  XVI, 
to  which  the  reader  is  referred.  The  seedlings  are  transferred 
to  cold-beds,  where  they  are  enabled  to  pass  safely  through  the 
rigours  of  winter  under  the  protection  of  frames  or  cloches, 
which  in  periods  of  severe  cold  are  covered  by  straw  mats. 
There  is  no  particular  difficulty  in  successfully  raising  and 
wintering  plants  suitable  for  forcing,  but  care  and  attention  to 
details  must  be  continually  exercised.  The  beds,  both  for 
sowing  and  transplanting,  must  be  in  proper  condition  and  the 
dates  of  these  operations  duly  observed.  Overcrowding  must 
never  be  permitted.  Diseased,  weak,  or  doubtful  plants  must 
be  rigidly  excluded,  and  all  faded  or  decayed  leaves  removed 
as  soon  as  seen.  The  plants  must  be  grown  as  hardily  as 
possible  and  whilst  being  protected  from  sharp  frosts  must  not 
be  allowed  to  suffer  long  from  want  of  daylight  through  any 
protective  covering  being  left  over  them  too  long.  Finally, 
their  quarters  should  be  kept  rather  dry,  as  excessive  damp  is 
more  dangerous  to  their  well-being  than  cold. 

Cauliflower. — The  first  sowing  of  cauliflower  is  made  on  or 
about  the  14th  of  September,  and  another,  as  a  precautionary 
measure  to  guard  against  failure,  on  the  20th.  For  these 


86  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

earliest  batches,  which  are  used  for  setting  out  in  warm  and 
cold  frames  after  cabbage  lettuce  and  on  the  cloche  bed  after 
the  first  batch  of  cos  lettuce,  a  quick-heading  compact  variety 
should  be  selected,  the  large  kinds  not  only  taking  longer  to 
mature  but  for  the  earliest  supplies  are  not  appreciated  on  the 
market  so  much  as  the  medium-sized  ones.  Another  batch  of 
a  larger  heading  variety  is  sown  at  the  beginning  of  October 
and  pricked  off  in  November ;  these  plants  are  set  out  in  the 
open-air  beds  the  following  spring.  After  the  seed  is  sown, 
and  at  frequent  intervals  during  the  first  three  weeks,  the 
seed  bed  is  watered  lightly  to  encourage  even  germination  and 
strong  growth,  as  well  as  to  keep  off  the  "  fly." 

Early  in  October  the  first  lot  of  plants  will  be  ready  to  prick 
out  into  their  winter  quarters.  For  this  purpose  a  bed  must 
be  got  ready  to  take  as  many  frames  as  may  be  necessary  to 
hold  the  required  number  of  plants  at  Sin.  apart.  Rake  the 
soil  down  and  place  the  frames  on  it  square  and  level.  Inside 
them  put  moist  compost,  Sin.  deep ;  level  this  with  a  fine  rake, 
remove  the  lumps,  and  then  press  with  the  firming  board,  after 
which  prick  out  the  plants.  If  the  compost  is  moist,  as  it  should 
be,  no  watering  will  be  necessary,  but  if  dry,  water  lightly  to 
give  the  plants  a  start.  When  they  have  got  root-hold  they 
will  require  no  more  water  all  through  the  winter;  in  fact,  the 
grower  must  strive  by  all  the  means  in  his  power  to  prevent 
unduly  moist  conditions,  as  damp  is  more  harmful  than  cold, 
and  must  be  carefully  guarded  against. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  pricked  out  put  the  lights  on  the 
frame  to  keep  off  rain,  but  give  all  the  air  possible  by  resting 
the  lights  at  each  corner  on  flower  pots.  When  very  cold  or 
rough  weather  sets  in,  close  the  lights,  and  if  severe  frost 
threatens  cover  with  mats.  Do  not  coddle  the  plants;  grow 
them  as  hardy  as  possible,  but  avoid  freezing.  Give  plenty 
of  air  whenever  the  weather  will  permit,  and  keep  rain  out 
of  the  frame  by  opening  the  light  on  the  side  opposite  to  that 
from  which  the  wind  blows. 

Should  the  season  be  mild  and  the  plants  inclined  to  grow 
too  freely  they  must  be  lifted  and  transplanted  to  give  them  a 
slight  check ;  if  this  is  done  set  them  a  little  further  apart,  so 
that  there  will  be  no  overcrowding. 


French  Garden.— Preparing  Plants.  87 

If  from  any  cause  there  are  any  serious  losses  amongst  the 
wintered  plants,  sow  again  in  January,  on  a  hot-bed.  As  soon 
as  the  seedlings  can  be  handled,  prick  out  on  a  bed  with  a 
mild  warmth,  and  gradually  harden. 

Cos  Lettuce  and  Forcing  Cabbage  Lettuce. — During  the  first 
week  in  October  sow  both  cos  and  cabbage  lettuce  for  growing 
on  warm  manure  beds.  In  this  case  the  seed  is  sown  under 
cloches,  in  the  following  manner :  A  seed-bed  is  prepared, 
care  being  taken  that  the  compost  is  moist,  because  lettuce 
plants  should,  if  possible,  be  raised  without  watering.  As  many 
cloches  as  are  necessary  for  the  seed  to  be  sown  are  put  on 
the  bed,  gently  pressed,  and  lifted  away  again.  Each  will  have 
made  a  circular  depression,  and  within  this  ring  the  seed  is 
sown,  thinly,  lightly  covered  with  compost,  pressed  down  with 
the  firming  board,  and  the  cloche  replaced.  Although  late  in 
the  season,  the  sun  is  still  hot  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  the 
cloches  must  be  covered  with  mats  from  about  1 1  to  2  o'clock 
or  the  soil  may  get  too  dry  and  the  sowing  prove  a  failure. 

In  four  or  five  days  the  seedlings  will  appear.  About  three 
or  four  days  afterwards — just  as  soon  as  they  can  be  handled — 
they  should  be  pricked  out  under  cloches,  thirty  plants  to  each, 
taking  care  to  keep  them  quite  2in.  from  the  rim,  so  that  the 
leaves,  as  the  plants  grow,  may  not  touch  the  glass  and  get 
frozen. 

Forcing  cabbage  lettuce  remains  under  the  cloches,  without 
air,  until  wanted  for  the  hot-beds.  Cos  must  be  given  air  on 
all  mild  days,  and  should  be  transplanted  again  towards  the 
end  of  November,  fifteen  to  a  cloche.  Sometimes  cos  lettuce 
is  transplanted  a  third  time,  it  being  claimed  that  frequent 
transplanting  causes  earlier  hearting  besides  an  improvement 
in  its  size  and  solidity. 

Hardy  Cos  and  Cabbage  Lettuce. — Seed  of  hardy  lettuce, 
which  are  intended  to  stand  unprotected  in  open  beds  through 
the  winter,  is  sown  about  September  14th.  As  soon  as  the 
seedlings  can  be  handled  they  are  pricked  out  2in.  apart  on  a 
nursery  bed  covered  with  compost.  About  the  end  of  October 
they  are  planted  out  at  1ft.  apart  in  a  sheltered  and  well 


88  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

drained  position.  For  this  crop  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have 
beds  slightly  raised  above  the  general  level,  so  that  they  will 
be  sure  to  stand  dry ;  slugs  and  birds  must  also  be  guarded 
against.  When  the  ground  is  dry  in  February  or  March  hoe 
well.  The  cabbage  lettuce  should  be  ready  in  April  and  the 
cos  early  in  May,  and  then  usually  realize  good  prices. 

Although  lettuce  treated  as  directed  above  seldom  get  des- 
troyed by  frost,  that  mishap  does  sometimes  occur  when  the 
winter  is  very  severe,  and  as  a  safeguard  another  batch  is 
wintered  under  cloches;  part  of  these  are  planted  in  cold 
frames  soon  after  the  turn  of  the  year  and  another  part  planted 
a  little  later  in  open  beds. 

Seed  for  these  varieties  is  sown  at  the  same  time  and  in  the 
same  manner  as  described  above  for  cos  and  cabbage  lettuce 
intended  for  forcing,  but  fewer  of  the  hardy  than  of  the  forcing 
cabbage  are  put  under  a  cloche,  as  they  grow  larger ;  whilst 
the  forcing  cabbage  lettuce  is  kept  under  the  cloche  entirely 
without  ventilation,  the  hardy  varieties  are  given  air  constantly 
except  during  frost.  The  lettuces  grown  in  cold  frames  come 
ready  earlier  than  those  which  stand  out  through  the  winter, 
but  those  planted  outside  after  the  end  of  January  come  a  little 
later,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  advisable  to  set  out  good  strong 
plants  as  early  in  the  new  year  as  the  condition  of  the  soil  will 
permit,  so  that  they  may  be  cleared  not  later  than  the  middle 
of  May,  as  after  that  time  there  is  very  little  demand  for 
cabbage  lettuce. 

Lettuce  Mildew  and  the  Preference  for  Cloches. — Cloches 
are  used  in  preference  to  frames  for  protecting  lettuce  during 
winter  because  these  plants  are  liable,  especially  under  damp 
conditions,  to  be  attacked  by  mildew.  When  this  disease  gets 
amongst  the  plants  it  is  very  destructive,  often  sweeping  away 
an  entire  batch.  When  cloches  are  used  the  area  of  attack  is 
kept  within  much  narrower  limits  than  if  the  plants  are  in  a 
frame.  Efforts  to  find  a  remedy  have  so  far  met  with  very 
indifferent  success,  and  it  is  far  safer  to  depend  upon  preven- 
tion than  on  cure.  A  damp  position  and  a  stagnant  atmos- 
phere are  almost  certain  to  breed  mildew,  and  these  conditions 
should  be  avoided.  The  bed  on  which  the  plants  are  pricked 


French  Garden. — Preparing,  Plants.  89 

out  should  be  kept  free  from  excessive  damp ;  if  the  soil  is 
heavy  the  bed  should  be  raised  slightly  above  the  ordinary 
level  of  the  garden ;  it  should  be  in  an  open  position  where 
the  air  can  move  freely  and  never  in  a  sheltered  corner  or 
at  the  foot  of  a  wall. 

If  the  disease  has  shown  itself  previously  the  soil  should  be 
watered  with  Bordeaux  mixture  before  planting.  If  the  mildew 
appears  remove  and  burn  those  plants  attacked  worst,  then 
dust  the  remainder,  through  a  powder  bellows,  with  a  mixture 
of  equal  parts  of  powdered  quicklime  and  flowers  of  sulphur. 

Protecting  the  Plants  from  Frost. — On  the  approach  of 
winter  every  care  must  be  taken  to  protect  the  plants  from 
frost.  Every  night  both  frames  and  cloches  must  be  covered 
with  mats,  and  uncovered  again  in  the  morning.  When  severe 
frost  threatens,  dry  litter  should  be  scattered,  three  or  four 
inches  deep  around  and  amongst  the  cloches,  and  up  to  the 
top  of  the  frame  board,  and  the  mats  should  be  laid  on  so 
that  they  not  only  cover  the  top  but  also  reach  the  ground  on 
either  side.  In  laying  on  the  mats,  particularly  if  the  weather 
is  stormy,  they  should  overlap  with  the  exposed  edge  facing  to 
leeward,  or  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  from  which  the 
wind  blows.  Laid  in  this  way  and  fastened  down  on  the  wind- 
ward side  high  winds  do  not  disturb  them,  whereas  if  these 
precautions  are  neglected  the  gardener  may  some  morning  find 
the  mats  scattered  about  the  garden.  The  litter  amongst  the 
cloches  must  be  removed  as  the  weather  gets  milder,  otherwise 
it  would  tend  to  hold  excessive  moisture,  besides  being  an 
obstruction  to  light.  In  very  keen  frost  the  mats  must  only  be 
removed  for  a  few  hours  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  Constant 
watchfulness  is  required  to  ensure  that  the  plants  escape 
freezing  and  yet  are  grown  hardily. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

FRENCH  GARDEN.-CROPS  GROWN  BY  VARIOUS 
*  INTENSIVE  METHODS. 

Intercropping  and  its  Limitations— The  Best  Time  for  Beginning 
Hot-beds.  HOT-BEDS  FOR  FRAMES  :  Arrangement  of  the  Compost- 
Diagram  —  Sowing  and  Planting  —  Routine  Work  —  Ventilation  — 
Gathering  Radishes  and  Lettuces— Planting  Cauliflowers— Dressing 
the  Beds— Watering— Clearing  Beds— Alternative  Crops— Turnips. 
HOT-BEDS  FOR  CLOCHES  :  Compost — Arrangement  of  Cloches — Sowing 
and  Planting— Water  and  Ventilation— How  Cloches  are  Manipulated 
for  Successional  Crops — Diagram — Covering  and  Shading  Cloches — 
Clearing  Beds — Extra  Early  Cauliflowers.  Cold  Frames — Warm 
Beds  for  Melons  and  Cucumbers — Various  other  Methods  of  Forcing 
and  Forwarding — Open-air  Crops. 

INTERCROPPING  is  an  essential  feature  of  French  gar- 
1  dening,  and  it  is  by  this  means  that  the  numerous  crops 
which  are  so  marked  a  feature  of  the  system  are  obtained.  But 
the  experienced  maraicher  recognises  that  the  possibilities  of 
intercropping  has  strict  limitations,  and  whilst  striving  to  get 
the  utmost  from  the  soil  it  is  capable  of  yielding,  he  is  very 
careful  to  avoid  overcrowding.  His  ideal  is  to  get  not  only 
quantity  but  quality  also.  It  may  appear  to  be  a  simple  matter 
to  grow  together  quickly  and  slowly  maturing  crops,  and  so 
obtain  two  or  more  from  the  space  usually  occupied  by  one, 
but  this  kind  of  thing  is  easily  overdone.  When  too  many 
plants  are  contending  together  for  light  and  air^as  well  as  for 
food  and  moisture,  the  gardener  will  find,  in  spite  of  care  and 
attention,  that  the  produce  will  not  develop  into  the  choice 
specimens  he  is  anxiously  hoping  for,  but  comes  poor  and 
weedy  and  of  comparatively  little  value. 

For  this  reason  beginners  are  urged  to  carefully  carry  out 
in  their  entirety  the  directions  which  follow  as  to  times  for 
sowing  and  planting,  distances  between  the  plants,  and  other 
similar  details.  There  is  no  claim  made  that  these  instructions 


French  Garden. — Crops,  &c.  91 

cannot  be  improved  upon — the  experienced  gardener  must  use 
his  own  judgment  in  the  matter — but  as  every  detail  has  been 
tested  and  proved  to  work  successfully  it  is  advisable  that  the 
beginner  should  follow  the  instructions  very  closely. 

Hot-beds  are  started  at  various  times  throughout  the  winter 
months,  according  to  the  ideas  of  the  individual  grower  and  his 
command  of  good  stable  manure.  Where  this  can  be  obtained 
plentifully  at  a  nominal  price  there  is  no  reason  why  crops 
should  not  be  produced  the  year  round,  but  under  ordinary 
conditions  mid-winter  crops  cannot  be  produced  at  a  profit.  It 
has  been  found,  by  practical  experience,  that  in  a  garden  of 
moderate  size  the  second  week  in  January  is  the  best  time  to 
begin,  and  the  dates  of  sowing  given  in  the  previous  chapter 
have  been  arranged  with  this  time  in  view. 

A  week  or  two  previous  to  commencing  the  hot-beds,  the 
section  intended  for  them  should  be  covered  a  few  inches  deep 
with  long  manure,  so  as  to  prevent  the  ground  from  getting 
frozen.  Before  the  bed  is  begun  all  necessary  material  should 
be  collected  and  placed  close  at  hand,  so  that  when  a  start  is 
made  the  work  can  proceed  expeditiously. 

Hot-beds  for  Frames. — These  are  made  first.  The  prepared 
decayed  manure  or  compost  for  topping  the  beds  should  have 
previously  been  laid  on  the  section  they  are  to  occupy,  in  ridges 
about  3ft.  wide  and  2ft.  Gin.  high,  each  ridge  coming  opposite 
the  centre  of  the  position  to  be  occupied  by  a  frame.  The 
ridges  should  stop  6ft.  from  the  north  end  of  the  section,  so  as 
to  leave  room  for  making  the  first  bed,  and  extra  compost  should 
be  put  at  the  south  end  of  the  ridges  to  afford  sufficient  to  cover 
the  last  bed.  If  there  is  any  likelihood  of  frost  when  the  compost 
is  wheeled  out  long  manure  should  be  laid  over  it. 

In  beginning  to  make  the  bed,  lay  across  the  north  end  of 
the  section  two  rows  of  manure — one  of  new  and  one  of  that 
which  has  been  stacked  for  the  longest  time  (see  page  82). 
Alternate  forkfuls  of  each  of  these  rows  is  shaken  out,  and 
laid  in  position  about  9in.  thick ;  this  is  beaten  down  with  the 
back  of  the  fork  and  then  another  Gin.  or  9in.  is  put  on  top  of  it 
and  also  beaten  down.  As  the  work  proceeds  the  manure  is 
trodden  down  firmly  and  evenly,  and  hollow  places  are  levelled 


92  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

by  laying  in  a  little  more  manure.  At  this  date  the  manure 
bed  should  be  finished  at  about  15in.  deep.  Earlier  in  the 
season  it  must  be  deeper.  In  February  12in.  and  in  March 
9in.  will  be  sufficient.  These  are  minimum  depths,  calculated 
for  economy  in  the  use  of  manure ;  where  .it  is  plentiful  and 
cheap  the  respective  depths  may  be  increased  with  advantage. 

FRAMES 


Space  For  next:  Beef 


Soil  laid  ready  for  Covering  Hot-beds. 

The  first  portion  of  the  bed  laid  down  should  be  of  such  a 
length  and  width  as  will  allow  the  manure  to  extend  9in.  beyond 
the  frames  all  round.  As  soon  as  the  first  strip  is  ready  the 
first  row  of  frames  should  be  put  on,  straight  and  level,  and 
perfectly  square  with  the  section.  Some  trouble  should  be 
taken  over  this,  as  the  first  row  forms  a  guide  to  the  remainder, 
and  no  margin  is  allowed  for  careless  fixing.  When  all  are 
on  the  bed  they  should  be  true  and  square  one  with  another. 
The  same  pains  should  be  taken  in  levelling  the  frames,  by 
standing  on  each  corner  to  get  them  solid,  and  packing  manure 


French  Garden.— Crops,  &c.  93 

under  the  feet  of  the  frame  until  the  level  is  satisfactory. 
When  finished  the  whole  should  present  an  even  surface,  and 
if  properly  placed  on  the  bed  they  will  retain  this  level  to 
the  end,  but  if  insufficient  care  is  exercised  they  will  sink  in 
some  places  and  rise  in  others,  which  besides  having  a  slovenly 
appearance  will  often  cause  rainwater  to  drip  inside  the  frame, 
and  so  spoil  the  crop. 

Set  the  frames  end  to  end,  about  half  an  inch  apart,  so  as  to 
allow  sufficient  play  for  the  lights  to  move  easily,  as  there  are 
no  runners  between  them.  Having  fixed  the  frames,  throw 
inside  compost  from  the  ridges,  until  there  is  a  depth  of  about 
4in.  all  over  the  manure ;  then  make  all  level  with  a  fine  rake, 
and  remove  all  lumps.  Put  on  the  lights  and  cover  with  mats, 
then  , proceed  to  lay  down  the  manure  for  the  next  row  of 
frames.  This  is  joined  up  to  the  first  bed  of  manure,  no  gap 
intervening,  so  that  when  finished  one  large  bed  covers  the 
whole  section.  This  keeps  the  heat  in  better  and  allows  the 
frames  to  be  set  closer  together,  lOin.  only  being  allowed  for 
walking  space  between  two  rows  of  frames. 

The  work  should  be  so  contrived  that  the  portion  of  the  bed 
for  one  row  of  frames  is  finished  and  covered  before  being  left 
at  night.  This  is  of  importance  at  this  time  of  the  year,  when 
there  may  be  rain  or  snow  for  days  together;  if  this  occurs 
when  the  beds  are  left  uncovered  they  will  be  spoiled. 

Sowing  and  Planting. — In  two  or  three  days  after  the  first 
bed  is  covered  the  manure  will  begin  to  get  warm,  as  may  be 
seen  by  the  moisture  on  the  glass.  Then  is  the  time  to  sow 
and  plant.  Take  off  the  lights  and  sow  radish  seed  broadcast, 
very  thinly  and  evenly,  all  over  the  bed.  Follow  this  by  sowing 
forcing  carrot  seed  on  the  same  bed  and  in  the  same  way. 
Cover  thinly  with  dry  sifted  compost,  and  press  all  over  evenly 
with  the  firming  board.  Then  plant  the  forcing  cabbage  lettuce 
from  under  the  cloches  on  the  same  bed,  five  rows  under 
each  light  and  five  plants  to  a  row.  The  row  at  the  south 
side  of  the  frame  should  be  set  further  away  from  the  board 
than  that  at  the  opposite  side  so  as  enable  sufficient  direct  sun- 
light to  reach  the  plants.  Only  the  strongest  should  be  used 
for  the  earliest  beds.  All  decayed  leaves  should  be  removed 


94  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

before  planting.  The  roots  should  be  carefully  examined  for 
red  spots,  and  if  any  with  this  appearance  are  found  they  must 
be  rejected  and  burnt,  or  the  fungus  which  causes  the  spots  will 
spoil  the  plants  before  they  can  mature. 

The  beds  are  sown  and  planted  as  they  are  made  and  become 
warm ;  by  this  method  the  crops  mature  in  regular  succession. 
When  all  the  section  is  filled,  and  the  beds  are  all  sown  and 
planted,  the  outsides  of  the  frames  must  be  banked  up  and 
the  pathways  between  filled'  with  fresh  manure,  almost  to  the 
level  of  the  lights  (see  diagram). 


Diagram  showing  how  Manure  is  packed  on  the  outsides  of  the  Frames. 

Routine  Work.1— Cover  the  lights  each  night  with  mats  and 
uncover  each  morning.  In  performing  this  operation  roll  up 
each  mat  tightly  and  lay  it  along  the  woodwork  where  two  lights 
join.  Here  the  mats  are  out  of  the  way  and  cause  very  little 
obstruction  to  light.  As  soon  as  the  radishes  show,  give  air  by 
raising  the  lights  slightly  on  the  side  opposite  that  from  which 
the  wind  blows.  If  the  radishes  near  the  outsides  of  the  bed 
move  slowly  it  is  due  to  the  cooling  of  the  manure  at  that  part, 
and  when  this  occurs  pull  down  the  manure  on  the  outside  and 
bank  up  with  some  fresh.  If  the  radishes  in  any  part  appear 
to  be  drawn  it  will  be  caused  through  too  much  heat,  and  a  little 
more  air  must  be  given,  but  this  must  be  done  with  caution  as 
much  ventilation  is  not  good  for  the  forcing  cabbage  lettuce. 
Look  through  the  frames  occasionally  and  remove  any  decayed 
leaves  which  may  be  seen  amongst  them. 

Some  radishes  should  be  fit  for  gathering  about  four  weeks 
after  sowing  ;  if  the  bed  is  warm  the  whole  should  be  cleared 
away  by  the  end  of  the  fifth  week,  and  this  will  be  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  carrots,  which  by  this  time  will  be  showing  all 
over  the  bed.  So  far  no  watering  has  been  necessary,  the 
manure  having  given  off  sufficient  moisture  for  all  the  require- 
ments of  the  plants,  but  after  the  radishes  are  gone  the  bed 


French  Garden.— Crops,  &c.  95 

will  probably  need  watering,  unless  the  weather  has  been  wet, 
in  which  case  it  will  be  damp  enough.  If  water  is  needed 
choose  a  mild,  dull  day,  and  about  mid-day  lift  off  the  lights 
separately,  give  water  through  a  fine  rose,  and  replace  at  once. 
The  lettuce  should  be  ready  for  market  about  six  weeks  after 
planting. 

When  the  lettuce  are  gone  clean  the  beds  well,  removing  any 
weeds,  leaves,  or  old  roots  which  may  have  been  left  behind ; 
thin  the  carrots  in  any  places  where  they  may  stand  too  thickly. 
Then  plant  the  cauliflowers,  four  to  each  light,  so  that  they 
stand  about  2ft.  apart  both  ways ;  water  thoroughly,  put  on  the 
lights,  and  keep  close  for  two  or  three  days. 

From  this  time  forward  air  and  water  must  be  given  in  con- 
stantly increasing  quantities.  The  beds  must  never  be  allowed 
to  get  dry  and  ventilation  must  be  gradually  increased  until 
the  plants  are  thoroughly  hardened.  Early  in  April  the  frames 
and  lights  can  be  removed  altogether  to  the  section  intended 
for  melons  or  cucumbers. 

Before  this  time  some  growers  work  fine  soil  amongst  the 
carrots,  bringing  it  up  to  the  collar  of  the  plants.  This  keeps 
the  top  of  the  roots  from  becoming  green.  The  carrots  should 
be  ready  for  market  early  in  May.  Pulling  should  not  be 
begun  until  the  bulk  are  ready  and  then  the  bed  should  be 
cleared  as  the  pulling  proceeds,  no  small  ones  being  left  to  get 
larger,  as  they  would  be  in  the  way  and  would  probably  only 
make  useless  fibrous  roots.  Those  too  small  for  market  should 
be  thrown  away. 

When  the  carrots  are  gone  hoe  the  bed  all  over  and  water 
well.  The  cauliflowers  need  careful  watching,  and  whenever  a 
head  appears  break  a  leaf  over  it  to  keep  it  clean  and  white. 
Water  freely.  Cut  as  soon  as  ready,  as  if  overlooked  only  one 
day  they  may  get  too  open  and  become  spoiled,  especially  if 
the  weather  is  warm.  They  should  be  cleared  about  the  middle 
of  June,  when  the  bed  is  immediately  hoed  over  and  planted 
with  other  crops,  as  described  later. 

Alternative  Methods.— The  foregoing  scheme  of  cropping  is 
the  most  usual  for  this  class  of  produce,  and  with  proper 
attention  to  details  will  be  found  comparatively  simple  and 


96  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

easy  to  work.  There  may,  however,  be  special  circumstances 
which  would  make  it  advisable  to  get  a  particular  crop  earlier 
or  in  greater  abundance  than  is  here  provided  for,  and  where 
this  is  so  the  work  must  be  arranged  accordingly.  If  carrots 
are  wanted  in  the  early  part  of  April  the  bed  should  be  made 
up  in  the  middle  of  December  and  the  same  routine  followed, 
except  that  radishes  should  be  omitted,  lettuces  planted  a  little 
further  apart,  and  cauliflowers  not  set  out  until  the  beginning 
of  March.  Or  a  crop  of  radish  and  lettuce  can  be  taken  by  the 
end  of  February  and  after  the  surface  soil  has  been  cleaned  and 
stirred  the  same  two  crops  can  be  repeated  with  carrot,  inter- 
cropped with  cauliflower  at  the  end  of  April,  though  these  latter 
would  be  a  month  later  than  under  the  regular  scheme.  A 
very  useful  plan  is  to  make  up  the  bed  on  the  first  of  January, 
take  a  crop  of  radishes,  and  after  clearing  the  bed  sow  with 
forcing  turnips,  which  in  turn  would  be  followed  by  early  celery 
and  endive.  Turnips  usually  sell  well  and  realise  good  prices 
early  in  the  season ;  it  is  also  wise  to  include  turnips  in  the 
series,  because  if  the  soil  is  cropped  continuously  with  carrots 
it  will,  after  a  few  years,  begin  to  yield  inferior  crops. 

Turnips. — Make  a  square  lattice  of  laths,  ten  each  way,  just 
large  enough  to  fit  easily  into  the  frame  under  one  light.  In 
the  middle  of  each  place  where  two  laths  cross  fix  a  peg,  to 
project  one  inch.  Lay  this  frame  or  lattice  on  the  soil,  pegs 
downward,  and  press  down.  In  each  hole  made  by  the  pegs 
drop  two  or  three  turnip  seeds.  Rake  gently  to  fill  the  holes, 
water,  close  the  lights,  and  keep  close  until  the  seedlings  show, 
then  thin  to  single  ones  and  give  plenty  of  air.  Keep  the 
soil  moist;  in  fact  it  is  necessary  to  water  daily.  Take  the 
lights  off  entirely  whenever  the  weather  is  favourable.  The 
turnips  will  be  ready  for  sale  about  the  end  of  April. 

Hot-beds  for  Cloches.— Hot-beds  for  cloches  are  begun  as 
soon  as  those  for  frames  are  finished — about  the  last  week 
in  January.  All  the  operations  are  the  same  as  for  the 
frame  beds,  except  that  compost  is  spread  on  the  manure  three 
or  four  inches  deep  before  the  cloches  are  put  in  position.  A 
garden  line  is  used  so  that  the  cloches  are  set  out  neatly,  true 


French  Garden. — Crops,  &c.  97 

and  straight.  Three  rows  occupy  the  same  space  as  a  frame, 
those  in  the  middle  row  falling  between  those  in  the  two  outer 
rows,  with  the  rims  about  lin.  apart,  and  a  path  about  18in. 
wide  between  each  three  rows. 

As  soon  as  the  first  bed  is  ready  the  three  rows  of  cloches 
are  placed  upon  it  and  the  next  bed  is  proceeded  with,  in  the 
same  way  as  for  frames.  By  the  time  the  third  bed  is  finished 
the  first  will  be  warm  and  ready  for  planting. 

Remove  the  cloches,  then  sow  carrot  seed  only  very  thinly, 
cover  lightly,  and  press  down  with  the  firming  board ;  set  a 
cos  lettuce  in  the  centre  of  each  cloche,  and  three  cabbage 
lettuces  at  equal  distances  apart,  around  the  cos.  On  one 
side  of  each  cloche  a  depression  is  made  in  the  soil  to  give  air 
to  the  plants,  and  this  will  suffice  until  the  weather  becomes 
warmer ;  then  air  must  be  given  by  tilting  the  cloche  on  the 
cloche-peg.  Water  will  be  required  as  the  plants  increase  in 
size  and  the  need  for  it  becomes  evident.  For  the  production 
of  good  cos  lettuce  air  must  be  given  freely  on  every  occasion 
that  the  weather  will  permit. 


As  soon  as  planting  is  finished  on  the  last  bed  cos  lettuce 
are  set  in  the  open  in  the  spaces  between  the  cloches.  This 
is  shown  in  the  diagram  above,  where  the  cos  under  the 
cloche  is  numbered  "l"  and  those  between  the  cloches  "2" 
and  "  3."  The  protection  of  the  cloches  combined  with  the 
warmth  of  the  bed  preserves  these  plants  in  the  open  from 
injury.  The  whole  are  covered  closely  with  mats  each  night. 

The  cabbage  lettuce  should  be   ready   for   market   by   the 


98  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

second  week  in  March.  Then  the  carrots  are  thinned  where 
they  stand  too  thickly,  and  the  south  side  of  each  cloche  is 
whitened  to  prevent  the  unimpeded  rays  of  the  sun  from 
scorching  the  tips  of  the  cos  leaves  under  the  cloches. 

The  first  batch  of  cos,  numbered  "1"  should  be  ready  early 
in  April.  When  these  are  gone  the  cloches  are  put  over  those 
numbered  "2"  (shown  by  dotted  lines  in  the  diagram)  and  a 
cauliflower  is  set  where  "1"  stood  in  the  first  and  third  rows, 
leaving  the  middle  row  free.  When  those  numbered  "  2  "  are 
gone  the  cloche  is  put  over  "  3."  When  this  last  batch  are 
gone,  which  should  be  early  in  May,  remove  the  cloches  to  the 
sections  where  they  are  required  for  covering  French  beans, 
tomatoes,  vegetable  marrows,  &c.  Clean  up  the  bed  and  water 
thoroughly  and  frequently. 

The  carrots  should  be  ready  early  in  June  and  the  cauliflowers 
towards  the  latter  part  of  the  month,  and  immediately  after- 
wards the  bed  is  lightly  forked  over  and  replanted. 

A  much  earlier  crop  of  cauliflowers  can  be  obtained  if 
a  cauliflower  is  planted  under  each  cloche  instead  of  a  cos 
lettuce.  Three  cabbage  lettuces  are  planted  round  it,  and  the 
general  treatment  is  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  scheme. 

Cold  Beds  or  Cold  Frames  form  a  connecting  link  between 
the  hot-beds  and  the  open-air  beds,  and  ensure  a  continuous 
succession  of  supplies:  They  are  manipulated  in  much  the 
same  way  as  the  hot-beds  and  may  be  used  for  similar  crops, 
but  these  of  course  come  later.  Cold  beds  are  extremely 
useful  where  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  sufficient  manure  to  make 
up  many  hot-beds,  or  where  the  demand  for  very  early  and 
high-priced  produce  is  limited.  But  on  the  whole,  although 
the  gross  returns  are  lower,  the  comparative  net  profits  are 
higher  than  from  hot-beds,  and  this  is  a  very  important  con- 
sideration to  those  with  a  small  working  capital. 

For  this  work  the  ground  should  be  dug  and  left  rough  in 
the  early  part  of  the  winter.  On  the  1st  of  January,  or  as 
soon  afterwards  as  the  ground  is  clear  of  frost  and  snow,  level 
the  soil,  set  the  frames  in  position,  and  put  under  each  light  a 
barrow-load  of  old  hot-bed  manure.  Level  this  and  cover  it 
with  a  little  sifted  compost,  then  put  on  the  lights  and  keep 


French  Garden. — Crops,  &c.  99 

closely  matted  up  for  a  few  days,  when  it  will  be  found  that 
the  temperature  in  the  frames  is  sensibly  warmer  than  that 
outside.  Then  is  the  time  to  sow  and  plant.  Hardy  cabbage 
and  cos  lettuce,  cauliflowers,  stump-rooted  carrots,  radishes; 
turnips,  peas  and  potatoes  will  all  give  very  satisfactory  results 
under  this  treatment,  and  come  just  at  the  time  when  there  is 
a  good  popular  demand,  and  yet  early  enough  to  realise  com- 
paratively high  prices. 

Forcing  varieties  of  lettuce  may  be  grown  in  cold  frames 
if  an  extra  barrowful  of  old  hot-bed  manure  is  put  under  each 
light  and  the  paths  between  frames  are  filled  with  litter,  so 
as  to  keep  frost  from  penetrating  the  frame-board ;  in  fact,  this 
treatment  will  make  the  conditions  inside  a  cold  frame  more 
congenial  for  any  crop.  In  any  case,  during  cold  weather  each 
frame  should  be  covered  at  night  with  mats. 

Spare  frames  may  also  be  very  usefully  employed  in  pro- 
tecting beds  of  parsley  or  spinach  through  winter ;  or  they  may- 
be used  for  covering  mint  or  strawberry  plants  in  March  so  as 
to  forward  them  a  week  or  two  in  advance  of  open-air  crops. 
Where  such  forwarding  is  intended  the  beds  should  be  planted 
of  the  proper  size  to  be  covered  by  a  frame. 

Warm  Beds  for  Melons  and  Cucumbers. — During  April  the 
cauliflowers  and  carrots  growing  on  hot-beds  under  frames  are 
gradually  hardened,  until  by  the  middle  of  the  month  the 
frames  are  removed  entirely  and  the  crops  are  left  standing  in 
the  open.  The  frames  thus  released  are  taken  to  the  section 
intended  for  melons  or  cucumbers.  Here  warm  beds  are 
made  by  putting  hot  manure  in  shallow  trenches  and  covering 
with  soil.  The  frames  are  put  on  these  beds  and  the  plants  set 
out  at  once,  yielding  fruits  during  the  summer.  The  frames 
are  removed  from  the  melons  about  the  end  of  July  or  early 
in  August,  according  to  the  weather,  and  cauliflower  plants 
are  then  set  on  the  beds  amongst  the  vines,  thus  giving  an 
autumn  crop  of  cauliflowers  to  follow  melons.  Cauliflowers 
are  not  planted  on  the  cucumber  beds  unless  the  crop  shows 
signs  of  being  over  early.  Full  detailed  instructions  regarding 
melons  and  cucumbers  will  be  found  in  the  articles  under  their 
respective  heads  in  the  Details  of  Cultivation. 


100  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Open-air  Crops. — As  soon  as  the  last  of  the  forced  crops  are 
gone,  the  hot-beds — now  cold — are  cleared  of  all  roots  and 
leaves,  lightly  forked  over,  raked  level,  and  at  once  planted 
with  crops  which  will  mature  before  the  following  winter. 
These  consist  in  the  main  of  celery,  celeriac,  endive,  cos 
lettuce,  carrots,  and  cauliflowers,  any  of  which  may  be  inter- 
cropped with  quickly-maturing  subjects,  such  as  radishes, 
spinach,  cabbage  lettuce,  or  turnips.  Good  well-grown  plants 
should  have  been  prepared  in  readiness  for  these  beds,  so  that 
there  will  be  no  loss  of  time  between  one  crop  and  the  next. 

In  addition  to  those  grown  on  hot-beds  and  on  cold-beds 
under  glass,  and  those  which  follow  these  on  the  same  beds  in 
the  open-air,  there  are  crops  grown  on  ordinary  well-manured 
soil  entirely  in  the  open.  Some  of  these  are  planted  out  in 
autumn  and  have  to  take  the  chances  of  damage  or  destruction 
by  exceptionally  severe  weather;  in  some  cases  provision  is 
made  for  some  form  of  protection  by  mats  or  dry  litter,  whilst 
in  others  the  plants  are  not  set  out  until  all  danger  from  frost 
is  practically  at  an  end. 

Various  other  Methods  of  Forcing  and  Forwarding. — Other 
crops  than  those  already  mentioned  are  produced  early  in  the 
French  garden  by  methods  more  or  less  similar  to  those 
already  described.  Amongst  these  may  be  mentioned  vegetable 
marrows,  ridge  cucumbers,  dwarf  beans,  and  tomatoes,  all  of 
which  may  be  set  out  early  over  a  little  warm  manure  and 
protected  by  lights,  cloches,  or  one  of  the  protective  devices 
described  and  illustrated  in  Chapter  XVII.  Then  there  are 
such  subjects  as  seakale,  chicory,  asparagus,  mint,  and  nu- 
merous others,  all  of  which  can  be  made  to  yield  good  profits 
by  forcing,  either  in  pits  or  on  hot-beds. 

For  full  detailed  instructions  respecting  the  intensive  culture 
of  any  of  the  crops  mentioned  above,  and  not  already  fully  dealt 
with,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Part  II  of  this  book,  "  Details  of 
the  Cultivation  of  Vegetables,""  where  every  item  is  treated 
separately  under  its  own  head. 


French  Garden.— Plan.'  :  ''  101 

Plan  of  French  Garden,  with  Scheme  of  Cropping. 

Total  Area :    Quarter  of  an  Acre. 

NOTE. — A  Rotation  is  obtained  by  each  year  moving  the  crops  which  in 
the  previous  year  occupied  sections  1  and  2  to  sections  9  and  10,  and  at  the 
same  time  moving  all  the  remainder  from  the  section  each  occupies  to  the 
section  above,  as  is  shown  in  italics  below. 


Open-air  Bed,  planted  with  hardy  Cos 
Lettuce  at  the  end  of  October. 

Radishes  are  sown  in  February  be- 
tween the  rows  of  Lettuce. 

After  Lettuces  are  cleared,  manure 
is  brought  from  section  5  and  dug  in, 
then  early  Celery  is  planted. 

After  Celery,  sow  Radishes. 

After  Radishes  are  cleared,  bastard 
trench  the  ground,  in  readiness  for 
crops  as  on  section  3. 


Open-air  Bed,  planted  with  hardy  Cab- 
bage Lettuce  from  Cloches  at  the  end 
of  January. 

Cos  from  Cloches  are  planted  between 
the  Cabbage  Lettuce  early  in  March. 

After  Lettuces  are  cleared,  manure  is 
brought  from  section  5  and  dug  in, 
then  Endive  is  planted ;  a  fortnight 
later  set  late  Celery  between  Endive. 

After  Celery,  this  section  is  occupied 
witJi  the  crops  shown  on  section  5. 


Hot-beds,  made  at  various  times  in 
spring,  for  raising  and  growing  on 
under  Frames,  Tomato,  Celery,  Cu- 
cumber, Melon,  and  Endive  plants. 

When  plants  are  gone,  remove  part  of 
manure  to  sec.  3  and  4,  spread  and  dig 
in  remainder,  then  plant  Celeriac. 

Following  Celeriac,  early  in  January 
cover  this  section  with  long  manure 
to  keep  ground  free  from  frost  for 
Hot-bed,  as  on  section  7*. 


Hot-bed,  made  mid  January,  for  6  rows 
of  Frames ;  4  rows  are  sown  with 
Radish  and  Carrot  and  planted  with 
Cabbage  Lettuce  ;  as  soon  as  Lettuce 
are  ready,  plant  Cauliflowers. 

2  rows  are  sown  with  Radishes  only 
and  planted  with  Lettuces ;  after 
Lettuces,  sow  Turnips. 

Follow  all  w'ith  second  early  Celery. 

After  Celery,  remove  manure,  raise 
plants,  and  prepare  for  wintering. 


Lettuce  and  Cauliflower  plants  under 
Frames  and  Cloches  for  protection 
through  the  winter. 

Follow  with  Melons  on  warm-beds  in 
Frames. 

When  Melons  are  three-parts  grown 
plant  Cauliflowers  on  the  beds. 

After  the  section  is  cleared,  take  the 
manure  out  of  trenches,  spread  it 
evenly  over  the  bed,  then  dig,  in 
readiness  for  crops  as  on  section  1 . 


Open-air  Bed,  planted  with  hardy  Cab- 
bage Lettuce  at  the  end  of  October. 

Radishes  are  sown  between  the  rows  of 
Lettuce  in  February. 

After  Lettuces  are  cleared,  forward 
Tomato  plants  are  set  out  under 
Cloches  in  the  middle  of  May. 

After  Tomatoes  are  cleared,  prepare 
Pits  in  readiness  for  crops  as  on 
section  4. 


Pits,  made  in  November,  for  forcing 
Rhubarb,  Seakale,  and  Chicory. 

In  May  level  the  ground,  dig  in  manure, 
and  plant  early  Celery  about  the  end 
of  the  month. 

Follow  Celery  with  Batavian  Endive. 

The  crops  shown  on  section  6  follow 
Endive. 


Hot-bed,  made  early  part  of  January, 
for  432  Cloches  ;  sow  with  Carrot  and 
plant  with  Cos  and  Cabbage  Lettuce  ; 
after  Cos  plant  Cauliflowers. 

When  bed  is  cleared,  fork  over  and 
plant  with  second  early  Celery. 

After  Celery,  sow  Radishes. 

When  bed  is  cleared,  remove  manure 
to  section  4,  then  dig,  to  have  soil 
in  readiness  for  Cold-beds,  as  on 
section  8. 


Cold-bed,  made  beginning  of  February, 
for  6  rows  of  Frames ;  sow  with 
Radish  and  plant  with  Cabbage  Let- 
tuce ;  as  soon  as  Lettuce  are  ready, 
plant  Cauliflowers. 

After  Cauliflowers,  sow  Carrots,  but 
on  one  corner  raise  Batavian  Endive 
plants  for  section  4. 

The  crops  as  shown  on  section  JO 
follow  on  this  section. 


10 

Sow  Radishes  on  open  bed  in  February 
and  keep  dry  litter  at  hand  for  pro- 
tection from  frost. 

After  Radishes  are  finished,  prepare 
warm-beds  for  Cucumbers. 

When  this  section  is  cleared,  take  the 
manure  out  of  trenches,  spread  it 
evenly  over  the  bed,  then  dig,  in 
readiness  for  crops  as  on  section  2. 


Total  width,  75  feet.        18in.  Paths  between  the  Sections. 


. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
A  QUARTER  ACRE  OF  FRENCH  GARDEN. 

Description  and  Explanation  of  Garden — Equipment — Water  — 
Manure  — Prices  of  Produce— Average  Crops  — Size  of  Bunches  — 
Details  of  Cropping — Estimated  Produce  and  Values — Summary  of 
Returns — Estimated  Annual  Income  and  Expenditure — Approximate 
Cost  of  Equipment. 

ON  the  preceding  page  is  a  model  plan  of  a  French  garden, 
with  a  scheme  of  cropping.  The  dimensions  are  a  trifle 
over  a  quarter  of  an  acre.  There  are  10  interchangeable 
sections,  each  36ft.  by  30ft.  6in.,  any  of  which  will  afford  space 
for  18  frames,  arranged  in  6  rows,  3  frames  in  a  row,  facing 
south,  with  a  lOin.  path  between  the  rows ;  or  486  cloches,  in 
beds  of  3  rows  each,  with  an  18in.  path  between  the  beds. 

The  reasons  for  setting  forth  the  possibilities  of  a  quarter- 
acre  French  garden  are :  (1)  because  this  represents  the  maxi- 
mum area  which  one  average  man  can  manage  on  this  system ; 
(2)  because  a  French  garden  of  this  size  is  quite  large  enough 
for  a  small  holding  where  it  is  worked  in  conjunction  with 
ordinary  market  gardening.  It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed 
that  any  person  is  advised  to  undertake  this  kind  of  work  single- 
handed.  Many  of  the  operations  are  done  more  conveniently 
by  two  persons  working  together,  and  when  this  is  the  only 
form  of  gardening  carried  on  it  will  be  found  more  economical 
to  have  the  garden  large  enough  to  employ  several  persons,  as 
then  the  time  of  the  head  man  is  not  taken  up  with  tasks  which 
can  be  performed  equally  well  by  a  labourer.  One  working 
head  man  can  efficiently  supervise  about  two  acres. 

The  equipment  consists  of  40  3-light  frames,  500  cloches, 
250  mats,  spade,  digging  fork,  manure  forks  with  straight  and 
bent  prongs,  shovel,  fine  and  coarse  rakes,  draw  and  push  hoes, 
large  and  small  dibbers,  garden  line  and  reel,  trowel,  measuring 
rod,  soil  thermometer,  plant  marker,  planting  board,  firming 
board,  sieve,  gravel  screen,  watering  cans,  water  barrow,  props 
for  lights,  plant  pots,  pegs  for  cloches,  a  cloche  carrier,  and  a 
wheel  barrow,  most  of  which  are  illustrated  on  the  next  page. 

In  a  larger  garden  it  would  be  necessary  to  have  water  laid 
on  in  pipes,  but  on  this  small  area  an  energetic  man  could 


A  Quarter  Acre  of  French  Garden.  103 

SPECIMENS  OF  SOME  FRENCH  GARDEN  TOOLS. 


22. 

1    Digging  Fork.  5.  Draw  Hoe.  9.  Long  Manure  Fork.  13.  Gravel  Screen. 

2.  Manure  Fork-  6.  Dutch  Hoe.  10.  Soil  Thermometer.  14.  Dew  Pot. 

3.  Shovel.  7.  Fine  Rake.  11.  Bent  Prong  Fork.  15.  French  Water  Can. 

4.  Spade.  8.  Firming  Board.  12.  Sieve.  16.  Garden  Trowel. 

21.  Water  Barrow.  22.  Measuring  Rod. 


17.  Dibbers. 

18.  Soil  Marker. 

19.  Garden  Reel  &  Line 

20.  Wheelbarrow. 


manage  very  well  with  a  30  gallon  water  barrow  and  two 
3  gallon  watering  cans.  About  140  tons  of  manure  will  be 
required  the  first  season,  40  tons  for  digging  in,  and  100  tons 
for  hot-beds,  the  latter  quantity  being  required  each  season. 


104  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

The  prices  obtained  for  French  garden  produce  are  subject  to 
wide  fluctuations,  and  the  most  careful  estimate  may  be  found 
unreliable  in  any  given  season.  It  is  only  by  averaging  the 
returns  over  a  number  of  years  that  any  fair  estimate  can  be 
arrived  at.  This  is  the  method  by  which  the  prices  following 
have  been  fixed,  and  in  all  cases  they  are  rather  under  than 
over-stated. 

In  calculating  the  quantity  of  saleable  produce  obtained  from 
the  garden  a  sufficient  allowance  has  been  made  for  waste. 
The  average  crop  per  light  from  frames  is  four  bunches  each 
of  radishes  and  carrots  when  these  are  grown  with  lettuces,  or 
eight  bunches  of  radishes  when  carrots  are  omitted.  When 
they  stand  thicker  than  this  the  lettuces  are  injured.  Turnips 
grown  alone  yield  seven  bunches  per  light.  The  number  of 
roots  to  a  bunch  is  twelve  each  of  radishes  and  turnips,  and 
fifty  of  carrots,  in  two  "half-bunches"  of  twenty-five,  tied 
together. 

No.  1  Section. — Open-air  bed,  planted  at  the  end  of  October  with  hardy 
Cos  Lettuce,  1ft.  between  the  rows,  lOin.  between  the  plants  in  the  row. 
About  the  middle  of  February  Radishes  are  sown  thinly  between  the  rows 
of  Lettuce,  every  fifth  row  being  left  vacant  for  convenience  in  gathering. 
There  are  96  doz.  Lettuces  planted,  of  which  80  doz.  may  be  expected  to 
pass  through  the  winter  successfully  and  realise  an  average  price  of  1/3  per 
doz.  The  Radishes  should  yield  50  doz.  bunches  at  8d.  per  doz.  After  the 
bed  is  cleared  of  Lettuce  it  must  receive  a  good  dressing  of  manure  from 
section  5  (where  some  of  the  hot-beds  are  by  this  time  done  with) ;  this  is 
forked  in  and  the  section  is  planted  at  the  beginning  of  June  with  early 
Celery,  in  rows  12in.  apart,  by  Sin.  apart  in  the  rows.  This  should  be  ready 
for  sale  in  the  latter  part  of  August,  and  there  should  be  110  doz.  saleable 
sticks,  which  will  sell  for  an  average  price  of  1/6  per  doz.  When  the  Celery 
is  gone  clear  the  ground  of  rubbish,  hoe  well,  and  sow  Radishes,  which  will 
be  ready  in  October,  and  should  yield  140  doz.  bunches  at  6d.  per  doz. 

No.  2  Section.— Open-air  bed,  planted  at  the  end  of  October  with  hardy 
Cabbage  Lettuce  (Passion),  at  the  same  distances  apart  as  Cos  on  No.  1, 
and  being  earlier  may  be  expected  to  realise  the  same  price.  Radishes  also 
same  as  No.  1.  This  section  will  be  cleared  early  in  May,  and  in  the  middle 
of  the  month  well-prepared  forward  Tomato  plants  are  set  out  in  double 
rows  2ft.  apart,  3ft.  between  the  double  rows,  and  18in.  between  the  plants 
in  the  rows,  which  run  north  and  south.  Each  plant  is  covered  with  a 
cloche  as  it  is  set  out.  The  section  will  accommodate  252  plants  which  will, 
if  properly  treated,  bear  ripe  fruit  early  in  July,  and  should  yield,  at  a  low 
average,  4lbs.  per  plant  at  2d.  per  Ib. 


A  Quarter- Acre  of  French  Garden.  105 

No.  3  Section. — Open-air  bed,  planted  at  the  end  of  January  with  hardy 
Cabbage  Lettuce  (from  cloches)  14in.  apart  in  each  direction.  Early  in 
March  Cos  are  planted  .in  each  direction  between  the  Cabbage  Lettuce. 
The  latter  should  be  ready  to  cut  towards  the  end  of  April  and  the  Cos 
by  the  latter  part  of  May ;  they  should  each  yield  47  doz.  saleable  heads 
at  I/-  and  1/3  per  doz.  respectively.  When  the  section  is  cleared  of 
Lettuce,  manure  from  the  hot-beds  on  section  5  is  spread,  the  soil  is  forked 
over  and  levelled,  and  Endive  is  planted  in  rows  15in.  apart,  1ft.  between 
the  plants  in  the  row.  A  fortnight  afterwards,  late  Celery  is  set  between 
the  rows  of  Endive,  9in.  from  plant  to  plant.  The  saleable  yield  should 
be  55  doz.  Endive  at  I/-  and  86  doz.  Celery  at  I/-  per  doz. 

No.  4  Section. — On  this  section  four  pits  are  made  in  November,  for 
forcing  Rhubarb,  Seakale,  and  Chicory.  The  method  is  described  and 
illustrated  in  the  article  on  the  cultivation  of  Seakale.  Each  pit  is  34ft. 
long  and  4ft.  wide.  Two  and  a-half  pits  are  used  for  Rhubarb,  one  for 
Seakale,  and  a  half  one  for  Chicory,  which  proportion  roughly  represents 
the  comparative  demand.  Planting  is  begun  at  the  end  of  November,  one 
quarter  of  the  space  allotted  to  each  being  planted  every  week  so  as  to 
secure  a  regular  succession.  Six  weeks  may  be  reckoned  as  the  time  neces- 
sary to  complete  each  crop,  and  if  the  warmth  of  the  bed  is  maintained 
by  renewal  of  the  fermenting  material  at  each  fresh  planting,  three  crops 
can  be  taken  before  the  end  of  April.  The  number  of  roots  required  for  the 
season  are — 1,500  Rhubarb  (set  as  closely  as  they  will  stand),  3,600  Seakale 
(4in.  apart),  and  750  Chicory  (6in.  apart).  The  produce  to  be  expected  is 
600  doz.  bundles  Rhubarb  at  an  average  price  of  2/-  a  doz.,  900lbs.  Seakale 
at  6d.,  and  750lbs.  Chicory  at  4d.  This  is  a  fair  average  yield  and  price 
when  good  roots  are  well  grown.  Each  quarter  of  the  pits  should  be 
boarded  up  so  as  to  prevent  light  getting  to  the  other  parts  when  one  is 
being  manipulated.  At  the  end  of  April  the  pits  are  dismantled,  the 
ground  levelled,  and  manure  spread  and  dug  in.  About  the  end  of  May 
early  Celery  plants  are  set  out  as  described  for  section  1.  Immediately  the 
Celery  is  cleared  away  fork  the  soil  over  and  plant  Batavian  or  other  winter 
Endive  15in.  apart  each  way.  These  should  produce  40  doz.  saleable  at  I/-. 

No.  5  Section.— This  section  is  used  for  hot  and  warm-beds  on  which  all 
the  tender  spring-sown  plants  are  raised  in  frames.  As  the  plants  grow 
and  need  more  room  this  can  be  provided  by  removing  some  of  the  frames 
from  the  cold-beds  on  section  8,  early  in  April.  The  frames  are  removed 
from  early  Celery  plants  early  in  May,  but  protection  is  given  at  night  by 
a  covering  of  mats,  laid  over  a  framework  of  laths.  When  Tomatoes  are 
planted  out,  the  manure  of  the  beds  on  which  they  stood  is  taken  to  No.  1 
section.  All  vacant  frames  are  taken  to  sections  9  or  10,  to  be  used  for 
Cucumbers  or  Melons.  As  soon  as  all  plants  are  gone  spread  remainder  of 
manure,  dig  in,  and  plant  Celeriac,  1ft.  apart  each  way.  These  will  give 
say,  76  doz.  roots  at  I/-. 

No.  6  Section.— This  section  is  covered  at  the  beginning  of  February  with 
a  hot-bed  for  cloches,  made  and  planted  in  accordance  with  the  detailed 


106  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

instructions  given  on  pages  96  to  98.  It  should  produce  100  doz.  Cabbage 
Lettuce  at  an  average  price  of  I/-  per  doz.,  100  doz.  Cos  Lettuce  at  2/6,  14 
doz.  bunches  Carrots  at  3/-,  and  22  doz.  Cauliflowers  at  2/9.  After  these 
are  all  cleared  away  the  bed  is  forked  over  and  planted  with  second  early 
Celery,  1ft.  between  the  rows,  lOin.  apart  in  the  rows.  There  should  be 
90  doz.  saleable  sticks  which  will  average  out  at  1/3.  After  Celery,  clear 
and  hoe  the  bed  and  sow  Radishes,  which  will  yield  as  No.  1  section. 

No.  7  Section. — The  hot-bed  on  this  section,  which  is  commenced  in  the 
middle  of  January,  accommodates  18  frames,  in  6  rows  of  3  frames  each. 
Four  rows  are  manipulated  in  accordance  with  the  detailed  instructions  given 
on  pages  91  to  96,  and  produce  12  doz.  bunches  Radishes  at  I/-,  12  doz. 
bunches  Carrots  at  3/6,  70  doz.  Cabbage  Lettuce  at  I/-,  and  11  doz.  Cauli- 
flowers at  3/-.  On  two  rows  there  are  no  Carrots,  and  Turnips  are  sown 
after  Lettuce;  these  produce  12  doz.  bunches  Radishes  at  I/-,  34  doz.  Cab- 
bage Lettuce  at  I/-,  and  16  doz.  bunches  Turnips  at  4/-.  After  all  these, 
second  early  Celery  is  planted,  as  on  section  6,  and  realises  the  same  price. 
When  Celery  is  gone  the  manure  is  removed,  broken  up  and  sifted.  The 
soil  is  then  forked  over  so  as  to  be  in  readiness  for  wintering  next  season's 
plants,  and  seed  for  them  is  sown  on  beds  made  at  one  end  of  the  section. 

No.  8  Section. — Cold-bed  made  early  in  January  for  18  frames.  Sow  with 
Radish  and  plant  with  Cabbage  Lettuce,  25  to  a  light ;  as  Lettuce  come 
ready  plant  Cauliflowers,  5  to  a  light.  These  should  produce  18  doz.  bunches 
Radishes  at  10d.,  104  doz.  Cabbage  Lettuce  at  I/-,  and  21  doz.  Cauliflowers 
at  2/6.  As  soon  as  Cauliflowers  are  off,  lightly  fork  over  and  sow  broadcast 
short  horn  Carrots  on  4ft.  beds,  with  1ft.  paths  between.  On  one  corner 
of  this  section  the  Batavian  Endive  plants  should  be  raised  for  setting  out 
on  section  4.  The  yield  of  Carrots  should  be  18  doz.  bunches  at  3/-. 

No.  9  Section. — Here  Cauliflower  and  Lettuce  plants  intended  for  the 
earliest  crops  of  the  following  season  pass  through  the  winter  on  cold-beds, 
protected  by  frames  and  cloches.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  removed,  the 
section  is  prepared  with  warm-beds  and  planted  with  Melons,  according  to 
the  directions  given  on  pages  224  to  229.  About  the  middle  of  July  Cauli- 
flowers are  planted  amongst  the  Melon  vines,  four  to  a  light.  There  should 
be  about  180  good  melons,  which  will  sell  at  an  average  price  of  1/3  each, 
and  15  doz  Cauliflowers  at  1/6.  The  Cauliflower  plants  for  this  section  can 
be  grown  on  No.  2  section  at  the  foot  of  the  Tomato  plants. 

No.  10  Section. — Radishes  are  sown  on  this  section  in  the  middle  of 
February  on  4ft.  beds,  protected  by  a  light  covering  of  litter.  This  is 
removed  as  soon  as  the  seed  has  germinated,  but  replaced  each  night  and 
when  the  weather  is  severe.  The  yield  should  be  120  doz.  bunches  at  8d. 
As  soon  as  the  Radishes  are  cleared  warm-beds  are  prepared  and  planted 
with  Cucumbers,  according  to  the  directions  on  pages  200  to  206.  The 
yield  should  be  80  doz  at  1/6. 

On  the  following  page  the  estimated  gross  returns  from  each 
section  are  summarised : — 


A  Quarter-Acre  of  French  Garden. 


•   107 


No 

No 
No 

No 

No 
No 

No 

No 

No 
No. 

.  1.—  80  doz. 
50     „ 
110     ,, 
140     „ 

.  2.  —  80  doz. 
50     „ 
84     „ 

.  3.—  47  doz. 
47     „ 
55     „ 
86     „ 

.  4.—  600  doz. 
900  Ibs. 
750  Ibs. 
110  doz. 
40     „ 

.  5.—  76  doz. 

.  6.—  100  doz. 
100     ,, 
14     „ 
22     „ 
90     „ 
140     „ 

.  7.—  12  dOZ. 
12     „ 

70     „ 
11     „ 
12     „ 
34     „ 

16     „ 
90     „ 

.  8.—  18  dOZ. 
104     „ 
21     „ 
18     „ 

.  9.—  180  Melo 
15  doz. 

10.—  120  doz. 
80     „ 

Cos  Lettuce,  at  1/3  
bunches  Radishes,  at  8d.    ... 
Celery,  at  1/6  

£ 
5 
1 
8 

s. 
0 
13 
5 
10 

d.     £ 
0 
4 
0 
0 

1  8 

s.   d. 

8    4 
1     4 

6     9 

5     0 
16     0 

15     6 

19     6 

5     6 
7     6 
0     0 

bunches  Radishes,  at  6d.    . 
t 

Cabbage  Lettuce,  at  1/3     ... 
bunches  Radishes,  at  8d.    ... 
Tomatoes,  at  2/- 

Cabbage  Lettuce,  at  l/- 
Cos  Lettuce,  at  1/3   
Endive,  at  l/- 
Celery,  at  l/- 

3 

5 
1 
8 

0 
13 
8 

0 
4 
0 

1  C 

2 
2 
2 
4 

7 
18 
15 
6 

0 
9 
0 
0 

10 

Rhubarb,  at  2/-          
Seakale,  at  6d.           
Chicory,  at  4d.           
Celery,  at  1/6  

...       60 
...       22 
...       12 
8 

0 
10 
10 
5 
0 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

1  01^ 

Endive  at  I/-    .          .          ... 

2 

Celeriac,  at  I/-            

Cabbage  Lettuce,  at  l/- 
Cos  Lettuce,  at  2/6   ... 
bunches  Carrots,  at  3/- 
Cauliflowers,  at  2/9  
Celery  at  1/3     

3 

16 

0 

5 
...       12 
2 
3 
5 

0 
10 
2 
0 
12 
10 

0 
0 
0 
6 
6 
0 

qi 

bunches  Radishes,  at  6d.    ... 

bunches  Radishes,  at  l/- 
bunches  Carrots,  at  3/6 
Cabbage  Lettuce,  at  l/- 
Cauliflowers,  at  3/-    
bunches  Radishes,  at  If- 
Cabbage  Lettuce,  at  l/- 
bunches  Turnips,  at  4/- 
Celery,  at  1/3  

3 

0 
2 
3 
1 
0 
1 
3 
5 

12 
2 
10 
13 
12 
14 
4 
12 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

6 
IP 

bunches  Radishes,  at  lOd.  ... 
Cabbage  Lettuce,  at  l/- 
Cauliflowers,  at  2/6  
bunches  Carrots,  at  3/- 

0 
5 
2 
2 

15 
4 
12 
14 

0 
0 
6 
0 

11 

5 

2 

0 

6 
10 

Cauliflowers,  at  1/6  

bunches  Radishes,  at  8d.    ... 
Cucumbers,  at  1/6     

1 

4 
6 

0 
0 

0 

0 
10 

Total  Gross  Returns,  carried  to  next  page     ...     £239    5    5 


10§  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

ESTIMATED  ANNUAL  INCOME  AND  EXPENDITURE. 

£  s.  d. 

Gross  .Returns,  brought  forward  from  previous  page 239    5    5 

Expenditure : — 

Manure,  100  tons  at  5/- '.     ...    £25    0    0 

Roots  for  Forcing  : — 

Rhubarb,  1,500  at  £15  per  1,000...  £22  10  0 
Seakale,  3,600  at  70/-  „  ...  12  12  0 
Chicory,  750  at  70/-  „  ...  2  12  6 

Carriage  and  handling  of  same  ...      500 

42  14    6 

Seeds     100 

Rent  and  Rates 2  10    0 

Repairs  and  Depreciation       10    0    0 

Packing  Materials     500 

Carriage  and  Commission      50    0    0 

Total  Expenditure,  exclusive  of  labour     136    4    G 

Gross  Profit      103    0  11 

Labour,  calculated  at  30/-  per  week  for  one  man 78    0    0 

Net  Profit 25    0    11 

NOTE. — The  Profits  would  be  much  increased  if  the  produce  was  sold 
locally  instead  of  being  sent  to  market,  as  then  not  only  would 
higher  prices  be  obtained  but  the  expense  of  railway  carriage  and 
salesmen's  commissions  would  be  saved.  Also,  where  the  forcing 
of  roots  is  carried  on  systematically,  the  gardener  would  raise 
his  own,  and  so  save  very  materially  on  that  item. 


APPROXIMATE  COST  OF  EQUIPMENT. 

£  s.  d. 

40  Three-light  Frames,  at  6/-  each  for  material,  made  at  home...  1200 
120  Lights,  bought  ready-made,  painted  and  glazed  at  home,  at 

a  total  cost  of  7/- each      42    0    0 

500  Cloches,  at  I/- each    25    0    0 

Straw  and  String  for  250  Mats,  made  at  home 300 

Plant  Pots,  25  casts  60's,  20  casts  32's,  delivered 310    0 

Tools  and  Sundries    » 600 

140  Tons  of  Stable  Manure,  at  5/- 35    0    0 

£126  10    0 


CHAPTER  XV. 

INTENSIVE  CULTURE  ON  ALLOTMENTS  AND 
COTTAGE  GARDENS. 

Forcing  on  Hot-beds  Unnecessary — Great  Increase  in  Quantity  of 
Produce — Essential  Features  of  the  System — How  to  Secure  Them 
at  Small  Expense  —  Suggestions  for  Practical  Work  with  Schemes 
and  Diagrams  of  Intercropping — Prince  Kropotkin  on  Mutual  Help. 

WORKING  men  who  have  small  gardens  might,  with 
great  advantage,  imitate  many  of  the  methods  of  the 
French  gardener.  It  would  be  absurd  to  recommend  that  the 
system  should  be  carried  out  to  its  full  extent  by  those  who 
seldom  can  afford  to  spend  much  upon  their  gardens  beyond 
their  labour,  because  of  the  outlay  necessary,  but  there  are 
many  important  features  in  it  which  can  be  adopted  without 
incurring  any  more  expense  than  is  required  in  ordinary 
gardening.  The  popular  idea  that  French  gardening  consists 
of  huge  hot-beds  covered  with  frames  and  bell-glasses  is  only 
partly  true.  These  things  are  important  accessories,  but  are 
not  the  system  itself ;  they  are  indispensable  for  some  of  the 
earliest  crops,  but  practical  experience  goes  to  show  that  such 
crops,  although  they  sell  for  high  prices,  are  very  little,  if  any, 
more  profitable  than  those  produced  a  little  later  at  much  less 
expense. 

There  has  been  much  controversy  with  respect  to  the  profits 
which  may  be  derived  from  French  gardening,  and  it  is  certain 
that  where  the  cost  of  labour  and  manure,  together  with 
depreciation  and  interest  on  invested  capital,  are  take'n  into 
careful  account  the  profits  can  never  be  very  large,  but  what- 
ever difference  of  opinion  there  may  be  on  this  point,  there  can 
be  none  as  to  the  great  increase  in  the  quantity  of  produce  from 
each  square  yard  of  land  cultivated  under  this  system,  as  com- 
pared with  that  obtained  by  ordinary  methods. 

From  this  point  of  view  alone  intensive  culture  on  similar 
lines  to  those  of  the  French  gardener,  but  modified  to  suit  the 


110  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

special  circumstances  of  the  case,  would  be  of  great  benefit 
to  the  allotment  holder,  who  would  thereby  be  able  to  produce, 
without  much  extra  outlay,  a  larger  quantity  of  wholesome 
food  for  his  family,  as  well  as  the  probability  of  having  some 
to  offer  for  sale  to  his  neighbours.  In  addition,  the  increased 
interest  which  arises  from  an  occupation  calling  for  fore- 
thought, judgment,  and  careful  planning,  and  the  pleasure  and 
satisfaction  to  be  derived  from  viewing  the  perfect  vegetables 
mature  in  succession,  with  almost  mechanical  regularity,  are 
in  themselves  ample  recompense  for  any  additional  time  and 
expense  which  may  be  entailed. 

A  few  frames  and  lights  (which  can  be  made  at  home)  to 
protect  plants  through  the  winter  and  to  raise  further  batches 
in  the  spring,  and  which  could  afterwards  be  used  to  produce 
a  summer  crop  of  cucumbers,  are  all  that  are  really  necessary 
in  the 'present  case.  Every  effort  should  be  made  to  secure 
some,  but  even  if  that  is  impossible  at  the  outset,  a  great  deal 
can  be  done  without  them. 

If  reference  is  made  to  the  chapter  on  French  gardening, 
page  65,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  system  is  there  summed  up  in 
the  following  words :  "  the  provision  of  shelter  and  protection, 
warm  and  rich  soil,  abundant  moisture  and  good  drainage,  with 
a  careful  arrangement  of  inter-  and  successional  cropping."  A 
study  of  these  points  will  discover  nothing  impossible,  even  to 
the  allotment  holder. 

Shelter  and  protection  can  easily  be  provided  by  the  use  of 
straw  mats  (which  can  be  made  at  a  cost  of  3d.  each  for  mate- 
rial— see  page  77).  Where  no  frames  are  available,  thousands 
of  comparatively  tender  plants,  such  as  lettuce  and  cauli- 
flowers, if  pricked  out  on  a  dry  bed  and  sheltered  on  all 
sides  save  the  south  by  mats  fixed  on  hurdles,  can  be  brought 
quite  safely  through  an  average  winter,  ready  for  setting  out  in 
February  and  March.  A  few  laths  fixed  over  the  bed,  so  that 
it  can  be  covered  in  severe  weather  with  mats  or  dry  litter, 
will  make  all  safe. 

Warm  soil  implies  not  only  beds  of  fermenting  manure  but 
also  well-drained,  well-worked  soil,  friable  and  kindly,  and  free 
from  cold,  stagnant  moisture.  By  referring  to  the  article  on 
"  Drainage,"  page  7,  it  will  be  seen  that  drained  soil  (and  the 


Intensive  Culture  on  Allotments.  Ill 

air  immediately  above  it)  is  several  degrees  warmer  than  similar 
adjoining  land  which  is  undrained.  When  the  land  needs 
draining,  pipes  should,  if  possible,  be  used,  but  if  money  is 
scarce  fairly  efficient  drainage  can  be  secured,  providing  there 
is  a  good  fall  for  the  water,  by  using  plenty  of  rough  stones 
instead ;  even  brushwood  or  twisted  straw  if  laid  in  the  trench 
with  the  same  care  with  which  pipes  would  be  placed  will  act 
almost  as  well  for  a  number  of  years. 

The  soil  must  be  made  mellow  and  friable ;  if  it  is  light 
this  condition  can  be  brought  about  by  the  addition  of  plenty 
of  decayed  vegetable  matter  and  a  little  chalk ;  if  heavy,  add 
lime,  road  scrapings,  sifted  coal  ashes,  or  charred  rubbish. 

Richness  of  soil  of  course  implies  manure,  but  then  manure 
has  to  be  given  in  any  case  if  crops  worthy  of  the  name  are 
to  be  regularly  obtained ;  there  may  be  a  little  additional  expense 
at  the  outset  for  a  few  extra  loads  of  manure  but  this  is  soon 
amply  repaid  by  the  heavier  crops,  and  when  once  the  soil  is 
brought  into  a  good  rich  condition  it  is  easily  kept  so.  With 
a  little  trouble  and  forethought  there  would  be  always  on 
hand  a  compost  heap,  made  up  of  garden  refuse,  annual  weeds, 
leaves  of  trees,  road  scrapings,  mud,  poultry  manure,  house 
slops,  and  such  like.  A  heap  of  this  material,  if  turned  occa- 
sionally with  a  good  sprinkling  of  lime  added  at  each  turning, 
would,  after  one  season  for  rotting  down,  be  found  a  very 
valuable  fertilizer,  the  use  of  which  would  greatly  reduce  the 
manure  bill. 

Abundant  moisture,  providing  the  soil  is  well  drained  and  in 
good  heart,  is  most  essential  for  the  production  of  heavy  crops, 
and  a  special  effort  should  therefore  be  made  to  supply  it. 
There  are  few  places  where  water  cannot  be  obtained  by  taking 
a  little  trouble ;  with  a  yoke  and  two  pails  or  a  paraffin  cask 
fixed  on  wheels  a  surprising  lot  of  watering  could  be  got 
through  in  a  few  hours,  if  the  source  is  near  by.  When  water 
is  given  the  soil  should  be  thoroughly  soaked — driblets  are 
useless.  But  it  is  only  when  there  is  close  intercropping  and 
for  a  few  special  crops  that  much  additional  water  need  be 
given.  The  moisture  which  is  already  in  the  ground  should  be 
retained  there  for  the  use  of  the  growing  crops,  instead  of 
being  allowed  it  to  evaporate  into  the  atmosphere,  and  this 


112  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

can  be  effected  to  a  large  extent  by  the  frequent  use  of  the  hoe 
and  a  judicious  application  of  mulches  (see  pages  17  to  21). 

Having  secured  a  warm,  friable,  rich  and  well-drained  soil, 
with  arrangements  for  protection  and  shelter  and  increased 
supplies  of  moisture  when  required,  the  foundation  has  been 
well  laid.  With  this  to  build  upon  pains  and  patience  can 
accomplish  wonders. 

The  Cropping  of  the  garden  may  now  be  considered.  By  a 
careful  examination  of  the  "  Plans  of  Rotation  and  Intensive 
Cropping  "  and  the  detailed  explanation  thereof  on  pages  58 
to  62,  the  chapters  on  Seeds  and  Sowing,  the  Routine  Work 
of  the  French  Garden,  and  the  Details  of  the  Cultivation  of 
Vegetables,  ample  information  of  a  clear  and  precise  nature 
will  be  found  which,  if  followed,  will  enable  the  allotment 
holder  to  successfully  emulate  the  French  gardener  in  most 
things  except  the  earliest  crops  from  hot  beds,  to  his  own  profit 
and  satisfaction. 

In  laying  out  the  garden  there  should  be  set  aside  a  space 
for  seed  and  plant  beds,  herbs  and  mint ;  also  for  rhubarb  and 
seakale,  both  of  which,  as  well  as  many  other  things,  may  be 
forced  or  forwarded,  easily  and  cheaply,  by  the  methods  des- 
cribed in  the  chapters  dealing  with  those  subjects.  Sugges- 
tions for  the  arrangement  and  rotation  of  main  crops  will  be 
found  in  previous  chapters.  The  following  suggestions  for 
intercropping  are  recommended  as  being  easy  and  profitable: — 

1. — In  February  plant  cabbage  lettuce  from  frames  or  beds, 
lOin.  apart;  in  March  set  well-hardened  cauliflower  plants  be- 
tween every  second  lettuce  and  in  every  fourth  row,  then  sow  a 
line  of  short-horn  carrots  in  the  middle,  between  two  rows  of 

0*0  0*0  o  *  o  0*0  0*0  0*0 
oooooooooooo 

000000000000 

0*0     0*0     0*0     0*0     0*0     0*0 

O  I^ettuce.        #  Cauliflower.        ...  Carrots. 

lettuce.  By  the  middle  of  May  clear  the  lettuce,  hoe  well,  and 
set  three  dwarf  beans  from  pots,  triangular,  between  each 


Intensive  Culture  on  Allotments.  113 

cauliflower  in  the  row.     The  cauliflower  should  be  ready  late  in 
June,  beans  and  carrots  (pulled  young)  end  of  July,  then  prepare 


*      .*.      *      /.      *      /.      *      /.      *      /.      * 

#  Cauliflower.        ,'.  French  Beans.        ...  Carrots. 

trenches  for  late  celery,  and  run  spinach,  lettuce,  or  radish 
between  trenches  ;  after  celery  level  ground  and  in  the  follow- 
ing March  sow  onions,  or  prepare  the  ground  for  parsnips, 
carrots,  and  beet. 

2.  —  In  March  plant  second  early  potatoes  (sprouted)  ;  lift  in 
August,  then  plant  cabbage  and  colewort  alternately,  so  that 
they  stand  1ft.  apart  in  the  row  and  2ft.  between  the  rows; 
between  these  in  October  plant  a  row  of  cabbage  lettuce  at  Sin. 


4-    4-    4-    4-    -f-    -i-    -i-    4-    4-    4-    -r    4-    4-    4-  4- 


-r    -I-    4-    4-    -I-    -i-    -i-    4-    4-    4-    -r    4-    4-    4-    4-    4- 

#0#0#0*rO#0# 
&  Cabbage.        O  Colewort.        -;-  Cabbage  Lettuce. 

apart.  Begin  cutting  colewort  in  December  and  clear  early  in 
February,  then  dibble  three  broad  beans  in  each  of  the  spaces 
where  the  colewort  stood.  The  lettuce  should  be  ready  by  the 
end  of  April,  and  as  soon  as  they  are  gone  manure  and  dig 
between  the  cabbage  and  sow  a  double  row  of  runner  beans, 

*     .-.     #     /.     *      /.      *     /.     #     .*.     <* 


Cabbage.    .'.  Broad  Beans.    .'*.*.  Runner  Beans 

8 


114  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

which  must  kept  dwarf  by  pinching  out  the  tops ;  these  will  fill 
the  space  when  cabbage  and  broad  beans  are  gone.  After 
runner  beans  the  ground  should  be  dug  and  shallots  planted 
on  it  about  the  1st  of  January;  the  shallots  are  cleared  about 
the  end  of  June,  then  dig  over  at  once,  cover  with  two  or  three 
inches  of  manure  and  plant  early  celery  all  over  the  bed,  lOin. 


4"  Celery.        ...  Radish. 

apart  in  the  row,  15in.  between  the  rows,  with  radish  sown 
between  ;  water  in  well,  and  frequently  afterwards. 

3. — In  October  plant  hardy  cos  lettuce  1ft.  apart  each  way. 
From  beginning  of  February  to  end  of  March  sow  early  dwarf 
peas  between  alternate  rows.  As  soon  as  peas  are  gone  hoe 

00000000000 


ooooooooooo 
ooooooooooo 
ooooooooooo 

O  Cos  Lettuce.        ...  Peas. 

well  and  dibble  in  Brussels  sprouts  or  broccoli,  18in.  apart  in 
the  row,  2ft.  between  rows ;  then  between  each  row  sow  parsley 
mixed  with  a  little  cabbage  lettuce  seed  and  as  soon  as  lettuce 
are  up  thin  to  1ft.  apart.  Parsley  is  gathered  during  winter  and 
spring.  Clear  ground  beginning  of  May,  manure  and  dig,  then 
plant  with  ridge  cucumbers  from  pots ;  early  in  August  plant 

-{-  -!-  -|.  .!-  -j-  -|-  -J-  .j.  ~j. 

4-  +  *  4.  4.  4.  4.  4. 

J.  4.  4.  -{-  .{.  4,  4.  -j.  4. 

+          4-          4-          4-          -!-          4          -r          4-          4- 
4.4.4.4.4.4.4.4, 

4-  -r  4-  -i-  -I-  -!-  -r  -r  4 

41  Ridge  Cucumber.        -j-  Cauliflower. 


Intensive  Culture  on  Allotments.  115 

autumn  giant  cauliflowers  amongst  the  cucumbers,  2ft.  apart 
each  way,  watering  in  well ;  clear  cucumber  vines  as  soon  as 
past  their  best.  After  cauliflowers  double  dig  and  manure. 

4. — In  February  make  beds  5ft.  wide,  1ft.  apart,  with  a  board 
on  each  side  standing  up  1ft.,  held  in  position  with  pegs ;  throw 
out  Gin.  of  soil,  put  in  Gin.  of  good  warm  manure  and  return  soil. 
Plant  four  rows  of  early  potatoes,  previously  sprouted,  9in. 


ooooooooooooo 
ooooooooooooo 
ooooooooooooo 
ooooooooooooo 
o  Potatoes.  ...  Radishes. 

apart  in  the  row,  then  sow  radishes  between  rows.  Nail  laths 
to  the  top  of  the  boards,  across  the  bed,  and  cover  with  mats 
each  night  to  protect  from  frost,  but  be  sure  to  uncover  in  day- 
time after  growth  is  seen,  unless  the  weather  is  very  severe. 
As  soon  as  radishes  are  gone  plant  cauliflowers,  18in.  apart, 

ooooooooooooo 

*  *    *    *    *    * 

ooooooooooooo 
ooooooooooooo 

*  *     *     *     *     * 

ooooooooooooo 


ooooooooooooo 

*          *          *          *          *          * 

o  Potatoes.        #  Cauliflowers.        .'.'  French  Beans  or  Peas. 

between  two  outside  rows.  Early  in  May  remove  boards  and 
then  spread  Sin.  of  manure  on  the  paths  and  dig  it  in ;  then  sow 
French  beans  or  peas.  Potatoes  will  be  ready  to  lift  in  June, 
and  when  these  are  gone  sow  turnips  in  the  spaces  they  occu- 
pied, then  give  all  the  bed  a  good  soaking  with  water.  When 
ground  is  clear  manure  and  dig  all  over,  then  in  October  plant 
hardy  cos  and  cabbage  lettuce  alternately  1ft.  apart  both  ways. 


116  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

In   March  radishes  can  be  sown  thinly  between  the  rows  of 
lettuce,  then  plant  cauliflowers  in  the  rows  of  lettuce,  2ft.  apart, 

0*0        0*0        0*0        0*0        0*0 


o*O          o*Q          o*O          o*O          o*O 

OoOoOoOoOo 
O  Cos  Lettuce,        o  Cabbage  Lettuce.        *  Cauliflower. 

3ft.  between  rows.  The  lettuce  will  be  gone  in  May,  then  plant 
tomatoes,  18in  apart,  between  the  rows  of  cauliflowers,  which 
will  serve  to  protect  the  tomato  plants  until  they  get  strong. 

5. — In  February  sow  early  peas  in  shallow  trenches,  3ft.  Gin. 
apart ;  in  covering  the  seed  leave  a  little  soil  on  each  side  of 
the  trench,  which  is  to  be  drawn  up  to  the  plants  when  they  are 
a  few  inches  high.  In  April  plant  a  row  of  second  early  potatoes 
between  each  row  of  peas.  When  peas  are  over  clear  away, 
lightly  fork  the  soil,  and  plant  Brussels  sprouts  where  the  peas 
stood.  Lift  potatoes  as  soon  as  ready,  digging  ground  properly 
at  the  same  time,  then  sow  winter  spinach  and  onions  where 
the  potatoes  stood. 

6. — In  March  plant  a  cabbage  lettuce,  which  was  sown  the 
previous  autumn  and  wintered,  1ft.  apart  each  way;  then  plant 
a  large  variety  of  onion,  sown  the  previous  autumn,  between 
each  lettuce.  When  the  lettuce  are  cleared  hoe  deeply  between 
the  rows  of  onions.  In  September  plant  a  rosette  colewort 
between  each  onion  (these  can  be  pulled  at  the  end  of  the 
month).  The  coleworts  will  be  cleared  away  in  the  following 
spring  in  time  to  prepare  the  ground  for  potatoes. 

7. — In  January  plant  shallots,  1ft.  apart  each  way.  In  March 
sow  two  broad  beans  (:)  between  each  shallot  in  every  third 
row,  so  that  the  rows  of  beans  stand  3ft.  apart.  Pull  shallots 
end  of  June  and  beans  a  month  later.  (When  bean  straw  is 


Intensive  Culture  on  Allotments.  117 

pulled  lay  it  straight  and  put  it  away  in  a  dry  place,  as  it  can 
be  used  for  making  mats  or  other  protective  purposes.)  Lightly 
fork  ground  and  plant  broccoli  in  rows  2ft.  Gin.  apart,  18in. 
between  plants  in  the  row ;  then  sow  short  horn  carrots  between 
rows  of  broccoli  (these  carrots  will  be  fit  for  use  in  late  autumn 
when  early-sown  carrots  are  large  and  coarse). 

8. — In  October  plant  hardy  cabbage  lettuce,  1ft.  apart  each 
way.  In  January  sow  two  broad  beans  (:)  between  each  lettuce 
in  every  alternate  row.  When  beans  are  cleared  plant  celery 
in  trenches,  3ft.  apart,  and  crop  the  space  between  trenches 
with  radish,  spinach,  or  lettuce. 

Enough  examples  have  now  been  given  to  show  how  the 
ground  can  be  almost  constantly  occupied  and  cropped  to  its 
full  capacity.  The  plants  must  on  no  account  be  set  closer 
than  the  distances  indicated.  The  ground  must  be  kept  well 
supplied  with  manure,  the  plants  well  watered  and  in  some 
cases  mulched,  and  the  surface  of  the  soil  frequently  stirred 
with  the  hoe.  Never  allow  the  plants  to  occupy  and  exhaust 
the  ground  after  the  crop  is  ready  for  gathering,  but  clear  away 
at  once  and  prepare  for  another  crop. 

In  conclusion,  cottage  gardeners,  allotment  holders,  and 
indeed  all  workers  on  the  land,  are  earnestly  recommended  to 
study  the  following  remarks  by  Prince  KROPOTKIN,  and  to  put 
his  suggestions  into  practice : — 

"A  necessary  condition  of  success  in  work  on  the  land  is  communica- 
tiveness— continual  friendly  intercourse  with  your  neighbours.  A 
book  gives  general  advice  only,  while  every  acre  of  land  has  its  own  indivi- 
duality, which  depends  upon  the  soil,  the  position,  the  prevailing  winds  of 
the  locality,  and  so  on.  These  things  can  only  be  learnt  by  local  residents 
of  a  long  experience — an  experience  which  represents  the  collective  know- 
ledge of  the  local  population.  Let  every  beginner  remember  that  the 
superior  gardening  of  the  French,  the  Flemish,  the  Jersey  and  Guernsey 
gardeners,  and  the  work  of  the  English  greenhouse  growers  and  florists, 
is  the  result  of  their  collective  experience.  Every  gardener  may  have  his 
own  secrets  on  this  or  that  special  point,  but  the  bulk  of  the  general  know- 
ledge which  has  developed  in  a  given  locality  is  the  result  of  collective 
experience,  and  of  the  continual  talk  among  the  gardeners  about  matters 
which  interest  them.  Beginners  who  appreciate  that  talk  and  turn  it  to 
good  account  will  find  that  advice  is  never  refused  by  neighbours." 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

SEEDS,  SOWING,  THINNING-OUT,  AND 
TRANSPLANTING. 


The  Necessity  for  Good  Seed  —  Varieties  to  Choose — Novelties  — 
Testing  for  Germination — The  Seed  Bed  and  its  Preparation — Sowing 
— Thinning  Out — Transplanting — How  the  Plants  should  be  Trimmed 
— Dibbers  and  How  to  Use  Them. 


GOOD  seed  is  one  of  the  most  essential  conditions  of  success 
in  growing  vegetables.  For  this  reason  great  care  should 
be  exercised  in  selecting  the  source  of  supply,  for  although 
cheap  seeds  may  be  good  they  may  also  prove  very  dear  in  the 
end,  and  it  is  far  safer  to  pay  a  little  more  to  an  established 
firm  with  a  good  reputation  to  uphold,  and  so  obtain  seeds  of 
assured  strain  and  high  vitality,  than  to  risk  having  only  a 
partial  crop  or  one  of  very  poor  quality. 

Whenever  possible,  seeds  should  be  purchased  some  time 
before  they  are  required,  not  only  to  have  them  ready  to  hand 
but  also  to  allow  time  to  test  for  germinative  power,  if  there 
should  be  any  doubt  on  the  subject.  Testing  the  seeds  is  es- 
pecially necessary  in  the  season  following  a  cold  wet  summer, 
as  it  is  then  frequently  immature  and  unripened. 

Some  seeds  retain  their  vitality  for  many  years  whilst  others 
lose  it  quickly  (see  tables  at  end  of  book),  but  in  any  case  it  is 
safest  and  the  most  likely  to  be  productive  of  good  results  if 
fresh  and  thoroughly  ripened  seed  is  always  used. 

The  choice  of  varieties  is  a  matter  which  largely  depends 
upon  local  conditions,  some  doing  better  in  one  situation 
than  in  another ;  these  peculiarities  can  be  best  ascertained  by 
enquiry  from  gardeners  in  the  neighbourhood,  or  by  actually 
growing  several  kinds  and  selecting  that  which  does  the  best. 
As  a  general  rule,  old-established  varieties  should  always  be 
preferred,  particularly  for  the  main-crops,  for  the  fact  that  they 


Seeds,  Sowing,  Thinning-out,  and  Transplanting.        1 19 

have  been  long  in  favour  of  itself  proves  that  they  have  some 
sterling  merit  or  growers,  being  free  to  choose,  would  have 
discarded  them  long  ago. 

Novelties  should  be  tried,  but  on  a  small  scale  only,  and  never 
for  the  main  crop ;  by  this  means  the  gardener  can  keep  well 
informed  regarding  new  varieties  without  risking  his  crop. 

Seed  Testing. — A  simple  way  to  test  the  seed  for  percentage 
of  germinative  power  is  as  follows : — Put  upon  a  plate  a  folded 
piece  of  flannel,  damped  with  warm  water,  and  upon  the  flannel 
put  a  counted  number  of  seeds.  Stand  the  plate  in  a  warm 
dark  place  and  keep  the  flannel  damp.  In  a  short  time  (from 
one  to  several  days,  according  to  the  variety)  those  containing 
life  will  sprout,  and  can  then  be  counted.  At  the  same  time  it 
should  be  remembered  that  this  is  no  test  of  the  actual  number 
which  will  have  strength  to  grow  into  good  plants  when  sown 
under  ordinary  conditions  in  the  open  garden  or  field.  In  such 
circumstances  there  will  be  many  losses  through  weakness, 
besides  those  which  will  occur  through  too  deep  or  too  shallow 
planting,  too  great  extremes  of  temperature  or  moisture,  or 
for  many  other  reasons. 

The  Seed  Bed. — Before  seeds  are  sown  it  is  necessary  to 
properly  prepare  the  soil  for  their  reception.  A  sufficient 
amount  of  warmth,  moisture,  and  air  are  the  requisites  of 
germination,  and  these  conditions  can  best  be  provided  when 
the  surface  soil  is  fine  and  powdery  and  free  from  large  lumps. 
When  it  is  rough  and  cloddy  some  of  the  small  seeds  fall 
into  crevices  or  are  buried  under  large  pieces,  and  either  fail 
to  germinate  or  do  so  very  irregularly.  Heavy  soil  should  be 
prepared  some  time  beforehand,  especially  when  intended  for 
small  seeds,  so  that  the  action  of  the  weather,  and  particularly 
of  frost,  will  have  the  chance  to  produce  a  tilth  which  no 
amount  of  labour  can  equal.  In  any  case,  the  surface  of  the 
soil  intended  for  seeds  should  be  moved  about  with  the  hoe, 
rake  or  harrow  before  sowing,  as  seeds  germinate  better  in 
freshly  worked  soil  than  in  that  which  has  lain  long  undis- 
turbed. This  stirring  breaks  any  cap  which  may  have  formed, 
introduces  air,  dries  the  surface,  and  makes  the  soil  warmer. 


120  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Early  aeration  of  the  soil  assists  germination,  and  promotes 
vigorous  growth  by  encouraging  the  nitrifying  bacteria. 

One  of  the  best  materials  with  which  to  form  a  seed  bed, 
when  the  area  to  be  sown  is  not  too  large,  is  finely  sifted 
exhausted  manure  from  an  old  hot-bed,  as  is  always  used  in 
the  French  garden  with  excellent  results.  The  ordinary  soil 
should  be  covered  with  this  material  about  three  inches  deep. 
Seeds  germinate  in  it  quickly,  evenly,  and  strongly,  and  the 
plants  lift  easily  from  it  with  unbroken  roots. 

Seed  Sowing. — Having  prepared  a  loose  warm  surface,  the 
soil  should  be  raked  down  fine  and  the  seed  sown  either  broad- 
cast or  in  drills.  The  depth  at  which  it  is  covered  depends 
upon  the  size  and  variety  of  the  seed,  the  condition  of  the  soil, 
and  the  period  of  the  year.  It  may  be  sown  shallower  in  the 
spring,  when  the  ground  is  moist,  than  in  the  summer  when  the 
ground  is  dry.  Very  small  seeds  should,  as  a  rule,  be  barely 
covered,  whilst  large  seeds,  such  as  peas  or  beans,  may  be  put 
in  from  two  to  four  inches  deep.  The  cost  of  seed  being  small 
in  comparison  with  the  value  of  the  crop,  it  is  advisable  to  sow 
rather  thickly  so  as  to  ensure  a  full  plant. 

The  garden  is  not  only  more  attractive  but  the  work  of  culti- 
vation is  much  easier  when-  the  plants  are  grown  in  straight 
evenly  spaced  lines,  -therefore  be  careful 
to  make  a  perfectly  straight  mark  for  the 
first  row  as  a  guide,  then  use  a  marker 
on  the  drill,  and  all  the  rows  will  be 
straight  and  at  equal  distances  apart.  If 
the  sowing  is  done  by  hand,  first  mark  out 
the  rows  and  open  the  drills  to  the  depth 
required,  then  taking  the  receptacle  for 
seed  in  the  left  hand,  walk  along  the  row 
and  drop  the  seed  evenly  from  the  right 
hand,  held  in  the  position  shown  in  the 
illustration.  The  seed  is  held  by  the  little 
and  next  two  fingers,  from  whence  it  gra- 
sowing  seed  by  Hand,  dually  works  down,  being  evenly  dropped 
by  a  slight  rubbing  motion  of  the  thumb  against  the  next  two 
fingers. 


Seeds,  Sowing,  Thinning-out,  and  Transplanting.        121 

After  sowing,  cover  up  the  seed,  either  by  raking,  by  pulling 
soil  into  the  drills,  or,  if  the  bed  and  seeds  are  small,  by  a  thin 
scattering  of  fine  dry  soil.  The  soil  above  the  seed  must  then 
be  compacted,  particularly  when  it  is  likely  to  become  drier, 
rather  than  moister,  as  is  the  case  in  the  spring  and  summer. 
On  heavy  soil  considerable  discretion  must  be  used  over  this 
operation,  as  the  soil  will  be  liable  to  cake  if  it  should  happen  to 
be  too  moist,  and  at  all  times  on  such  soils  pressing  should 
be  done  gently.  On  light  soils  the  rows  should  be  trodden  down, 
rolled,  or  beaten  with  the  back  of  a  spade.  The  reason  for 
this  is  to  induce  the  moisture  in  the  soil  below  to  rise  to  the 
surface  by  capillary  attraction,  and  so  afford  sufficient  for  the 
germination  of  the  seed.  Since  this  compacting  of  the  surface 
induces  the  soil  moisture  to  rise,  some  of  it  passes  away  by 
evaporation  into  the  atmosphere,  and  is  thus  lost  to  the  plants. 
It  is  therefore  important  that  the  soil  be  stirred  again  as  soon 
as  the  seedlings  begin  to  show,  so  as  to  prevent  an  undue 
evaporation ;  indeed,  the  space  between  the  rows  should 
be  kept  stirred  even  before  the  seeds  germinate,  and  those 
which  are  planted  deep,  as  peas,  may  have  the  soil  compacted 
about  them  and  the  surface  layer  may  be  loosened  immediately 
afterwards. 

When  plants  have  to  be  transplanted,  a  space  should  be 
reserved  for  seed  beds  near  the  buildings  and  water  supply, 
so  that  they  can  receive  every  necessary  attention  in  watering, 
shading  from  the  sun,  and  protecting  from  frost  and  from  birds. 

In  hot  dry  weather  the  bed 
should  be  shaded  until  the 
seedlings  appear.  This  may 
be  done  in  many  ways,  but 
one  of  the  best  methods  is  to 
fix  one  or  more  lath  screens, 
as  illustrated,  over  the  bed. 
This  is  laid  on  pegs,  so  as  to 
stand  from  one  to  two  feet 
above  the  soil.  Such  a  screen, 
Lath  screen.  whilst  giving  partial  shade, 

permits    a   free   circulation   of   air,   and   can   be  removed  at 
any  time  for  watering  or  weeding.     Another  useful  screen  is 


122  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

one  of  brushwood,  as  depicted  below.     This  acts  in  a  similar 


Tilted  Cloche. 


Brushwood  Screen. 

manner  to  the  lath  screen,  but  is  not  so  convenient  to  remove 

and  replace.     Either  of  the  above  methods  are  much  better 

than  laying  brushwood  or  litter  directly  on  the  soil,  as  the 

seedlings  are  not  so  liable  to  become  drawn,  nor  the  bed  foul 

from  lack  of  weeding.     Another  very 

successful    method    of    raising    small 

seeds  is  to  cover  them  with   cloches. 

These  can  be  tilted  for  air,  always  with 

the  raised  part  on  the  side  opposite  to 

to  that  from  which  the  wind  is  blowing  ; 

they  may  be  whitened  on  one  side  to 

break  the  sun's  rays,  or  covered  with 

mats  to  protect  from  frost. 

Seeds  which  germinate  very  slowly,  such  as  parsnips,  carrots, 
onions,  and  the  like,  when  sown  in  the  open  ground  should  have 
mixed  with  them  a  few  quickly-germinating  seeds,  such  as 
radish  or  turnip.  These  serve  to  mark  the  rows,  so  that  the 
soil  may  be  hoed  and  stirred  about  before  the  main-crop  seeds 
are  up,  and  so  prevent  weeds  from  getting  too  far  ahead.  In 
this  way  a  catch-crop  of  radishes  can  be  obtained  before  they 
inconvenience  the  main  crop. 

For  main  crops  the  seed  should  always  be  sown  in  long 
lines  the  full  length  of  the  plot.  This  will  greatly  enhance 
the  ease  and  efficiency  of  cultivation,  by  allowing  a  wheel-hoe 
or  horse-hoe  to  pass  along  the  rows  easily.  If  the  rows  are 
too  long  for  one  kind  of  vegetable  two  or  three  different 
kinds  may  be  put  in  the  same  row,  providing  the  combination 
is  of  varieties  requiring  the  same  general  treatment  and  length 
of  season. 


Thinning  Out. — Having  sown  a  liberal  allowance  of  seed 


Seeds,  Sowing,  Thinning-out,  and  Transplanting.        \  23 

in  drills  where  the  plants  are  to  stand,  if  the  ground  is  in  good 
order  there  will  naturally  be  a  great  many  more  plants  than 
are  required.  At  first  sight  this  may  seem  wasteful,  but  it  is 
nothing  compared  to  the  loss  incurred  when  there  is  "  only  half 
a  plant."  The  surplus  needs  removing  at  once,  otherwise  the 
plants  will  speedily  become  drawn  and  weak.  It  is  a  great 
mistake  to  let  young  plants  stand  together  too  thickly ;  without 
a  sufficient  amount  of  light,  air,  and  moisture  it  is  impossible 
for  them  to  develope  properly. 

Therefore,  as  soon  as  the  seedlings  can  be  handled,  proceed 
to  remove  the  weakest  plants.  Thinning  should  be  a  process 
of  selection,  the  best  being  allowed  to  remain.  At  the  first 
thinning  the  plants  may  be  allowed  to  stand  at  half  the  distance 
apart  it  is  ultimately  intended  to  leave  them  for  the  main  crop ; 
by  doing  so  not  only  will  a  full  plant  be  assured,  but  in  the 
case  of  such  things  as  beet,  onions,  and  carrots,  which  may 
be  left  until  they  attain  a  moderate  size  without  overcrowding, 
a  gathering  of  choice  young  roots  can  be  made  which  will  add 
materially  to  the  profit  of  the  crop.  At  the  same  time  never 
delay  the  final  thinning  until  the  plants  are  unduly  crowded,  or 
the  main  crop  will  be  sure  to  suffer. 

Transplanting. — Good  plants  are  necessary  if  transplanting 
is  to  be  conducted  successfully.  To  obtain  such  plants  the 
seedlings  must  be  thinned  out  without  delay  where  they  stand 
together  too  thickly.  If  grown  in  a  frame  or  on  a  hot-bed  they 
should  be  well  hardened  before  removal,  or  they  may  collapse 
when  fully  exposed  to  sun  and  wind  in  the  open. 

The  next  important  point  is  to  have  the  land  in  good  order ; 
it  should  be  in  fine  tilth,  deeply  worked,  and  freshly  stirred. 
The  plants  will  obtain  a  root-hold  much  quicker  in  soil  which 
has  been  recently  moved  about  on  the  surface  than  in  one 
where  the  surface  is  beaten  down  and  compacted. 

The  best  time  to  transplant  is  in  dull,  cloudy  or  showery 
weather.  If  it  must  be  done  when  the  weather  is  hot  and  dry 
the  roots,  particularly  of  brassicas,  should  be  dipped  in  a 
"  puddle  " — a  mixture  of  clay  and  water  of  the  consistency  of 
thin  cream — or  the  rows  may  be  thoroughly  watered  after 
planting  and  the  loose  soil  on  each  side  afterwards  drawn  to 


.•"T-. 


How  Leaves  and  Root  are 
Shortened. 


124  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

the  stems  of  the  plants  with  a  hoe.  Sometimes  under  such 
conditions  the  hole  into  which  the  plant  is  put  is  filled  with 
water  before  the  soil  is  pressed  up  to  the  root. 

The  day  before  the  plants  are  lifted 
the  bed  in  which  they  stand  should  be 
soaked  with  water.  The  soil  should 
then  be  loosened  with  a  fork,  when  the 
plants  will  draw  easily  with  the  roots 
unbroken.  Whilst  the  plants  are  out  of 
the  ground  they  should  be  kept  moist, 
both  roots  and  tops,  and  until  removed 
for  planting  they  should  be  covered 
with  a  wet  sack. 

If  the  plants  are  rather  large,  and 
particularly  if  the  weather  is  dry,  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  shorten  the  large  leaves 
to  half  their  length  and  to  cut  off  the 
end  of  the  tap-root.  In  transplanting 
onions  and  other  similar  subjects  which 
have  a  mass  of  fine  roots,  these  may  with  advantage  be  cut  off 
to  within  an  inch  of  the  base,  and  the  tops  shortened  by  one- 
third  their  length ;  the  advantage  of  this  treatment  is  that  the 
roots  are  not  so  liable  to  be  set  turned  upwards,  the  leaves  are 
less  likely  to  wilt  or  the  plant  to  fall  over,  and  the  plants  being 
more  convenient  to  handle  the  work  of  setting*  them  out  pro- 
ceeds quicker.  Apart  from  convenience,  practical  experience 
proves  that  the  plants  benefit  by  the  operation.  When  the 
number  of  plants  to  be  dealt  with  is  small,  and  each  can  be 
lifted  with  a  ball  of  soil,  this  shorten- 
ing process  is  unnecessary. 

The  best  tool  for  opening  the  soil 
is  the  dibber,  of  which  several  of  the 
most  useful  forms  are  here  depicted. 
The  one  on  the  left  is  the  kind  used 
in  the  French  garden,  and  is  a  very 
handy  little  tool ;  it  may  be  bought 
in  several  sizes  and  has  an  iron-shod 
tip.  The  two  others  are  samples  of 
almost  equally  useful  ones,  shaped  samples  of  Dibbers. 


Seeds,  Sowing,  Thinning-out,  and  Transplanting.        125 

from  the  suitably-formed  branch  of  a  tree,  preferably  of  hard 
wood.  A  number  of  such  dibbers,  in  several  sizes,  should  be 
kept  ready  for  use. 

When  transplanting,  it  is  customary  for 
a  boy  to  carry  the  plants  in  a  covered 
basket,  and  to  drop  them  at  the  right  dis- 
tances apart  just  ahead  of  the  planters. 
Usually  one  boy  will  drop  plants  for  two 
men ;  he  should  not  drop  faster  than  the 
plants  are  required. 

To  plant,  hold  the  dibber  in  the  right 
hand  and  the  plant  in  the  left ;  push  the 
dibber  straight  downward  into  the  soil 
with  a  half  turn,  so  that  it  will  enter  more  How  the  Dibber  is  used- 
easily;  lower  the  plant  into  the  hole  and  see  that  the  roots 
enter  easily  and  are  not  turned  upward ;  set  the  plants  deeply, 
up  to  the  seed  leaf ;  then  again  insert  the  dibber,  a  short  dis- 
tance away  from  the  plant,  and  with  it  press  the  soil  firmly 
against  the  root.  The  plant  should  be  fixed  so  tightly  in  the 
soil  that  the  top  will  break  off  before  the  plant  will  draw.  In 
dry  weather  loose  soil  should  be  drawn  up  to  the  stems  on  each 
side  of  the  row  when  the  planting  is  finished. 

When  there  is  no  option  and  very  long  drawn  plants  must 
be  set,  they  should  be  inserted  in  the  ground  in  a  slanting 
position,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  stem  is  covered  with  moist 
soil.  They  take  longer  to  plant  in  this  manner,  but  it  is  well 
worth  the  trouble,  as  then  roots  form  all  along  the  buried  stem, 
and  the  plant  ultimately  developes  almost  as  well  as  though 
it  had  been  sturdy  when  set  out. 

Pricking-out. — Transplanting  has  so  far  been  considered  only 
as  a  removal  of  the  plant  from  the  seed  bed  to  its  permanent 
quarters,  but  in  gardens  where  the  highest  class  of  produce  is 
raised  it  is  customary  to  "  prick-out "  the  seedlings  into  a 
nursery  bed  where,  having  ample  light,  air,  and  space  for 
development,  they  grow  into  stocky  and  sturdy  specimens. 
This  system  has  much  to  recommend  it  where  the  operations 
are  conducted  on  a  moderate  scale,  and  indeed  it  is  probable 
that.it  would  pay  to  carry  out  even  on  the  most  extensive  scale, 


126  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

for  the  time  occupied  is  comparatively  small,  whilst  the  gain  in 
securing  sturdy  plants  of  even  quality  and  possessing  an  abun- 
dance of  fibrous  roots  is  great. 

The  method  practised  in  the  French  garden  yields  such 
satisfactory  results  that  it  seems  difficult  to  improve  upon, 
and  is  as  follows : — 

Pricking-out  is  done  as  soon  as  the  seed  leaves  are  large 
enough  to  be  taken  between  finger  and  thumb,  or  are  fully 
developed,  with  the  first  rough  leaves  just  showing.  The  soil 
in  which  the  seedlings  stand  is  loosened,  then  they  are  gently 
drawn  and  laid  side  by  side  in  a  small  heap  on  a  piece  of  board 
and  carried  to  the  nursery  bed,  the  soil  of  which  consists  only 
of  finely-sifted  old  hot-bed  manure,  in  a  moist  condition.  In 
this  soil  a  hole  is  made  with  the  first  finger,  or  by  a  small 
dibber  about  the  size  of  the  finger,  but  a  little  more  tapered. 
The  seedling  is  taken  by  the  leaves,  and  lowered  into  the  hole 
up  to  the  leaves,  care  being  taken  that  the  roots  are  not  turned 
upward — then  the  soil  is  gently  pressed  to  the  stem.  These 
tender  seedlings  require  delicate  handling,  and  must  not  be 
bruised  in  any  way.  Only  good  strong  seedlings  are  used, 
sufficient  seed  having  been  sown  to  allow  all  weaklings  to  be 
discarded.  Shade  from  bright  sunshine  is  given,  but  no  water, 
the  moisture  in  the  soil  being  sufficient  until  new  roots  are 
formed. 

In  some  cases  pricking-out  is  repeated  a  second  and  even  a 
third  time,  it  being  claimed  that  frequent  transplanting  hastens 
maturity,  improves  the  quality,  and  increases  the  fruitfulness 
of  the  plants  subjected  to  it. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

DEVICES  FOR  FORCING,  FORWARDING,  AND 
PROTECTING. 

Hot-beds — How  to  Make  and  Manage  Them — Cold  Frames — Their 
Construction  and  Arrangement — The  Cloche  and  its  Uses — Shields  of 
Calico  and  Paper — Imitation  Cloche — Calico  Screen — Movable  Shield 
— Straw  Mats  and  Suggestions  for  Using — Glass-covered  Plant  Pro- 
tector—Box Plant  Protector  —  Glass-covered  Trench  —  Raised  Beds 
with  South  Slope— Plan  of  Cropping  the  Beds— Cheap  Method  of 
Forcing  in  Pits. 

THE  up-to-date  gardener  strives,  by  means  of  forcing  or 
the  use  of  various  protective  appliances  and  devices,  to 
place  supplies  on  the  market  in  advance  of  the  normal  season, 
and  so  secure  better  prices  and  larger  profits  than  can  be 
expected  from  main  crops  produced  under  ordinary  conditions. 
Where  there  is  a  sufficient  amount  of  capital  at  command,  this 
presents  very  little  difficulty  to  the  experienced  man  who,  by  a 
judicious  use  of  glass  and  heating  apparatus  in  their  various 
forms,  can  practically  command  success. 

But  the  man  in  a  humbler  way  of  business,  if  he  is  not  to  be 
left  hopelessly  in  the  rear,  must  also  have  some  means  for  pro- 
ducing conditions  of  warmth  and  shelter,  whereby  tender  plants 
can  be  raised  and  grown  on  until  the  season  is  far  enough  ad- 
vanced, and  the  weather  sufficiently  genial,  to  permit  them  to  be 
set  in  the  open  ground  with  safety.  Moreover,  if  he  is  alive  to 
the  possibilities  of  the  situation,  he  will  utilize  every  warm  and 
sheltered  position  in  his  garden,  and  by  the  use  of  various 
cheap  but  effective  devices  to  protect  and  forward  early  crops 
will  to  some  extent  neutralize,  or  even  entirely  overcome,  the 
disadvantages  arising  from  lack  of  means. 

Some  of  the  methods  thus  adopted  are  described  and  illus- 
trated in  the  following  chapter,  and  it  is  hoped  that  these 
suggestions  may  be  the  means  of  still  further  developing  this 
interesting  and  profitable  branch  of  intensive  culture. 


128  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Hot-Beds. — The  purposes  for  which  the  hot-bed  is  used  are, 
in  the  main,  the  early  raising  of  plants  and  the  growing  of 
certain  crops  to  maturity,  so  as  to  obtain  supplies  more  or  less 
in  advance  of  those  produced  under  normal  conditions.  The 
heat  for  these  beds  may  be  supplied  by  means  of  flues  or  hot- 
water  pipes,  but  it  is  more  usually  obtained  from  fermenting 
manure,  tan-bark,  or  leaves. 

The  proper  place  for  a  hot-bed  is  on  well-drained  soil,  with 
a  south  aspect,  sheltered  from  cold  winds  by  a  building,  fence, 
or  tall  close  hedge ;  it  should  also  be  near  the  water  supply. 

The  material  most  generally  used  for  obtaining  the  heat  is 
fermenting  horse  manure,  and  for  the  most  satisfactory  results 
it  is  important  that  this  should  be  from  well-fed  horses  and 
uniform  in  composition  and  texture.  It  should  contain  plenty 
of  urine-soaked  litter.  The  addition  of  half  its  bulk  of  dry  tree- 
leaves  will  contribute  towards  a  steady  and  lasting  heat,  and 
this  end  may  also  be  attained  by  mixing  in  a  portion  of  unused 
manure  which  has  been  stored  to  keep  dry  and  cool  in  narrow 
high-pitched  stacks  (see  pages  82-83).  In  an  emergency  a 
third  portion  of  cow  manure  containing  plenty  of  litter  may  be 
well  mixed  with  the  fresh  horse  manure,  though  this  is  not 
recommended,  as  its  action  is  slow  and  rather  uncertain. 

The  object  in  view  is  the  production  of  a  uniform  and  steady 
heat  throughout  the  bed.  The  first  fermentation  is  nearly 
always  irregular,  beginning  in  isolated  places  in  the  heap  whilst 
others  remain  cool.  For  this  reason  it  should  first  be  thrown 
into  a  large  compact  heap.  As  soon  as  fermentation  has  well 
begun,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  issue  of  steam,  it  must  be  turned 
and  thoroughly  mixed,  throwing  that  which  was  outside  to  the 
middle  and  breaking  all  hard  lumps.  This  turning  must  be 
repeated  several  times  at  intervals  of  about  two  days  to 
permit  the  escape  of  rank  steam  and  noxious  gas.  Generally 
three  turnings  are  sufficient,  though  sometimes,  especially 
when  the  manure  is  very  fresh  and  from  highly-fed  horses,  it 
will  heat  so  quickly  and  violently  that  it  has  to  be  wet  in  order 
to  keep  it  from  burning  and  will  probably  need  turning  five  or 
six  times  before  it  is  fit  for  use.  If  the  weather  is  cold  and 
fermentation  is  slow  to  begin,  the  addition  of  a  little  hen  manure 
or  wetting  the  heap  with  hot  water  will  sometimes  put  matters 


Devices  for  Forcing,  Forwarding,  and  Protecting.       1 29 

right.  When  it  is  warm  uniformly  throughout  the  heap  it 
is  ready  for  making  into  the  bed.  From  first  to  last,  the  pre- 
paration of  the  manure  usually  occupies  about  two  weeks. 

Before  beginning  to  make 
the  bed,  mark  out  accu- 
rately the  space  it  has  to 
occupy,  allowing,  if  very  early 
in  the  year  and  manure  is 
plentiful,  sufficient  margin 
for  it  to  project  18in.  beyond 
the  lights  all  round,  but  if 
manure  is  scarce  less  margin 

Manure  Hot-bed  on  top  of  Ground.  niUSt  Suffice,   though    it    ttlUSt 

never  be  less  than  9in.,  or  it  will  be  found  impossible  to  keep 
up  the  heat  on  the  outsides  of  the  frame.  Use  the  longest 
stuff  for  the  outsides  of  the  bed,  and  keep  this  part  a  little 
higher  than  the  remainder  until  the  full  height  is  reached. 
Except  that  on  the  outside,  lay  down  alternate  forkfuls  of  new 
manure  and  that  which  has  been  stacked  (or  of  leaves)  in  layers 
about  Gin.  deep  all  over  the  bed,  shaking  it  out  so  as  to  mix  it 
well  and  break  any  lumps.  Beat  it  down  with  the  back  of  the 
fork  as  the  work  proceeds,  and  when  it  reaches  the  full  height 
tread  it  all  down  firmly  and  evenly.  Finish  by  filling  up  any 
hollow  places  with  a  little  more  manure.  A  bed  made  in  this 
way  will  "  hold  together,"  and  will  retain  heat  on  the  outsides 
longer  than  when  the  manure  is  laid  down  indiscriminately. 

The  thickness  of  the  bed  depends  upon  the  time  of  the  year 
it  is  made  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended — the  earlier 
the  bed  is  made  the  thicker  it  should  be.  As  a  general  rule, 
for  the  early  forcing  of  salads,  it  will  give  good  results  if  made 
15in.  thick  in  January,  reducing  in  thickness  about  Sin.  for  each 
month  it  is  made  later.  If  made  in  March  for  cucumbers  or 
melons  2ft.  is  the  minimum,  and  this  can  be  gradually  reduced 
to  1ft.  as  the  season  advances. 

When  the  bed  is  finished  it  should  be  covered  with  four  to  six 
inches  of  fibrous  soil,  consisting  either  entirely  of  sifted  old  hot- 
bed manure  as  used  in  the  French  garden,  or  of  a  mixture  of 
half  that  material  and  half  good  garden  loam;  then  put  on 

the  frame,  thrust  a  soil  thermometer  into  the  manure,  and  shut 

9 


130  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

down  the  lights.  For  a  few  days  the  heat  will  probably  rise 
very  high,  though  this  depends  upon  the  thickness  and  com- 
position of  the  bed.  Neither  sowing  nor  planting  must  be  done 
whilst  the  heat  is  rising,  but  when  it  is  falling,  and  has  reached 
85  deg.  F.,  cucumber,  tomato,  and  similar  seed  may  be  sown,  and 
when  it  passes  below  75  deg.  it  is  ready  for  any  other  subjects. 

From  the  time  seeds  or  plants  are  put  in  the  frame  it  must 
be  covered  up  closely  each  night  with  mats,  to  keep  out  frost 
and  to  prevent  the  loss  of  heat  by  radiation.  Of  the  various 
kinds  of  mats  in  use  those  made  of  rye-straw  are  the  best. 
Full  particulars  for  making  and  using  these  will  be  found  on 
pages  76  to  78. 

When  the  bed  begins  to  cool,  or  if  the  weather  becomes 
severe,  "  linings "  of  hot  manure  must  be  put  all  round  the 
frame,  from  the  top  edge  of  the  bed  to  the  level  of  the  lights, 
and  this  lining  must  be  renewed  whenever  any  cooling  takes 
place ;  if  the  lowering  in  the  temperature  is  serious,  pull  down 
the  sides  of  the  bed  all  round  to  the  level  of  the  frame,  and 
build  it  up  again  with  fresh  hot  manure.  If  the  bed  is  exposed 
to  high  winds  a  screen  should  be  placed  on  the  windward  side 
or  the  temperature  of  the  bed  will  be  considerably  reduced ; 
brushwood  or  thatched  hurdles,  properly  fixed,  make  an  effec- 
tive windbreak. 

The  Management  of  the  Hot-bed. — The  proper  management 
of  a  hot-bed  is  only  acquired  by  experience.  Beginners  are 
often  impatient,  and  sometimes  make  the  bed  at  a  too  early  date, 
or  do  not  give  the  manure  enough  preparation,  or  sow  or  plant 
before  the  heat  is  steady  and  so  waste  time  and  material.  The 
thing  to  aim  at  is  to  secure  sturdy  plants  which  make  a  steady 
and  healthy  growth.  This  result  is  only  to  be  secured  by 
maintaining  the  proper  temperature ;  by  giving  ventilation  but 
avoiding  draughts  and  chills ;  by  never  permitting  the  soil  to 
get  too  dry  whilst  being  careful  never  to  get  it  very  wet  and 
cold  by  over-watering;  by  using  only  tepid  water  early  in 
the  day  so  that  the  leaves  of  the  plants  are  dry  when  the  lights 
are  closed  in  the  afternoon;  by  keeping  the  plants  near  the 
light  and  at  the  same  time  shading  from  a  too  hot  sun  •  by 
never  overcrowding,  and  by  thoroughly  hardening  plants  before 


Devices  for  Forcing,  Forwarding,  and  Protecting.       131 

transplanting  to  the  open.  By  carefully  observing  these  prin- 
ciples even  a  beginner  may  expect  a  reasonable  amount  of 
success,  and  experience  will  soon  convert  expectation  into 
comparative  certainty. 

In  some  situations,  where 
the  ground  is  well-drained 
and  there  is  no  danger  of  the 
manure  getting  water-logged 
during  a  spell  of  wet  weather, 
it  is  preferable  to  make  the 
hot-bed  in  a  pit  instead  of 
upon  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  The  pit  is  dug  from 
18in.  to  2ft.  deep  and  Gin. 
cross-section  of  sunk  Hot-bed.  wjder  than  the  frame  all 

round.  The  sides  are  boarded  up  with  rough  timber  and  a  few 
inches  of  rough  material  is  placed  on  the  bottom  to  keep  the 
manure  from  the  cold  earth.  It  is  arranged  in  layers  as  pre- 
viously described,  and  packed  firmly  as  the  work  proceeds, 
especially  at  the  corners,  which  should  receive  extra  attention, 
but  it  should  not  be  trampled  until  the  heat  has  risen  again. 
A  sunk  hot-bed  of  this  description,  providing  the  site  is  dry, 
will  generally  give  a  more  lasting  and  steady  heat  than  one 
made  entirely  upon  the  surface.  Where  these  sunk  beds  are 
used,  it  is  worth  while  taking  pains  over  their  construction, 
as  the  same  pits  are  available  year  after  year. 

Cold  Frames. — The  cold  frame  is  in  many  respects  similar 
to  a  hot-bed,  both  as  regards  management  and  uses,  except 
that  as  there  is  no  bottom  heat  it  is  not  available  for  tender 
subjects  in  the  cold  months  of  the  year.  It  is  much  used  for 
carrying  autumn-sown  plants  safely  through  the  winter;  for 
protecting  parsley,  winter  spinach,  late  endive,  violets,  and 
similar  subjects;  for  hardening  off*  partially  hardened  plants 
which  have  been  started  early  in  hot-beds,  and  for  raising 
early  plants  from  •  seed.  It  has  a  special  value  for  use  in 
forwarding  numerous  standing  crops  such  as  strawberries,  mint, 
bulbs,  &c.,  to  early  maturity.  Peas,  beans,  radishes,  carrots, 
turnips,  lettuces,  potatoes,  &c.,  can  all  be  grown  to  perfection 


132  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

in  the  cold  frame,  and  although  not  so  early  as  from  hot-beds, 
by  costing  less  to  produce  they  yield  as  good  profits. 

The  cold  frame  in  construction  is  practically  nothing  more 
than  glazed  lights  placed  over  and  enclosing  the  interior  of  a 
bottomless  box.  This  is  all  the  French  garden  frame  amounts 
to,  and  where  their  use  is  not  extensive  the  dimensions  and 
particulars  given  on  pages  70  and  71  may  be  copied.  Where, 
however,  a  large  number  of  lights  are  used  it  will  be  found 
more  economical  to  have  instead  of  separate  boxes  two  con- 
tinuous rows  of  parallel  boards,  nailed  to  stakes  driven  into 
the  ground  at  convenient  distances  apart.  The  size  of  the 


Arrangement  of  Cold  Frames. 

light  regulates  the  width  between  the  boards.  The  height  of 
the  boards  depends  upon  the  crops  to  be  grown  in  the  frames, 
lOin.  to  12in.  at  the  back  and  7in.  to  9in.  at  the  front  (according 
to  size  of  light)  being  suitable  for  most  purposes.  For  tall- 
growing  crops,  such  as  cauliflowers,  the  height  of  the  boards 
would  have  to  be  increased.  The  length  is  regulated  by  the 
circumstances  of  the  case,  and  the  ends  are  enclosed  by  boards 
cut  to  the  required  slope.  Strips  of  wood  Sin.  wide  and  lin. 
thick  are  fixed  across  from  back  to  front  board  to  receive  the 
edges  of  the  lights  where  they  meet. 

When  used  for  forwarding  purposes,  the  frames  are  fixed 
in  position  over  the  growing  plants,  wherever  they  may  be 
standing,  but  when  used  for  protecting  plants  through  the 
winter,  or  for  growing  early  crops  in  the  spring,  they  should  be 


Devices  for  Forcing,  Forwarding,  and  Protecting.       133 

placed  in  a  sheltered,  well-drained  position,  facing  south. 
The  soil  should  be  specially  prepared  by  the  addition  to  the 
surface  of  sifted  old  hot-bed  manure,  about  a  barrow  load  to 
each  light  being  none  too  much. 

The  management  of  the  cold  frame  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  hot-bed.  It  should  be  closely  covered  with  mats  each 
night  so  long  as  there  is  any  danger  of  frost  The  crops,  being 
hardier,  need  considerably  more  ventilation  than  those  on  the 
hot-beds,  whilst  the  water  used  need  not  be  tepid.  On  the 
occasion  of  rain  on  mild  days  in  the  spring-time  the  lights  may 
be  removed  entirely,  so  that  the  soil  will  get  a  good  soaking ; 
this  tends  to  a  more  rapid  and  luxuriant  growth. 

Very  good  results  can  be  obtained  from  cold  frames  covered 
with  prepared  paper  or  waterproofed  calico.  Either  of  these 
materials  may  be  stretched  tightly  on  a  light  wooden  frame- 
work of  the  same  size  as  an  ordinary  light,  and  used  in  the 
same  way,  except  that  during  mild  days  they  are  removed 
entirely.  Or  calico  may  be  attached  to  the  back  of  the  frame 
and  drawn  over  at  night,  being  rolled  up  out  of  the  way  when- 
ever the  weather  is  suitable. 

The  Cloche. — Although  there  are  several  millions  of  cloches 
in  the  gardens  of  France,  where  this  appliance  has  been 
in  use  for  generations,  it  is  a  comparatively  new  introduc- 
tion into  English  gardens,  and  its  merits  are  not  yet  fully 
appreciated ;  its  uses,  however,  are  so 
many,  and  the  results  from  it  so  good 
that  there  is  no  doubt  its  stay  will 
be  permanent.  Some  of  the  uses  it  is 
regularly  put  to  are  described  in  the 
various  chapters  on  French  gardening, 
but  it  can  also  be  used  in  many  other 
ways  which  only  become  apparent  with  The  cloche- 

familiarity.  It  forms  a  complete  little  frame  in  itself,  and  for 
purposes  in  connection  with  forcing,  forwarding,  protecting, 
raising  early  seedlings  and  striking  cuttings,  is  unsurpassed. 
For  protecting  and  encouraging  robust  growth  in  vegetable 
marrows,  ridge  cucumbers,  tomatoes,  and  similar  plants  when 
set  out  early  in  the  open  ground  it  is  ideal.  When  used  for 


134  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

covering  plants  which  get  too  large  for  the  cloche  before  it  is 
safe  to  fully  expose  them,  it  is  raised  on  three  notched  sticks, 
or  "  pegs,"  similar  to  those  described  on  page  75  but,  of  course, 
as  long  as  necessary. 

Calico  and  Paper  Shields. — Mention  has  already  been  made 
of  the  use  of  calico  and  paper  in  connection  with  cold  frames, 
but  in  addition  to  this  their  uses  at  the  hands  of  an  ingenious 
and  contriving  person  are  manifold.  With  the  specially  pre- 
pared semi-transparent  waterproof  paper  now  on  the  market 
and  a  little  wire,  a  very  good  imitation  of  the  cloche  can  be 
made  at  little  cost,  which  will  serve  admirably  as  a  protector. 
A  wire  ring  is  made,  18in.  in  diameter,  and  above  this  are  three 
wires  at  equal  distances  apart,  forming  a  tripod  18in.  high. 
Below  the  ring  the  wires  are  prolonged  for  6in.,  and  these 
serve  the  purpose  of  attaching  the  protector  to  the  soil,  or  it 
can  be  raised  on  them  to  give  air.  At  the  point  where  the 

wires  join  at  the  top 
a  ring  is  made  to 
carry  it  by.  A  paper 
cone,  with  a  hole  at 
the  top  to  pass  the 
ring  through,  makes 
the  protector  com- 
plete. When  not  in 
use  these  cones  and 
wires  pack  away  in 
very  little  space,  one 
fitting  easily  inside 
another. 

Another  way  in  which  paper  cones  may  be  used  as  protectors 
is  to  fix  three  sticks  over  the  plant  in  the  form  of  a  tripod  and 
place  the  cone  over  this. 

Another  useful  protective  device  is  illustrated  on  the  follow- 
ing page.  In  this  case  willow  wands  are  bent  over  a  row  of 
plants,  and  each  hoop  is  connected  to  the  next  by  a  rod  along 
the  top.  At  each  end  of  the  row  the  bent  wands  are  in  pairs 
crossing  in  the  middle  as  shown ;  this  keeps  all  rigid.  This 
framework  is  covered  with  calico  each  night  and  on  very  cold 


Imitation  Cloche,  made  from  Wire  and  Paper. 


Devices  for  Forcing,  Forwarding,  and  Protecting.       1 35 

days,  but  the  plants  are  exposed  whenever  the  weather  is  mild. 
The  edges  of  the  calico  rest  on  the  ground,  and  are  kept  in 
place  by  stones,  clods  of  earth,  or  pieces  of  timber.  When  the 
weather  becomes  warm,  the  calico  is  washed  and  dried  and 
stored  away  for  use  the  following  season. 


Calico  Screen,  laid  over  Bent  Willow  Wands. 

The  same  idea  carried  out  more  elaborately  is  illustrated 
below.  In  this  case  the  shields  are  made  complete,  with  calico 
or  other  material  attached  to  the  framework,  and  are  movable. 
Or  they  may  be  merely  framework,  covered  at  night  with  mats 
and  uncovered  in  the  morning.  A  useful  size  would  be  2ft. 
across  the  base  and  the  same  in  height.  If  made  in  different 
lengths,  say  a  series  of  four  from  10ft.  to  12ft.,  by  knocking 
out  all  the  cross-ties  resting  on  the  ground  except  those  at  the 
ends,  they  could  be  nested  and  packed  away  in  small  space. 


Movable  Shield,  covered  with  Calico  or  Mats. 

Straw  Mats. — Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  use  of 
straw  mats  in  covering  frames  and  cloches,  but  they  are  also 
used  in  many  other  ways  for  protective  purposes.  In  the  latter 
part  of  April  and  during  May  frost  is  not  much  to  be  feared 
except  during  the  night,  and  the  straw  mat  forms  an  efficient 
protection  to  the  plants  they  cover  against  any  frost  which  is 
likely  to  occur  at  that  period.  When  there  is  an  insufficiency 


136  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

of  cold  frames,  comparatively  tender  plants  can  be  safely 
transferred  to  open-air  beds  in  a  sheltered  position  if  a  light 
frame-work  of  laths  is  placed  over  the  bed,  upon  which  mats 
can  be  spread  at  night.  Early  produce  ,of  various  kinds,  such 
as  peas,  beans,  marrows,  radishes,  carrots,  turnips,  &c.,  may  be 
produced  very  successfully  in  trenches  thrown  out  18in.  deep, 
filled  to  half  the  depth  with  well  worked  hot  manure,  trodden 
in  firmly,  and  covered  with  Sin.  of  fine  soil  taken  from  the 
trench,  the  remainder  of  the  soil  being  used  to  form  ridges  on 
either  side.  Sticks  are  laid  across  the  trench,  resting  on  the 
ridges,  and  mats  are  laid  on  these  each  night  until  danger  of 
frost  is  past. 

A  practically  frost-proof  bed,  in  which  tomatoes  and  similar 
tender  plants  can  be  set  out  early  in  May,  can  be  made  by  en- 
closing it  with  mats  on  hurdles  and  then  stretching  wires  at 
intervals  along  the  bed  upon  which  mats  can  be  spread  at 
night,  to  be  rolled  up  again  next  morning.  If  a  little  warm 
manure  is  put  under  the  plants  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the 
soil,  this  arrangement  will  answer  almost  as  well  as  a  cold 
house,  and  will  entail  much  less  labour. 

Glass-covered  Protectors. — Strawberries  may  be  ripened  in 
the  open  field  from  a  week  to  ten  days  in  advance  of  their 
normal  season,  in  the  following  manner :  Run  two  boards  on 
edge  parallel,  12in.  apart,  on  each  side  of  a  row  of  strawberry 
plants  set  9in.  apart  in  the  row.  The  boards  are  kept  in 


Glass-covered  Plant  Protector. 

position  by  pegs,  driven  into  the  ground  at  convenient  distances 
apart,  to  which  they  are  nailed.  The  board  at  the  north  side 
of  the  row  should  be  higher  than  that  at  the  south,  say  8in?and 
6in.  respectively,  and  each  should  have  a  groove  run  in,  Jin. 
deep,  |in.  from  the  top.  Sheets  of  glass,  resting  in  these 


Box  Plant  Protector. 


Devices  for  Forcing,  Forwarding,  and  Protecting.       137 

grooves,  cover  the  space  between  the  two  boards,  and  a  short 
piece  of  board  closes  up  each  end.  At  intervals  a  "  grip  "  is 
placed  over  the  boards  to  keep  them  together;  when  the  plants 
need  attention  the  grip  is  removed  and  the  board  pressed 
gently  back,  so  as  to  release  the  glass.  This  contrivance  may 
be  used  for  forwarding  and  protecting  many  other  things 
besides  strawberries. 

In  some  gardens  a  small  edition 
of  the  above  contrivance  is  used  in 
in  the  form  of  a  box  without  top  or 
bottom,  with  a  pane  of  glass  slipped 
into  a  groove  at  the  top.  This  is 
very  useful  for  protecting  separate 
plants  in  the  open  ground,  and  has 
uses  somewhat  similar  to  a  cloche. 

Another  method   of  affording   protection  to  plants  set  out 

early  is  to  throw  out  shallow 
trenches,  9in.  wide,  running 
from  east  to  west.  The  soil 
is  banked  up  on  each  side 
of  the  trench,  the  larger  por- 
tion being  put  on  the  north 
side.  Panes  of  glass,  butting 
together,  rest  upon  the  banks 
of  earth. 

Raised  Beds  with  Slope  to  the  South.— When  a  garden  is 
so  situated  that  there  is  an  almost  entire  absence  of  sheltered 
borders,  and  the  natural  formation  of  the  ground  is  not  con- 
ducive to  growing  early  crops  in  the  open,  the  difficulty  may 
be  overcome  in  the  following  manner :  The  ground  should  be 
in  good  friable  condition,  having  been  well  manured  and  dug 
some  time  previously.  Trenches,  18in.  wide  and  9in.  deep, 
running  from  east  to  west,  are  taken  out  at  4ft.  Gin.  from  centre 
to  centre,  leaving  a  bed  3ft.  wide  between  each  two  trenches. 
The  soil  from  the  trenches  is  laid  on  the  beds,  being  banked  up 
9in.  high  on  the  north  side  and  gradually  sloped  away  to  the 
ordinary  level  on  the  south  side,  as  shown  in  the  illustration 
on  the  next  page.  The  north,  east,  and  west  sides  of  the  plot 
should  be  screened  with  a  good  close  fence  of  brushwood,  or 


Glass-covered  Trench. 


138  The  Profitable  Culture  o/  Vegetables. 

with  thatched  hurdles.  The  beds  will  then  be  well  sheltered 
from  cold  winds,  free  from  excessive  moisture,  with  a  slope 
and  exposure  to  the  south.  The  trenches  form  footpaths  be- 
tween the  beds. 


The  upper  diagram  shows  a  section  of  Raised  Beds,  with  slope  facing  south. 
The  lower  diagram  shows  the  paths  between  the  above  Beds  converted  into  Warm  Beds. 

These  beds  will  be  suitable  for  numerous  early  crops,  which 
will  readily  suggest  themselves  to  the  gardener ;  one  method  of 
utilizing  them  is  as  follows :  Plant  four  rows  of  cabbage  lettuce, 
along  the  bed,  9in.  between  the  rows  and  1ft.  from  plant  to 
plant  in  the  row.  Between  the  plants  across  the  bed  sow 
radishes.  Along  the  middle  of  the  bed  between  the  lettuces 
oooooo 


o 

0 

0 

o 

0 

0 

*       * 

*       * 

*       * 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

o 

O  Lettuces.        ...  Radishes.        #  Broad  Beans. 

sow  broad  beans  Gin.  apart.  The  radishes  and  lettuces  will  be 
gone  by  the  end  of  April,  then  lightly  fork  up  the  bottoms  of 
the  trenches,  lay  in  and  tread  down  Gin.  of  warm  manure,  cover 
with  the  soil  from  the  beds  which  was  taken  from  the  trenches, 
leaving  the  beans  standing,  slightly  earthed  up  on  each  side. 
Now  plant  on  the  ridges  over  the  manure  bush  marrow  plants 
from  pots,  2ft.  Gin.  apart,  and  cover  at  night  with  cloches  or  one 
of  the  protecting  devices  previously  described.  With  the  screen 
round  the  plot,  the  shelter  of  the  beans  between  the  rows,  and 
the*  protection  afforded  by  the  covering  at  night,  the  marrows 
make  rapid  progress,  and  begin  to  bear  by  the  middle  of  June, 
when  prices  are  high. 


Devices  for  Forcing,  Forwarding,  and  Protecting.        139 

Cheap  Method  of  Forcing  in  Pits. — A  very  simple  method 
of  forcing  in  pits  is  fully  described  in  the  chapter  dealing  with 
the  cultivation  of  seakale,  to  which  the  reader  is  directed  for 
details.  Besides  seakale  the  method  is  equally  well  adapted  to 
the  forcing  of  rhubarb,  asparagus,  chicory,  &c.,  and  may  be 
made  to  yield  really  first-class  produce  from  November  to 
April,  during  which  period  three  crops  in  succession  can  be 
taken.  Being  cheap  and  easy  to  work  it  is  especially  suited 
to  the  requirements  of  the  man  with  very  limited  means. 

The  accompanying  illustration  is  from  a  photograph  of  a 
forcing  pit  in  actual  operation;  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
materials  used  in  its  construction  are  of  a  rough  and  ready 
description,  but  it  is  none  the  less  efficient  on  that  account. 


Rough  Pit  for  Forcing  Rhubarb,  Seakale,  Chicory,  and  Asparagus, 


140  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

ESSENTIALS  OF  SUCCESSFUL  GARDENING. 

(Extracted  from  the  preceding  pages  of  this  book.) 

DRAINAGE. — Be  sure  the  land  is  well  drained,  either  naturally  or  by  other 
means.  Drainage  removes  stagnant  water  and  induces  a  passage  of  air 
through  the  soil.  Plants  cannot  thrive  with  their  roots  in  stagnant 
water,  and  aeration  of  the  soil  is  indispensable  to  their  healthy  growth. 

CULTIVATION.— Work  the  land  deeply.  By  drainage  and  deep  working 
the  soil  is  made  sweeter  and  warmer,  and  the  roots  of  the  plants  have  a 
much  greater  area  from  which  to  extract  food.  Although  drained  soil  is 
relieved  from  stagnant  and  excessive  moisture  in  wet  periods  it  holds 
much  more  moisture  for  the  use  of  the  plants  when  the  weather  is  dry. 
Thus,  on  such  soil  seeds  germinate  sooner  and  stronger,  and  plants 
grow  more  vigorously,  whether  the  season  is  wet  or  dry. 

LIME. — Always  make  sure  that  the  soil  contains  sufficient  lime  ;  when  there 
is  any  deficiency  give  regular  applications  every  three  or  four  years, 
because  lime  gradually  dissolves  and  passes  out  of  the  soil  in  drainage 
water.  Lime  makes  heavy  soils  more  friable  and  sandy  soils  more 
compact ;  it  sweetens  sour  land,  makes  inert  plant  foods  available,  and 
strengthens  the  structure  of  the  plant. 

MANURE. — The  "thorough"  gardener  should  continually  strive  to  increase 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  to  this  end,  so  far  as  his  means  will  allow, 
should  be  unsparing  in  the  use  of  natural  manure.  Concentrated  fer- 
tilizers when  used  with  judgment  are  extremely  useful  and  are  often 
indispensable  to  the  securing  of  a  good  crop,  but  they  should  only  be 
used  to  supplement  natural  manure  and  not  to  take  its  place — that  is, 
since  different  plants  need  the  principal  constituents  of  plant  food  in 
varying  quantities  the  deficiencies  of  any  of  these  in  soil  or  manure 
should  be  made  good.  By  substituting  concentrated  fertilizers  for 
farmyard  manure  the  store  of  fertility  in  the  soil  is  reduced.  It  is  only 
by  the  unsparing  use  of  manure  that  the  intensive  gardener  can  take 
from  his  soil  good  crops  in  continuous  succession.  Farmyard  manure 
not  only  provides  plant  foods  but  further  increases  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  by  adding  humus,  which  makes  clays  more  open  and  friable  and 
gives  moisture-retaining  power  to  sands.  It  should  never  be  allowed 
to  come  in  contact  with  the  roots  whilst  in  a  rank  condition,  the  nearer 
to  the  time  of  planting  when  applied,  the  more  thoroughly  decayed 
it  should  be. 

SEEDS,  SOWING,  THINNING,  and  TRANSPLANTING.— Buy  good  seeds 
of  established  varieties  from  a  reliable  firm.  Cheap  seeds  may  also  be 
good  seeds,  but  often  they  are  not,  and  then  they  prove  very  dear. 
Prepare  a  proper  seed  bed,  and  always  sow  in  freshly  stirred  or  a-erated 
soil.  Early  in  the  season  in  the  open-air  sow  rather  thickly,  to  provide 
against  losses  and  to  ensure  a  full  plant,  but  thin  out  promptly  and 
boldly  to  avoid  overcrowding,  or  the  seedlings  will  be  drawn  and  weakly. 
Transplant  early  and  firmly,  in  dull  weather,  into  freshly-stirred  soil 

MOISTURE,  HOEING,  and  MULCHING.— Few  cultivated  plants  get  when 
growing  all  the- moisture  they  need  to  give  the  best  results.  Frequent 
hoeing  not  only  prevents  the  growth  of  weeds,  but  by  keeping  a  mulch 
of  loose  soil  on  the  surface  hinders  the  evaporation  of  soil  moisture  and 
so  retains  it  for  the  use  of  the  plants.  A  mulch  of  manure  over  the  roots 
after  hoeing  is  better  still  and  saves  much  watering. 

SUNSHINE  and  AIR. — Abundance  of  air  and  sunshine  are  quite  as  impor- 
tant for  the  production  of  healthy  and  vigorous  plants  as  they  are  for 
animals.  Therefore,  always  avoid  overcrowding,  and  let  each  plant 
have  room  for  its  full  development.  Whenever  possible,  run  the  rows 
north  and  south,  so  that  sunlight  can  fall  equally  on  both  sides 


PART  II. 

DETAILS  OF  THE  CULTIVATION 
OF  VEGETABLES 


ARTICHOKE  (GLOBE). 

Cynara  scolymus. 

THE  Globe  Artichoke  is  a  handsome  and  imposing  plant. 
It  is  grown  for  the  flower  heads,  which  form  large  scales, 
with  thickened,  fleshy  bases,  and  are  used  as  a  vegetable.  As 
it  is  not  much  in  demand  in  this  country  very  little  space  in  the 
garden  need  be  given 
to  it.  It  is  perennial, 
but  may  be  grown  as 
an  annual  or  biennial 
at  discretion.  A  deep, 
rich,  moist  soil,  with 
full  exposure  to  sun- 
shine, is  necessary 
for  the  production  of 
the  finest  flower 
heads.  In  summer 
it  needs  plenty  of 
moisture,  but  should 
be  kept  dry  in  winter. 
It  is  fairly  hardy  on 
dry  soils,  but  on  the 
moist  soils  which  best 
suit  its  cultivation  it 
needs  protection  in 


The  Globe  Artichoke. 


winter  or  the  planta- 
tion may  be  lost  if 
the  weather  is  very  severe. 

Although  the  Globe  Artichoke  is  readily  raised  from  seed 


142  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

this  method  of  propagation  is  seldom  followed,  because  of  the 
loss  and  disappointment  occasioned  through  many  of  the  seed- 
lings coming  poor  and  worthless.  For  this  reason  suckers  are 
generally  used  in  forming  a  new  plantation ;  these  are  shoots 
produced  underground  around  the  neck  of  the  old  stool,  and 
their  use  is  the  only  means  by  which  the  different  varieties  can 
be  relied  upon  to  come  true  to  their  proper  character. 

Seed  may  be  sown  in  the  open  in  March,  but  it  is  best  to  sow 
on  a  hot-bed  in  February,  pot  the  seedlings  singly,  and  grow 
on  in  a  cold  frame,  hardening  them  off  so  that  they  can  be 
planted  out  in  April. 

When  the  plantation  is  to  oe 
formed  in  the  customary  way 
from  suckers,  a  batch  should  be 
planted  in  March,  and  for  suc- 
cession again  in  May;  by  this 
means,  if  there  is  already  a 
batch  of  established  plants,  a 
supply  of  heads  can  be  had  for 
six  months  in  succession. 

Strong  suckers  are  taken  off 
with  a  strong  sharp  knife  when 
about  9in.  high,  having  a  bit  of 
root  or  heel  of  the  old  stool 
attached.  These  are  planted 
singly,  4in.  deep,  in  rows,  2ft.  between  the  plants  and  4ft. 
between  the  rows;  or  they  may  be  set  in  triangular  clumps  of 
three,  2ft.  between  each  plant  and  4ft.  between  each  clump. 
The  soil  should  previously  have  been  prepared  by  deep  digging 
and  liberal  manuring.  After  planting,  the  suckers  should  be 
trodden  in  firmly,  well  watered,  and  shaded  from  bright  sun- 
shine until  established.  Afterwards  the  ground  should  be  kept 
thoroughly  clean,  with  an  open  loose  surface.  Whilst  the  plants 
are  making  growth  a  quickly-maturing  catch  crop  may  be  taken 
from  the  ground  about  them. 

The  heads  must  be  cut  as  soon  as  fully  developed,  whilst  still 
young  and  tender ;  if  left  on  the  plant  too  long  they  get  hard. 
If  they  cannot  be  disposed  of  immediately,  instead  of  letting 
them  remain  on  the  plant  the  heads  should  be  cut  with  a  long 


Copyright,  S.  &  S. 

A  Good  Sample 


Globe  Artichoke.  143 

stem  and  stood  in  water  in  a  cool  shady  place,  where  they 
will  keep  good  for  a  considerable  time  if  the  bottom  of  the 
stem  is  cut  off  as  it  shows  signs  of  decay.  The  main  heads 
will  grow  much  larger  if  the  laterals,  or  side  heads,  are  taken 
off  by  the  time  they  are  an  inch  through.  If  when  cutting 
the  heads  of  the  earliest  batch  the  stems  also  are  cut  to  the 
ground,  a  number  of  new  suckers  will  appear ;  the  weakest  of 
these  should  be  removed,  and  the  remainder  will  then  produce 
a  late  crop. 

The  plants  will  continue  productive  in  good  soil  for  five  or 
six  years,  but  as  a  rule  three  or  four  years  is  long  enough  for  a 
plantation  to  stand  without  renewal. 

Chards. — These  are  the  summer  suckers  of  the  Artichoke 
when  blanched,  and  are  then  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from 
cardoons.  Early  in  July  the  plants  which  have  already  pro- 
duced a  crop  of  heads  are  cut  down  to  within  a  few  inches  of 
the  ground,  the  surface  soil  is  stirred  and  mulched,  and  copious 
waterings  are  given.  Numerous  shoots  will  spring  up,  the 
weakest  of  which  are  removed,  and  by  the  end  of  September 
those  remaining  will  be  ready  for  blanching.  For  this  opera- 
tion choose  a  fine  day  when  the  leaves  and  soil  are  dry.  Draw 
the  stems  together  and  tie  them  with  strong  raffia ;  then  put 
some  dry  hay  or  straw  round  the  base  of  each  plant  and  wrap 
up  the  stems  with  hay  or  straw  bands,  finishing  by  earthing  up 
in  the  same  way  as  celery.  The  bleaching  will  take  five  or  six 
weeks.  Before  hard  weather  sets  in  any  still  unused  must  be 
protected  by  litter,  or  may  be  lifted  and  packed  in  sand  in  a  dry 
cellar. 

Manures : — A  liberal  dressing  of  stable  manure  and  plenty  of 
moisture  are  the  principal  requisites  for  the  production  of  good 
heads ;  or  a  lighter  dressing  of  manure  may  be  supplemented 
by  fertilizers  as  follows : — 3oz.  kainit,  2oz.  superphosphate,  per 
square  yard  applied  in  autumn ;  f  oz.  nitrate  of  soda,  per  square 
yard,  applied  when  growth  is  beginning  in  the  spring. 

Varieties: — The  Purple  Globe  and  the  Green  are  the  two 
most  popular  varieties  in  British  gardens,  the  former  being 
perhaps  the  more  popular  of  the  two. 


144  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

ARTICHOKE  (JERUSALEM). 

Helianthus  tuberosus. 

A  LTHOUGH  this  vegetable  is  more  generally  grown  than 
J~\  the  Globe  Artichoke,  and  is  more  popular  with  the  public, 
it  usually  meets  with  very  indifferent  treatment  in  the  garden. 
It  is  very  accommodating  and  will  practically  grow  anywhere, 
and  for  this  reason  is 
usually  relegated  to  odd 
corners  and  similar 
places  where  nothing 
else  will  thrive.  Under 
such  circumstances  it 
is  not  to  be  wondered 
at  if  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  tubers 
produced  is  somewhat 
disappointing.  When 
grown  on  good  but 
rather  dry  soil  in  an 
open  situation  it  will 
produce  an  abundant 

crop  of  fine  tubers.  copyright,  v.  A,  &  Co. 

T  ,         A    ..   ,     ,  The  Jerusalem  Artichoke. 

Jerusalem  Artichokes 

should  be  planted  any  time  from  February  to  April — the  sooner 
the  better,  as  the  tubers  begin  to  grow  early  and  the  plant  is 
quite  hardy.  Set  in  rows  2ft.  Gin.  apart,  and  12in.  between  the 
tubers,  in  ground  which  has  been  manured  for  a  previous  crop. 
They  are  ready  for  use  as  soon  as  the  tops  die  down  in  the 
autumn,  and  may  then  be  lifted  and  stored  in  sand,  but  are 
firmer  and  better  flavoured  when  left  in  the  ground  and  lifted 
as  required.  When  lifting,  care  must  be  taken  to  clear  the 
ground  completely,  as  any  left  in  will  be  troublesome. 

Manures : — 2oz.  sulphate  of  potash,  3oz.  superphosphate,  per 
square  yard  before  planting. 

Varieties : — The  purple  variety  is  the  most  generally  grown, 
but  the  principal  seedsmen  now  offer  a  white-skinned  variety 
which  is  a  distinct  improvement  on  the  old  purple. 


Asparagus. 


145 


ASPARAGUS. 

Asparagus  officinalis. 

ASPARAGUS  is  a  profitable  crop  when  well  grown.  Under 
proper  treatment  it  will  thrive  in  any  well-cultivated 
and  moist  soil,  though  a  deep  rich  loam,  inclining  to  sandy,  is 
the  most  suitable.  At  the  same  time  excellent  Asparagus 
can  be  grown  even  on  heavy  clay  soil,  providing  it  is  deeply 
worked  and  well  drained.  It  is  a  crop  which  will  pay  for 
taking  extra  trouble  with  at  the  outset,  as  it  may  then  be 
expected  to  remain  in  profitable  bearing  for  twenty  years  or 
more.  The  small-holder  should  not  undertake  to  plant  a  large 
breadth  without  serious  consideration,  because  several  years 
must  pass  before  any  appreciable  return  for  the  initial  outlay 
can  be  expected.  A  few  beds  may,  however,  be  planted  without 
much  expense  or  any  great  encroachment  upon  the  other  work 
of  the  garden,  and  as  these  come  into  profitable  bearing  the 
area  could  be  extended  with  safety. 

An  Asparagus  plantation  may 
be  made  either  by  sowing  the 
seeds  where  they  are  to  remain 
or  by  transplanting  roots,  either 
at  one,  two,  or  three  years  old. 
The  method  of  sowing  where 
the  plants  remain  permanently 
has  much  to  recommend  it  if 
the  grower  is  prepared  to  wait 
at  least  three  and  possibly  four 
years  before  getting  any  return 
beyond  the  catch  crops  which 
can  be  grown  between  the  rows. 
If  this  method  is  decided  upon 
the  ground  must  be  thoroughly 
prepared  as  described  later  for 
planting.  The  seedlings  are 

copyright,  v.  A.  &  Co.  thinned  out  early  to  Gin.  apart, 

A  Bundle  of  Giant  Asparagus.  the  superfluous  ones  being  re- 
moved in  the  following  spring.  The  advantage  of  raising  the 
plants  on  a  seed  bed  consists  in  the  smaller  space  occupied  by 

10 


146  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

them  during  the  period  preceding  their  removal  to  permanent 
quarters.  Some  growers  prefer  to  reduce  the  period  of  waiting 
by  buying  roots  and  so  getting  a  cut  about  two  years  from 
the  time  of  planting. 

Raising  the  Plants. — The  ground  in  which  the  seed  is  to  be 
sown  should  be  rich  and  well  prepared  by  deep  working  during 
the  previous  winter,  being  left  "  ridged  up  "  so  that  wind,  rain, 
and  frost  may  have  full  effect  in  rendering  it  mellow  and 
friable.  Previous  to  sowing,  which  should  take  place  towards 
the  end  of  March  or  early  in  April,  when  the  surface  soil  is 
dry,  the  ridges  should  be  pulled  down  and  the  soil  raked  level 
and  smooth.  Seed  should  be  sown  very  thinly  in  drills  from 
lin.  to  liin.  deep  and  1ft.  apart.  After  sowing,  the  seed  is 
covered  with  soil  by  using  the  back  of  a  rake  or  the  side  of  the 
foot,  and  trodden  in,  the  work  being  finished  by  rolling  the 
whole  bed.  As  the  seed  is  slow  to  germinate  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  sow  with  it  a  few  radish  seeds ;  these  soon  appear,  and  by 
marking  the  rows  enable  cultivation  to  be  begun  at  once,  so 
that  weeds,  which  must  not  be  tolerated  at  any  time,  have  no 
chance  to  make  headway  before  the  seedlings  show.  After 
they  are  well  up  they  should  be  thinned  out  by  removing  the 
weakest  and  leaving  the  strongest  standing  about  3m.  apart. 
When  they  are  growing  freely  they  should  be  dressed  with 
soot,  at  the  rate  of  20  bushels  to  the  acre. 

During  the  summer,  water  should  be  given  copiously  in  dry 
weather  and  the  surface  soil  kept  loose  by  hoeing,  but  this 
must  be  done  carefully  so  as  not  to  injure  the  roots  of  the 
plants,  which  run  close  to  the  surface.  If  the  seedlings  are 
treated  in  the  manner  indicated  they  will  make  good  strong 
plants  the  first  year  and  be  ready  to  set  out  permanently  the 
following  spring,  thus  saving  a  year  of  time ;  not  only  that,  but 
it  has  been  fully  demonstrated  by  many  carefully  conducted 
experiments,  and  is  now  recognized  by  many  of  the  foremost 
growers  of  Asparagus,  that  strong,  healthy  plants  of  one  year's 
growth,  when  transplanted  strike  root  sooner  and  with  more 
certainty  and  give  better  results  than  those  of  two  years, 
whilst  they  are  ready  for  cutting  quite  as  soon. 

Essential  Points  to  be  Observed  in  Forming  a  Plantation. — 
The  ground  intended  for  the  permanent  plantation  must  be 


Asparagus.  147 

very  thoroughly  prepared  in  the  preceding  autumn  by  bastard 
trenching  or  subsoil  ploughing  and  the  addition  of  15  to  30 
tons  to  the  acre  of  good  manure,  according  to  the  class  of  soil. 
If  it  is  very  heavy  its  condition  would  be  much  improved  by 
previously  taking  off  a  crop  requiring  manure  and  good  culti- 
vation, such  as  potatoes.  The  manner  of  planting  should  be 
determined  by  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Light  and  naturally 
well-drained  soils  may  be  planted  on  the  flat,  but  on  heavy 
retentive  soils  the  results  will  be  much  better  if  the  plants  are 
set  on  raised  beds. 

In  most  sections  where  Asparagus  is  grown  there  are  special 
local  customs  in  the  matter  of  planting,  though  in  all  districts 
some  growers  have  their  individual  preferences,  and  amongst 
all  the  leading  growers  it  is  gradually  becoming  recognized  that 
too  close  planting  soon  becomes  unprofitable.  It  is  possible 
at  first  to  get  more  bundles  per  acre  from  close  than  from  wide 
planting,  but  the  sticks  are  neither  so  early  nor  so  large ;  the 
whole  ground  soon  becomes  a  solid  mass  of  roots  for  which 
both  moisture  and  nutriment  are  insufficient,  and  after  a  few 
years  the  shoots  become  gradually  smaller  and  tougher,  until 
finally  the  plantation  has  to  be  broken  up  because  it  has  become 
unprofitable. 

Reviewing  the  various  methods,  for  the  production  of  an 
ordinarily  good  sample  and  a  lasting  plantation,  the  choice 
appears  to  lie  between  the  following,  and  of  these. the  first  is 
the  best  :— 

Single  rows  4ft.  apart,  2ft.  between  the  plants ; 

Single  rows  3ft.  apart,  18in.  between  the  plants; 

Double  rows  4ft.  apart,  18in.  between  the  rows,  and  18in. 

between  the  plants. 

Treble  rows  4ft.  apart,  15in.  between  the  rows  and  18in. 
between  the  plants  in  each  row,  the  plants  in  the  middle 
row  being  set  midway  between  those  in  the  two  outer 
rows,  so  that  there  is  a  space  of  almost  18in.  in  any 
direction  between  all  the  plants. 

Where  the  production  of  extra  fine  stuff  is  desired  the  rows 
should  be  4ft.  apart  and  at  least  3ft.  between  the  plants.  In 
in  this  case  extra  care  should  be  taken  in  the  selection  of  the 
roots,  and  when  this  is  done  and  the  plantation  is  supplied  with 


148  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

sufficient  moisture  and  assisted  by  judicious  manuring,  the 
effect  of  wide  planting  upon  the  size  and  number  of  the  sticks 
is  marvellous.  In  the  districts  around  Paris  where  much  of 
the  "  giant "  Asparagus  /s  produced  which  may  be  seen  in  our 
best  shops  early  in  the  season,  the  plants  are  set  4ft.  apart  in 
each  direction. 

Planting. — When  the  plants  are  raised  at  home  in  the  manner 
previously  described  only  strong  healthy  yearlings  which  have 
three  or  four  buds  should  be  used,  but  when  plants  are  pur- 
chased it  is  better  to  get  them  two  years  old  unless  there  is 
some  certainty  that  younger  plants  are  strong  and  well  grown. 
Planting  should  be  begun  at  the  time  when  growth  is  just 
beginning  to  show,  at  the  end  of  March  or  early  in  April,  a 
mild  day  when  the  surface  soil  is  dry  being  the  most  suitable. 
In  the  line  where  the  plants  are  to  stand,  a  trench  is  taken  out, 
9in.  wide  and  9in.  deep.  On  the  bottom  of  the  trench  fine 
mixed  compost  or  old  hot-bed  manure  is  spread  about  lin. 
thick,  raised  into  a  gentle  mound  about  4in.  high  at  each  station 
for  a  plant.  On  each  mound  the  roots  of  a  plant  are  spread 
out,  so  that  the  crown  is  about  4in.  or  Sin.  below  the  ordinary 
level,  and  the  plant  is  at  once  covered  up  with  2in.  of  fine 
weathered  soil.  When  the  whole  of  the  trench  is  planted, 
the  soil  is  sprinkled  with  superphosphate  at  the  rate  of  3  cwt. 
and  sulphate  of  potash  1  cwt.  to  the  acre,  and  it  is  then  filled 
level  with  soil  and  pressed  down  moderately.  The  proper 
arrangement  of  the  roots  is  one  of  the  most  important  points 
in  the  planting  of  Asparagus,  as  the  ultimate  success  and 
duration  of  the  plantation  depends  very  largely  upon  the 
manner  in  which  this  is  done.  Most  other  mistakes  may  be 
remedied  by  after  treatment,  but  faulty  planting  it  is  im- 
possible to  alter. 

The  roots  should  never  be  allowed  to  become  dry  or  exposed 
to  parching  winds  whilst  the  work  is  proceeding ;  only  a  few  at 
a  time  should  be  set  in  the  trench  before  they  are  covered  with 
soil,  the  remainder  being  kept  covered  with  a  damp  sack. 

When  the  planting  is  .finished  put  a  stake  at  each  end  of 
each  row  as  a  guide  in  cultural  operations,  and  then  rake  the 
ground  level.  As  growth  becomes  active  2  cwt.  nitrate  of  soda 
to  the  acre  should  be  given  in  two  or  three  applications. 


Asparagus.  149 

After  Treatment  and  General  Routine.— Cultural  work  on 
the  Asparagus  plantation  during  the  first  season  consists  in 
frequently  stirring  the  soil,  especially  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  after 
rain,  and  keeping  it  free  from  weeds.  Small  crops,  such  as 
lettuce,  onions,  or  radishes  may  be  grown  between  the  rows, 
but  these  catch  crops  must  never  be  of  such  a  kind  nor  occupy 
the  ground  in  such  a  way  as  to  interfere  with  the  welfare  of 
the  main  crop. 

If  it  is  found  that  any  of  the  plants  are  not  showing  above 
ground  by  the  middle  of  June  they  should  be  replaced  by  strong 
growing  plants  of  the  same  age,  some  being  kept  for  this 
purpose  in  a  reserve  bed.  These  must  be  lifted  carefully  so 
as  not  to  damage  the  roots,  and  on  a  cloudy  day,  watering  in 
well  afterwards  unless  it  is  rainy. 

When  the  foliage  begins  to  change  colour  in  the  autumn  it 
should  be  at  once  cut  down  close  to  the  ground.  If  left  standing 
longer  the  berries  ripen  and  the  seed  drops,  with  the  result 
that  the  ground  gets  filled  with  seedling  plants,  which  are  more 
obstinate  and  difficult  to  get  rid  of  than  weeds.  As  soon  as 
the  foliage  is  cut  it  should  be  removed  to  an  open  place  and 
burned,  so  as  to  destroy  any  injurious  insects  or  fungi  which 
may  be  present. 

In  the  second  season  the  treatment  is  practically  the  same  as 
in  the  first.  The  ground  is  again  lightly  dressed  with  fertil- 
izers and  kept  well  hoed,  and  small  catch  crops  may  be  again 
taken  off.  Even  with  the  most  careful  planting  blanks  will 
probably  be  seen  in  a  few  places  where  the  plants  have  died. 
The  rows  should  be  carefully  examined  in  the  autumn  and  all 
such  blank  spaces  marked  with  a  stake ;  in  the  spring  these 
dead  plants  should  be  replaced.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  occur- 
rence even  in  the  best  kept  plantations  for  these  blank  places 
to  occur  here  and  there  even  amongst  established  plants,  and  if 
replacements  are  neglected  for  a  few  years  the  shortage  of 
crop  will  form  a  considerable  item ;  therefore  a  small  bed  of 
plants  should  be  raised  periodically  for  the  especial  purpose  of 
replacements. 

In  the  autumn  of  the  second  year,  and  in  all  future  years, 
after  the  rows  have  been  cleared  of  foliage  and  weeds  they 
should  be  covered  about  2in.  deep  with  good  stable  manure. 


150  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

At  the  end  of  the  following  February  all  loose  litter  should  be 
raked  off,  all  weeds  cleared,  and  the  beds  covered  Sin.  deep 
with  soil  taken  from  the  alleys;  if  the  ground  is  heavy  this 
soiling  is  best  done  in  November,  so  that  it  will  become  friable 
by  the  influence  of  the  weather  through  the  winter.  When 
cutting  is  finished  the  soil  which  was  put  on  the  beds  is  thrown 
back  again  into  the  alleys,  and  a  dressing  of  suitable  fertilizer 
given  to  encourage  strong  growth.  The  tops  are  then  allowed 
to  grow  as  they  will,  but  weeds  are  kept  down. 

Cutting  and  Bunching. — If  the  plants  have  made  strong 
vigorous  growth,  cutting  may  begin  in  the  third  year,  but  for 
the  first  cutting  not  more  than  two  or  three  shoots  should  be 
taken  from  a  plant,  and  none  after  the  beginning  of  June.  In 
the  following  years  cutting  should  finish  by  the  second  or  third 
week  in  June  at  the  latest;  if  the  cutting  is  prolonged  to  a 
later  period  than  this  the  crop  of  the  following  season  is  sure 
to  feel  the  effect  of  it,  and  fewer  sticks  of  poorer  quality  will  be 
obtained  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case.  When  the  crop  is 
being  harvested  every  shoot  should  be  removed,  no  matter  how 
small  it  may  be.  If  these  small  shoots  are  left  to  grow  they 
reduce  the  quality  of  the  larger  sticks  by  taking  strength  from 
the  roots. 

Cutting  begins  when  the  strong  brownish-green  tips  of  the 
shoots  are  observed  to  have  pushed  three  or  four  inches  above 
the  soil.  The  Asparagus  knife  is  pushed  into  the  soil  obliquely 
and  the  shoot  cut  about  4in.  below  the  surface.  This  must  be 
done  with  great  care,  so  as  not  to  injure  the  new  shoots  rising 
from  the  crown.  The  knife  depicted  is  a  pattern  in  common 


Asparagus  Knife. 

use,  but  any  long  strong  knife,  such  as  a  butcher's  knife,  will 
serve  the  purpose  equally  well.  On  light  mellow  soils  it  is  the 
custom  with  some  of  the  best  growers  to  break  off  the  shoots 
close  to  the  crown  instead  of  cutting.  There  is  then  no  danger 
of  injuring  the  crown.  A  little  of  the  soil  is  pulled  away  so 
that  the  finger  and  thumb  can  be  easily  pushed  to  the  required 
depth,  then  the  shoot  is  snapped  off,  and  the  soil  replaced. 


Asparagus.  151 

The  sticks  should  be  graded  into  two  and  sometimes  three 
qualities—  "special,"  ordinary,  and  "sprue"  —  the  thickness, 
length,  and  general  appearance  of  the  sticks  being  the  guide. 

A  market  bundle  of 
"  grass  "  varies  in  size 
according  to  the  district 
from  which  it  is  sent, 
That  sent  from  the  dis- 
trict around  Evesham 
is  made  up  into  bundles 
of  120,  formed  of  six 
smaller  bundles  of  20 

each,  and  this  is  coming 

Cradle  for  Bunching  Asparagus, 
to  be  recognised  as  the 

regulation  size  of  a  market  bundle.  Early  in  the  season  the 
first  few  consignments  are  sometimes  sent  to  market  in  bundles 
of  25  or  50. 

The  "  cradle  "  depicted  above  is  one  of  many  similar  devices 
used  for  making  up  the  bundles  quickly  and  neatly.  The  heads 
are  laid  in  the  recessed  part  of  the  front  board,  the  stalks 
resting  in  the  two  curved  boards,  and  the  bundle  is  secured 
with  two  pieces  of  strong  raffia.  The  six  small  bundles  of  20 
are  made  into  one  bundle  of  120  by  encircling  them  with  slender 
"  twigs  "  of  willow.  The  base  of  the  bundle  is  then  trimmed 
off  straight  with  a  sharp  knife,  though  sometimes  only  the 
longest  of  the  sticks  are  thus  shortened.  Asparagus  should  be 
marketed  immediately  after  cutting,  as  it  soon  deteriorates. 

Forcing. — There  are  numerous  ways  of  forcing  Asparagus, 
but  none  worth  the  consideration  of  the  grower  for  market 
which  does  not  entail  considerable  expense  and  a  long  period 
of  waiting  before  there  are  any  returns.  At  the  same  time  if 
the  business  is  properly  systematized  and  the  work  done  well, 
there  appears  to  be  no  reason  why  the  undertaking  should  not 
be  productive  of  considerable  profit. 

Leaving  aside  the  question  of  forcing  in  houses  heated  with 
hot  water,  the  methods  which  seem  to  be  the  most  suitable  for 
the  market  grower  are  forcing  on  hot-beds,  in  pits,  and  in  the 
open  beds  where  the  plants  grow.  Each  of  these  methods 
depends  for  its  success  upon  a  sufficient  supply  of  fermenting 


152  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

manure,  and  in  the  case  of  the  two  former  upon  a  continuous 
supply,  year  by  year,  of  four-year-old  crowns  grown  especially 
for  this  purpose  and  previously  uncut.  When  the  roots  are 
lifted  they  are  of  no  further  use  after  forcing,  but  when  this 
operation  is  performed  upon  the  plants  as  they  stand  in  the 
beds  it  only  takes  place  in  alternate  years  and  may  be  repeated 
indefinitely. 

Where  forcing  is  to  be  done  in  beds  these  must  be  made  and 
planted  specially  to  suit  the  size  of  the  frame  to  be  used,  and 
for  this  purpose  the  French  garden  frame,  4ft.  3in.  from  front 
to  back,  is  very  suitable.  The  bed  is  made  5ft.  wide,  with  2ft. 
alleys  between.  The  plants  are  set  three  rows  to  a  bed,  one 
down  the  middle  and  the  other  two  1ft.  from  each  side,  with 
the  plants  1ft.  apart  in  the  rows.  During  November  the  beds 
are  covered  2in.  deep  with  fine  compost  or  sifted  old  hot-bed 
manure.  At  the  beginning  of  January  the  frames  are  set  on 
the  beds,  which  are  then  covered  with  another  Sin.  of  fine  soil. 
The  lights  are  put  on  and  covered  closely  with  mats.  The 
spaces  between  the  frames  and  round  the  ends  are  then  filled 
with  fresh  hot  manure,  which  should  come  almost  up  to  the 
level  of  the  light  when  well  trodden  down.  It  is  a  great  help  to 
cover  the  beds  with  Gin.  or  so  of  fresh  strawey  manure  the  week 
previous  to  putting  the  frames  on ;  this  warms  up  the  soil  and 
keeps  the  frost  out.  When  the  frames  are  put  on  the  bed  this 
litter  can  be  thrown  into  the  alleys  and  mixed  with  the  hot 
manure.  When  the  shoots  have  pushed  through  the  soil  about 
2in.  the  mats  should  be  rolled  up  in  the  daytime  and  the  lights 
slightly  raised,  so  that  the  tops  will  become  green  by  the  ad- 
mission of  light  and  air.  If  the  manure  gets  cool  before  the 
crop  is  cleared,  part  of  it  must  be  removed  and  the  remainder 
well  shaken  up  and  mixed  with  some  fresh.  When  cutting 
is  finished  the  frames  and  added  soil  are  removed,  then  a  little 
manure  from  the  trench  is  scattered  over  the  beds  to  keep  out 
frost  and  the  remainder  is  taken  away.  Forcing  of  open-air 
beds  must  only  take  place  in  alternate  years,  and  therefore 
two  sets  are  required ;  they  should  be  started  in  rotation,  so  as 
to  keep  up  a  succession  until  the  ordinary  supplies  come  in. 

Forcing  on  hot-beds  may  be  begun  from  the  middle  of 
November  to  the  middle  of  February.  The  earliest  made  beds 


Asparagus.  153 

should  be  from  2ft.  Gin.  to  3ft.  thick,  but  as  the  season  advances 
the  thickness  may  be  gradually  reduced.  The  bed  should  be 
9in.  wider  than  the  frame  all  round.  When  the  heat  has  fallen 
to  75  degrees  the  bed  is  covered  with  4in.  of  soil  and  the  frame 
is  put  on.  When  the  shallow  French  garden  frame  is  used 
it  is  raised  3m.  above  the  soil  by  resting  it  on  straw  bands,  or 
by  putting  an  extra  piece,  3m.  deep,  below  it,  so  as  to  make  a 
frame  with  deeper  sides.  In  filling  the  frame  with  roots,  a 
little  soil  is  put  against  one  side  and  the  roots  are  placed 
against  this  as  closely  as  they  will  stand,  repeating  the  rows 
until  the  frame  is  filled  up.  A  little  fine  soil  is  put  amongst 
the  roots  and  between  each  row.  When  the  frame  is  full  fine 
soil  is  worked  amongst  and  over  the  crowns  to  the  depth  of 
3in.,  then  all  is  pressed  down  gently  and  a  good  watering  is 
given.  The  lights  are  put  on  but  are  kept  raised  at  each 
corner  until  the  soil  thermometer  shows  that  the  heat  of  the 
bed  has  fallen  to  70  degrees,  then  3m.  more  soil  is  added,  the 
bed  is  again  watered  thoroughly,  and  the  lights  are  shut  down 
and  covered  closely  with  mats.  The  first  shoots  will  appear 
about  three  weeks  afterwards,  when  light  and  a  little  air  is 
given  during  the  day  to  make  the  tops  green,  but  all  is  covered 
up  closely  at  night.  Water  is  given  frequently.  The  sticks 
should  not  be  cut  or  many  of  the  young  shoots  will  be  damaged 
through  the  roots  standing  so  closely  together ;  the  preferable 
way  is  to  push  the  finger  and  thumb  down  to  the  crown  and 
break  them  off. 

The  method  of  forcing  in  pits,  with  particulars  of  construc- 
tion, will  be  found  in  the  details  of  Seakale  culture. 

Roots  for  forcing  should  be  lifted  some  time  before  they  are 
wanted,  with  plenty  of  soil  about  each,  care  being  taken  not  to 
injure  them.  They  should  be  stored  in  a  cool  shed  and  covered 
with  damp  earth  or  sand  to  keep  them  moist.  A  little  frost  will 
do  them  no  harm. 

Manures : — It  is  impossible  for  an  Asparagus  plantation  to 
maintain  a  supply  of  good  sticks  over  a  number  of  years  unless 
it  is  generously  and  systematically  supplied  with  fertilizing 
materials.  Amongst  these  farmyard  manure  is  to  a  certain 
extent  indispensable  and  should  be  applied  each  autumn  ;  this 
should  be  supplemented  by  artificial  fertilizers— 4  to  5  cwt 


154  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

superphosphate  and  3  to  4  cwt.  kainit  in  the  autumn  and  2  cwt. 
nitrate  of  soda  to  the  acre  in  the  spring  giving  excellent  results. 
It  is  wise  to  vary  the  fertilizers  by  sometimes  supplying  their 
equivalent  from  other  sources.  In  some  cases,  particularly  on. 
very  light  soils,  the  application  of  salt  may  be  beneficial,  though 
as  a  rule  a  dressing  of  kainit  will  supply  all  the  salt  necessary. 
When  salt  is  given  it  should  be  in  two  or  three  light  dressings 
at  intervals  of  two  or  three  weeks  from  the  middle  of  April. 

Varieties : — There  is  little  to  choose  amongst  the  supposed 
different  varieties,  culture  and  soil  being  responsible  for  most 
of  the  differences  existing.  Connover's  Collossal  or  Early 
Purple  Argenteuil  will  be  found  to  give  as  satisfactory  results 
as  any  other  variety. 


BEANS  (BROAD). 

Vicia  Fab  a. 

THE  Broad  Bean  is  a  very  accommodating  and  easily 
grown  plant,  which  will  thrive  in  almost  any  kind  of 
soil  but  is  most  partial  to  one  which  is  strong,  deep,  and 
moist.  For  a  heavy  crop  of  fine  pods  deep  cultivation  and 
generous  manuring  are  necessary.  It  is  quite  hardy  and  may 
be  sown  in  the  autumn  with  safety,  and  is  frequently  used  in 
this  way  to  afford  protection  to  other  early  crops  of  a  more 
tender  nature.  Considering  its  usefulness  in  this  respect,  com- 
bined with  its  productive  nature  and  the  comparatively  short 
time  it  occupies  the  ground  it  is  a  profitable  crop  to  grow,  and 
is  indispensable  where  the  business  of  supplying  shopkeepers 
or  consumers  direct  is  carried  on. 

For  the  earliest  crops  it  is  customary  to  make  a  sowing  of 
one  of  the  varieties  of  Long-pods  in  November,  but  unless  the 
winter  proves  exceptionally  mild  there  is  usually  very  little 
time  gained  by  sowing  in  autumn,  and  what  advantage  there 
may  be  in  this  respect  is  often  counter-balanced  by  losses 
from  various  causes.  When  sowing  is  deferred  until  after  the 
turn  of  the  year  there  is  also  the  advantage  of  leaving  the 
ground  which  would  otherwise  be  occupied  by  the  seed  ridged 
up,  so  as  to  get  pulverized  and  sweetened  by  the  weather.  In 


Broad  Beans. 


155 


cases  where  an  extra  early  crop  is  desired,  or  where  strong 
plants  are  wanted  early  for  protective  purposes,  the  seed  may 
be  sown  from  the  beginning  of  December  to  the  middle  of 
January  in  a  cold  frame  from  which  frost  is  excluded.  By 
adopting  this  method  of  transplanting  full  even  rows  of  strong 
well-hardened  plants  can  be  set  out  during  favourable  weather 
in  the  early  part  of  March. 

For  successional 
crops  one  of  the 
Long-pods  may  be 
sown  at  the  end  of 
January  and  in 
February,  and  one 
of  the  Broad  Wind- 
sor type  early  in 
March.  For  the 
earlier  sowings  a 
rather  light  soil  is 
preferable,  but  the 
heaviest  soil  in  the 
garden  may  be  de- 
voted to  the  main 
crop.  If  the  Janu- 
ary sowing  is  made 
at  double  the  cus- 
tomary thickness 
the  extra  plants 
may  be  carefully 
transplanted  and 
will  then  give  a 
successional  crop 
instead  of  the  Feb-  copyright,  v.  A. 
ruary  sowing.  Seville  Long-pod  Bean. 

Sow  in  double  rows,  9in.  apart  and  2ft.  Gin.  between  the 
double  rows ;  the  seed  should  be  9in.  apart  in  the  row,  those  in 
one  row  falling  between  those  in  the  next.  On  heavy  soil  the 
seed  should  be  sown  in  drills  Sin.  deep,  but  on  light  soil  it  is 
better  to  dibble  them  in ;  after  sowing  make  the  seed-bed  firm. 

When  the  plants  are  a  few  inches  high  draw  the  soil  to  the 


Co. 


156  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

stems  on  each  side.  Keep  the  soil  stirred  and  clean  by  fre- 
quent hoeing.  As  soon  as  the  blooms  are  set  pinch  out  the 
tops;  this  will  cause  the  pods  to  fill  quicker  and  will  check 
the  ravages  of  the  black  fly.  When  this  pest  is  present  the 
tops  should  be  put  in  a  pail  as  they  are  removed  and  burnt  at 
once.  As  soon  as  the  pods  are  gathered  the  plants  should  be 
pulled  up.  If  kept  straight  and  dried  this  straw  is  useful  for 
making  rough  mats  and  other  protective  purposes. 

Manures : — On  land  manured  for  the  preceding  crop  no 
further  natural  manure  is  required,  or  the  growth  may  run 
too  much  to  leaf.  Basic  slag  2  ozs.,  and  kainit  1  oz.  to  the 
square  yard  applied  to  the  ground  in  autumn  or  early  winter 
will  help  the  crop  materially. 

Varieties: — For  November  sowing,  Early  Mazagan ;  for 
January  and  February,  Seville  Long-pod  and  Green  Long-pod; 
in  March,  Broad  Windsor. 


BEANS  (DWARF  KIDNEY  or  FRENCH). 

Phaseolus  vulgaris. 

WHEN  French  Beans  can  be  got  early  they  are  a  profitable 
crop  to  grow,  but  the  demand  for  them  falls  away  as 
soon  as  runners  become  plentiful,  and  every  effort  should 
therefore  be  made  to  get  them  in  full  bearing  well  in  front  of 
the  earliest  pickings  of  runner  beans.  They  do  best  on  a  rather 
light  soil,  but  any  ordinary  loam  will  yield  a  paying  crop  if  it  is 
well  prepared  and  is  given  a  fair  dressing  of  manure. 

For  the  earliest  crops  some  provision  must  be  made  to  pro- 
tect the  plants  from  frost,  as  they  are  very  tender.  They  may 
be  grown  in  cold  frames  or  under  cloches,  or  failing  either  of 
these  one  of  the  protective  devices  described  and  illustrated  in 
Chapter  XVII  may  be  used.  The  seed  may  be  sown  where 
the  plants  are  to  remain,  about  the  middle  of  March,  in  a  light 
rich  compost.  For  frames  sow  in  rows  1ft.  apart,  Sin.  between 
the  seed,  and  thin  out  to  6in.,  using  some  of  the  surplus  plants 
to  fill  up  blanks.  Give  no  air  until  the  seed  has  germinated. 
Exclude  frost  by  covering  closely  each  night  with  mats.  When 
the  plants  are  up  give  air  on  all  favourable  occasions,  but 


French  Beans. 


157 


carefully  guard  against  cold  draughts.  As  growth  advances 
gradually  treat  them  more  hardily,  until  by  the  middle  of  May 
they  may  be  completely  exposed  during  the  day  but  must  be 
covered  at  night  for  a  week  or  two  longer.  Plenty  of  water  is 
necessary.  Picking  should  commence  soon  after  the  middle 
of  June.  A  still  earlier  crop  may  be  obtained  if  seed  is  sown 
on  a  mild  hot-bed  early  in  March  and  the  plants  carefully  lifted 
and  set  in  their  permanent  quarters  during  mild  weather  about 
the  end  of  the  month. 

^^  For  a  successional  crop 

to  follow  the  above,  but 
earlier  than  one  grown 
entirely  in  the  open,  seed 
should  be  sown,  2in.  apart 
both  ways,  early  in  April, 
in  one  or  two  cold  frames, 
which  should  stand  in  a 
sunny  position  and  be 
covered  each  night  with 
mats  to  exclude  frost.  As 
soon  as  the  seedlings  are 
showing  give  a  little  air  on 
all  favourable  occasions, 
and  as  the  plants  grow 
gradually  but  carefully 
give  them  more  exposure. 
At  the  beginning  of  May 
the  lights  may  be  removed  altogether  during  fine  days,  and  by 
the  second  week,  if  the  weather  is  mild,  they  may  be  set  out  in 
in  a  sheltered  position  in  the  open.  They  should  be  lifted  with 
a  ball  of  soil  at  the  roots,  and  the  soil  in  which  they  are  set 
should  be  light,  rich,  and  sufficiently  moist  to  dispense  with 
watering  until  the  roots  are  working  again.  Shade  from  sun 
for  a  few  days  is  advisable,  and  protection  from  frost  at  nights 
must  be  given  for  a  week  or  two. 

Sowing  in  the  open  may  be  done  in  the  last  week  of  April 
and  the  first  week  of  May,  and  for  a  late  crop  in  the  first  week 
of  July.  The  earliest  sowings  may  be  made  between  rows  of 
cos  lettuce,  spring  cabbage,  and  similar  crops  which  will  afford 


Copyright,  S.  &  S. 

Dwarf  French  Bean. 


158  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

protection  to  the  tender  young  plants  and  yet  be  cleared  off  the 
ground  before  the  beans  are  seriously  inconvenienced.  Sow 
in  drills  2in.  deep,  4in.  wide,  and  2ft.  Gin.  to  3ft.  apart.  In  each 
drill  sow  a  double  row  of  beans,  thus — .  '  .  '  .  '  When  growing, 
the  plants  should  stand  Gin.  apart  in  each  direction,  but  the 
seed  should  be  sown  double  this  thickness,  and  when  they  are 
well  up  the  plants  should  be  thinned  out  to  the  indicated  dis- 
tance apart ;  there  is  more  lost  than  gained  in  allowing  them  to 
stand  together  too  thickly.  The  thinnings  may  be  used  to  make 
good  any  blanks  and  to  plant  elsewhere  for  a  successional  crop 
or  for  seed  saving. 

As  soon  as  the  ground  is  cleared  of  the  previous  crop  the 
space  between  every  alternate  row  of  beans  is  forked  over  and 
filled  with  another  crop  such  as  lettuce  or  spinach.  Alternate 
spaces  are  left  blank  so  as  to  afford  room  for  picking  from  the 
plants  on  each  side. 

Gathering  the  pods  must  be  attended  to  systematically;  if 
they  are  left  on  the  plants  too  long  they  get  tough  and  useless 
and  the  plants  soon  stop  bearing.  To  obtain  a  long-continued 
supply  of  green  and  tender  pods  they  must  be  picked  closely  as 
they  come  ready,  even  though  they  may  not  be  immediately 
wanted. 

When  seed  is  to  be  saved  a  piece  is  either  sown  specially  for 
this  purpose  or  part  of  the  main-crop  is  left  ungathered  as  soon 
as  prices  fall  low.  When  the  beans  are  ripe  the  plants  are 
pulled  up  and  tied  near  the  roots  in  little  bundles.  They  are 
then  put  to  dry,  either  spread  out  on  a  hard  bottom  or  hung  on 
a  fence  or  over  a  rail.  If  the  weather  is  wet  they  may  be 
spread  out  thinly  in  a  shed  or  in  frames  to  dry.  Afterwards 
they  are  stored  in  a  dry  airy  place  until  winter  when  they  are 
threshed  and  cleaned  ready  for  sowing. 

Manures : — French  Beans  pay  for  liberal  treatment.  The 
soil  in  which  they  are  planted  should  be  given  plenty  of  well- 
rotted  stable  manure,  as  not  only  does  this  provide  plant  foods 
but  it  serves  to  keep  the  soil  open  and  rich  in  humus,  a  condi- 
tion of  things  in  which  these  plants  revel.  Fresh  manure  is  not 
suitable,  and  perhaps  the  best  crops  may  be  obtained  from 
ground  which  has  been  deeply  worked  and  heavily  manured 
for  a  previous  crop,  followed  by  a  dressing  of  lime  before  the 


French  Beans. — Runner  Beans.  159 

seed  is  sown,  with  a  mulch  of  short  manure  along  each  side  of 
the  rows  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  growing  freely.  Fertilizers 
calculated  to  give  a  profitable  return  are  the  following,  applied 
before  sowing :  Superphosphate  1  oz.,  sulphate  of  potash  i  oz., 
per  yard  run  of  row.  When  growth  does  not  appear  sufficiently 
vigorous  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia,  i  oz.  to  the 
yard,  watered  in,  will  speedily  improve  matters. 

Varieties  : — For  the  earliest  crop,  Sutton's  Superlative ;  for 
succession  and  main-crop,  Canadian  Wonder;  for  late  crop, 
Negro. 


BEANS  (RUNNER). 

Phaseolus  multiflorus. 

RUNNER  Beans  are  easily  grown,  prolific,  and  popular. 
They  always  meet  with  a  ready  sale  when  young  and 
tender,  and  when  well  grown  are  a  profitable  crop,  as  there  is 
no  great  expense  in  their  production. 

The  Scarlet  Runner  will  do  well  in  any  good  garden  soil, 
though  a  rather  light  loam  suits  it  best.  Clay  soils  are  the 
least  suitable,  though  good  crops  may  be  taken  from  well- 
drained  clay  soils  providing  they  have  a  thorough  winter 
preparation,  accompanied  by  liming. 

Runner  Beans  are  less  hardy  than  dwarfs,  and  it  does  not 
pay  to  sow  earlier  than  the  first  week  of  May  in  the  southern 
counties,  and  the  last  week  in  the  north.  In  many  small 
gardens  they  are  used  to  cover  up  bare  unsightly  places  by 
being  taken  over  roughly  contrived  screens  or  archways,  and 
so  serve  the  double  purpose  of  converting  ugliness  to  beauty 
whilst  at  the  same  time  yielding  a  profitable  crop  ;  or  they  may 
be  taken  up  three  poles  6ft.  to  8ft.  long,  set  in  a  triangle  4ft. 
apart  and  tied  together  at  the  top,  three  or  four  beans  being 
planted  at  the  foot  of  each. 

When  grown  in  rows  on  sticks  or  poles  make  two  drills  Sin. 
deep  and  9in.  apart,  and  repeat  with  two  more  drills  3ft.  away, 
which  gives  two  double  rows  with  3ft.  space  between.  Sow  the 
seed  4|in.  apart  in  each  drill,  and  when  the  plants  are  up  thin 
out  to  9in.  apart,  so  that  they  fall  in  the  double  row  thus — .  '  .  *  . 


160  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Put  the  poles  in  early,  about  1ft.  apart,  between  the  two  drills 
on  each  side ;  cross  them  at  the  top,  pass  a  pole  between  the 
crossed  tops  and  tie  all  together  firmly.  They  will  then  resist 
any  ordinary  wind.  Put  small  feathery  stuff  amongst  the 
plants  to  lead  them  up  the  poles.  These  double  rows  should 
not  be  repeated  nearer  than  6ft.  and  are  better  9ft.  to  12ft. 
apart,  the  intervening  space  being  filled  with  other  crops. 

In  growing  for 
market,  sticking  is 
not  practised,  nor  is 
it  necessary.  The 
seed  is  sown  in  drills 
4in.  deep  and  9in. 
wide.  Two  rows  are 
sown  in  each  drill, 
and  the  seedlings  are 
thinned  out  so  that 
they  stand  6in.  apart, 
any  blank  places 
being  filled  up  with 
some  of  the  surplus 
plants.  The  double 
rows  stand  4ft.  apart. 
When  the  plants  are 
up  a  ridge  of  earth 
is  drawn  to  each  side 
of  the  rows,  and  this 
serves,  to  some  ex- 
tent, to  protect  them 
from  cold  cutting 
winds.  As  soon  as 
the  flowers  begin  to 
show  the  top  of  the 
plant  is  cut  out.  This 
causes  the  Stem  to  The  Scarlet  Runner  Bean 

branch  and  keeps  the  plant  dwarf.  Stopping  of  the  running 
shoots  must  be  repeated  several  times,  or  the  plants  will  get 
into  such  a  tangled  mass  that  it  will  be  extremely  difficult  to 
do  anything  with  them. 


Runner  Beans. — Beet.  161 

The  pods  should  be  gathered  as  soon  as  they  are  a  fair  size, 
and  gathering  should  afterwards  be  continued  regularly  two  or 
three  times  a  week.  If  the  pods  are  allowed  to  become  too  old 
not  only  are  they  worthless  but  the  plants  soon  cease  to  bear. 
Any  old  pods  that  have  been  missed  in  a  previous  gathering 
should  be  thrown  away  or  they  will  spoil  the  sample.  If  the 
pods  should  be  gritty  with  earth  they  must  be  washed ;  they 
should  be  despatched  to  their  destination  as  soon  as  possible 
after  gathering,  whilst  they  are  still  fresh  and  plump,  as  they 
soon  lose  in  value  if  kept  standing  about. 

Manures : — For  a  good  crop  of  Scarlet  Runners  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  ground  should  be  deeply  worked  and  well  supplied 
with  farmyard  manure.  If  this  has  been  given  to  the  previous 
crop  5  cwt.  ground  lime,  3  cwt.  superphosphate,  and  1  cwt. 
sulphate  of  potash  to  the  acre,  harrowed  in  some  time  previous 
to  sowing  the  seed,  will  give  satisfactory  results.  If  no  manure 
was  given  to  the  previous  crop,  or  if  the  land  is  poor,  plough 
or  dig  in  well-decayed  manure  at  the  rate  of  15  tons  to  the 
acre,  and  in  addition  give  the  fertilizers  mentioned  above. 

Varieties : — There  are  many  good  sorts,  amongst  the  best  of 
which  are :  Best  of  All,  Scarlet  Emperor,  Ne  Plus  Ultra,  The 
Czar,  Painted  Lady,  and  the  common  Scarlet  Runner. 


BEET 

Beta  vulgaris. 

BEET  is  a  profitable  crop  to  grow,  but  as  the  demand  for  it 
is  only  moderate  the  space  given  to  it  should  not  be  too 
large.  It  may  be  grown  on  any  ordinary  soil,  though  one  of  a 
rather  light  and  sandy  nature  produces  the  neatest  and  best- 
shaped  roots.  Good  Beet  can  be  grown  on  strong  clay  soil  if 
it  is  carefully  prepared  by  deep  working  and  ridging  in  the 
winter  so  as  to  get  it  thoroughly  pulverized.  On  clay  the  seed 
should  be  sown  a  fortnight  later  than  the  usual  time  or  the 
roots  are  apt  to  grow  too  large  and  coarse,  especially  if  the 
season  should  happen  to  be  wet.  The  only  kind  of  roots  likely 
to  realise  a  profit  are  those  of  moderate  size  and  good  shape, 
and  to  produce  these,  no  matter  of  what  nature  the  soil  may 

11 


162  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

be,  it  should  be  well  worked  a  full  spit  deep,  in  good  tilth,  and 

free  from  recent  dressings  of  manure. 

For  an  early  supply  of  Beet,  or  where  the  grower  does  a 
private  trade,  one  of  the  turnip-rooted  varieties  should  be  tried, 
especially  if  the  soil  is  of  a  very  strong  nature.  These  are 
excellent  in  every  way,  but  up  to  the  present  do  not  seem  to  be 
very  popular  in  the  markets. 

Seed  should  be  sown  at  the  end  of  April  or  in  the  first  week 
of  May  (or  on  strong  land  in  the  second  or  third  week  of  May). 
Sow  thinly,  in  drills  2in.  deep  and  15in.  apart.  Thin  out  early 
to  4in.  apart,  and  a  few  weeks  later  to  Sin.  apart ;  the  young 
roots  removed  at  the  second  thinning  can  be  disposed  of  for 
salads,  and  thus  add  to  the  profit  of  the 
crop.  Throughout  the  summer  the 
ground  should  be  kept  clean  and  the 
surface  soil  loose  by  frequent  hoeing. 

The  roots  should  be  lifted  during  a 
spell  of  dry  weather  in  October.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  damaging 
them  in  any  way  or  they  will  be  spoiled. 
To  this  end,  if  the  soil  is  not  light 
enough  to  permit  them  to  be  drawn  by 
the  tops,  a  trench  should  be  thrown  out 
close  alongside  one  row,  and  then  by 
using  a  spade  behind  the  roots  but  well 
away  from  them,  the  soil  may  easily  be 
loosened  and  the  roots  lifted  without 
injury.  The  leaves  should  be  removed 
by  twisting  in  preference  to  cutting.  They  may  be  stored  in  an 
ordinary  clamp  in  the  same  way  as  potatoes  are  stored,  that  is, 
they  should  be  laid  on  a  dry  bottom  in  a  round  or  oblong  heap, 
about  4ft.  through  at  the  base,  then  covered  with  straw  and 
the  straw  in  turn  covered  with  about  4in.  of  earth.  Or  they 
may  be  stored  in  dry  earth  or  sand  in  a  shed.  Wherever  the 
storing  is  done  it  is  essential  that  the  place  be  dry  and  cool,  as 
damp  may  cause  decay  and  warmth  will  induce  growth. 

Manures : — It  is  important  that  freshly  manured  ground 
should  be  avoided,  though  the  soil  should  be  in  good  heart  by 
having  been  manured  for  the  preceding  crop.  In  most  cases 


Copyright,  V.A.&Co. 

Dell's  Dark  Crimson 
Dwarf  Beet. 


Beet. — Borecole,  or  Kale.  163 

on  such  soil  it  will  be  found  profitable  to  add  before  sowing 
2  ozs.  superphosphate  and  1  oz.  sulphate  of  potash  to  the  square 
yard.  When  the  ground  is  poor  this  should  be  supplemented 
by  f  oz.  to  the  square  yard  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  given  in  two  applications  .with  an  interval  of  two 
weeks,  the  first  immediately  after  the  first  thinning. 

Varieties: — Dell's  Crimson  Dwarf,  Nutting's  Dwarf  Red, 
Button's  Market  Favourite,  and  Cheltenham  Green  Top  are  all 
good  amongst  many  others.  For  a  turnip-rooted  variety  use 
Red  Globe. 

BORECOLE,  or  KALE. 

Brassica  oleracea  acephala. 

KALES  are  of  importance  in  any  place  where  a  supply  of 
green  vegetables  must  be  maintained  during  the  winter. 
They  always  sell  readily  enough 
in  cold  weather,  amongst  the 
poorer  classes  of  the  population, 
though  the  returns  in  a  mild 
season  are  usually  so  low  as  to 
leave  very  little,  if  any,  profit. 
When,  however,  severe  frost 
cuts  down  most  other  things 
the  hardier  kinds  of  kale  stand 
unharmed — indeed  a  sharp  frost 
improves  their  quality  for  the 
table — and  in  such  a  case,  when 
there  is  a  scarcity  of  other  green 
vegetables,  a  breadth  of  kale 

Copyright^.  A.  &  Co. 

will  realise  a  handsome  profit.      _  ,.       ,.  ,   .  T.  , 

r~t  ...  .,  -11          Intermediate  Moss-curled  Kale. 

They  will  provide  a  serviceable 

crop  on  almost  any  soil,  but  like  all  brassicas  a  strong  deeply 
worked  loam  suits  them  best  of  all. 

Seed  should  not  be  sown  too  early,  the  latter  part  of  March 
or  beginning  of  April  being  quite  soon  enough.  Sow  thinly  on 
a  seed  bed  and  thin  out  early  so  that  they  may  develop  into 
sturdy  stuff  before  transplanting.  This  should  be  done  as 
opportunity  occurs,  choosing  showery  weather  when  possible. 


164  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Kales  are  usually  planted  between  other  crops  which  are 
cleared  off  the  ground  in  the  early  part  of  summer,  so  as  to 
save  space,  intercropping  with  early  potatoes  being  very  usual. 
The  distance  apart  depends  upon  the  variety  grown,  some 
being  much  more  spreading  than  others,  but  as  a  general  rule 
they  should  be  set  from  2ft.  Gin.  to  3ft.  between  the  rows  and 
2ft.  between  the  plants.  It  is  generally  possible  to  snatch  a 

quick-growing  crop,  such  as  let- 
tuce, spinach-  or  turnips,  from 
between  the  rows  after  the 
earlier  crop  has  been  cleared, 
before  the  Kale  needs  all  the 
space.  Set  out  the  last  batch 
in  the  most  exposed  and  nor- 
therly aspect,  so  that  they  will 
not  be  inclined  to  bolt  so  early 
in  the  spring. 

Manures :—  Whilst  starved 
and  stunted  specimens  are  of 
very  little  use,  on  the  other  hand 
luxuriant  and  soft  growth  must 
be  avoided  or  the  plants  will  not 
have  that  hardiness  which  con- 
stitutes their  especial  value. 
This  indicates  that  whilst  well 
cultivated  fertile  soil  is  essential 
that  which  has  received  recent 

dressings  of  strong  manure  should  be  avoided,  as  should  all 
fertilizers  of  a  nitrogenous  nature,  except  in  cases  where  the 
soil  is  poor.  On  soil  of  fair  quality  the  application  of  4  cwt. 
superphosphate  and  1|  cwt.  sulphate  of  potash  to  the  acre,  or 
l£  ozs.  and  f  oz.  respectively  to  the  square  yard,  will  ensure  a 
satisfactory  crop. 

Varieties : — There  are  many  varieties  of  Kales,  but  for  prac- 
tical purposes  these  may  be  reduced  to  two  classes — the  tall 
and  the  dwarf.  The  tall  Kales  give  the  heaviest  crop,  because 
the  removal  of  the  heads  as  a  first  crop  is  speedily  followed  by 
a  heavy  crop  of  side  shoots;  they  also  pass  through  a  wet 
winter  more  successfully  than  the  dwarfs.  Some  of  the  tall 


Copyright,  S.S-S. 

Sutton's  A  1  Kale. 


Borecole,  or  Kale. — Broccoli.  165 

varieties,  however,  grow  inconveniently  high,  and  one  of  an 
intermediate  type  is  much  to  be  preferred,  such  as  Sutton's  A  1, 
Hardy  Sprouting,  or  Curled  Scotch.  Among  the  dwarfs  Dwarf 
Green  and  Dwarf  Purple  will  pass  through  the  severest  winter 
without  injury. 


BROCCOLI. 

Brassica  oleracea  botrytis  asparagoides. 

THE  Broccoli  is,  for  all  practical  purposes,  a  hardy  winter 
cauliflower.  It  is  very  valuable  to  the  market  grower,  and 
especially  so  to  the  gardener  who  caters  for  a  private  or  shop 
trade,  on  account  of  the  long  period  during  which  it  is  available 
for  use — practically  for  the  whole  of  the  six  months  during 
which  most  other  vegetables  are  difficult  to  get. 

The  best  crops  of  Broc- 
coli are  taken  off  a  rather 
heavy  loam  inclining  to 
clay,  providing  it  is  in  a 
suitable  condition  for  the 
crop.  It  should  have  been 
well  manured  and  deeply 
cultivated  for  a  previous 
crop,  so  that  it  is  free  from 
rank  manure  but  is  in  good 
fertile  condition  and  has 
settled  down  again  firmly. 
Under  such  conditions  fine 

Copyright,  S.  &  S, 

close   compact  heads  are 

Suttons  Snow-white  Broccoli.  ,       ,,n          ,,  M 

produced.     When  the  soil 

is  rich  and  loose  the  heads  come  open  and  ill-shaped,  the  growth 
is  luxuriant  and  soft,  and  the  plants  are  liable  to  be  completely 
spoiled  in  a  spell  of  severe  frost.  When  Broccoli  is  grown  on 
light  land  a  dressing  of  fresh  manure  may  be  given,  supple- 
mented with  fertilizers,  and  if  the  soil  is  well  rolled  afterwards 
a  satisfactory  crop  will  usually  be  obtained. 

The  seed  should  be  sown  on  a  seed-bed  in  shallow  drills.  9in. 


166  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

apart,  from  the  middle  of  March  to  the  middle  of  May,  accord- 
ing to  the  variety  and  the  time  it  is  required  to  be  fit  for  use ; 
for  autumn  cutting  sow  from  beginning  to  end  of  March,  for 
winter  sow  in  April,  for  spring  in  April  and  the  beginning  of 
May,  and  for  summer  in  the  middle  of  May.  It  is  of  great 
importance  that  the  plants  should  be  short-legged  and  sturdy. 
To  secure  this  condition  thin  out  the  seedlings  early,  and  if 
possible  transplant  at  Sin.  apart  on  a  nursery  bed,  where  they 
remain  until  their  permanent  quarters  are  ready  to  receive 
them.  Both  seed  and  nursery  beds  should  be  kept  free  of 
weeds,  with  a  loose  surface. 

In  the  usual  course  of  things  Broccoli  follows  upon  some 
crop  which  has  been  cleared  in  the  spring  or  early  part  of  the 
summer,  such  as  peas,  early  potatoes,  or  dwarf  beans.  Plant 
out  at  2ft.  apart  in  the  rows  and  about  2ft.  6in.  between  the 
rows,  choosing  for  the  operation  dull  showery  weather  when 
possible,  so  that  watering  in  will  be  unnecessary,  as  it  is 
better  omitted.  When,  however,  the  ground  is  very  dry  and 
hard,  holes  for  the  plants  may  be  made  with  an  iron  bar ;  then 
fill  each  hole  to  the  brim  with  water  and  "  puddle"  the  roots  of 
the  plants.  An  open  exposed  situation  should  be  selected  for 
the  latest  batches  as  this  ensures  hardiness  and  tends  to  pre- 
vent premature  heading.  As  the  heads  begin  to  form  the  mid- 
rib of  a  large  leaf  should  be  broken  and  the  leaf  bent  down 
over  the  heart  of  the  plant ;  this  helps  to  keep  the  head  clean 
and  white  and  prevents  injury  by  frost. 

Heeling-in  is  practised  by  some  growers  as  a  method  of  pro- 
tection from  the  rigours  of  a  severe  winter,  whilst  many  others 
say  such  a  course  is  unnecessary  and  let  the  plants  take  all  risk 
of  the  weather,  trusting  to  the  self-protecting  character  which 
many  of  the  best  strains  now  possess,  or  if  the  weather  seems 
likely  to  be  very  severe  they  give  protection  by  scattering  a  little 
light  litter  over  the  heads.  Where  heeling-in  is  practised  it 
is  done  during  mild  weather  in  November.  A  trench  a  spit 
deep  and  the  width  of  the  spade  is  taken  out  along  the  north 
side  of  the  row.  The  soil  is  laid  close  to  the  edge  of  the  trench 
and  the  plants  are  then  pressed  over  so  that  they  rest  on  the 
ridge  of  soil  with  the  heads  sharply  inclined  to  the  north.  This 
prevents  the  rays  of  the  sun  striking  on  the  heart  of  the  plant 


Broccoli. — Brussels  Sprouts.  167 

and  injuring  the  head  by  alternate  frost  and  thaw.  The  soil 
from  the  second  trench  is  placed  over  the  roots  of  the  plants  in 
the  first  row,  where  it  helps  to  keep  them  in  position  and  also 
forms  a  support  for  the  second  row,  and  so  on  until  the  whole 
of  the  plants  are  heeled  over. 

Sprouting  Broccoli  yields  a  heavy  and  useful  crop  during 
late  winter  and  early  spring.  In  mild  open  seasons  the  prices 
obtained  are  low,  but  in  times  when  other  vegetables  are 
scarce  these  are  eagerly  sought  after,  and  in  such  circum- 
stances prove  very  remunerative. 

Manures : — As  already  stated,  over-richness  and  looseness  of 
soil  should  be  avoided  in  growing  Broccoli.  Fresh  manure 
should  never  be  given  except  when  the  soil  is  of  a  hungry  nature, 
in  which  case  a  moderate  dressing  of  well-decayed  manure  may 
be  given,  the  soil  being  made  firm  by  rolling  afterwards.  The 
best  paying  crops  are  obtained  from  a  rather  heavy  soil  which 
has  been  well  cultivated  and  manured  for  the  preceding  crop, 
with  3  cwt.  superphosphate  and  1  cwt.  sulphate  of  potash  to 
the  acre,  applied  previous  to  planting.  In  cases  where  these 
fertilizers  have  already  been  applied  to  the  preceding  crop  and 
it  is  considered  that  a  considerable  residue  remains  in  the  soil, 
they  may  be  reduced  by  one-half  or  omitted  altogether. 

Varieties ; — The  following  are  good  successional  varieties 
amongst  a  large  number,  many  of  them  equally  good :  Septem- 
ber to  December — Sutton's  Michaelmas  White,  Veitch's  Self- 
Protecting  Autumn,  and  Carter's  Autumn ;  January  to  April— 
Veitch's  Early  Market,  Sutton's  Winter  Mammoth,  Snow  White, 
and  Leamington ;  April  to  June — Satisfaction,  Champion,  and 
Late  Queen.  Sprouting  Broccoli  is  practically  confined  to  two 
varieties,  White  and  Purple,  and  each  of  these  is  sub-divided 
into  Early  and  Late,  so  that  by  using  judgment  a  supply  may 
be  had  throughout  the  winter  and  early  spring. 

BRUSSELS  SPROUTS. 

Brassica  oleracea  bullata  gemmifera. 

DRUSSELS  Sprouts  are  indispensable  to  the  grower  en- 
•U  gaged  in  supplying  a  retail  or  shop  business,  and  a  well 
managed  crop  usually  shows  substantial  profits  either  to  him 


168  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

or  to  the  grower  for  market.  They  form  one  of  the  best  green 
vegetables  for  autumn  and  winter  use,  and  at  that  time  are 
always  in  good  demand  by  all  classes  of  the  community. 

The  main  requirements  for  success  in  the  cultivation  of 
Brussels  Sprouts  are  a  deeply-worked  rich  and  firm  soil,  room 
for  development,  and  a  long  season  of  growth.  The  disregard 
of  any  or  all  of  these  conditions  frequently  results  in  disap- 
pointment— loose  rich  soil  produces  over-luxuriant  plants  with 
soft  open  sprouts  which  are  practically  useless ;  overcrowded 
plants  yield  sprouts  few  in  number  and  only  partially  developed, 
whilst  plants  raised  late  in  the  spring,  even  if  they  should  ulti- 
mately give  a  good  crop,  do  so  probably  at  a  time  when  the 
most  pressing  demand  is  past  and  prices  have  fallen  low. 

For  a  long  succession  sow  batches 
from  the  end  of  February  to  the 
middle  of  May,  putting  the  first  in  a 
cold  frame,  but  for  ordinary  purposes 
one  sowing  in  the  middle  of  March  is 
quite  enough.  Sow  on  a  bed  of  light 
rich  soil,  in  a  sheltered  position  in  the 
open.  Before  the  seedlings  crowd 
each  other  transplant  the  strongest 
to  a  similar  bed,  Sin.  apart ;  a  week 
or  two  later  transplant  the  next 
strongest  in  a  similar  manner.  By 
this  means  three  successive  batches 
of  sturdy  plants  are  obtained  which 
will  yield  good  sprouts  from  top  to 
bottom  if  well  treated  afterwards. 

Set  out  the  plants  in  their  final 
stations  during  May,  if  possible,  and 
never  later  than  the  early  part  of 
June.  Sometimes  these  plants  are  put  between  rows  of  pota- 
toes, but  such  a  position  is  not  a  good  one,  as  crowding  by  the 
potato  haulms  has  a  tendency  to  cause  the  stems  to  become 
drawn  instead  of  retaining  that  sturdy  short- jointed  character 
which  is  so  desirable.  Set  the  plants  out  in  an  open  situation, 
2ft.  Gin.  apart  in  each  direction.  Dibble  them  in  carefully 
and  in  case  the  weather  should  prove  very  dry  "puddle"  the 


Copyright,  V.  A.  £  Co. 

Dwarf  Brussels  Sprouts. 


Brussels  Sprouts.  169 

roots.  Single  lines  of  quick-growing  catch  crops  may  be  sown 
between  the  rows  as  soon  as  planting  is  finished.  After  culti- 
vation consists  in  keeping  the  ground  free  of  weeds  and  the 
surface  soil  loose  by  frequent  hoeing.  The  bottom  leaves 
should  be  removed  as  they  become  yellow. 

Some  growers  remove  the  head  of  the  full-grown  plant  under 
the  impression  that  doing  so  makes  the  Sprouts  develop  earlier, 
but  the  practice  is  a  bad  one.  The  head  of  leaves  is  not  only 
required  to  assist  the  plant  in  the  formation  of  the  Sprouts,  but 
it  also  serves  to  a  certain  extent  to  protect  them  during  sharp 
frosts.  The  Sprouts  should  be  gathered  as  they  come  ready. 
It  is  customary  to  break  them  off  with  the  thumb  and  fingers 
but  this  is  a  mistake,  they  should  be  cut  off  with  a  sharp  knife, 
leaving  a  piece  of  the  stalk  attached  to  the  stem.  By  gathering 
them  in  this  way  a  second  crop  follows,  which  lengthens  the 
season  and  adds  to  the  profits. 

Manures : — The  soil  for  Brussels  Sprouts  should  always  be 
deeply  worked  and  contain  a  fair  amount  of  organic  manure,  but 
neither  the  preparation  nor  the  manuring  of  the  ground  should 
be  done  specially  for  the  Sprouts  when  it  can  be  avoided ;  this 
is  much  better  done  for  the  preceding  crop  so  that  the  soil  has 
become  compact  and  all  rankness  has  passed  away  from  the 
manure.  This  objection  to  recent  manuring  does  not  apply  in 
the  same  degree  to  soil  of  a  sandy,  hungry  nature,  which  may 
well  have  a  dressing  of  from  10  to  15  tons  of  farmyard  manure, 
but  whenever  manure  is  applied  specially  for  this  crop  it  should 
always  be  thoroughly  decayed.  Before  the  plants  are  set  out 
on  the  ground  which  has  had  no  manure  immediately  preceding, 
the  following  fertilizers  should  be  spread  evenly  over  and  be 
hoed  or  harrowed  in : — Superphosphate  3  cwt.,  sulphate  of 
potash  1  cwt.  (or  the  equivalent  in  other  phosphatic  and  potassic 
fertilizers  of  a  readily-available  nature)  to  the  acre.  Where 
manure  has  been  given  it  should  be  supplemented  by  half  the 
quantities  of  the  above  fertilizers. 

Varieties: — Wroxton,  Dalkeith,  and  Aigburth  are  all  good 
reliable  sorts  which  have  stood  the  test  of  time,  whilst  there 
are  numerous  selected  strains  sent  out  by  the  leading  seedsmen 
which  are  well  worth  a  trial,  such  as  Sutton's  Matchless,  Carter's 
Perfection,  Veitch's  Paragon,  and  Webb's  Pride  of  the  Market. 


170 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


CABBAGE. 

Brassica  oleracea  capitata. 

THE  Cabbage  is  one  of  the  most  important  vegetables  in 
the  garden ;  in  fact,  next  to  the  potato,  it  may  be  said  to 
be  the  most  important  vegetable  grown,  as  it  supplies  green 
food  unfailingly  in  constant  succession  throughout  the  year, 
and  is  popular  with  all  classes  of  the  community.  It  can  be 
grown  almost  anywhere,  but  like  most  of  its  tribe  it  gives  the 
most  satisfaction  on  a  moist  retentive  loam,  deeply  worked  to 
provide  it  with  an  ample  root-run  and  supplied  generously  with 
manure. 

The  grower  who  does 
a  general  trade  should 
seldom  be  without  cab- 
bages, and  so  must  make 
several  sowings  over  an 
extended  period,  but 
both  for  this  business 
and  for  ordinary  market 
work  the  spring  supplies 
are  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant, and  when  well 
grown  and  early,  invari- 
ably bring  substantial 
returns.  As  soon  as  the 
demand  in  spring  begins  to  slacken  prices  fall  and  profits  are 
correspondingly  low,  but  the  demand  revives  somewhat  as  the 
supply  of  peas  runs  short,  and  gradually  strengthens  as  the 
summer  passes. 

The  most  important  sowing  of  the  year,  therefore,  is  that 
intended  for  spring  supplies,  and  the  exact  'time; for  sowing 
needs  careful  consideration.  Strong  plants  are  wanted  before 
the  cold  weather  comes,  but  they  should  not  be  too  advanced  or 
they  may  suffer  severely  from  prolonged  frosts,  and  there  is 
also  a  decided  tendency  for  plants  which  are  too  forward  to 
"bolt"  as  soon  as  growth  begins  in  the  spring.  On  the  other 
hand  if  the  sowing  is  too  late  winter  comes  before  the  plants 


Copyright,  S.  &  S. 

Sutton's  Flower  of  Spring 
Cabbage. 


Cabbage.  171 

have  much  strength,  with  the  result  that  many  fall  victims  to 
slugs,  birds,  and  excessive  wet  or  sharp  frosts,  whilst  those 
which  survive  mature  late  the  following  spring  and  so  miss  the 
best  prices. 

From  the  middle  of  July  to  the  middle  of  August  is  the  usual 
time  for  this  sowing,  the  exact  date  depending  upon  the  season, 
the  soil,  and  the  locality.  The  earlier  dates  are  for  the  north 
of  the  kingdom,  gradually  getting  later  towards  the  south.  In 
a  hot  summer  or  on  an  early  soil  it  would  be  wise  to  defer 
sowing  a  week  or  two  later  than  the  usual  time.  The  seed-bed 
should  be  light  and  rich.  After  raking  down  to  a  fine  tilth,  the 
seed  should  be  sown  very  thinly,  in  shallow  drills  9in.  apart. 
The  seedlings  are  frequently  left  standing  in  the  seed-bed  until 
planting  out  time  arrives,  and  provided  they  are  thinned  out 
sufficiently  to  avoid  overcrowding,  not  much  can  be  said  against 
the  practice,  but  where  the  quantity  to  be  dealt  with  is  not 
too  large,  much  sturdier  plants  are  obtained  if  the  seedlings  are 
pricked  out  on  a  bed  similar  to  the  seed-bed  as  soon  as  they 
can  be  handled.  The  plants  should  be  set  out  in  September, 
choosing  a  rainy  period  when  possible.  For  these  plants  the 

soil  should  be  in  a  firm  condi- 
tion ;  if  it  is  loose  they  do 
not  heart  up  so  well.  The  dis- 
tance apart  depends  upon  the 
variety  grown.  Cabbage  which 
grow  to  an  average  size  are 
usually  set  18in.  apart  in  each 
direction;  or  they  may  be  18in. 
apart  in  the  row  and  2ft.  be- 
tween the  rows,  with  coleworts 
set  1ft.  apart  between  the  rows 
of  Cabbage ;  or  again  they  may 
be  planted  from  1ft.  to  14in. 
apart  in  each  direction,  every 
alternate  plant  being  cut  as  soon  as  growth  commences  in 
the  spring  and  sold  as  "  bag  greens."  If  the  "  greens  "  are 
removed  so  that  the  plants  remaining  stand  in  quincunx  form 
the  remaining  plants  will  stand  about  17in.  or  20in.  apart  in 
each  direction,  which  allows  them  ample  space  for  development. 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co. 

Early  Etampes  Cabbage. 


172  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

For  summer  and  autumn  supplies  seed  should  be  sown  early 
in  March  and  at  intervals  afterwards.  The  plants  are  set  out  in 
small  batches  wherever  ground  becomes  vacant. 

In  some  gardens  the  surplus  plants  from  the  August  sowing 
are  pricked  out  in  rather  poor  soil  so  as  to  keep  them  in  good 
but  hard  condition,  and  these  are  set  out  in  any  mild  spell 
through  the  winter  as  a  piece  of  land  is  got  ready.  Some  of 
the  plants  are  not  put  into  their  final  quarters  until  spring,  when 
they  come  ready  before  those  raised  from  spring  sowing. 

In  places  where  a  private  or  shop  trade  is  catered  -for  it 
will  be  found  a  good  plan  to  cut  off  in  succession  part  of  the 
Cabbages  just  below  the  head,  leaving  a  few  of  the  bottom 
leaves.  These  presently  break  out  with  a  number  of  tender 
small  heads,  much  valued  by  those  who  appreciate  young  and 
tender  cabbage  sprouts.  If  the  ground  they  occupy  is  not  im- 
mediately wanted  these  stumps  will  yield  a  second  crop  of 
small  heads  after  the  first  are  removed. 

Manures: — Cabbage  are  gross  feeders,  and  the  soil  must 
receive  liberal  quantities  of  farmyard  manure  if  their  cultiva- 
tion is  to  be  conducted  successfully.  The  presence  of  lime  in 
the  soil  is  essential  to  their  healthy  growth,  and  for  this  reason 
the  phosphates  in  the  supplementary  fertilizers  necessary  to  a 
good  crop  should  be  derived  from  basic  slag  or  limphos.  A 
suitable  dressing  would  be  8  cwt.  basic  slag  or  3j  cwt.  limphos 
and  4  cwt.  kainit  to  the  acre,  spread  and  harrowed  in  before 
planting  in  September,  with  from  1  to  2  cwt.  nitrate  of  soda, 
in  two  dressings,  the  first  as  soon  as  growth  has  started  well 
in  the  spring  and  the  second  two  or  three  weeks  afterwards. 

Varieties : — For  autumn  planting  :  Myatt's  Early  Offenham, 
Sutton's  Flower  of  Spring,  Hurst's  First  and  Best,  Mein's  No.  1, 
Webb's  Emperor,  Wheeler's  Imperial,  Evesham  Early.  For 
spring  and  summer  sowing :  Early  Etampes,  Ellam's  Early, 
Express,  Nonpariel,  Early  Dwarf  York,  Glory,  Enfield  Market, 
Sutton's  Imperial,  Daniel's  Defiance. 

Red  Cabbage  for  pickling  is  sown  in  July  and  August.  It  is 
treated  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  ordinary  Cabbage,  but  needs 
more  room  and  occupies  the  ground  longer.  It  needs  rich  and 
deeply  worked  soil.  Set  the  plants  out  at  least  3ft.  apart  and 
take  catch  crops  off  the  space  between.  Variety  : — Red  Dutch. 


Cardoons. 


173 


CARDOONS. 

Cynara  Cardunculus. 

THE  Cardoon  is  a  close  relation  of  the  globe  artichoke,  and 
has  much  the  same  appearance  when  growing.     It  is  not 
much  cultivated  in  this  country,  but  as  it  is  occasionally  in 
demand  it  has  been  thought  best  that  its  culture  should  be 
described. 

Whilst  the  artichoke 
is  usually  propagated 
from  offsets,  the  Car- 
doon, on  the  contrary, 
is  always  grown  from 
seed.  Trenches  are 
prepared  as  for  celery, 
18in.  wide,  1ft.  deep, 
and  4 ft.  from  centre  to 
centre.  The  soil  at  the 
bottom  of  the  trench 
is  well  mixed  with  Sin. 
of  good  rotten  manure. 
At  intervals  of  18in. 
a  patch  of  fine  soil  is 
laid  down,  and  in  each 
of  these  patches,  at  the 
end' of  April,  three  or 
four  seeds  are  sown, 
well  watered  in,  and 
covered  with  a  flower-pot  until  the  seedlings  are  up,  when  the 
pots  are  removed,  and  the  plants  thinned  out  to  the  strongest 
one  at  each  station.  Some  light  feathery  branches  should  be 
put  over  the  trench  to  protect  the  plants  from  sun  for  a  few 
days  after  the  pots  are  removed,  and  each  night  until  the  be- 
ginning of  June,  to  protect  them  from  frost, 

During  the  summer  the  Cardoons  must  have  frequent  and 
copious  waterings.  By  about  the  middle  of  September  growth 
will  be  completed,  and  they  will  be  ready  for  bfanching.  For 
this  operation  choose  a  fine  day  when  the  foliage  and  the  soil 
are  dry.  Then  draw  the  leaves  together  and  tie  them  firmly 


Copyright,  V.  A,  &  Co. 

Ivory-white  Cardoon. 


174  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

with  strong  raffia.  Each  plant  is  then  covered  from  the  base 
to  the  tips  of  the  .leaves  with  dry  hay  or  straw,  3m.  thick,  kept 
in  position  by  raffia,  and  the  whole  is  then  covered  with  soil 
from  the  sides  of  the  trench,  in  the  same  way  as  celery  is 
earthed  up.  Blanching  is  completed  in  about  a  month.  Put 
litter  over  the  tops  of  the  ridges  to  protect  from  frost. 


CARROTS. 

Daucus  Carota. 

EXCELLENT  crops  of  Carrots  can  be  grown -on  any  well 
cultivated  garden  soil,  though  a  deep  sandy  loam  suits 
them  best,  and  it  is  on  this  class  of  soil  that  the  most  handsome 
roots  of  the  long  varieties  are  produced.  On  soil  of  a  heavy 
nature  the  varieties  grown  should  be  confined  to  those  which 
are  short  or  stump-rooted,  and  if  before  sowing  it  is  well 
pulverized  and  made  free  of  lumps,  crops  quite  as  satis- 
factory and  profitable  can  be  obtained  as  on  lighter  soil. 
Whatever  its  nature  may  be  the  soil  should  always  be  free 
of  fresh  manure  near  the  surface  or  the  roots  will  fork  badly. 
When  the  soil  is  so  poor  as  to  be  in  need  of  manure  this  may 
safely  be  placed  ^beneath  the  top  spit,  or  thoroughly  decayed 
manure  which  has  been  well  broken  up  may  be  dug  in,  but  it  is 
always  better,  especially  when  the  long-rooted  varieties  are  to 
be  grown,  to  select  ground  which  was  deeply  dug  and  manured 
for  some  other  crop  at  least  six  months  previously. 

The  demand  for  Carrots  in  some  form  is  fairly  constant 
throughout  the  year,  so  that  it  is  a  safe  crop  to  grow.  When 
the  soil  is  of  a  suitable  description  all  the  land  that  can  be 
spared  from  other  crops  may  be  profitably  devoted  to  Carrots. 

The  culture  of  the  Carrot  in  the  garden  may  be  divided  into 
three  well-defined  sections — forcing  in  frames,  early  crops  on 
sheltered  beds,  and  main  crops  in  the  open  gr'ound,  but  in 
addition  to  these  the  intensive  gardener  will  find  it  profitable 
to  have  a  few  beds  of  tender  young  Carrots  ready  for  use  in 
the  autumn,  when  the  main-crop  roots  are  getting  large  and 
coarse. 


Carrots.  1 75 

Forcing  in  Frames. — Mild  hot-beds  for  forcing  Carrots  may 
be  made  at  any  time  from  the  middle  of  November  to  the  end 
of  February.  Full  particulars  respecting  the  preparation  for 
and  making  of  these  will  be  found  in  pages  82-84  and  92-94. 
After  the  frame  is  put  on  the  bed  the  manure  is  covered  with 
about  4in.  of  light  rich  soil,  or  preferably  with  the  finely-sifted 
thoroughly  decayed  manure  described  on  page  83 ;  this  is  raked 
down  smooth  and  fine  and  all  lumps  removed,  then  the  frame 
is  shut  up  closely  for  a  few  days.  When  the  bed  is  nicely  warm 
sow  seed  of  one  of  the  forcing  varieties  broadcast,  very  thinly, 
cover  lightly  with  dry  finely-sifted  decayed  manure,  and  press 
down  evenly  with  the  firming  board.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  sow 
radish  seed  thinly  along  with  the  Carrot,  as  they  are  up  very 
quickly  and  cleared  off  the  bed  before  the  Carrots  are  incon- 
venienced in  any  way,  and  add  so  materially  to  the  profit  of  the 
crop.  French  gardeners,  after  sowing  carrot  and  radish,  also 
set  lettuce  plants  on  the  same  bed,  and  as  soon  as  the  lettuce 
are  ready  for  cutting  follow  these  up  by  planting  cauliflowers 
amongst  the  Carrots. 
These  additional  crops, 
whilst  in  no  way  injur- 
ing the  quality  or  quan- 
tity of  the  Carrots  on 
the  bed,  have  a  decided 
effect  in  retarding  their 
growth,  and  when  Car- 
rots are  wanted  early 
all  additional  crops  ex- 
cept radishes  are  best 
omitted. 

As  soon  as  the  seed  is  sown  the  frames  are  shut  up  closely 
and  covered  with  mats  until  germination  has  taken  place,  after 
which  the  mats  are  removed  in  the  daytime,  but  replaced  each 
night  to  conserve  the  warmth  and  protect  from  frost.  If  the 
manure  and  soil  are  in  the  right  condition  no  water  will  be 
needed,  but  if  the  soil  gets  dry  give  a  little  through  a  fine  rose. 
If  the  heat  of  the  bed  rises  above  60  deg.  by  day  or  50  deg.  by 
night  a  little  air  must  be  given,  and  in  any  case  air  should  be 
given  on  all  favourable  occasions  as  soon  as  the  plants  have 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co. 

Parisian  Forcing  Carrot. 


176  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

made  three  or  four  leaves.  At  this  stage,  too,  the  plants  should 
be  thinned  out  to  lin.  apart,  and  later,  when  some  of  the  most 
forward  are  ready,  these  may  be  removed  for  use  and  the  re- 
mainder left  standing  at  2in.  to  Sin.  apart.  Air  must  be  given 
whenever  the  weather  is  mild  and  water  when  the  soil  appears 
dry.  Ventilation  must  be  gradually  increased  until  by  the 
beginning  of  April  the  lights  can  be  removed  completely  on 
fine  warm  days,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  month  the  frames 
can  be  removed  altogether,  and  the  crop  left  standing  in  the 
open.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  work  a  little  fine  soil  in  amongst 
the  tops  of  the  roots  to  prevent  them  becoming  green. 

Good  and  early  crops  can  also  be  obtained  from  cold  frames. 
The  bed  is  made  up  and  managed  in  a  precisely  similar  way  to 
that  on  the  hot-bed,  except  that  no  hot  manure  is  used.  The 
frame  should  face  south  and  the  seed  should  not  be  sown  before 
February.  This  crop  will  come  in  just  before  the  earliest  one 
from  protected  beds  in  the  open. 

Early  Crops  from  Protected  Beds  and  Warm  Borders. — The 
earliest  open-air  sowing  may  be  made  with  one  of  the  stump- 
rooted  varieties,  such  as  the 
Dutch  Horn,  any  time  after 
the  beginning  of  March,  on 
a  warm  dry  border.  The 
soil  should  be  in  a  dry  and 
crumbly  condition  or  the  seed 
will  not  germinate  well.  If  it 
is  wet  and  cold  a  change  of 
weather  should  be  waited  for, 
or,  to  avoid  delay,  excellent 
results  may  be  obtained  when 
the  bed  is  covered  with  2in. 
of  prepared  soil.  If  the  soil 
is  fairly  free  of  weeds  sow 
broadcast,  or  in  drills  6in. 
apart.  Radishes  may  be 
copyright,  v.  A.  &  co.  sown  with  the  Carrots.  If 

Dutch  Horn  Carrot.  rajn    threatens    do    not   sow 

until  the  weather  clears ;  or  cover  the  beds  immediately  after 
sowing  with  mats,  for  if  a  heavy  rain  beats  on  the  bed  soon 


Carrots. 


177 


after  the  seed  is  put  in  it  will  probably  fail  to  germinate,  and 
will  have  to  be  re-sown,  thus  causing  delay  and  loss.  When 
the  plants  are  well  up  they  should  be  thinned  out,  first  to  2in. 
apart,  and  afterwards  by  bunching  the  most  forward,  to  4in. 
The  crop  from  March  sowings  will  be  forwarded  considerably  if 
the  bed  is  surrounded  by  thatched  hurdles  to  keep  off  cold 
winds  and  if  each  night  protection  from  frost  is  given  by  mats 
resting  on  a  framework  of  laths.  Further  sowings  may  be 
made  on  unprotected  beds  from  the  beginning  April. 

All  the  early  Carrots,  as  well  as  the  suitable  thinnings  of  the 
main  crops,  are  tied  in  bunches  of  varying  sizes,  according  to 
the  requirements  of  the  respective  markets  (the  forced  Carrots 
consigned  to  Covent  Garden  from  the  French  garden  being  in 
bunches  of  50 — two  half  bunches  of  25  being  tied  together) ; 
they  are  always  washed  before  being  packed,  so  as  to  present 
a  bright  and  attractive  appearance. 

v  Main  Crops. — The  land  for  the  main-crop  Carrots  should 
be  well  drained  and  have  been  deeply  worked  some  time  pre- 
viously, so  as  to  get  it  into  a  mellow 
and  friable  condition.  It  is  useless 
to  put  this  crop  into  cloddy,  ill- 
worked  or  wet  land.  The  soil 
should  be  in  a  fine  tilth,  and  the 
seed  should  not  be  sown  unless  it 
is  in  a  dry  crumbly  condition,  with 
no  immediate  threat  of  rain. 

Sow  from  the  middle  March  to 
the  end  of  April  (the  earlier  dates 
being  suitable  for  light  warm  soil) 
in  drills  from  9in.  to  12in.  apart 
and  fin.  deep.  One  of  the  varieties 
of  Intermediate  will  be  found  the 
most  suitable  for  all  medium  soils ; 
on  light  land  one  of  the  longer 
sorts  may  be  grown,  and  on  land 
of  a  clayey  nature  a  shorter  root 
of  the  Chantenay  type  will  be  James'  Scarietjntermediate 
found  the  most  suitable ;  or  if  a 

longer  root  is  wanted  the  seed  may  be  sown  on  ridges,  15in.  to 

1 A 


Copyright,  V.A.S-  Co. 


178  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

18in.  apart.  As  soon  as  the  seedlings  are  large  enough  to 
handle  they  should  be  thinned  without  delay  to  2in.  apart,  and 
as  soon  as  they  are  seen  to  be  large  enough  for  bunching  they 
are  thinned  again  from  4in.  to  6in.  apart.  This  second  thinning 
should  never  be  omitted  and  should  be  done  thoroughly,  or 
numbers  of  the  plants  are  left  to  grow  huddled  together,  where 
they  make  only  small  useless  roots.  After  thinning,  the  soil 
should  be  drawn  with  the  hoe  to  each  side  of  the  rows,  so  as  to 
fill  up  all  spaces  left  by  the  removal  of  the  roots,  and  so  help  to 
keep  the  carrot  fly  at  bay. 

Further  cultivation  during  the  summer  consists  in  keeping 
the  plants  free  of  weeds  and  the  spaces  between  the  rows  in  a 
loose  condition  by  frequent  hoeing.  The  mulch  of  loose  soil 
thus  formed  helps  to  conserve  the  moisture  in  the  soil  below, 
and  by  ensuring  a  steady  growth  does  much  to  prevent  the 
splitting  of  the  roots  which  takes  place  when  a  drought  is 
followed  by  a  period  of  wet. 

Choice  young  roots  can  be  had  in  autumn  and  the  early  part 
of  winter  from  a  sowing  of  one  of  the  early  varieties  on  good 
rich  soil  in  the  first  or  second  week  of  July.  They  must  not  be 
allowed  to  suffer  from  lack  of  water.  If  the  sowing  is  made  on 
a  sheltered  bed,  where  they  can  be  easily  protected  on  the 
approach  of  frost,  the  supply  can  be  prolonged.  A  further 
sowing  can  be  made  in  August  in  open  frames,  or  on  beds  which 
can  be  covered  by  box  frames.  On  the  approach  of  frost  the 
lights  are  placed  over  these,  though  plenty  of  ventilation  is 
given  whenever  the  weather  will  permit.  As  the  weather  gets 
severe  the  frames  are  covered  with  mats.  By  careful  manage- 
ment this  will  give  a  supply  of  tender  roots  until  the  turn  of 
the  year. 

Early  in  October,  in  fine  weather,  the  main-crop  roots  are 
lifted,  cleared  of  soil,  and  the  leaves  cut  off  to  |in.  of  the  top. 
When  the  quantity  is  only  moderate  they  may  be  stored  in  a 
dry  shed  or  cellar.  Here  a  foundation  of  dry  earth  or  sand  is 
laid  down  on  which  the  roots  are  placed  in  regular  layers  with 
earth  or  sand  between  each  layer  until  they  are  about  3ft,  deep. 
The  tops  of  one  layer  alternate  with  the  bottoms  of  the  next. 
A  few  rough  boards  are  fixed  at  the  front  and  ends  of  the  heap 
to  keep  them  in  position.  When  the  quantity  to  be  dealt  with 


Carrots.  179 

is  large,  the  roots  are  stored  in  clamps  like  potatoes ;  the  site 
for  the  clamp  should  be  dry,  the  heap  not  more  than  4ft.  wide 
at  the  bottom  and  3ft.  high,  with  the  roots  laid  carefully  and 
arranged  so  that  the  tops  are  turned  to  the  outsides.  Cover 
the  roots  with  4in.  of  straw  and  the  straw  with  4in.  of  earth, 
which  may  be  taken  from  outside  the  site  of  the  clamp  so  as  to 
form  an  open  drain  and  so  help  to  keep  the  interior  dry.  Along 
the  ridge,  at  intervals  of  6ft.,  ventilation  shafts  should  be  made 
by  building  the  earth  round  a  drainpipe  or  a  tuft  of  straw. 

Manures : — Crops  grown  on  manure  beds  in  frames  do  not 
require  any  additional  fertilizers.  Early  crops  in  the  open-air 
should  be  grown  on  rich  soil  and  will  receive  great  benefit 
from  an  application  of  i  to  1  oz.  per  square  yard  of  sulphate  of 
potash,  using  the  heavier  application  on  the  lighter  soils ;  if  the 
soil  is  of  a  poor  nature  and  growth  is  slow  it  may  be  stimulated 
by  |oz.  to  the  square  yard  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  given  in 
two  applications  with  a  fortnight's  interval,  and  watered  in,  but 
this  should  only  be  given  after  potash,  or  the  plants  wHl  make, 
more  leaf  than  root.  For  main-crops,  on  soil  where  the  pre- 
ceding crop  received  manure,  the  ground  should  be  dressed  at 
least  a  month  before  sowing  writh  3  cwt.  basic  slag  (or  2  cwt. 
superphosphate)  5  cwt.  kainit,  and  6  cwt.  rape  dust  or  castor 
meal.  If  it  is  impossible  to  apply  these  fertilizers  until  just 
before  sowing  use  an  equivalent  quantity  of  sulphate  of  potash 
in  place  of  kainit.  If  the  soil  is  poor  increase  all  the  fertilizers 
by  about  one-third.  All  these  quantities  are  for  one  acre.  A 
light  dressing  of  soot  at  intervals  during  the  early  part  of  the 
summer  will  increase  the  vigour  of  the  plant  and  assist  to  keep 
away  the  fly. 

Varieties : — For  frames :  Parisian  Forcing,  French  Horn 
(greloi),  or  one  of  the  numerous  forcing  strains  supplied  by  the 
leading  seedsmen.  For  cold  frames  and  protected  borders : 
French  Horn  (grelot],  Early  Nantes,  and  Dutch  Horn  (Belloi). 
For  early  unprotected  borders:  Dutch  Horn,  Guerande  or 
Sutton's  Early  Gem,  and  Veitch's  Model.  For  main-crops  on 
heavy  soil :  Chantenay,  Early  Market,  Sutton's  Favourite. 
On  medium  soil :  James's  Intermediate,  Daniels's  Telegraph, 
Sutton's  New  Scarlet.  For  deep  sandy  soils :  Improved  Altrin- 
cham,  Veitch's  Matchless,  Long  Surrey. 


180 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


CAULIFLOWER. 

Brassica  oleracea  botrytis  cauliflora. 

THE  Cauliflower  is  one  of  the  most  important  crops  grown 
in  the  market  garden.  It  is  a  vegetable  which  is  always 
appreciated  by  the  consumer,  and  a  good  sample  usually 
commands  a  ready  sale.  It  can  be  grown  successfully  on 
almost  any  class  of  soil  if  its  requirements  are  attended  to, 
and  although  these  are  simple  they  are  imperative.  They  con- 
sist of  abundant  food  supplies  and  sufficient  moisture,  with 
conditions  which  will  permit  growth  to  proceed  rapidly,  without 
any  check.  The  land  on  which  Cauliflowers  are  to  be  planted 
should  be  well  drained,  deeply  worked,  and  rich  with  manure, 
though  this  should  not  be  of  a  fresh  or  rank  nature,  and  the 
purpose  is  best  served  when  the  land  is  dressed  with  thoroughly 
decayed  manure  or  when  it  has  been  applied  fresh  to  a  pre- 
ceding crop. 

Sowing  Resolves  itself  into 
three  periods.  Two  are 
made  with  an  interval  of 
three  weeks  between,  from 
the  last  week  in  August  to  the 
first  week  in  October,  accor- 
ding to  the  locality  (the  more 
southerly  the  situation  the 
later  the  sowing) ;  these  are 
for  the  early  spring  supplies, 
partly  grown  under  protec- 
tion. The  next  sowings,  to 
raise  plants  for  the  summer 
crops,  are  made  on  a  mild 
hot-bed  in  February  and 
March.  The  third  are  made 

in  the  open  during  April  and  up  to  the  first  week  in  May,  for 
autumn  supplies. 

For  the  first  sowing  prepare  a  seed-bed  of  light  rich  material. 
Sow  the  seed  broadcast,  thinly,  cover  lightly  with  sifted  decayed 
manure,  press  down  with  the  firming  board,  and  water  well. 


Copyright,  S.  £  S. 

Button's  Magnum  Bonum 
Cauliflower. 


Cauliflower.  181 

Cover  the  bed  with  netting  to  keep  off  birds.  If  the  sun  shines 
very  strongly  give  shade  in  the  middle  of  the  day  until  the 
seedlings  are  up  well.  During  the  next  three  weeks  water 
lightly  at  frequent  intervals,  to  strengthen  growth  and  keep 
insect  pests  away.  The  next  sowing  should  be  made  on  a 
similar  bed  in  a  cold  frame. 

For  the  winter  quarters  of  the  plants  prepare  a  bed  in  a 
sheltered  position.  This  should  be  raised  from  Gin.  to  9in. 
above  the  general  level,  so  that  it  will  be  free  from  excessive 
damp.  Cover  it  with  2in.  of  coal  ashes,  beaten  down  firmly. 
Stand  shallow  frames  on  this,  and  put  inside  each  3m.  of  fine 
rich  soil,  which  should  be  moist,  so  that  no  watering  is  required. 
The  plants  should  be  pricked  out  here  as  soon  as  they  can  be 
handled,  about  three  weeks  after  sowing ;  set  them  3in.  apart, 
then  put  on  the  lights,  and  shade  lightly  for  a  few  days.  If  the 
soil  is  moist,  as  it  should  be,  no  watering  will  be  required,  and 
they  are  better  without,  but  if  it  is  rather  dry  the  plants  must 
be  watered  to  give  them  a  start.  In  a  few  days  the  roots  will 
begin  to  work,  then  raise  the  lights  at  each  corner  so  that  a 
current  of  air  can  blow  right  through.  The  plants  must  be 
grown  as  hardily  as  possible  all  through  the  winter,  the  frames 
being  kept  fully  ventilated  during  mild  weather.  Driving  rains 
must  be  excluded  by  keeping 
the  lights  down  on  the  wind- 
ward side.  In  times  of  frost 
the  lights  must  be  closed, 
and  when  it  is  severe  they 
should  be  covered  with  mats 
or  litter.  If  the  weather  is 
very  mild  and  they  are  grow- 
ing too  freely,  lift  and  trans- 
plant a  little  further  apart, 
to  give  them  more  room  and 
a  slight  check.  If  white  fly 
attacks  the  plants  dust  them 
over  with  soot  occasionally. 

The  first  batch  of  plants  is  used  to  set  out  early  in  March  in 
any  position  in  which  they  can  receive  protection  for  a  few 
weeks.  Special  efforts  should  be  directed  to  obtaining  good 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co. 

Early  Dwarf  Erfurt. 


182  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

supplies  of  these  early  heads,  as  the  prices  they  realise  are  an 
ample  recompense  for  any  extra  trouble  taken  over  them.  In 
the  French  garden  they  are  usually  set  out  four  to  a  light  in 
the  shallow  frames  standing  on  beds  of  warm  manure ;  here 
they  are  planted  amongst  carrots  immediately  after  cabbage 
lettuce  are  cleared  (see  page  96)  and  are  ready  for  cutting 
about  the  beginning  of  June.  They  are  also  set  out  on  a  similar 
warm  bed  amongst  the  cloches  (but  not  covered  by  them)  at 
the  end  of  March  or  early  in  April,  to  follow  the  earliest  cos 
lettuce  (see  page  99)  and  are  ready  for  cutting  towards  the  end 
of  June.  Much  earlier  supplies  can  be  had  by  planting  in 
February  on  a  bed  of  warm  manure  under  cloches.  In  this 
case  one  cauliflower  plant  is  set  in  the  centre  and  surrounded 
with  three  or  four  cabbage  lettuce  of  a  small  forcing  type. 
Very  early  supplies  may  also  be  had  by  planting  in  March  over 
a  trench  filled  with  warm  manure  and  employing  for  protec- 
tion one  of  the  devices  described  on  pages  134-5. 

The  plants  from  the  second  autumn  sowing  are  set  out  in 
sheltered  positions  in  the  open  as  soon  as  genial  weather  comes 
towards  the  end  of  March  or  beginning  of  April.  They  may  be 
set  about  2ft.  apart  each  way  amongst  cabbage  or  cos  lettuce 
which  will  be  cleared  before  they  seriously  interfere  with  the 
cauliflowers ;  or  they  may  be  planted  alone,  in  rows  2ft.  apart, 
18in.  between  the  plants  in  the  row;  or  they  may  be  set  Gin. 
further  apart  in  each  direction  amongst  a  crop  of  radishes,  and 
as  soon  as  the  radishes  are  cleared  they  are  intercropped  with 
a  row  of  lettuce  between  the  rows  of  Cauliflower  and  one 
set  alternately  between  the  plants  in  the  row. 

Summer  and  autumn  supplies  are  provided  for  by  the  plants 
raised  in  frames  in  February  and  March  and  those  raised  in 
the  open  in  April.  As  stronger  growing  sorts  are  employed 
for  summer  than  for  spring,  and  still  stronger  for  autumn,  they 
must  be  planted  at  proportionately  greater  distances  apart, 
2ft.  by  2ft.  6in.  in  the  former  case  and  2ft.  Gin.  by  3ft.  in  the 
latter  being  none  too  much.  Both  plantings  may  be  inter- 
cropped with  advantage,  the  ground  to  be  occupied  by  summer 
Cauliflowers  being  previously  sown  with  rows  of  summer 
spinach  at  suitable  distances  apart,  which  becomes  exhausted 
by  continual  picking  before  the  Cauliflowers  need  all  the  space, 


Cauliflower.  1 83 

and  the  autumn  plantation  may  be  intercropped  with  French 
beans,  lettuces,  late  celery,  &c. 

Copious  supplies  of  moisture  during  the  growing  period  is  an 
essential  part  of  the  successful  cultivation  of  Cauliflowers. 
If  the  weather  is  dry  planting  must  be  accompanied  by  a  good 
watering-in.  Where  the  area  devoted  to  the  crop  is  only  of 
moderate  extent  further  supplies  of  water,  accompanied  by 
surface  mulches,  present  no  serious  difficulties,  but  the  mois- 
ture for  crops  on  a  more  extensive  scale  usually  depends  upon 
the  natural  rainfall,  and  unless  evaporation  of  soil  moisture  is 
prevented  by  keeping  the  surface  soil  in  the  condition  of  a 
mulch  by  frequent  stirrings  with  the  hoe,  summer  crops  may 
prove  unsatisfactory. 

When  a  head  shows,  a  large  leaf  should  be  broken  over  it  to 
keep  it  clean  and  white.  At  this  time  the  plants  should  be 
examined  frequently  and  cut  as  soon  as  ready,  as  if  over- 
looked for  a  day  or  two  they  may  be  quite  spoiled  through 
getting  too  open,  especially  if  the  weather  is  warm.  Cutting 
should  always  be  done  in  the  early  morning,  as  soon  after  day- 
break as  possible,  whilst  the  dew  is  upon  the  plants,  and  they 
should  be  taken  under  cover  at  once.  If  cut  under  a  hot  sun, 
after  the  dew  has  evaporated,  the  quality  will  be  deteriorated. 

Manures : — It  is  useless  attempting  to  grow  Cauliflowers  on 
poor  land  ;  it  should  be  rich  with  manure,  preferably  by  a  heavy 
dressing  given  to  a  preceding  crop.  When  applied  specially 
for  Cauliflowers  it  should  be  well-rotted,  20  loads  to  the  acre 
on  good  land  and  double  that  quantity  on  poor  land  being  none 
too  much,  supplemented  by  3  cwt.  superphosphate  and  1  cwt. 
sulphate  of  potash,  applied  previous  to  planting.  If  the  land  is 
properly  prepared,  nitrogenous  fertilizers  will  not  be  required, 
but  if  for  any  reason  growth  is  too  slow  give  i  cwt.  nitrate  of 
of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia  to  the  acre,  applied  in  a  ring 
around  the  foot  of  each  plant. 

Varieties  : — For  the  earliest  supplies :  Early  London,  Snow- 
ball, Magnum  Bonum,  Salomon.  For  early  summer:  Sutton's 
Purity,  Carter's  Mont  Blanc,  Webb's  Peerless,  Lenormand's, 
Early  Dwarf  Erfurt.  For  late  summer  and  autumn :  Early 
Emperor,  Walcheron,  Kinver  Monarch,  Eclipse,  Autumn  Giant, 
Autumn  Mammoth. 


184 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


CELERY. 

Apium  graveolens. 

/CELERY  may  be  classed  amongst  the  more  important  and 
V><  profit-making  crops  of  the  garden,  and  should  never  be 
omitted  by  the  grower  who  undertakes  to  supply  direct. 
When  well  grown  and  properly  blanched  it  is  a  favourite  with 
almost  everyone,  and  if  offered  in  this  condition  the  supply  is 
seldom,  if  ever,  in  excess  of  the  demand.  It  has  the  further 
advantages  of  being  one  of  the  very  few  products  which  are  free 
from  foreign  competition  ;  of  the  main-crop  selling  in  the  winter 
and  thus  producing  a  welcome  addition  to  the  income  when  most 
other  things  are  over ;  and  of  leaving  the  ground  in  first-rate 
condition  for  any  crop  which  follows. 

The  best  main-crop  Celery  is 
grown  on  soil  which  is  deep  and 
rich,  rather  heavy  and  moist,  but 
well  drained,  for  although  Celery 
is  a  moisture-loving  plant — being 
in  fact  a  semi-aquatic — it  will  not 
thrive  in  a  water-logged  soil.  By 
the  methods  followed  in  the  French 
garden,  as  will  be  described  later, 
excellent  and  very  profitable  early 
crops  are  taken  from  beds  consist- 
ing almost  entirely  of  thoroughly 
decayed  manure,  and  in  this  case 
the  character  of  the  soil  is  not 
taken  into  consideration,  the  only 
other  thing  needful  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a  good  sample — in 
addition  to  proper  care  in  culti- 
vation— being  copious  supplies  of 
water. 

For  the  earliest  crop,  to  be  lifted  in  August,  sow  late  in  Feb- 
ruary, very  thinly,  on  a  mild  hot-bed,  an  early  variety  of  dwarf 
Celery.  Cover  the  seed  lightly  with  compost,  press  down  with 
the  firming  board,  and  water  well.  Shut  up  close  and  cover  at 


Copyright.  V.A.&  Co. 

Golden  Yellow 
Large  Solid  Celery. 


Celery.  185 

night  with  mats.  As  soon  as  the  seedlings  show  give  a  little 
air  if  the  weather  is  mild,  at  first  very  cautiously,  but  more 
freely  as  the  weather  gefs  warmer.  Keep  the  bed  moist.  By 
the  middle  of  April  the  lights  may  be  taken  off  the  frame  on 
mild  days,  but  must  be  replaced  each  night.  When  the  plants 
are  about  2in.  high  they  must  be  pricked  out,  Sin.  apart,  in  a 
cold  frame,  either  on  a  bed  of  old  decayed  manure  or  on  one 
of  light  rich  compost.  Water  well ;  keep  close  and  shaded  for 
a  few  days  to  induce  root  action,  then  grow  as  much  as  possible 
in  the  open-air,  but  cover  with  lights  each  night  for  fear  of 
frost.  Keep  the  bed  uniformly  moist. 

For  the  main-crop  make  another  sowing,  of  white  and  pink 
varieties,  on  a  similar  hot-bed,  in  the  middle  of  March.  When 
these  seedlings  are  ready  to  prick  out,  if  the  number  is  not 
very  large,  cold  frames  are  used  as  before,  but  where  the 
quantity  is  considerable  a  piece  of  ground  in  a  sheltered 
position  is  trodden  down  firmly  and  then  covered  with  Gin.  of 
well-decayed  manure,  which  is  also  trodden  down,  and  then 
covered  with  2in.  of  fine  compost.  Here  the  seedlings  are 
pricked  out  in  rows  Gin.  apart  and  3in.  apart  in  the  rows,  and 
watered  in  well.  The  most  forward  should  be  selected  and 
pricked  out  first,  then  the  next  strongest,  leaving  the  smallest 
to  get  a  little  stronger,  and  so  securing  three  successive  batches, 
each  of  equal  size.  Some  form  of  protection,  such  as  old  lights 
or  mats,  should  be  provided,  so  that  the  earliest  batches  can  be 
covered  each  night  for  a  week  or  two. 

For  the  latest  crop  sow  on  a  sheltered  border  in  the  open,  in 
the  second  week  of  April.  The  soil  should  be  rich  and  light 
and  made  firm  by  treading  or  rolling.  ,Give  protection  during 
cold  weather.  From  this  bed  also,  three  selections  for  pricking 
out  should  be  made,  on  a  bed  prepared  in  a  similar  manner  to 
the  preceding,  the  last  being  in  an  exposed  position,  so  as  to 
ensure  a  prolonged  supply  in  regular  succession.  The  seedlings 
must  always  receive  abundance  of  water,  so  as  to  keep  them 
growing  steadily,  a  check  at  any  period  of  their  growth,  either 
in  the  plant  bed  or  in  their  permanent  quarters,  being  very 
detrimental,  and  causing  them  to  run  to  seed  or  the  stems  to 
grow  hollow. 

When  the  time  for  planting  out  has  arrived  a  sharp  spade 


186  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

is  run  between  the  rows  of  plants  and  then  a  good  soaking  with 
water  is  given.  After  about  two  days  the  plants  in  the  cold 
frames  are  carefully  lifted  with  a  trowel,  or  if  on  beds  a  spade 
is  pushed  under  the  plants,  which  are  then  carefully  separated 
so  as  preserve  the  roots,  and  are  taken  in  baskets,  boxes,  or  on 
hand-barrows  to  the  planting  ground.  If  the  plants  are  well 
advanced  in  growth,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  cut  off  part  of  the 
larger  leaves ;  they  will  then  feel  the  shock  of  removal  much 
less  than  when  the  leaves  are  left  entire. 

The  manner  of  planting  out  the  Celery  calls  for  serious  con- 
sideration. There  are  two  entirely  different  methods,  either  of 
which  will  give  satisfactory  results  if  properly  carried  out. 
The  customary  way  is  to  grow  the  plants  in  trenches  containing 
one  or  more  rows,  single  rows  being  the  most  usual  in  market 
garden  work.  The  space  from  centre  to  centre  of  single  row 
trenches  varies  from  3ft.  to  4ft.,  and  the  space  between  the 
plants  from  Sin.  to  1ft.,  according  to  the  variety  grown,  the 
closer  planting  being  for  dwarf  early  varieties  and  the  wider 
for  main-crops. 

In  the  other  method  the  planting  is  done  on  the  flat,  in  broad 
beds,  the  plants  being  set  at  distances  apart  varying  from 
lOin.  to  14in.  in  each  direction.  It  is  obvious  that  the  number 
which  can  be  grown  on  a  given  area  is  enormously  increased 
by  this  method,  and  that  the  labour  involved  is  much  less  than 
when  a  similar  number  is  grown  in  trenches,  though  the  quality, 
even  under  the  best  culture,  is  not  so  high  as  when  the  "sticks" 
are  well  blanched  by  earthing-up.  With  proper  care,  however, 
they  are  good  and  meet  with  a  ready  sale,  the  early  crops 
realising  very  good  prices,  and  it  would  therefore  appear  to  be 
only  a  question  of  time  for  the  broad  bed  system  to  largely 
displace  planting  in  trenches,  at  least  for  the  earliest  supplies. 
A  description  of  the  more  customary  methods  of  growing  will, 
however,  be  given  first. 

Preparation  of  Trenches. — The  ground  intended  for  Celery 
should  be  in  an  open  position,  with  a  good  supply  of  water 
available,  abundant  moisture  being  indispensable  to  its  produc- 
tion. The  soil  should  be  deeply  worked  and  heavily-  manured. 
If  it  is  of  a  kindly  free-working  nature  this  operation  may  be 
arranged  so  that  a  spring  crop  of  onions,  collards,  cabbage, 


Celery.  187 

cauliflowers,  lettuce,  peas,  or  early  potatoes  is  taken  off  first, 
so  making  Celery  the  second  crop.  Heavy  soils  should,  when 
possible,  be  prepared  in  autumn,  by  being  manured  and  bastard 
trenched,  the  surface  being  thrown  up  in  ridges  so  that  the 
weather  may  bring  it  into  good  friable  condition.  As  soon  as 
the  soil  is  dry  in  the  spring  it  is  levelled  and  harrowed,  and 
trenches  are  thrown  out  a  spit  deep,  1ft.  wide  for  single  rows, 
18in.  for  double  rows,  and  3ft.  for  four  rows,  with  the  spaces 
between  the  trenches  correspondingly  increased,  according  to 
the  quantity  of  soil  needed  for  earthing-up,  and  the  kind  and 
extent  of  the  intercropping  in  the  alleys  (if  any)  which  is  to  be 
done.  Well-rotted  manure  is  laid  in  the  trenches  Gin.  deep, 
trodden  in  firmly,  and  covered  with  soil  almost  to  ground  level. 
Market  gardeners  never  plant  Celery  in  deep  trenches,  particu- 
larly the  late  crops ;  the  position  of  the  roots  is  so  arranged 
that  when  the  crop  is  earthed  up  they  are  above  the  bottom 
of  the  furrows  between  the  ridges  (see  diagram,  page  189). 
When  the  position  of  the  roots  is  below  this  level,  late  crops 
are  very  precarious,  particularly  in  a  wet  season,  or  on  badly- 
drained  land. 

Planting  Out. — This  operation  should  be  performed  in  dull 
or  showery  weather  when  possible,  from  the  middle  of  May 
for  the  earliest  crops  to  the  middle  of  July  for  the  latest. 
In  single  rows  plant  from  Gin.  to  1ft.  apart,  according  to  the 
size  and  vigour  of  the  variety  grown.  Where  there  are  two 
or  more  rows  in  the  same  trench  they  are  put  from  Gin.  to  9in. 
apart,  with  lOin.  to  1ft.  between  the  plants  in  each  row,  those 
in  one  row  standing  between  those  in  the  next,  thus — .  *.*.'. 
Each  plant  is  set  carefully  with  a  ball  of  soil,  watered  in  as 
planted,  and  the  soil  round  the  roots  well  "  firmed."  If  the 
weather  is  hot  and  dry  shade  must  be  given  for  a  few  days, 
and  water  given  generously  at  least  once  in  three  days,  but 
if  it  is  dull,  watering  once  a  week  will  be  sufficient.  The 
strongest  plants  should  be  selected  and  planted  by  themselves, 
as  also  should  the  weaker  ones.  In  this  way  uniformity  in  the 
size  of  the  "  sticks "  is  secured,  and  a  whole  row  of  plants 
becomes  marketable  at  one  time. 

As  soon  as  planting  out  is  finished,  the  soil  between  the 
trenches  is  levelled  and  planted  with  cauliflower,  French  beans, 


188  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

lettuce,  or  some  similar  crop  which  will  be  cleared  off  the 
ground  before  the  soil  is  wanted  for  "  earthing-up." 

General  Treatment. — The  summer  culture  consists  in  keeping 
the  ground  free  from  weeds  by  frequent  hoeings,  and  copious 
waterings  are  given,  twice  a  week  if  the  weather  is  very  dry, 
or  once  if  it  is  dull.  Suckers  are  removed  as  they  appear. 
A  sharp  look-out  should  be  kept  for  evidences  of  the  celery  fly. 
On  the  first  appearance  of  the  maggot,  the  affected  portions 
of  the  leaves  should  be  picked  off  and  burnt,  and  the  plants 
lightly  dusted  over  with  soot  whilst  they  are  wet  with  dew. 
Dusting  with  soot  occasionally  acts  to  some  extent  as  a  preven- 
tative,  by  making  the  plant  distasteful  to  the  fly,  but  care  must 
be  used  not  to  put  it  on  too  thickly  or  it  may  do  more  harm 
than  good.  Other  remedial  measures  are  suggested  in  the 
section  dealing  with  Pests. 

Earthing  up. — The  first  operation  in  the  direction  of  earthing 
up  should  take  place  when  the  plants  are  growing  freely  and 
are  about  1ft.  high.  On  a  fine  dry  day  remove  all  suckers  and 
small  leaves,  then  chop  up  the  earth  at  the  sides  of  the  trench 
and  after  it  has  dried  for  an  hour  or  two,  working  from  the 
opposite  side,  draw  it  gently  with  a  broad  hoe  towards  the 

bottom  of  the  plant,  but 
leave  a  space  for  watering. 
The  next  operation  takes 
place  a  fortnight  after- 
wards. When  the  spaces 
between  the  rows  are 
cleared  of  plants,  a  horse- 
Celery  after  the  Second  Earthing.  hoe  is  run  up  and  down 
several  times  in  the  early  part  of  the  day,  or  the  soil  is  well  and 
deeply  hoed  by  hand,  so  as  to  get  it  fine  and  friable.  After 
lying  for  a  few  hours  to  get  dried  it  is  drawn  to  each  side  of 
the  rows,  half-way  up  the  stems,  with  a  broad  hoe,  and  pressed 
well  round  the  plants ;  or  a  mould-board  plough  may  be  used 
to  do  the  work.  The  next  earthing  is  the  final  one,  and  takes 
place  when  the  plants  are  fully  grown,  about  a  fortnight  after 
the  second.  On  this  occasion  the  whole  of  the  stems  are 
covered,  the  soil  being  brought  close  up  under  the  top  leaves, 
and  the  ridges  being  made  firm  and  smooth,  in  such  a  way  as  to 


Celery.  189 

effectually  throw  off  rain.  Each  time  earthing-up  is  done  the 
plants  should  be  dry  and  the  soil  dry  and  crumbly — if  done 
when  plants  or  soil  are  wet  decay  is  almost  sure  to  set  in. 


Celery  finally  Eartned-up. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  allow  the  soil  to  get  into  the 
heart  of  the  plants.  For  this  reason  earthing  is  generally  done 
by  two  persons,  one  to  hold  the  tops  together  and  the  other  to 
put  on  the  soil ;  or  better  still,  when  there  is  a  large  breadth 
to  do,  two  can  put  on  the 
soil — one  at  each  side  of 
the  row — whilst  a  third 
holds  the  tops.  The  work 
can,  however,  be  done  by 
one  person  if  the  stems  are 
previously  drawn  closely 
together  and  tied.  Ameri- 
can growers  have  a  simple 
and  expeditious  method  of  tying  Celery.  A  tin  containing  a  ball 
of  twine  is  attached  to  a  piece  of  wood,  by  which  it  is  strapped 
to  the  wrist.  At  the  bottom  of  the  tin  is  a  hole  for  the  twine 
to  pass  through.  The  twine  is  fastened  to  the  first  plant,  or  to 
a  peg  pushed  into  the  ground,  then  passed  rapidly  round  each 
plant  without  tying  until  the  end  of  the  row  is  reached. 

The  Broad  Bed  System. — This  system  has  been  carried  out 
for  a  long  time  in  England  in  some  few  places,  particularly  for 
late  crops,  but  is  the  only'  method  practised  in  the  French 
garden  for  all  plantings,  whether  late  or  early.  The  main 


American  Method  of  Tying  Celery. 


190  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

difference  between  the  two  methods  consists  in  the  means 
adopted  for  blanching.  In  English  gardens  this  is  done  by  the 
usual  means  of  covering  the  stems  with  earth,  whereas  in 
French  gardens  this  end  is  attained  by  other  means,  covering 
with  earth  being  considered  unnecessary. 

The  English  method  is  to  make  the  beds  from  4ft.  to  10ft. 
wide  and  any  convenient  length,  with  spaces  between  each  bed 
varying  from  2ft.  to  4ft.  wide.  Soil  to  the  depth  of  Gin.  is  taken 
from  the  beds  and  laid  in  these  spaces  or  alleys,  and  the  beds 
are  then  covered  thickly  with  manure,  which  is  dug  in.  The 
banks  of  soil  in  the  alleys  are  levelled  and  planted  with  quick- 
growing  crops.  The  Celery  is  set  in  rows  across  the  bed,  from 
6in.  to  lOin.  apart,  and  from  12in.  to  15in.  between  the  rows, 
according  to  the  variety.  The  plants  stand  so  closely  together 


Celery  Planted  in  Broad  Beds. 

that  they  grow  upright  with  partially  blanched  stems.  The 
beds  need  hoeing  two  or  three  times  whilst  the  plants  are 
young,  but  as  soon  as  the  leaves  of  two  rows  touch,  hoeing 
ceases.  In  this  system,  where  the  ground  is  covered  with  a 
dense  mass  of  plants  and  foliage,  it  is  absolutely  essential  to 
success  that  the  ground  is  made  very  rich  with  plant  foods, 
either  in  the  form  of  large  quantities  of  manure,  or  a  moderate 
quantity  supplemented  by  suitable  fertilizers,  and  that  they 
have  in  addition,  copious  supplies  of  water.  Unless  these  two 
conditions  are  properly  carried  out  it  is  useless  to  attempt  to 
grow  Celery  on  this  system. 

Earthing-up  offers  difficulties,  but  these  can  be  overcome 
in  the  following  manner:  Get  two  boards,  each  lOin.  wide  and 
as  long  as  the  bed  is  wide,  with  pieces  projecting  from  the 
upper  part  of  each  end  for  handles  to  lift  them  by.  These  are 
set  up  on  edge  between  two  rows  of  plants,  one  on  each  side, 
pegs  being  pushed  in  at  each  end  to  hold  them  in  position. 
The  space  between  the  boards  is  then  filled  up  with  soil  thrown 


Celery. 


191 


in  from  the  alleys.  Two  men  are  required  to  do  this  work 
properly,  one  at  each  end.  When  the  space  is  full,  each  man 
takes  the  boards  by  the  handles,  and  by  pressing  them  upon 
the  soil  they  are  easily  lifted  out  and  placed  between  the  next 


Cross-section  showing  Method  of  Earthing-up  Celery 
on  Broad  Beds. 

two  rows.  After  soil  has  been  thus  placed  between  all  the 
rows,  it  is  brought  close  up  to  and  between  the  plants  by  hand, 
more  soil  being  added  as  necessary.  The  plants  standing 
together  so  compactly  makes  it  convenient  to  give  protection 
from  heavy  rains  or  severe  frost,  whilst  the  alleys,  being  now 
lower  than  the  roots  of  the  plants,  drain  off  all  surplus  moisture 
and  thus  help  to  prevent  decay. 

In  the  French  garden  the  Celery  is  planted  on  beds  of  rich 
mould  composed  largely,  and  sometimes  entirely,  of  thoroughly 
decayed  manure;  in  fact,  the  earliest  crop,  generally  of  the 
variety  known  as  Paris  Golden,  is  planted  on  the  hot-beds 
(now  cold)  which  are  the  first  to  be*cleared  of  early  salad  crops. 
This  is  usually  about  the  first  or  second  week  of  June,  which 
would  be  considered  late  in  an  English  garden,  but  under  the 
forcing  influence  of  extremely  rich  soil  and  frequent  heavy 
waterings,  this  quickly  maturing  variety  becomes  ready  for 
use  by  the  middle  of  August;  it  is  planted  lOin.  apart  in  each 
direction/""  Second  and  third  plantings  of  suitable  varieties  are 
made  from  the  end  of  June  to  the  middle  of  August;  for  these 
the  distances  apart  are  generally  about  1ft.,  though  sometimes 
they  are  planted  at  15in.  apart,  with  endive  or  other  salad 


192  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

plant  set  alternately  with  the  Celery  in  both  directions.  The 
beds  are  made  about  10ft.  wide,  but  in  this  case,  as  blanching 
is  effected  without  earthing-up,  no  alleys  for  soil  are  left 
between  the  beds,  a  space  or  path  about  18in.  wide,  from  which 
water  is  given  with  a  hose-pipe,  being  all  that  is  necessary. 
It  is  worth  while  again  emphasising  that  no  trouble  must  be 
spared  in  keeping  the  plants  well  supplied  with  moisture,  and 
unless  this  is  done  it  would  be  much  better  to  leave  this  method 
of  culture  severely  alone. 

Blanching  is  done  by  resting  mats  on  the  tops  of  the  plants 
as  they  stand  in  the  bed,  bringing  the  mats  down  to  the  earth 
all  round  the  sides,  and  so  covering  them  up  closely.  A  repro- 
duction from  a  photograph  showing  a  bed  of  Celery  being 
blanched  in  this  way  is  shown  on  the  opposite  page,  and  will 
assist  to  make  the  matter  clear ;  on  the  left  of  the  picture  may 
be  seen  a  bed  of  plants  ready  for  covering,  and  on  the  right  a 
bed  which  has  just  been  cleared.  This  photograph  was  taken 
about  the  middle  of  August.  In  the  summer,  when  growth  is 
rapid,  the  Celery  is  fit  for  use  in  about  two  weeks  after  covering, 
but  as  the  season  advances,  and  growth  becomes  slower,  it  is 
necessary  for  the  mats  to  remain  on  longer. 

In  the  case  of  the  latest  crop,  which  does  not  complete  its 
growth  until  well  into  November,  blanching  by  covering  with 
mats  is  not  suitable,  because  the  length  of  time  necessary  to 
complete  the  operation  and  the  excess  of  damp  which  collects 
and  is  held  by  the  mats  induces  decay ;  blanching  is  therefore 
accomplished  in  the  following  manner: — Frames  of  sufficient 
depth  to  accommodate  the  Celery  standing  upright  are  knocked 
together,  or  two  ordinary  box  frames  are  placed  one  above 

the  other.  A  few 
inches  of  moist  soil 
is  put  at  the  bottom. 
In  the  middle  of  No- 
vember the  Celery  is 
lifted,  with  the  roots 

intact,  and  packed  as 
Celery  Stored  in  Frame.  •        •,, 

closely  as  it  will  stand 

in  the  frame.  The  soil  is  worked  amongst  the  roots,  row  by 
row,  but  none  is  allowed  to  get  between  the  stalks. 


Celery. 


193 


S 


13 


194  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

The  lights  are  put  on,  but  are  raised  at  each  corner  to  allow 
a  current  of  air  to  pass  through  and  so  keep  damp  away. 
The  sides  and  ends  of  the  frame  are  banked  up  with  earth  and 
the  lights  are  covered  with  mats.  The  Celery  will  be  ready  for 
use  about  the  end  of  December.  Great  care  must  be  taken 
that  the  Celery  is  not  bruised,  and  that  no  decayed  or  diseased 
plants  are  stored  away. 

Another  way  of  storing  Celery  for  winter,  and  one  which 
seems  worthy  of  attention,  is  described  in  the  following  extract 
from  Peter  Henderson's  "  Gardening  for  Profit,"  an  American 
publication.  After  describing  how  the  Celery  is  grown  1ft. 
apart  in  each  direction,  without  earthing-up,  he  goes  on  to  say : 

"  When  a  few  hundred  roots  only  are  to  be  stored  it  can  be  placed  in 
narrow  boxes,  say  nine  inches  wide,  four  or  six  feet  in  length,  and  of  a 
depth  a  little  less  than  the  height  of  the  Celery.  A  few  inches  of  sand  or 
soil  is  placed  on  the  bottom  of  the  box,  but  none  must  be  put  between  the 
stalks  of  the  Celery,  and  the  Celery  is  packed  in  the  box  upright,  the  roots 
being  placed  on  the  sand  at  the  bottom  ;  the  Celery  must  be  packed  in  as 
tight  as  possible,  but  without  bruising.  Boxes  thus  packed  and  stood  on 
the  cool  floor  of  the  cellar,  if  put  away  in  November,  will  be  "  blanched  " 
fit  for  use  during  January,  February,  and  March.  If  put  in  sooner  than 
November  it  will  blanch  earlier,  and  if  stored  later  it  will  keep  later.  If 
larger  quantities  are  to  be  kept  in  the  cellar,  the  cheapest  practicable  way 
to  do  so  is  to  begin  at  one  side  next  the  wall,  furthest  from  the  entrance, 
and  erect  boards  across  the  cellar,  nine  inches  from  the  wall,  and  of  a  height 
a  little  less  than  the  length  of  the  Celery — that  is,  if  the  Celery  is  twenty- 
four  inches  in  length,  the  boarding  may  be  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  high. 
In  this  narrow  division  the  Celery  is  packed  in  upright,  as  above  described 
for  packing  in  boxes.  As  soon  as  the  first  tier  is  filled,  erect  another  board 
trench  or  division  at  nine  inches  distant  from  the  first,  and  so  on  until  the 
whole  space  to  be  used  is  filled  up.  It  will  be  understood  that  no  soil  or 
sand  is  packed  between  the  stalks  of  Celery,  only  two  or  three  inches  being 
strewn  on  the  floor,  on  which  the  roots  are  placed.  Simultaneously  with 
the  formation  of  the  white  rootlets  the  blanching  process  begins,  which  is 
simply  the  plant  making  an  effort  to  grow  in  the  dark,  and  thus  becoming 
blanched  or  whitened.  We  have  sometimes  complaints  that  Celery  fails  to 
blanch  or  whiten.  In  all  such  cases  the  roots  must  have  been  injured  by 
being  frozen  or  dried  too  much  while  being  lifted  from  the  field,  but  this 
should  never  happen  with  ordinary  care.  A  cellar  or  root-house  twenty  by 
twenty  feet,  so  packed,  will  hold  from  3,000  to  5,000  roots  of  Celery,  accord- 
ing to  their  size.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  get  the  board  partitions 
forming  the  trenches,  or  divisions  between  the  tiers  of  Celery,  more  than 
nine  or  ten  inches  apart,  for  if  at  much  greater  distance  the  stems  and 
leaves  would  be  in  too  large  masses  and  would  generate  heat  and  rot. 


Celery.  195 

As  the  cellar  or  root-house  is  usually  a  damp  and  dark  apartment,  there 
will  generally  be  no  necessity  to  water  the  Celery  after  it  is  packed.  Every 
means  of  ventilation  should  be  used,  even  in  cold  weather,  for  it  must 
always  be  borne  in  mind  that  Celery  is  a  vegetable  that  will  stand  quite  a 
sharp  frost  without  injury,  so  if  the  temperature  of  the  cellar  falls  five  or 
six  degrees  below  the  freezing  point  no  injury  will  be  done." 

Marketing. —  Celery 
is  sent  to  market  in 
bundles  containing  from 
eight  to  twelve  "  sticks" 
or  heads,  according  to 
size.  They  should  be 
graded  into  two  qualities 
so  that  the  heads  in  each 
bundle  are  of  even  value 
and  then  realise  better 
prices.  Before  the  bun- 
dles are  made  up,  loose 
rough  leaves  should  be 
removed,  the  roots  trim- 
med off,  and  the  stems 
washed.  Sometimes 
Celery  is  sent  to  market  in  a  rough  unwashed  condition,  but 
it  is  a  great  mistake  to  do  this,  as  it  is  sure  to  result  in  poor 
prices. 

Manures: — If  the  ground  is  properly  prepared,  with  the 
dressings  of  well-decayed  manure  already  advocated,  very 
little  more  will  be  required  to  secure  good  "sticks"  beyond 
due  attention  to  watering.  When  extra  large  samples  are 
required  liquid  manure  may  be  given  alternately  with  clear 
water,  or  the  following  fertilizers  may  be  dissolved  in  each 
gallon  of  water  and  used  twice  during  early  growth,  with  a 
fortnight's  interval : — Superphosphate  loz.,  nitrate  of  soda  ioz., 
sulphate  of  potash  Joz. 

Varieties: — For  the  earliest  crop,  Paris  Golden  (Chemin), 
Sandringham  White,  Sutton's  White  Gem,  Clarke's  Extra 
Early  Market  White.  For  main-crop :  Solid  White,  Wright's 
Giant  White,  Bibby's  Defiance  White,  Cole's  Crystal  White, 
Standard  Bearer  Red,  Covent  Garden  Red,  Major  Clarke's 
Red,  Manchester  Solid  Red. 


Market  Bundle  of  Celery. 


196 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


CELERIAC,  or  Turnip-rooted  Celery. 

/CELERIAC  is  a  very  similar  plant  to  celery,  the  principal 
\Ji  difference  between  them  being  that  in  this  case  the  root 
is  developed  into  a  mass  resembling  a  turnip,  and  is  the  part 
used  as  a  vegetable,  whilst  the  stems  are  rejected.  As  Celeriac 

is  grown  on  the  flat,  and 
does  not  need  blanching, 
it  is  much  easier  to  grow 
.than  celery,  though  as  the 
demand  for  it  is  limited 
the  space  devoted  to  it 
should  be  very  moderate. 
Well-manured  ground,  an 
abundance  of  water,  and 
a  long  season  of  growth 
are  the  requisites  for  the 
production  of  fine  roots. 
Seed  is  sown  in  a  gentle 
heat  about  the  middle  of 
March  and  the  seedlings 
are  treated  in  the  same 
manner  as  celery.  As  soon 
as  suitable  ground  is  at 
liberty  after  the  beginning 
of  June  it  is  planted  out,  12in.  by  12in.,  or  12in.  by  15in.  apart 
when  standing  alone,  or  it  may  be  set  at  a  greater  distance 
from  row  to  row  with  a  catch  crop  between.  Sometimes  it 
is  set  18in.  apart  each  way  with  summer  endive  set  between. 
The  plants  must  be  carefully  trimmed  before  planting,  all 
lateral  shoots  being  removed ;  they  must  be  set  as  shallow  as 
possible  and  watered  in  well.  During  the  summer  never  allow 
them  to  stand  still  for  want  of  water  and  keep  the  ground 
clean  by  frequent  hoeing.  All  old  sprawling  leaves  and  lateral 
shoots  must  be  removed  once  or  twice  during  growth. 

The  largest  roots  will  be  ready  for  use  from  the  middle  of 
September  onward.  Early  in  October  the  crop  may  be  lifted 
and  trimmed  of  the  thongs  and  outer  leaves,  then  stored  in 
sand  or  earth  in  a  dry  cool  shed  or  cellar. 


Copyright,  V.  A.  £  Co. 

Celeriac,  or  Turnip-rooted  Celery. 


Chicory. 


197 


CHICORY. 

Chichorium  Intybus. 

WHEN  forced  and  blanched,  Chicory  makes  a  very  whole- 
some and  acceptable  salad  for  the  winter  and  early 
spring  months,  and  as  it  is  easy  to  grow  and  appears  to  be 
increasing  in  favour  with  the  general  public,  attention  should 
be  paid  to  its  cultivation. 

As  good  strong  roots  should  be  available  for 
forcing,  the  soil  for  this  crop  should  be  well 
manured,  deeply  dug,  and  moist,  so  that  a  free 
growth  may  be  obtained.  Seed  should  be  sown 
in  the  latter  part  of  May  or  early  in  June,  in 
rows  1ft.  apart,  and  the  plants  thinned  out  to 
9in.  apart  in  the  row.  The  only  attention 
needed  during  growth  is  hoeing  and,  if  the 
season  is  exceptionally  dry,  occasional  watering, 
though  Chicory,  being  deep-rooted,  is  better 
able  to  thrive  in  a  drought  than  most  plants. 

When  the  leaves  have  died  down,  about  the 
beginning  of  November,  the  roots  can  be  lifted. 
They  should  then  be  about  2in.  through  at  the 
top.  Trim  off  any  leaves  remaining  to  within 
iin.  of  the  top,  and  rub  off  all  small  shoots, 
leaving  only  the  main  crown.  Cut  all  the  roots 
at  the  bottom  to  bring  them  to  one  uniform 
length  of  from  Sin.  to  lOin.  They  can  then  be  stored  away 
until  wanted  for  forcing,  in  fine  moist  soil  or  sand,  and  as  a 
very  little  increase  of  temperature  is  sufficient  to  excite  growth, 
they  should  be  put  in  a  position  which  although  safe  from  hard 
frost  is  still  cold,  such  as  the  foot  of  a  wall  or  in  an  open  shed, 
or  in  a  trench  in  the  open  covered  with  Gin.  of  ordinary  soil. 

Forcing  can  be  carried  on  from  the  time  the  roots  are  lifted, 
and  with  good  management  an  unbroken  supply  can  be  main- 
tained from  November  to  May.  The  operation  may  be  done 
in  numerous  ways,  according  to  the  quantity  to  be  handled, 
always  remembering  that  whatever  method  is  adopted,  absolute 
darkness  is  essential.  One  method  is  to  plant  them  in  a  box 


Chicory 
(Whitloef). 


198  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

about  1ft.  deep,  in  moist  sandy  soil,  Sin.  apart  each  way,  leaving 
the  tops  standing  lin.  above  the  surface.  After  a  gentle  water- 
ing, another  box,  about  lOin.  deep,  is  inverted  on  top  of  this, 
and  it  is  then  placed  in  a  cellar  or  mushroom  house,  or  in  any 
dark  position  where  a  temperature  of  about  45  degrees  may 
be  relied  upon.  Or,  if  a  larger  quantity  has  to  be  forced,  a 
trough  can  be  made  with  two  boards  stood  on  edge,  2ft.  deep, 
and  any  convenient  length  and  width.  This  should  be  divided 
by  boards  into  four  sections.  One  section  is  half  filled  with 
moist  light  -soil  or  leaf-mould,  and  the  roots  are  set  in  this 
with  the  tops  about  lOin.  below  the  top  of  the  boards.  The 
roots  are  then  watered  and  the  section  filled  to  the  top  with 
similar  soil.  A  fresh  section  can  be  filled  each  week.  If  a 
moderate  and  even  temperature  is  maintained  the  heads  will 
be  ready  for  cutting  in  four  weeks,  and  as  one  section  is  cleared 
it  can  be  filled  again,  and  so  a  constant  supply  be  kept  up. 

Forcing  may  be  done  in  the  open-air  as  follows  : — If  the  soil 
is  well-drained,  make  a  trench  16in.  deep  and  2ft.  wide.  Partly 
fill  this  with  light  fine  dryish  soil.  Set  roots  in  this  at  Sin. 
apart  both  ways,  with  the  tops  Sin.  below  ground  level.  Fill 
up  over  the  roots  to  ground  level  with  similar  light  soil,  then 
build  over  the  trench  a  hot-bed,  4ft.  wide,  2ft.  deep,  and  as  long 
as  will  cover  a  week's  supply  of  heads.  Each  succeeding  week 
cover  a  further  length  of  the  trench,  joining  up  to  the  preceding 
hot-bed.  Each  lot  will  be  ready  about  a  month  after  covering. 
On  heavy  soil  it  is  better  to  set  the  roots  within  boards,  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  as  a  sunk  trench  may  become  water- 
logged during  heavy  rains  if  the  drainage  is  slow,  in  which 
case  the  heads  would  be  liable  to  decay 

When  ready,  cut  off  the  blanched  heads,  with  a  piece  of  root 
attached. 

COLEWORTS  or  COLLARDS. 

/^OLEWORTS  or  Collards  are  a  small  distinct  variety  of 
V^<  cabbage,  hardy  and  quick  to  mature.  They  have  many 
valuable  features  for  the  market  grower,  particularly  where 
the  circumstances  call  for  regular  supplies  of  green  vegetables 
through  autumn  and  winter,  or  where  the  situation  offers 


Coleworis. — Cucumbers.  199 

facilities  for  placing  bulky  produce  on  the  market  without  much 
expense.  They  are  of  rapid  growth  and  take  up  little  room,  and 
are  frequently  used  for  planting  amongst  other  crops,  being 
removed  before  the  principal  crop  needs  all  the  space.  They 
are  often  set  out  a  few  at  a  time  whenever  any  plot  becomes 
vacant  and  is  not  immediately  wanted  for  some  other  purpose. 

The  soil  and  treatment  required  for  Collards  is  exactly  the 
same  as  for  cabbages,  except  that  when  they  are  planted 
separate  from  cabbages  less  manure  is  required,  because  they 
occupy  the  ground  a  much  shorter  time. 

Seed  may  be  sown  in  small  batches  in  March,  April,  and  May, 
for  planting  vacant  spaces  during  the  summer,  but  the  main 
sowing  takes  place  about  the  middle  of  July,  for  September 
planting.  Seed  may  be  sown  as  late  as  the  middle  of  August 
when  the  plants  are  intended  to  be  pulled  as  "  greens,"  before 
the  hearts  are  fully  developed. 

The  main  crop  is  frequently  planted  amongst  cabbages  in 
such  a  manner  that  when  the  Collards  are  pulled  the  cabbages 
are  left  to  grow  to  maturity  without  much  loss  of  space. 
This  may  be  done  in  various  ways,  the  aim  being  to  allow 
about  1ft.  space  in  each  direction,  more  or  less,  between  all 
the  plants  in  the  combination.  If  Collards  and  cabbages  are 
planted  alternately  1ft.  apart,  in  rows  2ft.  apart,  with  a  row  of 
Collards  only,  at  1ft.  apart,  set  between  the  rows  of  cabbage, 

-i-  <*  -i-  #  -;-  *  -i-  #  -j-  $  -{-  #  -i- 

.u    -j.    .;.    -|-    -!.    -:.    -|-    -{-    .i-    .{-    -|-    -j-    -:- 

-I-    *    -i-    #    -i-    *    -i-    *    -i-    *    -i-    #    -!- 

-r    -i-    -i-    -i-    -i-    -i-    -r    -i-    -i-    -i-    -i-    -i-    -r 

Diagram  showing  Collards  and  Cabbages  planted  alternately. 


Diagram  showing  Cabbage  only,  after  Collards  have  been  pulled. 
-;-  Collards.        $  Cabbages. 

the  cabbage  would  ultimately  be  left  to  mature  at  2ft.  apart 
in  each  direction.     Other  methods  of  planting  on  similar  lines 
will  readily  suggest  themselves  as  circumstances  arise. 
Varieties  .-—Hardy  Green  and  Rosette. 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


CUCUMBERS  (FRAME). 

Cucumis  sativus. 

AS  the  Cucumber  is  a  favourite  with  all  classes  of  the  com- 
munity, it  is  essential  for  the  grower  who  caters  for  a 
private  or  shop  trade  to  make  provision  for  a  sufficient  and 
steady  supply,  particularly  during  the  summer  months,  when 
salads  are  eagerly  sought  after. 

By  far  the  greater  part 
of  the  Frame  Cucumbers 
sold  in  the  public  markets 
are  grown  in  glasshouses 
specially  adapted  to  this 
culture,  but  in  thousands 
of  gardens  they  are  grown 
in  frames,  in  some  cases 
on  quite  a  large  scale,  and 
as  glasshouse  culture  does 
not  come  within  the  scope 
of  this  work,  we  shall 
confine  our  remarks  to  a 
description  of  their  culti- 
vation and  management  in 
frames. 

The  site  selected  for 
the  frames,  especially  for 
those  which  are  to  be 
planted  early,  should  be 
sheltered  from  cold  winds, 
free  from  shade,  and 
facing  the  south.  The 
ground  should  be  well 
drained,  so  that  the  water, 
of  which  they  need  copious 
supplies,  will  pass  away 
freely;  on  ill-drained  soil 
the  base  of  the  bed  be- 
comes sodden  with  stag- 


CopyrigM,  V.  A.  »  Co. 

Cucumber, 
Rollison's  Telegraph. 


nant  moisture  and  under  such  circumstances  the  bed  soon  gets 


'Frame  Cucumbers. 


201 


cold  and  the  plants  become  unhealthy.  It  will  seldom  be  found 
profitable  to  start  the  beds  before  the  beginning  of  April,  and 
for  ordinary  purposes  the  end  of  April  will  be  found  quite  soon 
enough.  At  this  date  less  manure  will  be  required  for  the 
hot-beds  and  the  plants  will  grow  away  more  freely  and  be 
easier  of  management,  whilst  frames  which  have  been  used 
in  the  production  of  early  salads  and  similar  crops  will  be 
empty  by  the  middle  of  April  and  will  then  be  available  for 
growing  Cucumbers. 

Sowing. — Seed  should  be  sown  four  weeks  before  the  beds 
are  ready  for  planting,  so  that  by  the  time  the  beds  have  got 
warmed  through  there  will  be  good  strong  plants  ready  to  set 
out.  When  there  are  a  good  number 
of  frames  to  fill,  the  seed  should  be 
sown  in  small  batches  every  two  or 
three  days,  so  that  they  may  be 
planted  in  regular  succession  as  they 
become  ready,  otherwise  some  may 
get  pot-bound  before  they  can  be 
planted,  and  this  must  be  avoided  if 
possible,  because  the  best  results  are 
always  obtained  when  the  plants 
never  experience  any  check,  particu- 
larly in  the  early  stages. 

Where  a  heated  greenhouse  is 
available,  this  should  be  taken  advan- 
tage of  for  raising  the  plants,  .but 
where  there  is  none  a  small  hot-bed 
must  be  made  for  this  purpose. 
Even  in  a  greenhouse  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  make  up  a  small  hot-bed  in 
which  to  plunge  the  pots,  so  as  to 
afford  a  moist  bottom  heat  of  about 
75  degrees.  The  hot-bed  in  the  open 
should  be  made  in  the  last  week  of 
March,  in  a  sheltered  position.  It  should  be  at  least  3ft.  thick, 
and  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  number  of  plants  re- 
quired after  they  are  potted  up.  It  should  project  18in.  beyond 
the  frame  all  round.  (Full  instructions  for  the  making  and 


Copyright,  S.  &  S. 

Cucumber. 
Sutton's  Every-day. 


202  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

management  of  hot-beds  will  be  found  on  pages  128-131.) 
When  the  bed  is  made,  put  on  the  frame  and  stack  fresh 
manure  all  round  it  up  to  the  level  of  the  lights ;  then  put  in- 
side 4in.  of  light  rich  compost  and  plunge  in  a  soil  thermometer. 
Put  on  the  lights,  leaving  them  open  about  lin.  at  the  top  to 
allow  for  the  escape  of  strong  heat,  and  cover  all  up  with  mats 
to  ground  level.  For  a  few  days  the  heat  will  probably  rise  to 
a  considerable  height ;  as  soon  as  it  has  fallen  to* 80  degrees 
the  seed  may  be  sown.  This  may  be  done  directly  in  the  bed, 
at  2in.  apart,  or  separately  in  small  60's  pots,  well  crocked  and 
half  filled  with  soil.  Both  methods  have  their  advocates.  The 
advantage  of  sowing  separately  directly  in  the  pot  consists  in 
the  avoidance  of  any  check  which  the  seedling  may  receive 
when  it  is  lifted  from  the  seed  bed  for  potting  up,  but  on  the 
other  hand  the  seedlings  generally  grow  stronger  in  a  mass  of 
soil  which  maintains  a  more  even  moisture  than  is  possible  in 
a  pot.  In  either  case  the  soil  must  be  moist,  so  that  no  water- 
ing is  needed  until  after  the  seed  has  germinated. 

Management  of  the  Young  Plants. — As  soon  as  the  seedlings 
show  give  them  all  the  light  possible,  removing  the  mats  during 
the  day  but  replacing  them  at  night.  In  eight  or  ten  days  they 
should  be  growing  strongly ;  if  they  are  in  pots  fill  these  with 
soil  to  within  half  an  inch  of  the  rim  ;  if  they  are  in  the  bed  lift 
them  carefully  without  hurting  the  roots  and  pot  them  up  to 
the  seed  leaves  in  large  60's.  The  soil  used  for  this  purpose 
should  be  moist  and  should  have  stood  in  the  frame  for  a  few 
days  previously  so  as  to  get  to  the  same  temperature.  After 
potting  plunge  the  pots  up  to  the  rims  in  the  same  bed,  water 
with  tepid  water,  and  shut  up  closely.  For  a  few  days,  until 
the  roots  begin  to  work  again  freely,  scatter  a  little  light  litter 
over  the  lights  to  break  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  after  which 
they  must  be  grown  in  full  light,  near  the  glass,  so  as  to  keep 
them  dwarf  and  stocky. 

No  effort  should  be  spared  to  avoid  everything  which  is 
likely  to  check  the  growth  of  the  young  plants.  A  fine  still  day 
should  be  chosen  for  the  transplanting  operations  and  a  screen 
of  mats  should  be  fixed  round  the  frame  to  shield  the  plants 
from  cold  draughts.  If  the  heat  in  the  frame  is  found  to 
decline  below  65  degrees  the  manure  stacked  round  the  sides 


Prame  Cucumbers.  203 

should  be  pulled  down  and  replaced  with  fresh.  Keep  the 
plants  evenly  moist,  but  not  wet,  always  using  tepid  water,  and 
raise  the  lights  slightly  at  the  top  for  a  few  hours  in  the  middle 
of  the  day,  but  take  careful  precautions  agajnst  draughts.  As 
soon  as  the  first  two  rough  leaves  are  well  formed,  pinch  out 
the  tip  or  centre  of  the  plant  above  the  second  leaf.  This  will 
cause  two  lateral  shoots  to  break  away,  one  from  the  axil  of 
each  leaf. 

Preparing  the  Beds. — By  the  second  week  of  April  make 
preparations  for  the  beds  on  which  the  plants  are  to  be  set 
out  permanently.  The  materials  should  be  at  hand,  consisting 
of  equal  parts  of  fresh  stable  manure  and  of  leaves,  or  if  no 
leaves  are  available,  then  of  old  hot-bed  manure.  Throw  these 
roughly  together  in  a  compact  heap,  sprinkling  plenty  of  water 
upon  them  during  the  process,  if  at  all  dry.  In  a  few  days  the 
heap  will  be  very  hot,  when  it  must  be  turned  and  thoroughly 
mixed  again,  giving  more  water  if  still  on  the  dry  side.  Unless 
more  than  half  the  heap  consisted  of  fresh  manure  it  will  need 
no  further  turning,  but  will  be  ready  for  use  in  the  course  of 
three  or  four  days. 

Let  the  frame  ground  be  arranged  so  that  the  frames  can 
stand  in  a  compact  body.  For  instance,  if  there  are  twelve 
three-light  frames  they  should  be  placed  in  four  rows  of  three 
frames  each.  When  a  large  number  is  to  be  used  they  should 
be  arranged  in  sections.  Three  three-light  frames  end  to  end 
to  form  one  row,  and  ten  rows,  or  thirty  frames  in  all,  will  be 
found  sufficient  in  one  section  for  convenient  working.  Between 
the  rows  should  be  a  space  12in.  to  15in.  wide,  and  between  the 
sections  a  pathway  4ft.  wide. 

The  ground  having  been  well  dug  and  manured  some  time 
previously,  set  one  row  of  frames  exactly  in  position,  then  mark 
out  down  the  middle  of  the  frames,  from  end  to  end  of  the  row, 
the  position  for  a  trench  2ft.  wide.  Remove  the  frames  for 
convenience  of  working,  and  dig  out  the  trench  a  good  spit  deep, 
wheeling  the  soil  to  the  other  end  of  the  section.  Then  fill  the 
the  trench  with  the  prepared  manure,  shaking  it  out  well. 
Tread  it  in  evenly  and  firmly,  filling  the  trench  to  Gin.  above 
ground  level,  and  also  lay  6in.  of  manure  over  the  earth  on 
each  side  of  the  trench,  including  the  space  between  the  frames, 


204  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

so  that  it  all  presents  a  level  surface.     Set  the  first  row  of 
frames  on  the  manure  straight  and  level,  and  square  with  the 
section ;  then  take  out  the  second  trench,  and  throw  the  soil 
from  this  on   the   manure   inside   the   first 
frame.     Repeat  this  operation  until  the  sec- 
tion is  finished,  the  soil  from  the  first  trench 
being  used  to  put  inside  the  last  frame. 

The  soil  in  the  frames  must  be  well  broken 
up  and  levelled;  in  the  centre  under  each 
light  open  a  space,  about  9in.  across,  and 
fill  it  with  light  rich  compost.  As  each  bed 
is  finished  put  on  the  lights  and  cover  with 
mats. 

Planting. — A  few  days  after  covering  the 
soil  will  be  warm,  and  then  the  plants  can  be 
set  out  in  the  compost,  one  plant  under  each 
light,  with  one  lateral  directed  towards  the 
back  and  the  other  towards  the  front  of  the 
frame.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  roots 
are  not  disturbed.  After  planting,  water 
gently  with  tepid  water,  then  shut  down  the 
lights  closely  for  three  or  four  days,  cover 
with  mats  at  night,  and  shade  from  strong 
sunshine  during  the  day  by  scattering  litter 
over  the  lights.  When  growth  has  started 
freely  give  air  and  water,  very  little  at  first 
but  gradually  increasing  with  the  growth  of 
the  plants.  The  soil  should  be  kept  moist 
but  never  sodden,  and  if  the  weather  should 
become  very  dull  and  cold  watering  should 
cease  altogether  or  be  given  in  great  moder- 
ation. If,  as  sometimes  happens,  severe  weather  returns  late 
in  spring,  the  spaces  between  the  frames  and  round  the  ends 
should  be  filled  with  warm  manure.  Covering  with  mats  at 
night  should  never  be  omitted  until  well  into  June. 

Training  and  General  Management. — If  the  laterals  are 
strong  when  the  plants  are  set  out  they  should  be  stopped  at 
the  second  leaf,  or  if  not  strong  enough  at  that  time  then 
about  a  week  after  planting.  This  will  cause  four  shoots  or 


Frame  Cucumbers.  205 

sub-laterals  to  break  away,  which  can  be  trained  one  to  each 
corner  of  the  light.  Let  them  go  until  within  9in.  of  the  corner 
when  they  must  be  stopped.  These  will  throw  out  shoots 
which  must  be  regulated  according  to  the  space  available,  being 
stopped  or  removed  altogether  when  there  is  danger  of  over- 
crowding. Fruit  will  now  begin  to  show;  none  should  be 
allowed  on  the  main  stems,  and  only  three  or  four  to  each 
quarter,  the  rest  being  picked  off.  The  plants  should  never  be 
allowed  to  bear  too  heavily  or  they  will  soon  become  weak  and 
cease  to  bear  altogether,  whereas  when  they  are  cropped  in 
moderation  and  the  fruit  is  cut  as  soon  as  it  is  ready,  the  plants 
continue  vigorous  much  longer,  the  fruit  is  of  better  quality, 
and  the  total  crop  ultimately  gathered  is  much  greater. 

The  main  shoots  should  be  pegged  down  to  the  bed,  which 
will  cause  roots  to  form  at  each  joint  and  thus  give  die  plant 
new  accessions  of  strength.  Keep  the  growths  well  thinned 
out  and  evenly  disposed  over  the  soil,  never  allowing  them  to 
become  a  tangled  mass.  Cut  out  shoots  which  have  fruited 
and  train  new  ones  in  their  place.  When  the  leaves  are  crowded 
a  few  of  the  oldest  may  be  removed,  so  that  all  may  get  a  full 
exposure  to  sunlight,  but  remember  that  whilst  it  is  courting 
failure  to  allow  the  plants  to  become  a  jungle  of  growth,  it  is 
equally  bad  to  overdo  the  thinning,  a  sufficiency  of  healthy 
foliage  being  necessary  to  the  well-being  of  the  plant  and  the 
production  of  fruit. 

The  next  matters  of  importance  are  the  ventilation,  the  tem- 
perature, and  the  watering.  The  temperature  to  be  desired  is 
70  degrees  by  day  (which  may  rise  15  degrees  higher  by  sun 
heat  without  injury)  and  60  degrees  by  night.  For  the  first 
few  weeks  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  maintaining  the 
necessary  warmth  by  the  aid  of  the  manure  under  and  the 
linings  round  the  frames,  assisted  by  the  covering  of  mats  at 
night."  By  the  middle  of  June  the  heat  in  the  manure  will  have 
passed  away,  and  the  best  will  have  to  be  made  of  the  natural 
weather  conditions.  As  a  rule  there  is  little  to  fear  in  this 
respect,  though  if  the  weather  should  prove  cold  ventilation 
and  water  must  both  be  given  very  sparingly. 

With  free  growth  and  genial  weather  water  must  be  given 
without  stint  each  morning  to  the  plants  requiring  it,  but  those 


206  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

already  moist  need  only  a  sprinkling.  As  they  gain  strength 
more  air  must  be  given,  by  raising  the  lights  a  little  in  the 
morning  and  increasing  the  opening  as  the  day  advances. 
Once  before  noon  and  again  in  the  middle  of  the  afternoon  the 
plants  and  the  whole  of  the  inside  of  the  frame  should  be  well 
syringed  or  watered  through  a  fine  rose.  Immediately  after 
the  second  damping  the  lights  should  be  shut  down  close ;  this 
will  raise  the  temperature  and  give  the  plants  the  moist  atmos- 
phere which  is  so  congenial  to  them. 

Weak  guano-water  may  be  occasionally  substituted  for  the 
clear  water  used  in  damping  down.  This  invigorates  the  plants 
and  is  also  useful  in  preventing  red  spider.  When  this  pest  is 
at  work  it  is  easily  detected  by  the  rusty  appearance  of  the 
leaves,  in  which  case  remove  and  burn  the  worst  and  syringe 
thoroughly  underneath  the  remainder  with  guano-water  (one 
teaspoonful  to  two  gallons)  three  times  a  day  for  several  days, 
keeping  the  frame  close  and  shaded  in  the  meantime.  If  any 
plant  should  become  badly  affected  it  should  be  removed  and 
burnt.  Should  the  summer  be  very  hot  and  bright  it  will  be 
very  helpful  to  the  plants  if  the  lights  are  shaded  a  little :  this 
can  be  done  most  economically  as  regards  labour  by  splashing 
thin  whiting  over  them,  but  do  not  brush  the  glass  all  over. 

By  the  middle  of  August  the  crop  on  the  beds  made  first  will 
be  failing.  Those  planted  at  the  beginning  of  May  will  carry 
on  into  September.  Where  a  long  succession  is  desired  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  start  a  few  frames  at  the  beginning  of  June, 
and  if  well  treated  these  will  continue  the  supply  into  autumn, 
though  they  will  require  to  have  linings  of  warm  manure  round 
the  frames  and  be  covered  up  when  the  cold  nights  set  in. 

Manures : — Providing  the  soil  used  for  the  bed  was  previously 
treated  to  a  liberal  dressing  of  well-decayed  stable  manure,  no 
other  fertilizer  is  likely  to  be  wanted  beyond  occasional  water- 
ings with  liquid  manure,  and  for  this  purpose  equalised  guano 
is  the  best,  loz.  to  the  gallon  of  water.  This  may  be  varied  at 
times  by  substituting  the  equivalent  in  other  soluble  fertilizers. 

Varieties : — One  of  the  numerous  varieties  of  Telegraph  will 
be  found  the  best  for  frame  culture,  and  of  these  Sutton's 
Matchless,  Veitch's  -'Sensation,  Lockie's  Perfection,  Daniel's 
Duke  of  Edinburgh,  and  Rollison's  Telegraph  are  all  good. 


Ridge  Cucumbers. 


207 


CUCUMBERS  (RIDGE). 

RIDGE  Cucumbers  are  generally  classed  amongst  the  salads 
suitable  for  the  poor  man's  table.  So  far  as  the  distinc- 
tion is  made  on  account  of  the  low  price  at  which  they  can  be 
profitably  sold  in  comparison  with  frame  cucumbers  this  classi- 
fication cannot  be  objected  to,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  the 
flavour  of  a  well-grown  Ridge  Cucumber  is  considered  by  many 
good  judges  to  be  distinctly  superior  to  that  of  its  relative. 

Of  course  much, 
both  in  the  matter  of 
flavour  and  of  profit- 
making,  depends  on 
the  way  in  which  the 
plants  are  grown. 
When  they  are  set  out 
by  acres  in  the  open 
field,  where  they  are 
neither  watered  nor 
mulched,  and  where 
they  receive  very 
little  after-cultivation 
beyond  an  occasional 
hoeing,  the  best  re- 
sults cannot  be  ex- 
pected, though  should 
the  summer  be  warm 
and  the  plants  be  kept 
in  vigorous  growth  by 
occasional  showers, 
even  this  rough  and 
ready  mode  of  culture 
sometimes  yields  fair 
crops.  There  is  no 
doubt,  however,  that 
this  is  a  plant  which 
always  pays  for  good  treatment,  and  when  this  is  so  the  fruits 
can  be  grown  long  and  shapely,  so  as  not  to  be  very  far  behind 
a  frame  cucumber  in  appearance. 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co. 

Green  Giant  Ridge  Cucumber. 


208  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

There  are  various  methods  of  growing  the  Ridge  Cucumber, 
— on  hillocks,  on  beds  or  in  long  single  rows — but  whatever  the 
method  adopted  may  be,  where  profit  is  aimed  at  the  crop 
should  be  early.  To  secure  earliness,  strong  plants  must  be 
raised  in  warmth,  set  out  after  being  well  hardened  on  a  site 
of  which  the  soil  is  warmed  by  having  fermenting  manure 
put  underneath,  and  sheltered  from  frost  and  cold  winds  until 
full  exposure  becomes  safe. 

To  prepare  good  plants  sow  the  seed  in  the  middle  of  April, 
on  a  hot-bed,  and  handle  the  plants  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  as  frame  cucumbers,  except  that  during  the  week 
before  planting  out  they  must  be  given  plenty  of  air  on  all 
suitable  occasions. 

The  plants  are  set  out  in  rows  6ft.  apart,  running  north  and 
south.  A  row  of  peas  or  broad  beans  should  previously  have 
been  set  between  the  positions  intended  for  the  Cucumbers, 
as  these  afford  much  welcome  protection  from  cold  winds  and 
are  off  the  ground  by  the  time  the  Cucumbers  are  well  estab- 
lished and  begin  to  run.  In  the  centre  of  each  6ft.  space  take 
out  a  trench  18in.  wide  and  a  spit  deep.  Fill  this  level  with 
fermenting  manure,  or  with  half  manure  and  half  leaves,  grass, 
mouldy  hay,  or  any  other  similar  material  which  will  give  off 
the  necessary  warmth  during  the  process  of  fermentation. 
Tread  this  down  firmly,  and  cover  it  with  the  soil  from  the 
trench,  broken  up  well.  This  should  be  done  about  the  end  of 
April  or  the  first  week  in  May,  When  the  soil  is  warm  set  the 
plants  along  the  centre  of  the  mound,  singly  at  18in.  apart,  or 
in  pairs  at  intervals  of  2ft.  6in.  Water  in  well  and  cover  with 
cloches  or  with  one  of  the  other  devices  for  protection  described 
and  illustrated  in  Chapter  XVII. 

If  the  plants  are  strong,  pinch  out  the  centres  before  setting 
them  out ;  or  this  may  be  done  as  soon  as  they  start  growing 
in  the  bed.  Any  further  stopping  or  training  is  unnecessary. 

For  a  few  days  after  setting  out  keep  the  plants  closely 
covered,  then  begin  to  give  air  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  gradu- 
ally giving  more  as  the  days  get  warmer,  until  by  the  end  of 
the  month  the  plants  are  exposed  all  day  and  only  covered  up 
at  night.  After  the  beginning  of  June  protection  can  be  dis- 
pensed with  altogether. 


Ridge  Cucumber. — Endive. 


209 


The  plants  should  receive  good  soakings  with  water  two  or 
three  times  a  week,  according  to  the  weather.  This  may  be 
varied  by  giving  liquid  manure  occasionally  in  place  of  clear 
water.  As  soon  as  the  plants  begin  to  run,  the  ground  should 
be  mulched  all  over  with  long  manure,  which  will  have  a 
marked  effect  in  preserving  the  moisture  in  the  soil  and  main- 
taining the  vigour  of  the  plant. 

Gather  the  fruits  three  times  a  week.  Remove  at  once  any 
ugly  or  distorted  ones,  and  never  leave  any  to  become  old  or 
yellow,  unless  specially  wanted  for  seed. 

Varieties : — King  of  the  Ridge,  Stockwood  Long  Ridge  and 
Carter's  Best  of  All  Ridge. 


ENDIVE. 

Chichorium  Endivia. 

ENDIVE  is  steadily  advancing  in  popularity  as  a  salad  plant 
and  it  therefore  behoves  the  grower  of  general  supplies 

to  cater  for  the  demand,  though  as  this  so  far  only  is  moderate 

the  space  given  up  to  it  need  not  be  large. 

It  is  chiefly  used 
as  an  autumn  and 
winter  salad,  the 
demand  for  spring 
and  summer  sup- 
plies being  very 
small,  and  there- 
fore, unless  there 
is  some  special  call 
for  it,  cultivation 
should  usually  be 
restricted  to  the 
autumn  and  winter 
supplies. 

Another  reason 
for  not  attempting 


Copyright,  V.  A,  &  Co. 

Green  Curled  Paris  Endive. 

earlier  is  that  any  sowings  made  before  the  middle  of  July  are 

14 


to  produce  Endive 


210  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

very  liable  to  "  bolt "  if  they  receive  the  slightest  check  of  any 
kind,  and  to  counteract  this  tendency  it  is  customary  in  many 
places  to  sow  where  the  plants  are  to  remain,  thinning  them 
out  to  the  required  distance  apart.  This  plan  is  very  wasteful 
of  seed,  but  ensures  a  steady  growth  to  the  plants,  free  from 
the  check  caused  by  transplanting.  At  the  same  time  it  is 
quite  possible  by  exercising  proper  care  to  keep  bolting  down 
to  a  very  small  percentage,  the  main  points  being  to  transplant 
whilst  small  to  a  bed  of  rich  soil,  to  set  out  in  the  final  position 
early,  and  never  at  any  time  to  allow  the  plants  to  suffer  from 
a  shortage  of  water. 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co. 

Ruffec  Green  Curled  Endive. 

For  general  purposes  a  small  sowing  of  one  of  the  fine  curled 
varieties  should  be  made  in  June,  another  of  a  similar  variety 
about  the  middle  of  July,  and  two  others  of  hardy  varieties  at 
the  beginning  and  in  the  middle  of  August.  The  seed-bed, 
which  should  consist  of  good  rich  soil,  must  have  the  surface 
made  firm  after  sowing  by  beating  with  the  back  of  a  spade. 
Unless  the  seed-beds  are  quite  moist  they,  should  be  thoroughly 
watered  before  sowing,  and  during  August  it  is  often  a  good 
plan  to  water  the  drills  before  sowing  to  ensure  germination. 

The  soil  for  Endive  should  be  rich  but  not  too  heavy.  The 
earlier  plantings  are  best  made  in  a  moist  position  at  1ft.  apart 
each  way.  The  later  varieties,  which  are  of  stronger  growth, 
should  have  15in.  space  each  way.  As  these  have  frequently  to 


Endive.  211 

pass  through  severe  weather  they  should  be  planted  on  a  bed 
raised  somewhat  above  the  general  level,  so  as  to  ensure 
thorough  drainage  and  a  dry  surface. 

Blanching. — Endive  is  useless  unless  it  is  properly  blanched. 
This  operation  is  easy  in  the  case  of  the  earlier  supplies.  On 
a  day  when  the  plants  are  quite  dry  the  leaves  are  gathered 
together  and  tied  round  with  raffia.  They  are  fit  for  use  in  a 
week  or  ten  days  in  the  summer,  but  as  winter  approaches  and 
growth  becomes  slower  the  time  required  for  blanching  may 
be  extended  to  three  weeks.  The  latest  supplies  may  be 
blanched  'as  they  stand  in  the  bed,  either  by  tying  or  by 
covering  with  pieces  of  slate,  boards,  or  litter,  or  by  any  other 
means  which  will  effectually  exclude  light  from  the  hearts,  but 
in  wet  seasons  this  method  has  disadvantages,  as  decay  quickly 
sets  in  when  the  heart  gets  wet  after  being  covered,  and  the 
plant  is  then  spoiled.  A  good  plan  for  the  latest  supplies  is  to 
lift  and  store  them  packed  closely  together  in  cold  frames. 
On  a  day  when  the  plants  are  quite  dry  they  are  carefully  tied 
up,  lifted  with  a  good  ball  of  earth  at  the  roots,  and  planted  in 
the  frames  as  closely  as  possible.  Moist  soil  should  be  used, 
into  which  the  Endive  soon  pushes  fresh  roots.  As  soon  as  the 
frames  are  filled  the  ties  are  removed,  and  the  lights  are  put 
on,  raised  a  little  at  each  corner  to  allow  a  current  of  air  to 
pass  through.  The  plants  are  blanched  in  batches,  as  required, 
by  being  covered  with  hay.  In  severe  weather  frost  must  be 
excluded  by  covering  up  the  frames  with  mats.  The  hardy 
varieties  of  Endive  should  be  selected  for  storing  and  with 
care  will  keep  sound  until  well  past  the  turn  of  the  year. 
When  sufficient  frames  are  not  available  the  plants  will  keep  a 
considerable  time  if  stored  in  a  similar  manner  in  a  dry  shed. 
Under  any  method  of  storing  the  plants  should  be  dry  when 
lifted  and  free  from  any  bruising  or  decay. 

^Varieties: — For  earliest  supplies,  Moss  Curled;  for  summer, 
Green  Curled  Paris,  Green  Curled  Summer;  for  late  summer 
and  autumn,  Rouen  or  Stag's  Horn,  Green  Fine  Curled  Winter  ; 
for  winter,  Ruffec  Green  Curled,  Broad  Leaved  Batavian. 


212  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

HERBS. 

THOSE  gardeners  who  do  a  direct  trade  will  often  be  asked 
to  supply  small  quantities  of  various  herbs  for  flavouring 
and  other  purposes,  and  it  is  therefore  advisable  to  have  a 
bed  containing  a  small  collection.  A  selection  can  be  made 
from  the  following  : — 

Basil,  Sweet  (Ocymum  Basilicum). — Tender  annual,  dwarf- 
growing.  Sow  in  heat  in  April  and  transplant  to  the  open,  in 
light  rich  soil,  Sin.  apart,  at  the  beginning  of  June.  Water 
until  well  established.  As  soon  as  the  plants  come  into  bloom 
cut  them  down  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  ground,  tie  up  in 
small  bunches  and  dry  in  the  shade.  After  cutting  stir  the  soil 
and  fresh  growth  will  be  made.  If  potted  up  in  September  and 
put  in  a  greenhouse  a  supply  of  green  leaves  may  be  had  far 
into  the  winter.  The  leaves  are  aromatic  and  are  used  for 
seasoning. 

Borage  (Borago  officinalis). — Hardy  annual.  This  plant 
requires  no  trouble  in  culture  ;  it  will  grow  in  any  odd  corner 
and  when  once  established  self-sown  plants  come  almost  as 
freely  as  weeds.  It  is  a  strong  grower  and  should  be  thinned 
to  about  15in.  apart.  Used  in  summer  drinks  and  in  claret  cup, 
and  is  a  favourite  flower  with  bee-keepers. 

Chervil  (Anthriscus  Cerefolium). — Annual,  dwarf.  May  be 
sown  frequently  for  a  regular  supply,  at  any  time  when  the 
ground  is  fit,  and  is  grown  in  rows  like  parsley.  In  hot 
weather  it  should  be  sown  in  a  shady  position,  and  needs  fre- 
quent watering.  The  leaves  may  be  cut  from  six  weeks  to  two 
month  after  sowing,  according  to  the  season.  It  is  aromatic, 
and  is  used  for  salads,  garnishing,  and  seasoning.  The  "curled" 
variety  should  be  used. 

Chives  (Allium  Schcenoprasum) . — Perennial,  dwarf.  Often 
grown  as  an  edging  plant  and  does  well  in  that  position.  It 
grows  in  thick  tufts  or  clumps,  and  is  propagated  by  lifting  and 
dividing  these,  which  should  be  done  every  three  or  four  years. 
To  maintain  a  supply  of  young  and  tender  leaves  the  clumps 
should  be  cut  down  regularly  with  a  knife.  Used  as  a  mild 
substitute  for  onions  in  salads  and  soups. 


Herbs.  213 

Fennel  (Poeniculum  vulgare). — Hardy  perennial.  Very  easy 
to  cultivate  and  will  thrive  almost  anywhere.  Sow  in  April  and 
thin  out  to  1ft.  apart.  It  should  be  renewed  by  fresh  sowing 
every  two  or  three  years.  The  feathery  leaves  are  used  for 
garnishing  and  for  flavouring  fish  sauces. 

Marjoram,  Pot  (Origanum  Onites). — Perennial.  May  be 
grown  from  seed  sown  in  April,  but  a  stock  is  usually  obtained 
from  purchased  roots.  Plant  at  lOin.  apart  each  way.  The 
leaves  are  used  for  flavouring,  both  in  the  green  state  and 
when  dried. 

Marjoram,  Sweet  or  Knotted  (Origanum  Major  ana). — This 
plant  is  a  perennial  in  the  countries  of  which  it  is  a  native,  but 
in  Europe  is  grown  as  an  annual.  Sow  in  March  or  April  in 
warmth,  or  early  in  May  in  the  open,  and  thin  to  lOin.  apart. 
Leaves  may  be  gathered  for  using  green  in  June.  When  the 
flowers  appear  cut  the  plants  down,  tie  in  bunches  and  dry. 
Fresh  growth  will  be  made  after  cutting  down,  and  if  necessary 
the  plants  can  be  potted  up  to  supply  green  leaves  through  the 
winter.  Used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  preceding. 

Mint. — See  article  under  this  head. 

Parsley. — See  article  under  this  head. 

Sage  (Salvia  officinalis). — Perennial.  This  plant  can  be 
easily  raised  from  seed  sown  in  the  open  in  April  or  May,  and 
when  so  raised  is  often  satisfactory ;  sometimes,  however,  the 
leaves  of  such  plants  are  narrower  than  a  good  sample  should 
be,  and  to  obtain  a  stock  it  is  considered  wiser  to  buy  a  few 
good  plants  in  the  autumn  to  propagate  from.  To  do  this, 
take  cuttings  of  young  soft  growths  during  spring  and  early 
summer,  and  insert  them  in  sandy  soil,  in  a  frame  or  under  a 
cloche.  When  rooted,  transplant,  15in.  apart,  to  permanent 
quarters,  which  should  be  well  drained  and  rather  dryc  In  the 
spring,  just  as  growth  commences,  cut  old  plants  down  to  Gin. 
from  the  ground.  The  plants  will  last  several  years,  but  where 
any  business  is  done  in  this  herb  it  is  best  renewed  each  year. 
When  in  full  leaf  cut  and  dry.  Used  principally  for  flavouring 
with  pork,  sausages,  and  similar  meats. 

Savory,  Summer  (Satureia  hortensis). — Annual.  Sow  in  the 
middle  of  April,  in  a  warm  and  well-drained  situation,  in  drills 
lOin.  apart,  and  thin  out  to  Sin.  apart.  The  leaves,  which  are 


214  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

aromatic,  are  used  for  flavouring,  either  in  a  green  state  or 
when  dried.  For  the  latter  purpose  cut  the  plant  down  when 
in  flower.  When  wanted  fresh  in  winter  sow  at  the  beginning 
of  September  and  pot  up  for  the  greenhouse. 

Savory,  Winter  (Satureia  montana). — Perennial.  A  hardy 
dwarf  shrub,  which  can  be  propagated  either  from  seed  sown 
in  spring,  from  cuttings,  or  from  division  of  the  roots.  The 
plants  should  stand  from  14in.  to  16in.  apart,  and  should  be 
cut  down  in  spring  to  within  4in.  of  the  ground  so  as  to  induce 
a  crop  of  fresh  young  shoots.  The  soil  and  situation  required 
are  the  same  as  for  summer  savory,  and  the  leaves  are  also 
used  for  similar  purposes. 

Tarragon  (Artemisia  Dracunculus). — Perennial,  but  although 
established  plants  will  stand  for  several  years  without  any  par- 
ticular attention,  it  is  much  more  satisfactory  when  propagated 
annually,  either  by  division  in  March  or  April  or  by  cuttings 
inserted  in  sandy  soil  under  cloches  early  in  summer.  The 
plants  need  about  1ft.  space  in  each  direction.  The  leaves  are 
generally  used  green,  for  steeping  in  vinegar,  or  for  flavouring 
and  similar  purposes.  When  wanted  in  winter  it  can  be  lifted 
and  forced  in  a  gentle  heat,  either  in  a  greenhouse  or  on  a 
hot-bed. 

Thyme,  Common  (Thymus  vulgaris). — Perennial.  This  plant 
can  be  easily  raised  from  seed  sown  in  April,  or  it  can  be  pro- 
pagated by  division  of  the  roots  in  March  or  April.  It  is  often 
used  for  edging  beds,  and  does  well  in  that  position  if  the  soil 
is  fairly  dry  and  well  drained,  but  should  be  taken  up  and 
re-planted  in  fresh  soil  every  three  or  four  years.  About  4in. 
space  should  be  allowed  between  the  plants.  It  is  a  general 
favourite  for  its  fragrance  and  flavour,  and  no  vegetable 
garden  can  be  considered  complete  without  it.  It  is  used  in 
various  ways  for  seasonings,  both  fresh  and  when  dried ;  for 
the  latter  purpose,  cut  and  bunch  when  in  flower. 

Thyme,  Lemon  (Thymus  Serpyllum  vulgaris). — All  that  has 
been  said  in  the  preceding  paragraph  regarding  common  thyme 
applies  equally  to  this,  its  near  relative.  The  chief  practical 
difference  between  them  is  that  Lemon  Thyme  has  the  more 
delicate  aroma  of  the  two,  and  for  that  reason  is  preferred  by 
some  people. 


Horse-radish. 


215 


HORSE-RADISH. 

Cochlearia  Armor acia. 

HORSE-RADISH  is  not  a  subject  of  particular  importance 
to  the  grower  for  market.  The  trade  in  it  is  now  prac- 
tically in  the  hands  of  continental  growers,  and  with  so  many 
other  much  more  important  vegetables  to  engage  his  attention 
he  may  disregard  this.  But  in  the  case  of  the  grower  who 
does  a  direct  trade  the  matter  is  different.  It  is  quite  possible 
that  he  may  be  able  to  create  a  small  trade  in  fresh  home- 
grown roots  with  some  of  his  customers,  particularly  if  res- 
taurant or  hotel  keepers  are  numbered  amongst  them.  It  is  to 
meet  such  cases  that  the  following  particulars  are  given. 

The  plant  delights  in  deep,  rich, 
moist  soil,  and  preparation  for  its 
culture  should  include  trenching  to 
at  least  2ft.  It  is  propagated  from 
pieces  of  the  root,  preferably  strong 
crowns  with  2in.  or  Sin.  of  root 
attached.  Trenches  are  thrown  out, 
15in.  to  18in.  deep  and  2ft.  apart,  and 
the  pieces  are  placed  at  the  bottom 
of  these,  12in.  apart.  Sometimes 
the  planting  is  done  on  the  flat,  by 
dropping  the  pieces  of  root  to  the 
bottom  of  holes  made  with  long  dib- 
bers, and  filling  up  with  prepared 
soil.  The  planting  is  done  early  in 
spring,  and  with  strong  setts  and 
good  soil  some  of  the  roots  will  be 
fit  for  use  the  following  autumn,  but  are  much  better  left  for 
another  year.  When  the  roots  are  taken  up  the  whole  bed 
should  be  cleared  thoroughly  as  any  pieces  left  in  may  become 
a  nuisance.  To  keep  up  a  regular  supply  a  fresh  bed  should 
be  made  each  year. 

Roots  for  sale  should  be  straight,  lOin.  or  12in.  long,  and 
from  l|in.  to  2in.  in  diameter.  When  not  to  be  disposed  of 
immediately  they  can  be  kept  in  good  condition  for  several 
weeks  in  moist  sand. 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co. 

Horse-radish. 


216 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


LEEKS. 

Allium  Porrum. 

LEEKS  are  not  greatly  in  demand  in  the  south  of  England, 
but  are  much  appreciated  in  the  northern  counties  and  in 
Scotland  and  Wales.  They  are  very  hardy,  being  uninjured 
when  standing  in  the  open  in  the  severest  winter.  They  can 
be  grown  successfully  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil,  but  are  worthy 
of  and  pay  well  for  generous  treatment.  To  produce  the  best 
and  most  profitable  crops  the  ground  should  be  deeply  worked 
and  receive  a  good  dressing  of  well  decayed  manure,  and  above 
all  it  should  be  well  drained,  for  although  Leeks  require  plenty 

of  moisture  until 
their  growth  is  com- 
pleted, the  water  in 
the  soil  must  never 
be  stagnant,  or  the 
plants  are  liable  to 
be  attacked  by  rot 
at  the  heart.  Given 
suitable  conditions, 
Leeks  are  remark- 
ably free  from  insect 
or  fungoid  attacks. 

For  general  pur- 
poses, sow  about  the 
middle  of  March, 
in  drills  18in.  apart. 
As  soon  as  the  seed- 
lings can  be  handled 
easily  the  strongest 
must  be  transplanted 
to  their  permanent 
position,  then  the  next  strongest  when  they  have  grown  about 
Gin.  high,  finally  thinning  the  remainder  so  that  they  stand 
about  Sin.  apart.  These  will  mature  where  they  stand,  lettuces 
or  some  similar  crop  being  grown  between  the  rows.  After 
the  catch  crop  is  gone  the  soil  is  gradually  drawn  up  to  the 
rows  until  the  stems  are  covered  to  a  height  of  6  or  7  inches. 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co. 

London  Broad  Flag  Leek. 


Leeks.  217 

The  seedlings  which  are  to  be  transplanted  may  be  set  out 
according  to  one  of  the  following  methods : — 

In  well  manured  ground  make  drills  12in.  apart  and  Gin.  deep, 
and  set  the  plants  in  these,  Sin.  apart,  Frequent  hoeing,  which 
is  very  important,  gradually  fills  the  drills,  and  as  growth  nears 
completion  the  earth  is  drawn  up  to  the  neck  of  the  plants  on 
each  side.  This  method  may  be  varied  by  giving  18in.  space 
between  the  rows  and  intercropping  with  lettuces. 

Another  plan  is  to  thoroughly  manure  and  dig  the  ground 
and  then  to  make  holes  at  the  required  distance  apart  with  a 
blunt  dibber,  about  2in.  through  and  9in.  long.  The  plants 
are  dropped  to  the  bottom  of  the  holes  and  sufficient  loose  soil 
is  pushed  in  to  just  cover  the  roots.  During  the  course  of 
cultivation  the  holes  become  filled,  and  the  earth  is  finally 
drawn  to  the  sides  of  the  rows  to  complete  bleaching. 
•  By  far  the  finest  specimens  are  grown  in  trenches  formed  as 
for  celery,  but  only  the  width  of  the  spade  and  about  2ft.  from 
centre  to  centre.  About  Gin.  of  well-rotted  manure  is  put  at 
the  bottom  of  the  trench  and  dug  in,  so  that  when  finished  the 
trench  is  Gin.  below  the  ordinary  level.  The  plants  are  set  at 
lOin.  to  12in.  apart,  according  to  the  vigour  of  the  variety. 
A  catch-crop  is  grown  on  the  soil  between  the  trenches.  By 
frequent  hoeing  weeds  are  kept  down  and  the  trench  is  gradu- 
ally filled  with  earth,  cultivation  being  completed  by  earthing 
up  the  plants  to  the  base  of  the  leaves. 

In  every  case  transplanting  should  be  done  in  showery 
weather  when  possible,  and  whatever  the  system  of  growing 
adopted,  the  plants  must  be  supplied  abundantly  with  moisture, 
especially  during  dry  weather.  Liquid  manure  applied  once  a 
week  adds  considerably  to  their  size  and  quality.  They  can  be 
left  standing  without  protection,  to  be  lifted  as  required,  or  if 
the  ground  is  wanted  they  will  keep  for  a  month  or  more  stored 
in  dry  sand. 

Manures : — Decayed  natural  manure  is  the  best  fertilizer  for 
Leeks,  but  when  it  is  scarce  a  moderate  dressing  can  be  pro- 
fitably supplemented  by  loz.  superphosphate  and  ioz.  sulphate 
of  potash  per  yard  run  of  row. 

Varieties: — London  Flag,  Musselburgh,  Renton's  Monarch, 
and  The  Lyon. 


218  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

LETTUCES. 

Lactuca  sativa. 

r  I  ^HE  Lettuce  is  one  of  the  most  indispensable  plants  in  the 
1       garden.     It  is  a  universal  favourite,  and  when  well  grown 

and  offered  to  the  consumer  in  a  fresh  crisp  condition  is  always 

appreciated  and  meets  with  a  ready  sale. 

The  greatest  demand  is 
naturally  in  the  spring  and 
early  summer  months,  and 
enormous  quantities  are 
produced  to  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  that  period, 
so  many,  in  fact  that  after 
the  beginning  of  June  the 
markets  are  frequently 

copyright,  v.  A.  &  Co.  glutted    with     them,    and 

Cabbage  Lettuce,  prifS  fa"  tO  *  ^  low 

Hammersmith,  or  Hardy  Green  Winter.  and  ""remunerative  point 

unless  the  garden  of  the 

grower  is  situated  so  that  the  cost  of  carriage  is  very  low. 
This  arises  mainly  from  a  faulty  system  of  distribution,  and 
whilst  the  grower  for  market  must  take  especial  note  of  the 
fact  if  he  wishes  to  avoid  loss,  the  caterer  for  a  direct  trade 
will  find  it  to  his  interest  to  keep  up  a  constant  supply  from 
early  in  spring  until  the  end  of  summer,  though  even  in  this 
case  he  must  be  prepared  to  meet  the  much  greater  demand 
which  exists  in  the  early  part  of  the  season. 

The  early  crops  sell  for  the  largest  prices,  and  in  a  normal 
season  under  good  management  they  yield  a  substantial  profit. 
The  demand  for  cos  lettuce  continues  fairly  good  and  steady 
throughout  the  summer,  and  as  the  supplies  sent  to  market 
after  the  end  of  July  are  seldom>excessive  there  is  practically 
no  fear  of  further  gluts  during  that  season,  and  although  prices 
generally  rule  low  a  very  fair  profit  can  be  made  by  those  whose 
soil  can  be  kept  in  a  cool  and  moist  condition  during  summer. 

Apart  from  the  value  of  the  Lettuce  as  a  main  crop  it  has  an 
especial  value  to  market  gardeners,  and  particularly  so  to  those 
who  aim  at  cropping  their  ground  intensively,  in  the  facility 


Lettuces.  219 

with  which  it  can  be  employed  as  a  catch-crop.  In  this  respect 
it  is  probably  the  most  useful  plant  in  the  garden,  as  it  takes 
up  little  space,  is  easy  to  grow,  quick  to  mature,  meets  with  a 
ready  sale,  and  thus  makes  it  easy  to  put  to  a  profitable  use 
many  spaces  between  slower  developing  main  crops  which 
would  otherwise  remain  unoccupied. 

Almost  any  kind  of  soil  may  be  so  prepared  that  it  will  grow 
good  lettuces,  although  the  finest  are  usually  produced  on  soil 
answering  the  description  of  a  light  sandy  loam%  But  whatever 
may  be  the  kind  of  soil  employed,  it  is  essential  for  really  good 
results  that  it  is  rich  with  manure,  is  well-drained,  and  is  well 
supplied  with  moisture  in  the  warm  months,  so  that  all  the 
conditions  favour  quick  growth. 

Lettuces  are  grouped  into  two  classes — Cabbage  Lettuce  and 
Cos  Lettuce.     The  former  is  mostly  used  in  mixed  salads  at  all 
seasons  and  alone  as  a  simple  salad  in  the  early  spring  months, 
before  the  latter  can  be  produced  at  a  price  which  brings  them 
within  the  means  of  the  general  public.     As  soon,  however,  as 
Cos  Lettuces  become  cheap  the  Cabbage  variety  is  immediately 
discarded  by  the  multitude, 
who  prefer  the  more  crisp 
and  juicy  leaves  of  the  Cos, 
and  for  that  reason  every 
effort  should  be  made  to 
so   arrange   matters    that 
the    supply    of    Cabbage 
Lettuce       intended       for 
market  terminates  by  the      copyright,  s.  &  s. 
middle  of  May,  after  which       Cabbage  Lettuce>  Sutton,s  Heartwell. 
date  the  demand  speedily 
diminishes  and  soon  practically  ceases. 

Forced  Lettuces. — The  earliest  supplies  are  those  of  Cabbage 
Lettuce  forced  on  mild  hot-beds,  either  in  frames  or  under 
cloches.  These  are  followed  by  Cos  raised  under  cloches. 
With  a  sufficiency  of  warm  manure,  Cabbage  Lettuce  may  be 
obtained  at  any  time  during  the  winter,  but  for  practical 
purposes,  where  the  resulting  profits  must  necessarily  be  the 
controlling  factor,  they  can  scarcely  be  produced  before  the 
early  part  of  March,  nor  are  supplies  of  Cos  practicable  before 


220  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

the  end  of  March  or  the  early  part  of  April.  The  most  profit- 
able method  of  obtaining  these  early  Lettuce  is  that  followed  by 
the  French  gardener,  who  makes  them  part  of  a  series  of 
early  crops  raised  on  hot-beds,  as  is  fully  described  in  Chapters 
XI,  XII,  and  XIII,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred  for  full 
details  in  connection  with  the  forcing  of  Lettuces. 

Cold  Frames.  —  Immediately  following  the  supplies  from  hot- 
beds come  those  from  cold  frames.  Excellent  Lettuces  are 
produced  in  tfcis  way,  and  although  a  little  later  are  quite 
equal  to  those  from  hot-beds,  and  being  superior  to  and  much 
earlier  than  any  grown  in  the  open-air  are  sure  to  find  a 

ready  market  at  excellent 
prices.  Indeed,  when  the 
cost  of  production  of  each 
method  is  considered,  it 
is  probable  that  on  the 
average  crops  from  cold 
frames  yield  quite  as  much 
net  profit  as  those  from 
hot-beds. 

Seed  for  this  purpose  is 

°f 


.  S.  «  S. 

Cos  Lettuce,  Button's  Whiteheart.  °Ct°ber   mA  the 

manner  :    A    seed-bed    of 

light  rich  compost  is  prepared.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the 
bed  is  moist,  particularly  below  the  surface,  because  the  plants 
should,  if  possible,  be  raised  without  watering.  After  the  soil 
has  been  pressed  down  evenly  with  the  firming  board,  cloches 
are  placed  upon  it  and  by  being  pressed  make  circular  marks 
in  the  soil.  Within  the  rings  so  made  the  seed  is  sown  broad- 
cast, thinly,  covered  lightly  with  compost,  pressed  down  with 
the  firming  board,  and  covered  with  the  cloches.  Mats  are 
laid  over  all  until  the  seed  germinates,  when  they  are  at  once 
removed,  but  if  the  weather  is  bright  they  are  replaced  for  two 
or  three  hours  in  the  middle  of  each  day  to  prevent  the  tender 
young  seedlings  from  being  scorched  by  the  sun,  or  the  soil 
made  too  dry. 

The  seedlings  show  in  four  or  five  days  after  sowing,  and  a 
few  days  after  they  are  up,  as  soon  as  they  can  be  handled,  they 


Letttices.  221 

are  pricked  out  2in.  apart  under  cloches  or  in  cold  frames,  in 
light  rich  soil,  where  they  remain  until  planted  out  perma- 
nently. They  must  be  grown  as  hard  as  possible  and  be  given 
plenty  of  air  on  all  suitable  occasions,  but  driving  rains  must 
be  kept  from  them  by  tilting  the  cloches  or  lights  so  that  they 
have  their  "  backs  to  the  wind."  In  times  of  severe  frost  they 
must  be  protected  by  mats. 

The  ground  where  the  cold  frames  are  to  stand  should  be 
well  manured  and  dug  at  the  approach  of  winter,  being  left 
rough  for  a  time  so  that  the  weather  may  mellow  it.  As  soon 
as  the  ground  is  in  a  fit  condition  after  the  beginning  of 
January  break  the  soil  down  and  level  it,  then  set  the  frames 
in  position  and  put  a  barrow  load  of  moist  old  hot-bed  manure 
under  each  light.  Level  this  and  cover  it  with  a  little  fine 
compost,  then  put  on  lights  and  mats  and  keep  all  close  for  a 
week,  at  the  end  of  which  time  there  will  be  a  sensible  increase 
of  temperature  inside  the  frames ;  then  plant  the  Lettuce.  The 
distances  apart  depend  on  the  variety  and  whether  radishes  or 
carrots  are  sown  at  the  same  time.  Either  may  be  sown  but 
not  both.  Without  this  intercropping,  Cabbage  Lettuce  can  be 
planted  from  Gin.  apart  for  the  smallest  varieties  to  lOin.  apart 
for  the  strongest  growers,  but  when  radishes  or  carrots  are 
sown  with  them  they  must  be  given  2in.  more  space  all  round. 
Cos  Lettuce  can  be  grown  in  the  same  way,  but  are  much  more 
difficult  to  manage;  they  need  12in.  space  each  way,  should  be 
grown  alone,  and  must  have  abundance  of  air;  if  the  atmos- 
phere in  the  frame  is  at  all  confined  when  the  sun  gets  hot  in 
March  many  of  them  will  be  sure  to  bolt,  but  by  constant  care 
in  giving  ample  ventilation  this  can  be  prevented.  Early  Cos 
of  good  quality  sell  for  such  good  prices  that  any  trouble  taken 
over  them  is  amply  repaid  when  they  are  well  done. 

Unless  the  season  is  exceptionally  dry  the  Cabbage  Lettuce 
will  probably  need  no  watering,  the  soil  below  yielding  enough 
moisture,  at  any  rate  until  growth  is  nearly  completed.  Cos 
Lettuce  will  probably  need  watering  several  times  during  the 
latter  part  of  their  growth,  as  they  occupy  the  ground  longer. 
When  either  of  the  varieties  become  almost  ready  for  cutting 
it  is  advisable,  unless  the  ground  is  wanted  for  other  purposes, 
to  set  cauliflower  plants,  2ft.  apart,  amongst  the  Lettuces. 


222  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Early  Lettuces  from  the  Open. — Apart  from  those  matured 
on  hot-beds  or  in  cold  frames,  it  is  quite  possible,  by  taking 
advantage  of  every  situation  which  is  free  from  excessive  damp 
and  will  give  protection  from  cold  winds,  to  obtain  batches 
of  Lettuce  from  the  open-air  sufficiently  early  to  be  disposed 
of  at  very  remunerative  prices.  Plants  which  have  passed 
through  the  winter  under  protection  may,  instead  of  being  set 
out  in  cold  frames,  be  kept  back  until  there  is  a  spell  of  mild 
weather  in  February  or  March  and  then  planted  in  the  open. 
Sunny  beds  protected  by  a  wall  or  fence,  or  by  a  hedge  or  belt 
of  trees,  or  the  spaces  between  rows  of  cabbage  from  which 
collards  have  been  removed,  are  all  situations  which  may  be 
turned  to  advantage  for  growing  early  Lettuce. 

It  is  advisable  also  to  plant  batches  of  hardy  varieties  of 
both  Cos  and  Cabbage  Lettuce  to  stand  in  open  beds  through 
the  winter.  These  should  be  sown  on  a  well  prepared  seed-bed 
about  the  14th  of  September,  pricked  out  on  a  nursery  bed  as 
soon  as  the  seedlings  can  be  handled,  and  set  out  permanently 
at  the  end  of  October.  Sometimes,  when  a  wet  time  is  followed 
by  hard  frost,  they  suffer  severely,  but  more  often  they  pass 
through  the  winter  safely  and  give  a  very  early  crop.  There 
is,  however,  the  danger  of  destruction  by  birds  to  which  winter 
Lettuces"  are  always  subject,  to  circumvent  which  depends 
upon  the  resourcefulness  of  the  individual  grower.  Near 
populous  districts  sparrows  often  do  them  a  lot  of  damage, 
and  in  the  open  country  skylarks  are  even  more  destructive,  it 
being  not  uncommon,  especially  after  a  slight  fall  of  snow,  for 
flocks  to  descend  upon  a  patch  of  Lettuce  and  speedily  clear 
away  every  vestige  of  green  leaf. 

Main-crop  and  Summer  Lettuces. — geedlings  for  the  main- 
crop  are  sometimes  sown  in  heat,  but  unless  in  comparatively 
small  numbers  which  can  be  given  proper  attention  in  watering 
this  plan  is  not  advisable,  as  the  plants  have  a  tendency  to  bolt 
if  the  weather  should  come  hot  and  dry.  It  is  a  much  better 
way  to  make  provision  for  early  crops  by  the  methods  already 
indicated  and  to  sow  the  seed  for  the  maincrops  on  a  properly 
prepared  bed  in  the  open.  This  should  be  done  each  month 
from  March  to  June,  regulating  the  quantity  according  to  the 
space  available  and  the  market  to  be  supplied.  The  bed  sown 


Lettuces.  223 

in  March  should  be  in  a  sheltered  position,  and  means  to  afford 
it  protection,  if  necessary,  should  be  ready  to  hand.  These 
sowings  should  be  made  in  drills  Gin.  apart,  and  the  seedlings 
thinned  out  to  lin.  apart  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are 
up.  This  will  ensure  hard,  sturdy  plants  with  plenty  .of  roots, 
which,  if  transplanted  to  their  final  quarters  with  due  care,  will 
go  rapidly  ahead  and  bring  credit  and  profit  to  the  grower. 
Still  better  results  are  obtained,  or  at  least  there  is  more  free- 
dom from  bolting  in  hot  dry  weather,  if  the  later  batches  of 
seed  are  sown  where  the  plants  are  to  remain.  The  plants 
should  be  thinned  out  well  and  early,  and  the  best  of  the 
thinnings  could  be  used  for  intercropping  in  places  where 
sowing  would  be  unsuitable. 

Unless  for  a  special  trade,  it  is  advisable  that  these  main- 
crop  and  late  sowings  should  consist  almost  entirely  of  Cos. 
There  is  always  some  demand  for  Cabbage  Lettuce  for  salading, 
but  in  the  summer  it  is  limited  and  may  be  easily  over-supplied, 
whilst  the  popular  demand  ceases  almost  entirely  after  the 
middle  of  May. 

Set  out  the  Cos  Lettuce  1ft.  apart,  and  during  'growth  hoe 
frequently,  both  to  destroy  weeds  and  to  prevent  undue  evapo- 
ration of  soil  moisture.  During  warm  weather,  where  possible, 
liberal  soakings  of  water  should  be  given,  especially  on  light 
soil.  Some  varieties  of  Cos  are  self-folding,  and  so  bleach  the 
heart  without  any  assistance,  but  as  a  general  rule  it  is  best  to 
tie  all  with  raffia,  half-way  up;  they  then  handle  and  carry 
better  and  meet  with  more  approval  in  the  market. 

When  slugs  are  very  troublesome  in  the  seed-beds,  pour 
boiling  water  over  the  soil  a  day  or  two  before  sowing,  then 
dust  over  with  soot. 

Manures : — The  most  satisfactory  fertilizer  for  Lettuce  is  a 
liberal  dressing  of  good  farmyard  manure.  When  the  avail- 
able quantity  of  this  is  small  and  the  ground  rather  poor,  3  to 
5  cwts.  kainit  arid  5  to  10  cwts.  basic  slag  to  the  acre,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  applied  in  the  autumn,  or  1  to  2  cwts. 
sulphate  of  potash  and  4  to  6  cwts.  superphosphates  applied  in 
the  spring,  with  1  to  2  cwts.  nitrate  of  soda  sprinkled  over  the 
roots  just  previous  to  hearting,  will  do  much  towards  ensuring 
a  good  crop. 


224  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Varieties: — Hardy  Cabbage:  Hammersmith,  All  the  Year 
Round,  Sutton's  Giant,  Lee's  Immense,  Passion.  Forcing 
Cabbage :  Paris  Market  Forcing,  Milly  Forcing,  Tennis  Ball, 
Earliest  of  All.  Spring  and  Summer  Cabbage :  Sutton's  Su- 
preme, Daniel's  Continuity,  Chavigny,  Webb's  Wonderful, 
Vauxhall  Defiance.  Hardy  Cos:  Black-seeded  Bath,  Green 
Winter,  Winter  White,  Hardy  White,  Balloon,  Sutton's  White- 
heart.  Forcing  Cos:  Gray  Paris,  Early  French  Romaine. 
Spring  and  Summer  Cos :  Paris  White,  Paris  Green,  Superb 
White,  Prince  of  Wales,  Balloon,  Sutton's  Peerless. 


MELONS. 

Cucumis  Melo. 

WHILST  Melons  cannot  be  classed  as  vegetables,  they 
generally  form,  in  gardens  where  early  salads  are 
grown  in  frames,  a  part  of  the  rotation  of  crops,  and  it  would 
therefore  be  absurd  to  omit  a  description  of  their  culture  on 
the  plea  that  they  are  classed  as  fruits. 

The  English  Netted  Melon  can  be  successfully  grown  in 
frames  provided  with  a  bottom  heat  of  not  less  than  65  degrees, 
but  on  the  whole  it  is  not  sufficiently  hardy  to  constitute  a 
reliable  market  garden  crop  except  in  glasshouses,  in  which 
its  commercial  culture  is  almost  entirely  carried  on. 

The  Cantaloup  Melon,  known  to  fame  as  the  Rock  Melon  of 
Paris,  lends  itself  much  more  readily  to  frame  culture.  In  the 
market  gardens  around  Paris  the  majority  of  the  frames  which 
are  used  in  the  spring  for  salad  growing  are  afterwards  used 
to  produce  a  summer  crop  of  Cantaloup  Melons,  and  great 
numbers  are  raised  in  this  way,  both  for  consumption  at  home 
and  for  export. 

Until  a  very  short  time  ago  it  was  considered  useless,  owing 
to  unsuitability  of  climate,  to  attempt  to  grow  these  Melons 
in  England  in  accordance  with  the  methods  of  the  French 
gardener,  but  this  conclusion  has  been  proved  entirely  wrong. 
During  the  past  four  years  large  numbers  have  been  so 
grown  in  a  garden  at  Mayland,  in  Essex  (and  probably  also 
in  other  gardens),  which  have  ripened  perfectly  and  have  met 


Melons. 


225 


with  a  ready  sale  in  the  face  of  large  importations.  This  has 
been  accomplished  easily  in  two  of  the  years,  when  there  was 
a  normal  amount  of  sunshine,  and  without  any  great  difficulty 
in  the  other  two  years,  which  were  very  wet  and  cold. 

In  the  Paris  gardens  Melon  growing  is  divided  into  three 
periods — a  "  forced  crop,"  the  seed  for  which  is  sown  in  Janu- 
ary and  the  fruit  expected  to  ripen  in  May ;  an  "  early  crop," 
for  which  seed  is  sown  in  the  latter  part  of  February  and  gives 
ripe  fruit  late  in  June  and  early  in  July ;  and  the  "  main-crop," 
the  sowing  for  which  takes  place  from  the  last  week  in  March 
to  the  last  week  in  April,  and  from  which  ripe  Melons  are 
gathered  during  July,  August,  and  September. 

The  method  of  treat- 
ment is  much  the  same 
in  each  case,  except  that 
for  the  earlier  crops 
the  hot-beds  are  made 
deeper,  so  as  to  afford 
a  greater  and  more 
lasting  warmth  than  in 
in  the  case  of  the  main- 
crop,  and  for  the  forced 
crop  the  warmth  is  still 
further  augmented  and 
maintained  by  linings  of 
warm  manure  packed 
all  round  the  frame,  up 
to  the  level  of  the  lights,  copyright,  v.  A.  &  co. 
The  instructions  which 
follow  are  for  the  main- 
crop,  which  is  by  far  the  most  important,  and  they  are,  with  the 
differences  indicated,  equally  applicable  to  the  earlier  crops. 

For  directions  as  to  sowing  the  seed,  management  of  the 
young  plants,  preparing  the  beds,  and  planting,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  chapter  on  Frame  Cucumbers,  the  treatment 
of  which  in  these  stages  is  precisely  the  same  as  for  Cantaloup 
Melons,  except  that  instead  of  one  plant  under  each  light,  as 
directed  for  Cucumbers,  two  Melon  plants  are  set  side  by  side, 
a  few  inches  apart. 


Large  Rock  Prescott 
Cantaloup  Melon. 


226  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

The  general  management  of  the  two  crops  varies,  however, 
from  the  time  the  young  plants  begin  to  make  growth  in  their 
permanent  quarters.  Before  planting,  the  centre  of  each  plant 
is  cut  above  the  second  rough  leaf.  Two  laterals  are  soon 
formed,  and  these  are  led  one  towards  the  back  and  the  other 
towards  the  front  of  the  frame.  When  six  or  eight  leaves  are 
formed  on  the  laterals  they  are  stopped  at  the  fourth  leaf. 
Sub-laterals  break  away  and  these  are  stopped  at  the  third  leaf. 

These  sub-laterals  bear  female  flowers,  which  may  be  distin- 
guished from  the  male  by  the  small  fruit  which  is  formed 
beneath  them.  For  the  forced  and  early  crops  it  will  be 
necessary  to  fertilize  or  "  pollinate "  the  female  blooms  to 
ensure  the  fruit  developing  properly..  This  is  best  done  about 
noon  of  a  clear  bright  day,  when  several  bold  female  blooms 
stand  fully  open.  A  well-developed  male  flower  is  taken  and 
after  removing  the  outer  petals  its  pollen-laden  pistils  are 
inserted  within  the  female  flower  and  a  slight  turn  gently 
given.  One  male  flower  will  serve  for  all  the  female  flowers 
on  each  plant. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  fertilize  the  blooms  on  the  main-crop 
plants ;  perfect  fertilization  takes  place  naturally  owing  to  the 
fact  that  pollen  forms  more  readily  under  the  influence  of  in- 
creased sun-heat,  and  the  free  admission  of  air  to  which  the 
plants  are  subjected  causes  it  to  be  freely  distributed. 

When  the  female  flowers  appear,  look  over  the  plants  care- 
fully and  remove  any  fruits  which  may  have  formed  on  either 
of  the  main  stems.  When  fruit  has  formed  on  the  sub-laterals 
to  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg  select  and  retain  the  best-shaped 
one  on  each  side  of  the  plant  and  remove  all  the  others.  No 
more  than  two  fruits  to  a  plant  should  be  retained  at  any  time 
and  then  only  on  those  of  mid-season  crops ;  on  very  early  or 
very  late  crops  no  more  than  one  fruit  to  a  plant  should  be 
retained.  With  a  sharp  knife  cut  away  all  extra  shoots  which 
may  have  formed,  and  as  soon  as  the  fruit  has  attained  the  size 
of  a  large  orange,  stop  the  shoot  which  bears  it  at  the  first  leaf 
past  the  fruit.  In  relation  to  this  continuous  stopping  of  the 
shoots  there  are  two  main  objects  in  view  which  should  be 
constantly  borne  in  mind.  The  first  is  that  frequent  stopping 
is  necessary  in  order  to  hasten  the  branching  and  consequent 


Melons. 


227 


d 

v-, 
'3 

I 
O 


228  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

fruiting  of  the  plants,  so  that  the  fruits  may  have  the  chance 
to  ripen  properly  during  the  warm  weather ;  the  second  is  that 
plenty  of  healthy  well-grown  leaves  are  indispensable  for  the 
production  of  fine  fruit,  and  that  therefore  cutting  away  must 
not  be  carried  to  an  excess. 

As  the  fruit  grows  large  it  should  be  raised  off  the  bed  and 
laid  on  a  small  piece  of  board,  so  that  the  colouring  and 
ripening  may  take  place  equally ;  it  should  be  turned  so  that 
the  eye  (the  part  on  the  opposite  side  to  the  stalk)  will  show 
uppermost. 

It  requires  some  judgment  and  experience  to  know  the  exact 
time  when  the  Melons  should  be  cut.  The  indications  of 
approaching  ripeness  are  a  change  in  the  colour  of  the  fruit  to 
a  more  or  less  yellow  tinge;  a  softening  of  the  part  of  the 
fruit  surrounding  the  eye,  which  yields  slightly  under  pressure 
from  the  fingers ;  a  number  of  cracks  in  and  around  the  stalk, 
as  if  the  fruit  were  about  to  separate  from  the  plant;  and 
lastly,  a  slight  perfume,  which  grows  stronger  as  the  fruit  gets 
more  fully  ripe.  The  fruit  should  not  be  left  until  it  is  per- 
fectly ripe  before  gathering  it,  but  it  should  be  cut  just  as  it 
is  on  the  turn  and  laid  in  a  dry  place,  where  it  will  ripen  in  a 
short  time,  slowly  or  quickly  according  to  the  temperature 
maintained ;  when  it  cannot  conveniently  be  disposed  of  for  a 
a  few  days  during  warm  weather  the  storage  place  should  be 
cool,  so  that  ripening  may  be  somewhat  retarded. 

Throughout  the  whole  time,  until  the  fruit  is  almost  full- 
grown,  the  soil  of  the  beds  must  be  maintained  in  a  moist  but 
not  wet  condition,  particularly  avoiding  keeping  the  soil  wet 
immediately  around  the  stem.  Water  in  the  morning,  if  pos- 
sible between  6  and  7  o'clock,  so  that  the  plants  may  get  dry 
before  the  sun  gets  hot.  Air  must  be  given  on  all  suitable 
occasions,  at  first  only  a  little  and  with  care,  but  as  growth 
gets  stronger  and  the  weather  more  genial  it  must  be  gradually 
increased,  as  the  Melon  requires  drier  and  more  airy  conditions 
than  the  cucumber.  In  July,  or  as  soon  as  the  weather  appears 
settled,  the  lights  may  be  removed  altogether  and  the  plants 
allowed  to  stand  in  the  open-air.  Should,  however,  the  weather 
become  cold  or  stormy  the  lights  must  be  replaced. 

From  the  end  of  June  to  the  end  of  July,  according  to  the 


Melon.— Mint.  229 

condition  of  the  fruit  which  should  be  three-parts  grown,  cauli- 
flower plants  may  be  set  amongst  the  melon  vines,  2ft.  apart. 
As  the  Melons  mature,  water  is  withheld  to  promote  ripening, 
but  as  soon  as  the  fruits  are  gathered  the  ground  is  cleared  of 
frames  and  vines  and  the  cauliflower  plants  are  given  a  good 
watering.  There  is  thus  a  crop  of  cauliflowers  immediately 
following  the  Melons,  and  they  should  be  ready  for  market  in 
September. 

Varieties  : — For  the  forced  and  early  crops,  Prescott  Early 
Frame  and  Early  Black  Rock.  For  moderately  early  and 
main  crops,  Large  Rock  Prescott  Cantaloup,  Silvery  Prescott 
Cantaloup,  and  Parisian  Cantaloup. 


M 


MINT. 

Mentha  viridis. 

INT  (known  also  as  Spear-mint,  Pea-mint,  and  Lamb- 
mint)  is  a  very  popular  herb ;  it  can  be  made  a  source 
of  considerable  profit  when  grown  and  forced  for  market,  and 
its  culture  should  never  be  omitted  by  the  grower  who  does  a 
direct  trade. 

The  plant,  which  is  a  perennial,  will  grow  in1  almost  any  soil, 
but  thrives  best  in  one  which  is  damp,  cool,  and  fairly  rich. 
It  is  propagated  by  division  of  the  creeping  roots  in  October 
or  March,  or  by  cuttings  dibbled  in  during  the  early  part  of 
the  summer.  When  the  former  method  is  adopted  lay  the 
roots  thinly  in  wide  drills,  3m.  deep  and  12in.  apart,  then  cover 
with  soil  and  make  all  level.  In  the  latter  case  set  the  cuttings 
Sin.  apart  in  the  row  and  1ft.  between  the  rows.  Water  well 
in  dry  weather.  The  soil  should  be  quite  free  from  weeds,  as 
a  plantation  is  difficult  to  clean  when  the  Mint  begins  to  grow 
freely,  and  when  choked  with  weeds  it  soon  becomes  useless. 
In  the  autumn  cut  down  and  burn  the  tops  and  cover  the  bed 
all  over  with  2in.  of  well-decayed  manure. 

A  bed,  if  properly  attended  to,  will  last  in  good  condition  for 
several  years,  but  in  gardens  where  the  growing  of  mint  is 
made  a  regular  feature  it  should  form  part  of  the  regular 
rotation.  If  a  fresh  bed  is  laid  down  each  year,  one  can  be 


230  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

lifted  for  forcing  at  the  end  of  the  third  season,  and  each 
year  afterwards. 

Forcing  and  forwarding  is  carried  on  from  November  to 
May.  Both  operations  are  quite  easy  of  accomplishment.  To 
force,  make  up  a  hot-bed  from  1ft.  to  2ft.  thick  according  to  the 
season,  and  cover  with  Gin.  of  soil.  Put  a  box-frame  on  this, 
and  when  the  heat  has  fallen  to  65  degrees  lay  the  roots  inside, 
closely  together,  then  cover  with  fine  soil,  water  well,  and  put 
on  the  lights,  leaving  them  open  slightly  at  the  top.  Cover  at 
night  with  mats.  Cut  when  the  shoots  are  Sin.  or  Gin.  long. 
For  a  continuous  supply  a  fresh  bed  should  be  made  up  each 
month  through  the  winter.  If  only  a  small  quantity  is  required, 
this  may  be  obtained  by  putting  the  roots  in  a  box  of  moist  soil, 
and  keeping  it  in  a  temperature  of  about  60  degrees. 

Forwarding  is  done  by  placing  shallow  box-frames  over 
open-air  beds  at  the  end  of  February.  The  frames  should  be 
covered  with  mats  until  growth  begins  and  each  night  after- 
wards. With  this  purpose  in  view,  beds  of  the  proper  dimen- 
sions should  be  planted. 


MUSHROOMS. 

Agaricus  campestris. 

THERE  is  scarcely  any  fear  of  over-doing  the  production 
of  Mushrooms,  as  the  supply  is  seldom  equal  to  the 
demand,  which  is  constantly  increasing.  Moreover,  it  is  a 
culture  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  grower  who  aims  at 
working  the  ground  intensively,  for  not  only  is  a  Mushroom 
crop  profitable  in  itself,  but  the  spent  manure  which  is  left 
after  the  crop  is  gathered  forms  an  ideal  material  for  carrying 
out  most  of  the  intensive  operations  mentioned  in  this  book, 
and  viewed  from  this  standpoint  the  culture  yields  double 
profits.  Indeed,  since  spent  manure  is  so  largely  used  in  inten- 
sive work  there  must  be  some  regular  source  of  supply,  and 
it  is  usually  obtained  either  from  exhausted  hot-beds  or  from 
Mushroom  beds  which  have  ceased  bearing.  In  the  latter  case 
Mushroom  culture  might  be  regarded  as  the  foundation  of 
intensive  culture,  and  if  the  crop  did  no  more  than  clear 


Mushrooms. 


231 


expenses  and  supply  the  garden  with  spent  manure  free  of 
cost,  such  a  result,  although  not  wholly  satisfactory,  would  at 
least  be  a  long  step  in  the  direction  of  ultimate  profits. 

Mushroom  growing  is  not  at  all  difficult,  providing  a  supply 
of  good  horse  manure  and  good  spawn  can  be  obtained,  and 
the  proper  conditions  are  carefully  observed,  but  as  so  many 
who  have  tried  to  grow  them  have  met  with  failure,  or  with 
indifferent  success,  it  is  necessary  to  exercise  caution,  and 
the  inexperienced  person  should  be  content  to  make  his  first 
attempts  on  a  moderate  scale.  At  the  same  time,  if  the  follow- 
ing directions  are  carried  out  in  every  detail  there  is  very  little 
doubt  of  a  satisfactory  result. 

Although  Mushrooms  can  be 
grown  at  any  season  of  the  year 
the  most  suitable  period  for 
general  purposes  is  in  autumn, 
winter,  and  spring.  As,  how- 
ever, one  of  the  chief  difficulties 
of  Mushroom  growing  in  the 
winter  is  the  maintenance  of  a 
proper  temperature,  it  will  be 
best  for  the  beginner  to  start 
making  his  beds  about  mid- 
summer. This  will  ensure  them 
being  made  under  the  best 
natural  conditions,  and  they  will  begin  to  bear  before  the  cold 
winter  days  come,  thus  making  success  more  certain  in  the 
beginning  and  enabling  the  grower  to  gain  valuable  experience 
in  favourable  circumstances. 

Mushroom  growing  can  be  carried  on  practically  anywhere — 
in  cellars,  sheds,  frames,  glasshouses,  or  in  the  open-air — the 
essential  point  being  to  maintain  an  even  temperature  of  from 
55  to  60  degrees.  For  winter  production  it  is  very  advisable 
that  the  beds  be  made  under  cover,  as  then  the  proper  temper- 
ature can  be  more  easily  maintained  and  the  work  of  gathering 
can  proceed  more  conveniently  and  without  the  many  interrup- 
tions caused  by  bad  weather.  When  the  beds  are  made  in  the 
open-air  or  in  an  unheated  structure  they  should  be  in  the 
form  of  a  ridge,  but  when  in  a  place  where  the  surrounding 


Mushrooms. 


232  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

temperature  can  be  maintained  artificially,  such  as  a  heated 
greenhouse,  they  may  be  made  flat.  The  advantage  of  the 
ridge-shaped  bed  over  a  flat  one  for  a  cold  situation  is  that  by 
having  a  greater  and  more  compact  mass  of  fermenting  manure 
in  a  given  space  it  maintains  its  heat  longer,  and  when  in  the 
open  it  throws  off  the  rains  and  is  not  liable  to  become  satur- 
ated and  spoiled  by  wet.  The  advantage  of  a  flat  bed  for  a 
warm  structure  is  that  it  is  much  more  easy  to  make  and 
attend  to,  although  as  it  loses  its  heat  quickly  the  crop  is 
sooner  over  Whatever  may  be  the  situation  selected  for  the 
beds,  it  is  essential  that  the  ground  b6  dry;  if  it  is  wet  the 
damp  will  rise  in  the  bed  and  destroy  all  prospect  of  a  crop. 

Manure. — A  supply  of  suitable  manure  is  the  most  important 
preliminary  step  in  Mushroom  growing.  It  should  come  from 
the  stables  of  horses  fed  on  hard  corn  and  hay  and  littered 
with  straw ;  manure  containing  peat,  sawdust,  or  shavings  is 
quite  unsuitable  and  should  never  be  used.  When  the  culture 
is  to  be  undertaken  systematically  it  is  best  to  arrange  for  a 
regular  supply  in  large  or  small  quantities  either  from  one  of 
the  manure  contractors  who  attend  to  this  business  in  most 
large  towns,  or  from  a  local  stable.  By  such  an  arrangement 
there  is  always  the  certainty  of  having  the  manure  ready  to 
hand  at  the  time  when  it  is  wanted,  and  irritating  delays  and 
loss  of  valuable  time  are  thus  avoided.  When  it  cannot  be 
immediately  used  it  should  be  put  in  high  narrow  stacks  with 
the  tops  sharply  pitched  to  throw  off  rain,  and  with  "chimneys" 
or  ventilating  shafts  at  intervals  to  prevent  it  from  overheating. 
Stored  in  this  manner  the  manure  remains  dry  and  retains 
most  of  its  virtues.  When  the  beds  are  to  be  made,  the  longest 
stored  of  this  dry  manure  is  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
fresh,  and  although  the  resulting  heat  is  not  so  great  as  when 
it  is  all  fresh,  it  needs  less  turning  and  the  bed  keeps  a  gentle 
warmth  for  a  longer  period. 

Mushroom  Spawn. — The  cultivated  Mushroom  is  the  same 
kind  as  that  which  grows  in  the  open  fields  in  the  autumn.  The 
Mushroom  itself  is  really  only  the  flower  or  bloom,  the  real 
plant  being  the  fine  network  of  whitish  threads  which  run  in 
the  fibrous  soil  below.  Those  threads  form  the  spawn  or 
"  mycelium  "  of  the  mushroom.  The  growth  of  this  spawn  is 


Mushrooms.  233 

suspended  in  dry  weather  or  in  a  low  temperature,  but  becomes 
active  when  under  the  influence  of  warmth  and  moisture,  and 
it  is  during  this  activity  that  the  flowers  or  Mushrooms  are 
produced.  These,  as  they  become  matured,  yield  from  the 
"  gills  "  beneath  the  "  cap  "  vast  numbers  of  spores,  which  in  a 
state  of  nature  serve  to  perpetuate  the  plant.  Although  the 
Mushroom  may  be  grown  from  these  seeds  or  spores  this  is 
never  done  except  for  experimental  or  scientific  purposes ;  in 
all  ordinary  methods  of  culture  artificially  propagated  spawn 
is  used.  This  spawn  is  prepared  by  persons  experienced  in  its 
manufacture,  and  is  sold  ready  for  use  in  the  form  of  bricks 
or  cakes,  which  vary  slightly  in  size,  but  are  usually  about 
9in.  long,  Gin.  broad,  and  2in.  thick ;  sixteen  of  these  bricks  are 
reckoned  as  a  bushel.  The  spawn  is  made  by  the  admixture 
of  certain  proportions  of  manure  and  soil,  formed  into  cakes 
and  inoculated  with  the  mycelium  of  previous  spawn.  Under 
proper  conditions  of  warmth  and  moisture  these  cakes  or  bricks 
become  permeated  with  the  web-like  film  of  the  Mushroom 
plant.  Good  spawn  is  quite  as  essential  to  success  as  is  good 
manure.  Experienced  persons  can,  by  breaking  and  examining 
a  brick  of  spawn,  readily  form  an  opinion  as  to  its  quality,  but 
the  beginner  must  trust  to  supplies  obtained  from  some  firm  of 
good  repute,  doing  a  large  and  steady  business.  Fresh  spawn 
should  always  have  the  preference,  but  when  more  has  been 
obtained  than  can  be  used  at  the  time,  the  surplus  can  be  kept 
in  good  condition  for  a  long  time  if  stored  in  a  place  which  is 
cool,  dry,  and  dark. 

Soil. — The  best  soil  for  covering  the  beds  is  a  good  loam 
containing  plenty  of  fibre.  An  ideal  soil  for  the  purpose  would 
be  one  obtained  from  the  top  spit  cut  from  a  rich  old  pasture. 
This  should  be  stacked  grass  side  downwards  for  a  year,  with 
a  good  sprinkling  of  lime  between  each  layer,  and  then  be 
broken  down  fine  when  wanted  for  use.  It  is  not  always 
possible  to  obtain  such  choice  material,  in  which  case  the  best 
at  command  must  be  used.  Recently  manured  soils  or  any  of 
a  peaty  nature  are  unsuitable.  Clay,  too,  should  be  avoided, 
as  it  frequently  produces  a  fungus  which  Destroys  the  Mush- 
rooms. Any  ordinary  garden  soil,  or  the  surface  soil  from  a 
ploughed  field,  so  long  as  they  are  free  from  manure,  will  do 


234  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

for  the  purpose.  The  quality  of  the  soil  has  an  influence  in 
determining  the  number  and  size  of  the  Mushrooms.  If  light 
sandy  soil  is  used  they  will  be  plentiful  but  small,  whilst  with 
a  heavy  soil  they  will  be  less  numerous  but  large  and  fleshy. 
When  the  soil  is  very  heavy  the  admixture  of  a  small  portion 
of  sand  will  improve  it;  in  any  case  it  should  be  prepared 
beforehand,  by  being  finely  broken,  mixed  with  a  little  powdered 
lime,  and  made  moist,  but  not  wet,  throughout. 

Preparation  of  the  Manure. — When  the  bed  is  to  be  made, 
select  a  piece  of  ground  close  at  hand  which  is  hard  and  dry. 
On  this  place  the  fresh  manure  and  if  some  that  has  been 
stored  is  to  be  mixed  with  it  place  the  two  heaps  side  by  side. 
Next  proceed  to  shake  the  manure  out,  breaking  all  lumps  and 
throwing  out  all  long  straw.  When  there  are  two  heaps  take 
some  from  each  alternately,  so  that  the  fresh  and  the  stored 
will  be  well  blended.  As  the  work  proceeds,  all  dry  parts  must 
be  watered,  as  although  eventually  the  manure  must  not  be  too 
wet,  it  is  a  much  more  serious  mistake  to  have  it  too  dry.  Do 
not  saturate  the  manure  with  water,  but  give  sufficient  to  make 
it  nicely  moist  throughout.  Make  it  into  a  compact  heap, 
beating  each  layer  a  little  with  the  fork  as  the  heap  is  built  up. 
In  from  one  to  three  or  four  days,  according  to  the  newness  or 
otherwise  of  the  manure,  the  heap  will  have  become  very  hot, 
when  it  must  be  again  turned,  and  if  still  too  dry  watered 
again.  This  second  watering  must  be  the  last,  as  repeated 
waterings  have  a  tendency  to  make  the  manure  sour.  It 
must  be  turned  from  two  to  four  times,  or  until  it  is  in  a 
proper  condition,  and  at  each  turning  the  outside  of  the  heap 
should  be  thrown  to  the  middle  and  that  which  was  at  the 
middle  brought  to  the  outside,  so  that  all  may  undergo  the 
fermenting  and  sweetening  process.  When  the  manure  is  in  a 
fit  condition  for  making  into  the  bed  it  will  be  of  an  even  dark 
brown  colour,  soft  and  moist,  cohesive  under  pressure  "but  not 
so  wet  as  to  part  with  any  moisture  even  when  tightly  squeezed 
in  the  hand ;  lastly,  it  should  be  almost  free  of  smell,  and  what 
remains  should  be  rather  sweet  and  suggestive  of  Mushrooms. 
When  the  manure  is  in  this  condition,  and  not  until,  it  is  ready 
to  be  made  into  beds. 

Ridge  Beds. — The  situation  for  beds  in  the  open-air  should 


Mushrooms.  235 

be,  when  possible,  one  which  has  shelter  of  some  sort  on  the 
north  and  east,  so  that  the  heat  may  not  be  driven  out  by  cold 
winds.  When  made  in  the  summer  months  a  ridge  bed  should 
be  2ft.  6in.  wide  at  the  bottom  and  the  same  in  height,  but 
when  made  to  stand  the  winter,  say  from  the  middle  of 
September  to  the  end  of  January,  it  should  be  3ft.  wide  and 
3ft.  high.  The  length  is  immaterial  and  may  be  made  to  suit 
convenience.  Before  beginning  to  make  the  bed  mark  out  the 
site  carefully,  by  putting  in  pegs  at  each  end  and  at  intervals 
along  the  length.  If  the  ground  is  flat  the  bed  should  run 
north  and  south,  so  that  the  sun  may  play  equally  on  both 
sides  of  it,  but  if  the  ground  slopes  it  is  best  to  let  the  bed  run  in 
the  direction  of  the  slope,  especially  when  there  are  several 
side  by  side,  so  that  rainwater  may  pass  away  freely.  Begin 
making  the  bed  by  shaking  out  a  layer  of  manure  Gin.  thick,  and 
on  this  shake  out  a  second  layer  of  6in.,  then  tread  it  down 
firmly  and  whilst  standing  on  the  bed  beat  the  sides  into  shape 
with  the  back  of  the  fork.  Add  another  foot  in  the  same  way, 
afterwards  treading  and  beating  it  as  before.  This  operation 
is  repeated  a  third  time,  when  the  bed  will  have  risen  to  within 
Gin.  or  so  of  the  top.  The  sides  should  have  been  sloped 
inwards,  like  the  roof  of  a  house,  but  not  so  much  so  as  to 

make  the  apex  too 
narrow ;  when  the 
bed  is  built  to  within 
Gin.  of  the  intended 
height  it  should  be 
1ft.  across  and  the 

remaining  portion  is 
Ridge-shaped  Mushroom  Bed.  added     .fl     Qrder     tQ 

A-The  Manure.  B-The  Soil  Casing.  rQund  it  off<       Before 

C— The  Straw  Covering.  .  . 

this  last  layer  is  put 

on  the  sides  of  the  bed  should  be  smoothed  and  loose  manure 
removed ;  this,  and  any  which  has  been  scattered  on  the  ground 
along  the  margin  of  the  bed,  can  be  gathered  together  and  will 
generally  be  found  sufficient  for  the  top  layer.  After  this  is  put 
on  it  is  well  beaten  with  the  back  of  the  fork,  no  more  treading 
being  done.  As  soon  as  finished,  cover  the  bed  with  litter  to 
prevent  the  rain  from  wetting  or  the  sun  or  wind  from  drying  it. 


236  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Flat  Beds. — These  are  made  in  sheds,  barns,  cellars,  glass- 
houses, and  in  fact  in  any  places  which  afford  protection  from 
the  weather.  The  length  and  width  is  determined  by  the  space 
available,  but  the  thickness  is  regulated  by  the  time  of  the  year 
and  the  temperature  which  can  be  maintained.  Beds  made  in 
July  and  August  need  not  be  more  than  Gin.  to  9in.  deep;  in 
cold  structures  from  September  to  end  of  February  they 
should  be  made  15in.  deep.  During  the  same  period  in  places 
where  the  temperature  does  not  fall  much  below  55  degrees, 
the  depth  need  not  be  more  than  lOin.  to  12in.,  but  they  should 
be  made  a  little  deeper  on  the  side  which  comes  in  contact  with 
an  outside  wall.  In  making  the  bed  the  manure  should  be 
shaken  out  and  well  trodden  down  in  successive  layers  of  about 
Gin.  until  it  has  reached  the  desired  depth.  When  finished  it 
should  be  uniform  in  depth,  well  compacted  throughout,  and 
with  a  level  surface. 

Spawning. — During  the  first  few  days  after  the  beds  are 
made  the  temperature  will  rise  to  a  considerable  height  and 
will  then  begin  to  fall.  Sometimes  when  the  bed  gets  very  hot 
it  is  necessary  to  make  ventilating  holes  in  it  to  let  off  some  of 
the  surplus  heat  as  quickly  as  possible.  This  is  not  likely  to 
happen  to  a  flat  bed  unless  made  extra  thick.  To  reduce  the 
heat  in  a  ridge  bed  get  an  iron  bar  about  lin.  in  diameter,  and 
make  holes  along  the  ridge  about  1ft.  apart,  from  the  top  to 
within  9in.  of  the  bottom.  When  the  heat  has  fallen  to  80 
degrees  Sin.  below  the  surface  the  bed  is  ready  for  spawning. 
Each  brick  of  spawn  should  be  broken  into  eight  or  ten  pieces : 
very  small  pieces  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible  as 
they  generally  result  in  small  Mushrooms.  The  spawn  is  set 
in  the  bed  in  rows  9in.  apart  and  the  same  distance  between 
the  pieces,  each  row  being  placed  so  that  the  pieces  fall  opposite 
the  interval  between  the  pieces  in  the  next  row.  Each  piece 
is  buried  about  its  own  depth  below  the  surface  of  the  manure. 
Holes  are  made  in  the  manure  with  the  left  hand  and  the  pieces 
of  spawn  are  inserted  with  the  right  hand,  then  the  manure  is 
pressed  tightly  round  it  and  all  made  level  again.  Never  use 
a  dibber  to  make  the  holes,  as  the  smooth  sides  of  the  hole 
so  made  offer  an  obstacle  to  the  growth  of  the  mycelium. 
When  the  spawn  is  hard  and  dry,  especially  in  the  warm 


Mushrooms.  237 

months,  the  bricks  should  be  put  to  soak  in  tepid  water  for  an 
hour  or  so  before  being  broken.  As  soon  as  spawning  is 
completed,  cover  outside  beds  again  with  litter. 

Casing  or  Soiling. — In  about  a  week  after  spawning  the  films 
of  the  mycelium  will  begin  to  run  if  the  spawn  is  good  and  the 
work  has  been  properly  done,  and  the  time  has  arrived  when 
the  bed  must  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  soil,  which  should  be 
in  a  rather  moist  condition  but  not  wet.  The  covering  of  flat 
beds  presents  no  difficulty.  The  soil  should  be  put  on  evenly 
about  lin.  thick  and  beaten  lightly  with  the  back  of  a  spade  so 
as  to  present  a  smooth  even  surface.  In  the  case  of  ridge  beds 
the  operation  is  not  so  easily  done,  especially  for  beginners,  but 
like  most  other  things  it  becomes  easy  with  practice.  A  good 
plan  is  to  lay  a  plank  flat  on  the  ground  with  the  edge  2in.  from 
the  bed.  This  serves  as  a  guage  for  the  thickness  of  the  casing 
besides  helping  to  keep  the  first  layer  of  soil  in  position.  The 
soil  should  be  2in.  thick  at  the  bottom  of  the  bed,  gradually 
reducing  in  thickness 'until  it  is  only  fin.  thick  over  the  top. 
The  reason  for  the  reduction  in  thickness  is  to  provide  for  the 
shrinkage  of  the  bed,  which  always  takes  place  to  some  extent, 
and  if  the  casing  was  very  stiff  and  solid  it  might  be  left 
standing  independent  of  the  bed.  The  soil  is  thrown  into 
place  and  by  a  quick  turn  of  the  wrist  the  operator  catches  it 
with  the  back  of  the  spade  and  fixes  it.  It  is  then  lightly 
beaten,  and  after  a  section  is  put  on  the  beating  is  repeated  so 
as  to  ensure  all  being  firm  and  even.  Care  must  be  taken  that 
the  soil  is  in  the  right  condition.  When  so  wet  as  to  be  pasty 
it  cracks  badly  as  the  heat  from  the  bed  drives  off  the  excess 
of  moisture,  and  the  cracking  breaks  the  threads  of  mycelium 
and  so  impairs  the  crop.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  soil  is 
too  dry  it  is  not  only  difficult  to  make  a  satisfactory  job  of  the 
casing,  because  being  crumbly  it  will  not  adhere  properly  to 
the  sides  of  the  bed,  but  the  mycelium  does  not  run  freely 
through  it.  It  greatly  facilitates  the  work  if  the  spade  used  is 
kept  clean  and  bright. 

Covering  the  Beds. — As  soon  as  soiling  is  finished,  beds  in  the 
open-air  should  be  at  once  covered  with  litter  to  keep  in  the 
heat  and  to  prevent  the  surface  from  becoming  too  dry.  When 
the  weather  is  warm  this  covering  need  not  be  more  than  6in. 


238  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

thick,  but  accordingly  as  the  the  weather  is  colder  or  the  wind 
strong  the  covering  must  be  thicker,  until  in  severe  weather  as 
much  as  15in.  or  even  18in.  is  req'uired.  The  longest  of  the 
litter  should  be  placed  over  the  top  of  the  bed  in  such  a  way 
as  to  throw  off  rain  and  prevent  it  saturating  the  bed.  During 
winter  outside  beds  should  have  tarpaulin,  canvas,  or  mats 
put  over  the  litter  to  give  additional  protection  against  cold, 
rain,  snow,  and  keen  cutting  winds.  Such  coverings  should 
be  securely  fastened  down  by  strings,  pegs,  or  other  means,  sa 
as  not  to  be  disturbed  by  the  wind. 

Beds  in  buildings  do  not  need  covering  whilst  the  weather  is 
mild,  and  in  houses  where  a  proper  temperature  is  maintained 
by  the  aid  of  hot-water  pipes  they  do  not  need  covering  with 
li.tter  at  any  time.  Beds  in  cold  houses  and  sheds  must,  how- 
ever, be  well  protected  with  straw  or  litter  according  to  the 
season,  from  Gin.  to  1ft.  in  depth  being  required. 

Heat  of  the  Bed. — It  is  always  possible  that  the  heat  of  the 
bed  may  rise  again  after  casing  and  'covering,  or  in  cold 
weather  it  may  fall  below  the  point  where  the  mycelium  will 
work  and  the  Mushrooms  grow.  For  this  reason  sticks  should 
be  inserted  at  intervals  along  the  bed,  and  these  should  be 
withdrawn  and  felt  daily  for  the  first  week  or  so.  If  the  heat 
has  risen  to  over  80  degrees,  some  of  the  covering  must  be 
thrown  off,  but  if  it  has  fallen  below  60  degrees,  more  must  be 
added.  If  it  goes  down  and  remains  at  a  point  where  the 
Mushrooms  cannot  grow,  say  below  45  degrees,  there  is  nothing 
for  it  but  patience.  Providing  the  spawn  was  good  and  has 
not  been  destroyed  by  overheating  or  by  the  bed  becoming 
saturated  with  moisture,  it  will  lie  dormant  until  there  is  a 
natural  rise  of  temperature,  and  will  probably  bear  well  in  the 
following  spring  or  summer.  Ordinarily,  when  the  conditions 
are  right,  the  Mushrooms  begin  to  appear  in  six  or  eight  weeks 
after  spawning.  Under  very  favourable  conditions  they  will 
sometimes  appear  in  four  weeks,  though  this  is  rare.  In  any 
case,  it  is  certain  that  if  the  spawn  is  good  and  the  manure 
properly  prepared  the  Mushrooms  will  appear  sooner  or  later, 
and  therefore  patience  should  be  exercised,  and  every  effort 
made  to  maintain  the  proper  temperature  of  the  bed  by  suitable 
coverings  or  otherwise. 


Mushrooms.  239 

Watering. — Moisture  in  the  beds  is  essential  to  success.  A 
bed  which  is  too  dry  will  be  unproductive.  But  in  many  cases 
an  otherwise  good  bed  is  frequently  spoiled  by  the  too  frequent 
use  of  the  water  can.  No  water  at  all  ought  to  be  necessary 
during  the  first  month  after  soiling.  At  the  end  of  that  time  if 
the  soil  appears  to  be  getting  dry  a  little  may  be  given  through 
a  fine  rose,  but  if  the  soil  is  still  moist  this  will  not  be  neces- 
sary. Another  watering  may  be  given  after  the  first  abundant 
gathering  of  Mushrooms.  Always  use  tepid  water  and  give 
sufficient  to  moisten  the  soil.  In  dealing  with  open-air  beds  or 
those  in  cold  houses  it  is  better  to  give  the  water  over  the  litter 
instead  of  directly  on  the  surface  of  the  bed,  and  in  that  case 
the  water  given  should  be  quite  hot.  In  any  case,  immediately 
after  watering  the  coverings  of  the  bed  must  be  restored  or 
the  temperature  will  be  seriously  lowered  by  rapid  evaporation. 
Each  of  these  waterings  should  be  done  with  clear  water  only, 
but  when  the  crop  begins  to  diminish  it  may  be  stimulated  and 
made  to  last  a  longer  time  if,  after  the  bed  is  cleared  of  Mush- 
rooms, the  soil  is  saturated  with  weak  liquid  manure ;  or  a  weak 
solution  of  guano  or  saltpetre  will  have  the  same  effect. 

It  must  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  that  whilst  the  beds 
should  not  become  too  dry,  the  greatest  care  must  be  exercised 
to  see  that  they  do  not  get  over-wet,  as  there  is  almost  sure  to 
be  a  failure  if  they  are  drenched.  A  moist  atmosphere  should 
be  maintained:  this  is  provided  for  to  some  extent  by  the 
covering  on  the  beds,  which  keeps  the  air  close  to  the  surface 
in  a  moist  condition,  but  in  houses  where  no  covering  is  used, 
it  is  necessary  to  occasionally  sprinkle  water  on  the  walls  and 
paths,  so  that  the  right  conditions  may  be  maintained  by  evapo- 
ration, and  where  hot-water  pipes  are  used  in  the  winter  they 
should  have  evaporating  troughs  placed  on  them,  kept  filled 
with  water.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the  conditions  appear 
to  be  too  damp  and  the  atmosphere  stagnant  it  is  advisable  to 
give  a  little  ventilation. 

Beds  in  Odd  Places. — Provided  the  mode  of  procedure  and 
the  conditions  prevailing  are  such  as  are  suitable  to  their 
requirements,  Mushrooms  may  be  grown  almost  anywhere  and 
the  beds  may  be  of  any  size  or  shape  desired.  They  may  be 
grown  in  the  cellar  of  an  ordinary  dwelling-house  without  the 


240 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


manure  being  in  any  way  objectionable,  as  it  can  be  prepared 
outside  and  the  beds  carried  in  ready-made,  in  boxes,  in  old 

tubs,  or  on  plain  flat 
boards.  Space  for 
beds  may  not  only  be 
found  on  the  floors 
of  stables,  sheds,  and 
out-houses,  but  where 
this  is  limited  the 
walls  may  also  be 

Copyright,  V.  A,  &  Co. 


Movable  Mushroom  Bed  on  Flat  Board. 


utilised,  by  fitting 
them  up  with  shelves 
made  of  stout -boards. 
These  should  not  be  fixed,  but  should  be  arranged  on  brackets 
so  that  they  can  be  readily  carried  outside  for  cleansing  and 
renewal  of  the  beds. 
In  all  such  cases  the 
shelves  should  have 
ample  space  left  be- 
tween them  for  con- 
venience in  giving 
necessary  attention 
and  gathering,  and 
the  details  of  culture 
already  given  fully 
carried  out,  the  man- 
ure being  made  com- 
pact by  being  beaten 
with  a  mallet.  Space 
may  also  be  econo- 
mised by  making 
beds  in  boxes  and 
standing  these  one 
above  another,  with  a  copyright,  V.A.&  Co. 
space  between  each. 
Ordinary  frames  are 
serviceable  for  the  same  purpose,  and  crops  may  be  obtained 
in  autumn  by  inserting  lumps  of  spawn  during  the  summer  in 
melon  or  cucumber  beds. 


Movable  Mushroom  Beds  against  a  Wall. 


Mushrooms  24 1 

Gathering  and  Packing. — When  the  beds  begin  to  bear,  the 
Mushrooms  should  be  gathered  regularly  and  frequently — at 
least  two  or  three  times  a  week.  To  allow  them  to  get  too  far 
open  before  gathering  tends  to  exhaust  the  bed  and  shorten 
the  crop.  Every  one  that  is  gathered  should  be  pulled  out 
with  a  slight  twist,  so  that  the  base  of  the  stem  comes  clean 
away.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  cut  or  break  the  stems  and 
to  allow  the  bottoms  to  remain  in  the  bed  with  the  idea  of 
later  getting  the  few  small  ones  which  generally  show  at  the 
foot  of  a  large  one.  Such  a  plan,  by  leaving  the  old  stumps  in 
the  bed  to  decay,  encourages  insect  pests  and  fungoid  diseases, 
and  thus  materially  lessens  the  crop.  The  person  who  is 
gathering  should  always  carry  a  knife  for  the  purpose  of 
cutting  clean  out  the  roots  of  any  which  have  broken  off,  and 
all  Mushrooms  which  are  looking  dead  and  withered  should 
also  be  dug  completely  out  in  the  same  way.  A  basket  con- 
taining moist  soil  similar  to  that  used  in  casing  the  bed  should 
always  be  kept  at  hand  so  that  all  holes  made  in  the  bed  may 
be  filled  at  once.  Great  care  is  needed  in  handling  the  Mush- 
rooms to  avoid  bruising  them,  the  least  touch  on  the  tender 
gills  causing  them  to  become  discoloured.  They  should  be 
gathered  into  three  separate  baskets,  in  one  of  which  would  be 
put  the  largest  and  best  looking  fully  open  ones,  known  as 
"  broilers,"  in  another  the  smaller  half-opened  and  small  round 
undeveloped  ones,  known  as  "  cups  "  and  "  buttons,"  and  in  the 
third  the  rough  and  broken  ones.  They  must  be  very  carefully 
placed  in  the  baskets  stem  downwards  to  prevent  any  soil 
falling  into  the  gills,  any  adhering  soil  being  cleaned  off  in 
the  packing  shed  with  a  piece  of  flannel.  When  they  are 
gathered  under  cover  it  is  a  good  plan  to  cut  off  the  bottom  of 
the  stem  at  once  as  soon  as  they  are  removed  from  the  bed 
and  before  putting  them  in  the  basket.  *  When  gathering  from 
outside  beds  in  severe  weather  they  should  be  picked  very 
closely  so  as  not  to  have  to  expose  the  bed  too  frequently,  and 
only  a  small  portion  should  be  uncovered  at  one  time,  and  this 
should  be  re-covered  as  soon  as  the  Mushrooms  are  gathered. 
The  produce  after  being  graded  as  indicated  above  is  packed, 
stalks  downwards,  in  "  handle  baskets  "  supplied  by  the  market 
salesmen,  generally  in  quantities  weighing  from  41bs.  to  61bs. 

16 


242  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Cleanliness. — Strict  cleanliness  is  essential  to  continued 
success  in  the  culture  of  Mushrooms.  When  stems  and  roots 
are  dug  out  of  the  beds,  or  when  the  base  of  the  stalk  is  cut  off 
whilst  gathering,  every  fragment  must  be  put  into  a  basket 
kept  at  hand  for  that  purpose,  and  carried  away  to  the  rubbish 
heap.  Houses,  paths,  and  in  fact  the  whole  surroundings  of 
the  beds  must  at  all  times  be  kept  clear  of  the  dead  fungus. 
After  beds  in  sheds  and  houses  have  finished  bearing  and  the 
manure  is  cleared  away,  they  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
out  and  ventilated,  the  walls  limewashed,  and  the  ground 
sprinkled  with  lime.  Shelves  on  which  Mushrooms  have  been 
grown  should  also  be  subjected  to  thorough  cleansing  and 
limewashing.  In  this  way,  and  by  the  use  of  lime  in  the  soil 
used  for  casing  the  beds,  the  various  insect  pests  and  fungoid 
diseases  to  which  Mushrooms  are  subject  will  never  assume 
formidable  dimensions. 


MUSTARD    and    CRESS. 

Sinapis  alba.        Lepidium  sativum. 

THE  grower  who  does  a  direct  supply  trade  will  find  it  to 
his  advantage,  both  as  regards  satisfying  his  customers 
and  in  the  resultant  profit,  to  produce  regular  supplies  of 
Mustard  and  Cress,  especially  during  winter  and  spring.  It  is 
easily  grown,  either  in  glass-houses  or  on  mild  hot-beds  during 
the  winter,  in  cold  frames  later  in  the  spring,  and  in  the  open 
air  as  soon  as  the  weather  becomes  warm  and  genial. 

When  Mustard  and  Cress  is  done  well  it  is  tender,  with  good 
bold  leaves,  and  to  get  it  in  this  condition  it  must  be  grown 
quickly.  To  this  end  it  needs  light  rich  soil,  a  temperature 
hovering  round  60  degrees,  and  a  rather  moist  but  buoyant 
atmosphere.  WThen  there  is  a  heated  greenhouse  available 
it  may  be  grown  in  any  vacant  spaces,  either  in  boxes,  directly 
on  the  ground,  or  on  benches,  but  where  there  is  no  such  con- 
venience for  winter  work  hot-beds  must  be  used.  These  should 
be  made  in  the  manner  described  for  French  gardening  work, 
and  the  following  description  of  the  preparation  of  the  seed- 
bed applies  equally  to  any  of  the  methods  adopted. 


Mustard  and  Cress.  243 

Break  up  with  a  fork  some  old  hot-bed  manure,  repeating 
the  operation  several  times  until  it  is  fairly  fine  and  damping 
it  well  during  the  process.  Then  sift  it,  and  use  2in.  of  the 
lumps  as  a  foundation  directly  on  the  hot-bed,  or  in  any  other 
place  where  the  seed-bed  is  to  be  made,  and  on  this  put  2in.  of 
the  fine  sifted  material.  Then  press  down  evenly  all  over  with 
the  firming  board.  The  seed  may  now  be  sown  directly  upon 
this  or,  as  is  now  frequently  done  in  market  places,  the  bed 
may  first  be  covered  with  a  piece  of  open-meshed  sacking,  pre- 
viously soaked  in  water.  This  prevents  any  possibility  of  soil 
being  carried  upward  amongst  the  stems  or  leaves  during 
germination. 


Mustard  and  Cress,  in  Punnets. 

The  Cress  being  slower  to  move  should  be  sown  three  days 
before  the  Mustard,  in  order  that  both  may  be  ready  to  cut  at 
the  same  time,  and  one-third  less  of  the  former  should  be  sown. 
Sow  thickly  and  evenly,  but  do  not  cover  with  soil.  Cover  the 
seed  with  brown  paper,  or  if  sown  in  a  frame  cover  it  with  mats. 
Remove  these  when  the  Mustard  has  been  sown  three  days. 
Covering  in  this  manner  has  the  effect  of  lengthening  the 
stems.  A  little  air  must  be  admitted  to  the  frames  each  day. 
If  the  soil  and  sacking  are  properly  moist  no  watering  will  be 
required.  Several  crops  in  succession  can  be  grown  on  the 
same  bed,  but  all  roots  must  be  cleared,  the  soil  stirred,  mois- 
tened, and  pressed  down,  and  the  sacking  damped  anew  for 
each  crop.  In  the  proper  temperature  the  Mustard  will  be 
ready  for  cutting  in  seven  or  eight  days  after  sowing,  and 
the  Cress  in  ten  or  eleven  days. 


244  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

When  ready,  the  crop  is  cut  half  an  inch  above  the  roots 
with  a  large  sharp  knife,  taking  a  breadth  of  about  Sin.  at  one 
cut.  It  is  then  packed  upright,  with  the  tops  as  level  as  possible, 
in  punnets  made  for  the  purpose,  the  Cress  going  in  a  shallow 
punnet  and  the  Mustard  in  a  deeper  one.  These  are  known  to 
the  makers  as  punnets  for  "  Hot  and  Cold,"  and  the  produce  is 
also  dealt  with  under  this  name  by  market  salesmen. 

Varieties : — White  Mustard  and  Curled  Cress  will  give  satis- 
factory results,  though  many  market  growers  now  substitute 
Rape  (Brassica  napus)  for  the  Mustard,  because  it  is  cheaper 
and  is  said  to  serve  the  purpose  equally  well. 


ONIONS. 

Allium  Cepa. 

ONIONS  are  appreciated  in  one  form  or  another  by  almost 
everyone,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  that  the  grower 
of  general  supplies  should  devote  a  fair-sized  area  to  their 
culture.  Fortunately,  they  will  grow  and  do  fairly  well  on 
almost  any  soil,  although  one  of  medium  texture,  inclining  to 
sandiness,  yields  the  best  and  most  profitable  crops ;  but  even 
a  clay  soil,  with  good  preparation,  may  be  made  to  produce  a 
very  satisfactory  crop  of  Onions. 

The  production 
of  Onions  for  sale 
may  be  considered 
as  occupying  three 
main  divisions — 
those  which  are 
sown  towards  the 
end  of  the  summer 
for  transplanting 
early  in  the  spring 
(these  are  known 
as  "autumn  sown"; 

Copyright,  V.  A.  *  Co.  thoge    ^^    ^  ^ 

same   date    to    be 

pulled  for  bunching  in  spring  ;  and  the  main  sowing  which  takes 
place  early  in  spring  to  produce  Onions  for  storing  and  sale  in 


Onions.  245 

the  winter  and  spring  following.  In  addition,  a  special 
business  is  made  of  growing  Onions  for  pickling,  and  this 
as  well  as  several  other  methods  of  growing  them  will  be 
dealt  with  in  due  course. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — Adequate  preparation  of  the  soil 
is  necessary  to  the  production  of  a  good  crop  of  Onions.  With 
proper  treatment  almost  any  kind  of  soil  may  be  brought  into 
suitable  condition,  and  although  on  some  soils  this  may  be  a 
heavy  and  somewhat  expensive  matter  in  the  beginning,  it  has 
the  redeeming  feature  that  as  Onions  may  be  grown  year  after 
year  on  the  same  ground,  if  the  crop  does  not  make  profits  the 
first  year  it  will  probably  do  so  later,  and  further  that  if  Onions 
are  included  in  the  rotation,  as  is  recommended,  the  proper 
preparation  of  the  ground  for  this  crop  will  put  it  into  first- 
rate  condition  for  any  other  crop  in  the  garden. 

'As  a  preliminary,  see  that  the  drainage  is  good,  because 
where  there  is  stagnant  moisture  success  is  impossible.  Next, 
work  the  soil  deeply,  breaking  all  the  lumps,  and  put  a  good 
dressing  of  manure  between  the  top  and  bottom  spits.  This 
should,  if  possible,  be  in  a  well-decayed  condition,  but  if  such  is 
not  available  the  manure  may  be  given  fresh  providing  it  is  put 
into  the  ground  in  autumn  for  spring  sowing.  If  it  is  the  first 
time  of  preparing  the  ground  for  Onions,  manure  at  the  rate  of 
at  least  20  tons  to  the  acre  should  be  given,  with  10  to  15  tons 
each  year  afterwards.  Should  the  soil  be  very  light  it  will  be 
greatly  improved  if  a  dressing  of  clay  or  marl  is  spread  over 
and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  top  spit ;  sand  or  road  grit  may 
in  the  same  manner  be  used  to  lighten  clay.  On  heavy  land, 
in  addition  to  the  usual  pipe-drains,  it  is  advisable  to  arrange 
the  ground  in  beds  with  rather  deep  furrows  between,  which 
will  ensure  the  soil  being  soon  free  of  excessive  moisture  after 
heavy  rains.  The  beds  should  be  left  ridged  up  for  the  weather 
to  act  upon  through  the  winter,  and  then  if  pulled  down  and 
levelled  when  the  surface  is  dry  in  the  spring,  it  will  be  found 
mellow  and  well-pulverised,  and  in  a  kindly  state  for  receiving 
the  seed. 

Spring-sown  Onions. — When  the  ground  has  been  prepared 
as  indicated,  seed  may  be  sown  at  the  first  favourable  oppor- 
tunity after  the  end  of  February,  but  it  is  very  unwise  to  hurry 


246  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

this  operation  by  putting  in  the  seed  before  the  soil'  is  in  the 
proper  condition ;  the  surface  should  be  dry,  friable,  and  free 
from  stickiness;  it  is  better  to  defer  sowing  for  a  week,  or 
even  two,  if  necessary  to  get  a  really  good  seed-bed.  Drill  the 
seed  in  rows  from  9in.  to  12in.  apart,  according  to  the  variety 
to  be  grown  and  the  cleanliness  of  the  ground.  When  the 
variety  is  one  which  attains  only  a  moderate  size  and  the 
ground  is  clean  the  smaller  distance,  with  the  plants  ultimately 
thinned  out  to  Sin.  or  4in.  apart,  will  answer  very  well,  but 
when  the  ground  is  not  particularly  clean  or  one  of  the  larger 
sorts  of  Onions  is  grown,  12in.  between  the  rows,  with  the 
plants  standing  Gin.  apart,  is  close  enough.  Make  the  drills 
very  shallow,  so  that  the  seed  is  only  just  covered,  and  then, 
if  the  surface  is  dry,  tread  it  in  or  pass  a  roller  over  the 
ground.  On  heavy  ground  the  treading  or  rolling  must  be 
done  very  lightly,  or  omitted  altogether  if  the  surface  is  not 
quite  dry.  As  soon  as  the  lines  can  be  seen,  the  soil  between 
should  be  gently  hoed,  and  immediately  the  seedlings  are 
well  above  the  ground  they  should  be  thinned  with  a  2in.  hoe, 
but  care  should  be  taken  to  leave  a  good  plant.  A  few  weeks 
later  the  final  thinning  can  take  place,  and  on  this  occasion  the 
surplus  may  be  bunched  as  "  Spring  Onions,"  though  in  some 
seasons  it  scarcely  pays  to  send  them  into  the  market  so  late. 
The  hoe  must  be  kept  going  at  frequent  intervals  to  keep  the 
weeds  in  check,  for  nothing  is  more  detrimental  to  an  Onion 
crop  than  to  allow  weeds  to  make  headway.  In  hoeing,  be 
careful  not  to  move  the  soil  deeply  nor  to  draw  it  towards  the 
bulbs,  which  ought  to  be  on  top  of  the  soil  and  not  buried  in  it. 
Harvesting. — In  a  normal  season  the  Onions  will  begin  to 
ripen  soon  after  the  middle  of  August,  which  is  seen  by  the 
tops  changing  colour,  but  if  the  weather  is  cool  and  moist 
ripening  may  be  considerably  delayed,  in  which  case  growth 
should  be  checked  by  bending  over  the  tops  at  the  necks.  This 
may  be  done  with  a  wooden  rake,  held  teeth  upwards.  When 
the  tops  are  yellow  and  the  necks  shrunken,  usually  about  the 
middle  of  September,  they  are  ready  for  pulling,  and  advantage 
must  be  taken  of  fine  weather  to  draw  them  and  lay  them  out 
to  dry.  If  the  quantity  is  not  large  they  will  finish  off  better 
if  carried  to  a  piece  of  hard  dry  ground,  and  laid  with  their 


Onions.  247 

roots  turned  to  the  south,  but  when  a  large  breadth  is  grown 
they  must  be  ripened  where  they  grew.  After  a  few  days,  when 
thoroughly  dry,  they  should  be  topped,  cleared  of  loose  skins, 
and  stored  in  a  dry,  cool,  airy  place.  They  should  never  be  laid 
more  than  a  few  inches  deep  and  on  a  floor  or  in  trays  having 
a  bottom  of  narrow  laths  with  spaces  between,  so  that  a  current 
of  air  can  play  freely  around  them.  Damp  must  be  carefully 
guarded  against  or  they  will  not  keep.  One  of  the  very  best 
ways  to  keep  Onions  sound  through  the  winter  is  to  bunch  or 
rope  them.  When  bunched  they  may  be  strung  on  poles,  and 
in  this  way  a  large  quantity  may  be  stored  overhead  in  a  com- 
paratively small  shed  without  interfering  with  the  floor  space ; 
or  they  may  be  hung  on  pegs  on  an  outside  dry  wall.  A  few 
degrees  of  frost  will  not  harm  them,  and  if  it  comes  severe 
they  can  be  carried  inside  and  piled  in  a  heap  until  the  weather 
changes,  when  they  can  be  returned  to  the  wall  again. 

Autumn-sown  Onions. — For  these  select  ground  which  has 
been  liberally  treated  for  a  previous  crop.  As  soon  as  possible 
after  the  ground  is  cleared  it  should  be  dug  or  ploughed,  but 
not  deeply,  or  there  may  be  some  difficulty  in  the  dry  summer 
weather  in  getting  a  tilth  suitable  for  sowing.  If  the  land  is 
ploughed,  cross-ploughing  is  advisable,  followed  by  rolling, 
harrowing,  and  working  about  to  break  all  clods  and  get  a  fine 
tilth.  During  this  time  spread  and  work  in  suitable  fertilizers, 
as  indicated  at  the  conclusion  of  this  article.  Finish  the  work 
by  levelling  and  then  rolling  again  to  get  a  firm  seed-bed,  such 
as  this  plant  prefers.  Drill  in  the  seed  in  the  same  way  as 
advised  for  spring  sowing.  This  should  be  done  in  August, 
near  the  beginning  of  the  month  in  the  north  and  towards  the 
end  of  the  month  in  the  south.  The  advantages  attending 
autumn  sowing  are  that  the  bulbs  grow  larger,  they  ripen 
earlier  and  are  thus  better  suited  than  spring-sown  ones  for 
places  subjected  to  a  heavy  average  rainfall,  and  they  are 
seldom,  if  ever,  attacked  by  the  Onion  Fly. 

As  soon  as  the  rows  can  be  seen,  weeding  must  be  attended 
to  and  persisted  in,  so  that  the  plants  are  left  in  a  perfectly  clean 
condition  to  face  the  winter.  During  winter  and  spring  a 
portion  can  be  drawn  for  bunching,  and  early  in  the  spring 
they  should  be  finally  thinned  to  Gin.  apart  in  the  row,  the 


248  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

best  of  the  thinnings  being  transplanted  to  a  well-prepared  plot, 
in  rows  from  12in.  to  15in.  apart,  with  the  plants  from  6in.  to 
9in.  apart  in  the  rows,  according  to  whether  the  variety  is  a 
large  or  medium  sized  one. 

Large  Onions. — Of  late  years  there  has  been  a  steady  and 
increasing  demand  for  large  and  mild  Onions,  of  which  the 
Spanish  Onion  may  be  taken  as  the  type.  Huge  quantities  of 
this  class  of  Onion  are  imported  annually  into  this  country, 
and  it  has  now  become  quite  customary  with  many  housewives 
when  ordering  Onions  to  stipulate  for  Spanish.  This  being 
so,  it  is  necessary  that  growers  should  make  some  attempt 
to  supply  the  demand,  or  the  trade  may  ultimately  pass  almost 
entirely  out  of  their  hands.  There  is  all  the  more  reason  for 
the  effort  when  it  is  known  that  Onions  of  the  type  required 
can  be  grown  in  this  country  quite  equal  to  the  imported  ones, 
and  what  is  still  more  to  the  point  so  far  as  the  market  gar- 
dener is  concerned,  they  can  be  grown  to  show  good  profits. 

There  are  three  points  of  vital  importance  which  must  be 
observed  if  success  is  to  be  assured  in  this  special  culture,  and 
those  are — first,  a  deeply  worked,  thoroughly  pulverized,  and 
very  rich  soil ;  second,  a  good  strain  of  seed  of  a  large-growing 
pedigree  variety,  one  of  a  globular  form  for  preference ;  and 
third,  a  long  season  of  growth. 

Where  this  culture  is  seriously  intended  the  preliminary 
preparation  of  the  ground  must  be  given  special  attention. 
Bastard  trenching  is  necessary,  with  a  generous  dressing  of  . 
good  "  fat "  manure  between  the  top  and  bottom  spits.  This 
should  be  done  in  October,  if  possible,  with  the  surface  left 
rough  so  that  the  weather  can  have  full  effect  upon  it.  If  the 
soil  is  of  a  heavy  description,  apply  to  the  surface,  immediately 
after  digging,  a  dressing  of  basic  slag  at  the  rate  of  5  cwt.  to 
the  acre,  and  in  February  add  li  cwt.  sulphate  of  potash. 
If  the  soil  is  light  give  5  cwt.  kainit  -in  the  autumn  and  3  cwt. 
superphosphate  in  February.  In  addition  to  the  preceding, 
on  any  soil,  give  5  cwt.  soot  about  the  turn  of  the  year,  and 
another  5  cwt.  mixed  with  1  cwt.  salt  at  the  beginning  of  April, 
after  which,  as  soon  as  the  surface  is  dry,  rake  the  ground 
level  and  roll  it,  thoroughly  if  the  soil  is  light,  gently  if  heavy, 
and  it  will  then  be  ready  for  planting. 


Onions.  249 

A  long  season  of  growth  is  secured  in  several  different  ways. 
One  method  is  to  sow  thickly  on  poor  ground  about  the  middle 
of  May,  and  so  get  a  crop  of  very  small  bulbs,  about  iin.  to  fin. 
through,  the  same  season.  These  are  thoroughly  dried  and 
stored  away  in  small  lots  in  a  dry,  cool,  airy  place  until  spring, 
when  they  are  planted  out  in  March,  in  a  similar  manner  to 
shallots.  A  few  of  these  will  probably  bolt,  in  which  case  the 
flower  stem  should  be  cut  out  as  soon  as  seen,  when  the  bulb 
will  swell  out  from  one  side  and  will  become  a  good  Onion  by 
the  end  of  the  season,  though  one  side  will  be  slightly  flattened. 
The  remainder  will  grow  to  a  large  size.  Another  way  is  to 
sow  very  thinly  in  a  cold  frame  in  October,  giving  plenty  of  air 
and  growing  as  hardily  as  possible,  but  giving  protection  from 
severe  frost  by  a  covering  of  mats,  finally  planting  out  in  April. 
A  third  method,  and  the  one  which  has  most  to  recommend  it, 
especially  as  it  practically  ensures  freedom  from  bolting,  is 
to  sow  at  the  beginning  of  January  in  a  warm  greenhouse  or 
frame.  Fill  shallow  boxes,  2iin.  to  3m.  deep,  with  light  rich 
compost  (sifted  old  hot-bed  manure  with  a  dash  of  sand  will  be 
just  the  thing),  and  in  this  sow  the  seed  all  over  about  iin. 
apart,  and  water  gently  but  thoroughly  with  tepid  water ;  no 
more  watering  will  be  required  until  the  seedlings  are  through 
the  soil,  then  water  as  before.  Always  apply  the  water  slowly 
through  a  fine  rose,  and  stop  the  moment  it  ceases  to  sink  into 
the  soil.  If  any  of  the  seedlings  come  up  closer  than  iin.,  thin 
them  to  that  distance  apart.  When  they  are  2in.  high,  trans- 
plant them  into  other  boxes,  3m.  apart,  using  the  same  soil  as 
before  with  half  its  bulk  of  loam  added.  In  pricking-out,  the 
soil  must  be  made  quite  firm  and  the  plants  gently  watered  as 
soon  as  the  operation  is  completed.  A  week  or  so  afterwards, 
when  they  have  recovered  from  the  shift,  hardening-off  should 
begin.  Do  this  very  carefully,  so  that  the  plants  are  not 
suddenly  exposed  to  cold  draughts,  but  thoroughly,  so  that 
when  they  are  planted  out  they  receive  no  check. 

Set  out  the  plants  as  soon  after  the  middle  of  April  as  soil 
and  weather  permit,  in  rows  15in.  apart,  by  9in.  between  the 
plants  in  the  row.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  shorten  the  leaves,  but 
the  roots  should  be  preserved  intact  when  only  a  moderate 
number  have  to  be  set  out.  When  a  large  piece  of  ground  has 


250  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

to  be  planted  the  roots  may  be  shortened  to  lin.  and  the  plants 
carefully  set  with  a  dibber.  They  must  on  no  account  be  set 
deep,  but  as  shallow  as  possible  and  quite  firmly.  During  the 
summer  the  ground  must  be  kept  free  of  weeds  by  hoeing,  but 
the  soil  must  not  be  moved  deeply,  nor  must  any  be  drawn  to 
the  bulbs,  which  should  grow  on  the  top  and  not  partly  in  the 
soil.  No  watering  or  further  feeding  is  necessary,  but  frequent 
stirring  of  the  surface  soil  with  the  hoe  will  be  found  very 
helpful  in  preserving  soil  moisture  and  promoting  growth. 

Spring  or  Green  Onions. — For  "  Spring  Onions  "  select  very 
rich,  clean,  and  well-drained  soil,  and  give  it  the  treatment 
recommended  for  autumn-sown  Onions.  Sow  in  drills,  9in. 
apart,  rather  thickly,  and  after  sowing  roll  lightly.  Hoe  as 
soon  as  the  plants  are  up  and  as  often  as  possible  before  the 
autumn  rains  set  in,  so  as  to  leave  the  ground  quite  clean  for 
the  winter.  Hoe  again  in  spring  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry 
enough  to  bear  treading  on.  Early  in  spring  one  or  two  light 
dressings  of  nitrate  of  soda  will  make  the  plants  move  along 
quickly.  When  the  crop  is  ready  for  marketing,  loosen  the 
soil  with  a  fork  so  that  the  plants  will  draw  easily.  Tie  them 
in  bunches  of  twelve,  then  wash  them,  and  tie  twelve  bunches 
together  to  form  a  market  bunch  or  bundle.  The  size  and 
arrangement  of  the  bundle  differs  in  different  markets,  and  it 
is  always  best  make  enquiries  as  to  what  is  wanted  before 
sending. 

Pickling  Onions. — For  this  crop  the  ground  should  be  rather 
poor  and  dry,  and  worked  to  a  very  fine  tilth.  Sow  in  April, 
thickly  but  evenly,  broadcast  if  the  ground  is  clean,  but  if  there 
is  any  doubt  of  this  sow  in  drills,  Gin.  apart.  The  seed  should 
be  only  just  covered,  and  the  soil  made  firm  by  rolling. 
Weeding  must  be  well  attended  to,  but  no  thinning  is  required 
except  in  places  where  the  plants  may  stand  unduly  close. 

Potato  Onions. — This  Onion,  although  not  much  grown  now, 
is  mild  and  sweet,  and  gives  a  good  crop  with  a  minimum  of 
trouble.  It  should  be  planted,  just  below  the  surface,  early  in 
January,  in  rich  deeply-worked  soil,  and  is  ready  to  take  up 
about  the  beginning  of  July;  indeed,  old  cottage  gardeners 
who  favour  this  variety  plant  on  the  longest  and  take  up  on  the 
shortest  day.  If  the  bulbs  are  kept  out  of  the  ground  much 


Onions.  251 

longer  than  the  end  of  January  they  begin  to  go  soft  and 
useless.  When  very  small  bulbs  are  planted  they  grow  into 
large  ones,  but  large  bulbs  multiply  into  numerous  others. 
Plant  in  rows  12in.  apart,  9in.  between  the  setts.  As  severe 
frosts  will  sometimes  destroy  the  bulbs,  it  is  wise  to  scatter 
litter  along-  the  rows  after  planting. 

Manures : — To  get  a  satisfactory  crop  of  Onions  the  soil 
should  be  rich  in  plant  foods  in  the  most  available  form.  What 
would  be  considered  sufficient  to  produce  a  good  crop  of 
ordinary  vegetables  is  not  nearly  enough  to  obtain  the  best 
results  from  Onions,  and  as  the  heaviest  item  in  the  cost  of 
producing  a  crop  is  labour,  and  as  the  labour  bill  is  not  much 
heavier  for  a  large  than  for  a  small  crop,  it  is  obviously  a 
mistake  to  economise  on  the  manure  bill ;  if  sufficient  manure 
is  not  available  to  properly  prepare  the  area  intended  for 
Onions,  it  would  be  better  and  more  profitable  to  put  all  the 
manure  on  only  half  the  space  and  limit  the  crop  to  that. 
On  soils  which  naturally  contain  a  large  amount  of  humus  a 
good  crop  may  be  obtained  by  the  addition  of  suitable  concen- 
trated fertilizers,  but  on  most  soils  the  addition  of  natural 
manure  is  indispensable.  This  may  be  either  applied  direct 
for  the  particular  crop  or  as  the  residue  from  a  heavy  dressing 
given  to  the  preceding  crop.  Almost  any  kind  of  manure  will 
do  providing  it  is  well-rotted  before  use ;  when  heavy  dressings 
of  coarse  rank  manures  are  given  the  frequent  result  is  either 
failure  through  disease  or  a  large  proportion  of  bull-necked 
bulbs  which  refuse  to  ripen.  But  natural  manures,  when  used 
alone,  are  not  sufficiently  well-balanced  in  the  necessary 
plant-foods  to  do  full  justice  to  this  crop,  and  the  best  results 
consistent  with  economy  are  obtained  when  a  moderate 
dressing  of  well-decayed  natural  manure  (say  20  tons  to  the 
acre)  is  supplemented  with  suitable  fertilizers.  What  form  or 
proportions  these  should  take  depends  upon  the  soil,  in  which 
sometimes  one  and  sometimes  another  of  the  three  principal 
plant  foods  is  deficient,  and  this  can  only  be  correctly  ascer- 
tained by  analysis,  though  a  few  experiments  will  settle  many 
doubtful  points.  Additional  potash  in  some  form  should  never 
be  omitted,  whatever  the  nature  of  the  soil.  For  general  pur- 
poses, on  light  to  medium  soil,  in  addition  to  natural  manure, 


252  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

give  5  cwt.  kainit  and  3  cwt.  superphosphates,  and  for  heavy 
soils  give  li  to  2  cwt.  sulphate  of  potash  and  5  cwt.  basic  slag, 
each  quantity  being  for  one  acre.  These  should  be  spread 
evenly  over  the  surface  of  the  soil  immediately  after  digging  or 
ploughing,  and  should  be  followed,  soon  after  the  turn  of  the 
year,  with  5  cwt.  soot.  Just  before  sowing  or  planting,  another 
5  cwt.  soot  mixed  with  1  cwt.  salt  should  be  spread.  Hen 
manure  is  very  much  valued  by  some  Onion  growers.  It  will 
give  the  best  results  when  dried  and  pulverised  and  mixed  with 
twice  its  bulk  of  dry  soil,  then  broadcasted  as  a  top-dressing 
before  planting.  Good  guano  may  be  used  in  the  same  way, 
at  the  rate  of  2  to  3  cwt.  per  acre.  When  either  of  these  top- 
dressings  are  used  the  first  dressing  of  soot  may  be  omitted. 

Varieties : — For  spring  sowing,  good  keepers :  Bedfordshire 
Champion,  Giant  Zittau,  James's  Keeping,  Brown  Globe,  White 
Spanish,  Danver's  Yellow.  For  autumn  sowing  :  Sutton's  A  1, 
Lemon  Giant  Rocca,  Trebons,  Giant  Zittau.  For  early  sowing 
in  heat  to  make  extra  large  bulbs :  Ailsa  Craig,  Wroxton  Im- 
proved, Cranston's  Excelsior.  For  bunching  green :  White 
Lisbon.  For  pickling  :  Silver  Skinned,  New  Queen. 


PARSLEY. 

Carum  Petroselinum 

PARSLEY  should  have  a  place  in  every  market  garden,  as  it 
is  in  constant  demand.  If  the  soil  is  suitable  and  there 
is  a  reasonable  prospect  of  a  good  market  it  can  be  grown  as 
a  special  crop  to  occupy  large  breadths,  and  can  be  made  to 
pay  well,  but  it  must  be  good,  well-grown,  clean  stuff,  or  it  wifl 
often  be  found  that  a  consignment  does  not  clear  the  cost  of 
carriage.  On  small  holdings  the  preferable  method  of  culture 
is  to  sow  frequent  small  batches  in  March,  June,  and  August, 
so  as  to  have  a  supply  all  the  year  round. 

Parsley  is  said  to  grow  anywhere,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
this  is  true,  but  there  is  a  wonderful  difference  between  plants 
grown  on  different  soils.  Some  authorities  advise  light  sandy 
loam,  but  the  writer  has  grown  some  of  the  finest  Parsley  he 
ever  saw  on  heavy  clay,  not  in  one  season  only  but  for  several 


Parsley. 


253 


V'  A'  &  C°' 


successive  seasons  and  not  only  in  summer,  but  also  in  very 
wet  winters.  To  grow  this  plant  really  well  the  soil  should  be 
inclining  to  heavy,  deeply  worked,  well  manured,  and  free  from 
stagnant  moisture.  Light  soil  should  be  made  as  firm  as 
possible  before  the  seed  is  sown,  by  rolling  or  treading. 

Seed  should  be  sown 
in  March,  for  sumnier 
supplies,  in  June  for 
winter,  and  early  in 
August  for  the  following 
spring.  Before  sowing, 
the  surface  soil  should 
be  brought  to  a  fine 
tilth.  Sow  thinly,  lin. 
deep,  in  rows  12in. 
apart,  and  thin  out  to 
4in.  to  Gin.  apart,  for 
summer  and  spring,  but 
for  winter,  as  the  plants 
do  not  grow  so  strongly, 
and  as  they  should  be  Double-curled  Dwarf  Parsley. 

kept  compact  so  as  to  be  readily  protected,  lOin.  by  3in.  will  be 
sufficient.  The  seed  is  slow  to  germinate,  usually  from  five  to 
six  weeks,  and  if  the  weather  is  very  dry  this  may  be  prolonged 
to  seven  or  eight  weeks.  If  the  soil  is  very  dry  for  the  August 
sowing,  and  the  area  is  not  large,  the  drills  may  be  watered 
before  the  seed  is  sown.  In  order  that  the  soil  may  be  stirred 
and  the  weeds  kept  down  before  the  Parsley  appears,  a  little 
cabbage  lettuce  or  radish  seed  may  be  sown  with  the  Parsley  ; 
this  germinates  quickly  and  serves  to  mark  the  rows  so  that 
hoeing  may  be  proceeded  with,  and  if  thinned  out  well  and 
promptly  will  give  a  light  catch  crop  without  injuring  the  main 
crop.  Transplanting  is  sometimes  practised,  and  this  answers 
very  well  if  done  with  care  in  moist  soil  during  dull  weather, 
but  sometimes  the  plants  run  prematurely  to  seed,  and  when 
possible  it  is  better  to  sow  where  the  plants  are  to  remain.  A 
frequent  practice,  particularly  with  those  who  do  not  grow  in 
large  quantities,  is  to  sow  Parsley  as  an  edging  to  beds  occupied 
by  other  plants,  and  it  does  well  in  such  places  and  takes  up 


254  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

very  little  room,  but  the  position  should  be  well  considered  or 
it  may  interfere  with  the  cultivation  of  the  ground  later  on. 
The  August  sowing,  which  has  to  pass  through  the  winter  for 
use  the  following  spring,  should  be  in  an  open  situation  but 
sheltered  from  northerly  and  easterly  winds. 

The  winter  crop  should  have  all  the  largest  leaves  removed 
during  September,  so  that  a  fresh  crop  of  leaves  will  be  made 
for  use  in  the  winter.  It  should  be  sown  in  beds  so  that  some 
form  of  protection  can  be  given  it  in  hard  weather.  Where 
frames  are  available,  the  beds  should  be  of  such  a  size  as  can 
be  conveniently  covered  by  these,  but  the  lights  should  not  be 
put  on  except  during  frost  or  snow,  and  then  a  little  air  should 
be  given  unless  the  weather  is  very  severe.  If  frames  cannot 
be  had,  a  bed  may  be  very  efficiently  protected  by  driving  in 
short  stakes  at  each  side  of  the  bed,  connecting  these  with 
crosspieces,  and  in  hard  weather  laying  on  mats,  straw,  or  other 
covering.  All  such  coverings  should  be  at  once  removed  when 
the  weather  conditions  become  milder. 

Varieties: — Dwarf  Double  Curled,  Perennial  Moss  Curled, 
Giant  Curled,  Myatt's  Garnishing. 


PARSNIPS. 

Pastinaca  sativa. 

NO  grower  doing  a  general  business  should  neglect  the 
Parsnip.  It  is  perfectly  hardy,  easy  to  grow,  yields  a 
heavy  crop,  and  is  profitable.  It  is  not  so  popular  as  it  ought 
to  be,  for  it  is  a  cheap  vegetable,  delicious  and  nourishing  when 
properly  cooked.  It  is  a  native  plant  but  seems  to  have  been 
largely  pushed  aside  and  forgotten,  which  is  a  pity.  Neverthe- 
less, there  is  always  a  steady  if  not  a  very  large  sale  for  it,  and 
the  grower  may  sow  a  moderate  breadth  without  fear  of  loss. 

The  Parsnip  will  do  well  on  almost  any  soil  which  has  been 
properly  prepared,  and  this  implies  thorough  working  to  a  good 
depth,  so  that  the  long  root  can  descend  straightly  and  without 
obstruction.  <  The  soil  should  be  in  good  fertile  condition, 
though  not  necessarily  rich;  no  manure  should  be  applied 
directly  to  the  crop,  or  the  roots  are  liable  to  become  fanged 


Parsnips.  255 

and  cankered.  The  best  results,  are  obtained  from  a  soil  of 
medium  texture  which  has  been  manured  for  a  preceding  crop. 
About  the  beginning  of  March,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry 
enough  for  working,  rake  down  the  surface  fine  and  level.  If 
the  state  of  the  ground  is  not  suitable  for  working  it  is  better 
to  wait  for  a  few  days 
rather  than  sow  when 
the  soil  is  too  wet.  Sow 
in  drills  lin.  deep  and 
18in.  apart.  After  sow- 
ing, coyer  with  fine  soil 
and  roll  lightly.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  use 
only  good  new  seed,  as 
old  will  frequently  fail 
to  germinate.  When 
the  seedlings  are  well 
up  thin  out  to  from  Sin. 
to  lOin.  apart.  The 
culture  afterwards  con- 
sists in  an  occasional 
hoeing  to  keep  the  bed 
free  of  weeds.  The 
roots  will  be  ready  for 
use  in  October,  and  may 
be  lifted  and  stored  in 
November.  They  may 
be  left  in  the  ground 
with  safety,  to  be  lifted 
as  required,  and  are 
then  of  a  better  flavour 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  .Co. 

Hollow  Crowned  Parsnip. 


than  when   stored,  but 

as     the    ground    needs 

preparing     for     spring 

crops  this  is  not  often  practicable.     The  roots  may  be  stored 

in   clamps,  like   potatoes,  or  stood  in  a  trench   upright   and 

covered  with  soil,  or  they  may  be  stored  in  layers  in  soil  or 

sand  in  a  cool  shed. 

Varieties; — Hollow  Crown  and  Lisbonnais. 


256 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


PEAS. 

Pisum  sativum. 

PEAS   hold  an  important  place  in  the  garden.      They  are 
favourites  with  almost  everyone,  and  are  always  in  great 
demand  so  long  as  they  can  be  supplied  fresh   and   young. 

When  grown   exten- 
sively    they     are     a 
speculative  crop,   by 
reason    on    the    one 
hand     of     uncertain 
weather     conditions, 
especially    when    an 
attempt   is   made   to 
get  them  very  early 
in   open    field   work, 
and     on     the     other 
hand   from   the   fre- 
quent gluts  to  which 
markets  are   subject 
during  the  few  weeks 
whilst  the  bulk  of  the 
main-crop      supplies 
are  being  poured  in. 
Still,  there  is  the  fact 
that  Peas  will  always 
sell   at    some    price, 
eyen   if  it    is    not    a 
very       remunerative 
one,    whilst    on    the 
occasions     when     a 
good  crop  can  be  got 
on  the  market  early , 
the  returns  are  very 
satisfactory. 

The    grower    who 
works     his     ground 

Copyright,  V.  A.  *  Co.  ^^     OY>     leSS     inten' 

Gradus  Pea.  sively  can  to  a  large 


Peas.  257 

extent  produce  early  crops  with  a  measure  of  certainty  and 
thus  escape  undue  risks,  though  since  his  operations  are  on  a 
comparatively  small  scale  he  misses  the  "  scoops  "  which  the 
extensive  grower  is  sometimes  fortunate  enough  to  secure. 

In  any  case,  Peas  should  always  be  given  a  prominent  place 
in  the  garden  of  any  grower  engaged  in  a  general  trade,  both 
for  their  profit-making  possibilities  and  for  the  important  part 
they  play  in  any  well-arranged  system  of  rotation  and  cultiva- 
tion. They  not  only  lend  themselves  admirably  to  inter- 
cropping, but  the  preparation  of  the  soil  necessary  to  the 
production  of  a  good  crop  of  Peas  ensures  its  being  left  in 
capital  condition  for  any  crop  which  may  follow,  whilst  since 
Peas  collect  and  leave  behind  them  nitrogenous  matter  in 
the  soil,  their  occupation  of  it  increases  rather  than  decreases 
its  fertility. 

Soil. — Any  ordinary  soil  which  has 
received  proper  preparation  will  grow 
Peas  fairly  well.  For  the  earliest  crops 
a  warm,  dry,  and  rather  sandy  soil  is  to 
be  preferred,  though  on  heavier  staples 
good  early  crops  can  be  obtained  by 
growing  on  ridges  or  on  raised  beds. 
For  the  main-crops  light  sandy  soil  is 
unsuitable,  unless  specially  prepared, 
the  ideal  one  being  a  rich  and  rather 
retentive  loam,  deeply  worked  and  well 
drained.  It  is  not  desirable  to  apply 
heavy  dressings  of  manure  directly  to 
the  crop,  as  it  would  have  a  tendency 
to  cause  the  Peas  to  run  too  much  to 
leaf,  the  best  conditions  being  secured  copyright,  s.  *  s 

~         „  ,,  «          ,  •   ,     ,,  Gladstone  Pea. 

when  Peas  follow  a  crop  for  which  the 

soil  was  liberally  manured,  in  which  case  all  further  plant- 
foods  necessary  would  be  best  supplied  by  suitable  concentrated 
fertilizers ;  but  when  the  soil  is  in  poor  condition,  free  manur- 
ing is  absolutely  necessary  to  a  good  crop,  though  only  old  and 
well-decomposed  manure  should  be  used. 

Preparation  of  the  Land. — This  should  be  taken  in  hand  in 
autumn,  when  it  should  be  ploughed  or  dug  (bastard  trenched 

17 


258  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

if  that  operation  has  not  been  performed  within  the  past  three 
years)  and  left  ridged  up  so  that  as  much  surface  as  possible 
will  be  exposed,  to  be  pulverised  and  sweetened  by  the  frost. 
When  Peas  are  to  be  sown  between  rows  of  standing  crops, 
such  as  cabbages,  the  space  allotted  to  them  should  be  ploughed 
or  forked  over  so  that  the  soil  will  become  sweet  and  crumbly 
against  seeding  time.  Lime  in  the  soil  is  essential  to  the 
healthy  growth  of  Peas,  and  where  this  is  lacking  or  is  present 
in  insufficient  quantity  it  should  be  spread  on  the  surface  as 
soon  as  the  soil  is  turned  over,  at  the  rate  of  from  3  to  5  tons  . 
per  acre. 

Sowing  in  Pots. — Where  there  is  convenience  for  the  work 
the  best  and  most  certain  way  to  secure  early  crops  is  to  start 
the  Peas  in  pots  in  frames,  and  thus  be  in  a  position  to  set  out 
strong  well-hardened  plants  in  the  latter  part  of  March  or  early 
in  April.  By  this  means  a  crop  is  assured  which  will,  as  a  rule, 
be  ready  for  gathering  from  ten  to  fifteen  days  in  advance  of 
any  sown  in  the  open-air.  To  do  this,  fill  some  hundreds  of 
large  60's  (3in.)  pots  half  full  of  soil,  then  on  this  put  eight  or 
ten  seeds,  fill  up  to  within  |in.  of  the  top  with  more  soil,  and 
water  well.  This  work  can  be  done  either  early  in  November 
or  at  the  beginning  of  January,  according  to  whether  the  pots 
are  to  be  stood  in  a  cold  frame  or  on  a  gentle  hot-bed.  There 
is  no  better  way  of  raising  them  than  in  a  cold  frame,  where 
they  make  fine  sturdy  plants  by  the  time  they  are  wanted, 
without  expense  or  trouble  beyond  an  occasional  covering  with 
mats  during  a  severe  spell  of  weather,  and  judicious  ventilation 
on  all  fine  days.  When  they  are  sown  in  January  the  heat  in 
the  bed  should  not  exceed  50  degrees,  which  will  gradually 
decline  with  their  growth  until  they  will  be  standing  on  a  cold 
bed  before  planting-out  time  arrives.  The  pots  should  be  stood 
close  together  and  within  6  or  8  inches  of  the  glass.  Be  careful 
not  to  have  the  bed  too  warm,  or  the  Peas  will  grow  weakly 
and  bloom  badly ;  they  should  be  grown  slowly  and  steadily, 
with  all  the  light  and  air  possible,  and  strong,  vigorous  plants 
will  then  be  the  result. 

The  plants  should  be  set  out  during  mild  weather  any  time 
after  the  middle  of  March.  Make  a  shallow  trench  and  turn 
out  each  potful  without  disturbing  the  roots,  placing  them 


Peas.  259 

about  9in.  apart.  After  planting,  put  a  few  short  feathery 
sticks  along  each  side  of  the  row,  and  give  them  a  mulch  of 
short  old  manure. 

Sowing  in  the  Open-air. — The  first  sowing  in  the  open-air 
may  take  place  any  time  from  the  beginning  of  November 
to  the  beginning  of  March,  providing  the  soil  is  suitable 
and  in  proper  condition,  but  it  is  probable  that  if  some  of  the 
same  kind  of  Pea  was  sown  on  both  these  dates  there  would 
not  be  more  than  ten  days'  difference  in  the  time  of  gathering 
the  first  pods,  and  very  little  difference  at  all  between  those 
sown  in  November  and  a  similar  lot  sown  in  January  or  Feb- 
ruary. Even  sowings  made  on  the  latter  dates  cannot  always 
be  relied  upon  unless  both  situation  and  weather  are  favour- 
able, to  say  nothing  of  the  chances  of  destruction  by  birds  or 
mice.  Successful  results  from  very  early  sowings  in  the  open 
may  be  looked  for  with  some  degree  of  confidence  where  there 
is  light  soil  in  a  warm  sheltered  position,  but  in  other  situations, 
and  particularly  on  stiff  soil,  it  is  best  to  defer  the  first  sowing 
until  the  latter  part  of  February  or  the  beginning  of  March. 
In  any  case  it  is  always  unwise  to  sow  when  the  soil  is  cold 
and  wet,  as  under  such  conditions  there  is  the  probability  of  a 
weak  plant  if  not  a  complete  failure.  To  overcome  this  diffi- 
culty it  is  the  practice  with  many  gardeners,  when  making  the 
earliest  sowings,  to  draw  out  the  drills  in  the  forenoon  and 
leave  them  open  until  the  afternoon,  so  that  the  soil  in  them 
may  become  drier  and  warmer,  the  seed  being  sown  and  covered 
up  before  work  is  finished  for  the  day.  Later  in  the  season, 
if  the  soil  should  be  very  dry,  the  drills  should  be  well  soaked 
with  water,  as  a  soil  which  is  too  dry  is  as  bad  as  one  which  is 
too  wet.  The  drills  should  in  no  case  be  less  than  3m.  deep. 
When  sowing  is  done  in  the  autumn  or  very  early  spring 
months  plenty  of  seed  should  be  used  to  provide  against 
the  numerous  losses  which  such  early  sowings  are  subject  to, 
but  later  in  the  season  it  is  best  to  sow  thinly,  so  as  to  allow 
room  for  each  plant  to  grow  vigorously,  which  is  impossible 
when  a  mass  of  plants  are  growing  thickly  together,  choking 
and  weakening  each  other  in  the  struggle  for  existence.  When 
the  plants  come  up  too  thickly  they  should  be  thinned  so  that 
they  stand  from  2in.  to  Sin.  apart. 


260  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Intercropping. — The  question  of  whether  or  no  the  Peas  are 
to  be  intercropped  must  be  decided  before  the  distances  apart 
at  which  the  rows  are  to  stand  can  be  settled.  In  open  field 
culture,  where  large  breadths  are  sown,  the  ground  is  usually 
occupied  for  the  time  being  by  the  Peas  only,  and  in  such  cases 
the  rows  are  from  12in.  to  18in.  apart,  according  to  individual 
preference,  the  greater  distance  being  the  best.  In  more  limited 
undertakings,  however,  intercropping  is  often  practised,  to  the 
advantage  of  the  grower,  for  he  not  only  makes  a  greater  use 
of  his  ground  whilst  the  Peas  are  in  the  early  stages,  but  the 
Peas  themselves  benefit  and  crop  heavier  by  standing  ultimately 
at  a  greater  distance  between  the  rows  than  would  otherwise 
be  the  case.  As  a  rule  the  early  varieties  are  allowed  from 
2ft.  to  3ft.  Gin.  between  the  rows,  according  to  the  vigour  of 
the  sorts  and  the  kind  of  intercropping  intended.  In  these 
spaces  lettuces,  spinach,  turnips,  or  radishes  are  grown.  Later 
sorts  are  planted  from  3ft.  to  4ft.  apart,  the  spaces  between 
being  usually  filled  with  cauliflowers.  Sometimes  the  main-crop 
sowings  are  made  between  rows  of  spring  cabbage,  and  thus 
get  the  advantage  of  a  certain  amount  of  protection  from  cold 
winds  and  late  frosts,  but  in  this  case  the  cabbage  must,  of 
necessity,  be  cleared  early  or  more  harm  than  good  will  pro- 
bably result.  Where  tall-growing  Peas  are  grown  they  are 
allowed  more  room  still,  from  6ft.  to  8ft.  between  the  rows 
being  customary,  with  a  bed  of  other  vegetables  between. 

Succession. — A  regular  succession  of  fresh  plump  pods  is  of 
great  importance,  particularly  where  a  general  business  is 
done.  To  secure  this  there  should  be  frequent  sowings  from 
March  to  June.  Prior  to  March  frequent  sowings  will  not 
accomplish  the  object  aimed  at,  the  best  way  to  obtain  a  suc- 
cession from  earlier  sowings  being  to  put  in  seed  of  early, 
mid-season,  and  late  varieties  about  the  same  time,  and  they 
usually  bear  in  succession.  From  April  to  June  a  good  plan  is 
to  make  another  sowing  when  the  preceding  one  is  just  showing 
through  the  ground.  For  the  last  sowings,  made  in  the  first 
or  at  the  very  latest  in  the  second  week  of  June,  first  or  second 
early  varieties  are  generally  used,  because  when  grown  under 
identical  conditions  they  come  into  bearing  quicker  than  main- 
crop  or  late  varieties.  The  following  are  the  approximate 


Peas.  261 

dates  of  sowing  and  gathering,  but  it  must  be  understood  that 
the  period  of  bearing  is  largely  under  the  influence  of  the 
weather  and  that  the  wrinkled  sorts  are  more  tender  than  the 
round : — First  early  varieties,  raised  in  cold  or  warm  frames, 
sown  in  November  or  January,  should  be  fit  to  gather  from  the 
15th  to  the  31st  of  May;  if  sown  in  the  open  ground  on  same 
dates,  from  the  21st  of  May  to  the  14th  of  June.  Second  early 
varieties,  sown  from  beginning  of  February  to  beginning  of 
March  should  be  fit  to  gather  from  the  10th  to  the  21st  of  June. 
Main-crop  varieties,  sown  from  middle  of  February  to  middle 
of  March  are  ready  from  the  14th  of  June  to  the  14th  of  July. 
Main-crop  and  late  varieties,  sown  from  middle  of  March  to 
end  of  April,  come  ready  from  July  14th  to  August  31st.  First 
and  second  early  varieties,  sown  again  from  the  beginning  of 
May  to  the  middle  of  June  should  be  fit  to  gather  from  the  1st 
of  August  to  end  of  September,  or  later,  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  these  late  crops  are  very  uncertain,  being  subject  to 
mildew,  particularly  in  dry  weather ;  this  may  be  counteracted 
to  some  extent,  though  not  entirely,  by  copious  waterings. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  some  growers  make  a  practice  of 
pinching  out  the  tops  of  the  more  vigorous-growing  early 
varieties  as  soon  as  they  show  bloom,  and  by  this  means  keep 
the  plants  shorter  and  hasten  podding  by  several  days. 

Mice  and  Sparrows. — Mice  are  frequently  very  destructive 
to  Peas  in  the  open  ground,  especially  to  those  sown  in  the 
winter  and  early  spring  months.  A  customary  way  to  prevent 
attacks  is  to  moisten  the  Peas  in  water  and  then  to  stir  them 
about  in  red  lead  until  all  are  thoroughly  coated  with  it,  after- 
wards allowing  them  to  dry  for  two  or  three  hours  before 
sowing.  Another  method  of  protecting  the  seeds  is  to  cover 
them  with  petroleum,  allowing  them  to  remain  in  it  for  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  up  they  should  have  an  occasional 
slight  dusting  with  lime  and  soot  whilst  they  are  wet  with  dew. 
This  will  make  them  distaseful  to  sparrows  and  slugs,  besides 
being  beneficial  in  assisting  growth.  Care  must  be  taken  that 
these  dustings  are  really  light  and  evenly  spread;  if  put  on 
heavily  and  carelessly  growth  will  be  checked  and  more  harm 
than  good  will  be  done.  Other  birds  may  occasionally  attack 


262  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

the  young  pea  plants  but  sparrows  are  by  far  the  worst  cul- 
prits, and  will  sometimes  work  havoc  in  spite  of  the  dustings. 
In  this  case  the  best  preventative  is  to  cover  the  rows  with  fish 
netting,  laid  over  bent  sticks  and  pegged  down  at  the  sides. 
The  plants  are  generally  safe  from  the  time  they  are  a  few 
inches  high  until  peas  begin  to  form  in  the  pods,  when  the 
birds  again  become  troublesome,  and  sparrows  again  generally 
do  the  most  damage.  When  this  happens  lines  should  be 
stretched  along  the  rows,  to  which  are  attached  at  intervals 
various  bright  objects,  such  as  white  feathers,  pieces  of  tin,  or 
strips  of  paper  which,  being  kept  in  motion  by  the  slightest 
wind,  often  prove  an  effective  bird  scare.  Of  course  these 
measures  only  apply  to  Pea  culture  on  comparatively  small 
areas ;  in  field  work  a  boy  is  employed  to  scare  the  birds  when 
necessary.  When  sparrows  are  particularly  mischievous  and 
numerous  serious  measures  should  be  taken  during  the  winter 
to  reduce  their  numbers. 

Sticking. — Peas  in  market  gardens  are  usually  grown  without 
sticks,  the  haulm  being  allowed  to  rest  upon  the  ground.  For 
this  reason  the  tall-growing  sorts  are  never  employed  in  field 
work.  At  the  same  time,  where  the  grower  does  a  private 
trade  and  depends  more  upon  a  moderate  quantity  in  constant 
succession  throughout  the  season  than  'upon  a  large  quantity 
for  a  short  period,  he  will  find  it  to  his  advantage  to  use  sticks 
(when  they  can  be  got  cheaply),  because  then  the  pods  are  finer 
and  the  Peas  bear  a  better  crop.  The  dwarf  varieties  do  well 
and  crop  abundantly  without  any  support,  but  even  these  do 
all  the  better  for  having  a  little  feathery  stuff  placed  along  the 
rows  to  keep  them  off  the  ground.  The  sticks  should  be  placed 
to  the  rows  soon  after  they  are  through  the  soil.  They  are 
usually  inserted  in  the  ground  about  Gin.  away  from  the  Peas, 
about  1ft.  apart,  inclined  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  each  side 
being  inclined  in  a  reverse  direction,  and  each  row  parallel. 
Small  stuff,  cut  from  the  tops  of  the  longest  sticks,  is  inserted 
in  the  gaps  at  the  base  of  the  sticks  to  help  the  young  plants 
to  climb  upwards.  Before  putting  in  the  sticks  hoe  the  ground 
well  and  then  draw  the  loose  soil,  Sin.  deep,  to  the  stems  of 
the  plants  on  each  side  of  the  row.  When  the  haulm  grows 
long,  and  no  sticks  are  used,  it  is  laid  over  on  one  side  of  the 


Peas.  263 

row ;  in  this  way  the'flowers,  by  getting  more  light  and  air,  set 
hetter  and  so  are  more  productive,  and  the  pods  can  be  more 
easily  gathered. 

General  Culture. — As  soon  as  the  rows  of  Peas  can  be  seen, 
the  ground  should  be  hoed,  and  afterwards  kept  well  stirred 
throughout  the  growing  season.  In  field  work  a  horse-hoe  is 
run  between  the  rows,  the  work  being  finished  by  hand-hoeing 
close  to  the  base  of  the  plants.  This  work  must  be  persisted 
in  whilst  the  plants  are  young,  as  the  time  soon  comes  when 
the  close  rows  in  the  fields  can  no  longer  be  hoed  without 
damaging  them.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  frequent 
cultivation  of  the  surface  soil,  especially  in  the  early  stages 
of  the  plants'  growth,  has  a  very  beneficial  effect  on  the 
ultimate  crop,  both  by  reason  of  aeration  making  the  soil 
warmer  and  so  increasing  the  activity  of  the  nitrogen-collecting 
bacteria,  and  by  the  fact  that  a  loose  surface  soil  acts  as  a 
mulch  and  checks  the  evaporation  of  soil  moisture,  thus  being 
a  great  help  to  the  plants  in  a  dry  season. 

Watering  and  Mulching. — Abundant  moisture  is  absolutely 
essential  to  the  production  of  a  satisfactory  crop  of  Peas.  This 
is  the  reason  why  a  well-worked  retentive  loam  containing 
plenty  of  humus  is  more  suitable  to  their  culture  than  is  a  lighter 
staple.  In  a  dry  season  Peas  on  soil  that  has  been  moved 
deeply  will  continue  to  flourish,  even  if  they  receive  no  further 
help  beyond  frequent  surface  stirrings,  whereas  under  the  same 
conditions  on  poor  shallow  soil  they  would  be  a  failure.  But 
even  on  the  best  soil,  when  a  heavy  crop  is  being  formed,  a 
good  soaking  with  water,  followed  by  a  mulch  of  manure  on 
each  side  of  the  row,  is  of  the  greatest  possible  benefit. 

Gathering. — As  the  pods  approach  maturity  they  must  be 
carefully  watched.  They  swell  rapidly  towards  the  end  and 
must  be  gathered  as  soon  as  large  enough,  whilst  still  young. 
When  once  begun,  the  gatherings  should  be  made  every  two 
or  three  days,  so  that  none  of  the  pods  become  too  old,  and 
this  not  only  ensures  more  valuable  produce  which  commands 
better  prices  in  the  markets,  but  invariably  results  in  a  heavier 
crop,  because  the  period  of  production  is  then  prolonged 
beyond  what  it  would  be  if  the  pods  were  allowed  to  ripen  on 
the  plants.  Different  varieties  should  not  be  mixed  together, 


264  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

and  where  a  good  class  trade  is  done  it  is  sometimes  advisable 
to  divide  the  pods  of  one  variety  into  two  grades.  It  is  the 
custom  in  many  places  where  Peas  are  grown  in  large  breadths 
to  defer  gathering  until  the  bulk  of  the  crop  appears  ready, 
then  a  large  number  of  "  pickers " — principally  women  and 
children — are  turned  into  the  fields,  who  clear  the  ground  as 
they  go.  A  handful  of  haulms  are  pulled  up  by  the  roots,  and 
being  held  in  the  left  hand,  roots  upwards,  are  stripped  of  the 
pods  with  the  right  hand.  This  appears  a  wasteful  method, 
but  it  results  in  a  large  saving  in  the  labour  bill  and  the  ground 
becomes  much  sooner  available  for  other  crops.  The  haulm  is 
cured  on  the  ground  as  it  lies,  and  then  is  carted  away  and 
made  into  stacks  of  "  pea  straw,"  which  when  cut  into  chaff  and 
mixed  with  other  materials  is  a  valuable  food  for  cattle. 

Manures : — For  a  good  crop  of  Peas  it  is  essential  that  the 
soil  contains  an  abundance  of  plant  foods,  but  it  should  not  be 
overloaded  with  manure  or  the  crop  will  be  likely  to  run  to  leaf 
instead  of  pods.  When  a  good  dressing  of  manure  has  been 
given  to  the  preceding  crop,  very  satisfactory  results  can  be 
obtained  from  concentrated  fertilizers  alone,  and  in  any  case 
manure  alone  should  not  be  relied  on,  as  a  better  crop  is 
obtained  when  it  is  supplemented  with  fertilizers.  When 
manure  it  given  to  this  crop  it  should  be  at  the  rate  of  about 
10  tons  per  acre  on  heavy  soils  up  to  from  15  to  20  tons  on 
thin  sandy  soils.  This  should  be  applied,  if  possible,  in  the 
autumn,  remembering  that  the  nearer  the  time  of  sowing  the 
greater  the  necessity  that  it  should  be  in  a  thoroughly  decayed 
condition.  The  next  point  is  to  ensure  that  sufficient  lime  is 
present  in  the  soil.  This  may  be  readily  ascertained  by  applying 
the  simple  test  given  on  page  52.  When  lime  is  needed  it  may 
be  given  in  the  form  of  quicklime,  either  ground  or  in  the  lump, 
in  quantities  varying  from  1  to  2  tons  per  acre,  or  as  ground 
limestone  or  chalk  at  from  2  to  4  tons  per  acre.  Fertilizers 
to  supplement  the  manure  must  contain  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  with  nitrogen  in  the  spring  if  growth  appears  backward. 
For  heavy  soil  this  may  be  given  in  the  form  of  5  cwt.  basic 
slag  evenly  distributed  over  the  surface  in  the  autumn,  and 
1  cwt.  sulphate  of  potash  similarly  applied  soon  after  the  turn 
of  the  year.  For  light  land  give  from  3  to  5  cwt.  kainit  in  the 


Peas.  265 

autumn  and  3  cwt.  superphosphate  just  before  sowing.  When 
no  manure  is  given  these  quantities  may  be  increased  by  one- 
half,  and  if  the  soil  is  in  poor  condition  they  may  be  doubled,  and 
1  cwt.  each  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  sulphate  of  ammonia  given 
in  two  separate  dressings  with  an  interval  of  two  or  three 
weeks,  the  first  being  given  when  the  plants  have  made  three 
or  four  inches  of  growth.  These  nitrogenous  fertilizers  must, 
however,  be  used  with  judgment,  and  only  when  they  appear 
necessary,  or  the  plants  will  make  a  rank  soft  growth  which  is 
not  conducive  to  pod-bearing. 

Varieties  : — The  following  are  excellent  amongst  many  others 
equally  good: — First  early  (round) :  Ameer,  2ft.  6in.,  Bountiful, 
2ft.  6in.,  William  I,  2ft.  Gin. ;  (wrinkled):  Chelsea  Gem,  1ft., 
William  Hurst,  1ft.,  Little  Marvel,  2ft.,  Pioneer,  1ft.  6in.,  Early 
Giant,  3ft.,  Sutton's  Seedling,  1ft.  Gin.  Second  early:  Gradus, 
3ft.,  Daisy,  2ft.,  King  Edward,  2ft.  Gin.,  Senator,  2ft.  Gin.,  Strata- 
gem, 2ft.,  Sutton's  Superlative,  3ft.  Main-crop:  Yorkshire 
Hero,  3ft.,  Duke  of  Albany,  3ft.  Gin.,  Alderman,  5ft.,  Sutton's 
Magnum  Bonum,  3ft.  Gin.,  Eureka,  3ft.,  Quite  Content,  5ft., 
Sutton's  Matchless  Marrowfat,  4ft.  Late:  Gladstone,  4ft., 
Autocrat,  3ft.,  Late  Queen,  3ft.  Gin.,  Glory  of  Devon,  3ft.  Gin. 

POTATOES. 

Solatium  tuberosum. 

IT  would  be  a  waste  of  time  and  space  to  dwell  upon  the 
importance  of  the  Potato,  either  as  an  article  of  food  or  as 
regards  its  place  in  the  garden.  Of  all  cultivated  vegetables  it  is 
in  the  greatest  demand,  and  as  a  consequence  enormous  areas 
are  devoted  to  its  cultivation.  It  can  be  grown  more  or  less 
profitably  on  many  diverse  soils.  It  is  especially  suitable  as  a 
cleansing  crop  for  newly  broken-up  land,  especially  when  such 
land  is  foul  with  weeds.  The  Potato  crop  forms  an  essential 
part  of  any  well-considered  system  of  market  garden  rotation, 
the  cultivation  and  manuring  necessary  forming  one  of  the  best 
preparations  for  any  other  crop  which  may  follow.  Finally, 
the  demand  for  Potatoes  is  constant  and  unfailing,  and  as  they 
are  ready  for  use  immediately  they  are  lifted,  or  can  be  stored 
and  disposed  of  at  any  time  until  the  new  crop  comes  round 


266  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

again,  few  market  growers  can  afford  to  neglect  their  culture — 
certainly  not  those  who  cater  for  a  direct  trade. 

Soil  and  Situation. — Abundant  crops  of  Potatoes  can  be 
grown  on  almost  any  soil  which  has  received  adequate  prepar- 
ation, but  its  character  has  a  great  influence  on  the  quality  of 
the  tubers, — those,  grown  on  retentive  staples,  such  as  peat 
or  bog  lands  or  heavy  clays,  being  generally  of  an  inferior 
flavour  or  of  a  soapy  or  waxy  character, — though  much  depends 
upon  the  weather,  and  in  a  dry  season  such  soils  will  often 
produce  crops  which  leave  little  to  be  desired.  Damp,  badly 
drained,  or  low-lying  land  should  be  avoided,  as  although  such 
situations  may  be  productive  of  good  and  sound  crops  when 
the  summer  is  hot  and  dry,  they  are  always  the  first  to  be 
attacked  by  fungoid  disease  in  an  average  season  and  seldom 
escape  it  when  the  summer  is  wet,  besides  being  very  liable  to 
serious  damage  from  late  spring  frosts.  Situations  which  are 
very  confined  or  overhung  by  large  trees  are  also  unsuitable, 
as  the  stagnant  atmosphere  and  the  damp  from  dripping  trees, 
which  the  sun  and  wind  never  get  the  chance  to  thoroughly 
dry,  keeps  the  foliage  very  soft  and,  especially  in  a  wet  season, 
makes  them  very  susceptible  to  fungoid  attacks. 

The  ideal  conditions  for  producing  heavy  crops  of  good 
sound  Potatoes  are  an  open,  sunny,  slightly  elevated  situation 
and  a  deep,  well-drained,  medium  soil,  neither  a  decided  clay 
nor  sand ;  at  the  same  time  the  fact  cannot  be  overlooked  that 
excellent  crops  are  often  taken  off  well-worked  clays,  poor 
sandy  soils,  thin  chalky  soils,  and  newly-reclaimed  bog  lands. 
In  fact,  a  friable  clay  soil  will  so  frequently  produce  crops 
good  both  in  quantity  and  quality  that  the  only  serious  objec- 
tion to  its  more  extensive  use  for  Potato  culture  is  that  its 
condition  depends  too  much  upon  the  state  of  the  weather,  as 
it  often  becomes  practically  unworkable  in  wet  periods,  both 
at  planting  and  harvesting  times,  whilst  if  it  is  poached  about 
when  wet  it  sets  so  hard  when  dry  as  to  be  impossible  of  proper 
summer  cultivation  and  is  very  difficult  to  work  when  the  time 
has  arrived  for  the.  crop  to  be  lifted. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — The  site  selected  should  be  open 
and  fully  exposed  to  the  sun  and,  as  an  aid  in  the  prevention 
of  disease  as  well  as  contributing  to  a  better  crop,  it  should  be 


Potatoes.  267 

one  on  which  Potatoes  were  not  grown  the  previous  season. 
The  best  preliminary  preparation  is  deep  working,  and  for  all 
but  the  very  lightest  soils  this  should  generally  be  done  in  the 
autumn,  leaving  it  ridged  up  so  that  frost,  air,  and  rain  can 
penetrate  and  sweeten  it.  In  field  work  this  will,  of  course,  be 
done  with  the  plough,  but  in  gardens  it  is  accomplished  by 
digging,  and  once  in  every  three,  or  at  most  four,  years  this 
should  take  the  form  of  bastard-trenching  (as  described  on 
pages  11  to  13);  the  ridges  should  run,  as  nearly  as  possible, 
due  north  and  south,  so  that  the  sunlight  may  fall  equally  on 
both  sides  of  the  rows.  The  autumn,  too,  is  the  best  time  to 
apply  manure  to  most  soils,  especially  when  it  is  not  much 
decayed.  There  are,  however,  some  light  soils  facing  south  or 
south-west,  on  which  the  culture  of  early  Potatoes  can  be 
carried  on  profitably,  and  on  these  it  is  better  to  apply  the 
manure  in  the  spring.  The  land  should  be  ploughed  in  the 
autumn  and  left  ridged  up,  then  after  spring  cultivation  furrows 
are  struck  out  with  a  plough  fitted  with  a  double  mould-board, 
and  well-rotted  manure  is  spread  evenly  along  these  previous 
to  laying  in  the  sets.  A  suitable  mixture  of  fertilizers  is  also 
given  at  the  same  time,  before  the  ridges  are  split,  either  on 
the  manure  in  the  furrows  or  broadcasted  over  the  whole  area. 
There  are  also  some  districts  which  are  subjected  to  a  heavy 
rainfall  where  it  is  found  easier  to  bring  the  soil  more  quickly 
to  a  fine  tilth  early  in  the  spring  if  not  broken  up  until  wanted, 
and  in  this  case  also  when  manure  is  required  it  is  given  at 
the  time  of  planting.  Whatever  the  nature  of  the  soil  may  be, 
it  should  be  worked  about  as  soon  as  the  surface  is  sufficiently 
dry  to  bear  cultivation  after  the  beginning  of  March,  and  this 
working  should  be  repeated,  if  necessary,  until  the  surface  is 
brought  to  a  fine  tilth  for  a  good  depth. 

The  "Seed"  and  its  Preparation.— The  first  point  to  decide 
in  connection  with  the  seed  is  the  variety  to  be  grown.  This 
matter  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  grower,  because 
the  number  of  sorts  in  commerce  is  now  so  large,  and  the 
success  of  different  sorts  in  different  districts  is  so  variable, 
that  it  is  a  matter  of  impossibility  to  give  a  selection  which 
would  do  well  under  all  circumstances;  moreover,  all  are 
subject  to  a  process  of  natural  deterioration,  and  a  variety 


268  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

which  fulfils  every  requirement  may,  after  the  lapse  of  a  few 
years,  be  found  quite  disappointing.  This  decadence  varies 
very  much  with  different  sorts,  some  passing  their  best  very 
quickly  whilst  others  appear  to  be  equally  good  after  quite  a 
number  of  years,  but  all  the  same  the  tendency  is  present,  and 
no  grower  should  pin  his  faith  blindly  to  certain  sorts,  but 
should  experiment  with  others,  if  only  in  a  small  way,  so  that 
they  may  have  tried  sorts  to  fall  back  upon  when  their  favourites 
disappoint  them.  A  grower  commencing  in  a  new  district  will 
find  it  to  his  advantage  to  make  enquiries  from  his  neighbours 
as  to  the  sorts  which  do  the  best,  and  should  follow  their  advice 
until  he  has  acquired  experience  for  himself. 

Having  decided  on  the  variety,  the  next  matter  for  consider- 
ation is  the  district  from  where  the  seed  is  to  be  procured. 
This  is  of  great  importance,  as  a  change  of  seed  at  frequent 
intervals  often  results  in  a  decided  improvement  both  in  the 
bulk  of  the  crop  and  of  its  quality.  Many  growers  too  often 
neglect  this  point,  and  for  the  sake  of  a  fictitious  cheapness 
either  continue  to  use  seed  of  their  own  growing  or  obtain  it 
from  a  neighbouring  grower.  This  is  a  "penny  wise  and  pound 
foolish"  policy.  A  change  of  seed  should  be  made  at  least 
every  third  year,  and  it  should  be  from  a  locality  with  an  entirely 
different  soil  and  climate.  For  many  years  past  Scottish  seed 
has  been  in  high  favour  with  many  English  growers,  and  Irish 
seed  has  now  many  advocates,  both  having  been  proved  to  give 
much  better  crops  than  seed  saved  in  the  southern  parts  of 
England.  Quite  as  good  results  have,  however,  been  obtained 
from  seed  procured  from  some  of  the  more  northerly  English 
counties.  The  underlying  principle  appears  to  be  that  immature 
tubers  grow  stronger  and  give  a  better  crop  than  those  which 
are  allowed  to  become  fully  ripened  before  they  are  lifted,  and 
the  shorter  and  cooler  summers  in  the  northerly  parts  of  the 
kingdom  provide  automatically  for  such  immaturity.  Where  a 
grower  wishes,  for  some  special  reason,  to  save  some  of  his 
own  stock  for  seed  the  necessary  immaturity  could  be  secured 
by  late  planting,  or  by  cutting  off  the  haulms  before  the  tubers 
are  fully  developed. 

The  next  point  to  consider  is  the  size  of  the  sets.     Here 
again  we  find  many  growers  err  by  using  "  chats "  for  seed, 


Potatoes.  '  269 

either  because  they  can  be  bought  cheaply  or  because  they  are 
using  seed  of  their  own  crop  and  all  larger  Potatoes  have  been 
sold  off  the  place  as  "  ware."  Such  small  seed  should  never  be 
used,  as  they  necessarily  produce  weakly  shoots  and  the 
resulting  crop  is  smaller,  both  in  bulk  and  in  the  size  of  the 
individual  tubers,  than  when  larger  seed  is  used.  Other 
growers  sometimes  use  full-sized  tubers  for  seed,  but  this  also 
is  a  mistake,  as  unless  several  of  the  "  eyes "  are  removed, 
which  is  obviously  impossible  when  a  large  breadth  is  being 
planted,  each  tuber  throws  up  a  large  number  of  shoots  which 
tend  to  rob  each  other  of  light,  air,  and  nutriment,  and  the 
usual  result  is  a  large  crop  of  undersized  tubers ;  besides  which 
to  use  large-sized  seed  is  wasteful,  as  a  much  greater  weight  is 
required  to  plant  a  given  area  than  when  medium-sized  tubers 
are  used.  As  the  result  of  numerous  experiments  it  has  been 
conclusively  proved  that  the  best  results  are  obtained  from 
whole  tubers  weighing  between  2  and  3  oz.  each,  which  will 
pass  through  a  riddle  with  a  2in.  mesh,  but  not  through  one  of 
liin.  As  to  cutting  large  tubers,  this  practice  is  not  advisable 
except  when  seed  of  the  proper  size  cannot  be  got,  or  where 
the  seed  has  run  out  and  it  is  desired  to  finish  a  row.  When 
tubers  are  divided  it  is  a  good  plan  to  dip  the  cut  portion  in 
air-slaked  lime,  to  prevent  an  undue  loss  of  sap. 

Boxing  and  Sprouting. — There  are  numerous  ways  of  storing 
seed  Potatoes  through  the  winter,  all  of  which  to  be  effective 
must  provide  for  the  exclusion  of  frost  and  damp.  The  worst 
way  is  to  allow  the  tubers  to  remain  in  an  ordinary  out-door 
clamp  until  planting  time,  with  the  usual  accompaniment  of 
sweating,  disease,  and  premature  growth — often  into  a  tangled 
mass  of  shoots  which  have  to  be  removed  before  planting,  with 
the  result  that  the  seed  is  much  weakened,  to  the  ultimate 
detriment  of  the  crop.  The  best  and  most  up-to-date  method 
is  to  sort  out  the  seed  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  after  lifting  and 
place  it  directly  into  boxes  or  trays ;  but  whilst  this  has  much 
to  recommend  it,  and  may  be  considered  indispensable  for  the 
early  crops,  it  is  a  rather  serious  business  when  large  areas 
have  to  be  planted,  particularly  when  the  amount  of  frost-proof 
storage  space  is  limited.  As  a  matter  of  fact  excellent  crops 
can  be  grown  from  seed  carefully  kept  in  store  in  a  dry  cool 


Potatoes  Sprouting 
in  Tray. 


270  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

place,  without  any  preliminary  preparation  whatever,  either  of 
sprouting  or  disbudding,  and  as  Potato  growing  on  anything 
like  an  extensive  scale  is  never  other  than  laborious  and  costly, 
it  is  important  that  the  grower  should  in  times  of  pressure  be 
in  a  position  to  decide  as  to  which  operations  are  essential 
to  a  profitable  result  and  which  are  optional.  At  the  same 

time  there  is  no  doubt  what- 
ever as  to  the  great  value  of 
boxing  and  sprouting  seed  Po- 
tatoes. The  tubers  are  stood 
"  rose "  end  (that  is,  the  end 
containing  most  eyes  and 
opposite  to  the  end  which  was 
attached  to  the  root)  upward, 
close  together  in  rows  across  the  tray  until  it  is  quite  full. 
The  trays  are  then  stood  one  above  another  in  any  cool, 
light,  airy  place  where  they  are  safe  from  frost,  such  as  a 
loft,  barn,  or  shed.  Wood  for  making  these  trays,  cut  into 
lengths  and  ready  for  nailing  together,  can  be  obtained  from 
most  box  makers,  or  the  trays  will  be  supplied  ready-made 
at  from  7d.  to  8d.  each.  This  is  for  one  measuring  2ft.  Gin. 
long,  1ft.  Gin.  wide,  and  3fin.  deep,  with  corner-posts  standing 
up  3in.  above  the  sides.  When 
stood  above  each  other  a  large 
quantity  of  the  trays  can  be  stored 
in  a  small  space,  whilst  a  free  cir- 
culation of  air  throughout  the 
entire  mass  is  ensured.  These 
conditions  keep  disease  at  bay 
and  prevent  premature  growth, 
so  that  when  planting  time  arrives 
the  tubers  are  plump  and  sound, 
with  one  or  more  dark-coloured 
sturdy  shoots.  When  thus  stored 

they  should  be  looked  over  occasionally,  especially  after  the 
turn  of  the  year,  and  if  the  sprouting  appears  to  be  pushing 
too  rapidly  move  the  trays  into  a  position  where  they  will  get 
more  light  and  air,  but  if  they  appear  too  backward  arrange  for 
the  surrounding  atmosphere  to  be  kept  slightly  warmer;  the 


Potato  Trays, 
stacked  one  above  another. 


Potatoes. 


271 


proper  condition  of  the  sprout  at  planting  time  is  clearly  shown 
in  the  illustration  below.  When  several  shoots  rise  from  the 
same  tuber,  all  but  one  or  two  of  the  strongest  should  be 
rubbed  off.  The  seed  should  be  carried  in  the  trays  to  the 
field,  and  carefully  placed  in  the  furrows  without  breaking  off 
the  shoots,  or  all  the  care  and  trouble  spent  upon  them  will  be 
thrown  away.  The 
advantages  gained  by 
sprouting  are  three- 
fold. A  few  weeks' 
growth  is  secured 
before  the  seed  is 
planted,  and  the  crop 
from  sprouted  seed 
is  thereby  ready  for 
lifting  several  weeks 
earlier  than  that 
from  seed  which  is 
unsprouted.  When 
at  planting  time  the 
soil  is  wet  and  cold 
that  operation  can  be 
deferred  until  the 
conditions  are  more 
favourable  and  yet 


no    time   is   lost   be- 
cause growth  is  still 
proceeding;    this    is  copyright,  v.  A.  &  Co. 
a     great '  advantage  Seed  Potat0f  Sprouted. 

where  the  soil  is  of  a 

heavy  nature.  And  it  has  been  proved  by  a  number  of  experi- 
ments that  plants  from  sprouted  seed  continue  more  vigorous 
throughout  the  season  and  ultimately  yield  a  crop  noticeably 
heavier  than  that  from  unsprouted  seed,  amounting  in  some 
cases  to  an  increase  of  25  per  cent. 

Distances  apart  and  Depth  for  Planting.— The  distances 
apart  at  which  the  sets  are  planted  depends  upon  the  variety, 
their  natural  vigour  of  growth,  and  the  richness  of  the  soil. 
In  favoured  spots,  where  soil,  situation,  and  climate  conduce 


272  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

to  the  production  of  very  early  supplies,  sprouted  seed  is 
planted  in  rows  about  18in.  apart  by  9in.  to  1ft.  apart  in  the 
rows,  but  this  is  exceptionally  close  and  only  suited  to  short- 
topped  varieties  which  are  to  be  lifted  before  the  tubers  are 
fully  grown.  As  a  general  rule  first  earlies  should  be  1ft.  9in. 
to  2ft.  by  9in.  to  12in.  apart,  second  earlies  2ft.  3m.  to  2ft.  6in. 
by  12in.  to  16in.  apart,  and  main-crop  and  late  varieties  from 
2ft.  Gin.  to  3ft.  by  14in.  to  18in.  apart.  In  no  case  ought  the 
sets  to  be  covered  with  more  than  4in.  of  soil  (apart  from  that 
which  is  added  in  earthing-up)  and  for  early  sorts  about 
3m.  is  sufficient,  because  then  the  roots  are  more  under  the 
influence  of  the  sun's  warmth.  The  distance  between  the  sets 
is  a  matter  of  great  importance,  for  if  the  crop  is  ^overcrowded 
the  majority  of  the  tubers  will  be  small,  whilst  on  the  other  hand 
if  the  spaces  are  wider  than  necessary  the  total  crop  will  be 
less  than  it  might  have  been.  The  ruling  principle  should  be 
to  allow  every  plant  ample  room  to  spread,  with  a  sufficiency 
of  air  and  sunshine.  With  overcrowding,  the  haulm  grows  into 
a  tangled  mass  and  being  weakly  from  want  of  air  is  weighed 
down  to  the  earth  in  heavy  rains.  There  is  thus  a  constantly 
damp  and  stagnant  atmosphere  below  the  surface  of  the 
foliage,  in  which  fungoid  disease  finds  congenial  surroundings 
and  soon  runs  rampant.  It  is  always  safer  to  allow  too  much 
rather  than  too  little  space,  and  the  rows  should  run  north  and 
south,  so  that  the  sun  can  have  full  effect  on  both  sides  of  the 
rows,  in  warming  the  soil,  drying  and  strengthening  the  foliage, 
and  invigorating  the  whole  plant,  keeping  it  more  resistant  to 
disease,  and  thus  making  a  large  contribution  towards  a  heavy 
crop  of  sound  tubers.  It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that,  other 
conditions  being  satisfactory,  the  abundance  and  healthiness  of 
the  Potato  crop  is,  in  the  climate  of  the  British  Isles,  dependent 
upon  the  amount  of  direct  sunlight  each  plant  receives. 

Planting  and  General  Culture. — The  time  of  planting  varies 
with  the  district  and  the  condition  of  the  soil.  In  favoured 
places  with  a  kindly  soil  planting  is  commenced  in  the  middle 
of  March,  whilst  in  others,  when  the  circumstances  have  been 
unfavourable,  it  is  often  deferred  until  as  late  as  the  middle  of 
May.  All  things  considered,  for  ordinary  culture  the  first  week 
in  April  is  quite  soon  enough,  and  a  week  or  two  later  than 


Potatoes.  273 

this  is  better  stil!  in  a  district  subject  to  late  spring  frosts. 
Amongst  old  gardeners  it  is  a  maxim  in  ordinary  open-air 
culture  to  "  plant  late  Potatoes  early  and  early  Potatoes  late," 
and  contradictory  as  this  may  appear  it  is  sound  advice  and 
based  upon  the  results  of  experience.  Early  varieties,  being 
more  precocious  in  growth  than  late  ones,  and  being  usually 
planted  in  the  kindliest  soil  and  most  favourable  situation,  are 
in  comparison  much  more  quickly  through  the  ground,  and 
if  planted  early  are  more  liable  to  be  cut  down  by  late  frosts, 
unless  given  some  kind  of  protection. 

The  methods  of  planting  vary  according  to  the  locality,  the 
extent  of  the  area  under  cultivation,  the  nature  of  the  land, 
and  the  kind  of  Potatoes  grown.  These  may  be  classified  into 
three  systems — the  Ridge,  the  Flat,  and  the  Lazy-bed. 

THE  RIDGE  SYSTEM. — The  system  of  planting  in  ridges  is  the 
most  generally  practised,  either  in  garden  or  field,  and  is  the 
one  most  likely  to  give  satisfaction.  In  ordinary  field  culture, 
when  the  soil  has  been  brought  into  suitable  condition, 
furrows  are  made  with  a  double-breasted  plough  and  well- 
rotted  manure,  if  that  is  the  time  chosen  for  applying  it,  is 
spread  in  the  furrows.  Women  and  girls  or  boys  then  drop 
the  seed  at  the  required  distance  apart  and  another  plough 
follows  which  splits  the  ridges  and  throws  the  soil  over  the 
seed  in  the  furrows  on  either  side.  When  all  are  covered 
the  seed  lies  under  the  ridges  and  the  furrows  now  are 
where  the  ridges  stood  before.  The  work  is  then  finished  by 
rolling.  On  weedy  land  harrowing  with  a  saddle-back  harrow 
is  beneficial  both  before  and  after  the  plants  show  through  the 
ground.  As  soon  as  the  foliage  shows  plainly  a  horse-hoe  is 
run  between  the  rows  and  hoeing  by  hand  follows.  If  there 
is  any  fear  of  frost  soil  should  be  lightly  drawn  over  the  tops 
at  the  same  time.  Hoeing  is  repeated  if  the  state  of  the  ground 
requires  it,  as  weeds  must  be  kept  down  and  the  soil  maintained 
in  a  loose  condition.  When  the  haulms  are  about  half  grown 
earthing-up  is  done  with  a  double-breasted  plough.  Too  much 
earth  must  not  be  given,  Gin.  in  depth  being  ample ;  if  more 
than  this  is  given  it  will  probably  cause  a  decrease  in  the  crop. 
Frequent  and  thorough  stirring  of  the  soil  until  earthing-up  is 
necessary  is  always  beneficial.  Many  growers  complete  the 

18 


274  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

process  of  earthing-up  gradually,  in  several  operations,  going 
a  little  deeper  each  time,  and  by  this  means  destroy  weeds  and 
prevent  the  earth  from  getting  caked  on  the  sides  of  the  ridges. 
In  Lincolnshire  and  other  districts  where  the  soil  is  easy  to 
work,  some  growers  favour  the  practice  of  covering  the  sets 
with  large  Potato  hoes  or  Canterbury  hoes,  instead  of  the 
the  moulding  plough.  Two  men  work  on  opposite  sides  of  a 
row,  and  each  pulls  sufficient  earth  over  the  sets  to  keep  them 
moist.  The  work  is  done  by  the  piece  and  proceeds  rapidly,  as 
the  men  take  a  stroke  with  each  stride.  As  the  shoot  is 
appearing  the  work  is  repeated,  this  time  sufficient  earth  being 
drawn  to  the  plants  to  mould  them  up.  By  this  system  hoeing 
is  rendered  unnecessary  and  trampling  by  horses  avoided.  Its 
cost -differs  very  little  from  that  of  the  usual  methods  employed. 
In  any  case,  it  is  essential  that  all  such  work  between  the  rows 
is  completed  early  in  the  season.  As  soon  as  the  tops  are  likely 
to  be  bruised,  work  amongst  them  must  stop. 

Some  of  the  earliest  open-air  crops  of  Potatoes  are  grown 
in  localities  where  the  ameliorating  influence  of  the  sea  is 
felt,  and  severe  or  inopportune  frosts  are  rarely  experienced, 
such  as  the  west  coast  of  England  and  Scotland,  the  south- 
west of  Ireland,  and  the  island  of  Jersey.  Districts  farther 
away  from  the  sea,  although  they  may  have  greater  sun-heat, 
are  very  liable  to  sharp  frosts  in  the  nights  of  May,  and  some- 
times early  in  June,  when  early  crops  are  partially  or  even 
completely  destroyed,  and  sometimes  even  the  second  earlies 
do  not  escape  serious  damage.  In  some  of  districts  in  Scot- 
land suited  to  the  production  of  early  crops  a  system  is  followed 
which  enables  the  grower  to  take  two  crops  of  Potatoes  from  the 
same  field  in  one  season.  The  land  having  been  well  prepared,  a 
heavy  dressing  of  short  manure  is  put  in  the  furrows,  and  on 
this  well-sprouted  sets  are  laid  and  the  ridges  split  to  cover 
them,  about  the  beginning  of  March.  As  soon  as  the  trays  are 
emptied  of  the  early  variety  they  are  again  filled  with  main- 
crop  sets,  which  are  sprouting  while  the  earlies  are  growing. 
The  first  crop  is  lifted  by  the  end  of  May,  whilst  prices  are 
high,  and  the  ground  is  at  once  ploughed  again  into  ridge  and 
furrow,  care  being  taken  that  the  furrows  are  this  time  exactly 
between  where  two  rows  of  Potatoes  stood  before.  These 


Potatoes.  275 

furrows  are  then  dressed  with  manure  on  which  sprouted  sets 
are  placed  as  before  and  the  soil  split  over  them.  Planted  in 
this  way  they  are  practically  on  fresh  soil.  The  plants  are 
quickly  through  and  in  a  few  weeks  appear  quite  as  forward  as 
unsprouted  sets  which  were  laid  in  at  the  usual  time.  Although 
there  are  heavy  expenses  for  manure  and  labour  in  connection 
with  this  system  it  is  said  to  be  very  profitable,  and  might  be 
tried  in  other  districts  not  liable  to  late  frosts. 

THE  FLAT  SYSTEM. — Planting  on  the  flat  is  mostly  followed 
on  light  land  which  is  apt  to  dry  out  quickly  if  laid  in  ridges. 
The  land  is  previously  manured  and  brought  to  a  good  tilth, 
and  the  rows  are  marked  out  at  the  required  distance  apart. 
Shallow  holes  are  then  dug  along  the  first  line,  one  for  each 
set,  which  another  person  following  drops  in  the  holes.  The 
soil  from  the  second  row  of  holes  is  used  to  cover  up  the 
sets  in  the  first  row,  and  so  on  to  the  end  of  the  plot.  An 
active  man  can  in  this  manner  spade-in  an  acre  of  potatoes  in 
a  day.  Dibbling-in  is  performed  in  a  somewhat  similar  fashion 
except  that  holes,  about  4in.  deep,  are  made  with  a  Potato 
dibber  and  the  sets  are  covered  by  hoeing.  This  method  is 
only  suitable  for  very  light  soils,  or  such  as  are  in  a  good  free- 
working  condition,  otherwise  the  pressure  required  to  make 
a  hole  with  the  dibber  so  compacts  the  soil  surrounding  the 
set  that  the  roots  are  unable  to  run  freely,  to  the  detriment  of 
the  crop.  When  planting  is  done  on  the  flat  the  spading-in 
method  will  be  found  the  best.  After  cultivation  consists  of 
hoeing  and  gradual  moulding-up. 

THE  LAZY-BED  SYSTEM. — This  system  is  useful  on  soil  where 
the  water  level  is  near  the  surface,  such  as  newly-reclaimed 
bog  land.  It  consists  in  making  beds  4ft.  to  5ft.  in  width  with 
deep  trenches  between,  which  serve  to  drain  away  superfluous 
moisture.  The  sets  are  placed  on  the  surface,  one  row  at  each 
side  of  the  bed.  Soil  is  taken  from  between  the  beds  to  cover 
the  sets  and  again  to  earth  up  the  plants,  and  in  this  way  the 
trench  is  formed.  The  system  appears  to  serve  the  particular 
purpose  for  which  it  is  intended  very  well,  and  is  in  common 
use  in  the  west  of  Ireland  where,  however,  probably  from  the 
force  of  habit,  it  is  also  frequently  met  with  on  soils  where  it 
serves  no  particular  purpose  and  where  other  methods  might 


276  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

be  substituted  with  advantage ;  no  doubt,  under  the  beneficent 
guidance  of  the  Irish  Board  of  Agriculture  this  change  will 
soon  take  place.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  why  the  system 
should  be  given  such  an  objectionable  title,  except  that  it  is 
frequently  associated  with  slovenly  farming;  at  all  events, 
there  is  nothing  "  lazy  "  about  it  when  properly  carried  out. 

Early  Potatoes  in*  the  Garden. — Particulars  of  the  field 
culture  of  early  Potatoes  have  already  been  given,. but  smaller 
lots  of  extra  early  tubers  may  be  produced  in  the  garden 
in  various  ways,  none  of  which  present  much  difficulty.  The 
first  essential  thing  is  to  secure  some  good  sound  seed  of  an 
early  variety,  and  pack  them  closely  in  trays,  one  layer  deep, 
as  described  on' pages  269  to  271.  This  should  be  done  as  soon 
after  the  beginning  of  January  as  possible,  and  the  trays  stood 
in  full  daylight  in  a  cool  place,  but  quite  safe  from  frost.  .Here 
by  the  time  they  are  wanted  each  will  make  a  number  of  short 
stout  shoots,  all  of  which  except  two  of  the  strongest  should  be 
rubbed  off  before  planting.  Next,  select  a  piece  of  ground  in 
a  sheltered  position,  which  lies  dry  and  is  inclined  to  the  south 
or  south-west,  and  fork  this  up  lightly,  having  previously  spread 
over  it  thoroughly  decayed  manure,  about  2in.  thick.  Then 
prepare  a  heap  of  compost,  using  about  one-half  decayed 
manure  and  making  up  the  other  half  with  the  residue  from 
rubbish  fires,  decayed  vegetable  rubbish,  road  sweepings,  or 
any  similar  lightening  material.  About  the  middle  of  February 
draw  the  ground  up  into  ridges  about  Sin.  high  and  20in.  apart ; 
this  will  cause  the  soil  to  lie  drier  and  warmer  than  when  lying 
flat.  In  the  first  week  of  March  make  a  drill,  4in.  deep,  at  the 
top  of  each  ridge,  and  lay  2in.  of  compost  at  the  bottom  of  each. 
Lay  the  sprouted  sets  on  this,  lOin.  apart,  cover  them  with  2in. 
more  compost,  and  then  make  the  ridges  trim  and  neat  by 
drawing  soil  from  the  sides  over  the  compost  and  forking  over 
the  ground  again  between  the  rows.  As  the  tops  begin  to 
show  draw  a  little  fine  earth  over  them ;  when  frost  threatens 
lay  along  the  ridges  a  few  inches  of  dry  litter,  which  must 
be  removed  each  morning.  Or  a  light  framework  of  laths  can 
be  fixed  1ft.  above  the  top  of  the  ridges  on  which  mats  can  be 
laid.  The  Potatoes  should  be  ready  for  lifting  by  the  middle 
of  June.  This  arrangement  can  be  modified,  and  considerable 


Potatoes.  277 

protection  given  to  the  Potatoes,  by  planting  broad  beans  or 
early  peas  on  every  second,  third,  or  fourth  ridge. 

Forcing  in  Frames. — Although  the  forcing  of  early  Potatoes 
in  frames  has  hitherto  been  relegated  to  the  private  gardener, 
it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  grower  for  market  is  not 
neglecting  the  opportunity  for  doing  a  profitable  business. 
In  the  island  of  Guernsey  many  of  the  growers  regularly  crop 
their  cold  glasshouses  with  Potatoes  during  the  winter  and  find 
it  a  profitable  business,  and  although  they  have  a  great  advan- 
tage over  growers  on  the  mainland  in  a  comparative  immunity 
from  severe  frosts,  this  is  not  a  matter  of  the  first  importance 
when  growing  in  frames,  because  frost  can  be  excluded  by  the 
use  of  straw  mats.  The  high  prices  which  early  Potatoes 
realise  are  sufficient  to  tempt  French  growers,  who  are  now 
forcing  them,  and  if  they  can  find  a  satisfactory  profit  in  the 
business  it  ought  to  be  possible  for  us  to  do  the  same.  The 
fact  that  some  of  our  growers  can  now  hold  their  own  against 
imported  early  frame-grown  salads  is  an  argument  in  favour 
of  extending  the  effort  to  frame-grown  Potatoes. 

The  crop  can  be  grown  either  on  mild  hot-beds  or  in  cold 
frames ;  in  the  former  case  the  tubers  are  ready  for  lifting  in 
the  early  part  of  May,  and  in  the  latter  about  the  end  of  May 
or  the  beginning  of  June.  The  shallow  frames  already  fully 
described  on  pages  68  to  71  will  serve  admirably  for  this 
purpose  if  a  Gin.  board  is  temporarily  fixed  round  the  bottom  to 
increase  their  depth.  The  hot-bed  is  made  in  the  second 
week  of  February,  about  1ft.  thick,  as  described  on  pages  128 
and  129,  then  the  frame  is  put  on,  and  about  9in.  compost,  as 
described  on  the  preceding  page,  is  put  inside.  A  few  days 
afterwards,  when  the  soil  is  warmed  through,  well-sprouted 
sets  are  planted  4in.  deep  and  9in.  apart,  this  giving  twenty-five 
to  each  light.  The  frames  are  kept  closely  covered  with  mats 
until  the  tops  begin  to  show,  when  the  mats  are  removed  each 
morning  but  replaced  each  night.  Ventilation  is  given  daily, 
from  an  inch  on  rough  cold  days  to  three  or  four  inches  when 
the  weather  is  mild,  removing  the  lights  altogether  during  the 
daytime  as  the  weather  becomes  genial.  When  the  haulms 
reach  the  glass,  the  frames  are  raised  on  a  brick  at  each 
corner.  If  the  tubers  show  through  the  soil  or  there  is  any 


278  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

danger  of  their  becoming  greened,  another  2in.  of  moist  com- 
post must  be  spread  all  over  the  surface.  Great  judgment  is 
required  in  giving  water ;  if  the  weather  is  wet  or  dull  probably 
none  will  be  required,  whilst  if  it  is  dry  and  bright  several 
waterings  may  be  needed.  In  any  case,  every  care  must  be 
taken  to  keep  the  soil  nicely  moist  but  not  sodden.  A  light 
crop  of  radishes  can  be  taken  from  between  the  rows  whilst  the 
Potatoes  are  growing.  By  the  middle  of  May  the  frames  will 
be  available  for  growing  cucumbers  or  vegetable  marrows. 

For  cold-frame  work,  when  the  equipment  of  ordinary  frames 
and  lights  is  insufficient,  two  rows  of  parallel  boards  and  any 
old  but  sound  lights  will  answer  very  well  (a  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  this  method  of  constructing  cold  frames  will  be  found 
on  pages  132  and  133).  Where  lights  are  not  available  the 
frames  alone,  covered  with  mats  each  night,  will  produce  crops 
earlier  than  when  the  beds  are  entirely  in  the  open-air.  For 
cold-frame  work  it  is  necessary  to  lay  down  a  bed  of  rich 
compost,  9in.  deep,  on  top  of  the  ordinary  soil,  and  to  plant  well 
sprouted  sets  at  the  beginning  of  March. 

Spraying. — There  is  an  ever-present  enemy  of  the  Potato 
crop  which  no  up-to-date  grower  can  afford  to  disregard — the 
Potato  disease,  Phytophthora  infestans.  The  crop  is  subject 
to  attack  from  several  other  fungoid  diseases,  but  this  one 
is  the  most  to  be  feared,  for  whilst  it  is  always  present  in 
some  degree  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  occasionally  its 
ravages  are  very  serious,  few  crops  escaping  altogether.  At 
the  same  time,  if  the  conditions  of  healthy  growth,  already 
indicated,  are  carefully  observed  and  only  good  sound  seed  of 
vigorous  varieties  used,  although  immunity  cannot  be  expected 
a  long  step  will  have  been  made  in  that  direction.  But  beyond 
this,  the  careful  grower  ought  to  do  everything  that  lies  in  his 
power  to  protect  his  crops  from  serious  infection  by  system- 
atically spraying  the  haulms  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  made 
according  to  the  directions  given  in  the  section  on  Insect  and 
Fungoid  Pests.  Where  Potatoes  are  cultivated  on  large  areas 
one  of  the  modern  implements  designed  especially  for  spraying 
this  crop  will  naturally  be  taken  advantage  of,  but  for  small 
places  one  or  two  ordinary  knapsack  machines  will  be  found  to 
fulfil  all  requirements. 


Potatoes.  279 

Lifting  and  Storing. — Lifting  begins  with  early  Potatoes, 
which  are  dug  "  green  "  for  the  early  market  as  soon  as  the 
tubers  have  grown  to  a  saleable  size.  They  should  be  lifted 
with  a  broad-tined  fork,  as  they  are  easily  damaged  and  need 
careful  handling.  This  work  should  be  done  on  a  fine  dry 
day,  when  the  soil  is  in  a  nice  workable  condition,  as  then  the 
tubers  turn  out  clean  and  bright,  and  are  more  readily  saleable 
than  when  there  is  a  lot  of  dirt  adhering  to  them.  Potatoes 
should  not  be  lifted  for  storing  until  the  haulm  has  died 
down,  when  they  will  be  grown  to  their  full  size  and  have  firm 
skins.  When  the  crop  is  intended  for  seed  purposes,  a  certain 
degree  of  immaturity  is  desirable,  as  already  indicated,  in 
which  case  the  crop  would  be  lifted  whilst  the  tops  are  still 
green.  Small  crops  are,  of  course,  lifted  with  the  fork,  but  on 
large  areas  Potato  ploughs  or  Potato  diggers  are  now  exten- 
sively used  for  lifting  the  main  crops.  Unless  the  Potatoes 
are  turning  out  clean  and  the  weather  is  settled  it  is  best  not 
to  lift  more  than  can  be  dealt  with  each  day,  or  the  soil  may 
get  dried  on  to  them ;  or  rain  may  fall  on  them  whilst  lying  on 
the  newly-turned  soil,  and  the  task  of  collecting  and  cleaning 
them  would  then  be  made  more  difficult  and  disagreeable. 
When  the  tubers  are  coated  with  dirt,  this  is  usually  rubbed  off 
with  the  hands  before  clamping.  In  wet  weather  or  on  heavy 
land  the  tubers  are  sometimes  in  such  a  dirty  condition  that  it 
is  necessary  to  wash  them  before  they  are  presentable,  in  which 
case  it  is  best  to  dispose  of  them  without  storing,  as  they  do 
not  keep  well  after  being  washed. 

Women  are  usually  employed  for  picking  up  the  Potatoes, 
one  collecting  the  "  ware,"  or  largest  sound  tubers,  another  the 
"  seed,"  or  middle  sized  ones,  and  a  third  the  "  chats "  and 
"  tail,"  in  which  is  included  all  the  smallest,  as  well  as  diseased 
and  broken  ones,  which  are  usually  reserved  for  pig  feeding 
or  disposed  of  locally.  Any  handy-sized  baskets  are  used  for 
collecting  them,  but  some  growers  provide  the  women  with  a 
strong  apron  made  of  sacking,  with  a  piece  of  strong  netting 
in  the  middle  to  allow  the  dirt  to  pass  through.  When  prices 
are  good  a  portion  of  the  crop  is  usually  despatched  to  market 
direct  from  the  field,  in  which  case  a  weighing  machine  is  kept 
close  to  the  pickers  and  the  ware  is  put  into  bags,  weighed, 


280  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

tied,  and  labelled  on  the  field.  In  packing  for  market  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  tubers  are  clean,  sound,  and 
fairly  even  in  size.  When  the  size  is  very  irregular  it  pays  to 
grade  them  into  two  samples.  The  Potatoes  not  sold  directly 
from  the  field  are  stored  for  disposal  as  opportunity  and  prices 
dictate.  The  seed  is  sometimes  put  into  a  clamp,  or  it  may  be 
stored  in  a  dry  cool  shed,  safe  from  frost.  On  some  places 
where  sprouting  is  made  a  feature,  the  seed  is  placed  directly 
into  sprouting  trays  on  the  field,  and  then  needs  no  re-handling 
after  being  carted  to  the  store. 

The  usual  position  for  a  Potato  clamp  is  the  headland  of  the 
field  in  which  the  crop  grew,  providing  there  is  a  gate  con- 
veniently near  and  a  good  road  leading  from  it ;  such  a  position 
saves  a  lot  of  unnecessary  carting.  The  ground  on  which  the 
clamp  is  to  stand  should  be,  if  possible,  slightly  higher  than  the 


Section  of  Potato  Clamp. 

general  level ;  in  no  case  should  it  be  lower,  as  the  Potatoes 
must  be  kept  dry,  and  the  tendency  should  be  for  rain-water  to 
run  away  from  and  not  towards  the  clamp.  Before  clamping, 
the  Potatoes  must  be  fairly  dry  and  all  showing  any  trace  of 
disease  carefully  picked  out ;  when  affected  tubers  are  mixed 
with  sound  ones  the  disease  often  spreads  through  the  whole. 
They  are  piled  up  in  a  long  ridge-shaped  heap,  from  3ft.  to  5ft. 
wide  at  the  base,  according  to  the  quantity  to  be  stored,  the 
height  being  regulated  by  the  width,  as  they  are  piled  up  as 
high  as  they  will  lie.  They  are  then  covered  with  straw, 
bracken,  or  other  dry  litter  about  Gin.  deep,  and  over  the  straw 
a  Gin.  covering  of  soil  is  put  in  a  trim  and  regular  ridge  form, 
the  surface  being  made  firm  and  smooth  with  the  spade  so  that 


Potatoes.  281 

rain  will  run  off.  Soil  for  covering  is  taken  from  the  ground 
outside  the  clamp,  and  in  the  operation  a  trench  is  cut  all  round 
to  carry  away  water  and  so  keep  the  contents  dry.  After  the 
clamp  is  covered  with  earth,  ventilating  holes  are  cut  through 
along  the  top  of  the  ridge,  about  6ft.  apart,  and  a  tuft  of 
straw  is  pulled  through  each  hole  and  allowed  to  project,  or  a 
drain-pipe  is  inserted.  In  case  of  a  spell  of  severe  weather  the 
ventilating  holes  should  be  closed  to  keep  out  frost,  and  as  an 
additional  safeguard  when  frost  is  very  severe,  it  is  advisable 
to  put  a  covering  of  straw  or  litter  over  the  clamp. 

About  the  beginning  of  February,  or  earlier  if  there  was 
much  disease  present  when  the  crop  was  lifted,  the  clamp 
should  be  opened  and  the  Potatoes  examined.  It  will  often 
be  found  that  many  are  infected  and  that  most  have  begun 
to  make  shoots.  They  are  shovelled  into  a  riddle,  where  they 
are  turned  over  by  hand  and  carefully  examined ;  the  shoots  are 
rubbed  off  and  the  tubers  showing  disease  are  thrown  out.  If 
they  are  to  be  kept  for  a  further  period  the  clamp  is  re-made 
on  the  same  site,  gradually  working  through  the  old  clamp  and 
making  a  new  one  as  the  work  proceeds.  This  opportunity  is 
usually  taken  to  send  a  portion  of  the  stock  to  market.  When 
the  Potatoes  were  put  into  clamp  without  being  properly 
graded,  they  are  now  sorted  into  different  grades  and  clamped 
separately.  The  sorting  is  done  either  by  passing  them  over 
hand  riddles,  each  with  a  different  sized  mesh,  or  by  employing 
a  more  elaborate  device  known  as  a  Potato  sorter,  of  which 
there  are  numerous  variations  in  use.  The  shovel  used  is  one 
fronted  with  a  steel  tip  and  backed  with  bars  about  lin.  apart, 
through  which  the  dirt  will  fall. 

Where  there  is  enough  room  in  good  dry  buildings,  these 
may  be  used  for  storing  the  Potatoes  in,  instead  of  clamping, 
as  the  labour  is  less  and  they  can  be  more  conveniently  got  at 
in  any  condition  of  the  weather.  A  good  thickness  of  straw  or 
litter  should  be  put  between  the  Potatoes  and  the  outside  walls 
and  they  should  be  well  covered  over  the  top  to  protect  them 
from  frost  and  to  exclude  light. 

•Manures : — Much  has  been  said  and  written  at  different 
times  against  applying  manure  directly  to  Potatoes,  under  the 
impression  that  it  induces  disease,  but  since  it  has  been  proved 


282  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

by  experiment  that  excellent  crops  of  good  sound  Potatoes  can 
be  grown  in  thoroughly  decayed  manure  alone,  it  would  seem 
that  such  advice  is  misleading.  Well-decayed  farmyard  manure 
is  the  best  practical  means  known  for  supplying  to  the  soil  the 
physical  condition  and  the  plant  foods  necessary  to  the  produc- 
tion of  an  abundant  crop  of  Potatoes,  but  it  is  not  a  perfect 
manure  because  it  contains,  proportionately,  an  insufficient 
quantity  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  and  these  ingredients 
need  supplementing,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  with 
suitable  artificials.  The  mischief  which  sometimes  arises  in  con- 
nection with  its  application  to  Potatoes  is  not  from  the  quantity, 
but  rather  from  the  crude,  rank  condition  in  which  it  is  given, 
often  combined  with  overcrowding  and  with  badly-drained  land. 
Excessive  moisture  at  the  roots  causes  unhealthy  growth,  and 
when  this  is  coupled  with  a  damp  and  stagnant  atmosphere  in 
and  around  the  foliage,  the  conditions  are  such  as  to  foster  the 
incubation  and  cause  a  rapid  spread  of  the  disease.  Therefore, 
the  primary  conditions  for  heavy  crops  of  sound  Potatoes  are 
(1)  deeply  worked  and  well  drained  soil,  (2)  ample  space  between 
rows  and  sets,  and  (3)  liberal  dressings  of  well-rotted  farmyard 
manure.  If  the  manure  is  not  well  decayed  it  must  be  turned 
under  in  the  autumn ;  the  nearer  to  the  time  of  planting,  the 
more  thoroughly  decayed  it  must  be.  Good  crops  can  be  grown 
without  any  manure  on  newly-broken  old  pasture  land  or  on 
any  other  soil  which  contains  an  accumulated  store  of  fertility, 
or  on  most  ordinary  soils  with  the  aid  of  concentrated  fertilizers 
only,  but  consideration  will  make  it  apparent  that  such  a  pro- 
cedure is  a  temporary  expedient,  and  that  crops  so  obtained 
draw  upon  and  reduce  that  store  of  fertility  in  the  soil  which  it 
ought  to  be  the  aim  and  ambition  of  every  "thorough"  gardener 
continually  to  increase  by  every  means  in  his  power. 

The  average  yield  of  Potatoes  per  acre  throughout  the  whole 
of  Great  Britain  is  between  5  and  6  tons,  but  this,  of  course, 
includes  the  results  from  poor  land  and  insufficient  manuring. 
On  better  soil  with  more  liberal  treatment  the  yield  often  runs 
as  high  as  10  or  12  tons  per  acre  over  a  large  area.  Under 
special  conditions  from  15  to  20  and  more  tons  per  acre  have 
frequently  been  grown,  but  such  yields  are  always  the  result 
of  a  thorough  working  of  the  soil  accompanied  by  generous 


Potatoes. — Radishes.  283 

applications  of  manure,  supplemented  by  such  concentrated 
fertilizers  as  will  make  a  perfect  balance  of  the  necessary 
plant  foods. 

Varieties: — There  are  now  such  a  bewildering  number  of 
good  varieties  in  cultivation  that  the  task  of  selecting  a  few  of 
the  best  is  not  an  easy  one.  Moreover,  no  matter  how  carefully 
the  selection  may  be  made,  the  tendency  to  gradual  deterior- 
ation and  the  constant  introduction  of  new  varieties  will  cause 
many  of  those  in  any  list  given  now  to  be  superseded  after 
the  lapse  of  a  few  years.  The  following  is  a  selection  of  a  few 
of  the  best  in  use  at  the  present  time.  First  earlies  for  forcing 
or  close  planting  on  a  warm  protected  border :  Early  Ashleaf , 
Sutton's  Ringleader,  Sharp's  Victor,  Button's  May  Queen. 
First  earlies  for  open-air  culture:  Sutton's  A  1,  May  Queen. 
Gladiator,  First  Crop,  Midlothian  Early,  Duke  of  York,  Ninety- 
fold,  Early  Puritan.  Second  earlies  (first  division) :  Sir  John 
Llewelyn,  Sharpe's  Express,  Myatt's  Ashleaf,  Dalmeny  Early, 
Recorder,  Early  Rose,  Early  Regent ;  (second  division) : 
Nobleman,  Dalmeny  Acme,  Duchess  of  Norfolk,  Snowdrop, 
Pride  of  Tonbridge,  Cigarette,  British  Queen.  Main-crop  (first 
division) :  Royal  Kidney,  Beauty  of  Hebron,  Windsor  Castle, 
Supreme,  King  Edward  VII ;  (second  division) :  Table  Talk, 
Up-to-date,  The  Factor,  Evergood,  Scottish  Triumph,  Warrior, 
Peckover,  Future  Fame,  Dalmeny  Beauty,  Dalmeny  Hero, 
Webb's  Goldfinder,  Sutton's  Superlative,  Sutton's  White  City. 


RADISHES. 

Raphanus  sativus. 

THE  Radish  is  one  of  the  most  useful  and  popular  of  salad 
crops.  It  is  very  simple  of  cultivation,  quick  to  mature, 
and  may  be  had  without  any  great  difficulty  all  the  year  round. 
It  is  useless  now-a-days  to  grow  big  coarse  Radishes,  strong  in 
flavour ;  what  the  public  want  are  the  crisp,  tender,  delicate- 
flavoured  ones,  in  regular  succession,  and  the  secret  for  getting 
these  is  by  quick  growth,  making  small  sowings  on  rich  moist 
soil  at  frequent  intervals.  Poor  soil  and  that  which  has  been 
recently  dressed  with  rich  manure  should  both  be  avoided,  the 


284 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co.  . 

French  Breakfast  Radish. 


former  producing  small,  stringy  roots,  and  the  latter  mostly 

leaves.    The  best  soil  for  the  purpose  is  a  porous,  easily-worked 

one,  rich  in  humus  from  previous  generous  dressings  of  manure, 

and  brought  to  a  fine  tilth.    The  ideal  soil  is  one  approximating 

closely  to  that  used  in  the 
French  garden,  which  con- 
sists entirely  of  well-broken 
and  sifted  manure  from  ex- 
hausted hot-beds.  The  seed 
should  always  be  sown  thinly 
and  not  be  covered  with  more 
than  fin.  of  soil,  made  firm 
on  the  surface  after  sowing, 
as  the  roots  do  not  bulb  up 
well  when  the  soil  is  too  loose. 
Never  allow  Radishes  to  be 
short  of  water,  and  draw 
them  immediately  they  are 
large  enough  for  use. 
Crops  from  Hot-Beds. — The  earliest  crops  of  Radishes  are 

grown  in  frames  on  hot-beds.     It  is  seldom  that  a  frame  is  used 

exclusively  for  them,  sufficient 

early    supplies    being     usually 

taken  when  they  are  sown  with 

other  crops.    In  this  way,  owing 

to  the  quickness  with  which  they 

form,  a  profitable  catch-crop  of 

Radishes  can  be  had  without  in 

any  way   interfering   with   the 

more  slowly-moving  occupants 

of  the  frame.     This  method  is 

described  in  detail  on  pages  93 

and  94,  and  can  be  easily  applied 

to  most  crops  grown  early  in 

frames,   either   warm   or  cold. 

A  frequent  mistake,  however,  in 

trying  to  grow  early  Radishes   copyright,  V.A.  &  Co. 

in    this    way    is    in    sowing   too        Scarlet  White-tipped  Turnip 

thickly.    This  is  fatal  to  success  Radish. 


s 


Radishes.  .  285 

as  it  is  impossible  for  useful  roots  to  form  under  such  condi- 
tions, and  the  other  occupants  of  the  frame  are  injured  by 
overcrowding.  When  grown  with  other  crops,  Radishes  should 
not  stand  closer  than  3in.  apart  on  the  average,  and  when  it  is 
seen  that  they  come  up  closer  they  should  be  at  once  thinned 
to  this  distance,  but  thick  sowing  under  such  circumstances  is 
wasteful  of  both  seed  and  labour.  Another  frequent  mistake, 
attributable  solely  to  carelessness,  is  to  omit  properly  clearing 
the  bed  of  all  small  immature  Radish  plants  when  the  bulk  of 
the  crop  is  taken;  these  should  never  be  allowed  to  remain, 
or  they  quickly  make  large  tops  which  overshadow  and  injure 
the  other  plants. 

Another  way  in  which  early  supplies  may  be  obtained  is  to 
make  a  hot-bed,  about  1ft.  thick,  at  the  beginning  of  February, 
either  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  or  in  a  shallow  trench. 
On  this  is  put  3m.  of  light  soil,  and  after  the  seed  is  sown 
cover  the  bed  with  litter,  or  with  mats  laid  on  a  light  frame- 
work of  laths.  The  coverings  must  be  removed  in  the  day-time 
and  replaced  each  night.  With  careful  management  the  crop 
will  be  ready  in  about  five  weeks  from  sowing. 

Early  Crops  from  the  Open. — It  is  useless  attempting  to 
get  very  early  crops  of  Radishes  from  land  of  a  heavy  sticky 
nature  unless  special  preparation  is  made  to  get  rid  of  excessive 
damp  and  to  make  the  surface  friable.  In  addition  to  being 
well  drained,  for  early  work  such  soil  should  be  laid  in  raised 
beds  and  the  surface  should  be  covered  with  4in.  of  light  com- 
post. Naturally  light,  warm,  well-drained  soils  need  no  special 
preparation  beyond  reducing  the  surface  to  as  fine  a  tilth  as 
possible  before  the  seed  is  sown,  though  even  these  are  all 
the  better  for  having  sunk  pathways  between  the  beds  to  take 
excessive  moisture  away  quickly. 

The  earliest  sowings  are  made  from  December  to  February, 
in  the  most  sheltered  and  sunny  positions  available,  which  are 
generally  found  between  rows  of  fruit  trees  and  bushes  or  at 
the  foot  of  walls  or  fences.  The  beds  are  made  from  4ft.  to  5ft. 
wide,  as  is  most  convenient,  the  crop  being  gathered  from  the 
pathways,  without  treading  on  the  beds.  Seed  is  sown  broad- 
cast, thinly,  raked  in  with  a  wooden  rake,  and  then  slightly 
covered  with  fine  soil.  After  sowing,  the  bed  is  covered  with 


286  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

long  litter,  Sin.  or  4in.  thick.  This  is  left  on  until  the  seed  has 
germinated,  after  which  it  is  raked  off  into  the  alleys  daily,  but 
immediately  replaced  on  the  appearance  of  frost  or  snow. 
Some  thinning  of  the  seedlings  will  probably  be  necessary, 
l|in.  apart  each  way  being  about  the  right  distance  for  the 
small-topped  varieties,  which  should  be  used  for  the  earliest 
crops.  When  the  plants  have  become  fairly  strong,  coverings 
are  dispensed  with  if  the  weather  is  mild,  but  the  litter  is  kept 
close  at  hand,  to  be  used  again  in  case  there  is  a  return  of 
frost. 

Successional  Sowings  are  made  in  open  situations  in  March 
and  April.  From  May  to  August  the  seed  must  be  sown  in  cool 
moist  places,  as  Radishes  do  not  succeed  well  if  fully  exposed  to 
the  sun  in  hot  dry  weather.  When  suitable  places  can  be  found, 
a  summer  crop  is  sometimes  very  profitable,  especially  in  a  dry 
season,  but  for  really  satisfactory  results  frequent  waterings 
will  be  found  necessary.  Being  so  quickly  off  the  ground  they 
can  often  be  advantageously  sown  between  rows  of  lettuces, 
cauliflowers,  peas,  French  beans,  and  similar  crops,  the  shade 
afforded  being  an  advantage,  provided  they  are  sown  thinly. 

Sowing  on  open  ground  recommences  at  the  end  of  August, 
after  the  soil  has  been  moistened  with  a  few  good  showers, 
and  goes  on  to  the  end  of  October,  but  the  latest  sowings  will 
again  need  the  protection  of  litter.  Suitable  ground  will  be 
foun'd  where  crops  which  have  required  heavy  manuring  have 
been  recently  cleared,  such  as  early  celery,  French  beans,  and 
vegetable  marrows,  the  soil  being  deeply  dug  and  levelled  and 
the  surface  brought  to  a  fine  tilth. 

Varieties : — For  hot-beds,  forcing  varieties  of  French  Break- 
fast, Scarlet  White-tipped  Turnip,  Red  Turnip,  White  Turnip, 
Wood's  Early  Frame  (long),  Scarlet  Olive,  and  White  Olive. 
For  sheltered  beds,  any  of  the  preceding  varieties  in  ordinary 
selections.  For  open  situations  and  summer  crops,  any  of  the 
preceding  ordinary  selections  and  Long  Scarlet,  White-tipped 
Long  Scarlet,  and  Long  White, 


Rhubarb. 


287 


RHUBARB. 

Rheum  hybridum. 

RHUBARB  is  in  such  general  use  that  it  would  be  difficult 
to  find  an  old-established  kitchen  garden  without  a  bed. 
It  will  grow  well  in  most  kinds  of  soil  which  have  received 
a  reasonable  amount  of  preparation,  and  it  seldom  suffers 
seriously  either  from  the  weather  or  from  pests  or  diseases. 
Its  culture  frequently  forms  an  important  part  of  general 
market  gardening,  whilst  in  some  districts  the  forcing  of  early 
supplies  has  become  a  specialised  industry  with  an  enormous 
output.  The  demand  for  Rhubarb  during  the  early  part 
of  the  season  is  constant  and  steady,  the  prices  realised  do 

not  often  fluctuate  very  widely 
and  usually  show  a  good  margin 
of  profit.  On  the  other  hand  it 
is  a  crop  which  takes  up  a  com- 
paratively large  area  of  land  when 
worked  for  market,  and  where  the 
holding  is  small  this  is  a  matter 
needing  serious  consideration, 
because  a  limited  area  (if  it  is 
subjected  to  good  culture)  can  be 
made  to  yield  a  much  greater 
profit  when  cropped  with  other 
vegetables.  Another  matter  of 
great  importance  is  the  weight 
and  bulk  of  the  crop,  which  cause 
heavy  expenses  for  carriage  when 
the  garden  is  situated  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
market.  At  the  same  time,  when  the  crop  can  be  disposed  of 
locally,  or  when  markets  are  within  a  reasonable  distance, 
Rhubarb,  either  forced  or  grown  naturally,  is  well  worth  the 
attention  of  every  market  gardener. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — The  ideal  soil  for  Rhubarb  is  a  deep 
rich  loam,  cool  and  moist,  and  well-drained.  Where  such  a  soil 
does  not  exist  steps  should  be  taken  to  make  the  conditions 
answer  to  this  description  as  nearly  as  possible,  because  the 
deeper  and  richer  the  soil  the  finer  will  be  the  quality  and  size 


Forced  Rhubarb. 


288  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

of  the  produce.  The  land  should  be  bastard  trenched  or  sub- 
soiled  in  the  autumn,  and  well  enriched  with  a  liberal  dressing 
of  manure,  as  the  plants  have  to  stand  in  the  ground  for  a 
number  of  years,  and  top-dressings  afterwards  will  not  com- 
pensate for  neglect  to  enrich  the  soil  before  planting. 

Propagation. — The  most  common  method  of  propagating 
Rhubarb  is  by  root  division,  and  when  the  grower's  object  is  to 
get  a  thrifty,  vigorous  plantation  in  a  short  time  this  is  the  best 
method  to  adopt.  Strong  old  roots  are  cut  with  a  sharp  knife 
or  spade  into  as  many  portions  as  there  are  crowns  to  it,  and 
each  slice  forms  a  set  for  planting.  These  sets  should  be 
carefully  trimmed  up,  removing  any  parts  that  may  be  broken 
or  mangled,  but  leaving  to  each  set  as  much  root  as  possible. 
Where  a  stock  of  old  roofs  is  not  easily  procurable,  sets  ready 
for  planting  may  be  obtained  from  most  of  the  large  growers. 
An  alternative  method  of  obtaining  sets,  practised  by  some 
growers,  is  to  purchase  large  roots  for  forcing,  and  when  the 
supply  of  stalks  begins  to  decline,  remove  them  to  a  shed  where 
they  will  be  slightly  protected  from  too  severe  a  change,  and 
at  planting  time  divide  them  in  the  manner  described  above. 
Such  sets  are  not,  of  course,  as  vigorous  as  those  from  unforced 
roots,  but  if  planted  out  in  good  soil  and  well  cared  for  after- 
wards they  soon  render  a  good  account  of  themselves,  and  in 
the  second  year  make  fine  plants. 

Where  economy  on  the  immediate  outlay  is  of  greater 
importance  to  the  grower  than  an  additional  year  or  two  of 
waiting,  the  necessary  stock  can  be  easily  and  cheaply  raised 
from  seed,  the  plants  coming  fairly  true  to  character  when 
the  seed  is  obtained  from  a  reliable  source,  though  in  this 
respect  perhaps  Myatt's  Victoria  is  the  most  dependable  variety. 
The  seeds  should  be  sown  thinly  in  rich  soil,  early  in  October, 
or  in  February  or  March  as  soon  as  the  conditions  of  weather 
and  soil  are  favourable.  Sow  in  rows  1ft.  apart,  and  thin  the 
seedlings  early  to  6in.  apart  in  the  rows,  afterwards  thinning 
again  to  about  lOin.  apart  by  removing  the  least  vigorous  or 
those  which  are  untrue  to  character.  Through  the  following 
summer  the  surface  soil  must  be  kept  loose  and  free  of  weeds 
by  frequent  hoeing,  and  the  plants  will  then  be  ready  to  set  out 
in  their  permanent  quarters  in  the  following  spring. 


Rhubarb.  289 

Planting. — The  work  of  setting  out  the  plants  in  their  per- 
manent positions  should  be  done  whilst  growth  is  dormant ;  in 
light  ground  it  may  be  done  after  the  leaves  have  died  down  in 
late  autumn,  but  in  heavy  or  moist  ground  it  is  best  deferred 
to  the  end  of  winter  or  early  in  spring.  The  distance  apart 
at  which  the  plants  are  set  depends  upon  the  sorts  grown, 
the  more  vigorous  late  varieties  needing,  as  a  rule,  much  more 
space  than  the  smaller  early  varieties.  A  mistake  frequently 
made  is  in  planting  too  thickly,  under  the  impression  that 
this  gives  a  greater  yield,  but  under  crowded  conditions  the 
individual  plants  do  not"  yield  so  many  or  such  fine  stalks  as 
when  they  have  more  room,  nor  does  the  plantation  continue 
so  long  in  profit.  The  aim  should  be  to  set  the  plants  at  such  a 
distance  apart  as  will  yield  the  greatest  amount  of  good  quality 
produce,  and  this  may  be  best  attained  by  planting  the  smaller 
varieties  in  rows  3ft.  apart  by  2ft.  Gin.  apart  in  the  row,  and 
the  stronger  growers  4ft.  between  the  rows  and  3ft.  between 
the  plants.  Mark  out  the  position  of  the  lines  and  then  throw 
out  a  furrow  with  spade  or  plough,  according  to  the  extent  of 
the  area  to  be  planted.  The  depth  of  the  furrow  is  regulated 
by  the  size  of  the  roots,  the  topmost  crown  of  which  should  be 
covered  with  about  2in.  of  soil.  After  planting  press  the  soil 
firmly  round  the  roots.  A  warm,  well-drained  position,  pro- 
tected from  cold  winds  and  facing  south  should,  when  possible, 
be  given  to  the  early  varieties,  as  gatherings  may  be  made  a 
week  or  more  earlier  from  such  a  position  than  from  a  damp, 
exposed  field,  and  early  gatherings  usually  mean  better  prices. 
Later  varieties  should  be  given  the  more  open  positions  and 
heavier  soil.  Rhubarb  needs  an  abundance  of  moisture  all 
through  the  growing  season,  and  although  a  low  wet  situation 
holding  stagnant  water  is  unsuitable,  a  very  dry  soil  is  prac- 
tically useless  for  this  culture. 

Routine  of  Cultivation. — The  object  sought  is  to  secure  the 
largest  possible  growth,  and  to  this  end  tillage  and  feeding 
must  be  thorough.  The  larger  the  leaves,  the  stronger  will  be 
the  crowns  for  the  following  season.  As  soon  as  planting  is 
finished  the  surface  of  the  soil  should  be  hoed  to  prevent  caking, 
and  hoeing  to  check  the  growth  of  weeds  and  to  keep  the 

surface  soil  loose  should  be  persisted  in  during  the  summer. 

19 


290  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

During  the  season  following  planting,  a  catch  crop  may  be 
grown  between  the  rows.  Each  winter,  as  soon  as  time  can 
be  spared,  during  a  spell  of  open  weather  the  ground  between 
the  rows  should  be  forked  over  and  each  crown  covered  a  few 
inches  deep  with  littery  manure ;  this  will  help  to  feed  the  roots 
and  hasten  the  formation  of  early  stalks,  which  will  come  long, 
clean  and  crisp  through  the  litter,  and  better  altogether  than  if 
none  was  used.  When  the  Rhubarb  is  in  bearing,  surface 
cultivation  should  begin  as  soon  as  gathering  is  finished.  All 
flower  stems  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  they  appear,  as  the 
formation  of  seed  is  very  exhausting  to  the  plant. 

Gathering. — When  to  gather,  how  to  gather,  and  when  to 
cease  gathering,  are  all  matters  worthy  of  more  attention  than 
they  usually  receive.  No  stalks  whatever  should  be  pulled  in 
the  first  season  after  planting,  and  in  the  second  season  the 
gathering  should  be  very  moderate ;  when  the  roots  are  to  be 
forced  it  is  much  better  not  to  gather  any  the  second  season, 
as  the  removal  of  any  leaf  from  the  plant  tends  to  weaken  it. 
Some  consumers  prefer  Rhubarb  when  the  stalks  are  only 
half-grown,  whilst  others  prefer  them  fully  grown,  but  there  is 
a  great  waste  if  they  are  gathered  before  they  reach  their 
full  length,  and  it  is  just  at  that  stage  when  they  are  in 
the  best  condition  and  should  be  gathered.  The  proper 
method  of  pulling  is  to  give  the  leaf-stalk  a  half-turn  and  a 
sudden  jerk  outward  and  downward  at  the  same  moment. 
When  pulling  is  done  carelessly  the  crown  is  often  torn  off  at 
the  base  of  the  stalk.  Too  many  leaves  should  not  be  pulled 
from  a  plant  at  one  time ;  if  there  are  a  dozen  leaves  to  a 
plant  not  more  than  six  should  be  taken,  and  time  allowed  for 
new  leaves  to  form  before  any  more  are  pulled.  Gathering 
should  cease  at  latest  by  the  early  part  of  August,  and  for  the 
rest  of  the  season  the  plants  should  be  left  to  grow  as  they 
will,  except  cuting  off  flower-stalks  as  fast  as  they  show. 
This  allows  quite  little  enough  time  for  the  last  crop  of  leaves 
to  make  good  crowns  for  the  next  season's  crop.  When 
Rhubarb  is  wanted  for  wine-making,  well-matured  stalks  are 
usually  pulled  at  the  end  of  August,  and  a  plot  should  be  kept 
for  that  purpose  in  preference  to  pulling  so  late  in  the  season 
from  the  ordinary  plantation.  Where  Rhubarb  is  grown  on  a 


Rhubarb.  291 

large  scale  it  is  a  good  plan  to  leave  at  intervals  in  the  field 
spaces  wide  enough  to  allow  a  waggon  to  be  drawn  down  for 
convenience  in  loading. 

Forcing. — Rhubarb  forcing  is  very  easy  and  simple.  If  the 
roots  are  lifted  after  the  leaves  have  died  down  in  the  autumn, 
and  put  in  any  place  which  has  a  temperature  of  from  50  to  60 
degrees,  growth  will  immediately  begin  again.  This  prompt 
response  to  an  increased  temperature  is  even  more  marked 
and  vigorous  when  the  roots  have  been  frozen  before  being 
introduced  into  heat.  Darkness  is  not  essential,  but  the 
stalks  come  longer,  straighter,  and  of  a  better  colour  and 
appearance  when  grown  in  complete  darkness,  and  therefore 
in  forcing  for  market  light  is  carefully  excluded.  For  the 
earliest  supplies  roots  may  be  put  in  a  shed  or  cellar,  under  a 
greenhouse  bench,  in  a  boiler  house,  in  frames  or  pits,  on  a  bed 
of  warm  manure  in  the  open,  or  in  fact  in  any  place  where  the 
necessary  protection,  warmth,  and  darkness  can  be  obtained. 
Where  forcing  is  done  on  a  large  scale,  special  cheaply  con- 
structed houses,  warmed  by  hot-water  pipes,  are  employed, 
though  this  is  a  matter  of  convenience  and  economy  of  labour 
and  not  of  necessity.  Rhubarb  is  also  forced  as  it  stands  in  the 
ground,  without  disturbing  the  roots,  and  though  it  cannot  be 
got  so  early  in  this  way  as  when  the  roots  are  lifted,  the  stalks 
come  much  finer  and  are  generally  of  better  quality. 

Forcing  may  therefore  be  divided  into  two  distinct  methods — 
(1)  Lifting  the  roots  and  placing  them  in  artificially  heated 
structures;  (2)  Applying  to  the  roots  where  they  grow  a 
covering  to  protect  from  the  weather  and  exclude  light,  with 
linings  of  fermenting  materials  to  generate  warmth  and  excite 
growth.  Both  systems  are  good  when  properly  carried  out, 
and  a  judicious  combination  of  the  two  would  appear  to  offer 
advantages  to  the  grower  whose  business  requires  a  steady 
supply  in  regular  succession.  In  either  system  it  is  useless  to 
expect  profitable  results  from  unsuitable  roots, — either  those 
which  lack  maturity  and  strength  or  those  which  are  enfeebled 
by  age  and  too  close  pulling, — they  should  be  grown  three  years 
from  seed  or  two  years  from  planting,  have  had  good  cultiva- 
tion and  an  abundant  supply  of  rich  food,  and  few  or  no  leaves 
should  have  been  pulled  from  them  in  the  preceding  season. 


292  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

•f 
Lifted  roots  usually  occupy,  after  trimming,  a  space  of  from 

9in.  to  1ft.  square.  They  are  packed  as  closely  together  as 
they  will  stand  on  a  few  inches  of  moist  soil,  and  similar  soil  is 
worked  into  the  spaces  between  them,  up  to  the  level  of  the 
crowns.  Where  the  prevailing  temperature  is  too  low,  the 
necessary  warmth  may  be  supplied  by  slow  combustion 
stoves  or  petroleum  heaters,  both  of  which  have  been  used 
successfully,  though  provision  must  be  made  for  the  escape  of 
noxious  fumes  and  the  maintenance  of  a  moist  atmosphere. 
The  heat  should  be  kept  as  steadily  as  possible  between  55 
and  60  degrees,  though  no  harm  has  resulted  when  it  has 
risen  as  high  as  80  or  fallen  as  low  as  40  degrees.  The  soil 
about  the  roots  should  be  kept  in  a  nicely  moist  but  not  wet 
condition.  Thin  useless  stalks  should  be  removed  as  soon  as 
seen,  so  as  not  to  waste  the  energy  of  the  root.  The  stalks 
should  be  gathered  immediately  they  are  ready  or  they  soon 
become  soft  and  spongy.  When  production  begins  to  decline 
the  roots  should  be  removed  to  a  place  where  they  will  be 
protected  from  frost,  and  will  then  be  available  for  making 
new  plantations  in  the  spring.  Two  or  three  crops  in  succession 
can  be  forced  in  the  season.  No  ventilation  is  needed  beyond 
that  which  is  given  when  attending  to  or  gathering  the  crop. 

When  forcing  on  hot-beds,  a  trench  is  made  about  4ft.  wide 
and  2ft.  deep.  In  this,  warm  manure  or  other  fermenting 
material  is  placed  about  18in.  deep,  and  after  the  heat  has 
worked  through  it  is  well  trodden  down  and  covered  with  Sin. 
of  soil.  Rough  boards,  2ft.  high  at  the  front  and  3ft.  at  the 
back,  are  fixed  round  the  bed  and  the  roots  put  inside.  The 
outsides  are  banked  up  with  hot  manure,  and  the  top  covered 
with  wooden  shutters  or  corrugated  iron,  on  which  a  few  inches 
of  litter  is  put  to  keep  out  the  frost.  Very  good  Rhubarb  is 
produced  by  this  method.  A  second  crop  may  be  taken  from 
these  beds  if  the  manure  in  the  trench  is  well  shaken  up  and 
a  little  fresh  strawey  manure  added  to  renew  the  fermentation  ; 
fresh  linings  of  manure  must  also  be  put  outside.  A  modifica- 
tion of  the  above  method  is  to  omit  the  boards,  cover  the 
crowns  with  18in.  of  litter,  and  over  all  put  hoops  of  willow 
branches  and  mats. 

When  forcing  the  roots  where  they  grow,  the  crowns  are 


Rhubarb.  293 

covered  deeply  with  litter,  or  with  boxes,  baskets,  or  tubs,  which 
are  banked  up  and  covered  with  litter.  It  is  obvious,  however, 
that  no  great  quantity  can  be  economically  forced  in  this 
manner.  To  do  the  work  profitably  the  roots  should  be  planted 
closer  together,  say  2ft.  each  way,  in  double  rows  with  5ft. 
spaces  between.  Soon  after  the  turn  of  the  year  fix  boards 
at  each  side  of  the  beds  and  take  out  a  trench,  1ft.  wide  and  a 
spit  deep,  along  the  outside  of  each  board.  Then  put  hot 
manure  in  the  trenches  and  bank  it  up  to  the  top  of  the 
boards,  then  cover  the  bed  over  in  the  manner  described 
for  hot-beds  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  When  the  forced 
crop  has  been  gathered  the  boards  are  removed,  the  manure 
spread,  the  alleys  dug  and  levelled  and  planted  with  summer 
crops.  The  Rhubarb  should  then  be  allowed  to  grow  as  it  will, 
without  further  pulling,  and  the  bed  will  last  for  several  years 
without  renewal. 

A  few  years  ago  handsome  profits  were  made  in  connection 
with  this  industry,  but  under  the  stress  of  ever-increasing 
competition  the  margin  of  profit  has  become  narrower,  and  it 
behoves  the  grower  who  enters  upon  the  business  to  carefully 
study  ways  and  means.  By  judicious  planning  many  suitable 
places  for  forcing  Rhubarb  can  usually  be  found  on  most 
holdings,  and  a  special  expenditure  on  buildings  or  appliances 
thus  avoided.  On  the  other  hand,  labour  is  the  most  expensive 
item,  and  it  may  pay  better,  by  saving  labour,  to  do  the  forcing 
in  close  proximity  to,  or  even  directly  upon,  the  ground  where 
the  roots  are  grown.  Of  one  thing  we  may  be  sure, — it  will 
not  pay  to  produce  a  partial  crop  or  one  of  indifferent  quality 
from  the  same  space  and  with  the  same  expenditure  of  labour 
which  might  and  ought  to  have  produced  a  good  crop.  Com- 
plete and  not  partial  success  must  be  striven  for,  and  whilst  in 
Rhubarb  forcing  this  goal  is  not  difficult  of  attainment,  it  can 
only  be  arrived  at  in  this  as  in  other  things,  by  a  careful  and 
thorough  attention  to  details. 

Manures : — Abundant  supplies  of  well-decayed  farmyard 
manure  are  necessary  in  Rhubarb  culture,  and  it  is  far  better 
not  to  embark  in  the  business  at  all  than  to  grow  the  stunted 
and  starved  plants  which  one  sees  occasionally.  Rhubarb  is  a 
rank  grower,  and  when  it  is  remembered  that  for  many  weeks 


294  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

in  the  early  part  of  the  season  the  plant  is  stripped  of  its  leaves 
as  fast  as  they  are  made,  it  is  obvious  that  it  requires  a  large 
amount  of  rich  food  to  stand  the  strain  and  maintain  its  pro- 
ductiveness year  after  year.  There  is  practically  no  danger  of 
giving  too  much  manure ;  on  land  of  average  quality  at  least 
from  30  to  40  tons  per  acre,  accompanied  by  8cwt.  of  bone 
meal,  and  4cwt  of  kainit,  should  be  incorporated  with  the  soil 
before  planting.  On  very  heavy  soil  it  would  be  advisable  to 
substitute  lOcwt.  basic  slag  for  the  bone  meal.  Each  winter 
at  least  15  tons  of  manure  should  be  given,  applied  along  the 
rows,  and  in  the  spring  3cwt.  of  superphosphate.  An  occasional 
dressing  on  light  land  of  3cwt.  kainit  in  the  autumn,  and  on 
heavy  land  of  licwt.  sulphate  of  potash  in  the  spring  will  be 
found  very  beneficial.  On  plantations  of  early  varieties  3cwt. 
nitrate  of  soda,  in  the  spring  after  growth  has  begun,  will  be 
found  very  serviceable  in  pushing  along  the  early  supplies. 

When  forcing  Rhubarb  mix  a  little  dissolved  bone  with  the 
soil  (about  a  48's  potful  of  dissolved  bone  to  a  barrowful  of  soil). 
The  application  of  nitrate  of  soda  (loz.  dissolved  in  each  gallon 
of  water)  to  the  roots  after  growth  has  commenced,  is  a  good 
stimulant. 

Varieties  : — The  varieties  in  greatest  favour  amongst  growers 
are  Mitchell's  Royal  Albert,  Hawke's  Champagne,  Myatt's 
Linnaeus,  and  Myatt's  Victoria,  but  there  are  now  numerous 
other  varieties  of  equal  merit. 


SALSIFY. 

Tragopogon  porrifolius. 

O  ALSIFY  (also  known  as  the  oyster-plant)  is  a  root  which 
O  is  practically  unknown  to  the  general  public  of  this 
country,  and  therefore  there  is  not  sufficient  demand  to  make 
it  worthy  of  the  attention  of  every  grower  for  market.  Those, 
however,  who  have  direct  dealings  with  well-to-do  private 
customers,  or  with  good  shops  and  hotels,  might  profitably 
turn  their  attention  to  its  production,  and  then  take  the  oppor- 
tunity of  pushing  its  sale  into  quarters  where  at  present  it  is  a 
stranger.  Properly  cooked,  it  is  wholesome  and  possesses  an 


Salsify.  295 

agreeable  flavour,  and  should  form  a  welcome  addition  to  the 
somewhat  restricted  list  of  winter  vegetables.  / 

The  best  roots  of  Salsify  are  grown  in  a  deep,  moist  soil  of 
rather  light  texture,  although  a  heavy  soil  will  produce  good 
roots  providing  it  is  deeply  and  well  worked  and  made  friable 
throughout.  It  should  be  in  good  fertile  condition  but  free 

from  recently-applied  manure.  Fresh 
manure  in  the  soil  causes  the  roots  to 
grow  fanged  and  to  have  an  earthy 
flavour ;  good  specimens  should  be  long, 
tapering,  and  straight.  The  best  pre- 
paration for  the  soil  is  to  bastard-trench 
and  ridge  it  in  the  autumn ;  if  a  coat  of 
manure  is  put  under  the  top  spit  it  will 
assist  the  formation  of  fine  roots,  but 
this  addition  is  not  essential. 

Seed  should  be  sown  in  April,  in 
drills  lOin.  apart  and  lin.  deep,  after- 
wards lightly  rolling,  if  the  surface  of 
the  soil  is  dry,  as  it  should  be.  As 
soon  as  the  seedlings  can  be  handled, 
thin  out  to  a  few  inches  apart,  and  when 
they  have  grown  a  little  stronger  thin 
finally  to  Sin.  apart. 

No  weeds  must  be  allowed  to  grow 
with  the  crop,  and  through  the  summer 
the  surface  soil  must  be  kept  in  a  loose 
crumbly  condition,  so  as  to  preserve 
the  soil  moisture  for  the  use  of  the 
plants,  which  are  liable  to  run  to  seed 
if  too  dry  at  the  roots. 
The  roots  are  ready  for  use  by  the  middle  of  October.  They 
are  treated  in  the  same  way  as  parsnips ;  they  may  be  stored 
in  a  clamp,  or  in  moist  sand  or  earth  in  a  shed,  or  they  may  be 
left  in  the  ground  to  be  lifted  as  required,  and  this  is  the  best 
method  when  the  ground  they  occupy  is  not  required.  Great 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  damage  the  roots  in  lifting,  or  they 
will  bleed  from  the  broken  parts  and  lose  flavour. 

Varieties : — Sandwich  Island  Mammoth,  Giant  French. 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co. 
Salsify,  or 
Vegetable  Oyster. 


296  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

SCORZONERA. 

Scorzonera  hispanica. 

O  CORZONERA  and  Salsify  are  usually  classed  together,  but 
O  this  must  not  be  taken  to  imply  anything  more  than  con- 
venience, as  they  are  quite  distinct  in  appearance,  and  each 
belongs  to  a  different  family  of  plants.  The  Salsify  root  is  of 
a  pale  yellowish  colour,  and  the  leaves  are  long  and  narrow 
and  of  a  greyish  green.  The  root  of  Scorzonera  is  of  a  dark 
purplish  colour,  whilst  the  leaves  are  broader  and  shorter 
than  those  of  Salsify.  Both  plants  are  grown  and  treated  in 
exactly  the  same  way  and  have  the  same  uses  but,  when 
necessary,  Scorzonera  may  be  left  in  the  ground  for  a  second 
season  when  the  root,  although  much  increased  in  size,  will 
be  equally  fit  for  use. 

Varieties : — Giant  Russian  and  Ordinary. 


SAVOY  CABBAGE. 

Brassica  oleracea  bullata. 

OF  the  green  vegetables  which  are  available  throughout  the 
winter,  the  Savoy  Cabbage  is  one  of  the  most  useful.     It 
has  a  milder  flavour  and  is  hardier  than  the  ordinary  cabbage ; 
indeed,  the  Savoy  is  not  at  its  best  until  it  has  been  subjected 
to  frost.     The  ordinary  cabbage  has  smooth  leaves,  whereas 

in  the  Savoy  they  are  more  or 
less  deeply  crinkled. 

The  soil  for  Savoys  should  be 
somewhat  heavy,  deeply  culti- 
vated, rich,  and  firm.  Ground 
which  has  previously  been  well 
prepared  and  cropped  with 
early  peas  would  carry  this 

Copyright,  S.  «  S.  crop  well>  jf  assisted    wjth    suit. 

Savoy  Cabbage  ^Q  fertilizers.     Failing  this,  it 

Button's  Best  of  All,  , 

is  best  to  prepare  the  ground 

before  winter,  so  as  to  secure  the  good  effect  of  the  weather 


Savoy  Cabbage.  297 

in  rendering  the  soil  mellow  and  friable,  but  whether  prepared 
in  autumn  or  spring  it  should  receive  heavy  dressings  of  manure 
and  be  ploughed  deeply.  The  manure  should  not  be  in  a  fresh, 
rank  condition,  particularly  when  given  in  spring,  or  a  soft 
loose  growth,  instead  of  firm  compact  heads,  will  probably  be 
the  result.  When  ploughing  is  done  in  dry  weather,  clods  must 
be  reduced  by  rolling,  then  harrow  well  to  obtain  a  fine  tilth. 

For  ordinary  purposes  the  seed  should  be  sown  about  the 
middle  of  March,  but  for  a  long  succession  make  three  sowings, 
one  in  the  midddle  of  March,  a  second  at  the  beginning  of  April 
and  a  third  at  the  end.  Sow  thinly,  on  well-prepared  ground, 
in  drills  Sin.  apart.  Thin  the  seedlings  to  avoid  overcrowding, 
dress  them  occasionally  with  a  sprinkling  of  lime  and  soot,  both 
as  a  stimulant  and  to  keep  insect  pests  away,  and  keep  the  soil 
free  of  weeds  and  loose  by  frequent  hoeing,  as  it  is  very  im- 
portant that  the  plants  should  be  sturdy  and  strong  before 
being  set  out  in  their  permanent  quarters. 

Plant  out  during  June  and  July,  and  to  make  a  succession 
take  the  largest  plants  first.  For  this  work  choose  dull,  cloudy 
days,  when  the  ground  is  moist ;  if  the  planting  must  be  done 
in  hot,  dry  weather,  the  roots  should  be  "  puddled  "  (see  pages 
123  and  124).  The  smallest  varieties  are  set  out  15in.  apart 
in  the  rows  and  18in.  between  the  rows,  the  distance  apart 
being  increased  according  to  the  vigour  of  the  variety,  until 
those  of  the  "  drumhead  "  type  are  planted  2ft.  apart  each  way. 

Manures : — Farmyard  manure,  at  the  rate  of  from  20  to  40 
tons  per  acre,  according  to  the  nature  and  condition  of  the  soil, 
is  the  most  suitable  fertilizer  for  this  crop.  When,  however, 
the  soil  is  in  good  heart  from  previous  manuring,  the  quantity 
may  be  reduced  by  one-half,  and  be  supplemented  on  light  soil 
by  5  cwt.  superphosphate  and  4  cwt.  kainit,  or  on  heavy  soil  by 
10  cwt.  basic  slag  and  li  cwt.  sulphate  of  potash,  distributed 
over  the  surface  in  each  case  immediately  before  ploughing. 

Varieties : — Dwarf  Ulm  (early  and  small),  Dwarf  Green 
Curled  (medium-sized,  fine  flavour,  a  favourite  for  main-crop), 
Best  of  All  (large  and  early,  drumhead  type,  very  good),  New 
Year  (large,  late,  and  good),  Drumhead  (early  and  late,  rather 
coarse,  frequently  grown  for  main-crop),  Ormskirk  (late  and 
large,  often  used  for  latest  supplies  in  market  growing). 


298 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


SEAKALE. 

Crambe  maritima. 

OEAKALE  is  a  very  popular  winter  vegetable  amongst  the 
vJ  well-to-do  classes,  and  it  appears  to  be  increasing  in  public 
favour.  It  is  easy  to  grow,  simple  and  inexpensive  to  force,  is 
practically  free  from  pests  and  diseases,  and  is  a  very  whole- 
some vegetable  to  consume,  so  that  there  is  every  reason  why 
the  market  gardener,  and  particularly  the  direct  trader,  should 
consider  the  advisability  of  undertaking  its  production. 

There  are  few  soils 
in  which  Seakale  can- 
not be  satisfactorily 
grown  if  it  receives 
proper  attention.  A 
well-cultivated,  deep, 
and  rather  heavy  soil 
will  grow  the  finest 
roots,  but  an  easily- 
worked  sandy  loam 
will  be  found  the  best 
all  round,  because 
much  of  the  work  of 
lifting  roots  has  to 
be  done  in  winter, 
when  the  ground  is 
wet.  In  any  case,  the 
soil  must  be  deep, 
rich,  well-drained,  «n 
copyright,  v.  A.  £  Co.  an  Open  situation  free 

Seakale,  blanched.  from  trees,  and  with 

a  sunny  aspect. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — Thorough  preparation  and  liberal 
manuring  of  the  soil  are  absolutely  necessary  to  the  production 
of  strong  crowns  suitable  for  forcing.  Although  Seakale  is  not 
particular  as  to  the  conditions  under  which  it  grows,  this 
must  not  be  allowed  to  influence  the  treatment  it  receives. 
The  leaf-stalks  when  bleached  should  be  large,  thick,  and 


Seakale.  299 

crisp,  or  they  are  practically  useless,  and  the  grower  should 
set  out  to  do  all  necessary  to  obtain  such  produce  or  he  will  be 
well  advised  not  to  enter  upon  the  business.  To  this  end  the 
ground  should,  in  the  first  instance,  be  bastard  trenched  or 
subsoil  ploughed,  if  deep  working  has  not  been  done  recently ; 
but  where  the  soil  has  received  such  treatment  within  the  past 
three  years  ordinary  digging  or  ploughing  will  be  sufficient. 
Abundant  supplies  of  farmyard  manure  are  essential  in  every 
case,  assisted  judiciously  by  concentrated  fertilizers,  and  these, 
in  the  quantities  mentioned  later,  should  be  well  distributed 
over  the  surface  previous  to  digging  or  ploughing,  so  that  the 
roots  of  the  plants  can  find  and  utilize  them  at  once  and  con- 
tinuously. This  work  of  preparation  should  be  done  before 
winter,  and  the  soil  left  ridged  up  so  as  to  get  the  full  benefit 
of  weather  influences.  When  soil  is  put  in  ridges  it  not  only 
has  the  advantage  of  exposing  a  greater  surface  to  the  atmos- 
phere, but  it  also  lies  drier,  so  that  it  is  fit  for  working  earlier 
in  the  spring.  About  the  first  week  of  March,  if  the  weather 
conditions  permit,  the  soil  should  be  levelled  by  harrowing, 
after  which  it  may  be  marked  out  both  ways  with  lines  15in. 
or  18in.  apart,  every  point  where  the  lines  cross  being  the 
position  for  a  plant  to  be  set,  and  all  will  then  be  in  readiness 
for  the  work  of  planting  out. 

Propagation  by  Seed. — Raising  Seakale  plants  from  seed  is 
not  often  practised  in  market  gardens,  as  it  takes  two  years' 
growth  from  seed  to  obtain  crowns  large  enough  to  force 
satisfactorily,  whereas  one  season  is  sufficient  to  obtain  them 
from  "  thongs,"  or  root  cuttings.  Still,  when  it  is  the  grower's 
intention  to  enter  upon  the  business  thoroughly,  it  is  advisable 
to  raise  plants  from  seed  occasionally,  so  as  to  keep  the  stock 
in  a  vigorous  condition.  On  a  bed  of  rich,  clean  soil,  in  a  fine 
tilth,  sow  the  seed  in  March,  in  drills  lin.  deep  and  12in.  apart, 
gently  rolling  afterwards.  When  the  seedlings  are  well  up, 
thin  out,  and  leave  only  the  best  standing  about  Gin.  apart  in 
the  rows.  During  the  summer  hoe  frequently  to  keep  weeds 
down  and  to  promote  growth.  One  or  two  light  sprinklings 
with  nitrate  of  soda  and  an  occasional  watering  with  liquid 
manure  will  be  amply  repaid  by  the  increased  vigour  of  the 
plants ;  indeed,  under  such  treatment,  if  given  more  space  for 


300  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

development,  some  of  the  crowns  would  be  found  large  enough 
to  force  at  the  end  of  the  first  season.  In  the  following  March 
the  plants  may  be  set  in  their  permanent  quarters,  first  cutting 
off  the  top  just  below  the  crown,  as  then  fewer  shoots  will  grow 
and  there  will  be  less  liability  to  flower. 

Propagation  from  "Thongs." — New  plantations  of  Seakale 
are  usually  made  from  "thongs."  These  are  clean  straight 
pieces  selected  from  the  side  roots,  which  are  cut  away  from 
the  main  root  when  that  is  trimmed  up  for  forcing.  These 
trimmings  are  thrown  in  a  heap  in  a  shed  whilst  the  work  is 
proceeding,  where  they  lie  until  time  can  be  spared  to  attend 
to  them.  The  best  are  then  selected,  from  the  thickness 
of  a  lead  pencil  upwards,  and  cut  up  into  pieces  Sin.  or  Gin. 
long.  The  top,  or  thickest  end  of  the  thong,  is  cut  across  level, 
and  the  bottom,  or  thin  end,  is  cut  slanting.  They  are  then  tied 
in  bundles  and  stood  in  layers  in  damp  sand  or  fine  soil,  with 
about  3m.  space  between  each  layer,  and  there  they  remain 
until  planting  time.  Some  growers  prefer  to  make  up  a  bed  in 
the  open,  about  4ft.  wide  and  raised  about  Sin.  above  the 
general  level  to  keep  the  thongs  free  from  excessive  wet,  and 
after  laying  them  thickly  all  over  the  surface,  cover  with  about 
Sin.  of  soil.  In  either  case,  when  the  thongs  are  uncovered  for 
planting,  each  will  be  found  to  have  made  several "  eyes,"  all  of 
which  must  be  rubbed  off  except  the  strongest  one  at  the  top. 

About  the  third  week  in  March  the  thongs  are  dibbled  in  at 
equal  distances  apart  in  each  direction,  the  crowns  being  put 
about  lin.  below  the  surface  and  the  soil  closed  quite  firmly 
around  them.'  The  culture  through  the  summer  consists  of 
hoeing  frequently  and  thoroughly,  and  cutting  out  all  flower 
stems  as  soon  as  they  are  seen,  as  if  allowed  to  bloom  and 
form  seed  much  of  the  strength  of  the  crown  will  be  lost. 

Forming  a  Plantation. — The  methods  of  obtaining  blanched 
heads  of  Seakale  may  be  classed  under  two  divisions,  (1)  Lifting 
the  roots  for  forcing  in  heat,  and  (2)  Leaving  the  roots  in  the 
ground  and  either  forcing  growth  with  hot  manure  or  letting 
them  grow  naturally,  blanching  the  heads  by  coverings  of 
soil  or  other  materials.  Both  methods  are  necessary  to 
obtain  a  succession  over  the  longest  period,  and  this  must 
be  kept  in  view  in  arranging  a  plantation.  Seakale  is  often 


Seakale.  301 

planted  too  closely  to  allow  it  to  reach  its  full  development. 
In  market  gardens  it  is  planted  from  12in.  to  18in.  apart  in  each 
direction,  whether  it  is  to  be  lifted  or  blanched  where  it  grows, 
but  some  authorities  insist  that  this  close  planting  is  a  mistake, 
and  that  20in.  or  even  24in.  apart  would  be  more  profitable,  as 
although  more  crowns  are  obtained  from  the  same  space  by 
close  planting,  the  greater  distance  apart  would  produce  finer 
crowns,  the  heads  from  which  would  be  superior  and  realise 
better  prices  in  the  market.  This  matter  must  be  left  to  the 
judgment  of  the  grower,  15in.  apart  in  each  direction  being 
suggested  as  the  minimum,  whether  the  roots  are  to  be  lifted 
or  to  be  blanched  where  they  grow. 

On  some  places  where  intensive  cultivation  is  practised,  the 
soil  is  levelled  early  in  March  and  then  planted  with  alternate 
rows,  18in.  apart,  of  cauliflower  and  cos  lettuce,  the  cauliflower 
standing  3ft.  apart  in  the  rows  and  the  lettuce  18in. ;  then  a 
cos  lettuce  is  planted  alternately  with  the  cauliflowers,  in  the 
same  row  the  cauliflowers  occupy;  all  the  plants  then  stand 
18in.  apart  both  ways  over  the  whole  plot.  After  this,  a  Seakale 
thong  is  dibbled  in  alternately  with  every  plant  in  the  rows, 
but  not  between  the  rows.  The  diagram  below  makes  this 

O  *  -i-  *     O     *     -I-     *  O  *  -r  *  O  *  -i-  *  O 

-{-  *  -!-  *    -i-    *    -I-    *  -r  *  -r  *  -i-  *  -i-  *  -f 

O  *  -i-  *    O     *    -f    *  O  *  -r  *  O  *  -i-  *  O 

-!-  *  -!-  *-{-*-}-*  -i-  *  -r  *  -!-  *  -i-  *  -I 

O     *    -r     *    O     *    -i-     *    O     *    -i-    *     O     *    -i-    *    O 
O  Cauliflower.       -{-  Cos  Lettuce.        *  Seakale. 

Diagram  illustrating  the  Arrangement  of  Plants. 

perfectly  clear.  Both  lettuces  and  cauliflowers  are  gone  by 
the  end  of  June,  and  the  Seakale,  which  is  then  growing  freely, 
is  left  in  sole  occupation  of  the  ground  at  18in.  apart.  A 
thorough  hoeing,  accompanied  with  a  dressing  of  nitrate  of 
soda,  sets  the  plantation  in  good  trim,  and  hoeing  to  encourage 


302  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

growth  must  be  done  frequently  to  the  end  of  the  season. 
Satisfactory  crowns  may  be  grown  in  this  way  wrhen  the  soil 
is  rich  and  full  of  humus  and  copious  waterings  are  given  to 
supply  the  pressing  and  heavy  calls  of  the  various  plants,  and 
if  these  necessary  conditions  are  thoroughly  complied  with 
this  is  obviously  a  very  profitable  way  to  occupy  the  space  in 
the  early  part  of  the  season,  but  on  the  average  it  will  be 
found  that  the  production  of  good  Seakale  crowns  is  more 
certain  when  they  are  grown  alone. 

Having  formed  a  plantation  with  the  plants  at  equal  distances 
apart  in  each  direction,  the  grower  must  decide  what  portion 
of  the  crowns  are  to  be  lifted  for  forcing  or  selling  and  what 
portion  is  to  be  left  in  the  ground.  Those  not  lifted  will  provide 
supplies  to  follow  in  succession  after  the  earliest  forced  batches. 
Part  of  these  will  be  pushed  along  with  hot  manure  and  the 
remainder  used  for  the  production  of  "  natural  "  Kale.  In  the 
former  case  every  fourth  row  is  lifted,  leaving  three  rows  at 
15in.  apart,  then  an  alley  of  2ft.  6in.,  and  so  on.  In  the  latter 
case  two  rows  are  lifted  and  three  left,  so  that  the  alleys  are 
3ft.  3in.  wide.  When  the  alleys  are  cleared,  dress  the  soil  with 
ground  lime  and  dig  it  well  to  within  Gin.  of  the  plants  on  each 
side,  ridging  up  the  middle  and  leaving  it  rough  for  the  weather 
to  act  upon. 

In  smaller  plantations  the  plants  may  be  set  in  clumps,  to  be 
covered  with  Seakale  pots  or  boxes.  In  each  clump  set  three 
or  four  plants  4in.  apart,  leave  2ft.  between  each  clump,  and 
leave  3ft.  between  each  row  of  clumps. 

Forcing  under  Cover. — Seakale  is  very  easy  to  force;  the 
crowns  begin  to  move  as  soon  as  they  are  subjected  to  a  slight 
rise  of  temperature.  The  best  samples  are  produced  when 
grown  slowly,  a  steady  temperature  of  from  50  to  55  degrees 
being  sufficient  for  really  satisfactory  work,  and  60  degrees 
should  never  be  exceeded  at  any  time,  or  the  stalks  will  come 
thin  and  without  substance.  The  heat,  which  may  be  supplied 
either  by  hot-water  pipes  or  by  fermenting  manure,  should  be 
a  moist  one,  and  acts  best  when  applied  underneath  the  roots, 
although  forcing  may  be  done  without  bottom  heat,  if  necessary. 
Absolute  darkness  is  essential,  or  the  heads  will  not  be  perfectly 
blanched,  and  in  no  other  condition  can  they  be  considered  as 


Seakale.  303 

marketable.  By  observing  these  simple  conditions  creditable 
samples  of  Seakale  may  be  forced  in  all  sorts  of  places — frames, 
pits,  mushroom  houses,  glasshouses,  cellars,  boxes,  barrels, 
flower  pots — any  of  which  may  be  pressed  into  service  with 
satisfactory  results.  Regular  forcing  begins  about  the  middle 
of  November,  and  for  the  earliest  batches  the  very  best  and 
strongest  crowns  are  selected. 

As  soon  as  the  leaves  die  down  in  the  autumn  the  roots  are 
lifted  and  trimmed,  leaving  only  about  Sin.  of  the  main  stem, 
with  the  crown  on  top.  Those  not  immediately  wanted  are 
packed  away  in  moist  sandy  soil  either  in  a  shed  or  in  a  trench 
in  the  open,  with  a  layer  of  dry  litter  over  the  crowns  to  protect 
them  from  frost.  Light,  fine,  rich  soil  should  be  specially  pre- 
pared for  forcing  operations  some  time  beforehand — half  of 
sifted  old  hotbed  manure,  one-quarter  sifted  garden  soil,  and 
one  quarter  sand,  with  a  little  air-slaked  lime  added,  will  be 
found  to  be  just  the  thing.  This  soil  should  be  laid  down  to 
the  depth  of  Sin.  or  lOin.  in  the  position  or  the  receptacle  in 
which  the  crowns  are  to  be  forced.  These  are  then  placed  in 
the  soil  3in.  apart,  and  with  the  crowns  level  with  the  surface. 
Moisten  the  bed  with  tepid  water,  taking  care  not  to  make  it 
too  wet,  then  cover  the  crowns  with  Sin.  of  fine  dry  soil, 
cocoanut  fibre,  or  similar  material.  When  the  stalks  begin 
to  grow  through,  give  another  light  watering.  If  there  is 
certainty  of  no  light  getting  to  the  stalks  they  need  no 
further  covering,  but  where  there  is  any  doubt  on  the  subject 
a  further  4in.  layer  of  material  should  be  added.  If  the 
details  are  properly  carried  out,  perfectly  blanched  heads 
should  be  ready  to  cut  in  four  or  five  weeks  from  the  time 
the  roots  were  planted.  The  heads  are  cut  when  about  Gin. 
long,  or  as  soon  as  the  tips  begin  to  push  through  the  covering 
material ;  the  cut  is  made  below  the  crown  so  that  a  small 
piece  of  root  is  attached. 

Forcing  on  Hot-beds  and  in  Pits. — Where  manure  is  plentiful 
forcing  Seakale  on  hot-beds  is  an  excellent  method  (full  details 
of  construction  will  be  found  on  pages  128  to  131).  The  width 
and  length  of  the  beds  is,  of  course,  determined  by  the  number 
of  crowns  to  be  forced  and  the  materials  or  appliances  at  hand. 
Where  there  are  a  number  of  movable  box  frames  available 


304  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

those  will  serve  admirably  if  the  lights  are  covered  with  mats; 
or  wooden  lids  would  do  instead  of  lights  and  mats.  Inside 
the  frame  Sin.  of  the  prepared  soil  is  put  on  the  manure,  in 
which  the  crowns  are  planted  in  rows,  as  described  above. 
Where  frames  are  not  available,  9in.  boards  on  edge,  supported 
by  pegs  driven  in  the  ground,  are  run  round  the  beds,  and 
laths  are  nailed  across  the  top,  from  side  to  side,  at  intervals 
of  about  18in.  The  surface  of  the  beds  is  strewn  with  short 
litter  and  then  mats  are  laid  on  the  laths,  a  further  covering  of 
long  litter  being  put  over  the  whole.  Sometimes,  in  place  of 
the  boards  and  laths,  the  mats  are  laid  over  hoops.  About  four 
weeks  after  making  up  a  bed  the  crowns  should  be  examined, 
when  probably  some  will  be  fit  to  cut.  The  litter  on  the  bed 
must  be  lifted  away  to  get  at  them,  but  must  be  re-placed  as 
soon  as  possible,  as  all  are  not  ready  to  cut  at  the  same  time. 

A  simple  and  economical  method  of  forcing  Seakale  is  in 
roughly-constructed  temporary  pits.  Trenches  are  thrown 
out  18in.  deep,  4ft.  wide,  and  any  convenient  length,  with  4ft. 
space  between  each  trench,  on  which  the  soil  is  thrown.  Rough 
boards  or  old  sheets  of  iron  are  used  to  hold  up  the  sides ;  these 
are  supported  by  stakes  and  the  whole  stands  about  1ft.  above 
ground  level,  the  earth  which  was  thrown  out  being  used  to 
bank  up  the  sides.  At  the  bottom  of  each  pit  9in.  of  hot  manure 
is  put  and  well  trodden  down,  and  then  covered  with  Sin.  of 
soil,  in  which  the  crowns  are  planted.  The  pits  are  covered 
with  boards  on  which  is  laid  about  Gin.  of  litter.  A  crop  is 
cleared  in  about  six  weeks  from  planting,  and  three  crops  can 
easily  be  taken  from  a  pit  during  the  winter  season.  After 
each  crop,  the  exhausted  manure  must  be  removed  and  the  bed 
re-made  with  fresh.  These  pits  are  equally  suitable  for  forcing 
rhubarb,  asparagus,  and  chicory ;  they  are  easily  constructed, 
at  practically  no  expense  beyond  labour,  and  the  quality  of  the 
produce  taken  from  them  is  all  that  can  be  desired,  being  quite 
equal  to  any  grown  under  the  most  elaborate  system.  The 
illustrations  on  the  opposite  page,  which  were  taken  from  pits 
in  actual  operation  for  commercial  purposes,  show  the  method 
of  construction  very  clearly;  the  lower  one  also  gives  some 
idea  of  the  quality  of  the  Seakale,  part  of  which  had  been  cut 
before  the  photograph  was  taken. 


Seakale. 


305 


Rough  Pit  for  Seakale,  in  course  of  construction. 


The  same  Pit,  after  part  of  the  crop  has  been  cut. 
20 


306  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Other  Methods  of  Forcing  in  the  Open. — In  localities  where 
stable  manure  is  expensive,  and  the  quantity  used  must  be 
limited  for  the  sake  of  economy,  lifted  crowns  of  Seakale  may 
be  forced  on  cold  beds.  Ground  convenient  to  the  manure 
supply  is  selected,  and  marked  out  into  beds  4ft.  wide,  with  2ft. 
alleys  between.  The  soil  in  the  alleys  is  broken  up  finely  to 
the  depth  of  1ft.  and  then  put  on  the  beds,  so  that  the  alleys 
will  then  be  about  20in.  deep.  The  crowns  are  then  set  in  the 
soil  on  these  beds  in  the  same  manner  as  on  the  hot-beds, 
leaving  a  space  of  5  or  Gin.  along  each  side  empty.  All  the  beds 
are  planted,  and  a  little  litter  strewn  over  to  prevent  the  soil 
and  the  dormant  crowns  from  being  frozen.  A  portion  of  the 
beds  are  then  covered  with  frames  or  with  mats,  exactly  as 
the  hot-beds  are  covered,  and  the  alleys  are  filled  with  good 
hot  manure,  well  trodden  down.  Fresh  beds  are  started  in 
succession,  so  as  to  keep  up  a  regular  supply  until  the  "natural" 
Kale  comes  in.  The  growth  is  slower  than  on  hot-beds,  but  the 
quality  is  good,  and  when  cutting  is  begun  the  supply  from 
successive  beds  goes  on  without  a  break. 

Precisely  the  same  system  of  forcing  and  blanching  is 
followed  with  the  beds  where  the  roots  are  left  in  the  ground, 
except  on  those  beds  where  the  Kale  is  grown  naturally.  As 
already  described,  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  after  a  plantation 
is  laid  down  one  row  between  each  three  is  lifted  for  forcing, 
and  the  soil  in  the  alley  dug  and  ridged  up.  After  the  turn  of 
the  year  this  soil  is  put  on  the  bed  to  the  depth  of  8in.,  after 
being  well  broken  up,  and  the  procedure  of  covering  the  bed 
and  filling  the  alleys  with  hot  manure  is  the  same  as  given 
above.  The  advantage  of  forcing  the  roots  where  they  grow 
is  that  they  are  available  for  five  or  six  years  in  succession,  with 
a  minimum  of  trouble  and  expense.  On  the  other  hand,  by  lifting 
the  roots  the  same  amount  of  fermenting  manure  and  covering 
will  force  and  blanch  ten  times  the  number  as  when  left  where 
they  grow,  and  the  beds  may  be  made  -where  one  chooses,  in  a 
place  convenient  to  manure  and  packing  shed,  which  in  good 
weather  is  a  great  advantage,  whilst  the  difference  in  bad 
weather  is  best  left  to  the  imagination.  The  balance  of  advan- 
tage is  therefore  very  largely  in  favour  of  lifting  the  roots. 

It  should  be  pointed  out  that  the  above  system  of  forcing  is 


Seakale.  307 

only  suitable  for  well-drained  soil.  Should  the  manure  in  the 
alleys  become  wet  and  cold  after  heavy  rain  or  snow  it  will  be 
necessary  to  fork  it  up  so  that  the  wind  can  blow  through  and 
dry  it.  A  little  fresh  mixed  with  it  before  it  is  trodden  down 
again  will  revive  the  heat. 

To  force  the  crowns  which  were  planted  in  clumps,  each  is 
covered  with  litter  a  few  weeks  before  a  start  is  intended,  to 
keep  frost  out  of  the  soil.  Then  at  starting  time  the  litter  is 
removed  and  each  clump  covered  with  a  box  with  a  movable  lid 
or  with  a  Seakale  pot.  These  are  surrounded  with  hot  manure, 
and  litter  should  be  put  over  the  tops  to  conserve  the  warmth 
and  to  prevent  any  light  getting  in.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
weeks  well-blanched  heads  will  be  ready  for  cutting. 

"  Natural "  Seakale. — A  portion  of  a  plantation  is  usually 
reserved  for  growing  Seakale  naturally,  that  is,  allowing  it  to 
remain  in  the  same  beds  year  after  year  and  to  make  its 
customary  'spring  growth  at  the  usual  time,  without  artificial 
heat;  this  is  known  as  "natural"  Kale.  In  the  instructions 
for  making  a  plantation  (page  300)  it  was  suggested  that  the 
rows  of  plants  be  15in.  apart,  that  beds  of  three  rows  be  left  for 
natural  Seakale,  and  that  two  rows  be  lifted  to  form  alleys 
3ft.  9in.  wide  between  the  beds.  The  surface  of  each  bed  is 
raked  clean  in  the  autumn  and  the  soil  in  the  alleys,  within  6in. 
of  the  bed  on  each  side,  broken  up  well  and  ridged.  When  the 
soil  has  become  mellow  by  weathering  it  is  laid  on  the  bed  to 
the  depth  of  Sin.  (not  more),  with  the  sides  sloped  a  little  to 
prevent  it  falling  away.  This  work  must  not  be  done  in  wet 
weather  and  the  soil  must  be  fine  and  crumbly.  Cutting  begins 
from  the  middle  to  the  end  of  March,  according  to  the  earliness 
of  soil  and  season,  and  continues  to  the  end  of  April.  When 
cracks  are  seen  in  the  surface  of  the  soil,  owing  to  the  growth 
of  the  shoots,  or  the  tips  are  just  showing  through,  cutting  may 
begin.  If  the  beds  are  of  any  extent  and  likely  to  be  several 
weeks  in  cutting,  those  coming  last  should  be  covered  with 
a  few  inches  of  short  litter  to  exclude  light.  Cutting  is  done 
with  a  sharp  flat  spade,  the  heads  being  cut  about  iin.  below 
the  crown.  The  soil  is  thrown  into  the  alley,  but  about  lin.  is 
returned  to  the  bed  to  cover  up  the  cut  stumps.  When  cutting 
is  finished,  the  alleys  are  given  a  3in.  coat  of  well-rotted  manure 


308  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

and  planted  with  summer  crops.  A  bed  of  this  description  will 
last  about  six  years  without  renewal. 

Lifted  roots  are  of  no  further  use  after  forcing,  and  should 
be  put  in  a  heap  by  themselves  and  not  mixed  with  the  manure 
or  they  will  grow  again  and  cause  a  lot  of  trouble  and  annoy- 
ance in  the  future.  Or  they  may  be  taken  to  the  pigsties, 
where  they  will  soon  be  destroyed.  When  roots  are  lifted 
the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  clear  the  ground  of  all 
broken  pieces,  as  they  grow  again  and  are  troublesome  to 
get  rid  of. 

Manures  : — Seakale  is  a  crop  which  needs  plenty  of  rich  food 
and  moisture-holding  humus,  and  this  is  best  supplied  by  heavy 
dressings  of  well-decayed  farmyard  manure,  particularly  for 
the  sandy  soils  on  which  this  crop  is  often  grown.  For  soil  in 
good  heart  and  not  too  light  15  tons  per  acre  would  be  enough, 
but  on  light  land  or  that  which  is  not  in  really  good  condition 
30  tons  would  be  none  too  much.  In  either  case  the  manure 
should  be  supplemented  before  ploughing  with  3  cwt.  kainit, 
and  in  the  spring  5  cwt.  superphosphate  should  be  harrowed 
in  before  planting.  After  growth  has  begun  2  cwt.  nitrate  of 
soda  per  acre  may  be  given  with  great  advantage.  Common 
salt,  at  the  rate  of  5  cwt.  per  acre,  applied  in  the  spring,  is 
often  recommended  for  Seakale,  but  when  kainit  or  nitrate  of 
soda  are  given  salt  is  unnecessary. 

Varieties :— There  are  very  few  varieties  of  Seakale  in  cul- 
tivation. The  Common  or  Ordinary  is  largely  grown;  the 
Fulham,  Lily  White,  and  Ivory  White  are  all  improvements 
upon  the  common  'stock. 


SHALLOTS. 

Allium  ascalonicum. 

THE  Shallot  does  not  call  for  much  comment.  It  is  very 
generally  grown  in  cottage  gardens,  but  has  no  consider- 
able sale  in  the  markets.  There  are  some  growers,  however, 
who  do  a  good  and  profitable  business  in  producing  it  for 
direct  disposal  to  manufacturers  of  pickles,  for  which  purpose 
it  is  much  esteemed  on  account  of  its  mild  flavour.  There  is 


Shallots.  309 

also  the  possibility  of  doing  a  moderate  business  in  supplying 
retailers  or  householders  direct. 

The  Shallot  is  easy  to  grow  and  gives  very  little  trouble  if 
its  requirements  are  complied  with.  It  needs  an  open,  sunny 
position  and  a  rather  light  soil,  deeply-worked  and  well-drained ; 
heavy,  damp  soil  is  unsuitable.  To  obtain  good  crops  the  soil 
should  be  prepared  and  manured  in  the  same  way  as  for  onions, 
with  the  difference  that  it  does  not  need  to  be  quite  so  rich, 
particularly  when  the  crop  is  intended  for  pickling. 

The  Shallot  may  be  grown 
either  from  seed  or  from 
bulbs,  but  as  seeding  offers 
no  advantages,  and  as  propa- 
gation is  much  more  easily 
effected  by  planting  the 
bulbs,  this  is  the  method 
always  followed,  except  for 
special  purposes. 

Early  planting  is  essential, 
as  the  bulbs  begin  to  go  soft 
very  early  in  the  spring  and 
are  then  comparatively  use- 
less for  planting.  Plant  at  the  first  opportunity,  in  a  spell  of 
open  weather,  during  January  or  early  in  February,  in  rows 
from  Bin.  to  12in.  apart,  with  4in.  to  Gin.  between  the  bulbs 
in  the  row,  according  to  the  variety  grown  and  the  richness  of 
the  soil.  Before  planting, 
the  soil  should  be  lightly 
rolled,  and  the  bulbs  then 
inserted  to  half  their 
depth,  either  by  the  aid  of 
a  dibber  or,  if  the  soil  is 
free  enough,  by  simply 
pressing  them  in.  Dry, 
loose  skins  and  dead  tops 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co. 

The  True  Shallot. 


should     be     removed,    or 
worms,  by  trying  to  draw 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co. 

The  Jersey,  or  False,  Shallot. 


these  parts  into  their  holes,  will  often  pull  the  bulbs  out  of  the 
ground,  and  the  soil  should  be  closed  firmly  around  them  or 


310  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

the  growth  of  the  roots  will  sometimes  lift  them  out.  In  any 
case,  the  bed  should  be  examined  frequently  for  a  few  weeks 
after  planting,  and  any  which  have  been  disturbed  replaced. 

During  growth  keep  the  weeds  down  by  frequent  hoeing,  but 
take  care  not  to  cut  into  the  soil  deeply  or  to  bury  the  bulbs, 
which  should  grow  on  the  surface. 

The  crop  will  begin  to  ripen  in  July,  which  may  be  seen  by 
the  leaves  turning  yellow ;  by  the  middle  of  the  month  these 
will  have  withered  considerably,  and  the  bulbs  may  then  be 
lifted.  Spread  them  on  the  ground  to  dry  in  the  sun  for  a  few 
days,  turning  them  over  two  or  three  times :  then  divide  and 
top  them,  and  store  in  a  dry  cool  place. 

Varieties; — The  two  leading  varieties  are  the  true  Shallot 
and  the  Jersey,  or  false,  Shallot.  The  Russian  Shallot  and 
the  Dutch  Shallot  are  practically  the  same  variety  as  the 
Jersey.  A  full-grown  bulb  of  the  true  Shallot  is  about  the  size 
of  a  small  walnut,  with  rather  long  thin  neck  and  russetty  skin, 
which  is  copper-coloured  at  the  bottom,  gradually  becoming 
much  lighter  towards  the  top;  when  growing,  its  leaves  are 
bright  green.  This  variety  usually  has  the  preference  for 
pickling.  The  bulbs  of  the  Jersey  Shallot  are  larger  and 
rounder  than  those  of  the  true  variety,  in  fact,  they  more 
nearly  resemble  a  small  onion.  The  skin  is  thin,  of  an  even 
coppery  red,  and  when  growing  the  leaves  are  of  a  greyish 
green.  This  variety  needs  more  space  than  the  true  Shallot, 
as  it  yields  a  heavier  crop,  but  does  not  keep  so  well,  the  bulbs 
beginning  to  grow  earlier  in  the  spring. 


SPINACH. 

Spinacia  oleracea. 

A  LTHOUGH  Spinach  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  staple  crop 
•L\  in  the  market  garden  it  is  nevertheless  a  very  useful  one. 
It  cannot  be  included  amongst  the  vegetables  very  popular 
with  the  general  public,  and  therefore  the  demand  for  it  is  not 
great ;  still,  there  is  always  a  more  or  less  steady  sale  for  it  in 
moderate  quantities.  It  is  produced  easily  and  quickly,  the 
summer  crops  being  usually  grown  in  the  spaces  between 


Spinach. 


311 


rows  of  other  vegetables,  where  it  only  requires  a  few  weeks 
from  sowing  to  gathering,  and  is  cleared  away  before  its 
presence  can  injuriously  affect  its  neighbours.  For  this  reason 
it  is  regarded  in  many  market  gardens  as  one  of  the  indispens- 
able catch  crops,  as  it  enables  a  return  to  be  obtained  from 
spaces  which  would  otherwise  be  wasted  for  some  time  after 
planting  the  main-crop. 

Spinach  is  not  very 
exacting  in  its  re- 
quirements, but  like 
most  other  things  it 
pays  for  a  certain 
measure  of  attention. 
What  is  wanted  is  a 
quick  growth  and  a 
few  heavy  pickings 
of  large  succulent 
leaves,  and  to  obtain 
these,  ample  supplies 
of  moisture  and  quick 
acting  manures  are 
necessary.  Ground 
well  prepared  and 
manured,  and  planted  copyright, 
with  a  main  crop  Lettuce-leaved  Spinach. 

which  has  a  foot  or 

more  clear  space  between  the  rows,  may  be  depended  upon  to 
yield  satisfactory  crops  of  Spinach,  but  on  badly-worked,  dry, 
scantily-manured  soils  the  leaves  will  be  small  and  of  poor 
quality,  and  the  plants  will  quickly  run  to  seed. 

Summer  Spinach.  —  The  first  sowing  is  made  towards  the 
end  of  February,  on  warm  soil  in  a  sheltered  sunny  position  ; 
a  regular  succession  of  supplies  is  secured  by  sowing  further 
small  batches  every  two  or  three  weeks  from  early  in  March  to 
the  beginning  of  July.  These  small  and  frequent  sowings  are 
necessary  because  of  the  liability  of  summer  Spinach  to  quickly 
run  to  seed,  especially  in  hot  dry  weather  ;  to  counteract  this 
tendency  as  much  as  possible,  sowings  should  be  made  in  cool 
moist  situations  as  the  weather  grows  warmer.  If  the  seed 


v.  A.  &  Co. 


312  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

is  soaked  in  water  for  twenty-four  hours  before  sowing,  it 
will  germinate  more  quickly  and  evenly  and  make  stronger 
growth.  Except  when  used  as  a  catch-crop,  Spinach  is  sown  in 
drills  lin.  deep  and  1ft.  apart.  When  the  seedlings  are  well  up 
they  should  be  thinned  to  from  Gin.  to  Sin.  apart,  according 
to  the  vigour  of  the  variety  and  the  richness  of  the  ground. 
The  proper  thinning  of  Spinach  is  often  neglected  under  the 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co. 

Viroflay  Giant  Spinach. 

impression  that  the  closer  the  plants  stand  the  heavier  will  be 
the  yield  of  leaves,  but  this  is  a  great  mistake  as  over-crowding 
seriously  reduces  production,  the  leaves  coming  much  smaller 
and  thinner  than  when  afforded  proper  space,  as  can  be  readily 
understood  when  it  is  remembered  that  each  plant  when  given 
room  will  measure  at  least  1ft.  across,  some  very  vigorous 
varieties  taking  up  considerably  more  space  even  than  this. 

Winter  Spinach. — To  provide  a  succession  of  pickings  from 
October  to  May  (by  which  time  the  spring-sown  crop  will  be 
ready)  three  sowings  should  be  made,  at  intervals  of  a  fortnight, 
from  the  first  week  in  August  to  the  middle  of  September. 
The  ground  for  this  purpose  should  be  deeply  dug  and  well 
enriched  with  decayed  manure,  and  laid  up  in  raised  beds,  5ft. 
to  6ft.  wide,  to  enable  the  rain  water  to  pass  away  quickly  and 
the  crop  to  be  gathered  without  treading  on  the  soil.  In  this 
case  the  plants  may  stand  closer  together,  say  9in.  between 
the  rows  by  4in.  in  the  rows,  because  the  growth  is  naturally 
less  vigorous  in  winter  than  in  summer.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  afford  timely  protection  to  a  portion  of  the  crop,  so  that 
pickings  may  be  obtained  throughout  the  winter.  This  may  be 


Spinach.  313 

given  in  a  variety  of  ways,  according  to  the  circumstances  of 
the  grower  and  the  materials  readiest  to  hand;  the  shallow 
box  frames  meet  every  requirement,  but  efficient  protection 
can  also  be  readily  devised  by  using  straw,  heather,  bracken, 
furze,  or  similar  material,  in  conjunction  with  short  stakes,  so 
as  to  make  low  wind-proof  fences ;  in  the  case  of  severe  frost 
or  snow  a  number  of  straw  mats  laid  on  cross  battens  will 
make  the  protection  complete.  Care  must  be  exercised  not  to 

overdo  the  picking  of 
the  winter  crop  or 
the  plants  will  soon 
be  spoiled.  Only  the 
largest  leaves  should 
be  taken  and  they 
should  be  picked 
singly,  so  as  not  to 
cause  any  injury. 
Growth  in  the  winter 
is  slow,  and  to  meet 
the  demand,  which 
at  this  season  often 
exceeds  the  supply, 
increased  breadths 
should  be  sown  in 
the  autumn,  in  accor- 

Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co.  ,  ., ,       , , 

dance   with    the    ex- 
Large  Prickly  or  Winter  Spinach.  pected  requirements. 

General  Culture. — This,  in  the  main,  consists  of  keeping  the 
soil  free  of  weeds  and  the  surface  frequently  stirred,  especially 
in  the  early  stages,  so  as  to  encourage  rapid  growth.  As  the 
weather  gets  warm  and  dry  the  effect  of  indifferent  preparation 
will  be  at  once  seen  by  the  plants  immediately  bolting,  and  the 
crop  thus  completely  lost ;  the  only  way  to  ensure  an  abundant 
growth  of  large  succulent  leaves  in  the  hot  summer  months 
being  by  deep  working  of  the  soil,  assisted  by  mulches  and 
frequent  waterings.  In  a  cold  wet  season,  Spinach  makes  an 
abundant  growth  without  much  help,  and  being,  very  plentiful, 
realises  a  poor  price  in  the  market ;  in  such  circumstances, 
apart  from  keeping  weeds  down,  it  may  be  left  to  take  its  own 


314  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

course,  but  in  hot  droughty  periods  the  general  supplies  are 
scarce,  when  the  value  of  good  cultivation  will  then  be  quickly 
apparent,  and  the  extra  pains  bestowed  amply  repaid. 

Manures : — The  whole  culture  of  Spinach  should  be  directed 
towards  obtaining  a  quick  growth  of  large  fleshy  leaves.  To 
secure  this  result  the  soil  must  be  made  rich  and  retentive  of 
moisture  in  a  state  of  movement,  not  stagnant,  and  the  best 
way  to  bring  this  condition  about  is  to  first  see  that  the  soil  is 
well  drained,  then  work  it  deeply,  double-digging  being  advis- 
able when  it  can  be  done,  adding  at  the  same  time  generous 
dressings  of  farmyard  or  stable  manure.  Deep  working  com- 
bined with  the  humus  of  manure  enables  the  soil  to  hold  more 
available  moisture,  provides  an  ample  root-run,  and  supplies  an 
abundance  of  plant  food,  all  of  which  are  necessary  to  vigorous 
leaf  growth,  and  their  provision  is  the  best  means  of  preventing 
plants  running  prematurely  to  seed  in  dry  weather — the  time 
when  Spinach  is  most  likely  to  be  scarce  and  bring  a  good 
price.  The  manure  should,  if  possible,  be  well  decayed,  but 
this  is  not  so  imperative  in  the  case  of  summer  Spinach  as  for 
most  other  crops.  For  summer  crops  the  manure  may  be  given 
at  the  rate  of  from  20  to  40  tons  per  acre,  according  to  the  soil 
and  its  fertility,  and  this  may  be  advantageously  supplemented 
by  several  waterings  with  weak  liquid  manure  or  by  nitrate  of 
soda  at  the  rate  of  2  cwt.  to  the  acre,  given  in  two  applications, 
one  as  soon  as  the  plants  have  been  thinned  and  the  other  a 
fortnight  later.  For  the  winter  crop  the  farmyard  manure  can 
be  reduced  to  half  the  above  quantity.  After  the  end  of  March 
apply  nitrate  of  soda  as  for  the  summer  crop. 

Varieties : — For  summer  the  round-seeded  varieties  are  used, 
Victoria  being  a  favourite  amongst  market  growers ;  but  there 
are  several  other  sorts  equally  good,  if  not  better,  amongst 
which  may  be  mentioned  Lettuce-leaved,  Flanders,  Monstrous 
Viroflay,  and  Long-standing  Round.  For  winter  and  spring 
Large  Prickly  is  the  favourite,  because  of  its  supposed  superior 
hardiness,  but  it  has  been  proved  that  the  Lettuce-leaved  and 
Flanders  pass  through  the  winter  quite  as  well  as  the  Prickly 
and  make  a  more  abundant  growth  in  the  spring,  and  as  these 
varieties  sell  in  the  market  more  readily  they  should  have  the 
preference  for  autnmn  sowing. 


Spinach. 


315 


NEW  ZEALAND  SPINACH. 

Tetragonia  expansa. 

THE  difficulty  of  getting  a  continuous  supply  of  Spinach 
in  the  hot  summer  months,  especially  on  dry  soils,  is 
easily  overcome  by  substituting  New  Zealand  Spinach,  which 
grows  to  perfection  under  such  conditions.  The  plant  will  not 
bear  frost,  and  for  supplies  early  in  the  summer  seed  should  be 
sown  under  glass  about  the  end  of  March,  the  plants  potted 
singly,  and  set  out,  after  hardening,  at  the  end  of  May.  Or 
seed  may  be  sown  out  of  doors  at  the  beginning  of  May.  The 
plants  should  be  set  in 
rows  3ft.  apart,  and  2ft. 
from  plant  to  plant. 
In  good  soil  they  soon 
cover  this  space.  Each 
plant  makes  a  number 
of  spreading  stems  with 
side  shoots,  and  bears 
numerous  small,  thick, 
fleshy  leaves  ;  many  of 
these  rambling  stems, 
if  allowed  to  grow  un- 
checked, will  attain  a 
length  of  from  2ft.  to 
3ft.  Overcrowding 
tunts  the  growth  of 
the  plants  and  prevents 
them  exhibiting  their 
true  character  and 

capabilities.  The  leaves  are  not  picked  singly,  as  those  of  the 
true  Spinach  are,  but  the  tender  shoots  are  pinched  off.  Growth 
is  rapid  and  continuous  throughout  the  summer,  and  the  plant 
needs  no  attention  beyond  watering,  which  should  be  frequent 
and  copious. 


Co- 


New  Zealand  Spinach. 


316 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


SPINACH  BEET. 

Beta  Cicla. 

THE  Perpetual  Spinach,  or  Spinach  Beet,  is  grown  for  its 
leaves,  of  which  it  produces  a  continuous  supply  in  the 
hottest  summer,  when  true  Spinach  is  difficult  to  obtain.  The 
leaves  are  boiled  and  minced  like  Spinach,  for  which  it  makes 
a  very  satisfactory  substitute,  and  indeed  by  many  persons 
Spinach  Beet  is  considered  to  be  superior  to  Spinach.  It  is 

grown  in  the  same 
way  as  the  ordinary 
beet,  except  that  the 
soil  should  be  richer, 
to  promote  an  abun- 
dant leaf  growth,  and 
it  need  not  be  so 
deeply  dug.  The 
seed  is  sown  in  April, 
and  again  at  the  end 
of  July  to  ensure  a 
supply  until  late  in 
the  season.  Sow  in 
rows  15in.  apart,  and 
thin  out  to  Sin.  from 
plant  to  plant.  No 
further  attention  is 
then  required  beyond  weeding  and  occasional  watering.  As 
soon  as  the  leaves  are  large  enough  they  must  be  gathered, 
even  if  not  then  wanted,  so  as  to  have  a  supply  always  young 
and  tender.  The  plants  are  moderately  hardy,  being  able  to 
bear  a  few  degrees  of  frost,  and  therefore  continue  to  yield  in 
the  open  ground  until  late  in  the  season.  When  a  supply  is 
wanted  through  the  winter  the  latest-sown  roots  may  be  lifted 
and  grown  in  a  greenhouse  or  frame. 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co. 

Spinach  Beet. 


Strawberries. 


317 


STRAWBERRIES. 

Fragaria. 

NO  apology  is  necessary  for  introducing  the  consideration 
of  Strawberry  culture  into  a  work  primarily  intended  to 
discuss  the  profitable  production  of  vegetables.  True,  the 
Strawberry  is  a  fruit — one  of  the  choicest  and  most  popular 
we  possess — but  it  is  also  an  essential  feature  in  most  gardens, 
and  fits  in  so  admirably  with  the  general  crop  rotation  of 
market  garden  work, 
that  its  omission 
would  be  a  serious 
mistake.  In  its 
season  the  Straw- 
berry is  always  in 
good  demand,  being 
a  general  favourite 
with  both  rich  and 
poor,  and  although  it 
is  already  produced 
in  this  country  in 
enormous  quantities, 
that  fact  need  be  no 
deterrent  to  laying 
down  further  plan- 
tations in  suitable 
localities,  providing 
its  culture  is  entered 
upon  with  thorough- 
ness. At  times  and 
for  short  periods  the 
markets  are  glutted 
with  the  fruit,  but  it 
is  mostly  of  second  and  third  rate  quality,  and  even  then 
the  growers  make  its  production  pay  very  well,  on  the  whole. 
There  are  never  too  many  choice  Strawberries  offered  for  sale, 
the  demand  for  them  seeming  insatiable.  The  grower  who  lays 
himself  out  to  raise  only  the  best  fruit  and  to  offer  it  for  sale 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co. 

Royal  Sovereign  Strawberry. 


318  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

in  the  pink  of  condition  will  find  Strawberry  culture  to  be  one 
of  the  most  profitable  lines  in  his  business ;  the  more  so  if  he 
extends  his  season  by  forwarding  an  early  variety  on  the  one 
hand  and  grows  a  breadth  of  a  late  variety  on  the  other,  and 
so  evades  the  necessity  of  having  to  offer  the  whole  of  his  crop 
for  sale  at  the  time  of  greatest  general  production. 

Locality. — As  indicated  above,  the  locality  of  the  plantation 
is  a  matter  of  the  utmost  importance — not  necessarily  in  the 
production  of  the  fruit,  but  in  relation  to  its  disposal.  The 
Strawberry  is  a  soft  fruit  and  will  not  bear  rough  handling  or 
close  confinement  in  masses  for  more  than  a  very  short  time. 
To  be  at  its  best  it  should  be  disposed  of  early  in  the  same  day 
it  is  gathered — almost  before  the  morning  dew  has  dried  upon 
it,  and  whilst  its  bloom  and  brilliant  colour  are  unimpaired. 
To  secure  this  condition  in  perfection  the  fruit  needs  gathering 
soon  after  daybreak,  packing  immediately,  and  despatching  by 
road  to  its  destination,  where  it  should  arrive  by  8  a.m.  or  soon 
after,  without  re-handling.  If  such  an  ideal  situation  is  not 
possible,  the  next  best  is  one  in  close  proximity  to  a  main  line 
of  railway,  where  there  is  a  suitable  service  of  through  trains, 
preferably  those  with  fruit  vans  attached.  By  this  means  the 
fruit  can  be  put  upon  the  market  in  good  condition  early  in  the 
same  day  it  is  gathered,  with  a  minimum  of  re-handling  and 
consequent  damage  from  shaking  and  rough  usage.  In  places 
where  the  railway  service  is  direct  but  not  convenient  for 
delivery  of  the  fruit  early  enough  to  be  disposed  of  at  that  day's 
market,  it  may  be  made  fairly  satisfactory  by  gathering  and 
packing  the  fruit  when  quite  dry,  before  the  evening  dew 
begins  to  fall,  and  despatching  it  by  a  train  which  will  ensure 
delivery  of  the  packages  soon  after  the  opening  of  the  market 
the  following  morning.  The  worst  possible  situation  which 
can  be  selected  for  the  culture  is  one  remote  from  populous 
centres,  from  which  there  is  no  possibility  of  direct  delivery 
by  road,  either  to  market  or  to  shops,  and  where  the  only 
available  outlet  is  by  a  branch  line  of  railway.  Under  such 
circumstances  the  fruit,  however  carefully  it  may  be  packed, 
is  frequently  ruined  by  delays  and  rough  handling ;  in  the 
numerous  changes  of  vehicles  or  trains  to  which  it  is  subjected 
before  it  finally  arrives  at  its  destination,  it  gets  so  jolted  and 


Strawberries.  319 

bruised  that  it  is  often  partially  reduced  to  a  .pulp,  and  if 
not  also  mouldy  and  altogether  worthless  (Strawberries  under 
such  conditions  will  go  mouldy  in  less  than  twenty-four  hours) 
the  value  of  the  consignment  is  so  seriously  reduced  as  to 
cause  a  considerable  loss  to  the  grower. 

The  Soil  and  its  Preparation. — The  best  soil  for  Strawberries 
is  one  of  a  substantial  nature — a  deep  heavy  loam  inclining  to 
clay  being  generally  the  most  esteemed,  although  it  must 
not  be  overlooked  that  heavy  crops  of  excellent  quality  are 
taken  from  plants  growing  on  well-cultivated  soil  which  is 
distinctly  sandy  or  stoney.  The  fact  is,  that  although  the 
Strawberry  will  not  thrive  in  a  dry  soil  or  climate,  it  will  yield 
paying  crops  on  any  well-cultivated  fertile  soil  which  can  be 
kept  in  a  moist  condition  during  the  summer  months — but, 
other  things  being  equal,  a  heavy  loam  will  give  the  best  results, 
and  should  receive  the  preference  for  all  but  the  earliest  crops. 
The  aspect  of  the  land  and  composition  of  the  soil  have  both 
great  influence  in  determining  the  time  of  ripening.  The  chief 
points  favouring  earliness  are — a  soil  of  sandy  composition  with 
a  porous  subsoil,  an  aspect  inclining  slightly  to  the  south  or 
south-east,  and  plants  of  a  proved  early  variety.  Lateness  is 
secured  by  planting  on  heavy  cold  soil,  with  a  north  or  north- 
western exposure,  and  selecting  a  late  variety.  The  grower 
should  therefore  make  the  best  of  his  circumstances,  planting 
the  bulk  of  his  crop  to  suit  the  formation  of  his  land,  whether 
early  or  late;  if  he  has  the  choice  of  a  variety  of  soils  and 
situations  he  should  make  such  selections  and  combinations  as 
will  suit  his  particular  purpose,  remembering  that  the  more 
his  season  is  extended  in  either  direction,  the  more  likely  he 
will  be  to  escape  the  losses  occasioned  by  being  obliged  to  sell 
on  a  glutted  market. 

Drainage  should  be  attended  to  before  a  new  plantation  is 
made,  and  if  not  satisfactory  it  should  be  made  so,  for  whilst 
the  Strawberry  thrives  best  in  a  moist  soil,  stagnant  water  is 
fatal  to  its  well-being.  The  drainage  being  satisfactory,  the 
next  step  is  to  work  the  ground  thoroughly  and  deeply,  incor- 
porating well-rotted  manure  at  the  same  time — it  is  of  little  use 
attempting  to  grow  Strawberries  for  market  in  soil  in  a  low 
condition  of  fertility.  When  the  plants  are  to  occupy  the 


320  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

ground  for  several  years,  small  areas  should  be  bastard 
trenched  and  large  areas  subsoil  ploughed,  but  when  the 
plantation  is  only  to  be  cropped  for  one  or  two  seasons  good 
ordinary  cultivation  will  serve  every  purpose.  Newly-broken 
pasture  land  is  unsuitable;  it  should  have  been  previously 
cultivated  for  at  least  one  season,  to  reduce  such  pests  as  wire- 
worms,  surface  caterpillars,  leather  jackets  and  cockchafer 
grubs,  which  harbour  in  old  grass  fields,  and  also  so  that  the 
soil,  by  the  decay  of  the  sod,  may  be  brought  into  the  compact 
condition  in  which  the  Strawberry  thrives  best. 

For  summer  or  autumn  planting,  the  preparation  of  the  soil 
should  be  completed  as  long  as  possible  beforehand,  so  that  it 
may  become  settled  down  before  the  plants  are  set  out.  For 
spring  planting  it  is  advisable,  when  possible,  to  ridge  up  the 
soil  before  winter,  so  that  it  may  be  made  mellow  and  friable 
by  the  action  of  the  weather. 

Runners. — When  the  Strawberry  plant  begins  to  flower  it 
puts  forth  long,  slender,  bare,  cord-like  branches,  known  as 
"runners."  When  these  branches  have  attained  a  certain  length 
their  extremities  become  swollen  and  bear  a  cluster  of  leaves, 
and  from  the  under  surface  roots  are  emitted.  These  roots 
enter  the  soil  as  soon  as  they  come  in  contact  with  it,  and  thus 

the  cluster  begins  a 
separate  existence  at 
a  short  distance  from 
the  parent  plant.  The 
runners  do  not  end 
Strawberry  Runner.  with  the  production 

of  one  cluster  of  leaves,  but  each  continues  growing  throughout 
the  summer  until  four  or  five  new  plants  have  been  formed  in 
succession.  If  the  runners  are  cut  off  the  plant  will  produce 
fresh  ones.  All  varieties  are  not  equally  prolific  in  the  produc- 
tion of  runners,  some  few  being  rather  shy  in  this  respect. 
In  any  batch  of  plants  there  are  often  a  few  "  blind  "  ones — 
those  which  form  neither  flower  nor  fruit — and  such  are  always 
fine  looking  plants  with  bold  foliage,  and  are  the  most  prolific 
in  the  production  of  early  and  vigorous  runners ;  they  should 
be  searched  for  when  the  plants  are  blooming  and  destroyed, 
as  plants  propagated  from  them  are  likely  to  be  barren  also. 


Strawberries.  321 

General  Culture. — After  a  plantation  is  established,  weeds 
should  be  kept  down  rigorously.  Runners  should  be  removed  as 
fast  as  they  appear,  serious  neglect  in  this  particular  being  likely 
to  ruin  a  plantation,  and  in  any  case  when  runners  are  allowed 
to  grow  they  do  so  at  the  expense  of  the  following  season's 
crop.  At  all  times  during  spring  and  summer,  except  when  a 
mulch  prevents,  the  surface  soil  should  be  kept  in  a  loose 
condition  by  frequent  stirring  with  hoe  or  cultivator ;  this  will 
promote  root  action  and  ensure  vigorous  growth,  the  crop  of 
the  following  season  depending  on  the  growth  the  plants  have 
made  in  the  previous  year.  After  the  fruit  has  been  gathered 
and  the  runners  removed,  all  the  torn  and  withered  old  foliage 
should  be  carefully  cut  away,  and  with  the  litter  and  any  other 
rubbish  on  the  field,  gathered  together  in  heaps  and  burnt. 
In  the  autumn  a  mulch  of  rich  compost  or  well  decayed  manure 
is  given,  and  on  large  plantations  a  plough  is  then  run  between 
the  rows,  which  puts  the  plants  on  ridges  and  keeps  the  roots 
well  drained;  in  the  spring  a  horse-hoe  is  used  to  level  the 
ground  again.  Where  horse  labour  is  not  used,  digging  between 
the  rows  must  not  be  permitted,  but  in  the  winter  a  light  forking 
over,  about  Sin.  deep,  will  sweeten  the  soil  and  leave  a  friable 
surface  to  facilitate  the  work  of  hoeing.  After  the  spring 
hoeing  is  done  a  mulch  of  long  manure  or  clean  straw  is  laid 
along  the  sides  of  the  rows  and  between  the  plants  to  keep  the 
soil  from  splashing  on  the  fruit  during  heavy  rains. 

Strawberries  do  much  better  when  grown  by  themselves,  in 
an  open  situation  away  from  bushes  and  trees,  but  sometimes 
they  are  grown  between  rows  of  young  gooseberry  and  currant 
bushes,  where  they  succeed  fairly  well  for  two  or  three  years, 
until  the  bushes  grow  large  and  shade  them ;  thus,  they  enable 
the  grower  to  pay  expenses  until  the  bushes  become  remuner- 
ative. A  plantation  will  usually  bear  well  for  three  seasons, 
and  it  is  even  possible  under  good  management  to  take  fair 
crops  from  plants  which  have  been  established  ten  or  twelve 
years.  But  it  is  very  inadvisable  to  let  them  crop  for  more 
than  three  seasons,  and  many  good  growers  turn  the  plants  in 
directly  they  have  borne  two  crops,  and  find  this  the  most 
profitable  method,  the  second  crop  usually  being  the  heaviest 
the  plants  will  bear. 


322  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

When  the  production  of  extra  fine  fruit  is  the  principal  aim 
of  the  grower  the  plants  should  only  be  permitted  to  produce 
fruit  once,  digging  them  in  immediately  afterwards.  The  first 
crop,  although  not  so  abundant  as  the  second,  always  yields 
the  finest  fruits,  and  annual  plantations,  as  described  later  in 
the  paragraph  "  Strawberries  in  Beds,"  will  be  found  the  best 
method  to  adopt  in  gardens  where  the  soil  is  worked  intensively, 
as  not  only  are  the  individual  fruits  much  finer,  but  from  a 
given  space  the  total  crop  is  very  much  heavier  than  can  be 
obtained  by  ordinary  methods. 

Few  growers,  especially  those  who  produce  the  fruit  on  an 
extensive  scale,  realise  the  importance  of  irrigation  when  the 
fruit  is  swelling,  particularly  when  the  weather  is  dry ;  under 
such  circumstances,  when  possible,  copious  supplies  of  water 
should  be  given,  and  will  be  found  to  greatly  increase  both  the 
size  of  the  fruit  and  the  total  weight  of  the  crop.  Where 
the  plantation  is  inconveniently  situated  for  giving  water,  a 
good  mulch  of  long  straw  manure,  along  the  sides,  between, 
and  partially  over  the  plants,  put  on  not  later  than  the  middle 
of  March,  will  both  feed  the  crop  and  keep  the  fruit  clean. 
The  foliage  grows  through  fresh  and  strong,  and  by  the  time 
the  fruit  appears  the  straw  is  washed  clean  by  the  rains. 

Plants. — The  success  of  the  plantation,  both  immediately  and 
permanently,  depends  upon  the  quality  of  the  plants  used,  and 
the  importance  of  this  fact  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed 
upon  the  inexperienced  beginner  in  Strawberry  culture.  Where 
a  plantation  is  being  formed  for  the  first  time,  the  plants  should 
be  obtained  from  a  firm  of  good  standing  and  repute,  who 
make  the  propagation  of  Strawberry  plants  a  leading  line  in 
their  business.  The  first  cost  of  the  plants  will  probably  be  a 
little  more  than  would  be  the  case  if  they  were  ordered  hap- 
hazard from  advertisers  who  offer  them  very  cheaply,  but  it 
will  be  money  well  spent,  and  really  far  cheaper  in  the  end, 
to  make  a  start  with  good  plants  instead  of  with  miserable, 
stunted  specimens,  gathered  anyhow  from  fields  which  jiave 
been  allowed  to  run  wild ;  the  misguided  and  unfortunate  pur- 
chaser of  such  plants  often  receives  them  in  the  form  of  bags 
of  sweating  rubbish  not  worth  the  cost  of  railway  carriage. 
The  only  plants  fit  for  the  intended  purpose  are  those  showing 


Strawberries.  323 

good  growth,  with  plenty  of  leaves,  and  strong,  abundant 
light-coloured  roots;  small  stunted  plants,  small  of  leaf  and 
sparse  of  root,  or  old  plants  with  dark-coloured,  withered  roots, 
should  always  be  rejected — they  rarely  become  profitable. 

The  first  runners  from  a  plant  are  always  the  strongest  as 
well  as  the  earliest.  Those  from  vigorous  young  virgin  plants 
that  have  never  been  weakened  by  fruiting  are  still  earlier  and 
stronger  than  the  best  from  the  fruiting  stock,  and  it  is  more 
than  probable  that  if  propagation  from  virgin  plants  was  con- 
tinued for  some  years  a  strain  of  any  variety  would  be  built  up 
which  would  far  exceed  in  vigour,  healthfulness,  and  cropping 
powers  that  which  had  been  propagated  from  plants  debilitated 
by  years  of  fruit  production.  That  being  so,  and  an  annual 
supply  of  such  runners  being  quite  easy  to  obtain,  it  is  strongly 
recommended  that  at  least  on  those  limited  areas  where  the 
quality  of  the  fruit  is  the  principal  aim,  the  following  method 
be  adopted :  During  the  winter  prepare  a  bed  or  beds,  5ft.  wide 
and  as  long  as  necessary,  by  thoroughly  digging  and  incorpor- 
ating at  the  same  time  a  generous  dressing  of  well-decayed 
manure.-  Towards  the  end  of  March,  when  the  weather  has 
been  fine  for  a  few  days,  stir  the  surface  of  these  beds,  and  put 
on  a  2in.  covering  of  rich  compost  or  sifted  old  hot-bed  manure, 
supplemented  with  a  light  sprinkling  of  sulphate  of  potash  and 
superphosphates.  Then  carefully  plant  strong  lifted  runners 
or,  preferably,  plants  from  pots,  in  two  rows  2ft.  apart,  and 
18in.  from  plant  to  plant,  closing  the  soil  well  around  the 
crowns  and  making  it  very  firm  about  the  roots.  Remove 
all  blossom  as  soon  as  it  appears.  As  runners  are  put  out  peg 
down  the  earliest  ones  from  each  plant  until  the  whole  of  the 
space  is  covered  with  young  plants  at  about  Gin.  apart,  after 
which  all  others  must  be  rigorously  removed.  If  the  weather 
is  dry  an  occasional  soaking  with  water  will  assist  rooting 
very  materially.  As  soon  as  the  runners  are  rooted  strongly 
separate  them  from  the  old  plants.  By  the  middle  of  July 
the  young  plants  will  be  growing  vigorously,  and  if  transplanted 
to  their  fruiting  quarters  before  the  end  of  August — but  the 
sooner  the  better — they  will  yield  a  good  crop  of  large  choice 
fruit  the  following  season.  At  the  same  time  sufficient  runners 
should  be  planted  Gin.  apart  each  way  in  a  nursery  bed  to  make 


324  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

up  fresh  beds  in  the  following  spring  for  a  further  supply  of 
plants,  or  they  may  be  left  where  they  are  standing  through 
the  winter.  The  old  plants,  not  yet  having  fruited,  will  yield  a 
great  crop  the  following  season. 

Summer  Planting. — All  things  considered,  the  best  time  to 
make  a  new  Strawberry  plantation  is  early  in  August.  This 
entails  more  labour  than  when  the  plantation  is  made  either  in 
autumn  or  spring,  but  if  August  planting  is  well  done  and  the 
plants  properly  cared  for  afterwards,  a  good  crop  of  fruit  can 
be  gathered  from  them  the  following  season,  whereas  when 
planting  is  done  on  either  of  the  other  dates  none  can  be  had 
until  the  second  season ;  therefore  the  additional  labour 
receives  an  abundant  recompense.  One  of  the  best  crops  to 
precede  summer-planted  Strawberries  is  early  potatoes;  the 
tillage  and  manuring  which  potatoes  require  cleans,  aerates,  and 
enriches  the  soil,  and  if  it  is  harrowed  and  rolled  after  the  crop 
is  lifted  it  is  in  prime  condition  for  receiving  the  plants.  Some 
difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  best  distance  apart  to  set 
them,  but  much  depends  upon  the  vigour  of  the  variety  and 
the  nature  of  the  soil.  A  safe  rule  on  the  average  is  to  set 
the  rows  2ft.  apart,  and  the  plants  18in.  apart  in  the  rows,  but 
some  varieties  are  all  the  better  for  Gin.  more  space  each  way, 
whilst  others  need  not  be  more  than  1ft.  apart  in  the  row. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  omit  every  third  row  for  convenience  of 
gathering  and  cultivation,  as  then  there  will  be  no  need  to 
trample  amongst  the  plants,  for  although  the  Strawberry 
thrives  best  in  firm  soil  this  does  not  mean  a  bed  almost  as 
hard  as  concrete,  which  is  the  condition  most  heavy  soils 
would  be  in  when  dry,  if  trampled  on  when  wet.  This  space 
can  be  filled  with  lettuce  or  some  similar  crop  which  is  cleared 
before  gathering  begins,  and  there  is  thus  little  or  no  loss. 
Dull  cloudy  weather,  when  the  soil  is  moist,  should  be  chosen 
for  the  work  when  possible,  but  do«  not  plant  when  the  soil  is 
wet  and  pasty,  or  the  roots  will  not  run  freely.  Do  not  plant 
with  a  dibber,  but  use  a  garden  trowel,  and  see  that  the  roots 
are  spread  out  evenly,  then  fill  in  with  fine  friable  soil,  which 
should  be  pressed  quite  firmly  round  the  roots,  further  con- 
solidating the  earth  by  treading  in  afterwards.  The  collar  of 
the  plant  when  all  is  finished  should  be  just  level  with  the 


Strawberries.  325 

surface — not  in  a  hollow  or  it  will  hold  moisture  and  induce 
decay,  and  not  raised  above  the  surface,  because  the  tendency 
of  the  plant  is  to  rise  out  of  the  ground  and  this  must  be 
counteracted  as  much  as  possible.  If  the  weather  is  dry,  every 
RIGHT  AND  WRONG  WAYS  TO  PLANT  STRAWBERRIES. 


Buried  Not  planted      The  proper  depth      Well  planted, 

too  deeply.  deep  enough,    but  badly  planted  ;    at  proper  depth. 

roots  turned  up. 

precaution  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  roots  of  the  plants  moist. 
A  box  is  better  than  a  basket  to  carry  the  plants  in,  because 
the  wind  cannot  blow  through  the  sides,  and  it  should  be  kept 
covered  with  a  wet  sack.  When  the  plants  have  been  obtained 
from  a  distance  it  is  always  best,  before  planting  in  dry  weather, 
to  dip  the  roots  in  a  "  puddle  "  (a  mixture  of  soil  or  clay  and 
water,  of  the  consistency  of  cream).  On  light  soils,  as  soon  as 
planting  is  finished,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  run  a  light  roller  over 
the  whole  area — plants  as  well,  it  will  not  hurt  them.  In  dry 
weather  water  should  be  given  unsparingly  until  the  plants 
are  established.  Weeds  must  not  be  permitted  at  any  time, 
and  the  surface  soil  should  be  kept  constantly  stirred  during 
the  growing  season  with  hoe  or  cultivator;  this,  as  has  been 
frequently  mentioned,  not  only  keeps  the  weeds  down,  but 
helps  to  retain  moisture  in  the  soil  and  keeps  it  friable  and 
aerated,  with  the  result  that  the  plants  grow  more  vigorously, 
and  so  make  stronger  crowns. 

Autumn  Planting. — When  planting  cannot  be  conveniently 
done  in  the  summer,  autumn  is  the  next  best  time,  providing 
the  operation  can  be  completed  by  the  end  of  October ;  Straw- 
berries may  be  planted  up  to  the  end  of  December  in  open 
weather,  but  it  is  very  inadvisable  to  do  the  work  so  late,  as  the 
roots  remain  inactive  in  the  cold  wet  ground,  and  it  is  almost 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

certain  that  many  of  the  plants  will  die  and  need  replacing ; 
therefore,  if  planting  cannot  be  finished  at  latest  by  the  end 
of  October  it  is  best  to  leave  it  until  spring.  Peas  are  one 
of  the  best  crops  autumn-planted  Strawberries  can  follow ;  the 
ground  should  be  broken  up  as  soon  as  the  haulms  are  carted 
away  and  the  interval  before  planting  allows  ample  time  to  get 
the  soil  into  capital  condition  for  the  work.  If  the  runners  have 
been  grown  at  home  no  more  should  be  lifted  than  can  be 
planted  the  same  day,  so  that  the  roots  will  not  get  dried  by 
wind.  If  they  have  come  from  a  distance  unpack  immediately 
on  arrival,  spread  out  thinly  in  a  shady  place,  and  sprinkle 
lightly  with  water ;  if  they  cannot  all  be  planted  at  once  open  a 
shallow  trench  on  the  north  side  of  a  wall  or  hedge  and  stand 
them  thickly  in  this,  covering  the  roots  with  moist  soil.  When 
planting  time  arrives  trim  off  about  one  third  of  the  roots 
with  a  sharp  knife  and  remove  all  decayed  leaves,  then  mark 
out  the  rows  and  plant  as  directed  on  pages  323-4. 

Spring  Planting  has  many  good  points  which  commend  it  to 
the  favour  of  the  busy  grower,  and  there  is  not  the  least  doubt 
that  it  is  far  better  to  plant  in  spring  than  late  in  the  autumn. 
In  spring  the  soil  is  cool  and  moist,  the  roots  begin  to  work  at 
once  and  the  plants  grow  strongly  from  the  start,  so  that  there 
are  very  few  losses,  When  this  course  is  to  be  followed  the 
runners  should  have  been  cleared  from  the  fruiting  plantations 
in  autumn  and  heeled  in  on  a  bed  of  well-drained  soil.  Open  a 
shallow  trench  wide  and  deep  enough  to  take  in  the  roots  of 
the  runners  and  so  that  the  crown  is  just  above  ground  level ; 
stand  them  close  together  in  a  single  row  along  one  side,  then 
open  another  trench,  parallel  with  the  first  and  about  Gin.  away 
from  it,  using  the  soil  to  cover  the  roots  of  the  plants  in  the 
first  trench.  Cover  the  roots  well  and  tread  in  the  soil  firmly 
so  that  every  plant  is  bedded  in  tightly.  Trenches  may  be 
repeated  in  this  way  until  all  the  runners  are  disposed  of,  and 
they  will  then  be  found  in  first-rate  condition  for  planting 
in  the  spring.  The  ground  should  have  been  well  manured 
and  ridged  up  in  the  preceding  autumn,  so  as  to  get  the  full 
benefit  of  frosts  in  pulverising  the  clods  and  making  the  whole 
mellow  and  friable.  After  a  few  days  of  fine  weather  about  the 
beginning  of  Ma'rch,  when  the  soil  works  well  and  is  not  wet 


Strawberries.  327 

or  sticky,  it  should  be  harrowed  down  and  levelled.  Before 
planting  remove  any  withered  or  dead  leaves  there  may  be  on 
the  runners  and  shorten  the  longest  of  the  roots.  The  distance 
apart  of  the  rows  will  depend  upon  the  variety  planted  and  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  but  where  horse-hoeing  is  intended  it  should 
not  be  less  than  2ft.  Gin.  During  the  first  season  another  crop 
may  be  grown  between  the  rows,  onions  being  a  favourite  one 
for  this  purpose.  When  this  is  the  case  two  rows  of  onions, 
9in.  apart,  are  drilled  in  the  spaces  as  soon  as  the  Strawberries 
are  planted.  During  the  first  season  any  blooms  which  show 
must  be  picked  off  as  soon  as  seen  and  no  runners  should  be 
allowed  to  form. 

Strawberries  in  Beds. — Planting  in  single  rows,  as  already 
described,  is  the  customary  method  approved  and  carried  out 
by  the  vast  majority  of  growers ;  there  is,  however,  a  method 
of  growing  in  beds,  described  below,  which  is  worthy  of  serious 
attention  from  all  who  aim  not  only  at  the  production  of  choice 
fruit  but  who  also  strive  to  "  forward  "  a  portion  of  their  crop 
so  as  to  have  ripe  fruit  ready  a  week  or  ten  days  earlier  than 
it  would  ripen  naturally  in  the  open.  The  method  is  simple 
and  profitable,  and  if  carried  out  thoroughly  will  ensure  a 
heavy  crop  of  fine  fruit  being  taken  off  a  comparatively  small 
space. 

The  requisite  number  of  good  strong  runners  from  maiden 
plants  should  be  set  out  Gin.  apart  on  a  nursery  bed,  not  later 
than  September — the  earlier  the  better.  Here  they  remain 
until  planted  out  permanently  in  the  following  spring.  During 
the  winter  the  land  intended  for  the  plantation  should  be 
bastard  trenched — a  good  dressing  of  well-decayed  farmyard 
manure  being  incorporated  with  the  top  spit  at  the  same  time 
— and  thrown  up  into  beds  5ft.  wide,  with  furrows  or  pathways, 
12in.  wide  and  Gin.  deep,  dividing  the  beds.  The  surface  of  the 
soil  should  be  left  rough  for  the  weather  to  act  upon.  About 
the  end  of  March,  when  the  weather  is  fine  and  the  soil  is 
in  nice  working  condition,  prepare  the  beds  and  set  two  rows 
of  plants  on  each,  as  described  for  the  propagation  of  runners 
on  pages  322  and  323.  Lift  the  plants  from  the  nursery  beds 
with  a  garden  trowel,  each  with  a  good  ball  of  earth.  Keep 
the  surface  of  the  soil  stirred  by  frequent  hoeing,  but  do  not 


328  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

cut  in  more  than  lin.  deep.  Remove  all  blossoms  as  soon 
as  they  show,  as  the  plants  must  not  be  allowed  to  fruit.  When 
runners  appear  peg  down  the  earliest  until  the  whole  surface, 
except  a  9in.  margin  along  each  edge,  is  covered  with  plants 
9in.  apart.  They  must  not  be  closer  than  this  or  the  plants 
will  be  overcrowded  and  the  size  of  the  fruit  will  suffer  in 
consequence.  The  beds  should  be  kept  moist  by  frequent 
watering  until  the  runners  are  rooted.  As  soon  as  this  has 
taken  place  cut  the  old  plants  out.  .Each  bed  is  now  covered 
with  young,  vigorous,  early-rooted  plants,  which  by  suffering 
no  check  from  transplanting  make  extra  fine  crowns  by  the 
autumn.  No  further  runners  must  be  allowed  to  form,  weeds 
must  be  kept  down,  the  surface  soil  stirred,  and  if  the  summer 
should  prove  very  dry  the  beds  should  occasionally  be  watered 
copiously — preferably  in  the  evening — so  as  to  help  the  plants 
to  make  all  the  growth  possible,  the  crop  of  fruit  depending 
largely  upon  the  growth  of  the  preceding  season.  The  furrows 
between  the  beds  will  remove  all  surplus  water  in  the  winter 
and  in  conjunction  with  the  deep  cultivation  will  keep  the  plants 
free  from  stagnant  moisture  and  ensure  healthy  root  action. 
When  growth  begins  in  the  spring  apply  the  fertilizers  men- 
tioned later.  When  the  plants  are  in  bloom  dress  the  bed  with 
good  equalized  guano,  and  water  copiously  until  the  fruit  begins 
to  show  colour.  The  result  will  be  a  very  heavy  crop  of  extra 
fine  fruit  which  will  surprise  the  grower  who  has  adopted  this 
method  for  the  first  time  and  will  repay  him  abundantly  for  all 
the  trouble  he  has  taken. 

To  perfect  this  system,  a  portion  of  the  plantation  should  be 
brought  to  the  fruiting  stage  earlier  than  it  would  otherwise 
be  under  normal  conditions;  this  procedure  is  known  as 
"  forwarding,"  and  is  accomplished  by  covering  the  plants,  as 
soon  as  growth  begins  in  March,  with  movable  box  frames. 
The  most  convenient  size  of  frame  for  this  purpose  is  that 
described  on  pages  69-71,  which  will  fit  comfortably  on  the 
5ft.  bed  with  a  margin  of  a  few  inches  of  earth  on  each  side  to 
give  "it  a  firm  foundation.  If  the  plants  were  kept  9in.  from  the 
the  edges  of  the  bed,  as  directed,  the  nearest  will  be  a  few 
inches  from  the  side-boards  of  the  frame.  After  the  lights  are 
put  on  ventilate  freely,  never  closing  them  entirely  except  in 


Strawberries.  329 

rough  or  frosty  weather.  On  no  account  let  the  plants  suffer 
from  want  of  water,  but  on  the  other  hand  do  not  over-water — 
the  soil  should  be  maintained  in  a  nice  moist  condition  suitable 
to  free  and  uninterrupted  growth.  On  the  occasion  of  a  warm 
gentle  rain  the  lights  may  be  removed  altogether  so  that  the 
plants  may  receive  the  full  benefit  of  it.  As  the  weather  gets 
warmer  raise  the  lights  more  and  give  a  light  watering  over 
the  leaves  through  a  fine  rose  morning  and  evening.  When 
the  blooms  begin  to  open  this  dewing  over  should  cease  unless 
the  weather  is  exceptionally  hot  and  dry.  Fertilization  of  the 
flowers  should  take  place  daily,  by  brushing  them  lightly  over 
with  a  rabbit's  tail  or  bunch  of  feathers  tied  to  the  end  of  a 
stick ;  this  scatters  the  pollen. 

The  plants  on  these  beds,  whether  forwarded  or  fruited  in 
the  open,  should  only  be  allowed  to  bear  one  crop,  and  as  soon 
as  that  is  gathered  the  plants  should  be  chopped  out  or  dug  in 
and  the  ground  prepared  for  some  other  crop.  A  fresh  planta- 
tion should  be  made  each  spring,  and  then  each  season  there 
will  be  one  in  bearing. 

The  Forcing  of  Strawberries. — The  preparation  of  the  soil  for 
forcing  is  a  matter  of  importance  and  has  a  great  influence  upon 
the  ultimate  result.  The  principal  ingredient  should  be  good 
turfy  loam,  cut  from  meadow  land  if  possible.  This  should  be 
cut  and  stacked,  grass  side  downwards,  in  the  previous  autumn, 
adding  at  the  same  time  alternate  layers  of  well-decayed 
manure — about  one-fourth  manure  to  three-fourths  loam — and 
a  sprinkling  of  powdered  lime,  bone  meal,  and  kainit  between 
each  layer;  if  there  are  wireworms  in  the  sod,  one  of  the 
advertised  wire  worm  destroyers  should  also  be  added  to  each 
layer.  Make  the  heap  fully  large  enough  for  the  intended  work, 
as  any  surplus  will  be  found  useful  for  many  other  purposes. 
Early  in  the  spring  cut  the  heap  down,  thoroughly  mixing  it 
and  chopping  up  the  turf  with  a  sharp  spade  in  the  process. 
Stack  it  again  and  repeat  the  turning  and  chopping  twice  more 
at  intervals  of  five  or  six  weeks ;  the  largest  of  the  pieces  then 
should  not  exceed  the  size  of  a  walnut.  The  soil  should  be 
nicely  moist  and  if  not  in  this  condition  it  must  be  watered  well 
at  each  turning ;  liquid  manure  used  for  one  watering  will 
still  further  improve  the  soil.  At  the  second  turning  sufficient 


330  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

should  be  passed  through  a  screen  to  fill  the  pots  for  layering, 
the  lumps  being  thrown  back  on  the  heap.  For  this  purpose 
the  soil  needs  to  be  in  smaller  particles  than  for  potting  at  a 
later  stage,  so  that  the  delicate  rootlets  may  enter  it  easily. 
When  there  is  an  opportunity  for  doing  so  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
fill  the  pots  a  few  days  before  they  are  needed  and  then  there 
need  be  no  undue  delay  in  getting  them  into  position  at  the 
proper  time.  Before  filling  them  soak  the  pots  in  water  and 
see  that  the  soil  is  moist ;  also  be  sure  to  provide  sufficient 
crocks  or  other  drainage  material.  When  filled,  stack  them  in 
a  cool  shady  place,  where  they  will  be  safe  from  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun  and  also  from  rain ;  a  few  wet  sacks  thrown  over 
them  will  help  to  keep  the  moisture  in  the  soil. 

Strong  well-rooted  runners  of  a  good  forcing  variety  should 
be  lifted  at  the  end  of  July  and  potted  in  32's,  either  one  or 
two  to  a  pot ;  or  they  may  be  layered  in  small  60's,  and  after 
becoming  well  rooted,  potted  singly  in  32's.  When  the  runners 
are  to  be  rooted  directly  into  the  small  pots  these  should  be 
sunk  in  the  ground  up  to  the  rim,  and  so  disposed  as  to  leave  a 


Two  Methods  of  Layering 

Runner  Layered  into  Strawberry  Runners.  Runner  Layered,  into 

a  60's  Pot.  the  Ground. 

clear  path  between  every  two  rows  foi  convenience  in  giving 
water,  which  matter  which  must  on  no  account  be  neglected. 
Do  not  take  more  runners  from  one  plant  than  is  absolutely 
necessary,  and  when  possible  confine  these  to  one  on  a  stalk, 
that  nearest  the  parent  plant  being  usually  the  best.  Examine 
each  runner  before  layering  it  to  see  that  it  contains  a  centre 


Strawberries.  331 

of  embryo  leaves ;  those  without  this  centre  are  almost  sure  to 
be  blind  and  should  be  discarded.  Always  layer  enough  plants 
in  excess  of  the  actual  requirements  to  allow  for  losses  and  for 
rejecting  poor  plants.  Having  plunged  the  pot  and  selected 
the  runner  cut  off  the  continuation  of  the  stalk  or "  string  " 
about  half  an  inch  beyond  the  tiny  plant,  then  fix  this  on  the  soil 
in  the  middle  of  the  pot.  The  fixing  may  be  done  in  a  variety  of 
ways ;  in  many  places  a  lump  of  earth  or  a  small  stone  placed 
on  the  string  is  considered  sufficient,  whilst  in  others  forked 
twigs  or  bits  of  bent  wire  are  employed ;  common  hairpins  are 
as  cheap  and  convenient  for  the  purpose  as  anything  that  can 
be  used.  Be  sure  that  the  soil  is  fairly  firm  in  the  pot  and  the 
runner  pressed  down  upon  it  and  fastened  securely.  The  soil 
in  the  pots  must  be  kept  moist  by  watering  daily,  and  as  the 
plants  grow  and  the  pots  fill  with  roots  this  attention  will  be 
required  twice  daily,  especially  if  the  weather  is  very  hot,  as  it 
usually  is  in  July  and  August. 

When  the  runners  are  allowed  to  root  J  in  the  ground  the 
surface  should  first  be  well  hoed  and  then  covered  with  lin.  of 
old  hot-bed  manure,  finely  sifted,  and  the  whole  thoroughly 
watered.  The  same  care  and  attention  in  selecting,  pegging 
down,  and  watering  will  be  required  in  this  case  as  when  pots 
are  used,  but  watering  will  not  need  doing  so  frequently. 

Early  in  August  the  runners  should  be  ready  for  placing  in 
the  fruiting  pots  (32's),  whether  layered  in  small  pots  or  rooted 
in  the  ground.  In  the  latter  case  the  plants  must  first  be  well 
watered  and  then  lifted  with  a  good  ball  of  earth  to  each,  only 
lifting  so  many  at  a  time  as  can  be  potted  immediately.  Each 
pot  must  be  provided  with  plenty  of  drainage  material,  care- 
fully arranged  so  that  water  can  pass  away  freely,  as  nothing 
is  more  harmful  to  the  plants  or  more  likely  to  cause  the  whole 
operation  to  be  more  or  less  of  a  failure  than  the  presence  of 
stagnant  water,  which  causes  the  soil  to  become  soddened  and 
sour.  A  layer  of  the  roughest  pieces  of  soil  should  be  put  over 
the  crocks,  and  then  the  pot  should  be  partially  filled,  leaving 
enough  space  so  that  when  the  plant  from  the  60's  pot  or  that 
with  a  ball  of  earth  is  placed  inside,  the  collar  of  the  plant  will 
be  about  lin.  below  the  rim  of  the  large  pot,  the  crocks  in  the 
small  pot  having  been  first  removed.  Fill  round  gradually 


332  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

with  soil,  making  it  quite  firm  with  a  wooden  rammer  as  the 
pot  is  filled,  bringing  the  new  soil  about  half  an  inch  deep 

over  the  previous  surface,  so  that 
the  crown  of  the  plant  just  stands 
above  it.  Firm  potting  is  essential 
to  success  ;  satisfactory  crops  of 
Strawberries  can  never  be  obtained, 
either  from  plants  in  pots  or  from 
those  in  the  open  ground,  when  the 
soil  about  the  roots  is  in  a  loose 
condition. 

After  potting,  set  the  plants  on  a 
bed  of  ashes,  2in.  deep;  this  will 
prevent  the  entrance  of  worms  into 
the  pots  and  keep  the  drainage  holes 
from  being  blocked  by  earth.  Where 
sufficient  box  frames  are  available 
^  is  a  good  plan  to  stand  the  pots 


from  Small  Pot  in  a  Large  inside   these,   without    lights  ;    they 

can   then   be   very  easily  protected 

through  the  winter.  In  any  case  the  pots  must  be  so  arranged 
that  pathways  are  left  between  them  at  intervals  for  conve- 
nience of  watering.  Shade  from  the  sun  should  be  provided 
for  a  few  days  to  enable  the  roots  to  quickly  begin  working  in 
the  new  soil.  Dew  the  leaves  of  the  plants  over  daily  but  give 
no  other  water  until  the  shade  is  removed.  They  must  then 
be  exposed  to  the  full  sunshine  and  will  need  a  good  watering. 
They  must  now  be  attended  to  with  great  care  ;  only  moderate 
quantities  of  water  will  be  necessary  at  first,  but  as  the  pots 
get  filled  with  roots  copious  supplies  must  be  given  to  keep 
them  growing  freely  —  sometimes  twice  a  day  when  the  weather 
is  very  hot  —  and  a  syringing  every  afternoon  will  be  beneficial 
and  keep  them  free  of  insect  pests.  Runners  must  be  cut  off 
as  soon  as  they  show  and  the  soil  kept  free  from  weeds. 

When  the  weather  becomes  cool  and  wet  in  the  autumn 
watering  must  cease,  and  it  will  be  necessary  to  provide  some 
protection  for  the  pots,  or  many  will  get  broken  by  the  frost. 
If  the  pots  were  stood  inside  box  frames,  as  suggested,  the 
lights  can  be  put  on  and  no  further  protection  will  be  required 


Strawberries.  333 

unless  the  weather  gets  very  severe,  when  they  may  have  an 
additional  covering  of  mats.  In  this  case  the  lights  should 
never  be  closed  down  entirely  except  in  hard  frost.  Where 
no  frames  are  available  it  is  a  good  plan  to  stand  the  pots  close 
together,  plunged  up  to  the  rim  in  ashes,  the  ashes  being  kept 
in  place  by  boards  on  edge  round  the  outer  margin  of  the  mass. 
In  many  places  the  pots  are  simply  laid  on  their  sides  and 
stacked  on  the  top  of  each  other,  with  a  covering  of  straw  over 
the  top  layer ;  they  do  very  well  in  this  way  except  that  the 
soil  is  apt  to  become  too  dry  and  each  pot  needs  soaking  in 
water  before  being  taken  in  for  forcing. 

The  first  hot-beds  for  forcing  are  made,  2ft.  thick,  at  the  end 
of  January,  according  to  the  directions  given  on  pages  128-130. 
When  the  heat  has  fallen  to  50  degrees  put  on  the  frames,  put 
fine  soil  inside,  2in.  deep,  and  stand  the  pots  on  this,  close 
together,  packing  soil  round  them  until  they  are  all  immersed 
in  it  up  to  the  rims.  Give  no  water  until  growth  begins,  and 
then  very  moderately,  increasing  gradually  as  growth  becomes 
stronger.  Plenty  of  air  should  be  given  whenever  the  weather 
will  permit.  Dew  over  the  plants  with  water  through  a  fine 
rose  every  bright  day  until  the  bloom  begins  to  open,  when  it 
must  stop  for  a  time  until  the  fruit  is  "  set."  In  order  that  the 
pollen  of  the  flowers  may  be  readily  scattered,  and  so  ensure 
proper  fertilization,  the  atmosphere  inside  the  frame  must  be 
kept  as  dry  as  possible  during  the  blooming  period,  dampness 
in  the  atmosphere  being  very  detrimental  to  a  good  "  set "  of 
fruit.  During  the  same  period,  whilst  avoiding  cold  draughts, 
as  much  air  must  be  given  as  the  state  of  the  weather  will 
permit,  and  the  flowers  must  be  lightly  brushed  over  daily, 
about  mid-day,  with  a  rabbit's  tail. 

During  this  time  watering  at  the  roots  must  not  oe  neglected, 
but  it  must  be  done  carefully,  avoiding  wetting  the  foliage. 
As  soon  as  a  sufficient  number  of  fruits  are  seen  to  be  set, 
which  will  be  in  ten  or  twelve  days  after  the  first  flowers  open, 
dewing  over  daily  must  be  resumed,  the  atmosphere  of  the 
frame  now  requiring  to  be  kept  moist  to  assist  the  swelling  of 
the  fruit.  The  soil  must  never  be  allowed  to  become  dry  at 
this  period,  and  liquid  manure  should  now  be  used  alternately 
with  clear  water.  Give  a  little  air  during  the  day  but  close 


334  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

down  early  in  the  afternoon.  When  the  fruits  are  about  half 
coloured  stop  dewing,  give  more  air,  and  leave  the  lights  slightly 
raised  at  nights  if  the  weather  is  mild ;  a  free  circulation  of 
air  whilst  the  fruits  are  ripening  will  improve  their  flavour. 
The  fruit  should  be  propped  up  with  forked  twigs,  to  keep  it 
from  touching  the  soil.  Mats  must  be  used  to  cover  the  lights 
every  night  whilst  there  is  any  danger  of  frost.  A  fair  amount 
of  warmth  must  be  kept  in  the  bed,  and  to  this  end  the  sides 
and  ends  of  the  bed  should  be  pulled  down  occasionally  and  the 
cold  manure  replaced  with  some  that  is  fresh  and  hot,  banking 
it  up  to  the  top  of  the  frameboard. 

About  the  third  week  in  February  another  hot-bed,  18in. 
thick,  should  be  made  for  a  second  batch  of  plants,  and  a  third, 
1ft.  thick,  early  in  March.  These  will  carry  on  the  supply  until 
those  being  "  forwarded  "  are  ready.  The  last  lot  do  better  if 
turned  out  of  the  pots  and  planted  directly  in  the  soil,  other- 
wise the  treatment  is  the  same  in  each  case. 

Varieties : — The  following  is  a  selection  of  a  few  varieties, 
all  good  and  worthy  of  the  market  growers'  attention,  although 
the  list  is  by  no  means  exhaustive  of  the  best.  At  the  same 
time  it  must  be  remembered  that  some  Strawberries  succeed 
remarkably  well  in  one  situation  and  are  very  unsatisfactory 
in  another ;  therefore  any  variety  which  has  not  been  proved 
to  succeed  in  a  district  should  not  be  planted  largely  until  it 
has  first  been  tested  on  a  small  scale. 

Early  :— 

ROYAL  SOVEREIGN. — Fruit  very  large  and  firm,  with  a  pleasant  flavour; 

heavy  cropper ;  vigorous  grower,  succeeding  almost  anywhere ;  one  of 

the  best  for  forcing  ;  in  great  favour  with  growers  for  market ;  where  only 

one  variety  is  grown  this  should  be  chosen. 
THE  LAXTON. — This  variety  has  all  the  good  points  of  Royal  Sovereign 

except  that  it  does  not  force  well. 
NOBLE. — Fruit  very  large  and  handsome  but  of  rather  poor  flavour ;  very 

prolific ;  vigorous  grower,  succeeding  in  most  places. 
VISCOUNTESS  HERICART  DE  THURY  (Garibaldi). — Fruit  medium  size,  firm, 

and  of  excellent  flavour ;  enormous  cropper ;  robust  grower ;  forces  well  ; 

one  of  the  best  in  any  position  and  succeeds  well  under  trees. 

Mid-season : — 

SIR  JOSEPH  PAXTON. — Fruit  large,  handsome,  firm,  and  of  good  flavour ; 

heavy  cropper  ;  vigorous  grower ;  forces  fairly  well  ;  a  favourite  variety 

with  market  growers. 


Strawberries.  335 

PRESIDENT. — Fruit  large,  handsome,  and  of  superior  flavour ;  carries  well ; 

heavy  cropper ;  robust  grower ;  good  for  forcing  and  one  of  the  best  for 

main-crop. 
FILLBASKET, — Fruit  fair  size  and  of  excellent  flavour ;  very  heavy  cropper  ; 

requires  good  culture. 
BEDFORD  CHAMPION. — Very  large  fruit  of  good  flavour  ;  vigorous  grower ; 

forces  well;  needs  good  culture. 
LAXTON'S  REWARD. — Fruit  large,  firm,  and  of  excellent  flavour;  heavy 

cropper,  vigorous  grower. 
DR.  HOGG. — Fruit  moderate  in  size,  firm,  handsome,  and  of  exceptionally 

fine  flavour ;  fair  cropper ;  compact  grower ;  needs  good  culture ;  should 

not  be  kept  over  two  years. 

Late : — 

NEWTON  SEEDLING. — Fruit  of  medium  size,  firm,  good  colour  and  fair 

quality ;  very  prolific  bearer ;  exceptionally  vigorous  in  growth. 
GIVON'S  LATE  PROLIFIC. — Fruits  very  large,  firm,  handsome,  and  of  good 

flavour ;  heavy  bearer,  vigorous  grower. 
WATERLOO. — Fruit  very  large,  firm,  of  dark  colour  and  moderate  flavour  ; 

fair  cropper ;  not  very  strong  in  growth. 
LAXTON'S  LATEST. — Fruit  very  large,  firm,  handsome,  and  of  excellent 

flavour ;  fair  cropper ;  robust  grower. 

All  the  late  varieties  should  be  watered  while  the  fruit  is  swelling. 

Manures : — Well-decayed  farmyard  manure  is  undoubtedly 
the  best  manure  that  can  be  used  for  Strawberries,  as  it  not 
only  provides  the  necessary  food  for  the  plant  but  gives  to 
the  soil  a  greater  moisture-retaining  power,  which  is  a  very 
important  feature  in  this  culture.  At  the  same  time  it  would 
be  a  mistake  to  give  heavy  dressings  to  a  soil  already  rich 
with  manure;  if  it  is  in  high  condition  the  plants  may  go  in 
without  any  further  manure,  but  if  not,  apply  from  20  to  40 
loads  to  the  acre,  the  heavier  dressing  being  for  the  lighter 
soils,  and  in  addition,  1  to  2  cwt.  superphosphate  (or  2  to  3  cwt. 
basic  slag),  and  3  to  5  cwt.  kainitt.  On  soils  well  manured  for 
the  preceding  crop  the  larger  quantities  of  concentrated  fer- 
tilizers alone  will  suffice.  When  growth  begins  in  spring,  for 
each  acre  mix  2  cwt.  superphosphates  with  1  cwt.  sulphate  of 
potash,  and  sprinkle  this  along  the  sides  of  the  rows,  followed 
a  week  or  two  later  by  a  light  dusting  over  the  foliage  of  lime 
and  soot.  If  growth  is  backward  give  \  cwt.  nitrate  of  soda. 
Where  very  large  fruit  is  desired,  after  the  blossom  has  fallen 
ring  the  plants  with  good  guano  and  water  in  several  times,  or 
give  liquid  manure  between  the  rows. 


336 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


TOMATOES. 

Lycopersicum  esculentum. 

WITHIN  a  comparatively  few  years  the  consumption  of 
the  Tomato  has  grown  enormously.  Well  within  living 
memory  the  "love-apple"  was  regarded  by  the  multitude  with 
a  mild  curiosity  on  the  rare  occasions  it  was  exposed  to  view 
in  the  windows  of  a  few  large  shops,  and  the  only  purpose  it 
served  was  that  of  a  tit-bit  for  epicures.  Now  it  has  become 

such  a  popular  article 
of  consumption,  with 
rich  and  poor  alike, 
that  the  crop  forms 
the  main-stay  of  the 
huge  glasshouse  in- 
dustry in  Britain  and 
the  Channel  Islands 
which  has  sprung 
into  existence  co- 
incidently  with  the 
rise  of  the  Tomato 
into  public  favour. 
Under  the  circum- 
stances no  grower 
doing  a  direct  trade 
can  afford  to  ignore 
the  steady  and  per- 
sistent demand  for 
Tomatoes  which  pre- 
The  Tomato.  vails  throughout  the 

summer  season.     Of 

course,  the  matter  of  supply  is  simple  enough  where  the  grower 
has  glasshouses  for  the  accommodation  of  the  crop,  but  that 
method  of  culture  is  outside  the  scope  of  this  work,  which  only 
deals  with  the  Tomato  so  far  as  its  growth  in  the  open-air  is 
concerned.  Thousands  of  tons  are  so  grown  in  the  southern 
and  midland  counties  every  year,  and  there  is  no  good  reason 
why.  the  culture  should  not  be  extended  much  further  north, 


Tomatoes.  337 

providing  the  hottest  part  of  the  summer  is  utilized  more  for 
ripening  the  fruit  and  less  for  growing  the  plant. 

Tomato  plants  in  the  open-air,  when  well  grown  and  properly 
managed,  bear  far  heavier  crops  for  the  time  they  occupy  the 
ground  than  they  do  under  glass.  The  growth  is  sturdier, 
healthier,  and  shorter-jointed;  the  bunches  of  flowers  are 
closer  together,  and  owing  to  the  better  natural  conditions 
almost  every  flower  gets  fertilized  and  produces  a  fruit ;  the 
individual  fruits  are  larger  and  more  solid  and,  providing  they 
are  ripened  on  the  plant,  they  are  of  better  flavour,  although 
there  is  the  slight  drawback  of  the  skin  being  somewhat  tougher 
through  exposure.  Whether  they  begin  to  bear  early  or  late 
they  continue  cropping  in  profusion  until  their  abundance  is 
brought  to  a  sudden  end  by  the  autumn  frosts. 

But  at  the  same  time  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  Tomato 
is  a  sub-tropical  plant,  arid  needs,  for  its  healthy  growth  a 
moderately  high  temperature,  a  dry  atmosphere,  abundance  of 
air,  and  full  exposure  to  sunlight.  The  climate  of  Great 
Britain,  from  its  humidity,  changeableness,  and  frequent  lack 
of  sunshine  is  a  very  unreliable  one  for  this  crop ;  under  the 
best  circumstances  very  little  more  than  four  months  is  the 
whole  extent  of  the  season  when  it  can  be  grown  in  the  open-air, 
and  this  limited  period  is  frequently  shortened  by  cold  cutting 
winds  at  the  beginning  and  rain  or  mists,  which  encourage 
disease,  at  the  end. 

Under  such  conditions  Tomato  growing  in  the  open-air  is 
undoubtedly  a  speculative  business.  In  a  warm  dry  season  it 
yields  good  profits,  even  though  the  ripe  fruit  has  to  be  put  on 
markets  more  or  less  glutted,  when  prices  rule  extremely  low, 
but  if  the  summer  is  cold  or  the  autumn  should  prove  to  be 
wet  the  chances  of  profit  are  small  indeed.  And  yet  a  little 
consideration  should  make  it  clear  that  the  element  of  uncer- 
tainty may  be  considerably  reduced,  although  not  eliminated. 
The  grower's  efforts  are  naturally  concentrated  upon  securing 
the  utmost  return  for  his  expenditure  of  capital  and  labour, 
but  he  makes  a  mistake  by  supposing  that  this  object  is  best 
attained  by  setting  out  the  largest  possible  number  of  plants 
his  limited  conveniences  will  allow  him  to  raise  and  find 
accommodation  for.  As  a  result  of  this  proceeding  the  plants 

22 


338  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

are  necessarily  small  and  frequently  drawn ;  they  are  planted 
out  in  cold  soil  from  which  the  frost  has  but  lately  departed, 
and  in  which  the  roots  cannot  work  until  the  temperature  rises 
by  several  degrees.  Thus  they  get  a  severe  check,  and  no 
appreciable  growth  is  made  for  several  weeks,  the  best  part  of 
the  summer  being  past  before  the  plant  has  ripened  any  fruit. 
A  better  method,  and  one  calculated  to  bring  a  much  greater 
return  for  the  outlay  is  to  raise  fewer  plants,  to  grow  them 
under  cool  and  airy  conditions  with  ample  space  for  develop- 
ment and  sturdy  growth,  and  to  harden  them  thoroughly 
before  they  are  planted  out.  This  should  not  take  place  until 
the  soil  is  warm  and  the  weather  settled,  so  that  the  plants 
will  feel  no  check  but  will  begin  at  once  to  grow  away  and  to 
form  fruit.  By  following  this  course  picking  would  begin  much 
earlier  and  the  fruiting  season  would  be  lengthened  by  several 
weeks,  thus  practically  doubling  the  crop  besides  ensuring 
higher  average  prices.  The  grower  who  gives  his  plants  proper 
attention  may  thus  reasonably  expect  to  receive  a  greater 
return,  and  with  more  certainty,  from  half  an  acre  of  plants 
than  from  one  acre  handled  in  the  usual  way. 

The  Soil  and  its  Preparation. — The  Tomato  is  not  at  all 
particular  as  to  soil.  The  writer  has  seen  plantations  bearing 
excellent  crops  on  soil  which  appeared  to  be  almost  pure  sand, 
and  on  the  other  hand  has  seen  acres  of  plants  literally  weighed 
down  with  fruit  growing  on  heavy  clay  land.  What  is  most 
needed  in  the  soil,  apart  from  manurial  applications,  is  thorough 
working  to  a  good  depth,  compactness,  and  perfect  drainage. 
Stagnant  water  about  the  roots  of  a  Tomato  plant  is  fatal ;  the 
roots  decay  and  the  plant  speedily  collapses. 

On  light  or  medium  soils,  cropped  intensively  and  manured 
and  cultivated  accordingly,  the  Tomato  may  follow  any  crop 
which  is  cleared  away  soon  enough  to  allow  the  soil  to  be  dug 
over  before  the  plants  are  set  out.  The  digging  should  be 
followed  immediately  by  levelling  and  rolling.  The  preceding 
crop  will  probably  have  drawn  heavily  upon  and  considerably 
reduced  the  soil  moisture,  and  it  will  therefore  be  imperative 
in  such  a  case  to  give  frequent  copious  waterings  as  soon  as 
the  weather  gets  hot,  and  to  check  evaporation  from  the  soil 
by  surface  stirrings  or  mulches. 


Tomatoes.  339 

Heavy  soils,  or  any  subjected  to  ordinary  cultivation,  should 
be  prepared  by  deep  working  during  the  autumn  or  winter, 
so  that  the  particles  will  become  settled  and  compact  before 
planting  time,  when  a  shallow  cultivation  of  the  surface  is  all 
the  further  working  necessary  before  the  plants  are  set  out. 
On  very  heavy  soils,  or  any  with  unsatisfactory  drainage,  ex- 
cellent results  can  be  obtained  by  laying  the  soil  in  ridges,  2ft. 
Gin.  apart,  at  the  approach  of  winter,  putting  a  little  well-decayed 
manure  in  the  furrows  during  a  spell  of  frost,  and  splitting  the 
ridges  over  this  not  later  than  February.  About  the  middle  of 
May  the  ridges  are  rounded  by  drawing  a  light  harrow  or  rake 
along  them,  and  the  plants  are  set  out  down  the  middle  of  each 
mound,  or  rounded  bed.  This  method  ensures  the  soil  about 
the  roots  lying  warmer  and  drier  in  any  weather,  and  at  the 
same  time  provides  ample  moisture  when  the  season  is  dry. 
Although  the  Tomato  plant  does  not  send  its  roots  deeply  into 
the  soil  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  therefore  shallow  pre- 
paration is  sufficient.  It  is  not.  The  plant  revels  in  hot  bright 
sunshine,  and  on  soil  that  is  deeply  worked  it  appears  to  flourish 
the  more  the  hotter  and  drier  the  weather  is,  because  moisture 
is  continually  rising  and  feeding  it,  but  under  such  conditions 
on  soil  that  has  only  received  a  shallow  working  it  would  wilt 
from  lack  of  moisture  and  growth  would  be  almost  stationary. 

This  is  the  principal  reason  for  the  early  preparation  of  soils; 
they  then  become  friable  and  kindly  by  the  dessicating  influence 
of  the  weather,  the  particles  settle  into  a  compact  but  not  solid 
mass,  and  the  whole  gets  saturated  with  aerated  moisture,  a 
large  quantity  of  which  is  held  in  suspension  as  a  film  sur- 
rounding each  particle ;  this  moisture  rises  to  the  surface  during 
the  summer  by  capillarity,  and  so  affords  a  continuous  supply 
to  the  plant.  On  the  other  hand,  when  soil  is  prepared  late  in 
the  spring,  unless  it  is  in  mellow  condition  by  constant  working 
and  the  frequent  addition  of  humus,  it  forms  into  hard  clods 
which  can  seldom  be  brought  to  a  good  tilth ;  when  undisturbed 
through  the  winter  it  lies  more  solidly  and  so  contains  less 
moisture,  and  what  it  does  contain  escapes  more  freely  by 
evaporation,  so  that  late-worked  cloddy  soil  soon  dries  out,  or 
in  the  expressive  phrase  of  the  countryman,  it  "lets  in  the 
drought." 


340  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Raising  the  Plants. — Before  the  time  for  sowing  arrives 
consideration  should  be  given  to  the  question  of  what  labour 
is  available  for  pricking  out  the  seedlings,  and  what  accommo- 
dation can  be  provided  for  the  protection  of  the  plants  in  their 
later  stages.  Where  only  a  small  area  is  to  be  planted  this 
matter  may  be  easily  disposed  of,  but  it  presents  more  difficulty 
where  the  planting  is  on  a  large  scale.  When  the  seedlings 
have  grown  to  the  proper  size  for  pricking  out,  that  operation 
should  be  attended  to  at  once  or,  as  they  are  then  growing 
rapidly,  they  are  liable  to  become  drawn  and  spoiled.  Where 
a  large  number  have  to  be  handled  it  is  a  good  plan  to  decide 
first  how  many  can  be  pricked  out  in  one  day  and  then  to  make 
a  daily  sowing  of  sufficient  seed  to  provide  for  that  number. 
For  instance,  suppose  the  area  to  be  planted  is  one  acre ;  with 
single-stemmed  plants  at  3ft.  by  18in.  apart  9,800  would  be 
required,  and  to  provide  for  these  there  should  be  at  least 
10,000  good  seedlings  transplanted.  If  seed  sufficient  for  2,000 
is  sown  each  day,  when  they  are  ready  for  handling  that  number 
can  be  pricked  out  daily  for  five  consecutive  days,  and  the  last 
batch  will  be  in  the  same  condition  as  the  first  was. 

There  is  no  better  way  of  raising  Tomato  plants  than  on  a 
mild  hot-bed.  This  should  be  made  about  the  end  of  Feb- 
ruary, 2ft.  deep,  of  fresh  stable  manure  which  has  been  well 
sweetened  by  turning  four  or  five  times  at  intervals  of  two  days. 
Seed  should  be  sown  in  the  middle  of  the  first  week  in  March, 
but  when  a  large  number  of  plants  have  to  be  raised,  sowing 
can  be  done  a  few  days  earlier  and  later.  The  bed  should  be 
covered  with  soil  Sin.  deep  and  the  seed  may  be  sown  either 
in  this  or  in  boxes,  but  boxes  are  preferable,  because  they  are 
convenient  for  carrying  to  the  place  where  pricking-out  is  done. 
The  strips  of  wood  forming  the  bottom  of  the  box  should  be 
nailed  on  iin.  apart  to  allow  of  drainage.  The  soil  for  seed 
sowing  should  be  of  a  light  sandy  nature ;  a  good  mixture  for 
the  purpose  is  one-third  each  of  sifted  loam,  leaf  mould  or 
cocoa-nut  fibre  (or  failing  either,  thoroughly  decayed  sifted  old 
hot-bed  manure),  and  sharp  sand  or  finely-sifted  furnace  ashes. 
In  filling  the  boxes  put  over  the  bottom  a  layer  of  the  lumps 
thrown  out  in  sifting,  then  fill  to  |in.  from  the  top  with  the  fine 
material.  Fill  the  boxes  a  week  previous  to  sowing,  then  soak, 


Tomatoes.  341 

each  with  boiling  water  and  leave  them  to  drain.  Sow  the 
seed  in  drills  Jin.  deep  and  lin.  apart,  dropping  it  in  thinly; 
then  cover,  and  press  down  the  top  of  the  soil  evenly. 
Put  the  boxes  in  the  frame  on  the  hot-bed;  they  should  be 
within  about  6in.  of  the  glass.  Cover  the  lights  with  mats; 
these  must  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  seed  begins  to  germinate 
but  must  be  replaced  each  night  afterwards.  If  the  seed  in 
the  boxes  near  the  outsides  of  the  bed  germinates  slowly,  or 
the  seedlings  are  slow  in  growth,  change  places  with  the  boxes 
near  the  middle  of  the  bed  so  that  all  may  come  along  evenly. 
As  soon  as  the  seedlings  can  be  handled  thin  out  to  fin.  apart 
in  the  rows,  leaving  the  strongest.  Give  a  little  air  on  mild 
days,  but  guard  against  cold  draughts.  When  required,  give 
tepid  water  through  a  fine  rose,  but  be  careful  in  this,  as  on  no 
account  must  the  soil  be  kept  in  an  over-wet  condition. 

-  When  the  young  plants  have  made  two  rough  leaves,  which 
will  be  about  the  end  of  March,  they  must  be  transplanted,  2in. 
apart,  into  other  boxes,  about  3in.  deep  and  of  any  convenient 
size.  The  soil  now  used  should  be  composed  of  one-half  fibrous 
loam,  one  quarter  sifted  old  hot-bed  manure,  and  one  quarter 
sharp  sand  or  sifted  ashes,  with  a  dash  of  air-slaked  lime  or 
powdered  limestone  (calcium  carbonate).  In  using  lime  care 
must  be  taken  that  it  does  not  retain  any  "  quick "  or  caustic 
properties,  or  the  roots  of  the  plants  may  be  seriously  damaged. 
The  compost  should  be  turned  two  or  three  times  to  get  it 
properly  mixed,  chopping  up  the  lumps  with  a  sharp  spade  at 
each  turning ;  it  should  then  be  passed  through  a  screen  with 
fin.  mesh.  In  filling  the  boxes,  first  put  a  layer  of  the  largest 
pieces  of  soil  over  the  bottom  to  promote  drainage,  then  fill  up 
with  the  finest.  ;  The  mass  of  soil  should  be  moist  throughout, 
so  that  no  watering  of  the  plants  will  be  necessary  until  the 
roots  have  begun  to  work.  Handle  the  young  plants  tenderly, 
inserting  them  in  the  soil  almost  up  to  the  seed  leaves ;  make 
them  quite  firm,  but  be  careful  not  to  bruise  the  stems  or  roots 
by  using  unnecessary  pressure. 

As  the  boxes  are  filled  they  must  be  placed  in  frames  on  a 
mild  hot-bed  about  1ft.  thick.  The  bed  should  extend  18in. 
beyond  the  frames,  with  the  manure  brought  to  the  top  edge 
of  the  frame-board  all  round  the  outsides  of  the  bed:  this  will 


342  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

prevent  the  plants  near  the  outsides  of  the  frames  from  being 
chilled,  and  the  gentle  warmth  of  the  bed  will  cause  the  roots 
to  begin  to  work  at  once.  Following  up  the  previous  calcula- 
tion for  plants  required  for  one  acre,  seven  shallow  three-light 
box  frames  (described  in  detail  on  pages  69  to  73)  will  be  needed 
to  accommodate  them,  with  about  18  or  20  tons  of  manure  for 
the  hot-bed.  Having  placed  the  frames  on  the  bed,  cover  the 
manure  inside  with  lin.  of  soil  and  set  the  boxes  on  this.  As 
the  frames  are  filled  shut  down  the  lights  and  shade  for  a  few 
days,  then  remove  the  shade  and  give  a  little  air,  gradually 
increasing  this  until  the  lights  are  entirely  removed  on  warm 
bright  days.  The  lights  must  be  closed  early  and  covered  with 
mats  each  night ;  this  precaution  should  be  strictly  observed, 
as  a  sudden  keen  frost  might  destroy  the  plants  when 
the  lights  are  left  uncovered.  In  watering  use  tepid  water, 
and  with  judgment;  the  soil  should  be  kept  moist  but  never 
sodden  with  wet — the  too-free  use  of  the  water-can  is  a  great 
cause  of  disease  amongst  young  tomato  plants. 

By  the  end  of  April  the  plants  will  be  strong  and  sturdy  and 
will  again  need  transplanting — this  time  to  4in.  apart  each  way. 
But  before  this  work  is  begun,  suitable  accommodation  for  the 
plants  should  be  provided.  They  still  need  efficient  protection 
from  frost,  but  bottom  heat  may  be  omitted.  The  illustration  on 
the  opposite  page  shows  how  the  plants  may  be  well  and  cheaply 
protected,  under  conditions  which  ensure  the  hard,  sturdy, 
short-jointed  growth  which  is  so  necessary  to  success.  Some 
expense  must,  of  course,  be  incurred,  but  the  cost  (£6  Is.  3d.  per 
9,700  plants)  is  very  small  in  comparison  with  the  space  covered, 
and  the  appliances  will  last  for  a  number  of  years ;  moreover, 
they  can  be  used  for  many  other  purposes,  such,  for  instance, 
as  protecting  early  lettuces  and  radishes,  and  still  be  at  liberty 
for  protecting  the  Tomato  plants  by  the  end  of  April. 

The  method  employed  is  similar  to  that  of  the  cheaply  con- 
structed cold  frames  described  and  illustrated  on  pages  131 
to  133,  but  with  modifications;  instead  of  lights  and  mats  for 
covering,  ordinary  wooden  hurdles  such  as  are  used  by  farmers 
for  penning  sheep  are  used,  thatched  with  straw,  and  these 
are  laid  on  only  at  night,  being  removed  entirely  during  the 
daytime.  "  The  frames  are  12in.  high  in  front,  18in.  high  at  the 


Tomatoes. 


343 


I 


344  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

back,  6ft.  wide,  and  60ft.  long,  three  of  them  providing  space 
for  the  plants  needed  for  one  acre. 

The  timber  used  in  the  construction  is  6in.  by  lin.  unplaned 
yellow  pine  boards,  in  12ft.  lengths.  Two  boards  for  the  front 
and  three  for  the  back  are  held  together,  one  above  another, 
with  cross-pieces  of  3m.  by  fin.  lath,  nailed  on.  The  60ft.  frame 
is  thus  constructed  in  five  12ft.  sections.  The  back  and  front 
boards  are  stood  on  edge  and  held  in  position  at  the  foot  by 
pegs  driven  into  the  ground  at  suitable  intervals,  and  at  the 
top  by  Sin.  by  lin.  battens,  nailed  across  from  back  to  front  at 
intervals  of  6ft.  The  end  boards  each  take  2i  pieces  6in.  by  lin. 
6ft.  long,  the  top  board  being  sawn  diagonally  from  corner  to 
corner  throughout  its  whole  length,  thus  forming  the  necessary 
slope  from  back  to  front.  The  hurdles  for  covering  are  6ft.  6in. 
long  by  3ft.  high,  and  each  has  four  horns,  two  at  top  and  two 
at  bottom,  projecting  about  6in.  Straw,  about  2in.  thick,  is  laid 
across  the  hurdle  to  the  extremity  of  the  horns,  so  covering  a 
depth  of  4ft.,  and  this  is  held  in  place  by  three  sticks  laid  across 
the  straw,  lengthways  of  the  hurdle,  and  secured  by  nails. 

Two  hurdles  cover  one  6ft.  section  of  the  frame,  the  lower  one 
being  laid  on  first ;  the  bottom  edge  of  the  upper  hurdle  over- 
laps on  the  lower  one,  thus  forming  a  roof  which  is  impervious 
to  any  ordinary  rain  or  frost.  One  end  of  each  hurdle  rests  on 
the  batten  which  crosses  from  back  to  front  of  the  frame  and 
the  other  end  overlaps  on  the  preceding  hurdle.  A  space  of 
3ft.  is  left  between  the  frames.  When  the  hurdles  are  taken 
off  each  morning  they  are  leaned  against  the  back  of  the  frame 
in  such  a  way  as  not  to  project  above  it  and  so  keep  direct 
sunlight  from  a  portion  of  the  frame  behind ;  or  they  may  be 
utilised  during  the  daytime  as  a  fence  round  the  frames  to 
shield  the  plants  from  cold  wind. 

The  approximate  cost  of  the  materials  (delivered  within  a 
reasonable  distance)  required  for  completing  these  three  60ft. 
frames  is  as  follows : — 

83  boards,  12ft.  long,  6in.  by  lin.,  at  6/3  per  100ft.  run    ...  £3    2    6 

27  battens,  6ft.  3in.  long,  3in.  by  lin 060 

150ft.  3in.  by  fin.,  3/9 ;  72  pegs,  (say)  5/- ;  nails,  (say)  2/-  ...     0  10    9 
30  hurdles  at  I/-,  £l  10/- ;  half  load  straw,  12/-      220 

£6     1     3 


Tomatoes.  345 

Some  growers  prefer  two  stems  to  their  open-air  Tomato 
plants,  in  which  case  one-third  less  plants  and  one-third  less 
protective  appliances  would  be  needed  for  a  given  area.  When 
this  method  is  to  be  followed  the  top  of  each  plant  should  be 
pinched  out  during  transplanting,  to  cause  two  stems  to  break 
away.  If  more  than  two  branches  show  they  should  be  re- 
moved as  soon  as  seen,  as  also  should  any  side  branches  on 
either  double  or  single-stemmed  plants,  so  as  to  concentrate  all 
the  strength  of  the  plant  in  the  main  stems. 

Having  made  the  necessary  provision  for  protection,  the 
plants  are  lifted  very  carefully,  with  as  much  root  and  soil  as 
possible,  and  set  out,  very  firmly,  4in.  apart,  in  other  boxes, 
which  are  at  once  placed  in  the  frames.  The  soil  should  be 
similar  to  that  used  before,  except  that  the  sand  and  decayed 
manure  should  be  only  one-eighth  each  of  the  whole  instead  of 
one-quarter.  It  does  not  need  sifting,  but  should  be  well  mixed 
and  chopped  over  until  there  are  no  pieces  larger  than  a  small 
walnut.  It  should  be  in  a  moist  condition,  so  that  no  watering 
will  be  needed  for  several  days  after  transplanting — until  the 
roots  begin  to  work.  Then  water  must  be  given  cautiously, 
remembering  that  to  keep  the  soil  in  a  sodden  state  is  sure  to 
make  the  roots  rot  and  so  cause  serious  mischief,  although,  on 
the  other  hand,  copious  supplies  must  be  given  when  the  plants 
are  growing  freely,  as  then  the  boxes  dry  out  quickly,  especially 
under  a  hot  sun. 

Planting  Out. — By  the  end  of  May  the  plants  are  fine  sturdy 
specimens,  thick-set  and  hard,  about  7in.  or  Sin.  high ;  in  fact, 
just  in  the  condition  in  which  Tomato  plants  for  the  open-air 
ought  to  be.  There  should  be  no  hurry  about  planting  out ;  if 
the  weather  is  warm  and  appears  settled  at  the  beginning  of 
June  the  work  may  then  be  begun,  but  it  is  best  to  defer  it  for 
a  week,  or  even  a  fortnight,  rather  than  plant  out  when  the 
ground  is  cold  and  the  wind  harsh  and  biting.  The  soil  in  the 
boxes  will  by  this  time  be  filled  with  roots.  The  day  before 
planting,  cut  the  soil  into  square  blocks  by  passing  a  sharp 
knife  both  ways  between  the  plants  to  the  bottom  of  the  box ; 
then  water  thoroughly.  Each  plant  will  now  lift  out  with  its 
roots  practically '  intact  and  carrying  a  mass  of  soil ;  it  can 
therefore  be  planted  out  without  getting  any  appreciable  check; 


346  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

no  more  than  if  it  had  been  grown  in  a  pot,  whilst  it  is  raised  with 
more  certainty  and  much  less  trouble.  Before  planting,  care 
must  be  taken  that  the  soil  about  the  roots  is  moist  throughout ; 
if  dry  it  would  remain  so  for  a  long  time  afterwards,  and  as  a 
consequence  growth  would  be  very  slow  and  uncertain.  The 
plants  could,  of  course,  be  watered  immediately  after  they  are 
set  out,  but  that  would  not  moisten  the  ball  of  soil  about 
the  roots  so  effectually  as  when  done  beforehand,  and  in  any 
case  watering  directly  after  transplanting  ought  always  to  be 
avoided  when  possible,  as  the  roots  begin  to  work  more  quickly 
in  the  new  soil  if  the  ball  of  soil  round  the  roots  is  moist  and 
no  further  water  is  given  until  growth  is  perceived.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  set  the  plants  too  deeply  in  the  ground. 
A  hole  should  be  made  just  deep  enough  to  allow  the  mass  of 
soil  and  roots  to  be  covered  with  iin.  of  new  soil,  and  then 
each  plant  should  be  trodden  in  very  firmly.  Plants  raised 
and  set  out  in  the  manner  described  will  begin  to  grow  and 
bloom  right  away,  and  every  bloom  will  carry  abundance  of 
pollen,  so  that  there  will  be  no  doubt  about  the  fruit  setting, 
huge  trusses  being  formed  within  a  few  inches  of  the  ground 
in  the  time  softer  plants  are  taking  to  get  established. 

When  the  growth  is  to  be  confined  to  a  single  stem,  the 
plants  should  be  set  from  15in.  to  18in.  apart  in  the  row;  with 
two  stems,  the  distance  between  the  plants  should  be  from  2ft. 
to  2ft.  6in.  On  strong  or  rich  soil  the  greater  distance  is  the 
best,  as  there  "is  more  lost  than  gained  by  too  close  planting. 
The  rows  should  run  north  and  south,  at  an  average  distance 
of  3ft.  apart,  though  this  can  be  varied  by  arranging  them  at 
2ft.  Gin.  and  3ft.  Gin.  alternately,  the  wider  spaces  being  more 
convenient  for  working  amongst  the  plants  and  carrying  baskets 
of  fruit. 

Supporting  the  Plants. — Some  kind  of  support  must  be  given 
to  the  plants  to  keep  them  from  sprawling  on  the  ground,  and 
whatever  shape  this  takes  it  should  be  in  place  before  planting 
out  is  begun.  Where  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  procure  sufficient 
stout  stakes,  4ft.  to  5ft.  long,  nothing  better  is  needed,  and  these 
should  be  fixed  firmly  in  the  ground,  1ft.  deep,  at  the  required 
distance  apart ;  at  the  same  time  it  is  a  wise  precaution  to  run 
a  wire  along  each  row,  a  few  inches  below  the  tops  of  the 


Tomatoes.  347 

stakes,  to  which  they  should  be  securely  tied ;  otherwise,  when 
the  plants  get  heavily  laden  with  fruit,  after  a  high  wind  many 
will  be  found  blown  to  the  ground,  and  few  left  standing 
upright.  Bamboo  canes  are  sometimes  used  instead  of  stakes 
but  are  not  very  satisfactory,  being  so  smooth  that  the  ties 
are  gradually  pulled  downward  by  the  weight  of  the  fruit. 
A  single  wire,  about  18in.  above  the  ground,  is  an  efficient  and 
cheap  substitute  for  stakes;  the  wire  is  attached  to  a  stout 
stake  at  each  end  of  the  row,  drawn  tight,  and  supported  on 
short  stakes  every  10ft.  or  12ft.  The  plant  is  allowed  to  grow 
about  2ft.  long  without  support,  and  is  then  drawn  up  and 
hung  over  the  wire,  one  slack  tie  of  stout  raffia  being  usually 
sufficient  for  the  whole  season.  The  drawback  to  this  method 
is  that  the  fruit  and  foliage  hang  together  in  a  dense  mass 
through  which  the  rays  of  the  sun  cannot  penetrate  or  the  wind 
blow,  and  in  wet  times  damp  is  thus  held  about  the  plants  and 
makes  them  more  susceptible  to  disease.  A  better  plan,  and 
one  which  appears  to  fulfil  every  requirement,  is  to  strain  three 
wires  to  each  row,  beginning  at  1ft.  above  the  ground,  with 
1ft.  spaces  between;  the  wires  should  be  attached  by  staples 
to  stout  stakes  fixed  firmly  in  the  ground  at  intervals  of  12ft. 
The  best  wire  for  the  purpose  is  15's  gauge,  galvanized,  costing 
about  18s.  per  cwt.  delivered  (retail  price).  Each  cwt.  contains 
about  1,900  yards,  and  2f  cwts.  are  needed  to  run  a  single  strand 
in  rows  a  yard  apart  over  one  acre,  or  8  cwt.  for  three  strands. 
Training  and  Culture. — As  soon  as  planting  is  finished,  the 
soil  should  be  lightly  hoed  over  so  as  to  provide  a  loose  surface, 
and  this  condition  of  the  soil  should  be  maintained  throughout 
the  season.  When  planted  on  ridges  or  raised  beds,  which  on 
heavy  soil  is  always  advisable,  care  should  be  taken  to  provide 
means  for  the  rain-water  to  pass  away  readily,  as  an  excessive 
amount  of  moisture  standing  about  the  roots  for  any  length  of 
time  is  always  harmful.  As  soon  as  the  plants  begin  to  grow 
freely  they  must  be  systematically  relieved  of  side  shoots; 
these  grow  at  a  great  pace,  and  their  removal  whilst  still  small 
must  on  no  account  be  neglected.  To  allow  these  shoots  to 
remain  on  the  plant  until  they  are  a  foot  or  more  in  length  is 
a  foolish  proceeding,  and  one  of  the  most  certain  means  of 
preventing  an  early  or  profitable  crop  in  otherwise  favourable 


348  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

circumstances.  The  plants  should  be  gone  over  very  frequently 
so  that  they  may  be  rigidly  confined  to  the  one  or  two  main 
branches  they  were  originally  started  with;  by  doing  so  the 
strength  of  the  plant  is  concentrated  on  making,  swelling  and 
maturing  fruit,  instead  of  being  dissipated  and  wasted  in 
making  growth  which  is  ultimately  cut  out  and  thrown  on  the 
ground.  Not  only  that,  but  plants  which  are  thinly  disposed 
so  that  the  wind  can  blow  freely  through  the  foliage  and  the  sun 
shine  on  every  part,  dry  quickly  even  after  the  heaviest  rain, 
and  make  a  firmer  and  healthier  growth,  so  that  they  are  in 
the  best  condition  to  resist  attacks  of  disease. 

Tying  must  be  regularly  attended  to.  When  each  plant 
has  a  separate  stake  the  first  tie  should  be  made  as  soon  as 
planting  is  completed  and  afterwards  for  every  6  or  8  inches  of 
growth.  Good  quality  raffia  is  the  most  suitable  material  to 
use  for  this  purpose.  In  tying  leave  space  for  the  stem  to  swell, 
which  it  does  very  rapidly,  but  do  not  make  the  tie  so  slack 
as  to  allow  the  plant  to  swing  about  in  every  wind.  When  the 
plants  are  supported  by  wires  the  stems  cannot,  of  course, 
be  tied  until  they  have  grown  long  enough  to  reach  from  one 
wire  to  the  next,  and  this  is  all  the  more  reason  for  not  allowing 
them  to  swing  free  for  an  unnecessary  length  of  time. 

Stopping. — In  the  first  week  of  August  the  plants  should  be 
"  stopped  "  (that  is,  the  main  stem  is  cut  off  and  no  further 
growth  permitted)  at  the  last  fully  developed  truss  of  flowers. 
In  a  cold  wet  autumn  the  last  trusses  will  even  then  probably 
fail  to  mature,  but  on  the  other  hand  in  a  warm  genial  autumn, 
or  "  Indian  summer,"  such  as  we  are  frequently  favoured  with, 
most  of  the  fruit  on  the  last  trusses  will  ripen  and  thus  make  a 
considerable  addition  to  the  total  crop.v  When  the  plants  are 
stopped  later  than  this  the  growth  is  made  at  the  expense  of  the 
weight  and  early  maturity  of  the  fruit  already  set.  After  the 
plants  are  stopped,  side  shoots  are  pushed  out  with  increased 
vigour ;  at  that  time  the  fruit  is  ripening  rapidly,  and  all  hands 
are  liable  to  be  engaged  in  gathering  and  packing,  so  that  the 
removal  of  these  late  shoots  is  apt  to  be  neglected,  but  this 
should  be  carefully  guarded  against,  or  the  plants  become  a 
thicket  of  shoots,  and  get  in  a  really  worse  condition  than  if 
they  had  never  been  stopped  at  all. 


Tomatoes.  349 

Thinning  the  Foliage. — That  an  abundance  of  healthy 
foliage  is  necessary  to  the  production  of  a  heavy  crop  of  fruit 
is  beyond  question ;  it  therefore  follows  that  to  remove  any  of 
the  leaves  cannot  of  itself  be  a  good  thing  to  do.  On  the  other 
hand,  for  reasons  already  given,  it  is  a  bad  thing  to  allow  the 
foliage  to  form  into  a  dense  mass  which  excludes  sunlight  and 
air ;  so  that  we  are  obliged  to  choose  between  the  alternatives 
of  setting  the  plants  wider  apart  or  reducing  the  foliage. 
Before  deciding,  since  the  ultimate  object  of  the  grower  is  to 
obtain  the  largest  possible  return  from  a  given  area,  it  is 
necessary  to  know  what  will  be  the  effect  of  either  course 
upon  the  crop.  Plants  which  are  given  plenty  of  space  and 
allowed  to  retain  the  whole  of. their  leaves  yield  heavy  crops, 
but  the  additional  weight  of  fruit  per  plant  does  not  amount 
to  the  loss  sustained  by  there  being  fewer  plants  in  bearing ; 
whilst  if  close  planting  is  carried  to  an  extreme  and  the  foliage 
severely  thinned  the  weight  per  plant  is  so  small  that  the  total 
crop  is  still  lighter  than  from  wide  planting.  The  conclusion, 
therefore,  is  that  the  best  all-round  results  are  obtained  when 
the  plants  are  set  as  closely  as  may  safely  be  done  without 
overcrowding,  followed  by  a  judicious  thinning  of  the  foliage, 
the  amount  removed  being  sufficient  to  admit  light  and  air 
without  materially  damaging  the  plants. 

For  many  years  past  the  following  method  has  met  with 
complete  success :  The  leaves  are  left  intact  until  the  first  bunch 
of  fruit  shows  signs  of  colouring,  then  all  from  the  bottom 
to  the  first  one  above  the  bunch  are  stripped  off ;  this  admits 
sunshine  to  the  fruit  and  so  hastens  its  ripening,  and  at  the 
same  time  permits  the  pickers  to  see  at  a  glance  what  fruit  is 
ready  for  removal.  As  the  higher  bunches  begin  to  colour  the 
leaves  are  shortened  to  half  their  length,  first  to  the  second 
bunch  and  then  to  the  third  and  so  on.  This  system  provides 
for  a  gradual  reduction  of  foliage,  always  of  the  oldest  and 
least  useful,  and  leaves  the  youngest  and  most  active  working 
leaves  near  the  top  of  the  plant  uninjured.  The  nature  of  the 
season  is  also  taken  into  consideration,  the  thinning  being  more 
moderately  done  in  hot  dry  weather,  and  rather  more  severely 
in  cold  wet  weather,  with  the  object  of  keeping  the  foliage  as 
dry  as  possible  and  hastening  ripening. 


350  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Spraying. — Most  vegetables  receive  treatment  for  disease 
only  when  the  occasion  demands  it,  but  Tomatoes  growing 
in  the  open-air  form  an  exception.  In  our  humid  and  change- 
able climate  they  are  particularly  liable  to  attack  from  fungoid 
diseases, — so  much  so  that  the  careful  cultivator  never  omits, 
as  an  insurance  against  serious  loss,  to  make  periodical 
spraying  with  fungicides  part  of  the  regular  routine  of  Tomato 
culture.  There  is  seldom  a  season  when  these  diseases  are 
quite  absent ;  such  a  fortunate  occurrence  sometimes  happens 
when  the  weather  is  warm  and  dry  throughout  most  of  the 
summer,  but  these  occasions  are  so  rare  that  they  may  be  left 
out  of  the  reckoning,  and  the  probability  of  attack  must  always 
be  taken  into  serious  account.  At  the  same  time,  as  has  been 
already  indicated,  much  can  be  done  towards  securing  condi- 
tions which  will  offer  no  encouragement  to  disease, — good 
drainage,  an  open  situation,  sturdy  cool-grown  plants,  with 
ample  space  for  sun  and  air  to  pass  freely  through  the  foliage — 
and  if  these  conditions  are  accompanied  by  systematic  spraying 
it  will  indeed  be  a  bad  season  when  the  grower  fails  to  obtain 
at  least  a  fair  crop.  Full  directions  regarding  fungicides  will 
be  found  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  Pests  and  Diseases. 

Gathering  the  Fruit. — The  general  temperature  and  the 
possibility  of  damage  by  birds  are  the  two  principal  factors  to 
be  taken  into  account  in  deciding  when  to  gather  the  fruit. 
Of  late  years  blackbirds,  and  in  a  lesser  degree  thrushes,  have 
become  a  perfect  pest  to  the  open-air  Tomato  grower,  as  indeed 
they  are  throughout  the  summer  to  all  growers  of  fruit. 
Where  these  birds  are  troublesome,  the  fruit  on  the  bottom 
bunches  should  be  gathered  and  carried  under  cover  to  finish 
as  soon  as  it  shows  the  first  faint  signs  of  colour.  Beyond  the 
point  where  they  can  peck  the  fruit  whilst  standing  on  the 
ground  the  birds  do  no  serious  damage,  and  it  should  then  be 
left  on  the  plant  until  ready  for  market.  Many  growers  con- 
tinue throughout  the  season  to  gather  the  fruit  half  green, 
to  be  finished  under  cover,  but  this  is  a  mistake  as  Tomatoes  are 
of  far  better  quality  and  appearance,  and  consequently  realise 
better  prices,  when  despatched  to  market  immediately  they  are 
taken  from  the  plant.  The  prevailing  temperature  and  the 
destination  of  the  fruit  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in 


Tomatoes.  351 

deciding  when  to  gather.  In  the  heat  of  the  summer  it  ripens 
very  quickly  after  it  is  packed,  and  if  left  on  the  plant  until 
fully  ripe  it  would  arrive  at  its  destination  too  soft,  and 
much  depreciated  in  value.  The  proper  degree  of  under 
ripeness  of  the  fruit  when  packed  therefore  calls  for  a  consider- 
able amount  of  judgment;  when  the  weather  is  very  warm, 
and  particularly  when  the  packages  are  likely  to  be  delayed 
before  being  exposed  for  sale,  the  colour  should  not  be  deeper 
than  pink ;  as  the  weather  gets  cooler  ripening  proceeds  more 
slowly,  and  therefore  the  colour  should  be  allowed  to  get  more 
and  more  advanced  before  packing,  the  object  being  to  ensure 
that  it  shall  be  firm,  well-coloured,  and  attractive  in  appearance 
when  offered  to  the  purchaser.  The  same  procedure  should  be 
followed  when  the  fruit  is  sent  direct  to  private  customers, 
except  that  it  should  be  allowed  to  arrive  at  a  stage  nearer 
ripeness  before  packing,  because  under  these  circumstances  it 
is  usually  wanted  for  immediate  use. 

About  the  end  of  September  the  fruits  still  hanging  may  be 
destroyed  by  sharp  frosts,  but  if  they  then  escape  they  will 
probably  be  safe  for  several  weeks  longer.  After  September  it 
is  useless  to  expect  them  to  ripen  well  in  the  open-air,  and  they 
should  then  be  gathered  green,  but  full-grown,  and  ripened 
under  cover.  At  this  period,  owing  to  the  cold,  dripping,  misty 
nights,  the  fruit  is  very  liable  to  be  affected  by  a  fungus  known 
as  botrytis  cinerea,  which  usually  finds  a  lodgment  at  the  point 
where  the  stem  and  the  fruit  join.  The  attack  of  this  fungus 
is  almost  imperceptible,  but  very  deadly.  Its  presence  is  usually 
first  indicated  by  green  fruit  parting  from  the  stem  and  falling 
to  the  ground,  although  sometimes  it  remains  hanging  with  a 
white  mould  showing  distinctly  at  the  base.  When  the  disease 
is  prevalent  it  is  almost  useless  to  gather  the  green  fruit,  as 
although  apparently  sound  when  taken  indoors  the  fungus  has 
usually  affected  the  greater  proportion,  and  decay  speedily  sets 
in,  so  that  the  quantity  of  sound  ripe  fruit  ultimately  obtained 
scarcely  pays  for  the  labour  involved.  This  disease  may  be 
kept  at  bay,  or  its  ravages  much  reduced,  by  following  the 
instructions  for  spraying  Tomatoes  in  the  chapter  dealing  with 
Pests  and  Diseases.  When  the  final  pickings  of  green  fruit 
are  comparatively  free  from  disease  they  add  very  materially 


352  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

to  the  total  returns  obtained  from  the  crop.  No  fruit  which  is 
not  fully-developed  (and  mere  size  is  no  criterion  of  this)  should 
be  taken  in-doors  for  ripening,  as  although  immature  ones  may  . 
colour  they  do  so  with  a  tough  shrivelled  skin  and  are  really 
useless.  The  green  fruit  may  be  ripened  in  the  dark,  in  boxes 
or  trays  or  on  benches,  in  a  temperature  of  about  50  degrees  : 
it  also  ripens  very  well  when  packed  in  sawdust  or  peat  dust. 

Extra  Early  Tomatoes  from  the  Open. — The  foregoing  in- 
structions are  all  concerned  with  the  main-crop,  but  where 
convenience  exists  for  protecting  earlier-sown  plants  so  that 
they  may  go  out  at  the  beginning  of  June  with  a  bunch  of  fruit 
already  set  and  swelling,  it  is  quite  possible  to  obtain  ripe 
Tomatoes  from  the  open-air  before  the  middle  of  July.  For 
this  purpose  seed  should  be  sown  about  the  middle  of  February, 
all  the  previous  instructions  being  carefully  followed  and  care 
being  taken  to  keep  the  plants  steadily  moving,  with  a  gentle 
bottom  heat  until  the  beginning  of  May.  Of  course  trans- 
planting must  be  done  earlier,  and  the  plants  must  go  at  least 
6in.  apart  when  transplanted  the  second  time. 

Strong  plants  may  also  be  set  out  early  in  May  with  a  little 
warm  manure  under  the  roots  and  protected  overhead  by 
cloches;  each  cloche  rests  on  three  sticks  standing  1ft.  or  so 
out  of  the  ground,  with  notches  on  the  inner  edge,  2in.  apart, 
like  the  teeth  of  a  saw.  As  the  plant  grows  the  cloche  is  raised 
on  the  notches,  and  is  removed  altogether  early  in  June. 

Varieties: — The  large  number  of  varieties  of  Tomatoes  is 
bewildering  to  the  grower  who  is  inexperienced  in  their  culture. 
Those  claimed  as  especially  suitable  for  open-air  culture  are 
certainly  fewer  in  number,  but  the  writer  having  experimented 
over  a  number  of  years  by  growing  most  of  the  better-known 
indoor  varieties  in  the  open-air,  under  both  favourable  and 
adverse  conditions,  has  invariably  found  that  the  so-called 
open-air  varieties  are  neither  earlier,  hardier,  nor  more  prolific 
than  most  of  the  indoor  sorts,  whilst  they  are  very  much 
inferior  in  shape  and  appearance.  Many  persons  appear  to 
think  and  act  as  though  open-air  Tomatoes  must  of  necessity 
be  a  rough  coarse  product,  and  this  notion  appears  to  in- 
fluence the  manner  of  placing  the  fruit  on  the  market  But  it 
is  all  a  great  mistake — Tomatoes  grown  in  the  open-air,  when 


Tomatoes.  353 

ripened,  graded,  and  packed  in  a  proper  manner  are  scarcely 
distinguishable  from  those  grown  in  glasshouses.  Appearance 
has  a  considerable  money  value,  good-looking  packages  invari- 
ably realizing  the  highest  prices,  and  the  production  of  hand- 
some fruit,  followed  by  grading  and  smart  packing  should  be 
the  object  of  every  grower. 

The  ideal  points  of  an  open-air  Tomato  are — (1)  Hardy  con- 
stitution; (2)  robust  short-jointed  growth;  (3)  earliness;  (4) 
prolific  bearing  ;  (5)  good-shaped,  smooth,  medium-sized  fruit; 
(5)  bright  scarlet  colour.  After  numerous  experiments  the 
writer  has  found  none  which  have  all  these  characteristics  in 
perfection,  those  most  nearly  approaching  the  ideal  being — 

Carter's  Sunrise  and  Holmes'  Supreme, 

whilst  amongst  other  varieties  which  have  given  satisfacion  the 
following  are  especially  worthy  of  notice — 

Lord  Roberts,  Princess  of  Wales, 

Up-to-Date,  Hillside  Comet, 

Sutton's  Satisfaction,  Lawrenson's  No.  3, 

Early  Ruby. 

But  whilst  any  of  the  varieties  in  this  selection  will,  under 
fair  conditions,  render  a  good  account  of  themselves,  Sunrise 
and  Supreme  have  outstanding  merit.  If  choice  had  to  be 
made  between  the  two,  it  would  be  unhesitatingly  given  in 
favour  of  Sunrise.  This  variety  answers 
to  the  description  of  the  ideal  open-air 
Tomato  given  above  except  on  one 
point — the  fruit  is  apt  to  come  rather 
small  unless  the  plants  are  plentifully 
supplied  with  food  and  moisture.  With 
good  culture  and  rich  soil  the  fruit  is 
perfect  in  every  particular.  The  ac- 
companying illustration  is  of  a  typical 
bunch  grown  in  the  open-air  in  the  cold 
summer  of  1910.  Every  fruit  on  the  _  Typical  Bunch  of 

Tj  t    Carter  s  Sunrise  Tomato, 

bunch  was   evenly   ripe.      It   was   not  . 

,  -      .^      .      ^,    '  Weight,  2lbs.  Ijoz. 

selected  for  its  size  (there  were  hundreds 

larger),  nor  for  any  other  special  features,  but  simply  that  it 
was  fairly  representative  of  the  whole  crop.  On  the  following 
page  is  an  illustration  of  Sunrise  growing  against  a  fence, 

23 


354 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


Tomatoes.  355 

facing  due  east — a  by  no  means  ideal  position.  Most  of  the 
fruit  had  been  gathered  from  the  bottom  bunches  before  the 
photograph  was  taken.  The  plants  were  well-fed  and  the  fruit 
came  of  good  marketable  size,  averaging  about  six  to  the  pound. 
Supreme  would  probably  prove  more  satisfactory  than  Sunrise 
on  light  soils  unless  the  plants  were  abundantly  supplied  with 
food  and  moisture. 

Manures : — Of  late  years  the  Tomato,  like  its  near  relative 
the  Pdtato,  has  show  an  increasing  susceptibility  to  attack 
from  fungoid  diseases,  and  crops  grown  in  the  open-air  are 
now  almost  as  liable  to  be  ravaged  by  the  potato  disease, 
phytophthora  infestans,  as  is  the  potato  crop  itself.  This 
tendency  has  naturally  engaged  the  attention  of  many  persons 
more  or  less  expert  in  Tomato  culture,  with  the  result  that 
some  have  condemned  the  use  of  farmyard  manure  in  the 
preparation  for  the  crop,  attributing  to  it  a  softening  of  the 
tissues  of  the  plant  which  renders  it  more  vulnerable  to  attack, 
and  have  advocated  the  use  of  artificial  fertilizers  alone,  to  the 
exclusion  of  natural  manures.  With  this  conclusion  we  cannot 
agree.  That  a  luxuriant,  sappy  growth  is  highly  objectionable 
there  is  not  the  slightest  doubt;  not  only  because  it  invites 
disease  but  also  because  it  is  unfruitful.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  farmyard  manure  produces  this  result  only  when 
it  is  lavishly  used  in  a  fresh  rank  condition,  or  when  the  soil  is 
very  loose,  and  that  the  same  soft  growth  is  just  as  readily 
brought  about  by  the  injudicious  use  of  concentrated  nitro- 
genous fertilizers;  thus  the  mischief  is  seen  to  lie  not  so  much 
in  the  material  used  as  in  the  method  of  its  application. 

From  the  experience  derived  from  a  large  number  of  practical 
experiments  in  manuring  for  the  Tomato  crop,  extending  over 
many  years,  the  writer  has  arrived  at  the  following  definite 
conclusions:  (1)  Heavy  crops  of  Tomatoes  cannot  be  obtained 
unless  the  plants  are  supplied  with  -'an  abundance  of  food ; 
(2)  potash  in  some  form  is  indispensable  to  both  weight  and 
quality  in  the  fruit ;  (3)  although  good  crops  may  be  obtained 
by  the  use  of  artificials  alone,  especially  when  the  soil  is  already 
in  "good  heart,"  the  best  crops  are  invariably  obtained  when 
these  are  used  to  supplement  a  moderate  dressing  of  farmyard 
manure ;  (5)  farmyard  manure  should  always  be  applied  in  a 


356  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

thoroughly  decayed  condition — never  fresh  and  rank ;  (6)  when 
the  plants  are  swelling  the  second  truss  of  fruit  they  are 
greatly  benefitted,  and  enabled  to  bear  a  heavier  crop,  by  one 
or  two  light  dressings  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  other  quick-acting 
nitrogenous  manure;  (7)  available  phosphates  are  .necessary  to 
early  ripening.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing,  that  a 
moderate  dressing  of  farmyard  manure  in  a  thoroughly  decayed 
condition  is  considered  necessary  to  a  first-class  crop ;  in  this 
connection  it  will  be  useful  to  glance  again  at  the  illustration 
on  page  354.  In  this  case  a  number  of  plants  of  Sunrise — which 
is  an  ideal  variety  in  every  way  except  that  the  fruit  runs  rather 
small — were  set  out  at  the  foot  of  a  fence  facing  east,  and  in  a 
shallow  trench  below  the  plants  old  hot-bed  manure  was  put, 
3m.  thick  and  Gin.  broad,  with  Gin.  soil  on  top ;  after  planting, 
a  little  sulphate  of  potash  was  sprinkled  along  the  row  and 
hoed  in,  then  the  soil  was  made  very  firm ;  about  the  beginning 
of  July,  after  a  good  soaking  with  water,  a  mulch  of  short 
manure,  3in.  thick,  was  spread  over  the  surface,  water  being 
^iven  several  times  afterwards.  The  object  of  the  experiment 
was  to  test  the  effect  on  the  size  and  quality  of  the  fruit  of  a 
liberal  quantity  of  well  decayed  manure  within  reach  of  the 
roots,  in  such  a  position  that  it  would  also  act  as  a  reservoir 
of  moisture.  The  crop  was  superb  both  in  weight  and  quality, 
whilst  the  size  of  the  individual  fruits  was  increased  over  the 
average  by  at  least  one-third ;  when  the  photograph  was  taken 
most  of  the  fruit  had  been  gathered  from  the  bottom  bunches. 
The  plants  were  sprayed  three  times  with  'Bordeaux  mixture. 
Although  the  summer  (19 10)  was  cold  and  wet  there  was  no  trace 
of  disease.  The  result  of  using  manure  was  very  favourable. 

In  a  general  way  a  suitable  manuring  would  be  the  following  : 
Well-decayed  manure,  at  the  rate  of  12  to  20  tons  per  acre 
according  to  fertility,  dug  or  ploughed  in  during  winter  or 
early  in  spring.  In  addition  to  the  manure,  on  heavy  soil  give 
6  cwt.  basic  slag  in  winter  and  li  cwt.  sulphate  of  potash  before 
planting ;  on  light  soil  give  4  cwt.  kainit  as  early  as  possible 
and  3  cwt.  superphosphates  before  planting.  In  either  case 
a  sprinkling  of  nitrate  of  soda  along  the  rows  early  in  July,  say 
1|  cwt.  per  acre  in  two  applications  with  a  fortnight  interval, 
will  increase  the  crop,  but  this  dressing  is  not  essential. 


Turnips. 


357 


TURNIPS. 

Brassica  Rapa. 

TURNIPS  as  a  market  garden  crop  are  practically  indispens- 
able ;  being  quick  in  growth  they  form  one  of  the  most 
useful  subjects  for  catch  crops,  and  in  one  way  or  another 
afford  supplies  all  the  year  round.  The  demand  is  general,  and 
although  the  returns  are  very  low  at  some  periods  they  are 
high  at  others,  so  that  on  the  average  the  crop  yields  a  very 
fair  margin  of  profit.  The  earliest  supplies  are  produced  on 
mild  hot-beds,  and  for  these  there  is  usually  a  steady  demand 

at  good,   and  sometimes  high, 
prices.     Immediately  following 
these   come  the  tender  young 
roots  from  sheltered  situations 
in  the  open  which  can  also  be 
depended  upon  to  sell  readily  at 
good  prices.     Then  follow  the 
ordinary    spring    and    summer 
crops,  grown  either  in  beds  by 
themselves  or  in  rows  between 
other  slower-moving  vegetables 
and  a  crop  is  thus  taken  from 
spaces  which  would  otherwise 
be  wasted;   these  supplies  sell 
well  at  the  beginning  but  usually 
meet  with  a  gradually  slacken- 
ing sale  as  the  summer  advances.     The  demand  revives  with 
the  advent  of  cold  weather  and   continues   fairly   steady   all 
through  the  winter,  the  round  of  the  year  being  finished  by 
the  production  of  turnip  tops  early  in  the  spring.     These  are 
sold  as  bag  greens,  and  as  they  come  at  a  time  when  green 
vegetables  are  scarce,  especially  if  the  winter  has  been  a  severe 
one,  they  are  often  welcome  and  sell  at  very  fair  prices. 

The  Soil. — The  best  Turnips  are  grown  on  a  friable  sandy 
loam,  but  with  good  culture  very  fair  samples  can  be  grown  on 
most  soils.  Where  it  is  possible  to  make  a  choice,  a  light  sandy 
soil  is  to  be  preferred  for  very  early  or  late  crops,  but  a  cool 


Copyright,  S.  &  S. 

Sutton's 
Early  Snowball  Turnip. 


35S 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables* 


retentive  staple  will  be  found  to  give  more  satisfactory  results 
in  warm  weather.  The  difficulty  which  arises  in  connection  with 
Turnip  growing  on  light  sandy  soils  in  summer  is  that  these  are 
liable  to  get  droughty,  and  as  a  consequence  the  seedlings  are 
often  destroyed  by  the  flea  beetle,  and  such  plants  as  pass  safely 
through  this  ordeal  may  run  to  seed  before  making  useful  roots. 
On  such  soils  success  may  be  assured  by  the  addition  of  plenty 
of  well-decomposed  manure,  which  has  the  effect  of  retaining 
moisture  and  pushing  the  growth  of  the  young  plants  quickly 
into  the  rough  leaf,  when  they  are  comparatively  safe  from 
the  flea  beetle. 

Early  Crops. — The  earliest  sowings  of  Turnips  are  made  on 
beds  of  warm  manure,  leaves,  or  other  fermenting  material, 
from  the  end  of  January  to  the  end  of  February.  A  bed  may  be 

made  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground  and  covered 
with  box  frames,  or  in 
brick  pits,  or  in  a  trench 
in  the  ground  and  pro- 
tected by  mats  or  litter. 
A  very  gentle  warmth 
at  the  roots  is  all  that  is 
necessary,  as  Turnips 
will  not  stand  hard 
forcing,  and  from  the 
time  the  seedlings  show 
until  the  roots  are  ready 
for  pulling  the  plants 
must  be  given  plenty  of 
air  and  daily  moderate 
waterings.  The  first 
method  is  the  one  fol- 
lowed in  French  gardens,  where  the  production  of  early  Turnips 
is  part  of  the  regular  routine.  In  this  case,  when  spare  frames 
are  available,  beds  15in.  thick  are  made  specially,  or  beds  which 
have  already  served  to  produce  a  crop  of  radishes  and  lettuces 
are  turned  over  and  re-made  about  the  end  of  February,  then 
trodden  down  well  and  covered  with  Sin.  of  light  rich  compost, 
which  is*  also  made  firm.  The  seed  may  be  sown  broadcast, 


Copyright,  V.A.&  Co. 

Half-long  White  Forcing  Turnip. 


Turnips.  359 

but  a  method  usually  preferred  is  to  make  holes  lin.  deep  and 
4|in.  apart  into  each  of  which  two  or  three  seeds  are  dropped 
and  the  holes  closed  up.  To  make  the  holes,  a  framework  of 
laths  is  constructed  of  a  size  which  will  fit  the  frame  easily 
in  the  space  occupied  by  one  light ;  the  laths  are  nailed  together 
in  a  kind  of  square  lattice-work,  about  4^in.  from  centre  to 
centre  at  the  places  where  they  cross,  and  at  each  of  these 
points  a  peg  is  fixed,  which  projects  lin.  By  laying  this  con- 
trivance on  the  soil  and  pressing  down,  all  the  holes  necessary 
under  one  light  are  made  at  one  operation.  When  the  seedlings 
appear,  all  but  one  at  each  place  are  removed.  When  the  seed 
is  sown  broadcast  the  seedlings  must  be  thinned  to  about  4in. 
apart  as  soon  as  they  can  be  handled. 

When  hot-beds  are  made  without  frames  the  soil  is  thrown 
out  Gin.  deep,  5ft.  wide,  and  of  any  length.     Hot  manure  is  then 
laid  in  and  well  trodden  down  until  it  is  a  uniform  depth  of  1ft., 
then  the  soil  which  was   thrown   out  is 
spread   over   the   manure   and   rolled   or 
trodden  down  firmly.     The  seed  is  then 
sown   thinly  in   drills,  Sin.  apart,  lightly 
covered,    rolled   or   trodden   in,   and   the 
whole  well  watered.     Hoops  made  from 
pliable  tree  branches  are  then  fixed  over 
the   bed,   on  which  mats  are  laid,  where 
they  remain  until  the  seed  has  germinated, 
after  which  they  are  removed  daily  and 
replaced  each  night.    As  soon  as  the  plants 
are  half  grown  the  mats  are  left  off  alto-  Copyrightt  V'A.  $  Co> 
gether  and  used  to  form  a  screen  round       Half-long  White 
the  bed  to  keep  off  cold  winds.  Jersey  Navet. 

Sometimes  the  only  protection  given  to 

the  hot-bed  is  a  light  covering  of  loose  litter,  which  is  scattered 
over  each  night  until  the  plants  are  established.  Good  and 
early  crops  are  taken  in  this  way,  although  a  week  or  two  later 
than  those  from  beds  which  have  been  protected. 

General  Culture. — Turnips  always  repay  good  cultivation, 
whether  early  or  late  in  the  season.  For  the  earliest  open-air 
crops  the  warmest  and  most  sheltered  spots  at  command 
should  be  selected.  In  the  early  part  of  March,  as  soon  as  the 


360  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

surface  of  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  bear  working  on,  it 
should  be  brought  to  a  fine  tilth.  The  seed  may  be  sown 
broadcast  or  in  drills,  covered  lightly  with  soil  and  pressed 
down  firmly.  If  the  soil  contains  sufficient  moisture,  germina- 
tion will  take  place  at  once.  Thinning  should  be  done  as  soon 
as  the  seedlings  are  large  enough  to  handle,  first  reducing  all 
thick  clusters  and  then  going  over  them  carefully  so  that  none 
stand  nearer  than  4in.  apart  all  over  the  bed.  This  allows 
enough  room  for  the  early  roots,  which  are  never  grown  large, 
the  aim  being  to  grow  them  quickly  and  market  them  as  soon 
as  three-parts  grown,  whilst  tender  and  of  good  flavour. 

For  succession,  sow- 
ings may  be  made  in 
more  open  situations, 
advantage  being  taken 
of  spaces  between  rows 
of  peas  and  other  veget- 
ables, from  which  catch- 
crops  of  a  fast-growing 
variety  of  Turnips  can 
be  taken  before  either 
crop  is  inconvenienced. 
These  later  sowings 
should  always  be  made 
in  drills  and  if  in  more 
than  single  rows  not  nearer  than  12in.  apart,  and  the  plants 
thinned  to  Gin.  apart  in  the  row.  A  sowing  in  May  should  be 
the  last  for  summer  supplies,  and  this  should  be  made,  when 
possible,  in  a  situation  sheltered  from  the  hot  mid-day  sun- 
not  that  the  Turnip  will  not  thrive  in  full  sunshine,  but  moisture 
is  imperative  if  good  roots  are  to  be  produced.  If  the  soil  gets 
dry,  and  is  allowed  to  remain  so,  many  of  the  plants  will  "bolt" 
without  bulbing,  and  such  roots  as  do  swell  will  be  hot  and 
stringy.  Where  there  is  a  large  breadth  the  idea  of  watering 
cannot  be  entertained,  and  the  crop  has  to  take  its  chance  until 
rain  comes,  but  on  small-sized  patches  the  crop  could  often  be 
made  secure  by  one  good  soaking  with  water.  At  all  times  the 
surface  soil  should  be  kept  loose  and  free  from  weeds ;  this 
assists  quick  growth  and  checks  evaporation  of  soil  moisture. 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co. 

Early  Six-weeks,  or  Jersey  Lily  Turnip. 


Turnips.  361 

Seed  is  sown  for  autumn  and  winter  crops  from  the  middle 
of  July  to  the  end  of  August  (usually  after  peas  and  early 
potatoes),  in  drills  18in.  apart,  the  plants  being  thinned  to  Gin. 
apart  in  the  rows ;  the  roots  intended  to  stand  in  the  ground 
through  the  winter  should  be  left  at  1ft.  apart,  each  alternate 
root  having  been  removed  by  a  first  pulling  in  the  late  autumn. 
When  "  tops "  are  required  in  the  spring  a  special  sowing  is 
made  early  in  September,  in  rows  2ft.  apart,  sowing  thinly 
and  leaving  the  plants  unthinned. 

Storing. — Storing  Turnips  is  not  very  generally  practised  in 
market  gardens  except  where  there  is  a  necessity  for  main- 
taining a  regular  supply.  Then  storing  is  a  useful  procedure, 
for  apart  from  the  possibility  of  damage  to  roots  in  the  open 
during  a  sharp  frost,  there  is  the  probability  of  the  ground 
sometimes  being  frozen  so  hard  that  they  cannot  be  lifted. 
When  storing  is  resorted  to,  the  tops  should  first  be  be  cut  off, 
leaving  |in.  of  the  neck,  but  the  tap  root  must  not  be  cut ;  then 
lay  the  roots  in  small  heaps  and  cover,  first  with  straw  and 
then  with  soil,  in  the  same  way  that  a  potato  clamp  is  covered. 

Manures : — In  growing  Turnips  care  should  be  taken  that 
lime  in  some  form  is  present  in  the  soil,  and  that  the  crop  is 
not  repeated  on  the  same  land  without  a  sufficient  interval, 
fresh  soil  not  only  producing  roots  of  a  better  flavour,  but 
also  reducing  the  possibility  of  trouble  from  pests  and  diseases. 
In  manuring,  the  aim  should  be  to  secure  quick  healthy  growth 
whilst  avoiding  coarseness.  Like  all  other  vegetables,  Turnips 
need  a  complete  plant  food — nitrogen,  phosphates,  and  potash — 
but  of  the  three  a  supplementary  supply  of  phosphates  is  the 
most  necessary  and  should  seldom  be  omitted  for  the  main-crop. 
Enough  nitrogen  is  usually  present  in  soil  which  is  kept  in  good 
condition  by  a  proper  rotation  of  manuring.  Very  early  crops 
in  the  garden  form  an  exception  to  this,  as  then  the  aim  is  to 
secure  partly-developed  roots  in  as  short  a  time  as  possible, 
and  to  this  end  the  soil  should  always  be  very  rich  with  well- 
decayed  manure.  Successional  supplies  grown  in  the  form  of 
catch-crops  will  receive  the  benefit  of  the  preparation  the  soil 
has  received  for  the  main-crops  amongst  which  they  are  grown, 
and  so  will  seldom  need  more  than  a  sprinkling  of  superphos- 
phates along  the  drills  previous  to  sowing  the  seed.  Main-crop 


362  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Turnips,  for  autumn  and  winter  supplies,  usually  follow  a 
crop  for  which  the  ground  has  been  well  prepared,  and  in 
such  a  case  excellent  results  would  be  obtained  by  applying 
3  cwt.  kainit  and  3  cwt.  superphosphates  (or  limphos  or  basic 
slag,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil).  Poor  soils  or  those 
of  a  very  sandy  nature  cannot  be  expected  to  yield  satisfactory 
crops  without  the  assistance  of  natural  manure,  and  this  should 
be  given  in  a  well-decayed  condition,  from  10  to  15  tons  per 
acre,  according  to  the  nature  and  condition  of  the  soil,  with  the 
addition  of  kainit  and  superphosphates  as  above,  distributed 
over  the  surface  and  well  harrowed  in  before  seeding. 

Varieties: — For  hot-beds,  cold  frames,  and  early  borders: 
(long)  Early  Long  White  Frame,  Jersey  Navet;  (flat)  Early 
Red  Milan,  Early  White  Milan  ;  (round)  Early  White  Strap-leaf. 
For  early  open  borders  and  catch-crops,  also  for  autumn 
pulling  :  Early  Snowball,  Early  White  Dutch,  Early  Six-weeks. 
For  summer :  Veitch's  Red  Globe.  For  "  tops  " :  Green  Globe. 


VEGETABLE  MARROWS. 

Cucurbita  Pepo  ovifera. 

ALTHOUGH  the  Marrow  crop  is  not  of  great  importance 
it  is  nevertheless  very  useful.  Large  quantities  are 
grown  for  market,  and  as  the  culture  is  simple  and  the  plant 
productive,  in  a  favourable  season  the  supply  often  overruns 
the  demand,  with  the  result  that  the  market  becomes  glutted 
and  prices  rule  extremely  low,  especially  after  the  middle  of 
the  summer.  In  the  early  part  of  the  summer,  however, 
supplies  are  limited,  prices  high,  and  the  demand  good.  An 
effort  should  therefore  be  made  to  get  them  on  the  market  as 
early  as  possible.  With  proper  care  the  plants  continue  to 
bear  until  the  middle  of  September;  in  some  few  cases,  where 
the  expenses  for  carriage  are  very  low,  it  may  pay  to  continue 
marketing  the  crop  as  late  as  this,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases 
it  is  a  better  plan  to  clear  the  ground  of  the  plants  in  August 
and  occupy  it  with  some  other  crop. 


Vegetable  Marrows.  363 

Preparation  of  the  Land. — The  Marrow  will  grow  and 
fruit  abundantly  in  any  good  well-drained  soil,  if  provided  with 
plenty  of  manure  and  moisture  at  the  root,  accompanied  by  an 
abundance  of  sunshine.  Apart  from  being  a  regular  field  crop, 
Marrows  are  set  out  in  all  sorts  of  odd  corners  and  on  refuse 
heaps,  where  they  make  the  unsightly  both  beautiful  and 
profitable.  As  a  main-crop,  they  generally  follow  one  for 
which  a  liberal  manuring  has  been  given  and  which  is  cleared 
off  the  ground  by  the  beginning  of  May ;  this  allows  time,  if 
the  work  is  done  immediately,  to  prepare  the  land  for  planting 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  month.  When  the  ground  is  cleared, 
furrows  are  made  with  either  plough  or  spade,  about  9in.  deep 
and  1ft.  wide,  which  are  filled  with  hot,  half-decayed  manure. 
This  is  well  trodden  down,  after  which  the  soil  is  turned  back 
over  it,  forming  a  ridge.  The  manure  soon  generates  a  gentle 
bottom  heat,  which  enables  the  plants  to  quickly  establish 
themselves.  The  dis- 
tance between  the 
furrows  depends  on 
the  variety  to  be 
grown,  whether  the 
bush  or  the  trailing 
Marrow.  Between 
rows  of  the  former 
the  space  allowed  is 
4ft.,  and  of  the  latter, 
6ft.  On  very  light 
soils  which  are  liable 
to  soon  suffer  from 
drought,  the  furrows 
should  be  broader 
and  deeper,  and  each 
should  be  finished  off 
so  that  it  forms  a 
shallow  trench  in-  copyright,  v.  A.  &  Co. 

stead  of  a  ridge ;  this  White  Trailing  Marrow' 

formation   ensures   more  moisture  being  retained  about  the 
plants  from  every  fall  of  rain. 

Sowing  in  the  Open. — The  seed  may  be  sown  in  the  position 


364  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

where  the  plants  are  to  remain,  but  this  method  is  not  recom- 
mended on  account  of  the  lateness  of  the  crop.  There  is 
certainly  a  great  saving  of  time  and  labour,  and  the  plants 
grow  vigorously  and  crop  abundantly,  but  there  is  the  great 
drawback  that  they  do  not  begin  to  bear  until  the  markets  are 
well  supplied  and  prices  are  low.  When  this  course  is  to  be 
followed,  trenches  filled  with  manure  should  be  made  as  above, 

and  the  seed  should 
be  sown  in  the  middle 
of  May,  three  in  a 
triangle,  2in.  apart 
and  lin.  deep,  at  in- 
tervals of  3ft.  Cover 
each  patch  of  seeds 
with  a  flower-pot, 
inverted.  As  soon  as 
the  seedlings  have 
pushed  through  the 
soil,  remove  the  pots 
during  the  day  but 
replace  them  each 
night  for  about  a 
week.  As  soon  as  it 
is  clear  which  plants 
are  taking  the  lead 
reduce  them  to  one 
at  each  patch. 

Plants  and  Planting. — A  better  method  is  to  set  out  strong 
plants ;  these  will  come  into  bearing  three  weeks  earlier, 
which  will  make  a  great  difference  in  the  returns.  To  raise 
the  plants,  make  up  a  hot-bed,  about  2ft.  deep,  in  the  second 
week  of  April,  and  cover  it  with  4in.  of  fine  soil.  Fill  sufficient 
large  60's  pots  with  a  mixture  of  good  turfy  loam,  well  chopped 
up,  and  spent  manure,  half  of  each,  and  put  a  seed  in  each  pot, 
lin.  deep,  then  plunge  the  pots  up  to  the  rim  in  the  soil  on  the 
hot-bed.  Keep  the  frame  close  and  covered  with  mats  until 
the  seedlings  are  through  the  soil,  then  remove  the  mats  during 
the  day  but  cover  at  night  for  another  week  or  so.  Give  air 
gradually,  increasing  the  quantity  with  the  growth.  Keep  the 


TKIEJAUUV 


Copyright,  V.  A.  &  Co. 

Long  White  Bush  Marrow. 


Vegetable  Marrows.  365 

soil  moist,  but  be  careful  not  to  over-water.  In  the  first  week 
of  May  remove  the  plants  to  a  cold  frame  to  harden  off. 

At  the  first  opportunity  after  the  third  week  of  May,  when 
the  weather  is  mild  and  the  ground  dry,  the  plants  may  be  set 
out  in  their  permanent  positions  over  the  fermenting  manure. 
Water  the  plants  well  the  day  before  and  set  them  a  yard 
apart,  turning  each  out  of  the  pot  without  breaking  the  ball  of 
soil.  Bring  about  lin.  of  new  soil  over  that  from  the  pot,  then 
press  the  soil  gently  but  firmly  round. '  Each  plant  should  be 
protected  at  night  for  a  week  or  more,  according  to  the  weather ; 
this*  may  be  done  by  covering  them  with  hand-lights,  cloches, 
paper  cones,  or  baskets. 

The  after  treatment  consists  in  keeping  the  ground  free  from 
weeds  and  the  surface  soil  stirred  for  a  yard  round  the  plants 
in  order  to  conserve  the  soil  moisture.  When  the  plants  begin 
to  run  and  have  extended  about  18in.,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  pinch 
out  the  end  of  each  leader  to  cause  them  to  branch.  Plenty  of 
moisture  is  necessary  to  enable  them  to  bear  continuously;  in 
fact,  if  the  plants'  requirements  in  this  respect  are  attended  to 
they  will  continue  to  bear  until  cut  down  by  frost,  but  if  allowed 
to  become  dry  they  soon  become  spent.  A  mulch  of  long 
manure  spread  round  the  plants  before  they  have  extended  far 
is  very  useful  in  keeping  the  soil  moist. 

The  Marrows  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  they  are  fit  for  sale — 
from  half  to  three-parts  grown.  This  matter  should  be  strictly 
attended  to,  as  it  means  doubling  or  trebling  the  crop  com- 
pared with  what  it  would  be  if  the  plants  were  allowed  to 
become  exhausted  by  producing  seed  in  fruits  which  have 
developed  to  their  full  size. 

Varieties : — The  varieties  of  Vegetable  Marrows  grown  in 
market  gardens  are  practically  limited  to  two — The  Bush  and 
the  Trailing  Marrow,  and  these  are  again  each  divided  into 
two — the  Green  and  the  White.  The  Bush  Marrow  is  favoured 
by  many  because  the  plant,  although  a  prolific  bearer,  is  com- 
pact, and  does  not  occupy  nearly  so  much  space  as  the  Trailer 
for  the  same  amount  of  crop.  Where  a  high-class  trade  is 
done  the  Pen-y-Byd  is  a  very  valuable  variety ;  this  is  an 
abundant  bearer  of  small,  oval-shaped,  cream-coloured  fruits, 
of  first-class  flavour. 


"  A  necessary  condition  of  success  in  work  on  the  land  is  communica- 
tiveness— continual  friendly  intercourse  with  your  neighbours.  A 
book  gives  general  advice  only,  while  every  acre  of  land  has  its  own  indivi- 
duality, which  depends  upon  the  soil,  the  position,  the  prevailing  winds  of 
the  locality,  and  so  on.  These  things  can  only  be  learnt  by  local  residents 
of  a  long  experience — an  experience  which  represents  the  collective  know- 
ledge of  the  local  population.  Let  every  beginner  remember  that  the 
superior  gardening  of  the  French,  the  Flemish,  the  Jersey  and  Guernsey 
gardeners,  and  the  work  of  the  English  greenhouse  growers  and  florists, 
is  the  result  of  their  collective  experience.  Every  gardener  may  have  his 
own  secrets  on  this  or  that  special  point,  but  the  bulk  of  the  general  know- 
ledge which  has  developed  in  a  given  locality  is  the  result  of  collective 
experience,  and  of  the  continual  talk  among  the  gardeners  about  matters 
which  interest  them.  Beginners  who  appreciate  that  talk  and  turn  it  to 
good  account  will  find  that  advice  is  never  refused  by  neighbours." 

Prince  KROPOTKIN,  Preface  to  "French  Gardening." 


REMINDERS  OF  WORK  TO  BE  DONE 
MONTH  BY  MONTH. 


In  these  "Reminders"  a  division  is  made  between  "General"  and  "French 
Gardening"  operations,  but  where  crops  are  grown  more  or  less  intensively  such 
a  separation  is  almost  impossible  in  practise.  The  gardener  is  therefore  advised 
to  consult  both  divisions  before  planning  his  month's  work,  but  he  may  be  re- 
minded that  it  is  unwise  to  attempt  too  much ;  many  of  the  crops  mentioned  may 
very  well  be  omitted  and  attention  concentrated  upon  those  most  in  demand. 


JANUARY. 

WORK  on  the  land  now  depends  upon  the  weather.  If  the 
ground  is  frozen  hard,  manure  may  be  wheeled  or 
carted  to  the  place  where  it  is  required.  Ploughing  or  digging 
still  remaining  to  be  done  should  be  pressed  forward  on  every 
suitable  occasi6n,  but  the  soil  should  never  be  turned  over 
when  frozen  or  covered  with  snow,  nor  should  it  be  poached 
by  trampling  on  when  wet. 

Where  French  gardening  is  done  the  site  of  the  hot-beds 
should  be  covered  with  long  litter  to  keep  the  ground  free  from 
frost  or  snow,  and  manure,  frames,  compost,  mats  and  other 
materials  likely  to  be  required  should  be  accumulated  close  at 
hand  so  that  the  work  can  proceed  speedily  when  begun. 

GENERAL  OPERATIONS:-  psaegee 

Asparagus  forcing  in  beds  where  grown  should  now  begin         152 

Beans  (Long-pod)  may  be  sown  ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        •««  155 

Beans  (Broad)  may.be  sown  in  a  cold  frame  for  transplanting 155 

Chicory  may  be  forced     197 

Mint  may  be  forced  on  a  hot-bed         230 

Mushroom  Beds  may  be  made 235 

Mustard  and  Cress  may  be  sown  on  a  hot-bed        242 

Onions  may  be  sown  in  boxes  on  a  hot-bed  for  making  large  bulbs      ...  249 
Potato  Onions  may  be  planted  .......         ...         ...         ...         «••         ••«  250 

Peas  for  early  supplies  may  be  sown  in  60's  pots  on  a  gentle  hot-bed ...  258 

Peas  (first-early)  may  be  sown  on  rich  well-drained  ground        259 

Potatoes  should  be  boxed  for  sprouting         ...         •••         •«•         •••         •••  269 

Radishes  may  be  sown  in  a  dry  sheltered  situation  285 

Rhubarb  may  be  forced,  either  lifted  or  in  the  ground      ...  291  and  292 

Seakale  crowns  may  be  forced  ...      -  ...        ...        ...        •  •»        ,,,  302  to  30(? 


368  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

FRENCH   GARDENING:—  ^ 

Asparagus  may  be  forced  on  hot-beds  or  in  pits  152 

As  soon  as  weather  is  favourable  sow  Radishes  and  plant  Lettuces  in 

cold  frames,  and  Hardy  Cab.  Lettuce  in  the  open  98,  105,  106  and  220 
Begin  making  hot-beds  for  frames  in  the  second  week  ...  ...91  and  128 

Begin  making  hot-beds  for  cloches  in  the  last  week  96 

Sow  frame  hot-beds  with  Radishes  and  Carrots,  and  plant  with  Cabbage 

Lettuces  93 

Sow  cloche  hot-beds  with  Carrots  and  plant  with  Cos  and  Cabbage 

Lettuces  97 

Strawberries  may  be  put  on  a  hot-bed  for  forcing 333 

Turnips  may  be  sown  on  mild  hot-beds  at  the  end  of  the  month  ...  358 


FEBRUARY. 

DURING  this  month  all  manuring,  ploughing,  and  digging 
of  vacant  ground  should  be  completed  as  far  as  possible, 
as  the  time  for  sowing  in  earnest  begins  next  month.  Tidiness 
should  now  be  manifest,  and  all  weeds  rigorously  kept  down ; 
groundsel  in  particular  should  be  got  rid  of,  as  it  is  now  coming 
into  flower  and  if  allowed  to  seed  will  be  a  nuisance  all  the 
summer  through. 

In  the  French  garden  the  hot-beds  made  last  month  should 
be  carefully  watched;  the  linings  round  the  frames  must  be 
kept  up,  and  renewed  as  the  heat  declines.  The  frames  and 
cloches  must  be  covered  with  mats  every  night,  and  a  little 
ventilation  given  in  the  middle  of  the  day  on  the  opposite  side 
to  the  wind  whenever  the  weather  is  favourable.  Radishes 
must  be  thinned  out  where  they  are  overcrowded,  and  decayed 
leaves  removed  from  lettuces.  As  soon  as  the  bulk  of  the 
radishes  are  ready  the  bed  should  be  cleared,  and  no  small  ones 
must  be  left  behind  or  they  will  be  a  nuisance,  and  a  hindrance 
to  the  other  crops. 

GENERAL  OPERATIONS:—  psaegee 

Globe  Artichokes  may  be  sown  on  a  hot-bed  142 

Jerusalem  Artichokes  may  be  planted 144, 

Asparagus  beds  on  light  or  medium  land  should  be  covered  with  soil  ...  150 
Asparagus  may  be  forced  where  grown,  for  succession     ...        ...        ...  152 

Beans  (Long-pod)  should  be  sown       ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  155 

Brussels  Sprouts  for  an  early  supply  may  be  sown  in  a  cold  frame      ...  168 

Chicory  may  be  forced     197 

Cabbage  Lettuce  from  cold  frames  should  be  planted  in  sheltered  beds  222 


Reminders  of  Work  to  be  Done. — February.  369 

See  page 

Mint  may  be  forced  on  a  hot-bed         ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  230 

Cold  frames  should  be  put  over  Mint  beds  for  forwarding  ...         ...  230 

Mustard  and  Cress  may  be  sown  on  a  hot-bed  or  in  a  cold  frame         ...  242 
Peas  (early  or  second-early)  should  be  sown  ...         ...         ...         ...  259 

Potatoes  should  be  boxed  for  sprouting         269 

Potatoes  may  be  planted  on  hot-beds 277 

Radishes  may  be  sown  in  a  dry  sheltered  situation  ...        ...        ...  285 

Rhubarb  may  be  sown  or  planted         288 

Rhubarb  may  be  forced,  either  lifted  or  in  the  ground      ...          291  and  292 
Seakale  crowns  may  be  forced  ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  302  to  306 

Shallots  should  be  planted ...  309 

Spinach  may  be  sown  in  a  warm  sheltered  situation         ...        ...        ...  311 

FRENCH   GARDENING:— 

Finish  making  and  planting  hot-beds  for  cloches  early  in  the  month  ...  96 

Asparagus  may  be  forced  on  hot-beds  or  in  pits  152 

Cauliflower  should  be  sown  on  a  mild  hot-bed  in  the  second  week  ...  180 

Celery  (early)  should  be  sown  on  a  hot-bed  in  the  third  week  184 

Cos  and  Cabbage  Lettuce  should  be  sown  on  a  mild  hot-bed  in  the  third 

week  for  succession  to  those  wintered 218 

Make  up  more  cold  beds  and  sow  and  plant  with  Radishes,  Carrots, 

Cos  and  Cabbage  Lettuce 98  and  220 

For  "  forced  "  Melons  sow  seed  on  a  good  hot-bed  in  the  second  week..  225 

Melons  for  an  "  early  "  crop  must  be  sown  in  the  last  week  225 

Radishes  should  be  sown  between  other  crops  and  in  .the  open  104  and  106 

Strawberries  may  be  put  on  a  hot-bed  for  forcing 333 

Tomatoes  may  be  sown  on  a  hot-bed  for  early  supplies 352 

Turnips  may  be  sown  on  a  mild  hot-bed,  either  in  a  frame  or  in  the  open  358 


MARCH. 

EARLY-SOWN  seed-beds  need  examination  and  deficiencies 
must  be  made  good.  Most  common  seeds  may  be  sown 
this  month  if  surface  soil  is  dry,  but  it  is  better  to  wait  a  week  or 
two  for  really  favourable  conditions  than  to  muddle  things  in 
and  then  suffer  for  it  all  the  season  afterwards.  Read  carefully 
Chapter  XVI,  on  Seeds,  Sowing,  Thinning,  and  Transplanting. 

Crops  in  the  French  garden  will  now  be  coming  along  fast 
and  they  must  not  be  kept  on  the  beds  a  moment  longer  than 
necessary,  so  as  to  relieve  the  following  crops  which  need  more 
space,  and  to  keep  all  the  appliances  fully  utilized.  The  heat 
of  the  beds  must  be  kept  up  by  fresh  linings  round  the  outsides 

24 


370  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

and  between  the  frames.  As  the  sun  gains  power  ventilation 
must  be  increased,  especially  for  cold  frames.  By  the  middle 
of  the  month  cloches  will  need  whitening  on  the  south  side 
to  prevent  scorching  of  the  lettuce.  Water  must  be  given  to 
such  frames  as  need  it  and  especially  to  carrots. 

GENERAL  OPERATIONS:—  psaegee 

Globe  Artichoke  suckers  may  be  planted ;  seed  may  be  sown  in  the 

open  ;  seedlings  from  February  sowing  should  be  potted  in  60's  ...  142 
Jerusalem  Artichokes  should  be  planted        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  144 

Asparagus  may  be  sown  or  planted  at  the  end  of  the  month     ...146  and  148 

Beans  (Broad  and  Long-pod)  should  be  sown          155 

Broccoli  should  be  sown  for  cutting  before  Christmas      ...        ...        ...  166 

Brussels  Sprouts  should  be  sown         " 168 

Cabbage  should  be  sown  for  cutting  in  summer      ...         ...    —  ...         ...  172 

Carrots  (stump-rooted)  should  be  sown  on  a  warm  border          176 

Carrots  (main-crop)  should  be  sown  after  the  middle  of  the  month      ...  177 
Cauliflowers  for  cutting  in  summer  should  be  sown  on  a  mild  hot-bed...  180 
Cauliflowers  (hard,  wintered  plants)  should  be  set  out      ...     '    .../      ...  182 
Celery  (main-crop)  should  be  sown  on  a  hot-bed  in  the  second  week   ...  185 
Chicory  may  be  forced     ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  197 

Cucumbers  (Frame)  should  be  sown  on  a  hot-bed  in  the  last  week       ...  201 

Horse-radish  may  be  planted     ...        ...         ...215 

Leeks  should  be  sown      ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  216 

Lettuce  (Cabbage  and  Cos)  should  be  planted  out,  and  more  seed  sown  222 

Mint  roots  should  be  planted     229 

Mustard  and  Cress  may  be  sown  on  a  hot-bed  or  in  a  cold  frame  ...  242 
Onions  should  be  sown  early  and  autumn  sowings  transplanted  245  and  247 

Parsley  should  be  sown 252 

Parsnips  should  be  sown...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  255 

Peas  in  pots  should  be  planted  after  the  middle  of  the  month 258 

Peas  (main-crop)  should  be  sown  in  first  and  third  weeks  260 

Potatoes  may  be  planted  in  a  sheltered  place  or  in  cold  frames 276 

Radishes  should  be  sown  in  the  open 286 

Rhubarb  should  be  sown  or  planted     ...        V.«        ...        ...        ...        ...  288 

Rhubarb  may  be  forced,  either  lifted  or  in  the  ground      ...          291  and  292 

Savoy  Cabbages  should  be  sown          297 

Seakale  thongs  should  be  planted  or  seed  sown      299  and  300 

Seakale  crowns  may  be  forced 302  to  306 

fSpinach  should  be  sown  in  the  open    ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  311 

New  Zealand  Spinach  may  be  sown  in  heat  at  the  end  of  the  month  ...  315 

Strawberry  runners  should  be  planted  326 

Tarragon  may  be  planted  214 

Tomatoes  should  be  sown  on  a  hot-bed  in  the  first  week  and  should  be 

pricked  out  in  the  last  week  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  340 

Turnips  should  be  sown  early  in  the  month,  on  sheltered  beds 359 


Reminders  of  Work  to  be  Done.—Marcti.  371 
FRENCH   GARDENING:—  psaegee 
Beans  (Dwarf)  may  be  sown  in  a  cold  frame,  or  may  be  sown  on  a  hot- 
bed for  transplanting  later  to  a  cold  frame       156  and  157 

Carrots  should  be  sown  in  cold  frames  or  on  sheltered  beds  in  the  open 

with  wintered  Cabbage  Lettuces  or  Radishes  on  same  bed 176 

Celeriac  should  be  sown  on  a  mild  hot-bed  in  the  second  week 196 

Cauliflowers  and  Lettuces  sown  last  month  should  be  pricked  out  in 

cold  frames  as  soon  as  fit  to  handle. 

Cauliflowers  should  be  set  out,  four  to  a  light,  amongst  the  Carrots  on 
the  hot-beds,  after  the  Lettuces  are  cleared,  providing  the  Carrots 
are  making  good  progress  ;  if  not,  the  Cauliflowers  must  be  planted 

a  week  or  two  later,  when  the  Carrots  are  stronger 95 

Cos  Lettuces  should  be  planted  alone  or  between  Hardy  Cab.  Lettuces  105 
Cauliflowers  (well  hardened)  should  be  planted  in  the  open,  with  Cabbage 

Lettuces,  Radishes,  or  Spinach  between          181,  222  and  286 

Melons  sown  for  "  forced  "  fruit  last  month  must  be  potted  in  60's  and 
plunged  in  a  mild  hot-bed  in  the  first  week,  and  the  beds  should 

be  prepared  and  planted  by  the  last  week         225 

Melons  sown  last  month  for  an  "early"  crop  must  be  potted  up  and 

plunged  in  a  mild  hot-bed  in  the  second  week 225 

Melons  for  "  main-crop  "  should  be  sown  in  the  last  week          ...        ...  225 

Strawberries  may  be  put  on  a  hot-bed  for  forcing 333 

Strawberry  beds  should  be  covered  with  frames,  for  "  forwarding  "  ...  328 
Tomatoes  sown  last  month  should  be  pricked  out  in  the  second  week...  341 
Turnips  should  be  sown  in  cold  frames  or  on  sheltered  beds  in  the  open  359 


APRIL. 

O  PRING  is  fairly  in  now  and  everything  is  moving  rapidly — 
vJ  weeds  faster  than  anything  else.  The  hoe  should  be  fre- 
quently in  evidence,  stirring  the  soil ;  this  not  only  keeps  weeds 
down  but  admits  air,  sunshine  and  rain  to  the  roots  of  the 
plants,  to  their  great  benefit.  The  man  who  means  to  en<J  the 
season  well  must  now  work  long  and  laborious  days,  but  if  the 
various  operations  are  intelligently  and  conscientiously  carried 
out  they  will  be  found  both  interesting  and  profitable. 

By  the  end  of  the  month  carrots  and  cauliflowers  on  hot-beds 
should  be  hardened  sufficiently  to  allow  the  frames  to  be  taken 
away ;  plants  in  cold  frames  should  also  be  now  fully  exposed 
to  the  weather.  All  the  available  frames  will  then  be  taken  to 
another  place  to  be  used  for  growing  cucumbers  or  melons, 
for  which  purpose  they  should  be  used  without  delay. 


372  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

GENERAL  OPERATIONS:—  psaegee 

Asparagus  planting  and  sowing  should  be  finished  early  in  month  146  and  148 

Beans  (Dwarf)  may  be  sown  in  a  sheltered  situation  at  end  of  month...  157 

Beet  should  be  sown  in  the  last  week 162 

Kale  should  be  sown  at  the  beginning  of  the  month          163 

Broccoli  should  be  sown  for  cutting  in  winter         166 

Cabbage  should  be  sown  for  cutting  in  late  summer  and  autumn         ...  172 

Cardoons  may  be  sown  in  the  last  week        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  173 

Carrots  (main-crop)  should  be  sown  about  the  middle  of  the  month     ...  177 

Cauliflowers  should  be  sown  in  the  open  about  the  middle  of  the  month  180 

Celery  (late)  should  be  sown  in  the  open  in  the  second  week      185 

Chicory  may  be  forced     197 

Prepare  frames  for  Frame  Cucumbers  in  the  last  week 203 

Cucumbers  (Ridge)  may  be  sown  on  a  hot-bed  in  the  middle  of  month..  208 

Cos  Lettuce  should  be  sown  in  first  and  last  weeks          222 

Herbs  may  be  sown  about  the  middle  of  the  month          212 

Mustard  and  Cress  may  be  sown  in  a  cold  frame  or  in  the  open           ...  242 

Onions  from  boxes  should  be  planted  out  early  in  the  month     249 

Pickling  Onions  should  be  sown  on  poor  ground 250 

Peas  (main-crop)  should  be  sown  in  first  and  last  weeks 260 

Potato  planting  should  be  completed  during  the  month 272 

Radishes  should  be  sown  in  the  open 286 

Salsify  and  Scorzonera  may  be  sown 295  and  296 

Spinach  should  be  sown  in  first  and  third  weeks 311 

Spinach  Beet  may  be  sown        316 

Tarragon  may  be  planted 214 

Tomatoes  should  be  transplanted  and  put  in  cold  frames  in  last  week...  342 

Turnips  should  be  sown  in  first  and  last  weeks        360 

Marrows  should  be  sown  on  hot-bed  in  second  week        364 

FRENCH  GARDENING:— 

Beans  (Dwarf)  should  be  sown  in  a  cold  frame  for  transplanting         ...  157 

Cauliflowers  should  be  planted  amongst  Carrots  on  hot-beds     95 

Celery  (early)  sown  in  February  must  be  pricked  out  in  a  cold  frame  ...  185 
Cos  Lettuce  under  cloches — when  the  first  batch  are  gone  plant  Caali- 

flowers  in  their  places  and  put  the  cloches  over  the  second  batch...    98 
Cabb'age  Lettuce  in  cold  frames — as  soon  as  these  are  gone  plant  Cauli- 
flowers on  the  beds  and  sow  Spinach  between  the  rows. 
Melons  for  "  early  "  crop  must  be  planted  out  in  frames  in  the  first  week  225 
Melons  for  "  main-crop  "  sown  last  month  must  be  potted  in  60's  in  the 

second  week,  and  more  seed  sown          225 

Strawberries  should  be  covered  for  forwarding  as  frames  are  available  328 
Tomatoes  pricked  out  last  month  should  be  transplanted  to  48's  pots  or 
to  boxes,  4in.  apart,  and  set  on  a  mild  hot-bed  in  the  second  week...  342 

Turnips  should  be  sown  in  the  open 359 

At  the  end  of  the  month  remove  all  frames  from  Carrots  and  cold  beds 
and  use  them  for  Melons. 


Reminders  of  Work  to  be  Done.  373 


MAY. 

SEED-BEDS  should  be  examined,  and  if  any  deficiencies 
exist  they  should  be  made  good  by  re-sowing  in  rich  moist 
soil,  to  encourage  quick  growth.  Seedlings  of  all  kinds  should 
be  thinned  out  early,  as  there  is  nothing  more  likely  to  result  in 
second-rate  crops  than  to  allow  them  to  become  drawn  and 
weakly  by  overcrowding.  Cauliflowers,  lettuce,  &c.,  should 
be  planted  out  at  every  opportunity.  Stations  for  marrows, 
ridge  cucumbers,  and  other  tender  subjects  should  be  prepared 
by  the  middle  of  the  month,  and  stakes  or  wires  fixed  on 
the  tomato  ground  preparatory  to  planting.  After  the  middle 
of  the  month  those  who  have  no  conveniences  for  raising  tender 
plants  on  hot-beds  may  sow  seed  in  the  open,  on  well-prepared 
stations;  but  some  means  of  protecting  the  young  plants 
should  be  kept  at  hand,  if  only  dry  litter,  or  after  they  come 
through  the  ground  there  is  still  the  danger  of  late  frosts 
cutting  them  down.  The  hoe  should  be  kept  regularly  at  work 
stirring  the  soil. 

In  the  French  garden  one  of  the  most  important  matters  is 
the  planting  and  training  of  Melons,  with  which  most  of  the 
frames  are  filled  as  they  are  removed  from  other  crops. 
Watering  must  also  receive  constant  attention ;  this  is  one  of 
the  principal  factors  in  producing  the  abundant  and  rapidly- 
maturing  crops  for  which  this  system  is  famous.  In  particular, 
carrots  and  cauliflowers  on  the  manure  beds  need  watering 
daily,  and  strawberries  being  forwarded  in  cold  frames  need 
frequent  applications  of  water  and  liquid  manure. 

GENERAL  OPERATIONS:—  psaegee 

Globe  Artichoke  suckers  may  be  planted  for  succession 142 

Beans  (Dwarf)  should  be  sown  for  main-crop  in  first  or  second  week  ...  157 
Beans  (Runner)  should  be  sown  for  main-crop  in  second  or  third  week..  159 

Beet  should  be  sown  about  the  middle  of  the  month         162 

Broccoli  should  be  sown  for  spring  and  summer  cutting  ...         ...         ...  166 

Brussels  Sprouts  (early)  should  be  planted  out        168 

Cauliflowers  should  be  sown  at  the  beginning  of  the  month       180 

Celery  (early)  should  be  planted  in  trenches  or  on  broad  beds    ...  186  to  190 
Chicory  should  be  sown  towards  the  end  of  the  month     ...         ...         ...  197 

Cos  Lettuce  should  be  sown      222 


374  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Cucumbers  (Ridge)  may  be  planted  out  early  in  the  month,  if  protected, 
with  warm  manure  under ;  seed  may  be  sown  in  the  open  in  the 

third  week        208 

Marrows  should  be  put  in  a  cold  frame  to  harden  in  the  first  week  and 

planted  out  in  the  third  week        364 

Marrows  may  be  sown  in  the  open  after  the  middle  of  the  month        ...  365 

Mustard  and  Cress  may  be  sown  in  the  open  242 

Peas  (second-early)  should  be  sown  twice     260 

Radishes  should  be  sown  in  cool  moist  places         286 

Spinach  should  be  sown  in  cool  moist  places  311 

New  Zealand  Spinach  should  be  planted  out  at  the  end  of  the  month...  315 

Tomatoes  should  be  set  out  in  last  week  if  weather  is  genial     345 

Turnips  should  be  sown  for  succession          360 

FRENCH   GARDENING:— 

Cauliflowers  should  be  planted  in  the  open  as  ground  comes  vacant  and 

more  seed  sown  for  succession      ...        ....<  .  ...i'*     ...        ...        ...  182 

Celery  (main-crop)  and  Celeriac  must  be  pricked  out  in  the  open  early 

in  the  month , ...  185 

Cucumbers  should  be  sown  on  a  hot-bed  in  the  first  week  and  potted  in 

the  last  week,  to  fill  frames  which  come  off  forwarded  Strawberries  201 
Dwarf  Beans  from  cold  frames  should  be  planted  in  a  sheltered  place..  157 
Endive  may  be  sown  in  the  first  week. 
Melons  must  be  planted  as  beds  are  prepared         ...        ...        ...        ...  225 

Strawberries  being  forwarded  need  water  and  liquid  manure  frequently  328 
Tomatoes  should  be  planted  out  over  warm  manure  and  covered  with 

cloches  early  in  the  month ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  104 


JUNE. 

TOMATO,  vegetable  marrow,  and  ridge  cucumber  planting 
should  be  finished  as  early  in  the  month  as  the  weather 
will  permit.  Lettuces,  cauliflowers,  and  early  broccoli  should 
be  planted  out  whenever  an  opportunity  occurs.  Potatoes  will 
need  earthing-up.  Crops  grow  rapidly  now  but  not  so  quickly 
as  weeds  do  unless  they  are  constantly  kept  down  ;  still,  there  is 
some  satisfaction  in  knowing  that  the  operation  of  stirring  the 
soil  to  destroy  weeds  is  also  one  of  the  best  possible  means  of 
increasing  the  vigour  of  the  crop,  also  that  the  oftener  it  is  done 
the  easier  it  becomes.  Now  also  is  the  time  when  it  pays  to 
give  water  to  some  of  the  crops,  but  when  this  course  is  decided 


Reminders  of  Work  to  be  Done. — June.  375 

upon  beware  of  driblets ;  watering  should  be  done  thoroughly 
or  not  at  all.  A  mulch  of  long  manure  after  a  good  soaking 
prevents  undue  evaporation  and  by  retaining  the  moisture  tn 
the  soil  for  the  use  of  the  plants  has  a  marvellous  effect  in 
promoting  vigour  in  a  dry  season. 

In  the  French  garden  the  only  things  which  need  special 
mention  are  the  necessity  for  regular  watering  of  all  crops  and 
proper  attention  to  stopping  and  training  cucumber  and  melon 
plants,  in  connection  with  which  it  is  advisable  to  study  the 
chapters  dealing  with  those  subjects. 

GENERAL  OPERATIONS:—  See 

page 

Asparagus  cutting  should  cease  from  the  middle  to  the  end  of  month...  150 

Brussels  Sprouts  should  be  planted  out         ....       168 

Celery  (main-crop)  should  be  planted  in  trenches  or  on  beds      ...  186  to  190 

Cucumbers  (Ridge)  may  be  planted  in  the  open      '.  207 

Cos  Lettuce  should  be  sown  and  plants  set  out      ...        ...        ...        ...  222 

Parsley  should  be  sown 252 

Peas  (first-early)  may  be  sown  in  the  first  week      ...         ...         ...         ...  260 

Radishes  may  be  sown  in  cool  moist  places 286 

Spinach  may  be  sown  in  cool  moist  places    ...        ...        ...         ...         ...  311 

Strawberry  rynners  should  be  layered  for  forcing ,        ...330 

Tomato  planting  should  be  finished  in  first  or  second  week        ...        ...  345 

Turnips  should  be  sown  again  for  succession  360 

The  planting  of  spring-sown  Brassicas  (Sprouts,  Broccoli,  Kale,  and 
Savoys)  should  be  proceeded  with  at  every  opportunity  this  month. 

FRENCH   GARDENING:— 

Celery  (early)  should  be  planted  on  manure  beds  after  Cauliflowers,  or 
on  any  well-dug  ground  which  Is  covered  3  or  4  inches  deep  with 

decayed  manure         191 

Celeriac  should  be  planted  as  soon  as  ground  is  available  196 

Cucumbers  should  be  planted  in  the  frames  which  have  been  removed 

from  forwarded  Strawberries         201 

Endive  should  be  planted  as  soon  as  ground  is  vacant,  and  two  weeks 

later  Celery  or  Cauliflower  can  be  planted  between 105 

Endive  should  be  sown  in  the  first  week        ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  210 

Melons  should  receive  close  attention  in  stopping  and  watering  ...  226 

"  Forced  "  Melons  will  now  be  showing  plenty  of  ripe  fruit,  whilst  the 
.    "  Early  "  ones  are  fast  approaching  ripeness;  they  will  therefore 
need  careful  watching,  removing  the  fruit  on  the  proper  point  or  it 
may  be  spoiled  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...        ....        ...         ...  228 

Strawberries  (maiden  plants)  intended  to  produce  runners  should  have 

bloom  removed,  and  runners  should  be  layered          323 

Tomatoes  should  now  stand  in  the  open  and  be  tied  to  stakes   ...         ...  349 


376  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

JULY. 

APART  from  gathering  and  marketing  the  crops  as  they 
come  ready,  the  principal  work  of  this  month  is  to  set 
out  plants  at  every  opportunity,  to  keep  down  weeds,  and  to 
keep  the  crops  moving  steadily  forward.  Sometimes  July  is  a 
rather  wet  month,  in  which  case  the  combined  heat  and  mois- 
ture causes  vegetation  to  grow  luxuriantly,  but  when  showers 
are  few  growth  often  comes  practically  to  a  standstill  for  lack 
of  moisture.  Watering  over  a  large  area  is  impracticable,  but 
the  use  of  the  hoe  is  not,  and  repeated  stirrings  of  the  surface 
soil,  either  by  horse  or  hand  labour,  by  forming  a  soil  mulch  to 
check  evaporation  is  of  immense  benefit  to  the  plants,  and 
should  be  systematically  carried  out  (see  pages  17  to  21). 

In  the  French  garden  the  planting  of  main-crop  celery  forms 
one  of  the  principal  tasks  of  the  month ;  as  the  period  allowed 
for  growth  is  short  the  work  should  be  pressed  forward  rapidly. 

GENERAL  OPERATIONS:—  psaegee 

Globe  Artichokes  may  be  cut  down  to  produce  suckers  for  Chards      ...  143 

Beans  (Dwarf)  may  be  sown  in  the  first  week  for  late  crop        157 

Cabbage  for  cutting  in  spring  should  be  sown         171 

Carrots  for  pulling  young  in  autumn  may  be  sown  early  in  the  month...  178 
Celery  (late)  should  be  planted  in  trenches  or  on  broad  beds     ...  186  to  190 

Coleworts  should  be  sown          199 

Cucumbers  and  Melons  need  frequent  attention  in  watering,  thinning 

growths,  and  gathering  fruit 205  and  226 

Herbs  should  be  gathered  for  drying  as  they  come  into  flower 212 

Potato  Onions  may  be  taken  up  250 

Radishes  may  be  sown  in  cool  moist  places 286 

Shallots  should  be  harvested      320 

Spinach  Beet  may  be  sown        316 

Tomato  plants  should  be  regularly  tied  and  trimmed        347 

Turnips  should  be  sown  for  pulling  in  autumn         360 

FRENCH   GARDENING;— 

Carrots,  for  autumn  bunching,  may  be  sown  after  Cauliflowers 178 

Cauliflowers  should  be  planted  on  Melon  beds,  from  the  beginning  to 

the  middle  of  the  month      ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  228 

Celery  (main-crop)  should  be  planted  on  broad  beds         191 

Endive  (Summer)  should  be  sown  in  the  first  week  210 

Endive  (Hardy)  should  be  sown  in  the  third  week 210 

If  weather  is  genial  remove  lights  from  Melons  in  the  middle  of  month. 
Strawberry  runners  should  be  layered  and  watered  ...         ...         ...  323 


Reminders  of  Work  to  be  Done.  377 

AUGUST. 

THE  general  instructions  for  August  do  not  differ  very 
materially  from  those  for  July.  There  is  still  the  same 
need  for  keeping  the  ground  free  from  weeds  and  the  crops 
moving  steadily  along.  During  the  month,  as  opportunity 
occurs  but  the  sooner  the  better,  the  planting  of  late  broccoli 
and  all  winter  greens  must  be  completed.  When  the  ground  is 
dry  the  plants  must  either  be  watered  in  or  the  roots  should  be 
"  puddled."  Tomatoes  should  be  stopped  in  the  first  week  and 
as  the  fruit  should  now  be  ripening  quickly,  gathering  will  need 
close  attention,  remembering  that  it  is  of  much  better  quality 
and  appearance  when  ripened  on  the  plant  than  when  gathered 
half  ripe  and  finished  off  under  cover. 

In  the  French  garden  there  is,  of  course,  that  need  for 
regular  and  systematic  watering  of  the  crops  which  forms  an 
integral  part  of  the  system.  Melons,  when  ripening,  form  an 
exception  to  this  rule ;  they  must  then  be  kept  rather  dry,  but 
as  soon  as  fruit  and  haulms  are  cleared  the  beds  must  receive 
a  copious  watering  for  the  benefit  of  the  cauliflowers. 

GENERAL  OPERATIONS:—  psaegee 

Cabbage  for  cutting  in  spring  should  be  sown  in  first  and  third  weeks...  171 

"Autumn-sown"  Onions  should  be  harvested        246 

"  Autumn-sown  "  Onions  should  be  sown      247 

"  Spring  Onions"  for  pulling  green  should  be  sown          250 

Parsley  should  be  sown 252 

Radishes  may  be  sown  in  cool  moist  places  ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  286 

Spinach  should  be  sown  for  autumn  and  winter  picking 312 

Strawberry  runners  should  be  planted  ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  324 

Strawberry  runners  should  be  potted  for  forcing    ...        ...        ...        ...  331 

Strawberry  plantations  should  be  cleared  of  old  leaves,  runners  and 

litter,  which  should  be  bttrnt         '   i.r .  , 321 

Tomatoes  should  be  stopped  in  the  first  week  and  regularly  trimmed...  348 
Turnips  should  be  sown  for  pulling  in  winter  360 

FRENCH   GARDENING:— 

Carrots  may  be  sown  on  beds  which  can  be  covered  later  by  frames  ...  178 

Endive  (Hardy)  may  be  sown  in  the  first  week       210 

Endive  should  be  planted  at  the  first  opportunity  ...        ...        ...        ...  210 

Endive  should  be  tied  up  for  blanching  as  it  comes  ready  211 

Celery  (late)  should  be  planted  early  in  the  month  191 

Celery  (early)  should  be  covered  with  mats  for  blanching  192 

Strawberry  beds  should  be  planted  and  plants  for  forcing  potted.. 324  and  332 


378  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

SEPTEMBER. 

WEEDS  are  always  with  us,  and  may  be  regarded  either 
as  a  blessing  or  a  curse,  according  to  the  point  of 
view.  In  moderate  quantities,  when  they  have  not  yet  grown 
large  enough  to  do  any  particular  harm,  but  are  sufficiently  in 
evidence  to  make  their  destruction  imperative,  they  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  disguised  blessing,  because  the  operation  necessary 
to  their  removal  is  a  decided  benefit  to  the  crops  they  grow 
amongst ;  but  it  needs  a  temperament  bright  and  cheerful  far 
above  the  average  to  regard  them  otherwise  than  as  a  curse 
when  a  clean  garden  is  again  filled  with  seeds  from  foul  and 
neglected  land  near  by.  This  usually  happens  in  September, 
and  as,  at  present,  there  is  no  law  to  punish  such  neglect,  the 
only  thing  to  do  is  to  "  keep  them  down,"  or  worse  will  follow. 

GENERAL  OPERATIONS:—  psaegee 

Globe  Artichoke  suckers  may  be  blanched  for  Chards  at  end  of  month..  143 
Cabbage  plants  for  spring  cutting  should  be  set  out          ...         ...         ...  171 

Cardoons  should  now  be  blanched       ...     .  ,«.        173 

Celery  should  be  earthed  up      ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  188 

Cole  worts  should  be  planted  between  Cabbages     199 

Hardy  Cos  and  Cabbage  Lettuce  should  be  sown  in  the  second  week...  222 
Mushroom  Beds  may  be  made  ...        ...        ;.....        ...        ...        ...  235 

Trim  large  leaves  off  Parsley  and  arrange  to  protect  in  frost  or  snow...  254 

Radishes  may  be  sown  in  the  open      ...        ..; •-      286 

Spring-sown  Onions  should  be  harvested      ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  246 

Spinach  should  be  sown  on  a  dry  bed  for  winter  and  spring       312 

Strawberry  runners  may  be  planted    ...        .„        325 

Tomatoes  should  be  regularly  trimmed          ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  347 

Turnips  should  be  sown  for  "  tops  "  in  spring         360 

FRENCH   GARDENING:— 

Celery  (main-crop  should  be  covered  with  mats  for  blanching 192 

Cabbage  Lettuce  (Hardy)  for  standing  in  open-air  beds  through  the 
winter,  should  be  sown  in  the  middle  of  the  month  and  pricked  out 

in  nursery  beds  about  a  week  later          ...        222 

Cauliflowers  should  be  sown  in  the  second  and  third  weeks       ...85  and  180 

Endive  should  be  tied  up  for  blanching  as  it  comes  ready  211 

Melon  beds  should  be  cleared  of  fruit  and  haulms  and  the  Cauliflowers 

copiously  watered      ...         229 

Radishes  may  be  sown  on  the  manure  beds  after  early  Celery  ...         ...  286 

At  the  end  of  the  month  prepare  beds,  frames,  and  cloches  for  Cauli- 
flowers and  Lettuces  to  pass  through  the  winter       ...  181  and  220 


Reminders  of  Work  to  be  Done.  379 

OCTOBER. 

away  rubbish  and  decaying  leaves  from  every  part 
of  the  garden.  Pull  yellowing  leaves  from  cabbages, 
brussels  sprouts,  and  other  brassica.  Put  that  which  will 
readily  decay  into  a  compact  heap,  mixing  in  a  good  sprinkling 
of  lime  as  the  heap  is  made;  lay  the  remainder,  including 
potato,  tomato,  and  melon  haulms  on  one  side  for  burning, 
and  take  every  opportunity  to  get  and  keep  them  dry.  Begin 
manuring  and  digging  vacant  land. 

GENERAL  OPERATIONS:—  psaegee 

Asparagus  beds  should  be  cleared  of  foliage  and  weeds  and  then  covered 

with  a  mulch  of  manure,  2in.  deep  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  149 

Late  Potatoes,  Carrots,  and  Beet  should  be  lifted  and  clamped  ...  280 

Cos  and  Cabbage  Lettuce  for  wintering  under  protection  should  be  sown 

in  a  cold  frame  in  the  first  week    ...         ...  .  '   ...         ...         ...         ...  222 

Hardy  Cos  and  Cabbage  Lettuce  should  be  planted  in  the  last  week  ...  222 

Celery  should  be  finally  earthed  up     ...     '  ..V ...  188 

Mushroom  Beds  may  be  made 235 

Onions  may  be  sown  in  boxes  in  a  cold  frame  for  making  large  bulbs...  248 
Radishes  may  be  sown  in  the  open      ...        ...         ...        ...        ...        ...  286 

Rhubarb  may  be  sown      288 

Strawberry  runners  may  be  planted    ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  325 

FRENCH   GARDENING:— 

Cabbage  Lettuce  (Hardy)  should  be  planted  out  in  a  dry  position  at  the 

end  of  the  month 222 

Celery  (main-crop)  should  be  covered  with  mats  for  blanching  ...        ...  193 

Celeriac  should  be  lifted  and  stored 196 

Endive  should  be  protected  and  blanched     211 

Strawberries  in  pots  for  forcing  should  be  protected        ...        ...        ...  332 

Lettuce  (all  varieties),  to  be  wintered  under  protection,  must  be  sown 
in  small  batches  during  the  first  and  second  weeks,  and  pricking 
out  of  the  seedlings  under  cloches  or  in  cold  frames  must  be  done 

in  the  third  and  fourth  weeks        87  and  220 

Cauliflowers  sown  last  month  should  be  pricked  out  in  frames  in  the 

second  and  third  weeks        86 

Carrots  sown  in  August  should  be  protected  by  frames    ...         ...         ...  178 

All  ground  cleared  of  crops  should  now  be  manured  and  dug. 
The  old  hot-beds  must  be  cleared  away  and  the  soil  below  thoroughly 
dug  and  limed ;  about  one-third  of  the  decayed  manure  should  be 
well  broken  up  and  then  wheeled  into  position  for  making  next 
season's  hot-beds  (see  page  91),  the  remainder  being  used  partly  to 
manure  such  ground  as  is  in  need  of  it  and  partly  made  into  a  heap 
for  preparation  as  compost  for  general  purposes  84 


380  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

NOVEMBER. 

IN  this  month  the  working  of  the  land  should  be  taken  in  hand 
in  earnest.  In  addition  to  ordinary  digging  or  ploughing, 
bastard  trenching  or  subsoil  ploughing  should  be  done  on  that 
portion  of  the  land  where  deep  cultivation  falls  due  in  the 
proper  rotation.  Land  intended  for  spring  planting  or  seeding 
should  be  left  rough  on  the  surface  or  be  ridged  up,  so  as  to 
get  the  full  benefit  of  "  weathering  ";  it  will  then  lie  warmer 
and  drier,  and  can  be  got  into  excellent  condition  in  a  very 
short  time  when  wanted.  Read  pages  10  to  19.  Lime  should 
be  given  now  to  land  requiring  it.  Where  kainit  and  basic  slag 
are  to  be  used  this  is  the  best  time  for  applying  them  so  as  to 
get  full  benefit  in  next  season's  crops.  Means  of  protection 
should  be  provided  for  all  crops  needing  it. 

GENERAL  OPERATIONS:—  psae|e 

Asparagus  beds  on  heavy  land  should  be  covered  with  soil  from  alleys..  150 
Asparagus  to  be  forced  in  beds  should  be  covered  with  compost .        ...  152 

Beans  (Long-pod)  may  be  sown  ...        .- 154 

Chicory  roots  should  be  lifted  and  may  be  forced  at  once  197 

Mint  may  be  forced  on  a  hot-bed         230 

Mushroom  Beds  may  be  made 235 

Mustard  and  Cress  may  be  sown  on  a  hot-bed        ...        ...        ...        ...  242 

Peas  for  early  supplies  may  be  sown  in  60's  pots  in  a  cold  frame         ...  258 

Peas  may  be  sown  on  dry  ground  in  the  open         259 

Rhubarb  may  be  lifted  and  forced        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  291 

Seakale  crowns  may  be  forced ...        302  to  306 

FRENCH   GARDENING:— 

Asparagus  may  be  forced  on  hot-beds  or  in  pits      152 

Celery  (late)  should  be  protected  and  put  in  frames  for  blanching        ...  193 
Cos  Lettuce  for  forcing  should  be  transplanted  about  the  end  of  the 

month,  or  early  in  next  month,  and  given  more  space          87 

Endive  in  cold  frames  should  be  blanched 211 

All  rubbish  should  be  cleared  away  and  the  garden  made  neat  and  tidy  ; 
remains  of  vegetables  which  will  decay  readily  should  be  made  into 
a  heap,  freely  sprinkled  with  lime,  to  be  dug  into  the  ground  at  the 
end  of  the  following  season  ;  all  the  remainder  should  be  burned 
Continue  breaking  up  old  hot-beds  and  digging  vacant  ground. 
Frames  not  in  use  should  be  cleaned,  repaired  and  stacked  away  until 
they  are  wanted  in  January ;  spare  Lights  should  be  taken  under 
cover  to  be  put  into  thorough  repair  and  repainted ;  spare  Mats 
should  be  thoroughly  dried  under  cover  and  stored  away. 


Reminders  of  Work  to  be  Done.  381 

DECEMBER. 

PAY  particular  attention  to  the  drainage  of  the  land ;  examine 
all  outlets  and  clear  all  pipes  which  may  have  become 
blocked ;  on  heavy  land  see  that  all  furrows  are  clear  so  that 
rain-water  can  pass  away  freely.  Pools  of  stagnant  water 
standing  about  on  the  land  should  not  be  tolerated ;  there  is 
usually  some  simple  means  of  removing  such  surplus  water, 
either  by  pipes  or  by  surface  drains  (see  pages  7  to  10),  but  if, 
unless  for  some  extraordinary  reason,  it  cannot  be  got  away,  it 
may  safely  be  concluded  that  such  land  will  not  pay  for  culti- 
vation. All  the  burnable  rubbish  should  now  be  gathered 
together  for  making  "  smother  "  or  "  smoulder  "  fires.  As  the 
name  implies,  these  fires  must  be  managed  so  as  to  burn  slowly, 
or  smoulder.  When  the  fire  has  got  a  good  hold  of  the  rubbish 
it  is  cased  all  over  with  earth,  and  further  coverings  are  put 
over  any  red  fire  which  breaks  through.  The  resulting  black 
ashes  are  excellent  either  as  a  fertilizing  material  or  for  im- 
proving the  texture  of  seed  beds,  and  form  a  very  valuable 
ingredient  of  any  compost. 

GENERAL  OPERATIONS:—  psaegee 

Beans  (Broad)  may  be  sown  in  a  cold  frame  for  transplanting 155 

Chicory  may  be  forced     ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  197 

Mint  may  be  forced  on  a  hot-bed         230 

Mushroom  Beds  may  be  made 235 

Mnstard  and  Cress  may  be  sown  on  a  hot-bed         ...        ...        ...         ...  242 

Radishes  may  be  sown  in  a  dry  sheltered  situation  285 

Rhubarb  may  be  lifted  and  forced        ...        > 291 

Seakale  crowns  may  be  forced 302  to  306 

Seakale  beds  are  "  soiled  "  to  produce  "  natural  kale  "     ...        ...        ...  307 

FRENCH   GARDENING:— 

Asparagus  may  be  forced  on  hot-beds  or  in. pits     152 

Cauliflowers  may  need  transplanting  deeper  and  further  apart  if  the 

weather  is  mild  and  they  are  growing  fast        ...        ...        ...        ...     86 

Continue  digging  vacant  ground  and  repairing  lights,  &c. 

Give  plenty  of  ventilation  to  all  plants  in  frames  and  under  cloches 

(with  the  exception  of  Forcing  Cabbage  Lettuce)  whenever  the 

weather  will  permit. 
When  the  weather  is  frosty  close  all  lights  and  shut  down  cloches  ;  if 

severe,  all  must  be  covered  every  night  with  mats,  and  dry  litter 

should  be  scattered  amongst  and  half-way  up  the  cloches. 


GRADING,  PACKING,  AND 
MARKETING. 


THE  work  of  the  market  gardener  is  by  no  means  finished 
with  the  harvesting  of  the  crops  he  has  grown.  The 
motive  behind  all  his  operations  is  to  obtain  a  reasonable 
return  in  net  profit  on  the  skill,  labour,  and  capital  expended. 
In  order  to  secure  such  a  return  his  produce  must  be  sold 
at  remunerative  prices,  and  the  knowledge  of  how  to  go  to 
work  to  get  such  prices  is  quite  as  important  as  the  ability 
to  raise  the  crops. 

Some  growers — happily  a  decreasing  minority — still  contend 
that  the  labour  involved  in  washing,  grading,  and  careful  packing 
does  not  result  in  sufficiently  enhanced  prices  to  make  it  worth 
while,  and  consistently  with  their  opinion  often  put  their  pro- 
duce on  the  market  in  a  more  or  less  rough  and  dirty  condition, 
with  no  real  attempt  at  grading — good,  bad,  and  indifferent  being 
frequently  mingled  in  one  consignment.  Such  methods  have 
no  redeeming  feature ;  some  who  follow  them,  by  being  favour- 
ably situated  in  close  proximity  to  the  markets,  and  so  being 
subject  to  very  little  expense  for  carriage,  are  no  doubt  able 
to  make  fair  profits  on  the  whole,  but  to  others  without  such 
advantages  these  methods  must  prove  disastrous  in  the  end. 
One  of  the  worst  features  of  this  "  rough  and  ready"  business 
is  that  those  who  follow  it  are  not  the  only  persons  to  suffer 
from  its  bad  effects  ;  if  that  were  so  there  would  be  little  cause 
of  complaint.  But  the  fact  is  that  when  such  consignments 
are  placed  on  the  market  in  appreciable  quantities  they  have 
the  effect  of  lowering  the  quotations  for  the  whole  of  that  par- 
ticular variety  of  produce,  and  those  who  go  to  the  trouble  and 
expense  of  proper  grading  and  packing,  although  they  may 
still  depend  upon  getting  higher  prices,  do  not  get  as  much  as 
they  otherwise  would,  and  so  are  to  some  extent  penalised  for 
the  wrong-doing  of  others. 


Grading,  Packing,  and  Marketing.  383 

In  spite  of  this  drawback,  however,  there  is  not  the  least 
doubt  that  proper  grading  and  careful  packing  does  pay  well, 
by  ensuring  returns  far  greater  than  recoups  the  grower  for 
extra  expense  entailed.  That  this  is  so  is  becoming  generally 
recognised,  and  the  day  is  probably  not  far  distant  when  dirty, 
ungraded,  or  slovenly  consignments  will  receive  scant  respect 
in,  or  may  even  be  refused  admission  to,  the  most  important 
markets. 

An  attractive  appearance  is  one  of  the  most  potent  factors 
in  inducing  ready  sales.  It  does  not  need  a  very  keen  faculty  of 
observation  to  be  aware  of  the  favourable  effect  which  a  good 
appearance  has  upon  the  general  public.  This  may  be  seen  in 
every  department  of  life,  but  in  nothing  is  it  more  noticeable 
than  in  the  purchase  of  food-stuffs.  An  article  of  only  moderate 
or  even  of  poor  quality  if  attractive  in  appearance  will  sell 
much  more  readily  and  often  at  a  higher  price  than  one  of 
superior  quality  which  is  offered  in  an  untempting  or  repellant 
way.  This  fact  importers  of  foreign  produce  have  been  quick 
to  discover  and  take  advantage  of,  and  if  home  growers  are 
to  hold  their  own  against  the  constantly-increasing  volume  of 
importations  it  behoves  them  to  follow  the  same  course. 

The  first  point,  therefore,  which  the  grower  needs  to  get 
firmly  fixed  in  his  mind  in  connection  with  marketing  is  that 
a  good  appearance  has  a  distinct  cash  value. 

Imported  produce  of  many  kinds  has  now  gained  a  com- 
manding position  in  our  markets,  and  in  many  cases,  even  in 
competition  with  the  same  variety  of  home-grown  produce, 
buyers  show  a  decided  preference  for  it.  The  cause  of  the 
preference  does  not  lie  in  the  superior  quality  of  the  importa- 
tions, because  oftener  than  not  the  advantage  in  that  respect 
is  on  the  side  of  the  home  productions;  nor  is  attractiveness 
the  only  reason.  There  are  several  causes,  of  which  attractive 
packing  is  certainly  one,  but  another  and  an  equally  important 
cause  is  reliability.  When  a  certain  weight,  number  or  quantity 
is  specified,  or  when  a  number  of  packages  are  sold  by  the 
sample  of  the  top  layer  of  one,  the  purchaser  of  imported 
produce  is  fairly  certain  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  of 
getting  what  he  pays  for,  both  in  quantity  and  quality.  With 
home-grown  produce  the  reverse  is  often  the  case — weight 


384  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

or  quantity  may  be  deficient  or  grading  badly  done,  whilst 
"  topping  "  with  a  layer  or  two  of  a  superior  sample  to  that 
of  the  bulk  is  frequently  resorted  to. 

The  third  point  of  importance  in  connection  with  successful 
marketing  is  to  so  arrange  the  crops  that  regular  and  continuous 
supplies  of  a  given  product  can  be  sent  all  through  the  season 
when  it  is  usually  in  demand.  Here  again  the  methods  of  the 
home  grower  leave  much  to  be  desired,  and  where  he  makes 
it  easy  for  the  foreigner  to  displace  him  in  the  estimation  of  the 
buyer.  A  sound  position  in  the  market  can  never  be  established 
if  produce  is  sent  in  to  a  given  salesman  only  by  fits  and  starts. 
Whether  the  grower  be  in  a  large  or  a  small  way — whether  the 
consignment  amounts  to  a  hundred  baskets  at  once  or  only  half 
a  dozen — every  effort  should  be  made  to  send  them  in  with 
regularity.  It  is  very  probable  that  the  salesman  would  be 
inclined  to  consider  this  as  the  most  important  point  of  all  in 
connection  with  successful  marketing.  He  desires  to  know,  as 
nearly  as  he  can,  the  kind  and  quantity  of  the  produce  he  has 
to  deal  with  on  any  given  day,  so  that  he  can  make  arrange- 
ments accordingly.  He  has  his  regular  customers  just  as 
the  shopkeeper  himself  has.  In  many  cases  some  kinds  of 
produce  on  which  reliance  can  be  placed  is  sold  in  advance, 
and  never  enters  the  market  at  all.  If  these  customers  buy 
produce  which  suits  their  trade  and  finds  a  ready  sale  they 
desire  to  continue  dealing  in  it,  and  it  must  be  very  inconve- 
nient and  annoying  to  both  salesman  and  customer  to  find  the 
supply  of  an  article  of  which  both  approve  suddenly  cease  in 
the  height  of  the  season,  or  only  come  in  erratically.  When 
this  happens  the  price  obtained  is  lower  in  consequence.  Not 
only  that,  but  the  salesman  naturally  places  a  higher  value 
upon  a  sender  whose  supplies  he  can  rely  upon,  and  takes 
more  interest  in  his  consignments,  with  the  result  that  he 
usually  does  his  utmost  to  realise  the  best  prices  so  as  to  keep 
the  sender  satisfied  and  so  retain  him  as  a  regular  client. 

Of  course,  when  the  grower  is  a  beginner  at  the  business  he 
very  properly  desires  to  feel  his  way,  both  with  regard  to  the 
crops  he  grows  and  the  salesmen  to  whom  he  consigns  them,  but 
this  experimental  period  ought  not  to  be  too  prolonged.  In  all 
large  markets  there  are  many  salesmen  with  a  reputation  for 


Grading,  Packing,  and  Marketing.  385 

fair  dealing,  and  the  grower  would  be  well  advised,  at  any  rate 
until  he  has  personal  knowledge  or  some  good  recommendation, 
to  entrust  his  produce  only  to  those  with  good  credentials. 
Then  he  ought  to  decide  as  soon  as  possible  upon  the  particular 
crops  he  means  to  specialise  in,  a  decision  in  which  he  will  no 
doubt  be  influenced  by  the  character  of  the  soil,  the  situation, 
the  demand  in  the  most  accessible  markets,  and  his  personal 
preference  or  skill.  Whatever  the  character  and  number  of 
the  subsidiary  lines  may  be,  he  ought  to  produce  some  main 
crops  in  quantity  with  his  utmost  skill,  so  that  he  will  become 
known  as  a  grower  of  those  particular  products,  who  may 
always  be  depended  upon  for  quality  and  regular  supplies. 

An  occasional  walk  through  the  market,  and  a  chat  with 
some  of  the  salesmen  after  the  rush  of  business  is  over  for  the 
day,  is  very  advisable ;  the  grower  will  then  be  able  to  compare 
the  quality  of  the  produce  exposed  for  sale  with  that  of  his 
own,  and  so  get  an  idea  of  the  general  standard  expected,  as 
well  as  an  insight  into  the  various  methods  of  packing.  The 
salesmen  are  generally  courteous  and  obliging,  and  quite  ready 
to  give  valuable  advice  which  the  grower  will  do  well  to  profit 
by ;  not  only  that,  but  if  a  salesman  is  not  in  a  position  to  deal 
with  any  produce  offered  him  he  will  usually  recommend  one  or 
two  reliable  men  who  can  handle  it. 

To  summarise,  the  essential  points  necessary  to  permanent 
success  in  placing  produce  for  sale  on  a  public  market  are: 
(1)  To  place  the  article  before  the  buyer  in  as  attractive  a 
manner  as  possible ;  this  implies  washing,  trimming,  and  neat 
bunching  of  the  common  vegetables  quite  as  much  as  the 
smart  packing  of  those  of  greater  relative  value.  (2)  To  guar- 
antee reliability;  this  implies  accuracy  in  weights,  measures, 
and  counts,  as  well  as  careful  grading  to  ensure  a  parcel  being 
of  even  quality  throughout.  (3)  To  ascertain  the  size  of  pack- 
ages or  weights  and  quantities  most  in  favour  with  buyers,  and 
as  far  as  possible  to  adhere  to  them  without  variation.  (4)  To 
specialise  in  the  production  of  a  limited  number  of  staple  crops, 
and  to  consign  supplies  to  the  same  market  regularly  and  con- 
tinuously throughout  the  season  when  such  produce  is  usually 
in  demand.  (5)  Having  found  a  satisfactory  salesman,  or  one 

who  is  as  satisfactory  as  can  reasonably  be  expected  under  the 

25 


386  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

circumstances,  to  continue  regular  business  relations  with  him, 
and  not  to  change  the  salesman  without  sufficient  cause.  If 
these  methods  are  followed,  and  are  supported  by  good  quality 
in  the  articles  offered,  success  in  marketing  should  be  certain 
in  spite  of  any  competition,  foreign  or  otherwise. 

No  more  need  be  said  except  that  the  grower  can  generally 
obtain  free  from  the  salesman  such  empties — baskets,  bags, 
boxes,  or  other  receptacles — as  may  be  necessary  for  the 
proper  packing  of  his  produce,  as  well  as  printed  labels  with 
which  to  address  it.  In  some  cases  it  will  perhaps  be  found 
more  advantageous  for  the  grower  to  possess  his  own  empties 
for  certain  lines,  and  the  use  of  "non-returnables"  may  be  found 
preferable  for  some  of  the  more  valuable  products,  but  ex- 
perience will  prove  the  best  guide  in  these  matters. 

ARTICHOKES  (GLOBE).— The  heads  of  Globe  Artichokes  are  cut  as  soon 
as  they  are  fully  grown  but  before  the  scales  begin  to  open ;  they  are  then 
tender  and  of  good  flavour.  Each  head  is  cut  with  an  inch  or  so  of  stem. 
They  are  packed  in  baskets  in  regular  layers,  a  little  soft  material  being 
put  between  each  layer  and  over  the  top.  They  should  be  marketed  in  as 
fresh  a  condition  as  possible,  and  the  number  of  heads  in  the  basket  should 
be  marked  clearly  on  the  label. 

ARTICHOKE  (JERUSALEM).— Lifting  may  begin  in  October  and  continue 
throughout  the  winter.  Lifting  should  be  finished  by  February,  or  fresh 
growth  will  take  place.  The  tubers  are  sorted  over,  the  smallest  being 
rejected.  They  are  packed  in  half -bushel  baskets,  with  a  little  hay  over  the 
top,  the  whole  being  fastened  down  by  two  sticks  crossed  over  the  top,  the 
ends  of  each  being  inserted  between  the  canes  at  the  top  of  the  basket. 

ASPARAGUS. — Cutting  of  Asparagus  begins  when  the  tips  of  the  shoots 
have  grown  Sin.  or  4in.  above  the  soil.  It  is  usually  cut  about  4in.  below 
the  surface  of  the  soil,  so  that  the  total  length  of  each  shoot  is  Sin.  to  9in. 
The  portion  above  the  soil  is  green  and  tender,  whilst  that  below  is  white, 
tough,  and  uneatable  ;  for  this  reason  some  growers  allow  the  green  portion 
to  grow  longer  and  then,  instead  of  cutting,  break  off  the  shoots  just  below 
the  surface,  so  getting  a  rather  shorter  shoot  but  one  that  is  of  much  better 
quality  by  being  almost  entirely  eatable.  All  the  shoots  long  enough  are 
cut,  whether  thick  or  thin,  and  are  then  sorted  into  two  or  three  grades, — 
"special,"  "ordinary,"  and  "sprue," — the  thickness,  length,  and  general 
appearance  of  the  sticks  being  the  guide.  They  are  then  tied  up  into  bundles 
or  bunches.  The  size  of  the  bundle  varies  with  the  season,  the  market  to 
which  it  is  sent,  and  the  custom  of  the  district  in  which  it  is  grown.  For 
instance,  in  the  London  district  a  market  bundle  of  "  grass  "  is  usually  100 
sticks,  whilst  those  sent  from  the  Evesham  district  contain  120,  each  bundle 
being  composed  of  six  small  bundles  of  20  sticks  each.  Each  bundle  has 


Grading,  Packing,  and  Marketing.  387 

two  ties  of  raffia,  or  two  rubber  bands,  one  near  the  top  and  one  near  the 
bottom  ;  for  the  large  bundles  the  tie  is  sometimes  a  slender  willow  "  twig." 
Various  devices  are  used  for  arranging  the  sticks  into  bundles  neatly  and 
expeditiously ;  one  of  the  simplest  but  must  useful  of  these  contrivances  is 
the  cradle  illustrated  at  page  151.  In  making  the  bundles  the  heads  of  the 
sticks  are  kept  level,  and  the  bottoms  are  trimmed  level  with  a  sharp  knife. 
The  bundles  are  wrapped  in  paper  or  leaves  (the  latter  having  the  effect  of 
keeping  them  fresher)  and  are  packed  for  market  in  baskets  with  or  without 
lids,  hay  or  similar  material  being  placed  over  the  bottom  and  round  the 
sides,  and  also  over  the  top  when  no  lid  is  used,  to  protect  the  contents 
from  being  bruised.  The  produce  should  be  sent  to  market  as  soon  as 
possible  after  cutting  as  it  quickly  deteriorates.  Different  qualities  must 
be  packed  separately,  and  the  label  on  each  basket  should  be  plainly  marked 
with  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  contents. 

BEANS  (BROAD).— The  Beans  must  be  gathered  as  soon  as  the  pods 
reach  maturity,  choosing  a  dry  day  for  the  purpose.  All  old  or  dirty  pods 
must  be  rejected.  Gathering  should  be  done  twice  a  week  to  ensure  the 
best  results.  The  pods  should  be  put  in  bushel  baskets,  covered  with  fresh- 
cut  grass,  and  fastened  down  with  sticks  laid  across.  The  Beans  should  be 
sent  to  market  as  soon  as  possible  after  gathering. 

BEANS  (DWARF,  or  FRENCH).— On  good  land  in  a  favourable  season 
French  Beans  mature  very  quickly.  The  plants  must  therefore  be  closely 
watched,  and  the  pods  picked  the  moment  they  are  ready.  If  allowed  to 
hang  too  long  the  plants  cease  to  bear  and  the  pods  become  stringy  and 
worthless.  The  plants  should  be  gone  over  two  or  three  times  a  week,  as 
the  oftener  the  Beans  are  gathered  the  better  the  quality  and  the  greater 
the  yield.  The  pods  of  the  main-crop  are  carefully  laid  in  peck  baskets, 
lined  and  covered  with  blue  tissue  paper,  with  a  layer  of  soft  hay  or  grass 
on  top  secured  by  wooden  splinths.  Beans  which  have  been  brought  along 
early  are  usually  marketed  in  overhandle  baskets  ;  these  are  carefully  packed 
as  before,  being  either  covered  with  a  lid  or  with  blue  paper  laced  over  the 
top  with  string  or  raffia.  Each  package  should  be  marked  with  the  weight 
of  the  contents  and  all  should  be  uniform. 

BEANS  (RUNNER).— Scarlet  Runners,  like  the  dwarfs,  must  be  gathered 
very  frequently,  or  the  pods  become  tough,  stringy,  and  worthless.  The 
Beans  are  usually  picked  by  women  on  piece-work;  before  packing  it  is 
necessary  to  examined  the  baskets  to  see  that  the  Beans  are  clean,  free 
from  leaves  or  rubbish,  and  that  no  old  pods  are  mixed  in.  They  are  put  in 
half-bushel  or  bushel  baskets,  covered  over  the  top  with  a  layer  of  soft  hay 
and  secured  with  sticks.  Send  them  to  market  promptly  so  that  they  will 
arrive  in  fresh  plump  condition. 

BEET.— The  marketing  of  Beet  usually  begin  >•  October  and  continues 
through  the  winter,  the  roots  being  taken  from  the  clamp  as  required. 
Only  medium-sized  roots  of  even  shape,  and  none  that  are  broken  or 
damaged  in  any  way  should  be  sent  to  market.  The  roots  are  packed  in 
bushel  baskets  with  a  covering  of  hay  or  straw  securely  fastened  down. 


388  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

BORECOLE,  or  KALE.— There  is  not  much  sale  for  Kale  until  the  weather 
gets  severe ;  then  the  demand  usually  becomes  good  and  the  price  remu- 
nerative. For  this  reason  the  crop  should,  if  possible,  be  allowed  to 
stand  until  wanted.  When  they  are  picked,  only  the  young  growths  and 
perfect  leaves  should  be  packed,  decaying  and  discoloured  foliage  being 
rejected.  The  "greens"  are  packed  in  bags  or  in  baskets,  according  to  the 
requirements  of  the  salesman,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  pack  as  tightly 
as  possible,  as  when  the  receptacles  are  only  partly  filled  dissatisfaction  is 
caused  and  low  prices  realised. 

BROCCOLI. — The  cutting  of  Broccoli  begins  with  the  cold  weather,  as 
soon  as  the  autumn  cauliflowers  are  over,  and  continues  to  the  beginning 
of  the  following  summer,  according  to  the  season,  the  successional  sowings 
made,  and  the  varieties  grown.  The  crop  is  usually  arranged  that  the  bulk 
of  the  supplies  are  placed  on  the  market  from  March  onwards.  The  heads 
are  cut  so  as  to  be  surrounded  with  a  fringe  of  leaves,  and  these  in  turn  are 
trimmed  so  as  to  expose  the  flower,  but  projecting  a  little  beyond  it  to  afford 
a  slight  protection.  They  are  graded  into  two  classes — "  bests,"  consisting 
of  large,  clean,  compact,  white  heads,  and  "  seconds,"  which  are  composed 
of  those  smaller  and  less  perfect.  Discoloured  or  damaged  heads,  or  those 
which  are  overgrown  and  open,  should  not  be  sent  to  market.  They  are 
packed  in  crates  and  are  sold  by  the  "  tally  "  of  five  dozen. 

SPROUTING  BROCCOLI  is  generally  most  in  demand  after  the  turn  of  the 
year,  when  cabbages  and  savoys  are  getting  scarce  and  white  broccoli  has 
not  yet  appeared  on  the  market  in  quantity.  The  sprouting  heads  are 
broken  off  with  a  small  piece  of  the  stem  attached,  and  packed  firmly  in 
bags  or  bushel  baskets.  Care  should  be  taken  only  to  pack  young  growths 
with  tender  stems,  old  and  tough  stems  being  very  objectionable. 

BRUSSELS  SPROUTS. — The  picking  of  Brussels  Sprouts  usually  begins 
in  October  and  continues  through  the  winter  months  until  about  February, 
by  which  time  the  crop  is  generally  finished.  The  plants  are,  as  a  rule, 
gone  over  two  or  three  times,  the  largest  only  being  removed  each  time, 
but  some  growers  will  wait  until  a  breadth  of  plants  are  ready,  then  have 
them  pulled  up  by  the  roots  and  carted  to  the  sheds,  where  the  Sprouts  arc 
stripped  and  graded  into  two  qualities  and  the  tops  cut  off  and  bagged. 
In  a  few  provincial  towns  it  is  customary  to  send  the  whole  plant  into 
market  after  cutting  off  the  roots.  Several  methods  of  marketing  Sprouts 
are  employed  ;  in  some  markets  "pot"  baskets  are  used,  in  others,  especially 
late  in  the  season,  they  are  sold  in  Jcwt.  bags,  but  for  the  most  part  they 
are  packed  in  half-bushel  baskets  of  20lbs.  early  in  the  season  and  in  bushel 
baskets  of  40lbs.  later.  After  the  Sprouts  are  cleared  the  tops  are  cut  off 
and  sent  to  market  in  bags  containing  £cwt.  Where  the  crop  is  grown  in 
quantity  picking  is  usually  done  by  women  ;  the  customary  price  paid  is 
2£d.  for  picking  and  packing  a  half-bushel  ready  for  despatch,  or  2d.  when 
the  basket  is  not  made  up. 

CABBAGES. — The  cutting  of  spring  Cabbages  usually  begins  in  February, 
when  alternate  plants  and  rows  from  close-set  plantations  are  cut  out  and 


Grading,  Packing,  and  Marketing.  389 

sent  to  market  half-grown,  packed  in  crates.  At  this  time  choice  green- 
stuff is  getting  rather  scarce  and  these  Spring  Greens  or  small  Cabbages 
meet  with  an  excellent  demand  at  good  prices.  Following  these,  marketing 
of  larger  heads  should  be  begun  as  soon  as  possible,  the  field  being  gone 
over  and  those  selected  which  have  made  good  firm  hearts.  The  earlier 
they  are  marketed  the  higher  is  the  price  obtained.  Early  Cabbages  are 
usually  forwarded  to  London  salesmen  in  light  wicker  crates  known  as 
"tallies,"  each  of  which  contains  five  dozen  heads.  Later  in  the  season 
Cabbages  are  packed  directly  on  wagons  and,  where  possible,  sent  to  market 
by  road  ;  in  some  cases  they  are  loaded  directly  into  railway  trucks  and  so 
forwarded  to  market. 

CARROTS. — The  pulling  of  young  Carrots  begins  at  the  second  thinning, 
as  soon  as  the  young  roots  are  from  Jin.  to  fin.  through  at  the  thickest  part. 
They  are  at  once  bunched,  then  washed  and  packed,  and  sent  to  market. 
When  Carrots  are  grown  on  hot-beds  the  crop  is  thinned  early  to  the  proper 
distance  apart,  before  they  have  attained  any  size,  and  are  then  left  until 
the  bulk  are  ready,  when  the  whole  bed  is  cleared.  These  forced  roots  are 
bunched  and  washed  in  the  same  way  as  the  young  roots  from  the  main-crop. 
The  size  of  the  bunch  varies  with  the  season  and  the  custom  of  different 
markets, — in  some  cases  a  dozen  roots  will  be  sufficient  whilst  in  others  fifty 
may  be  required,  and  the  price  obtained  varies  in  proportion.  The  tops  are 
left  on,  each  bunch  is  tied  up  neatly  with  raffia,  and  they  are  usually  packed 
in  lidded  hampers,  or  "pads,"  though  occasionally  any  other  baskets  or 
boxes  are  used  as  is  convenient.  They  should  be  consigned  in  even  numbers 
with  the  quantity  in  each  receptacle  marked  plainly  on  the  label. 

Main-crop  Carrots  are  lifted  in  October.  Those  not  immediately  sent  to 
market  have  the  tops  twisted  off,  leaving  £in.  or  .so  above  the  crown.  They 
are  then  stored  in  sand  or  in  clamps  (see  page  178),  and  are  sent  to  market 
through  the  winter,  as  required,  in  baskets  or  bags.  These  mature  roots 
are  marketed  both  washed  and  unwashed,  but  a  clean  and  even  sample 
makes  by  far  the  best  price. 

CAULIFLOWERS.— Under  ordinary  culture  cutting  of  Cauliflowers  begins 
in  August  and  continues  to  the  end  of  October,  but  under  intensive  culture 
cutting  begins  early  in  June.  As  a  general  rule  the  earlier  they  are  placed 
on  the  market  the  better  are  the  prices  obtained.  When  the  heads  begin 
to  come  ready  the  plantation  should  be  gone  over  every  two  or  three  days 
so  as  to  cut  them  just  at  the  right  time,  as  they  quickly  get  past  their  best 
by  becoming  too  open  in  the  flower,  which  should  be  allowed  to  develop 
to  its  full  size  but  be  cut  whilst  it  is  still  quite  firm,  close,  and  compact, 
and  the  flower  should  have  been  kept  white  and  clean  by  breaking  the 
midrib  of  one  of  the  large  leaves  and  bending  this  over  it  when  it  is  half 
formed.  Each  head  is  cut  with  a  fringe  of  large  leaves  and  these  are 
shortened  so  as  to  reveal  the  flower  but  standing  about  an  inch  higher  so  as 
to  afford  a  slight  protection.  The  heads  are  graded  into  two  qualities — 
"bests,"  which  embraces  all  the  large  and  perfect  ones,  and  "seconds,"  in, 
which  is  included  all  the  small  and  imperfectly  formed  ones,  but  not  those 


ft  aft  aflL    The 


:  -;>-..  r-    ::*: 


392  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

HERBS. — With  the  exception  of  Mint  and  Parsley,  which  appear  under 
separate  heads,  and  in  a  lesser  degree  of  Sage  and  Thyme  for  which  there 
is  a  moderate  sale,  the  culture  of  herbs  for  market,  except  in  some  few 
special  cases,  is  not  worth  the  grower's  attention.  When  there  is  any  sale 
the  various  herbs  are  in  the  majority  of  cases  made  into  small  bunches  and 
sold  by  the  dozen. 

HORSE-RADISH.— As  indicated  in  the  article  on  the  culture  of  this  root 
the  trade  in  it  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  continental  growers.  Still, 
there  is  a  steady  though  limited  demand,  and  there  is  no  good  reason  why 
the  grower  who  can  produce  a  good  sample  should  not  enter  into  competi- 
tion. The  roots  should  be  straight,  lOin.  to  12in.  long  and  from  l£in.  to  2in. 
in  diameter.  They  must  be  washed  and  tied  in  bundles  of  about  a  score. 
It  is  useless  to  send  to  the  market  thin  or  badly-shaped  roots.  Those  not 
marketed  immediately  after  lifting  can  be  kept  in  moist  sand,  where  they 
will  remain  in  good  condition  for  a  considerable  time. 

LEEKS. — There  is  not  a  great  demand  for  Leeks,  so  that  they  should  be 
sent  to  market  only  in  moderate  quantities  at  any  one  time.  The  plant  is 
quite  hardy,  and  the  crop  can  be  left  in  the  ground  to  be  lifted  as  re- 
quired. The  outer  leaves  are  stripped  off  but  the  roots  are  left  on,  then 
they  are  graded  into  sizes  and  tied  together  into  flat  fan-shaped  bunches  . 
containing  six  or  eight  heads,  according  to  size,  but  the  average  is  usually 
seven.  The  tie  is  made  just  at  the  bottom  of  the  green  portion,  so  that  the 
white  stems  will  spread  out  and  display  themselves.  The  leaves  are  then 
shortened  to  one  uniform  length,  and  the  bunches  well  washed  to  improve 
their  appearance.  They  are  packed  in  crates  or  baskets,  and  as  they  are 
sold  by  the  dozen  bunches  the  number  of  dozens  in  each  package  should  be 
plainly  marked  on  the  label. 

LETTUCES  (CABBAGE).— The  earliest  consignments  of  Lettuces  sent  to 
market  are  the  Cabbage  Lettuces  grown  in  French  gardens,  on  hot-beds 
and  in  cold  frames,  and  these  are  followed  by  those  grown  in  sheltered 
situations  in  the  open  in  market  gardens  generally  throughout  the  country. 
The  earliest  cutting  in  any  appreciable  quantity  begins  in  March  and  con- 
tinues increasingly  until  about  the  middle  of  May,  by  which  time  Cos 
Lettuces  are  appearing  on  the  market  in  quantity  and  the  demand  for  the 
Cabbage  variety  rapidly  diminishes;  there  continues,  however,  to  be  a 
limited  demand  throughout  the  season  as  long  as  they  are  available.  They 
should  be  cut  as  soon  as  they  have  good  firm  hearts,  and  then  graded  into 
"bests"  and  "seconds.'"  If  the  lower  leaves  of  those  grown  in  the  open 
are  much  discoloured  they  should  be  removed,  otherwise  the  root  is  the 
only  portion  cut  away.  They  are  packed  in  light  wooden  crates  or  in  flats, 
in  layers,  the  bottom  layer  being  put  root  part  downward,  the  next  layer 
root  end  up,  and  so  on.  They  are  sold  by  the  dozen,  and  should  be  packed 
in  even  numbers,  with  the  quantity  and  quality  in  each  package  marked 
plainly  on  the  label. 

LETTUCES  (COS).— The  earliest  Cos  Lettuces,  grown  under  cloches  or 
handlights,  or  in  cold  frames,  begin  to  come  ready  about  the  middle  of 


Grading,  Packing,  and  Marketing.  393 

April,  and  when  they  are  well-grown,  with  good  solid  hearts,  realise  very 
good  prices.  The  roots  and  broken  outer  leaves  are  trimmed  off,  and  in 
all  cases  a  tie  of  raffia  is  put  round  the  Lettuce  to  hold  the  leaves  com- 
pactly together,  even  though  it  may  not  seem  to  be  required.  These  early 
supplies  should  be  graded  into  three  qualities,  and  they  are  packed  on  their 
sides  in  crates  or  flats,  in  even  dozens  or  half-dozens,  with  the  number  and 
quality  of  each  parcel  marked  clearly  on  the  label.  Later  in  the  season  less 
trouble  is  taken  with  the  packing,  and  they  are  then  put  into  hampers  or 
larger  crates,  or  when  grown  in  considerable  quantities  they  are  packed  on 
market  wagons  or  loose  into  railway  trucks.  Frequently  these  supplies  are 
pulled  and  sent  to  market  with  root  and  soil  attached  to  the  plants,  but  this 
method  is  not  to  be  recommended ;  very  little  time  is  occupied  in  cutting 
off  the  roots  and  removing  the  rough  outer  leaves,  and  the  greatly  improved 
appearance  which  results  is  well  worth  the  time  and  trouble.  They  should 
be  graded  into  two  qualities, 'the  poorest  being  kept  at  home,  as  they  cer- 
tainly do  not  pay  to  send  to  market  in  the  face  of  the  heavy  consignments 
.of  good  quality  which  arrive  in  the  height  of  the  season.  These  later 
supplies  are  usually  sold  by  the  score. 

MELONS  (CANTALOUP).— The  first  cutting  of  Cantaloup  Melons  from 
frames  is  made  in  June,  and  supplies  continue  from  then  onward  to  Sep- 
tember. Great  care  is  required  to  cut  the  fruit  just  at  the  right  time  ;  for 
one  or  two  weeks  after  it  is  full-grown,  according  to  the  general  temperature, 
it  does  not  appear  to  change,  but  the  ripening  processes  are  at  work  in  the 
interior.  At  the  end  of  that  time  cracks  begin  to  appear  round  the  stalk, 
then  the  rind  assumes  a  yellowish  tinge,  and  the  fruit  gives  off  a  slight  but 
unmistakeable  perfume  which  gets  stronger  as  the  ripeness  advances.  At 
this  stage  it  is  in  perfect  condition  for  eating,  and  can  be  left  to  so  ripen 
for  local  customers  to  whom  it  can  be  delivered  by  hand,  but  it  would  be  a 
great  mistake  to  allow  it  to  get  to  this  stage  of  ripeness  before  cutting  for 
market  as  it  would  go  soft  in  places  and  probably  begin  to  decay  before 
reaching  the  consumer.  On  the  other  hand  it  must  not  be  cut  too  soon  or 
it  will  never  ripen  satisfactorily,  and  the  interior  will  be  more  like  a  turnip 
than  a  ripe  melon.  The  proper  time  to  cut  is  when  the  cracks  appear  round 
the  stalk  and  the  other  indications  of  approaching  ripeness  are  present  but 
still  faint.  If  sent  to  market  at  that  stage  it  will  usually  be  in  perfect 
condition  when  it  reaches  the  consumer,  but  some  further  discrimination 
.  must  be  used  according  to  the  season — when  it  is  very  hot  the  fruit  can  be 
cut  a  day  or  two  earlier  and  when  cold  it  can  remain  on  the  plant  a  little 
longer.  The  plants  should  be  examined  frequently,  so  that  no  fruits  arc 
allowed  to  remain  on  too  long.  When  they  cannot  conveniently  be  sent  to 
market  at  once,  as  at  the  end  of  the  week  and  especially  if  it  is  hot  weather, 
they  should  be  put  for  a  day  or  two  in  a  cool  place,  such  as  a  cellar,  so  that 
ripening  may  be  retarded.  The  fruit  is  cut  with  about  2in.  of  stem  attached, 
and  in  handling  and  packing  the  greatest  care  must  be  exercised  not  to 
break  this  off  or  the  selling  value  will  be  seriously  lowered.  The  fruit  is 
graded  into  "bests,"  "seconds,"  and  "thirds,"  and  for  extra  fine  specimens 


394  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

there  may  be  an  occasional  consignment  of  "specials."  In  packing,  each 
is  first  wrapped  in  tissue  paper,  then  bedded  in  and  surrounded  by  wood 
wool.  Boxes  or  flats  are  generally  used  in  which  to  send  them,  a  flat 
holding  from  two  to  five,  according  to  the  grade. 

MINT. — Mint  is  marketed  in  bunches  varying  in  size  with  the  season  ;  a 
bunch  of  forced  Mint  during  winter  usually  contains  from  twenty  to  thirty 
shoots,  but  as  the  season  advances  the  size  is  increased  until  it  is  as  large 
as  can  be  comfortably  held  in  one  hand.  Early  in  the  season  when  supplies 
are  small  they  are  packed  in  any  convenient  receptacle,  but  later,  flats, 
pads,  and  hampers  are  used. 

MUSHROOMS.— When  Mushroom  beds  begin  to  bear,  gathering  should 
be  done  two  or  three  times  a  week,  and  all  should  be  taken,  both  big  and 
little.  Allowing  the  Mushrooms  to  get  too  fully  open  before  gathering  tends 
to  exhaust  the  bed  and  shorten  the  crop.  They  should  not  be  broken  or  cut 
off,  but  should  be  pulled  out  of  the  bed  with  a  slight  twist,  so  as  to  bring 
away  the  base  cleanly.  Any  broken  parts  should  be  at  once  cut  out  with  a 
knife  and  the  holes  filled  up  with  fresh  soil.  Great  care  must  be  taken  in 
handling  the  Mushrooms  as  the  least  touch  on  the  gills  will  cause  them  to 
become  discoloured.  In  gathering,  the  base  of  the  stem  should  either  be 
placed  carefully  downward  in  the  basket  or  it  should  be  cut  off  at  once, 
otherwise  dirt  will  fall  into  the  gills.  They  should  be  graded  as  gathering 
proceeds  into  three  separate  baskets — one  for  the  largest  fully-open  ones, 
known  as  "broilers,"  a  second  for  the  smaller  half -open  and  small  round 
undeveloped  ones,  known  as  "cups"  and  "buttons,"  and  the  third  for  the 
rough  and  broken  ones.  Before  packing,  any  soil  adhering  must  be  cleaned 
off  with  a  piece  of  flannel.  They  are  packed,  stalks  downwards,  in  handle 
baskets  or  pecks,  lined  and  covered  with  blue  tissue  paper,  then  tied  down 
and  labelled,  with  the  grade  and  weight  marked  plainly  on  each. 

MUSTARD  and  CRESS.— As  soon  as  the  seed  leaves  are  fully  developed, 
Mustard  and  Cress  is  cut,  a  little  above  the  roots,  with  a  broad  sharp 
knife.  The  cut  should  be  made  boldly,  taking  a  swathe  about  Sin.  wide, 
then  the  Mustard  or  the  Cress  should  be  taken  up  with  both  hands  and 
stood  upright  in  punnets,  the  tops  being  kept  as  level  as  possible.  Enough 
should  be  taken  to  well  fill  the  punnet  at  the  first  attempt ;  this  may  be  rather 
difficult  to  the  inexperienced  but  with  a  little  practice  it  becomes  easy,  and 
makes  a  much  quicker  and  neater  job  than  when  the  punnet  is  filled  with 
several  small  lots.  Special  punnets  are  made  for  this  work,  known  by  the 
makers  as  punnets  for  "  Hot  and  Cold,"  and  this  is  also  the  term  generally 
used  for  Mustard  and  Cress  by  salesmen  in  the  market.  The  full  punnets 
are  packed  in  boxes  which  take  several  layers,  or  in  flats,  and  if  a  sheet  of 
paper  is  put  between  each  layer  they  may  stand  one  on  top  of  another  with- 
out injury,  but  they  must  be  packed  tightly  or  they  may  be  damaged  on  rail. 

ONIONS. — Autumn-sown  Onions  are  disposed  of  as  opportunity  occurs, 
from  the  time  they  are  harvested  to  the  end  of  the  summer,  as  they  do  not 
keep  well.  Spring-sown  Onions  are  put  on  the  market  from  harvesting 


Grading,  Packing,  and  Marketing.  395 

throughout  the  winter,  according  to  demand  and  prices.  They  should  be 
firm,  sound,  and  clean,  cleared  of  loose  skins,  graded  into  two  or  three 
sizes,  and  packed  in  bags  containing  Jcwt.  or  Icvvt. 

The  bunching  of  Spring  or  Green  Onions  begins  as  soon  as  the  plants 
are  large  enough,  generally  early  in  March,  and  continues  through  April 
and  May.  The  size  of  the  bunches  varies  in  different  districts.  In  many 
places  they  are  tied  in  small  bunches  containing  twelve,  and  twelve  of 
these  are  tied  together  to  make  a  large  bunch  ;  in  other  districts  the  large 
bunch  contains  a  score  of  small  ones.  Before  tying  into  large  bunches 
they  are  well  washed.  Where  quantities  are  grown  the  washing  and  bunch- 
ing is  generally  done  by  piece-work.  They  are  despatched  to  market  in 
hampers.  SPRING-SOWN  ONIONS  are  often  sent  to  market  when  they  are 
half  or  three-parts  grown,  in  bunches  containing  from  six  to  twenty,  accor- 
ding to  the  size  of  the  Onions  and  the  market  they  are  sent  to. 

PARSLEY. — The  demand  for  Parsley  continues  practically  all  the  year 
round.  The  plants  are  sometimes  pulled  up  by  the  roots  and  bunched  in  that 
condition,  but  it  is  much  better  to  make  the  bunches  of  foliage  only,  which 
should  always  be  clean  and  bright.  The  size  of  the  bunch  varies  with  the 
season,  being  as  much  as  can  be  held  in  one  hand  during  the  summer  when 
it  is  plentiful,  and  not  more  than  a  quarter  that  size  in  winter  when  it  is 
scarce.  It  is  sent  to  market  in  flats,  pads,  or  hampers,  and  is  sold  by  the 
dozen  bunches. 

PARSNIPS. — These  are  ready  for  use  in  October  and  supplies  are  sent 
to  market  continuously  throughout  the  winter,  either  from  store  or  lifted 
fresh  from  the  ground,  as  required.  In  the  latter  case  the  roots  are  in 
better  condition  and  of  superior  flavour,  but  it  is  not  always  convenient  for 
the  grower  to  allow  them  to  continue  occupying  the  ground.  They  are 
often  sent  to  market  in  a  very  rough  and  dirty  condition,  but  this  is  a  bad 
practice  and  should  be  condemned.  They  should  be  washed  and  graded 
into  two  even  samples,  whilst  the  rough  and  ill-shaped  roots  should  be 
disposed  of  for  cattle  feeding.  They  are  sent  to  market  in  various  ways  as 
appears  the  most  convenient — bushel  baskets,  hampers,  sacks,  boxes,  and 
barrels  all  being  used,  and  where  they  are  grown  largely  they  are  fre- 
quently sent  loose,  in  road  wagons  or  railway  trucks. 

PEAS. — Picking  of  the  earliest  Peas  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  pods 
give  evidence  that  the  enclosed  seed  has  developed  to  a  useful  size.  Some 
growers  are  in  such  a  hurry  to  get  early  Peas  on  the  market  that  they  send 
stuff  which  is  practically  all  pod,  the  Peas  which  they  should  contain  being 
an  almost  negligible  quantity.  Such  a  proceeding  is  not  a  long  way  from 
dishonesty,  and  brings  early  produce  into  disrepute  with  the  deluded  pur- 
chaser. The  first  pickings  should  be  consigned  in  half-bushel  baskets, 
covered  with  grass  or  vegetable  leaves,  and  fastened  down  with  crossed 
sticks.  Different  varieties  should  not  be  mixed  together  when  it  can  be 
avoided,  and  where  a  good  class  direct  trade  is  done  it  may  be  sometimes 


396  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

advisable  to  divide  the  pods  of  one  variety  into  two  grades.  As  the  season 
reaches  its  height  the  Peas  are  consigned  in  bags  supplied  specially  for 
the  purpose  by  salesmen,  vast  quantities  being  sent  to  market  in  this  way. 
As  soon  as  the  rush  of  supplies  is  over  half-bushel  baskets  arc  again  used 
to  the  *nd  of  the  season.  When  picking  once  begins  the  plants  need  going 
over  every  two  or  three  days,  as  the  pods  swell  rapidly,  and  to  allow 
them  to  become  too  old  not  only  spoils  the  sample  but  brings  the  bearing  of 
the  plants  to  a  speedy  end.  Where  Peas  are  grown  extensively  it  is  a 
common  practice  to  wait  until  the  bulk  is  ready  and  then  turn  into  the  field 
a  gang  of  women  and  children  who  pull  up  the  haulms  and  strip  them  of 
pods,  completely  clearing  the  ground  as  they  go.  When  this  method  is 
followed  a  large  field  is  sown  in  sections,  at  intervals  of  a  few  days,  so  that 
none  will  get  too  old  before  being  gathered. 

POTATOES.— Very  early  Potatoes  are  usually  sent  to  market  in  half- 
bushel  baskets,  and  later  in  pads,  hampers,  pots,  and  barrels  with  wicker 
lids, — in  fa'ct,  in  anything  in  which  they  can  be  conveniently  packed,  this 
being  a  matter  in  which  the  choice  generally  rests  with  the  salesman  who 
sends  the  empties.  The  important  thing  is  to  properly  sort  and  grade  them, 
rejecting  altogether  all  damaged,  diseased,  or  very  small  ones,  and  to  handle 
them  very  carefully  so  as  not  to  bruise  them  or  break  the  skin.  In  packing, 
a  little  soft  material,  such  as  Potato  tops  or  rough  hay,  is  put  at  the  bottom 
of  the  receptacle  and  a  little  more  on  the  top,  which  is  then  fastened  down 
with  splinths.  "  Topping"  should  never  be  practised,  but  the  tubers  should 
be  of  even  quality  throughout,  and  of  even  weight  in  each  package,  the 
weight  being  marked  plainly  on  the  label. 

Main-crop  Potatoes  do  not  require  the  same  care  in  handling  that  earlies 
do,  because  being  matured  they  do  not  so  easily  bruise  and  the  skin  is 
tougher.  They  are  sent  to  market  in  bags ;  in  the  London  district  these 
usually  contain  from  1  cwt.  to  2  cwt.  each,  but  further  north  they  are  con- 
signed by  the  "load"  or  "half -load"  (a  "load"  consists  of  18  stones  of 
141bs.).  When  prices  are  good  at  least  a  portion  of  the  crop  is  usually 
despatched  to  market  direct  from  the  field,  in  which  case  a  weighing 
machine  is  kept  close  to  the  pickers,  and  the  Potatoes  are  put  into  bags 
which  are  immediately  weighed,  tied,  and  labelled.  Women  are  employed 
for  picking  up  the  Potatoes,  and  the  grading  is  usually  done  at  the  same 
time,  one  collecting  the  largest  sound  tubers,  known  as  "ware,"  another 
the  middle-sized  ones,  known  as  "seed,"  and  a  third  the  smallest,  and 
diseased  or  damaged  ones,  known  as  "chats"  and  "tail."  The  ware  is 
sent  to  market,  and  when  the  size  of  these  is  very  irregular  it  pays  to 
sort  them  into  two  samples  each  of  fairly  even  size ;  the  seed  is  usually 
disposed  of  at  home,  though  some  salesmen  will  undertake  the  sale  of  it, 
and  in  times  of  great  scarcity  it  is  often  sorted  over  again  and  the  best 
sold  as  ware ;  the  tail  and  chats  are  disposed  of  locally  for  pig  feeding. 
The  Potatoes  not  dispatched  directly  from  the  field  are  clamped,  or  stored 
in  a  dry  cool  shed  where  they  will  be  safe  from  frost,  and  they  are  then 
marketed  as  opportunity  and  prices  dictate. 


Grading,  Packing,  and  Marketing.  397 

RADISHES. — Radishes  mature  very  quickly,  and  as  soon  as  they  are  seen 
to  be  swelling  the  beds  should  be  examined  frequently  and  the  most  forward 
roots  pulled.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  too  large.  Now-a-days  it 
it  is  useless  to  grow  big,  coarse,  strong-flavoured  Radishes,  the  demand 
being  for  small,  crisp,  delicate-flavoured  roots.  They  are  bunched  for 
market,  the  size  of  the  bunch  varying  with  the  season  ;  in  the  early  spring 
months  twelve  or  fourteen  roots  go  to  a  bunch,  but  later  in  the  season  they 
contain  from  twenty  to  thirty  roots.  Long  Radishes  are  made  up  into  flat 
bunches,  and  olive-shaped  or  Turnip  Radishes  into  round  bunches.  The 
roots  in  each  bunch  should  be,  as  far  as  possible,  of  equal  size,  and  the 
bunches  should  be  carefully  washed  before  packing.  They  are  sent  to 
market  in  flats,  hampers,  or  bushel  baskets,  and  are  sold  by  the  dozen. 

RHUBARB. — Forced  Rhubarb  is  made  up  into  small  bundles  containing 
from  two  or  three  sticks  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  to  eight  or  ten  later. 
The  sticks  should  be  pulled  as  soon  as  ready,  when  they  are  from  12in.  to 
15in.  long,  or  they  will  become  soft  and  spongy.  The  pulling  of  out-door 
produce  begins  when  the  sticks  are  from  Gin.  to  Sin.  long,  and  these  are 
made  up  into  bundles  weighing  about  3lbs. ;  later,  as  the  crop  gets  more 
plentiful,  the  bundles  are  made  to  weigh  5  or  6lbs.  When  the  leaves  get 
well  developed  they  are  cut  off  to  within  about  2in.  of  the  stalks,  which  are 
then  laid  with  the  heads  reversed  alternately,  so  as  to  make  a  neat  and 
even  bundle,  secured  by  two  ties,  one  near  each  end. 

SALSIFY  and  SCORZONERA.—  These  roots  are  lifted  in  November,  care 
being  taken  not  to  injure  them.  They  may  be  marketed  at  once  or  stored 
and  marketed  in  small  quantities  through  the  winter.  The  roots  are  graded 
into  even  sizes  and  tied  up  in  bundles  of  about  a  dozen.  They  are  packed 
in  flats,  with  a  little  soft  hay  at  top  and  bottom  to  prevent  damage. 

SAVOY  CABBAGES.— The  cutting  of  Savoys  usually  begins  in  October 

'  and  continues  to  February  or  March,  the  largest  and  firmest  heads  being 

selected  at  each  cutting  until  the  field  is  cleared.    They  are  sent  to  market 

in  large  wicker  crates  holding  a  tally,  or  five  dozen  heads,  loose  in  railway 

trucks,  or  by  road  packed  on  wagons. 

SEAKALE.— Seakale  is  in  season  from  November  to  the  following  spring. 
The  heads  are  cut  when  about  6in.  long,  with  a  small  piece  of  root  attached. 
None  should  be  sent -to  market  which  has  become  coloured  by  exposure  to 
light,  as  then  the  flavour  is  very  strong  and  the  quality  inferior.  After 
cutting,  the  heads  should  be  washed.  In  packing,  first  wrap  the  heads  in 
blue  tissue  paper,  making  a  flattish  bundle  and  leaving  an  inch  or  two  of 
the  upper  part  displayed ;  then  lay  the  bundle  flat  across  a  shallow  punnet, 
and  secure  it  with  raffia.  The  weight  of  a  punnet  varies  from  lib.  to  3lbs. 
according  to  the  season,  but  some  growers  maintain  a  regular  weight  of 
2lbs.  per  punnet  throughout.  The  punnets  are  packed  in  flats,  in  which 
they  must  be  very  carefully  secured  to  prevent  damage  in  transit,  as  the 
stalks  are  easily  broken  and  spoiled. 


398  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

SHALLOTS. — The  crop  is  lifted  in  July,  and  after  being  allowed  to  dry 
for  a  few  days  the  bulbs  are  then  divided  and  cleaned.  They  are  usually 
consigned  to  market  in  autumn,  in  peck  or  half-bushel  baskets,  weighing 
12lbs.  and  24lbs. 

SPINACH. — When  the  plants  have  made  strong  growth  the  largest 
leaves  are  picked  singly.  In  this  way  the  plants  will  yield  several  times,  but 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  pick  them  too  closely,  especially  in  winter  when 
growth  is  slow,  or  the  plants  will  be  ruined.  During  spring  and  summer 
many  growers  wait  until  the  plants  are  well-grown  and  then  cut  them  off 
close  to  the  ground,  so  securing  only  one  gathering  from  each  sowing  but 
saving  much  on  the  labour  bill.  The  leaves  are  packed  in  baskets  and  pads. 
When  open-topped  baskets  are  used  the  Spinach  is  covered  with  leaves  or 
freshly-cut  grass,  and  fastened  down  with  crossed  splinths. 

STRAWBERRIES.— To  be  at  its  best  the  Strawberry  should  be  put  on 
the  market  within  a  few  hours  of  the  time  it  is  gathered,  whilst  it  still 
retains  its  bloom  and  brilliant  colour.  This  is  only  possible  where  the 
plantation  is  within  easy  distance  of  the  market  or  of  a  main  line  of  railway. 
In  such  cases  gathering  begins  soon  after  daybreak,  and  the  fruit  arrives  on 
the  market  while  the  day  is  still  young.  Where  it  is  impossible  to  secure 
these  conditions  the  fruit  should  be  gathered  and  packed  when  quite  dry, 
and  sent  to  market  by  a  train  which  will  ensure  its  delivery  in  the  small 
hours  of  the  following  morning.  It  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that 
Strawberries  will  not,  under  any  circumstances,  stand  rough  handling  or 
long  confinement,  and  their  tenderness  in  this  respect  is  emphasised  in  a 
wet  season,  when  they  need  handling  with  the  greatest  care  and  under  dry 
conditions.  Watery  fruit  which  has  been  packed  for  a  number  of  hours  and 
subjected  to  the  continuous  jolting  of  a  long  journey  by  rail  often  arrives 
at  the  market  in  a  practically  worthless  condition,  by  being  semi-pulped  and 
mouldy.  Forced  or  forwarded  Strawberries  and  choice  fruit  from  the 
open  beds  should  be  packed  in  £lb.  and  lib.  punnets,  or  in  a  single  layer  in 
shallow  wooden  boxes  holding  lib.  In  all  cases  punnetted  or  boxed  fruit 
should  have  leaves  below  and  above,  as  well  as  between  the  individual  fruit 
so  that  none  touch  ;  they  should  be  packed  firmly  but  without  crushing,  and 
in  such  a  way  that,  given  fair  treatment,  there  is  no  chance  of  movement 
during  the  journey.  The  punnets  should  be  packed  in  stout  wooden  boxes, 
specially  made  for  the  purpose ;  these  are  fitted  with  shelves  and  each  hold 
from  one  to  three  dozen  punnets,  the  lid  being  tied  on  with  string.  These 
boxes  have  to  be  provided  by  the  grower,  are  returnable,  and  with  care  will 
last  for  several  years.  The  next-best  fruit  from  the  field  should  go  in  chip 
baskets  holding  any  given  weight  from  3lb.  to  6lb.  according  to  the  custom 
of  the  market  or  the  desire  of  the  salesman.  Large  quantities  are  sent  to 
market  in  peck  baskets  holding  12lbs.,  but  for  fruit  of  good  quality  this  is 
too  heavy  a  weight  to  go  in  one  package,  and  peck  baskets  should  be  re- 
served for  second  quality  fruit  and  clearings,  especially  as  chips  are  so 
cheap  and  convenient. 


Grading,  Packing,  and  Marketing.  399 

TOMATOES.— Gathering  begins  from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  middle 
of  August,  according  to  the  method  of  culture  and  the  warmth  of  the  season, 
and  in  a  mild  autumn  generally  continues  until  about  the  middle  of  October. 
The  fruit  is  always  of  better  quality  when  allowed  to  remain  on  the  plants 
until  ready  for  packing,  but  where  blackbirds  are  troublesome  the  earliest 
should  be  gathered  as  soon  as  they  show  a  slight  change  of  colour  and 
finished  under  cover  (read  carefully  pages  350-351).  The  fruit  should  be 
gathered  with  the  calyx  and  stalk  attached,  the  fresh  green  calyx  adding 
materially  to  its  attractiveness.  Three  grades  should  be  made — "bests," 
consisting  of  smooth  round  fruit,  perfect  in  quality  and  of  even  size ; 
"seconds,"  which  are  those  irregular  in  size  and  shape  but  still  of  good 
quality ;  and  "  thirds,"  which  embraces  all  the  rough,  ugly,  and  small  fruit. 
None  that  is  cracked  or  bruised  should  be  included,  and  any  which  is 
diseased  should  be  at  once  burned.  The  two  better  grades  are  generally 
packed  in  handle  baskets  or  pecks,  each  holding  12lbs.,  and  the  thirds  are 
sent  in  pecks  or  half-bushels.  During  the  past  few  years  small  wooden 
boxes  holding  12lbs.,  provided  by  the  grower  and  non-returnable,  have  been 
largely  used  for  the  best  quality,  and  these  have  much  to  recommend  them, 
as  they  are  cheap,  the  salesman  handles  them  for  a  smaller  commission, 
they  sell  readily,  and  by  being  the  grower's  own  property  he  is  not  restricted 
in  choice  of  markets  during  a  period  of  glut.  In  packing,  a  little  wood  wool 
is  placed  over  the  bottom  of  the  basket  or  box,  then  the  sides  and  bottom 
are  lined  with  tissue  paper — pink  for  "bests,"  blue  for  "seconds," — of  which 
sufficient  must  overhang  the  edge  to  cover  over  the  top  when  full.  The 
best  fruit  is  arranged  in  layers  with  the  stalks  downward ;  the  second  and 
third  grades  do  not  receive  so  much  care,  the  fruit  being  left  just  as  it  falls 
into  the  receptacle,  but  the  top  layer  of  seconds  is  usually  arranged  with 
the  face  upwards. 

TURNIPS. — Early  Turnips,  whether  grown  in  frames  or  in  the  open,  are 
make  up  into  bunches  containing  about  twelve  roots,  after  which  they  are 
well  washed  and  packed  in  pads,  hampers,  or  bushel  baskets ;  they  are  sold 
by  the  dozen  bunches.  Later  they  have  the  tops  and  tap  root  removed, 
and  after  being  washed  are  consigned  to  market  in  bushel  baskets  or  bags, 
being  sold  by  the  cwt.  or  ton.  TURNIP  TOPS  are  cut  as  soon  as  they  begin 
to  grow  freely  in  spring,  whilst  they  are  still  young  and  tender,  and  are 
usually  consigned  in  salesmen's  bags,  but  sometimes  in  crates  or  hampers. 

VEGETABLE  MARROWS.— Marrows  started  early  should  begin  to  bear 
in  the  first  or  second  week  of  July.  The  fruit  should  be  cut  before  it  has 
reached  full  size,  as  it  is  then  of  better  flavour  and  the  plants  continue  to  bear 
longer.  In  gathering  they  should  be  handled  carefully,  so  that  the  tender 
surface  will  not  get  bruised  and  disfigured.  For  a  few  weeks  the  earliest 
Marrows  are  packed  in  flats,  becked  in  soft  hay,  and  are  sold  by  the  dozen, 
when  they  generally  realise  good  prices.  As  they  get  more  plentiful  they 
are  consigned  in  large  wicker  crates,  and  in  the  London  markets  are  usually 
sold  by  the  tally  of  five  dozen.  Large  growers  often  consign  them  loose  in 
carts  or  wagons  or  in  railway  trucks. 


INSECT  PESTS  &  FUNGOID  DISEASES 

WHICH    ATTACK    VEGETABLES; 

BEING  A  DESCRIPTION   OF  THOSE  MOST  IMPORTANT, 
WITH   PREVENTIVE  MEASURES  AND  REMEDIES. 


THE  difficulties  to  be  overcome  before  a  profitable  crop 
of  vegetables  can  be  grown  are  many  and  great  enough 
when  the  effects  of  bad  weather  and  other  unsuitable  conditions 
alone  are  considered,  but  in  practice  these  difficulties  are 
greatly  increased  by  the  liability  of  so  many  crops  to  attack 
from  insect  and  fungoid  enemies.  Some  knowledge  of  these 
enemies  and  of  their  life-history  is  of  importance  to  the  grower, 
to  enable  him  to  take  steps  to  prevent  their  spreading  and  to 
minimise  the  damage  to  the  crop.  A  brief  account  of  the 
most  important  of  these  pests  and  diseases,  and  the  treatment 
appropriate  to  each,  will  be  found  in  the  pages  following. 

Before  dealing  with  remedies  it  will  be  worth  while  to  con- 
sider general  preventive  measures  which,  though  they  cannot 
ensure  immunity  from  attacks,  will  generally  lessen  their 
number  and  virulence,  and  prevent  their  becoming  epidemic. 

All  crops  should  be  grown  under  conditions  which  approxi- 
mate, as  nearly  as  is  practicable,  to  those  natural  to  the  plant ; 
the  further  these  conditions  are  departed  from,  the  more 
unhealthy  the  growth  and  the  greater  the  liability  to  damage 
from  pests  and  diseases. 

Each  plant  must  be  allowed  sufficient  space  for  develop- 
ment :  an  overcrowded  crop  is  generally  unhealthy  and  seldom 
profitable. 

Proper  drainage,  good  cultivation,  and  suitable  manuring,  by 
inducing  sturdy  and  robust  growth,  increase  the  powers  of  the 
plant  to  resist  disease,  and  make  it  less  liable  to  attack  from 
insect  pests.  When  nitrogenous  manures  are  used  in  excess  of 


Insect  Pests  a  net  Fungoid  Diseases.  401 

the  plants'  requirements  a  soft  unripened  growth  is  made, 
which  is  very  liable  to  attack  from  fungi. 

Though  a  strict  rotation  is  impossible  and  inadvisable  in 
gardening  it  is  always  better,  when  practicable,  to  arrange  the 
crops  so  that  plants  of  the  same  families  do  not  immediately 
succeed  each  other,  and  under  no  circumstances  should  a 
diseased  crop.be  followed  with  another  of  the  same  family,  as 
this  would  almost  certainly  be  affected  by  the  same  disease, 
and  probably  to  a  more  serious  extent  than  its  predecessor. 

Acid  soils — i.e.,  those  deficient  in  lime — are  favourable  to  the 
development  of  certain  pernicious  soil  fungi,  such  as  that 
causing  "  finger  and  toe"  in  turnips,  and  when  superphosphates 
or  other  acid  manures  are  used  on  acid  soils  the  crop  becomes 
still  more  liable  to  attack.  All  such  soils  should  be  dressed 
with  slaked  lime  before  cropping,  and  a  moderate  dressing  at 
intervals  of  three  or  four  years  will  do  much  to  improve  their 
general  condition  and  eradicate  these  objectionable  fungi. 

Crops  which  are  especially  subject  to  disease,  like  potatoes 
or  tomatoes,  should  always  receive  one  or  more  protective 
sprayings  with  a  suitable  fungicide,  whether  disease  is  visible 
or  not.  It  is  much  easier  to  prevent  serious  infection  than  to 
kill  the  disease  when  it  is  established  in  the  tissues  of  the  plant. 

The  method  of  disposal  of  diseased  plants,  or  parts  of  plants, 
is  of  great  importance.  They  should  not  be  dug  into  the  ground 
or  left  lying  about  in  rotting  heaps,  because  even  a  small  piece 
of  tissue  in  which  the  fungus  is  present  may  produce  spores 
and  so  act  as  a  centre  of  infection  for  a  future  crop,  whilst  a 
rotting  heap  would  disseminate  the  spores  in  millions  and  so 
endanger  future  crops  over  a  large  area.  All  such  diseased 
remains  should  be  burnt,  or  if  burning  is  not  practicable;  buried 
after  being  covered  with  quicklime.  Diseased  plants  or  roots 
should  never  be  fed  to  pigs  or  other  stock  unless  first  boiled. 
When  this  precaution  is  not  observed  the  germs  of  the  disease 
frequently  pass  uninjured  through  the  digestive  tract  of  the 
animals — indeed,  in  some  cases  they  benefit  by  the  process. 
Unconsumed  pieces  also  become  mixed  with  the  manure  and 
are  carried  on  to  the  land  to  infect  future  crops. 

Many  weeds  are  able  to  act  as  hosts  for  the  pests  and  diseases 
of  cultivated  plants,  and  do  so  act  in  the  absence  of  the  usual 

26 


402  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

host.  Therefore,  apart  from  other  considerations,  the  sup- 
pression of  weeds  is  of  importance  in  regard  to  the  health  of 
crops,  and  not  only  should  those  on  cultivated  land  receive 
attention,  but  also  those  on  headlands,  in  hedgerows,  and  on 
waste  places. 


SPRAYING  MACHINES  AND  THEIR  USE,  WITH 
MATERIALS  AND  FORMULA. 

SPRAYING  MACHINES.— For  the  smaller  holdings  knapsack  sprayers, 
of  which  there  are  several  good  makes  on  the  market,  are  probably  the 
handiest  machines.  They  are  cheap  and  effective,  need  only  one  man  to 
work  them,  and  will,  with  care,  last  many  years.  Those  fitted  with  brass 
ball-valves  should  have  the  preference  ;  some  machines  have  rubber  valves 
but  these  are  liable  to  be  injured  by  paraffin.  Ordinary  garden  syringes 
are  not  suitable  for  spraying  purposes ;  the  spray  is  too  coarse  and  much 
of  the  wash  is  wasted,  whilst  notwithstanding  this,  all  parts  of  the  plants 
do  not  get  properly  covered  with  the  wash. 

More  powerful  machines,  mounted  on  wheels  or  runners,  may  be  used. 
They  will  cover  much  more  ground  in  a  day  than  the  knapsacks,  but  require 
more  space  between  the  plants,  so  that  unless  the  crops  are  so  arranged 
that  all  the  plants  can  be  reached  by  the  spray  when  the  machine  is  on  a 
path,  or  unless  the  rows  are  a  considerable  distance  apart,  there  is  great 
difficulty  in  working  them  in  a  growing  crop.  They  have  the  further  dis- 
advantages of  greater  cost  and  of  generally  needing  three  men  to  work 
them.  It  is  therefore  only  on  the  larger  holdings,  or  where  a  group  of 
small  holders  combine  in  the  purchase  and  working  of  one,  that  these  larger 
machines  are  advisable. 

Every  machine  should  always  be  emptied  and  washed  out  with  clean 
water  immediately  after  using,  and  should  never  be  allowed  to  stand  with 
with  any  unused  wash  in  it. 

APPLYING  THE  WASH.— With  most  washes,  a  fine  misty  spray  with 
plenty  of  force  behind  it  is  advisable.  The  spraying  must  always  be  done 
thoroughly  and  completely,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  make  the  plants 
dripping  wet  to  ensure  this ;  an  even  damping  of  the  whole  plant  is  quite 
effective  and  much  more  economical  of  material.  Particular  attention 
must  be  given  to  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves  and  to  any  leaves  which 
are  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Repeated  sprayings  may  be  necessary, 
but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  one  spraying  thoroughly  done  is  much 
more  effective  than  two  only  partially  done. 

With  many  washes,  and  especially  so  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  it  is  im- 
possible to  get  an  even  distribution  of  the  solid  portion  of  the  wash  unless 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases.  403 

it  is  constantly  agitated  or  stirred.  With  knapsack  machines  this  can  be 
done  by  the  man  carrying  it  giving  it  an  occasional  shaking,  but  larger 
machines  should  be  fitted  with  some  efficient  means  of  agitating  the  liquid, 
and  in  purchasing  it  is  important  that  this  point  is  not  overlooked. 

MATERIALS. — There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  it  is 
better  for  the  gardener  to  mix  his  own  washes  or  to  buy  them  ready-made 
in  a  concentrated  form  from  horticultural  chemists.  For  the  large  grower, 
especially  if  he  has  had  some  practice  in  exact  weighing  and  measuring, 
and  has  some  knowledge  of  elementary  chemistry,  there  are  many  advan- 
tages in  buying  the  separate  ingredients  and  mixing  the  washes  at  home. 
The  quantities  he  will  use  and  the  better  physical  condition  of  some  washes 
wh&i  newly-made  make  it  worth  his  while  to  take  the  trouble  to  become 
efficient  in  the  mixing  of  them.  The  case  of  the  small  grower  is  different ; 
he  uses  relatively  small  quantities,  and  the  extra  convenience  of  concen- 
trated washes  generally  outweighs  any  disadvantages  they  may  have. 

The  following  are  the  washes  most  generally  useful  to  the  vegetable 
grower : — 

INSECTICIDES. 

ARSENATE  OF  LEAD.— This  is  the  best  form  in  which  to  use  arsenic 
for  insecticidal  purposes.  Paris  green  and  London  purple  also  contain 
arsenic,  but  are  much  more  likely  to  damage  the  foliage  and  are  certainly 
no  more  effective  than  arsenate  of  lead.  Of  the  latter  there  are  many 
good  brands  now  on  the  market,  and  it  is  unwise  for  the  grower  to  attempt 
to  make  .his  own.  Directions  for  use  are  given  with  the  purchased  chemical. 
The  amount  to  use  will  be  from  3  to  12  ozs.  in  10  gallons  of  water,  varying 
with  the  particular  insect  to  be  dealt  with.  This  compound  is  very 
poisonous  and  should  be  kept  under  lock  and  key  when  not  in  use;  it 
should  not  be  used  on  crops  within  six  weeks  of  harvesting. 

CARBON  BI-SULPHIDE.— This  is  ueful  to  destroy  soil  insects  on  small 
areas,  but  for  extensive  use  its  cost  is  prohibitive.  It  is  a  very  inflammable 
and  volatile  liquid  and  requires  careful  handling.  It  has  a  strong  and  dis- 
agreeable odour.  A  "  Vermorel  "  injector,  which  has  a  long  nozzle  and  a 
sharp  point,  is  a  very  suitable  instrument  with  which  to  apply  it.  The 
nozzle  is  thrust  about  Gin.  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  the  liquid  injected, 
and  the  soil  pressed  back  over  the  hole  left  by  the  nozzle.  Use  2ozs.  to  the 
square  yard. 

HELLEBORE  POWDER.— This  is  a  yellowish-brown  powder,  made  from 
the  root  of  Veratrum  album  and  V.  viride.  It  is  poisonous,  but  less  so 
than  arsenate  of  lead.  For  effective  use  it  must  be  freshly  ground,  as  it 
soon  loses  its  poisonous  properties  on  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  ;  hence  it 
is  particularly  adapted  for  use  on  crops  which  are  badly  attacked  by  cater- 
pillars within  a  few  weeks  of  ripening.  Two  applications  should  be  given 
with  a  short  interval  between.  It  may  be  used  dry,  either  alone  or  with 


404  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

once  or  twice  its  bulk  of  flour,  and  dusted  evenly  over  the  foliage  ;  or  it  may 
be  mixed  with  water  in  the  following  proportions  and  sprayed  over  the 
foliage : — 

Hellebore  Powder  (fresh),  loz. 

Water,  3  gallons. 

LIME. — This  has  some  insecticidal  and  fungicidal  properties  if  used  as  a 
dressing  to  the  soil  or  dusted  on  the  foliage,  although  it  is  used  chiefly  as  a 
preventive.  Applied  to  the  soil  it  prevents  and  corrects  acidity,  and  when 
dusted  on  the  leaves  makes  them  distasteful  to  insects  and  checks  egg- 
laying.  It  is  particularly  valuable  for  use  against  slugs.  Slaked  lime  is 
generally  preferable  to  quicklime,  and  air-slaked  lime  is  inferior  to  that 
properly  water-slaked ;  in  the  latter  case  it  falls  into  a  much  finer  ponder 
and  adheres  better.  In  slaking  lime  no  more  water  should  be  used  than 
will  thoroughly  wet  the  lumps  of  quicklime.  A  great  heat  is  then  produced 
and  injthe  course  of  15  or  20  minutes  a  very  fine  dry  powder  will  be  obtained. 
Care  should  be  exercised  to  avoid  using  an  excess  of  water  or  a  sloppy 
mess  will  be  formed  which  is  difficult  to  distribute  and  which  will  contain 
imperfectly  slaked  lumps.  Lime  may  be  mixed  with  sulphur  or  soot  before 
being  dusted  on  the  foliage,  and  the  dusting  should  be  done  whilst  the 
plants  are  damp  with  mist  or  dew. 

NICOTINE  makes  an  excellent  wash  for  soft-bodied  insects,  such  as 
aphides,  but  it  is  expensive.  It  forms  the  basis  of  many  proprietary 
insecticides.  It  may  safely  be  used  on  plants  which  are  too  tender  for 
paraffin  emulsion.  A  solution  guaranteed  to  contain  98  %  of  nicotine 
should  be  purchased.  Use  loz.  of  this  and  £oz.  of  soft  soap  to  10  gallons 
of  water. 

PARAFFIN  EMULSION  is  one  of  the  best  washes  for  aphides  and  other 
sucking  insects,  and  will  prevent  the  attacks  of  celery  fly,  &c.  It  is  easy 
to  prepare,  but  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  paraffin  forms  a  proper 
emulsion  with  the  soap  and  is  not  floating  on  the  surface,  otherwise  damage 
to  foliage  will  probably  result  from  its  use. 

To  make  the  emulsion  take 

Soft  Soap,  2£1  bs. 

Paraffin,  1  pint. 

Soft  Water  to  make  10  gallons. 

Boil  the  soap  in  ^-gallon  of  water,  and  while  it  is  very  hot  add  the  paraffin 
in  small  amounts,  churning  it  in  well  each  time  with  a  syringe  fitted  with  a 
rose  jet.  Continue  the  churning  for  a  few  minutes  after  the  last  addition 
of  paraffin,  and  then  with  the  syringe  transfer  the  mixture  to  another  vessel, 
using  plenty  of  force.  A  creamy  emulsion  should  now  be  formed  which 
should  be  permanent,  but  if,  after  standing  for  a  little  time,  the  paraffin 
separates  and  rises  to  the  surface,  re-heat  carefully  (in  the  open  for  fear  of 
accident)  and  churn  again  with  the  syringe. 

Dilute  to  10  gallons  before  use. 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases.  405 

FUNGICIDES. 

BORDEAUX  MIXTURE.— This  is  the  most  generally  useful  and  effec- 
tive fungicide.  On  some  plants,  and  especially  in  continuously  damp 
weather,  it  may  injure  the  foliage,  and  it  may  also  be  objectionable  on 
ripening  fruit,  as  it  leaves  a  visible  stain.  In  the  latter  case  cupram  may 
be  used  as  a  substitute.  A  really  fine  misty  spray,  backed  with  plenty  of 
pressure  in  the  machine,  is  necessary  to  get  the  best  results  from  this 
mixture.  It  should  be  used  within  twenty-four  hours  of  mixing  ;  when  left 
longer  than  this  it  is  difficult  to  keep  the  ingredients  in  suspension.  The 
same  tendency  to  settle  out  quickly  is  found  in  the  ready-prepared  powdered 
forms  of  Bordeaux  mixture  sold  under  various  names.  A  ready-made 
mixture  is  handier  to  use  than  a  home-made  one,  and  it  is  probably  safer 
in  inexperienced  hands,  and  the  Woburn  Bordeaux  paste  is  probably  the 
best  ready-made  form. 

To  make  ordinary  Bordeaux  mixture  take — 

Copper  Sulphate  (98  %),  4  Ibs. 
Quicklime  (in  lumps),  4  Ibs. 
Water,  50  gallons. 

If  the  sulphate  is  obtained  from  a  reliable  source  the  powdered  form  is 
best,  as  it  will  then  dissolve  in  water  much  more  quickly  than  when  in 
crystals.  Tie  it  in  a  coarse  bag  and  suspend  in  half  the  quantity  of  water 
in  a  wooden  vessel  (a  vessel  of  iron  or  tin  must  not  be  used).  Put  the  lime 
in  a  pail  with  a  small  quantity  of  water.  If  it  is  fresh  and  in  good  condition 
it  will  heat  up  well  and  crumble  to  a  fine  powder  in  about  fifteen  minutes. 
Stir  up  the  lime  in  the  remainder  of  the  water  and  run  it  through  a  medium 
strainer,  then  pour  gradually  into  the  copper  sulphate  solution,  stirring  well 
all  the  time.  The  mixture  should  be  allowed  to  settle  and  the  clear  liquid 
tested  for  free  copper.  To  do  this,  put  a  little  in  a  white  saucer  and  add  a 
few  drops  of  a  10  %  solution  of  potassium  ferrocyanide.  If  a  brown  pre- 
cipitate forms  add  more  lime  to  the  mixture  and  test  again.  Before  using 
pass  through  a  strainer  with  35  to  40  holes  to  the  linear  inch. 

The  following  modification  of  an  Italian  formula  is  given  by  Mr.  S.  U. 
Pickering,  of  Woburn,  and  has  given  excellent  results  with  us  : — 
Copper  Sulphate  (98  %),  2£lbs. 
Lime  Water,  34  gallons. 
Water  to  make  40  gallons  „ 

Dissolve  the  sulphate  in  2  gallons  of  soft  water.  Slack  2lbs.  good  quick- 
lime, as  directed  above,  and  put  the  powder  in  a  tub  with  about  60  gallons 
of  water ;  stir  once  or  twice  and  allow  it  to  settle.  Add  34  gallons  of  the 
clear  liquid  to  the  copper  sulphate  solution,  stirring  well ;  test  as  in  the 
first  formula,  and  add  more  lime-water  if  necessary, 

It  is  claimed  for  this  mixture  with  lime-water  that  it  is  more  economical 
than  the  ordinary  mixture,  is  more  quickly  effective,  is  less  liable  to  be 
knocked  or  washed  from  the  foliage,  and  is  more  easily  applied, 


406  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

CUPRAM  (Ammonia-Copper-Carbonate). — This  mixture,  although  a  valu- 
able fungicide,  is  less  effective  than  Bordeaux  mixture,  and  should  only  be 
used  on  ripening  crops,  or  in  other  cases  where  the  "white-washing"  effect 
of  the  Bordeaux  is  objectionable. 

Copper  Carbonate,  l^oz. 

Liquid  Ammonia  (26  %  Baume),  16  fluid  ozs. 

Water  to  make  10  gallons. 

Dilute  the  ammonia  with  12  pints  of  water  and  add  the  copper  carbonate. 
Add  only  a  small  quantity  at  a  time  and  let  this  be  well  dissolved  before 
any  more  is  put  in.  Dilute  to  10  gallons  before  use. 

SULPHATE  OF  COPPER  (Blue  Vitriol  or  Bluestone).— This   is   a   useful 
•fungicide  for  many  purposes,  but  it  must  not  be  applied  to  growing  plants 
or  it  will  burn  the  foliage.     It  may  be  used  to  wash  down  glasshouses,  lights 
and  frames  after  an  attack  of  disease,  to  clean  canes  or  stakes  which  have 
been  used  to  support  an  infected  crop,  to  dress  seed  which  may  be  sus- 
pected of  carrying  disease,  or  to  dress  ground  which  has  carried  a  diseased 
crop.     It  must  not  be  dissolved  in  iron  or  galvanised  vessels. 
Copper  Sulphate,  £lb.  to  lib. 
Water,  12  gallons. 

SULPHIDE  OF  POTASSIUM  (Liver  of  Sulphur).— Valuable  for  surface 
mildews,  and  when  mixed  with  soft  soap  may  be  used  against  red  spider  on 
cucumbers  or  melons. 

Use  from  2  to  8  ozs.  to  10  gallons  of  water,  according  to  the  tenderness 
or  otherwise  of  the  foliage.  If  soft  soap  is  added,  use  IJlbs.  of  soap  to  10 
gallons  of  wash. 

The  solution  must  be  used  at  once  after  preparation,  as  it  quickly  loses 
"  strength,"  and  any  undissolved  sulphide  kept  in  stock  must  be  kept  in 
tightly  corked  bottles. 

SULPHUR,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  equal  parts  of  slaked  lime,  is 
valuable  for  use  against  surface  mildews,  such  as  strawberry  mildew.  It 
may  be  applied  on  small  areas  with  an  "insect  powder"  bellows,  and  on 
more  extensive  places  with  a  knapsack  powder  pump.  It  adheres  to  the 
foliage  better,  and  is  therefore  more  effective,  if  applied  when  the  plants 
are  damp  with  dew  or  mist. 

INSECT  PESTS. 

INSECTS   HARMFUL   IN   GENERAL. 

APHIDES,  or  Plant  Lice. — Aphides  are  known  under  numerous  names, 
of  which  that  of  "green  fly"  is  perhaps  the  most  common,  although 
there  are  green,  black,  and  red  varieties.  They  are  small  soft-bodied 
insects,  and  are  both  winged  and  wingless;  as  a  rule  both  forms  occur 
in  each  generation.  Each  has  a  sharp  beak  at  the  head,  capable  of 
piercing  the  foliage  of  plants,  and  generally  two  protuberances  or  hollow 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases. 


407 


Cabbage  Aphis. 

1  and  2.  male ;  3  and  4,  wingless  female ; 
natural  size  and  magnified. 


tubes  near  the  end,  through  which  it  is  supposed  that  they  pass  excretions. 
Aphides  injure  plants  both  by  sucking  out  the  sap  and  so  weakening  their 
vitality,  and  also  by  interfering  with  the  functions  of  the  leaves  by  blocking 
up  the  stomata  or  pores  with  their  excretions,  known  as  "honey-dew," — 
a  sticky  substance  much  relished  by  ants,  which  often  ascend  the  plants  to 
obtain  it.  Some  aphides  cause  the  leaves  to  curl,  so  enclosing  them  and 
making  it  difficult  to  reach  them  with  washes. 

Aphides  are  almost  incon- 
cievably  prolific.  They  not 
only  produce  eggs  which 
hatch  out  in  due  course,  but 
produce  young  alive.  They 
not  only  breed  in  the  ordin- 
ary way  but  the  fecundation 
of  one  female  is  sufficient  to 
render  twenty  succeeding 
generations  fertile,  each  of 
the  young  aphis  being  able 
in  a  very  short  time  to  pro- 
duce further  living  young. 
There  is  scarcely  a  culti- 
vated crop  which  does  not  suffer  more  or  less  from  aphide  attacks,  almost 
every  variety  of  plant  having  its  own  particular  aphis,  of  which  the  Cabbage 
Aphis  illustrated  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  sample  of  the  type.  When  their 
extraordinary  powers  of  reproduction  are  considered  it  will  be  seen  that  if 
allowed  to  multiply  unchecked  they  would  soon  over-run  and  cripple  a  crop. 
Dry  hot  weather  which  is  unfavourable  to  the  growth  of  plants  is  very 
favourable  to  the  increase  of  aphides,  and  if  they  are  allowed  to  get  a  firm 
hold  of  a  crop  under  such  circumstances  they  may  totally  destroy  it. 

Treatment : — Spray  the  plants  with  paraffin  emulsion  or  nicotine ;  or 
soft  soap  may  be  used  (6  to  lOlbs.  of  soft  soap  to  100  gallons  of  soft  water) 
where  the  attack  is  not  severe.  In  all  cases  it  is  important  to  deal  with 
their  attacks  in  the  early  stages,  before  the  plants  have  become  badly  in- 
fested, and  this  is  particularly  the  case  with  leaf-curling  aphides. 

CHAFER  BEETLES,  or  White  Grubs.— Chafer  beetles  may  be  recog- 
nised by  their  antennae  or  "feelers,"  which  are  club-shaped,  with  several 
flattened  "leaves"  or  divisions  at  the  ends.  The  grubs  are  thick,  fleshy, 
and  of  a  whitish  colour,  with  the  tail  curved  downwards  and  swollen,  and 
darker  in  colour  than  the  rest  of  the  body  ;  the  head  is  large  and  brown,  the 
mouth  being  armed  with  strong  mandibles.  They  belong  to  several  genera, 
of  which  the  Cockchafer,  the  Summer-chafer,  the  Garden-chafer,  and  the 
Green  Rose-chafer  are  occasionally  more  or  less  troublesome  to  gardeners. 
In  habits  and  general  appearance  the  grubs  are  similar,  but  when  full-grown 
there  is  a  marked  difference  in  size,  those  of  the  cockchafer  and  green  rose- 
chafer  being  much  the  largest,  attaining  a  total  length  of  one-and-a-half 
inches.  They  are  all  voracious  feeders,  the  damage  they  do  in-  the  larval 


408 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


or  grub  state  being  sometimes  very  serious,  whilst  the  beetles  feed  on  the 
leaves  of  various  trees,  occasionally  quite  stripping  them  of  foliage. 


A  B  C 

The  Large  Cockchafer  (Melolontha  vulgaris). 

A  —  Perfect  insect  ;  B  —  Larva  ;  C  —  Pupa  ;  All  natural  size. 

Treatment  :  —  The  beetles  may  be  collected  from  trees  and  destroyed 
during  early  summer.  The  cockchafer  and  summer-chafer  are  night-flying 
insects  and  may  be  collected  during  the  hotter  hours  of  the  day  ;  the  garden 
and  rose-chafers  fly  during  the  day-time  and  may  be  collected  in  the  evening. 
They  may  be  shaken  down  on  to  boards  covered  with  tar  or  other  sticky 
substance.  The  grubs  may  be  trapped  with  thick  pieces  of  turf  laid  on  the 
ground,  grass  side  down,  under  which  they  will  congregate  and  may  be 
collected  and  killed.  When  the  ground  is  vacant  of  crops  it  should  be  dressed 
with  gas-lime  or  kainit  ;  or  one  of  the  advertised  soil  f  umigants  may  be  tried. 

DADDY    LONG-LEGS.-Thcre  are 

two  species  of  this  well-known  fly, 
one  appearing  from  May  to  August 
and  the  other  from  July  to  September. 
The  habits  of  both  are  identical. 
Their  larva  or  grubs,  popularly  known 
as  "  leather-  jackets  "  on  account  of 
their  tough  leathery  skins,  are  very 
destructive  to  many  crops  in  the 
garden,  especially  on  newly-broken 
grass  land,  eating  them  at  or  just 
below  the  ground  line.  The  grub 
is  about  an  inch  in  length,  somewhat 
variable  in  colour,  but  generally  of  a 
greyish  brown  ;  it  has  a  black  head, 
furnished  with  strong  jaws  for  biting, 
and  although  it  has  no  legs  it  moves 
with  comparative  ease. 

Treatment  :  —  Same  as  for  Surface 

e 

see,  Female  Fly  (Tipnlti  oh-nicea). 


Daddy  Longlcgs,  or  Crane  Fly. 

1.  Efigs  ;  2,  Larva,  or  "  leather-jacket  "  ; 
(standing  up  in  the  ground);  4, 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  'Diseases. 


409 


DIAMOND-BACK  MOTH  (Plutella  maculipennis).—ln  some  years 
the  caterpillars  of  this  moth  do  much  damage  to  cabbage,  turnips,  and 
other  cruciferous  plants,  by  feeding  on  the 
green  tissue  on  the  under-side  of  the  leaves. 
The  caterpillars  are  about  half  an  inch  in 
length,  green  in  colour,  and  spindle-shaped 
— tapering  to  both  ends. 

Treatment : —  Dressings  of  stimulating 
manures  will  assist  the  plants  to  grow  away 
from  the  attack.  Dusting  the  leaves  when 
they  are  wet,  and  especially  the  under-side, 
with  a  mixture  of  three  parts  of  soot  to  one 
of  lime  will  check  the  pest ;  apply  the  mix- 
ture forcibly  with  a  powder  pump. 

If  not  nearer  than  about  six  weeks  of 
harvesting,  the  crop  may  be  sprayed  with 
arsenate  of  lead. 

Cruciferous  weeds  harbour  the  caterpillars  and  should  be  destroyed. 


Diamond-back  Moth. 

Moth  flying  and  Moths  resting, 

Caterpillar  and  Cocoon ; 

all  natural  size. 


FLEA  BEETLES  (Halticce). — These  beetles  are'  often  very  destructive 
to  young  seedlings  of  turnip,  cabbage,  and  other  brassicae,  especially  in  hot 
dry  weather  and  on  light  soils.  The  seed  leaves  are  eaten  away  directly 
they  appear  above  ground,  and  unless  the  seedlings  are  assisted  or  the 

weather  becomes  more 
favourable  it  is  often  im- 
possible to  get  a  "plant." 
Under  congenial  condi- 
tions the  beetles  increase 
very  rapidly,  and  clear  off 
every  particle  of  growth 
as  fast  as  it  appears,  so 
that  in  such  seasons  suc- 
cessive sowings  have 
been  made  three  times 
and  each  has  proved  a 
failure.  The  beetles  are 

very    small,    being   only 
1,  The  Turnip  Flea  Beetle  (much  magnified);    about  Qne  tenth   of    an 

2,  Natural  length  and  wing  expanse;  3,  Natural  size;  4,  5,  .      ,.     .  ,         , 

Kgg,  natural  size  and  magnified;  6,  7,  Mine,  and  cuticle  mch  ml™&^   thc  ^ 

eaten  away  by  larva;  8,9.  Larva,  natural  size  and  magnified;  g°ts   of  the  Turnip   Flea 

10,  11,  Pupa,  natural  size  and  magnified.  (Pliyllotreta  nemorum) 

burrow  into  the  tissues  of  the  leaves  and  make  holes  in  them,  whilst  those 
of  the  Cabbage  Flea  (Haltica  oleracea)  feed  on  thc  surface  of  the  leaves 
and  do  not  make  holes. 

Treatment : — Sow  only  on  ground  which  has  been  ploughed  or  dug  some 
time  previously — long  enough  for  it  to  have  settled  and  become  mellow  on 
the  surface.  This  will  ensure  a  good  tilth  for  the  seed  and  moisture  at  the 


410  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

roots.  Avoid  freshly-worked  land  unless  it  is  in  very  kindly  condition,  as 
when  it  is  rough  and  cloddy  it  loses  moisture  rapidly.  In  sowing,  mix 
superphosphate  bulked  up  with  fine  screened  ashes  or  dry  soil  with  the 
seed.  Roll  or  press  the  surface  immediately  after  sowing  to  assist  germin- 
ation, and  where  it  is  reasonably  possible  water  regularly  in  dry  weather. 
If  the  beetle  is  in  evidence  give  a  light  top-dressing  of  nitrate  of  soda  or 
other  stimulating  manure  until  the  plants  have  grown  away  from  the  pest. 

When  the  plants  are  infested  the  ground  should  be  rolled  to  crush  the 
clods  and  then  a  light  frame- work  of  boards,  fixed  on  wheels  so  as  just  to 
clear  the  plants,  and  covered  with  fresh  tar  or  cart  grease,  is  run  over 
them.  The  beetles,  being  disturbed,  jump  and  are  caught  on  the  boards 
and  held  by  the  tar.  If  a  piece  of  sacking  is  nailed  in  front  of  the  boards 
so  that  it  hangs  two  or  three  inches  below  the  boards  and  drags  over  the 
foliage  the  disturbance  of  the  beetles  will  be  more  complete  and  the  con- 
trivance more  effective.  The  masses  of  beetles  must- be  scraped  off  as 
they  accumulate,  and  the  tar  or  grease  renewed  and  kept  moist. 

For  Cabbage  Flea  the  plants  should  be  sprayed  with  arsenate  of  lead. 

All  cruciferous  weeds,  such  as  charlock  and  shepherd's  purse,  should  be 
kept  down,  as  they  harbour  the  beetles. 

MILLIPEDES  and  CENTIPEDES.— These  are  not  strictly  insects,  but 
belong  to  a  group  of  the  animal  kingdom  known  as  the  Myriapoda.  They 
may  both  be  usually  found  in  dark  and  damp  places,  in  decaying  wood  or 
under  heaps  of  decaying  vegetable  matter.  Millipedes  (also  known  as 
Julus  Worms)  are  vegetable  feeders,  and  often  cause  injury  to  the  roots 
and  other  underground  parts  of  plants,  whilst  centipedes  are  carnivorous, 
feeding  on  insects,  larva,  worms,  snails  and  slugs,  and  are  therefore  useful 
to  the  gardener.  For  this  reason  care  should  be  taken  to  distinguish 
between  them. 


Millipede,  Julus  pulchellus.  Millipede,  Polydesmus  complanatus. 


Centipede,  Geophilus  subterraneous, 

In  millipedes  the  body  is  usually  round  (in  the  species  Polydesmus 
complanatus  the  body  is  flattened),  from  half  an  inch  to  one  inch  long, 
blackish  or  pinkish  in  colour,  with  numerous  segments,  the  front  four  of 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases. 


411 


which  have  one  pair  of  legs  each,  whilst  the  remainder  have  each  two  pairs 
of  legs  close  together  at  the  bases  ;  the  antennae  is  short.  The  centipedes 
may  be  distinguished  from  millipedes  by  generally  having  flattened  bodies, 
brownish  in  colour,  each  segment  having  only  one  pair  of  legs,  and  their 
antennas  are  longer. 

Treatment:  —  On  small  areas  injections  of  carbon  bi-sulphide  may  be 
used  to  kill  the  millipedes  in  the  ground.  Traps  of  pieces  of  mangold, 
scooped  out  and  buried  an  inch  or  two  below  the  surface  of  the  soil  will 
attract  them,  when  they  may  be  caught  and  killed  ;  or  pieces  of  cabbage 
leaf  dipped  in  a  solution  of  arsenate  of  lead  and  laid  about  on  infested 
ground  will  poison  many  of  them.  All  ground  in  which  they  are  present 
should  receive  a  good  dressing  of  quicklime  or  gas-lime. 

RED  SPIDERS  (Tetranychus,  &c.)  —  These  mites,  variable  in  colour, 
are  difficult  to  see  with  the  naked  eye.  Their  presence  on  plants  is  indi- 
cated by  a  yellowish  scorched  appearance  of  the  leaves.  They  flourish 
most  in  a  dry  arid  condition  of  the  atmosphere,  and  are  therefore  most  in 
evidence  in  greenhouses  or  frames  which  have  been  allowed  to  get  too  dry, 
or  on  fruit  trees  on  walls  or  in  other  dry  situations,  and  especially  on 
plants  in  shallow  soils  in  a  droughty  season. 

Treatment:  —  The  most  obvious  thing  in  dealing  with  greenhouses  or 
frames  or  other  confined  spaces  is  to  take  measures  to  prevent  an  attack, 
by  maintaining  sufficient  moisture  at  the  roots  and  amongst  the  foliage. 
When  the  attack  is  slight  frequent  and  forcible  spraying  with  clear  water 
is  often  sufficient  to  eradicate  it.  In  more  decided  cases  paraffin  emulsion 
may  be  used  (but  not  on  cucumbers  or  melons)  or  potassium  sulphide  and 
soft  soap.  Before  spraying,  leaves  badly  attacked  should  be  carefully  re- 
moved and  burnt  ;  the  mites  are  very  active  and  if  shaken  off  the  leaves 
will  speedily  climb  on  to  the  plants  again,  therefore  it  is  a  wise  precaution 
to  place  badly-infested  leaves  immediately  in  a  pail  with  a  little  paraffin  at 
the  bottom.  The  mites  cover  the  underside  of  infested  leaves  with  a  fine 

web,  which  makes  it  diffi- 
cult to  reach  them  with 
insecticides,  therefore  a 
considerable  amount  of 
force  must  be  used  in 
spraying. 

SLUGS  and  SNAILS.— 

Of  these  there  is  a  num- 
ber of  varieties,  some  with 
shells  and  some  without. 
They  are  very  destruc- 
tive to  green  vegetation, 
particularly  so  to  tender 
seedlings,  large  numbers 

°f  whidl  the      wil1  COttl- 


1,  Grey  Field  Slug,  Limax  agrestis  •  2,  Black  Slug,  Lima* 
ier  (less  than  life  size);  3,  Limax  (Her  in  repose;  4,  Eggs,     pletely  destroy  in  a  short 


412  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

time.  These  pests  feed  chiefly  a£  night,  but  are  active  during  the  day  in 
dull  showery  weather.  They  are  protected  by  a  mucous  slime  which  they 
exude  copiously,  and  this  makes  it  very  difficult  to  kill  them  with  contact 
remedies. 

Treatment : — Decaying  vegetable  matter  and  other  refuse  lying  at  the 
foot  of  walls  or  hedges  affords  a  harbouring  place  for  slugs  and  snails  and 
should  be  cleared  away. 

Thrushes  devour  large  numbers  and  should  be  encouraged,  as  it  is  easier 
to  guard  against  any  injury  they  may  do  to  fruit  than  to  withstand  the 
ravages  of  slugs  and  snails.  Where  it  is  possible  to  do  so  without  injury 
to  the  crops,  ducks  or  poultry  may  be  run  over  infested  gardens  early  in  the 
morning,  when  they  may  be  depended  upon  to  discover  and  devour  large 
numbers.  On  small  areas  hand-picking  by  lamp-light,  if  done  persistently 
for  several  successive  nights  wilt  soon  considerably  reduce  their  numbers. 

Choice  plants  and  rows  of  seedlings  may  be  protected  by  having  cinder 
ash,  powdered  coke,  or  powdered  lime  scattered  closely  round  them. 

Baits  of  bran-mash  or  moist  oatmeal  placed  about  the  garden  will  attract 
slugs,  which  may  then  be  collected  and  destroyed.  Cabbage  leaves  laid 
here  and  there  will  form  a  trap  for  snails,  which  hide  underneath  them. 

Dressings  of  lime  and  soot,  repeated  at  short  intervals,  will  do  much  to 
keep  the  pests  at  bay. 

Where  a  piece  of  ground  is  badly  infested  it  may  be  dressed  very  early  in 
the  morning  with  a  mixture  of  fresh  lime  in  a  finely-powdered  condition  and 
caustic  soda — 4  parts  of  caustic  soda  to  96  parts  of  powdered  lime,  well 
mixed  and  applied  dry.  Two  or  three  dressings  should  be  given  at  intervals 
of  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  and  will  then  prove  very  effectual  in  destroying 
most  of  the  slugs  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  Such  ground  should  be 
dressed  with  gas-lime  and  trenched  in  the  winter. 

A  weak  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash  is  said  to  destroy  slugs. 

SNOWY  FLY  (Aleyrodes  proletella).—This  tiny  white  fly  is  in  some 
seasons  very  troublesome  on  cabbage,  sprouts,  and  other  members  of  the 
same  family.  They  congregate  beneath  the  leaves  in  myriads,  and  when 
disturbed  rise  above  the  plants  like  a  thin  white  cloud.  The  larvae  is  fixed 
beneath  the  leaves  and  protected  by  a  waxy  covering.  Affected  leaves  turn 
yellow  or  brown  from  loss  of  sap,  and  the  plants  become  dirty  and  disagree- 
able from  the  exudations  of  the  pest. 

Treatment : — Collect  and  burn  affected  leaves.  Spray  plants  with 
paraffin  emulsion,  frequently  and  forcibly,  getting  well  underneath  the 
leaves. 

SURFACE  CATERPILLARS.— The  large  caterpillars  of  several  species 
of  moths  (particularly  of  the  Heart  and  Dart,  the  Yellow  Underwing, 
and  the  Common  Dart  or  Turnip  Moths)  are  very  injurious  to  potatoes, 
turnips,  cabbage,  and  many  other  crops.  They  attack  the  plants  at  or 
just  below  the  ground  line,  often  eating  entirely  through  the  stem.  They 
hide  under  clods  and  stones  and  beneath  the  surface  soil  during  the  day, 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases. 


413 


feeding  at  night.  The  mature  caterpillars  are  about  one  and  a-half  inches 
in  length,  brownish  or  greyish  in  colour,  with  spots  and  bands  of  darker 
colouring. 

Treatment : — On  small  areas,  hand  pick- 
ing at  night  is  an  effective  though  very  slow 
method  of  dealing  with  these  pests,  and  is 
only  practicable  in  a  crop  where  the  plants 
have  been  set  out  at  some  distance  apart, 
such  as  cabbages  or  tomatoes.  To  discover 
the  caterpillars,  the  ground  immediately 
round  the  plants  is  worked  about  with  a 
blunt  stick. 

A  useful  bait  which  will  destroy  many 
consists  of  bunches  of  fresh-cut  clover  or 
other  greenstuff,  previously  sprayed  with 
arsenate  of  lead,  laid  about  amongst  the 
plants. 

On  small  areas  bi-sulphide  of  carbon  would  prove  very  useful  if  injected 
in  the  ground  at  intervals  amongst  the  plants. 

"  Ringing  "the  plants  with  kainit  or  muriate  of  potash  not  only  acts  as  a 
fertilizer  but  is  said  to  repel  the  caterpillars.  A  mixture  of  three  parts  of 
finely  powdered  lime  to  one  of  soot  freely  sprinkled  close  to  the  plants  and 
well  hoed  in  stimulates  growth,  as  well  as  to  some  extent  protecting  them 
from  attack.  Frequent  light  top-dressings  of  any  stimulating  fertilizer 
would  probably  have  a  beneficial  effect. 

Land  which  has  been  subject  to  attack  should  be  dressed  with  gas-lime 
and  deeply  worked  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  cleared,  or  it  should  be  treated 
with  one  of  the  advertised  soil  fumigants  before  planting. 

WIREWORMS.— Wireworms  are  probably  more  dreaded  by  the  gardener 
than  any  other  pest  by  which  his  plants  are  afflicted.  There  is  scarcely  a 


1,  Caterpillar  of  the  Turnip  or  Com- 
mon Dart  Moth,  Agrostis  segettim. 

2,  Caterpillar  of  the  Heart  and  Dart 
Moth,  Agrostis  exciamationis. 


1  and  la,  Agriotes  lineatiis, 

2  and  'la,  Agriotes  sputator. 

3  and  3a,  Agriotes  obscurus.        I 

4,  Wireworm,  Larva  of  Agriotes  lineattts. 

5.  Pupa. 


j-    Natural  size  and  magnified. 


Natural  size. 


crop  which  does  not  suffer  more  or  less  from  their  ravages,  their  attack 
being  frequently  deadly  in  effect.    They  are  the  larvae  of  beetles  popularly 


414  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

known  as  "  Click"  or  "  Skip  Jack"  Beetles,  from  their  power  of  springing 
a  few  inches  into  the  air  with  a  clicking  sound  when  turned  on  their 
backs.  The  beetles  are  from  half  to  two- thirds  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  of 
a  dull  brown  colour ;  they  fly  well,  and  after  pairing  in  spring  lay  their 
eggs  near  the  roots  of  plants,  those  on  grass  or  other  undisturbed  land 
appearing  to  be  preferred.  The  larvae  which  hatch  from  these  live  in  the 
soil  from  three  to  five  years,  during  the  whole  of  which  time  they  are 
actively  mischievous  except  during  hard  frosts,  when  they  go  deeper  into 
the  earth  for  protection.  Wireworms  are  of  a  yellowish  colour,  with  tough 
shiny  skins  ;  they  vary  from  half  to  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  in  length  and 
have  three  pairs  of  legs — one  pair  to  each  of  the  first  three  segments  of  the 
body — a  swelling  or  "foot"  below  the  last  segment,  and  a  pair  of  very 
strong  jaws  well  adapted  for  biting  roots. 

Treatment : — Wireworms  are  always  the  most  abundant  in  old  pastures ; 
the  longer  the  soil  of  any  field  has  lain  undisturbed  the  more  likely  it  is  to 
be  infested  with  wireworm.  Newly-broken  grass  land  which  may  be  badly 
infested,  if  subjected  to  regular  cultivation  will  gradually  become  less 
afflicted  with  the  pest,  and  in  the  course  of  three  or  four  years  compara- 
tively free.  This  clearance  is  not  brought  about  by  any  measures  taken 
for  the  destruction  of  the  pest,  though  of  course  these  have  some  effect, 
but  because  the  beetle  prefers  to  lay  its  eggs  in  a  situation  where  the  soil 
is  undisturbed,  and  when  the  pupa  hatch  out  of  land  under  constant  cultiva- 
tion the  emerging  beetles  fly  away  to  situations  more  to  their  liking.  From 
this  it  is  obvious  that  frequent  stirring  of  the  surface  soil,  especially  during 
the  first  half  of  the  year,  is  not  only  of  great  benefit  in  many  other  ways 
to  the  crops,  but  is  also  the  best  possible  means  of  reducing  the  wireworm 
pest  to  within  narrow  limits. 

On  small  areas  carbon  bi-sulphide  injected  into  the  ground  may  be  used, 
and  will  be  found  to  reduce  effectively  the  numbers  of  wireworms  and  other 
soil  insects ;  it  will  also  act  beneficially  if  injected  in  heaps  of  grass  sods 
which  may  have  been  cut  and  stacked  for  special  purposes  and  found  in- 
fested with  the  pest.  Heaps  of  soil,  compost,  or  manure  which  are  to  be 
left  standing  for  a  time  should  be  covered  with  gas-lime  to  repel  the  beetle 
and  other  pests  which  will  lay  their  eggs  there  if  the  heaps  are  allowed  to 
get  over-grown  with  weeds.  Several  proprietary  substances  are  advertised 
as  eradicators  of  wireworm  ;  these  may 'be  applied  at  much  less  cost  than 
carbon  bi-sulphide,  but  as  the  results  from  their  use  varies  in  different 
localities  they  should  be  tried  first  on  a  small  scale  and  their  use  extended 
if  they  prove  satisfactory. 

Gas-lime  has  often  been  recommended  as  a  specific  for  wireworm  and 
other  soil  insects,  but  unless  heavy  dressings  are  applied  and  ploughed 
under  immediately  whilst  in  a  crude  condition  it  is  comparatively  useless 
for  the  purpose.  When  fresh  from  the  works  it  contains  compounds 
which  are  deadly  to  both  plant  and  insect  life.  In  this  condition  it 
should  be  spread  over  grass  land  or  clover  lea  prior  to  breaking  it  up, 
at  the  rate  of  from  four  to  eight  tons  per  acre,  according  to  the  extent 
of  the  infestation.  The  land  cannot  be  cropped  for  several  months 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases.  415 

•after,  but  if  such  a  dressing  is  applied  at  the  beginning  of  winter  the  land 
may  be  safely  cropped  the  following  spring  and  will  be  found  to  have  bene- 
fitted  in  many  ways. 

Rape  cake  dust  has  been  recommended  for  wireworm.  They  appear  to 
be  fond  of  it  and  will  leave  the  young  plants  for  it,  but  it  has  no  permanent 
good  effect;  on  the  contrary  it  promotes  the  rapid  development  of  the 
wireworms  and  so  increases  their  ability  for  mischief,  and  its  presence  in 
the  soil  probably  has  the  effect  of  encouraging  the  beetle  to  deposit  its  eggs 
there,  and  so  the  pest  is  perpetuated. 

Mustard  sown  and  turned  in  as  green  manure  has  not  only  the  effect  of 
improving  the  fertility  of  the  soil  but  has  been  observed  distinctly  to  reduce 
injury  from  wireworm. 

Pieces  of  carrot,  mangold,  or  potato  may  be  used  as  traps  for  wire- 
worm  ;  they  should  be  buried  an  inch  or  so  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
soil  and  frequently  examined,  when  the  wireworms  they  attract  may  be 
collected  and  killed.  The  beetles  may  be  trapped  during  May  and  June  by 
laying  bunches  of  clover  or  lucerne  about  the  ground  and  covering  them 
with  boards.  These  serve  to  attract  the  beetles,  which  congregate  under- 
neath to  deposit  their  eggs.  The  traps  should  be  examined  occasionally 
and  the  beetles  destroyed.  When  the  boards  are  finally  removed,  an  inch 
or  so  of  the  surface  soil  underneath  should  be  taken  away  and  burnt,  so  as 
to  destroy  any  eggs  which  may  have  been  deposited  there. 

WOODLICE  (Oniscus  armidillo).—Wood\ice,  known  as  "Sow-bugs" 
and  "  Slaters,"  are  not  often  very  troublesome  to  crops  in  the  open-air,  but 
frequently  do  much  mischief  in  frames  to  cucumbers  or  strawberries,  in 
mushroom  houses,  or  in  places  where  rhubarb  or  seakale  is  being  forced. 
They  feed  in  the  dark  and  during  the  daytime  hide  in  crevices  in  walls, 
under  heaps  of  dry  litter,  and  in  similar  places.  A  favourite  lurking  place 
is  the  space  between  a  bed  and  the  wall  or  boards,  where  the  soil  or  manure 
has  shrunk  through  dryness.  » 

Treatment: — Discover  their  hiding  places  and  pour  boiling  water  in.* 
Lay  dry  hay  or  moss  at  the  foot  of  a  wall  or  along  the  edge  of  a  bed  and 
cover  it  with  a  board ;  this  hiding  place  will  attract  many  and  they  can 
then  be  destroyed  with  boiling  water.  If  these  measures  are  followed 
systematically  their  numbers  will  soon  be  brought  within  moderate  limits. 

Toads  are  fond  of  feeding  on  woodlice,  and  a  few  kept  in  frames  or  houses 
where  they  abound  will  soon  have  the  effect  of  considerably  reducing  their 
numbers.  There  are  several  advertised  poisonous  compounds  which  may 
be  tried  for  killing  the  pests. 


416 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


INSECTS  WHICH   ATTACK   CERTAIN    PLANTS. 

ASPARAGUS  BEETLE  (Crioceris  asparagi).—The  asparagus  beetle 
is  a  well-known  pest  on  asparagus  plantations  in  the  southern  parts  of 
England,  but  is  practically  unknown  north  of  the  midland  counties.  It  is 

slender  and  graceful  in 
form,  from  one-fifth  to 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  in 
length.  Its  body  is  shiny 
black,  with  a  blue  tinge  ; 
its  head  is  black.  It  has 
red  and  yellowish  mark- 
ings, with  a  black  cross 
on  its  back.  It  deposits 
eggs  from  June  onwards, 
first  on  the  asparagus 
shoots  and  later  on  the 
feathery  foliage  after  it 
has  developed.  The, eggs 
arc  spindle-shaped  and 
oval,  greenish  brown  in 
colour,  and  arc  fixed  by 
their  ends  to  the  plants, 
occasionally  placed  singly 
but  usually  occuring  in 
rows  of  from  three  to  five, 
and  occasionally  up  to 
eight  in  number.  The 
eggs  hatch  in  from  five 
to  seven  days.  The  larva 
Spray  of  Asparagus  attacked  by  the  Beetle,  or  grub  js  nearly  half  an 

showing  Beetle  and  Larvae  (in  two  stages)  much  jnch  ,          and  ig  variablc 

enlarged,  with  Eggs  attached  to  foliage,  .  .     . 

in  colour,  being  gener- 
ally greyish  or  slate-coloured  but  sometimes  almost  yellow.  Both  beetle 
and  grub  feed  on  the  asparagus  plant,  at  first  disfiguring  the  shoots  as  they 
are  formed  and  later  attacking  the  stems.  In  a  bad  attack  the  shoots 
become  defiled  and  useless  from  masses  of  sticky  eggs  and  from  a  dark- 
coloured  sticky  fluid  emitted  by  the  larvae. 

Treatment : — As  soon  as  infestation  is  observed  a  few  shoots  should  be 
left  uncut  at  intervals  along  the  bed ;  these  will  serve  as  traps  for  the 
beetles,  which  will  ascend  them  to  pair  and  deposit  their  eggs.  Once  a 
week  these  should  be  cut  down  and  burnt,  others  being  left  to  fill  their 
place.  In  this  way  the  infestation  may  be  kept  in  check  until  cutting  is 
finished.  In  the  meantime  eggs  and  larvae  may  be  cleared  from  young 
shoots  by  running  them  through  the  hand. 

After  cutting  is  finished  for  the  season  the  plants  should  be  thoroughly 
sprayed  with  arsenate  of  lead. 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases. 


417 


ASPARAGUS  FLY  (Platyparea  poeciloptera).—This  is  a  small  hairy 
fly,  brownish  in  colour,  with  lighter  bands  on  the  abdomen  and  brownish 
bands  on  the  wings.  The  larva  is  a  yellowish  glossy  maggot,  with  a  dark 
head  and  without  legs.  The  fly  lays  its  eggs  from  early  in  April  to  the 
middle  of  July,  and  the  larvae  hatch  out  from  two  to  three  weeks  later. 
They  at  once  begin  to  bore  into  the  tender  young  shoots,  following  a  down- 
wardgcourse.  The  affected  shoots  become  dwarfed  and  yellowish,  and  rot 
at  or  below  the  ground  line. 

Treatment : — Cut  out  close  to  the  root  and  burn  all  affected  shoots.  In 
the  autumn  burn  all  tops  and  dig  up  and  burn  all  dry  stumps. 

The  flies  may  be  collected  in  the  early  morning  from  the  tips  of  the 
shoots.  Sticks  smeared  with  banding  grease  or  tar  and  stuck  into  the  bed 
at  intervals  will  catch  numbers  of  flies  as  they  settle. 

Early  in  the  spring  following  an  attack  it  would  probably  serve  to  check 
another  attack  by  the  fly  if  the  beds  were  dressed  with  one  of  the  adver- 
tised soil  fumigants,  lightly  forked  in  before  the  shoots  began  to  grow. 

BEAN  APHIS  (Aphis  fabce). — This  aphis  is  popularly  known  as  the 
"Collier"  and  "Black  Dolphin  Fly."  Large  clusters  form  at  the 
tops  of  the  broad  bean 
plants,  and  if  allowed  to 
remain,  increase  at  such 
a  rate  that  the  shoots 
become  covered  either 
with  the  flies  or  with  a 
sticky  excrement  which 
besides  making  the  plants 
disagreeable  to  handle 
interferes  with  the  func- 
tions of  the  leaves  and 
prevents  any  prospect  of 
a  profitable  crop. 

Treatment : — As  soon 
as  the  aphis  is  observed 
on  the  plants  the  tips  of 
the  shoots  where  they 
congregate  should  be  cut  off.  These  should  be  put  in  a  pail  containing 
a  little  paraffin  and  carried  away  and  destroyed  ;  if  they  are  thrown  about 
on  the  ground  many  of  the  aphis  will  get  on  the  plants  again  and  much  of 
the  labour  will  be  lost.  Early-sown  plants  often  escape  this  pest. 

See  under  Aphides  for  washes. 

BEET  AND  MANGOLD  FLY  (Pegomyia  betce)  —  This  fly  lays  eggs  on 
the  leaves  of  the  plants  during  June  and  July.  Small  maggots  hatch  out 
and  burrow  into  the  leaves,  eating  the  green  inner  tissues.  Blisters  and 
blotches  are  formed,  the  leaves  shrivel,  and  the  growth  of  the  plant  is 
severely  checked. 

Treatment- — Dress  affected  nlnnts  with  some  stimulating  manure,  such 

27 


Bean  Aphis,  or  Black  Dolphin, 

Infested  Bean  shoot ;  2,  Male  Aphis,  magnified  ;  3,  Lines 
showing  natural  size ;  4,  Female  Aphis,  magnified. 


418  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

as  nitrate  of  soda,  to  enable  them  to  grow  away  rapidly  and  so  escape 
serious  damage. 

Leaves  showing  injury  and  any  plants  very  stunted  or  killed  should  be 
collected  and  destroyed ;  they  should  not  be  fed  to  stock  or  any  larvae 
present  may  develop  into  flies. 

Paraffin  emulsion  sprayed  on  the  foliage  will  keep  the  flies  away. 

Weeds  liable  to  attack  by  this  fly,  such  as  thistle  and  dock,  must  be  kept 
down. 

CABBAGE  APHIS  (Aphis  brassicce),-  This  aphis  is  of  a  greenish  blue 
colour,  and  is  common  to  all  the  members  of  the  cabbage  family,  attacking 
them  on  the  undersides  and  in  the  folds  of  the  leaves.  It  is  most  prevalent 
in  the  latter  part  of  a  hot  dry  summer  and  in  the  autumn.  It  increases 
very  rapidly,  and  being  protected  by  a  waxy  covering  which  throws  off 
spray,  it  is  more  difficult  to  eradicate  than  most  aphis. 

Treatment : — When  the  season  is  unusually  hot  and  dry  it  is  a  wise 
precaution  to  take  preventive  measures  to  prevent  any  considerable  infesta- 
tion, and  whilst  this  applies  to  any  brassica  crop  it  is  especially  necessary 
with  Brussels  sprouts,  as  these  are  rendered  unsaleable  when  badly  in- 
fested with  aphis.  The  best  spray  for  the  purpose  is  paraffin  emulsion, 
and  several  applications  may  be  necessary,  but  spraying  must  not  be  done 
when  the  crop  is  nearly  ready  for  gathering.  In  case  of  a  bad  attack 
at  such  a  time  it  is  scarcely  practicable  to  do  anything  beyond  removing 
and  destroying  the  worst  infested  leaves. 

CABBAGE  BUTTERFLIES  and  CABBAGE  MOTH.— The  cabbage  tribe 
is  subject  to  attack  by  the  caterpillars  of  three  kinds  of  butterfly — the  Large 

White  (Pieris  brassicce), 
the  Small  White  (Pieris 
rapce),  and  the  Green 
Veined  (Pieris  napi) ; 
also  by  the  caterpillar  of 
the  Cabbage  Moth 
(Mamestra  brassicce}. 
Both  butterflies  and 
moth  deposit  their  eggs 
on  the  leaves,  especially 
those  of  cabbages  ;  these 
eggs  hatch  out  in  six  or 
seven  days,  and  the 
caterpillars  at  once  begin 
to  attack  the  leaves; 
when  on  cabbage  they 
eat  their  way  to  the 
heart,  disfiguring  and 
often  completely  spoiling 
1 ,  Large  White  Cabbage  Butterfly  ;  it,  besides  covering  the 

2,  Eggs;  3,  Caterpillar;  4,  Chrysalis.  leaves  with   a  disgusting 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases.  419 

mass  of  excrement  The  Cabbage  Moth,  although  chiefly  a  cabbage  pest, 
by  no  means  confines  its  attention  to  that  family  ;  there  are  very  few 
plants  in  the  garden  which  altogether  escape  its  ravages. 

Treatment  :  —  Spraying  with  paraffin  emulsion  or  dusting  with  lime  and 
soot  will  check  egg-laying  ;  a  hot  dry  summer  is  favourable  to  the  rapid 
increase  of  butterflies  and  moths,  and  repeated  sprayings  in  such  a  season 
would  probably  keep  the  crop  fairly  free  from  caterpillars,  but  spraying  must 
cease  before  the  cabbage  begins  to  head  in.  After  then,  spraying  with 
water  heated  to  140  degrees  is  said  to  be  effective,  or  sprinkling  freely  with 
salt  is  said  to  kill  the  caterpillars  without  injuring  the  plants. 

On  small  areas  hand-picking  should  be  practised  before  the  caterpillars 
have  left  the  outer  leaves,  and  portions  of  leaves  containing  clusters  of 
eggs  should  be  removed  and  burnt. 


CABBAGE  ROOT  FLY  AND  MAGGOT  (Phorbia  brassicceJ.— 
Cabbage  Root  Fly  somewhat  resembles  the  common  house  fly  but  is  rather 
smaller.  It  is  a  great  pest  to  all  members  of  the  cabbage  family  and  also 
attacks  cruciferous  weeds.  The  female  fly  begins  laying  its  eggs  during 
April  and  May,  and  there  are  probably  two  or  three  generations  during  the 
summer.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  cracks  in  the  ground,  as  close  to  the 
plant  as  possible  In  a  week  or  more  the  maggots  hatch  out  and  burrow 
first  into  the  smaller  roots,  then  into  the  larger  roots,  and  finally  into  the 
stem.  Plants  attacked  are  stunted,  with  yellow  and  shrivelled  leaves,  and 
they  rot  off  at  the  stem. 

Treatment:  —  This  pest  is  very  difficult  to  deal  with.  Numerous  pre- 
ventive measures  may  be  practised,  such  as  fitting  pieces  of  tarred  paper 
closely  around  the  stem  at  time  of  planting  or  by  mixing  half  a  pint  of 
paraffin  to  a  peck  of  sand  and  sprinkling  this  round  the  stems  of  the  plants 
weekly  ;  but  as  these  measures  to  be  effective  must  be  carried  out  before 
an  attack  it  is  quite  certain  they  will  not  be  adopted,  at  any  rate  in  commer- 
cial work,  until  the  attacks  of  the  pest  become  more  serious  and  persistent 
than  at  present.  Probably  if  the  ground  was  dressed  just  previous  to 
planting  with  one  of  the  advertised  soil  fumigants  it  would  have  the  effect 
not  only  of  clearing  the  soil  of  many  pernicious  soil  insects  but  also  of 
repelling  the  fly  and  so  keeping  the  crop  clear  of  maggots.  After  planting, 
a  dressing  of  nitrate  of  soda,  at  the  rate  of  one  and  a  half  cwts.  per  acre, 
would  make  the  ground  somewhat  disagreeable  to  the  fly  and  would  stimu- 
late the  plants  to  grow  away  from  the  pest. 

All  plants  which  show  signs  of  attack  by  turning  a  dull  colour  and  droop- 
ing should  be  at  once  pulled  up  and  burnt.  Bi-sulphide  of  carbon  injected 
in  the  ground  near  the  plants  will  kill  the  maggots,  but  it  must  not  be 
allowed  to  touch  the  roots. 

When  a  crop  has  been  badly  infested,  as  soon  as  it  is  cleared  the  ground 
should  be  dressed  with  fresh  gas-lime  at  the  rate  of  from  two  to  four  tons 
per  acre  ;  this  should  be  ploughed  in  at  once  and  the  ground  left  uncropped 
for  three  or  four  months.  No  cruciferous  crop  should  be  allowed  to  follow 
and  all  cruciferous  weeds  should  be  rigorously  kept  down. 


420  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

CABBAGE  AND  TURNIP  ROOT  GALL  WEEVIL  (Ceutorhynchus 
sulcicollis). — These  weevils  lay  their  eggs  in  holes  which  they  make  in 
the  root  or  at  the  base  of  the  stems  of  cabbages  and  other  brassicse.  The 
irritation  thus  set  up  causes  small  lumps  or  swellings  to  form  which  are 
known  as  "  galls."  If  these  are  cut  open  the  grubs  of  the  weevil  will  be 
found  in  the  cavity  they  have  eaten  out. 

Treatment : — Rotation  of  crops ;  avoid  planting  any  members  of  the 
brassica  tribe  on  affected  soil.  Burn  all  infested  roots. 

Dig  gas-lime  or  one  of  the  soil  fumigants  into  beds  which  have  produced 
infested  plants. 

CARROT  FLY  (Psila  rosce).— The  Carrot  Fly  is  shiny  black  or  dark 
green  in  colour,  about  the  fifth  of  an  inch  long,  with  a  wing  expanse  of 
nearly  half  an  inch.  When  the  carrots  are  well  established  the  flies  lay 
eggs  upon  them  just  below  the  ground.  The  maggot  is  without  legs,  of  a 
yellowish  colour  and  almost  transparent,  and  nearly  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
long.  It  has  no  distinct  head,  but  its  fore-end  tapers  to  a  point ;  the  hind- 
end  is  blunt.  As  soon  as  the  maggot  is  hatched  out  it  goes  down  and  bores 

holes  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  root,  then  tunnels 
upwards,  with  frequent 
holes  to  the  outside.  The 
effect  upon  the  roots  is 
to  cause  them  to  become 
brown  or  "rusty"  and 
finally  rotten.  An  attack 
is  indicated  by  the  outer 
leaves  going  yellow  and 
withered  ;  when  such  are 
observed  the  roots  should 
Carrot  Fly  and  Maggot.  be  carefully  forked  up  so 

1  and  2,  Affected  Root,  showing  "rust"  spots  and  Maggots    that  no  part  is  left  in  the 
protruding;  4  and  6,  Maggots;   7  and  8,  Pupa;  9  and  11,    ground,  and  destroyed. 
Fly  •  each  natural  size  and  magnified. 

lr  the  flies  are  observed 

on  or  near  the  carrot  plants  these  should  be  at  once  sprayed  with  paraffin 
emulsion ;  or  sawdust,  sand,  or  ashes  impregnated  with  paraffin  or  carbolic 
acid  may  be  scattered  over  the  bed  and  will  serve  to  repel  the  flies. 

Carrots  grown  early  for  bunching  are  seldom  injured  by  the  fly,  which 
does  not,  as  a  rule  attack  them  until  after  the  end  of  May.  It  is  considered 
that  the  loosening  of  the  soil  about  the  roots  caused  by  thinning  and 
singling  the  plants  offers  inducements  to  the  fly  to  deposit  its  eggs  there  ; 
to  guard  against  this  the  plants  should  be  thinned  early,  and  as  part  of  the 
work  is  completed  the  earth  should  be  drawn  close  around  the  stems  and 
trodden  tightly  in  on  both  sides  of  the  row.  Heavy  watering  immediately 
afterwards  tends  to  further  consolidate  the  soil  and  ward  off  attack,  besides 
helping  the  growth  of  the  carrots.  In  a  district  where  the  fly  is  common, 
spraying  with  paraffin  emulsion  should  follow. 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases.  421 

CELERY  AND  PARSNIP  FLY  (Acidia  heraclei).—Thc  Celery  Fly 
makes  its  first  appearance  in  April.  It  is  a  small  fly,  about  one-eighth  of 
an  inch  in  length  with  a  wing  expanse  of  nearly  half  an  inch  ;  tawny  brown 
body  with  a  lighter  colour  underneath.  The  eyes  are  deep  green  and  the 
legs  dark  yellow.  The  wings  are  transparent  with  dark  brown  markings. 
The  eggs  are  laid  singly  on  the  upper  surface  of  celery  and  parsnip  leaves ; 
these  hatch  out  in  about  six  days  and  the  larvae  or  grubs  immediately  burrow 
between  the  upper  and  lower  epidermis  of  the  leaves,  eating  the  green 


1,  Fly,  magnified;  2,  Larva,  magnified  (lines  show  natural  size  of  each); 
3,  Pupa,  natural  size. 

tissues  and  doing  much  damage  by  checking  the  growth  of  the  plants. 
Celery  subjected  to  a  bad  attack  is  stunted,  will  not  blanch  properly,  and  is 
bitter  in  flavour,  whilst  parsnips  come  small  and  of  a  bad  shape.  The 
grubs  change  into  papa  in  about  fourteen  days,  sometimes  remaining  in  the 
leaf  and  sometimes  falling  to  tne  ground.  From  these,  flies  hatch  out 
in  about  six  days  and  another  attack  begins,  and  so  one  brood  follows 
another  through  the  summer,  and  when  the  weather  is  mild  the  pest  con- 
tinues until  late  in  autumn. 

Treatment : — Where  celery  is  grown  extensively  the  wisest  plan  is  to 
take  measures  to  prevent  an  attack.  To  this  end,  whilst  the  plants  are 
young  they  should  be  sprayed  two  or  three  times  with  paraffin  emulsion,  or 
they  may  be  dusted  occasionally  whilst  the  leaves  are  wet  with  a  mixture 
of  equal  parts  of  slaked  lime  and  soot,  though  probably  the  spraying  would 
be  most  effective. 

Where  preventive  measures  are  not  adopted  a  sharp  look-out  should  be 
kept  for  evidence  of  the  fly.  All  infested  portions  of  leaves  should  be  picked 
off  and  burnt  until  no  trace  of  the  grub  is  seen,  then  the  plants  should  be  at 
once  sprayed  or  dusted  as  indicated  above.  It  is  important  that  the  first 
brood  should  be  thoroughly  dealt  with,  and  then  the  chances  of  attack  by 
later  broods  will  be  considerably  lessened,  and  probably  avoided  altogether. 
Where  there  has  been  a  bad  attack  the  plants  should  receive  a  moderate 
dressing  of  nitrate  of  soda  mixed  with  a  little  agricultural  salt,  followed  by 
copious  waterings ;  this  will  force  rapid  growth  and  enable  the  plants  to 
grow  away  from  the  pest,  besides  repairing  any  damage  it  may  have  done. 

MUSHROOM  PEST  (Scmra  ingenua).— Mushroom  beds,  especially 
those  under  cover,  are  often  infested  with  these  active  little  insects,  which 
are  often  present  in  great  numbers,  and  do  a  great  deal  of  damage  by 
eating  the  inner  part  of  the  fungi  and  leaving  only  the  outer  shell. 


422 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


Treatment : — The  pest  may  be  kept  in  check  by  sprinkling  the  beds,  as 
frequently  as  is  possible  without  making  them  over-wet,  with  brine  com- 
posed of  one  ounce  of  salt  to  one  gallon  of  warm  water. 

As  a  preventive  measure  remove  old  beds  as  soon  as  they  are  unproduc- 
tive. Before  making  fresh  beds  spray  the  floor,  walls,  and  roof  of  the 
house  with  paraffin  emulsion  or  a  5%  solution  of  carbolic  acid.  If  the 
house  is  quite  empty  burn  sulphur  inside  and  close  up  tightly.  Leave  the 
house  immediately  the  sulphur  is  ignited,  as  the  fumes  are  fatal  to  both 
animal  and  plant  life.  Leave  for  twelve  hours  and  ventilate  well  before 
entering  again. 

ONION  FLY  (Phorbia  cepetorum).—The  Onion  Fly  is  a  little  over  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  long  with  a  wing-spread  of  about  half  an  inch,  dark  grey 
in  colour,  with  red  eyes  and  black  legs.  The  first  deposit  of  eggs  is  made 
about  the  beginning  of  May,  and  there  are  several  generations  through  the 
summer.  The  eggs  are  white  and  somewhat  oval,  and  are  laid  in  batches 

of  six  to  eight  upon  the  neck  of 
the  plant,  justabove  the  ground. 
The  maggots  hatch  out  in  from 
five  to  seven  days ;  they  are  of 
a  dirty  white  colour,  without 
legs,  with  a  pointed  head  and  a 
broad  tail,  and  when  full-grown 
are  about  one  third  of  an  inch 
long.  As  soon  as  they  arc 
hatched  they  begin  to  burrow 
between  the  sheathing  leaves 
and  work  their  way  into  the 
young  bulbs.  The  first  indica- 
tions of  infestation  are  shown 
by  the  plants  flagging  and  the 
leaves  becoming  yellow.  When 
plants  presenting  this  appear- 
ance are  seen  they  should  be 
examined,  when  in  all  probability  it  will  be  found  that  the  maggots  are  at 
work. 
Treatment: — Similar  to  that  recommended  for  Carrot  Fly,  which  sec. 

PEA  AND  BEAN  THRIPS  (Thrips  pisivora).— There  are  many  species 
of  thrips,  some  being  serious  pests  under  glass  and  others  attacking  plants 
in  the  open.  Occasionally  considerable  damage  is  done  to  peas  and  beans 
by  thrips  popularly  known  as  the  "  Black  Fly  "  or  "  Thunder  Fly."  They 
are  tiny  insects,  about  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  in  length,  blackish  brown  in 
colour,  with  a  lighter-coloured  head.  The  adult  insects  have  four  narrow 
wings,  fringed  with  fine  hairs,  although  the  males  are  often  wingless ;  they 
have  six  very  short  legs  and  a  mouth  formed  for  both  biting  and  suction. 
The  females  appear  in  spring  and  lay  their  eggs  upon  the  unopened  flowers 
of  the  pea  and  bean  plants.  The  larvse  hatch  out  in  eight  or  ten  days ; 


Onion  Fly,  Pupa,  and  Maggot,  magnified. 

Lines  showing  natural  size. 

Pupa  in  stored  Onion. 


1,  Thrips,  much  magnified. 

2,  Distorted  pod. 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases.  423 

they  are  very  active,  similar  to  the  adult  insect  in  form,  but  are  orange- 
coloured  and  wingless.  It  is  probable  that  more  than  one  generation 
occurs  in  the  year. 

The  foliage  of  the  plants  does  not 
appear  to  be  attacked,  the  damage  being 
done  almost  entirely  to  the  blossom, 
from  which  the  sap  is  sucked  away, 
causing  them  to  become  deformed  and 
ultimately  to  fall  off,  with  the  result 
that  although  the  plants  may  look  per- 
fectly healthy  and  have  made  a  good 
show  of  blossom  they  are  almost,  and 
sometimes  completely,  barren  of  useful 
pods. 

Treatment : — In  the  case  of  blossom  attacks  there  seems  to  be,  up  to 
present,  no  known  remedy  for  the  mischief.  Spraying  is  of  little  use.  As 
the  adult  insects  hibernate  through  the  winter  under  the  rough  bark  of  pea 
and  bean  sticks  and  in  similar  places,  future  attacks  may  be  rendered 
less  possible  by  burning  sticks  and  haulm  of  infested  crops  and  dressing 
the  ground  with  gas-lime.  Peas  or  beans  should  not  be  grown  on  such 
ground  for  several  years  following. 

* 

PEA  AND  BEAN  WEEVILS  (Sitones  sp.)— Peas,  beans,  and  other 
leguminous  plants  often  suffer  serious  injury  from  Pea  and  Bean  Weevils, 
which  devour  the  leaves  and  young  shoots,  whilst  their  larvae  feed  on  the 
roots.  It  is  not  easy  to  see  them  at  work  as  they  fall  to  the  ground  at  the 
least  alarm,  where  their  general  dark  grey  colour  serves  to  make  them 
indistinguishable  amongst  the  soil.  For  this  reason  the  damage  they  do 
is  often  mistakenly  attributed  to  slugs  or  birds.  Crops  in  gardens  are 
quite  as  liable  to  damage  from  them  as  are  those  in  fields. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  these  weevils,  the  commonest  being  the 
Striped  Pea  Weevil  (illustrated).  This  is  of  a  dark  grey  colour,  with  lighter 
stripes  on  the  wing-cases  and  thorax,  and  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  in  length.  The  adult  weevils  hibernate 
through  the  winter  in  the  bottoms  of  hedgerows  and 
other  similar  sheltered  places ;  early  in  spring  they 
become  very  active  on  the  wing  and  attack  young  peas 
and  beans  as  soon  as  they  appear  above  ground.  At 
the  same  time  they  lay  eggs  on  or  near  the  roots  of  the 
plants.  From  these  eggs  larvae  appear ;  they  are  small 
white  maggots,  with  brown  heads,  which  live  on  the 
roots  and  do  a  great  deal  of  damage. 

Treatment : — Spray  the  plants  with  arsenate  of  lead, 
or  with  diluted  paraffin  emulsion.  Or  the  plants  may  be 
powdered  whilst  damp  with  a  mixture  of  lime  and  soot.  striped  pfa  Weevi1' 

L,,  .,  •  .        •  .1  Sitones  hneatus. 

The  soil  on  each  side  of  the  rows  should  be  firmed  so  as      j  Natural  size, 
to  check  the  movements  of  the  weevils  in  the  ground.          2,  Magnified. 


424 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


FUNGOID  DISEASES. 

ASPARAGUS  RUST  (Puccinia  asparagi). — Asparagus  is  subject  to 
the  attacks  of  several  fungoid  diseases,  that  known  as  "rust"  being  the 
most  destructive.  It  does  not  appear  until  after  midsummer.  When  a 
plantation  is  badly  affected  its  general  appearance  is  that  of  an  unusually 

early  maturing  of  the  foliage. 
Instead  of  the  glossy  green 
appearance  which  healthy 
plants  present,  the  foliage 
shows  a  yellowish  brown 
colour,  whilst  the  stems  will 
be  seen  to  have  raised 
patches  of  blistered  skin. 
Underneath  this  skin  are 
large  numbers  of  the  spores 
of  the  fungus,  which  arc  of 
a  reddish  colour.  These 
spores  are  carried  by  the 
wind  and  lodge  on  other 
plants,  and  so  the  disease 
is  spread  far  and  wide. 
As  the  autumn  advances 
the  spores  become  darker, 
and  the  shoots  seem  almost 
black.  The  fungus  seriously 
weakens  the  plant  and  if 
not  eradicated  ultimately 
kills  it. 

Treatment : — A  thorough  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  will  check 
the  disease.  There  will  be  some  difficulty  in  getting  the  spray  to  stick  to 
the  glossy  leaves  and  stems,  but  if  a  very  fine  spray  is  used  with  plenty  of 
pressure  this  obstacle  may  be  overcome. 

Diseased  stems  and  foliage  should  be  burned  in  the  autumn,  and  they 
should  be  handled  as  little  as  possible  before  burning  to  avoid  distributing 
the  spores. 

Good  cultivation  and  watering  to  obtain  a  vigorous  and  sturdy  growth 
will  do  much  to  prevent  attacks  of  rust. 


Asparagus  Plant  affected  with  Rust, 
and  portion  of  rusted  stem. 


BEAN  POD  CANKER  (Colletotrichum  Lindemuthianum).— 
fungus  attacks  the  pods  of  French  and  runner  beans,  in  the  form  of  dark 
irregular-shaped  spots  and  patches,  edged  with  a  red  line.  These  spread 
and  often  run  into  each  other,  becoming  sunken,  and  arc  then  more  or  less 
covered  with  a  thin  whitish  crust.  Sometimes  the  fungus  passes  through 
to  the  seed  inside  the  pod,  making  yellowish  or  brownish  pits  or  wrinkles 
upon  them.  Although  as  a  rule  the  disease  is  not  noticed  by  the  gardener 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases.  425 

until  the  pods  arc  attacked,  it  first  appears  on  the  stem,  on  which  it  makes 
brownish  sunken  patches,  and  sometimes  on  the  leaves,  the  diseases  parts 
of  which  soon  become  dry  and  drop  out,  leaving  irregular  holes.  If  the 


Bean  Pods,  showing  Canker.  (Reduced.) 

disease  can  be  detected  and  dealt  with  at  this  stage,  before  the  pods  are 
formed,  the  crop  may  be  saved.  Infected  seed  should  never  be  sown  or 
the  plants  will  probably  be  killed  before  they  reach  the  flowering  stage. 

Treatment : — Remove  and  burn  all  diseased  plants  before  spores  are 
produced.  Spray  in  the  early  stages  with  Bordeaux  mixture  at  half  the 
normal  strength  ;  after  the  pods  are  set  and  until  they  are  half  grown  spray 
with  sulphide  of  potassium  solution. 

Avoid  planting  beans  in  damp  low-lying  places  and  use  only  healthy  seed. 

BEET  RUST  (Uromyces  betce). — This  fungus  sometimes  badly  attacks 
the  foliage  of  beet,  and  seriously  cripples  the  growth  of  the  plants.  It  may 
be  recognised  by  the  rusty-red  powder  (spores)  produced  from  numerous 
small  raised  points  on  the  diseased  leaves. 

Treatment : — Repeated  sprayings  with  Bordeaux  mixture  will  keep  the 
rust  from  becoming  serious.  When  the  beet  is  lifted  all  diseased  leaves 
should  be  collected  and  burnt. 

CABBAGE  BLACK  ROT  (Pseudomonas  campestris).—This  disease  is 
caused  by  bacteria ;  it  attacks  cabbages,  cauliflowers,  sprouts,  turnips,  and 
all  other  members  of  the  crucifer  family,  causing  the  plants  to  rot  into  a 
pulpy,  foul-smelling  mass.  The  bacteria  enter  the  plant  through  wounds, 
injured  leaves,  broken  roots,  or  through  the  water-stomata  of  the  leaves. 
They  multiply  rapidly  and  work  into  the  leaf-stalks  and  stems,  causing 
blackening  of  the  vascular  bundles  and  rotting  of  the  plants. 

It  is  considered  that  the  disease  is  sometimes  introduced  with  the  seed. 

Treatment : — All  diseased  plants  should  be  carefully  collected  and 
burnt;  they  should  never  be  given  to  stock  or  put  on  dung  or  rubbish 
heaps,  or  a  further  infection  of  the  land  will  follow  sooner  or  later.  Des- 
troy all  cruciferous  weeds. 

Dress  infected  soil  with  lime  and  keep  clear  of  cruciferous  plants  for 
some  years. 

Previous  to  sowing,  doubtful  seed  should  be  soaked  for  15  minutes  in  a 
solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  1  part  to  1,000  of  water  (loz.  to  6|  gals.). 

CELERY  LEAF  DISEASES.— There  are  three  fungoid  diseases  which 
attack  the  leaves  and  stems  of  celery,  thereby  causing  more  or  less  serious 
damage  to  the  crop. 

I.  Cercospora  Apii  (Rust  or  Sun  Scald). — This  disease  usually  appears 


426  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

about  midsummer  in  hot,  dry  seasons,  and  appears  to  be  caused  by  too 
little  moisture  at  the  roots  and  amongst  the  foliage.  The  first  evidence  of 
its  presence  is  in  small  yellowish  spots  appearing  on  the  leaves;  these 
spots  enlarge  until  they  run  together  and  the  leaf  turns  yellow  and  brown, 
finally  causing  its  destruction.  If  neglected  the  greater  part  of  the  crop 
may  become  affected  and  worthless. 

2.  Phyllosticta  Apii. — This  fungus  first  appears  in  the  form  of  one  or 
more  large  blotches  on  the  leaf,  the  colour  of  which  is  at  first  dull  brown, 
becoming  paler,  dry,  and  studded  with  small  black  spots.   When  the  spores 
are  ripe  the  leaf  crumbles  and  falls  to  the  ground,  spreading  the  infection. 

3.  Septoria  Petroselini. — In  this  case  watery  areas  appear  on  leaves 
and  stems,  and  these  become  studded  with  small  brown  spots  bearing 
slender  black  points.     This  disease  generally  appears  first  in  the  seed  beds, 
and  as  it  appears  probable  that  the  infection  can  be  carried  by  the  seed,  any 
showing  black  dots  should  be  rejected.     Prompt  measures  should  be  taken 
to  eradicate  this  disease  as  if  neglected  it  is  liable  to  become  epidemic. 

Treatment : — Each  of  these  diseases  can  be  suppressed  by  spraying 
at  frequent  intervals  with  Bordeaux  mixture  at  half  the  normal  strength  ; 
previous  to  spraying  leaves  and  plants  which  are  badly  affected  should  be 
carefully  removed  and  burnt.  The  sprayings  are  likely  to  be  more  effective 
if  backed  with  good  cultivation,  sufficient  moisture,  and  one  or  two  light 
dressings  of  a  stimulating  manure. 

CLUB-ROOT  or  ANBURY  (Plasmodiophora  brassiccz).— This  disease, 
also  known  as  "  Finger-and-Toe,"  causes  malformation  of  the  roots  of 
cabbages,  turnips,  radishes,  and  other  brassicse ; 
it  also  attacks  cruciferous  weeds,  such  as  charlock 
and  shepherd's  purse.  It  is  caused  by  a  minute 
organism  in  the  soil  which  enters  the  plant 
through  the  fine  roots,  multiplying  rapidly  in  the 
tissues  and  inducing  distortion  and  decay.  The 
disease  is  very  widespread  and  destructive.  It  is 
not  carried  in  the  air  as  most  fungoid  diseases  are, 
but  is  extremely  contagious,  and  is  readily  spread 
by  carrying  soil  from  a  diseased  area  on  boots, 
tools,  &c.,  or  by  feeding  diseased  roots  to  stock, 
from  whence  it  is  returned  to  the  ground  in  the 
manure.  Where  no  proper  measures  are  taken 
for  its  eradication  it  can  remain  in  the  soil  for 
years  in  a  quiescent  condition,  but  immediately 
makes  its  presence  known  when  the  ground  is 
cropped  again  with  brassicse.  The  disease  is 
most  prevalent  on  soils  deficient  in  lime,  and  es- 
pecially so  when  such  soils  are  sour  by  reason  of 
defective  drainage. 

Treatment : — Burn  or  cover  with  lime  diseased  roots.    Dress  the  ground 


Turnip  attacked  by 
Finger-and-Toe. 
(Much  reduced.) 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases.  427 

heavily  with  slaked  lime  or  gas-lime  immediately  the  diseased  crop  is 
removed.  Avoid  cropping  diseased  ground  with  any  kind  of  brassicae  for 
several  years.  Drain  wet  land.  Keep  down  cruciferous  weeds.  Avoid 
the  use  of  acid  manures,  such  as  superphosphates  or  dissolved  bones. 

CUCUMBER  AND  MELON  MILDEW  (Erysiphe  Cichoracearum).— 
This  fungus  produces  a  white  network  of  mycelium  on  the  leaves  of  ridge 
cucumbers,  marrows,  &c.  It  is  very  prevalent  after  the  middle  of  the 
season,  or  earlier  when  the  weather  is  very  dry. 

Treatment : — Keep  the  plants  mulched  and  watered.  Spray  with 
potassium  sulphide  or  with  Bordeaux  mixture  at  half  strength  as  soon  as 
the  mildew  is  noticed ;  or  sulphur  applied  with  a  powder  pump  may  be 
dusted  over  the  leaves  whilst  they  are  wet. 

CUCUMBER  AND  MELON  ROT.— In  damp  sunless  weather  melons  and 
cucumbers  growing  in  frames  are  subject  to  attack  from  a  fungus  (probably 
a  Botrytis)  which  settles  upon  and  causes  rapid  decay  at  the  cut  ends  of 
the  shoots,  stubs  of  leaves,  or  abraded  portions  of  the  stem.  If  not  checked 
the  rot  spreads  to  other  parts  and  destroys  the  plant. 

Treatment  : — Carefully  cut  out  and  burn  all  parts  affected  with  the  rot ; 
handle  the  pieces  gently  so  as  not  to  scatter  the  spores,  or  the  disease  will 
be  spread  broadcast.  Dress  the  fresh  cut  ends  with  flowers  of  sulphur, 
and  scatter  slaked  lime  beneath  the  plants. 

Keep  the  frames  and  plants  as  dry  as  possible  consistent  with  healthy 
growth.  Put  a  piece  or  tile  or  slate  under  each  fruit  to  keep  it  from 
contact  with  the  damp  soil. 

LETTUCE  MILDEW  (Peronospora  ganglioniformis).—This  fungus 
most  frequently  attacks  tender  young  plants  growing  under  damp  conditions 
in  a  stagnant  atmosphere  during  winter  and  spring.  It  appears  as  a  white 
powdery  growth,  chiefly  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves,  but  if  unchecked 
it  spreads  over  and  destroys  the  whole  of  the  plants. 

Treatment : — Winter  the  plants  in  a  dry  and  airy  situation  ;  an  exposed 
position  with  a  low  screen  to  break  the  rough  wind  is  preferable  to  one  at 
the  foot  of  a  wall  where  the  atmosphere  is  more  or  less  stagnant.  Give 
plenty  of  ventilation  to  plants  in  frames  or  under  cloches. 

Where  the  plants  are  badly  affected  remove  and  burn  them.  In  case  of 
a  mild  attack  dust  the  plants  with  flowers  of  sulphur  applied  with  a  powder 
pump,  or  use  a  very  fine  spray  of  Bordeaux  mixture  or  cupram,  in  either 
case  getting  well  underneath  the  leaves.  Where  disease  has  occurred, 
water  the  ground  with  copper  sulphate  solution. 

MINT  RUST  (Puccinia  menthce).—Mint  in  beds  is  frequently  attacked 
by  this  fungus.  It  appears  first  in  orange-coloured  raised  patches  on  the 
leaves  and  stems,  causing  them  to  become  distorted  and  spoiling  the  crop. 
The  plants  become  brown  and  die  down  early  in  the  season. 

Treatment : — Mint  appears  peculiarly  subject  to  this  disease  and  once  it 
has  got  hold  fungicides  are  of  little  or  no  use  ;  then  the  only  safe  course  is 
clear  the  whole  bed  of  roots  and  tops,  which  should  be  carefully  collected 


428  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

and  burnt.  After  such  a  clearance  spray  the  ground  thoroughly  with 
copper  sulphide  solution  then  dress  it  with  lime.  Where  the  disease  is 
very  prevalent  it  would  probably  be  beneficial  as  a  preventive  to  spray  the 
bed  early  in  the  spring  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  following  this  at  intervals 
with  cupram. 

Stocks  may  be  kept  comparatively  clear  of  the  disease  by  forming  a  fresh 
plantation  with  healthy  plants  on  new  ground  each  year,  and  not  allowing 
the  plants  to  occupy  the  same  ground  more  than  two  years  in  succession. 

MUSHROOM  DISEASE  (Hypomyces  perniciosus).—This  disease  fre- 
quently attacks  cultivated  mushrooms.  When  affected  by  it  they  fail  to 
develop  properly  into  a  cap  and  stem,  but  the  latter  becomes  much  swollen 

and  distorted,  whilst  the  cap  is  very 
small  and  deformed.  The  cause  of  the 
disease  is  a  small  parasitic  fungus  which 
grows  up  with  the  mushroom.  After  a 
time  the  mushroom  becomes  a  soft 
putrid  mass. 

Treatment; — If  the  greater  part  of 
the  mushrooms  are  diseased  the  entire 
bed  should  be  removed  and  put  where 
there  is  no  possibility  of  contact  with 
other  mushroom  beds  or  manure.  Then 
clean  and  disinfect  the  interior  of  the 
house,  the  ground,  and  all  tools  used  in 
taking  away  the  bed.  A  solution  of 
copper  sulphate  (lib.  to  10  gallons  water) 
sprayed  over  the  walls,  floor,  and  roof  of 
the  house  is  very  effective  if  repeated 
two  or  three  times  at  intervals  of  from 
seven  to  ten  days. 

If  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  mushrooms  are  affected  the  beds  should 
be  looked  over  every  day  or  two  and  the  diseased  mushrooms,  with  the  soil 
adhering,  taken  out  and  burned. 

The  spawn  used  may  be  the  cause  of  infection,  therefore  care  should  be 
taken  to  procure  it  only  from  a  reliable  source. 

PEA  MILDEW  (Erysiphe  Martii).—Peas  arc  very  liable  to  attack  in 
late  summer  and  early  autumn  from  a  fungus  which  appears  on  the  leaves, 
pods  and  stems  in  the  form  of  a  white  downy  mildew,  which  stops  the 
growth  of  the  plants  and  ruins  the  crop. 

Treatment : — Owing  to  the  waxy  covering  on  the  leaves  it  is  not  easy  to 
make  liquid  fungicides  adhere.  Hence  it  is  better  to  use  powders — lime 
and  sulphur  or  strawsonite.  Apply  whilst  the  leaves  arc  damp  (not  wet) 
with  rain  or  dew.  Repeat  at  intervals  and  after  heavy  rain. 

In  the  case  of  a  bad  attack  recovery  is  practically  hopeless,  and  the 
best  proceeding  is  to  pull  up  and  burn  the  plants. 


Diseased  Mushrooms. 
(Reduced.) 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases.  429 

ONION  MILDEW  (Peronospora  schleideni).—This  disease  of  the  onion 
is  very  well-known  and  wide-spread.  It  appears  first  in  the  form  of  small 
yellowish  patches  on  the  leaves,  which  gradually  increase  in  size  until  the 
whole  of  the  leaves  assume  a  yellowish,  wilted  appearance.  The  surface  of 
the  leaves  becomes  covered  with  a  white  powder, 
which  soon  changes  to  a  dingy  lilac  colour. 

The  bulb  itself  is  not  attacked,  but  its  growth  is 
completely  arrested,  whilst  at  the  same  time  the 
"  neck  "  between  the  bulb  and  the  base  of  the  leaves 
rapidly  increases  in  length,  this  elongation  being  a 
certain  sign  of  the  existence  of  the  disease.  The 
attack  is  usually  made  in  the  early  stages  of  growth, 
and  then  unless  remedial  measures  are  at  once  taken 
the  crop  is  completely  destroyed. 

Treatment : — The  disease  first  appears  in  one  or 
more  isolated  patches  in  the  crop,  which  are  indicated 
by  the  yellowing  of  the  leaves.  If  prompt  measures 
are  adopted  at  this  stage  the  disease  can  be  held  in 
check. 

Remove  entirety-  all  plants  showing  a  trace  of 
disease  and  burn  them ;  be  sure  to  destroy  them  as 
if  any  are  left  lying  about  to  decay  the  disease  is 
almost  certain  to  appear  again  the  following  season. 
After  the  diseased  plants  are  removed  spray  the 
remainder  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  or  dust  them  with 
quicklime  and  sulphur  whilst  the  leaves  are  wet. 
Either  spraying  or  dusting  should  be  repeated  at 
intervals  of  two  weeks. 


Onion  attacked  by 

Mildew. 
(Reduced.) 


POTATO  BLACK-LEG  or  STEM-ROT  (Bacillus  phytophthorus).—This 
disease,  which  is  becoming  increasingly  prevalent,  is  caused  by  a  bacterium. 
Affected  plants  become  yellowish  and  shrivelled  from  the  bottom  upwards, 
and  finally  die.  The  stem  below  the  soil  'is  first  affected  ;  this  turns  brown 
in  patches,  and  the  discolouration  increases  in  size  and  extends  up  the 
stem  until  the  whole  plant  becomes  black  and  rotten.  Sometimes  isolated 
plants  are  affected  in  the  midst  of  healthy  ones,  but  more  frequently  the 
disease  spreads  from  one  to  another.  It  is  most  prevalent  during  June 
and  July,  and  appears  to  be  encouraged  by  close  damp  weather. 

Treatment: — So  far,  the  only  known  lines  of  treatment  consist  of  a 
rotation  of  crops  and  the  planting  of  clean  seed.  Where  the  disease  has 
occurred  the  sets  should  not  be  cut  but  should  be  planted  whole,  and  the 
use  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia  to  force  growth  should  be 
avoided. 

POTATO  BLACK  SCAB  or  WART  DISEASE  (Synchytrium  endobio- 
ticum). — This  disease  has  been  known  for  some  years,  chiefly  as  attacking 
crops  on  allotments  or  other  limited  areas  where  potatoes  have  been  grown 
on  the  same  ground  year  after  year.  Latterly,  ordinary  field  crops  have 


430  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

been  attacked,  and  the  disease  is  now  classed  as  a  notifiable  one,  under 
the  Destructive  Insects  and  Pests  Act.  It  first  appears  near  the  "eyes" 
of  the  tuber,  causing  the  young  sprouts  to  assume  a  brownish  colour,  and 
then  wrinkles  or  warts  appear.  These  warts  gradually  increase  in  size  and 
grow  together,  forming  a  brown  spongy  mass  which  almost  envelopes  the 
tuber  and  finally  becomes  black.  The  progress  of  the  disease  is  well  shown 
in  the  illustration  below. 


Potatoes  infected  with  Black  Scab  or  Wart  Disease, 

in  different  stages  of  development.     (Reduced.) 

Infected  seed  is  most  frequently  the  means  of  introducing  this  disease 
into  clean  ground,  and  when  it  gets  a  footing  the  infection  gradually 
spreads,  either  through  the  agency  of  diseased  haulms  and  tubers  or  by 
infected  soil  being  carried  about  on  boots  and  tools,  until  all  the  ground  is 


Potato  Root  infected  with  Black  Scab  or  Wart  Disease.   (Reduced.) 

infected.    The  disease  will  survive  in  the  ground  for  about  six  years  after 
the  last  crop  of  diseased  potatoes  has  been  taken. 

Treatment : — This  is  entirely  preventive ;  nothing  short  of  destroying 
the  tubers  can  kill  the  disease  when  established  in  the  tissues.  Diseased 
tubers  should  be  boiled  or  burned,  and  all  haulm  burned  immediately  the 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases. 


431 


attack  is  noticed.  Dress  the  ground  where  they  have  grown  and  for  some 
distance  outside  the  margin  with  gaslime,  and  disinfect  all  tools  and  other 
implements  or  articles  which  have  come  in  contact  with  the  soil  during  the 
process  of  lifting.  Avoid  planting  potatoes  on  this  ground  again  for  several 
years,  and  before  planting  again  dress  the  tubers  with  flowers  of  sulphur, 
which  should  also  be  worked  into  the  ground  at  the  rate  of  3  or  4  ozs.  to  the 
square  yard. 

"  Greening  "  tubers  intended  for  seed  by  exposure  to  light  in  the  autumn, 
and  then  boxing  them  for  sprouting,  has  been  shown  to  give  some  degree 
of  immunity  to  the  disease. 

"Snowdrop,"  "Maincrop,"  and  "Conquest"  are  varieties  which  have  been 
proved  by  experiment  to  be  more  resistant  than  others  to  Black  Scab. 

POTATO  "DISEASE"—  Blight  or  Rot  —  (Phytophthora  infestans).— 
This  is  the  commonest  as  well  as  the  most  destructive  disease  to  which 
potatoes  are  subject.  It  is  known  to  growers  as  the  potato  disease,  and 
not  without  good  reason,  for  whilst  other  diseases  to  which  the  potato  is 
subject  are  only  occasional  incidents  this  is  always  present  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  ready  to  play  havoc  with  any  unprotected  crop  in  a  season 
favourable  to  its  development,  and 
must  therefore  always  be  taken 
into  the  reckoning.  It  is  always 
the  most  destructive  in  wet  seasons 
and  especially  so  if  the  wet  is  ac- 
companied by  what  is  known  as  a 
"close"  or  "muggy"  condition  of 
the  atmosphere. 

The  first  sign  of  its  activity  is 
indicated  by  brown  patches  on  the 
leaves  and  stems.  If  left  un- 
treated these  patches  or  spots 
rapidly  increase  in  size,  the  leaves 
curl,  the  colour  becomes  darker, 
until  finally  the  whole  plant,  in- 
cluding the  tubers,  is  enveloped 
and  becomes  rotten. 

The  disease  is  caused  by  a  fungus 
which  develops  great  numbers  of 
spores  ;  these  are  scattered  by  the 
wind  or  by  anything  which  dis- 
turbs the  foliage,  and  as  every 
spore  which  settles  upon  a  damp 
potato  leaf  is  capable  of  forming  a 
new  centre  of  infection  the  disease  spreads  with  startling  rapidity. 

^Treatment: — To  obtain  sound  crops  of  potatoes  with  any  measure  of 
certainty  the  culture  should  be  undertaken  with  the  clear  understanding 
that  the  disease  is  always  lurking  about,  and  that  the  extent  of  its  ravages 


Diseased  Leaf  and  Tuber  of  Potatoes. 
(Reduced.) 


432  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

depend  more  or  less  upon  (1)  the  soundness  of  the  seed,  (2)  the  suitability 
of  the  soil,  (3)  the  space  between  the  plants,  (4)  the  climatic  conditions, 
and  (5)  the  timeliness,  frequency,  and  efficiency  of  any  protective  spraying 
the  crop  may  receive. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  tubers  kept  for  planting  or  any  seed 
purchased  should  be  saved  from  a  perfectly  sound  crop ;  any  showing  the 
slightest  taint  should  be  at  once  rejected. 

Potatoes  should  never  be  planted  on  low-lying  wet  land;  crops  on  a 
water-logged  soil  are  almost  sure  to  be  attacked  by  disease." 

The  seed  should  be  set  at  such  distances  apart  as  will  allow  the  sun  and 
air  free  play  amongst  the  plants.  In  an  overcrowded  crop  the  haulm  grows 
in  a  close  mass  which  prevents  free  access  of  light  or  air  ;  thus  the  growth 
is  soft,  and  beneath  the  surface  of  the  foliage  there  is  a  damp  stagnant 
atmosphere  in  which  the  disease  runs  riot  immediately  it  finds  a  lodgment. 
Although  the  first  three  of  the  points  enumerated  above  are  all  excellent 
and  necessary  steps  towards  securing  a  sound  crop,  they  alone  cannot  be 
depended  upon  to  ward  off  disease  in  an  unfavourable  season,  and  to  secure 
comparative  immunity  these  measures  should  be  accompanied  by  timely 
sprayings  with  Bordeaux  mixture — first  about  the  end  of  June  and  again 
three  weeks  later.  This  work  should  be  done,  when  possible,  in  fine  dry 
weather ;  if  it  is  persistently  wet  the  mixture  must  be  applied  more  fre- 
quently and  at  greater  strength.  The  underside  of  the  leaves  must  receive 
particular  attention,  because  it  is  here  that  the  disease  first  appears. 

Should  spraying  have  been  neglected  and  the  disease  appear,  the  opera- 
tion will  then  be  comparatively  useless,  and  the  only  safe  course  is  to  at 

once  cut  off  the  diseased  haulm  and  burn  it. 
Land  which  has  borne  a  diseased  crop 
should  be  dressed  with  gaslime,  and  kept 
free  from  potatoes  for  the  next  two  or  three 
years. 

The  rows  of  potatoes  should  always  be 
well  earthed  up,  because  the  spores  of  the 
fungus  which  fall  to  the  ground  from 
diseased  leaves  are  washed  through  the  soil 
by  rain,  and  when  the  young  potatoes  lie 
near  the  surface  they  thus  become  readily 
infected ;  a  good  covering  of  soil  over  the 
tubers  affords  a  measure  of  protection. 

POTATO  LEAF  CURL  (Macrosporium 
solani). — Frequently  in  rows  of  potatoes 
some  plants  will  be  found  which  are  stunted 
in  growth,  the  leaves  being  small  and  curled 
and  blackish  patches  being  present  on 
leaves  and  stem.  The  tubers  are  generally 
infected  before  planting,  though  infection 
Potato  Leaf  Curl.  (Reduced.)  may  take  place  after  planting  from  spores 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases.  433 

present  in  the  soil.  Seed  potatoes  lifted  before  they  arc  fully  grown  are 
seldom  infected ;  the  fungus  appears  to  pass  down  to  the  tubers  at  a  late 
stage  in  their  growth. 

Treatment : — Spraying  is  of  no  use.  As  indicated  above,  lifting  tubers 
for  seed  before  they  are  mature  is  probably  the  best  prevention. 

The  haulm  and~tubers  of  diseased  plants  should  be  collected  and  burnt. 

POTATO  SCAB  (Oospora  scabies).— This  fungus  is  very  wide-spread  ; 
it  attacks  the  tubers  whilst  they  are  quite  small,  forming  rough  scabby 
patches  on  the  surface,  and  these  increase  in  size  with  the  growth  of  the 
tuber,  generally  remaining  more  or  less  isolated,  but  sometimes  extending 
to  such  an  extent  that  when  the  tuber  is  full-grown  its  whole  surface  is 
covered  with  scab. 

Although  the  market  value  of  the  potatoes  is  depreciated  when  much 
scab  is  present,  they  are  really  none  the  worse  for  cooking  purposes. 


Potato  Tubers  infected  with  Scab  (reduced  to  half  size). 

Treatment : — When  land  has  produced  scabbed  potatoes  no  further  crop 
should  be  grown  there  for  at  least  three  years  ;  neither  should  beet,  turnips, 
carrots,  and  cabbages  be  planted  there,  as  they  also  are  attacked  by  the 
fungus  and  thus  help  to  perpetuate  it.  Green  manuring  is  said  to  have  a 
good  effect  in  clearing  the  ground  of  the  fungus,  whilst  lime  favours  its 
development  and  should  not  be  used.  Acid  manures  (superphosphates  and 
dissolved  bones)  are  the  most  suitable  for  use  on  infected  ground.  On 
small  areas  infected  by  the  fungus  an  attack  may  be  warded  off  by  sprink- 
ling flowers  of  sulphur  in  the  trenches  before  planting  the  yotatoes. 

Only  clean  seed  should  be  used  when  possible,  but  if  the  use  of  scabby 
seed  cannot  be  avoided  it  may  be  disinfected  by  the  following  methods : — 

(a)  For  small  quantities : — 

1.  Soak  the  seed  for  two  hours  in  a  solution  of  J  pint  of  formalin 
to  15  gallons  of  water. 

2.  Soak  the  seed  for  one  and  a-half  hours  in  a  solution  of  1  oz.  of 
corrosive  sublimate  to  8  or  9  gallons  of  water. 

3.  Roll  the  seed  in  sulphur,  using  300  Ibs.  sulphur  to  the  acre ;  any 
sulphur  which  does  not  adhere  to  the  seed  is  sown  in  the  rows. 

(b)  For  large  quantities  : — 

Place  the  seed  in  bushel  crates  or  shallow  slatted  trays  in  an  air- 
tight room.     Allow  23  ozs.  of  permanganate  of  potash  and  3  pints  of 

28 


Potato  Tuber  attacked  by  Winter  Rot. 
(Much  reduced.) 


434  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

formalin  to  each  1,000  cubic  feet  of  air-space.     Spread  the  perman- 
ganate evenly  in  a  pan  or  bucket  and  pour  the  formalin  over  it. 
Leave  the  room  at  once  and  keep  it  closed  for  two  days. 
In  any  case  be  careful  not  to  bring  disinfected  seed  in  contact  with 
diseased  tubers,  or  with  the  bags  or  hampers  which  have  contained  them. 

POTATO  WINTER  ROT  (Nectria  solani).— This  fungus  is  very  common 
amongst  potatoes  which  have  been  stored  through  the  winter,  and  some- 
times reaches  the  proportions  of  an  epidemic  after  a  hot  dry  season.  Such 
conditions  favour  the  development  and  spread  of  the  fungus  in  the  field ; 

the  tubers  are  attacked  when  they  are 
quite  young,  but  the  disease  is  not,  as 
a  rule,  noticeable  when  they  are  lifted. 
If  they  are  stored  when  perfectly  dry  and 
under  dry  airy  conditions  no  further 
development  takes  place,  but  if  they  are 
badly  stored — that  is,  before  being  per- 
fectly dry,  in  large  badly  ventilated 
clamps — sweating  takes  place,  the  tem- 
perature rises,  and  the  fungus  begins  to  develop. 

Treatment :— When  the  disease  is  common  apply  kainit  as  a  top-dressing 
before  the  final  earthing.  Use  it  at  the  rate  of  3  to  5  cwts.  per  acre,  and 
work  it  into  the  ground  round  the  plants. 

When  an  attack  has  been  severe,  the  ground  which  has  produced  the 
diseased  crop  should  not  be  planted  with 
potatoes  for  several  seasons  afterwards. 

The  potatoes  should  be  quite  dry  before 
clamping,  and  the  clamp  only  of  moderate 
size,  with  a  dry  base,  and  provided  with 
ample  ventilation. 

Where  this  disease  is  common  it  is  gener- 
ally an  indication  of  a  deficiency  of  lime  in 
the  soil. 


SCLEROTIUM  DISEASE  (Sclerotinia 
sclerotiorum  ;  Botrytis  cinerea). —  Most 
cultivated  plants  and  many  weeds  are  liable 
to  be  attacked  by  this  disease.  The  Botrytis 
or  summer  form  of  the  fungus  produces  a 
white  velvetty  growth  on  the  stem,  leaf  or 
fruit  attacked.  Although  it  usually  attacks 
the  stem  or  leaves  just  above  the  ground 
its  operations  are  often  conducted  at  a 
higher  point,  as  in  the  case  of  tomatoes  in 
the  open-air,  which  are  attacked  at  the 
point  where  fruit  and  stem  join,  a  great 
amount  of  loss  being  often  occasioned  in 


Sclerotium  Disease. 

1.  Portion  of  a  potato  haulm  with 
the  Botrytis  form  starting  from  the 
ground  line. 

2.  Portion  of  a  potato  haulm  split 
open  showing  black  sclerotia  inside. 

3.  Onion  with  sclerotia  of  S.  bnl- 
borum  on  the  scales.    (All  reduced.) 


Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases.  435 

the  autumn  from  this  cause.  The  development  of  the  fungus  is  most  rapid 
in  a  damp,  still  atmosphere.  In  the  summer  the  fungus  produces  large 
numbers  of  spores,  each  of  which  is  capable,  under  suitable  conditions,  of 
acting  as  a  fresh  centre  for  the  spread  of  the  disease.  On  the  approach  of 
winter,  or  other  unfavourable  conditions,  it  produces  numerous  resting 
bodies,  known  as  Sclerotia,  irregular  in  size  and  form  and  brown  or  black 
in  colour;  these  germinate  in  spring  and  again  give  rise  to  the  botrytis 
form.  In  many  plants,  such  as  potatoes  and  beans,  these  sclerotia  are 
formed  inside  the  stem. 

Certain  other  sclerotium-forming  fungi  (S.  bulborum,  &c.)  attack  bul- 
bous plants,  such  as  the  onion,  the  sclerotia  being  formed  in  the  scales  of 
the  bulb. 

Treatment : — Cut  off  all  diseased  plants  or  portions  of  plants,  or  any 
leaves  or  fruit  which  may  be  affected.  Do  this  thoroughly  as  well  as  gently 
and  carefully,  as  any  small  portion  left  or  any  scattered  spores  may  start  a 
fresh  epidemic.  Burn  them  at  once.  Dust  the  plants  and  the  surface  of 
the  soil  with  lime  and  sulphur.  Keep  both  plants  and  surroundings  as 
dry  as  possible. 

Persistent  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  cupram  will  keep  the 
disease  in  check. 

The  soil  should  be  limed  before  cropping  again. 

STRAWBERRY  LEAF  SPOT  (Sphczrella  Fragaricz)— This  disease 
first  appears  as  small  purplish  spots  on  the  leaves.  These  spots  gradually 
increase  in  size,  and  the  colour  changes  to  reddish-brown  with  a  purple 
edging.  The  disease  is  often  very  serious  on  some  varieties.  By  injuring 
the  leaves  its  effect  is  to  reduce  the  crop-bearing  powers  of  the  plants, 
often  to  a  serious  extent. 

Treatment : — Spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture  when  growth  starts  in 
spring  and  again  when  first  flowers  are  open.  When  crop  is  gathered  cut 
old  leaves,  removing  and  burning  them.  This  is  safer  than  the  method 
sometimes  recommended  of  burning  off  leaves  whilst  on  the  plant.  In 
either  case  spray  new  growth  two  or  three  times  with  Bordeaux  mixture, 
at  intervals  of  several  weeks. 

STRAWBERRY  MILDEW  ( Sphcerotheca  Castagnei).—This  appears 
first  as  a  white  cobweb-like  growth  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves,  and 
afterwards  spreads  to  the  fruit. 

Treatment: — Spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  or  dust  the  plants  whilst 
wet  with  a  mixture  of  lime  and  sulphur.  See  that  the  spray  or  powder 
reaches  the  underside  of  the  leaves. 

"POTATO  DISEASE"  ON*TOMATOES  (Pkytophthora  infestans).— 
Tomatoes  grown  in  the  open-air  are  liable,  especially  during  wet  sunless 
periods  in  the  latter  part  of  summer,  to  attacks  of  this  disease,  sometimes 
to  a  serious  extent.  The  symptoms  are  similar  to  those  found  when  pota- 
toes are  attacked,  i.e.,  dark  brown  blotches  appear  on  the  stems  and  leaves. 
These  blotches  increase  in  size  and  number  until,  in  a  bad  attack,  the 


436  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

whole  plant  becomes  a  brown  rotten  mass.  The  fruit,  of  course,  suffers 
equally  with  the  rest  of  the  plant.  Under  conditions  favourable  to  the 
spread  of  the  disease  practically  the  whole  of  the  crop  may  be  lost. 

Treatment : — As  in  the  case  of  potatoes,  the  only  safe  course  with  this 
crop  is  to  include  preventive  spraying  with  a  fungicide  as  part  of  the  routine 
of  culture.  In  normal  summers  two  applications  of  Bordeaux  mixture,  the 
first  in  the  middle  of  July  and  the  second  a  fortnight  later,  will  generally 
be  sufficient  to  ward  off  the  disease,  but  in  an  unfavourable  season  the 
sprayings  should  be  continued  at  fortnightly  intervals.  The  under  surfaces 
of  the  leaves  should  receive  particular  attention.  When  the  fruit  is 
ripening  cupram  may  be  used  instead  of  Bordeaux  as  it  stains  the  fruit  less, 
but  if  disease  is  actually  present,  or  if  conditions  are  favourable  to  its 
development,  the  use  of  Bordeaux  should  be  continued  even  though  its  use 
necessitates  the  wiping  of  the  fruit. 

BLACK  SPOT  OF  TOMATOES  (Macrosporium  Tomato).— This  fungus 
generally  makes  its  presence  known  wrhen  the  fruit  is  about  one-half  grown. 
The  point  of  attack  is  usually  at  the  pistil  (the  point  furthest  from  the  stalk). 
A  small  black  spot  develops  first,  gradually  increasing  in  size  until  often 
half  the  fruit  is  involved,  the  surface  being  sunken  and  the  pulp  below  black 
and  decayed.  The  writer  has  observed  that  this  disease  has  invariably 
selected  for  attack  the  fruit  on  those  plants  which  have  had  insufficient 
moisture  at  the  roots,  whilst  those  under  better  growing  conditions  have 
escaped. 

Treatment : — Collect  and  burn  diseased  fruits.  Spray  regularly  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  or  cupram.  See  that  the  plants  have  sufficient  moisture 
at  the  roots,  and  avoid  planting  in  very  dry  situations. 

VIOLET  ROOT  ROT  (Rhizoctonia  violacea). — Most  cultivated  plants 
— the  grasses  and  cereals  forming  notable  exceptions — are  liable  to  the 
attacks  of  this  fungus.  Generally  the  attack  is  confined  to  the  roots  and 
other  underground  parts,  but  in  dull  moist  weather  the  disease  may  extend 
up  the  stem  to  the  leaves  and  fruit.  It  is  easily  recognised  by  the  network 
of  red  or  purplish  mycelium  which  grows  closely  round  the  organ  attacked. 

The  leaves  of  diseased  plants  become  yellow  and  drooping.  From  the 
mycelium  are  produced  hard  roundish  bodies — sclerotia — which  are  masses 
of  closely  interwoven  mycelium,  and  which  carry  on  the  disease  from  year 
to  year.  Carrots,  beet,  potatoes,  beans,  and  peas  are  the  garden  crops 
most  likely  to  be  attacked. 

Treatment : — An  acid  condition  of  the  soil  is  necessary  to  the  proper 
development  of  the  fungus,  hence  the  application  of  lime  and  proper 
drainage  will  tend  to  keep  it  in  check. 

All  diseased  roots,  &c.,  should  be  carefully  collected  and  burnt;  on  no 
account  should  they  be  fed  to  stock  without  previous  boiling. 


MISCELLANEOUS    INFORMATION. 


Approximate  Quantity  of  Seed  required  to  Sow  an  Acre, 
or  to  produce  1,000  good  Plants. 

Asparagus 3  to  5  Ibs. 

Beans  (Broad) 2  to  3  bushels. 

Do.     (Dwarf,  or  French) l£  bushels. 

Do.     (Runner,  kept  dwarf)       I£to2  bushels. 

Do.    (     do.      on  poles) |  to  1  bushel. 

Beet 6  to  8  Ibs. 

Borecole,  or  Kale  ...  1  oz.  for  each  1,000  plants  ...    drilled    4  to  6  Ibs. 

Broccoli     do  do.  do. 

Brussels  Sprouts    ...  do.  do.  do. 

Cabbage    do.  do.  do. 

Carrots,  in  drills     6  to  8  Ibs. 

Cauliflowers  (raised  in  heat  and  pricked  out)...     £  oz.  for  each  1,000  plants. 
Celery  do.  do.  ...     |  oz.  do. 

Celeriac  do.  do.  ...     ^  oz.  do. 

Chicory     1  oz.  for  each  75  ft.  of  drill. 

Cucumbers,  Ridge  (sown  in  the  open)     1J  Ibs. 

Do.          (raised  in  heat)       1|  oz.  for  each  1,000  plants. 

Endive  (transplanted) £  oz.  do. 

Leeks  (sown  in  drills) 5  to  6  Ibs. 

Do.     (transplanted)     1  oz.  for  each  1,000  plants. 

Lettuce        do.  4  oz.  do. 

Melons       1^  oz.  do. 

Mushrooms      ...    2  bricks  (16  to  the  bushel)  to  one  square  yard  of  surface. 
Onions  (for  harvesting)        6  to  8  Ibs. 

Do.     (for  pulling  green)    15  to  20  Ibs. 

Parsley      6  to  8  Ibs. 

Parsnips    ...     ....     6  to  8  Ibs. 

Peas 2  to  3  bushels. 

Potatoes 12  to  16  cwts. 

Radishes ...     f  bushel. 

Savoys 1  oz.  for  each  1,000  plants. 

Shallots  (seed)...     6  to  8  Ibs. 

Do.      (bulbs)       10  to  12  bushels. 

Spinach     10  to  12  Ibs. 

Tomatoes £  oz.  for  each  1,000  plants. 

Turnips      3  to  4  Ibs. 

Vegetable  Marrows,  Bush  (sown  in  the  open)      3  to  4  Ibs. 

Do.  Running          do.  2  to  3  Ibs. 

Do.  (raised  in  heat)        6  oz.  for  each  1,000  plants. 


438 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


Approximate  Averages  of  Yield,  Cost  of  Production,  and 
Gross  Returns  per  Acre  of  various  Vegetable  Crops. 

These  average  yields  are  calculated  from  crops  grown  with  good 
ordinary  cultivation,  under  suitable  conditions,  in  a  normal  season  ; 
the  cost  of  producing  the  crop  includes,  in  addition  to  all  expenses 
of  cultivation,  such  items  as  the  value  of  plants  where  these  are  set 
out,  and  gathering,  bunching,  washing,  or  packing,  but  not  carting  to 
rail  or  market;  the  gross  returns  are  subject  to  deductions  for 
carriage  and  salesmen's  commissions. 


Description  of 
Crop. 

Artichokes,  Globe    ... 
Asparagus  
Beans,  Broad     
Beans,  Dwarf,  French 
Beans,  Runner  
Beet     

Average  amount  of 
Produce. 

10,000  to  15,000  heads     ... 
1,500  to  2,000  bundles     ... 
120  to  180  bushels    
250  to  350  bushels     
300  to  400  bushels     
14  to  16  tons 

Cost  of 
Production. 

£20  to  £25  ... 
30  to  35  ... 
10  to  12  ... 
14  to  16  ... 
15  to  18  ... 
20  to  25 

Gross 
Returns. 
£45  to  £65 
75  to  100 
20  to    30 
20  to     30 
20  to     35 
40  to     50 

Broccoli       
Do.       Sprouting  ... 

500  to  700  doz.  heads 
5  to  8  tons  

25  to  30  ... 
15  to  25 

50  to     60 
25  to    40 

Brussels  Sprouts 
Cabbages    
Carrots,  Early  
Do.      Maincrop    ... 
Cauliflowers       
Celery,  in  trenches  ... 
Do.     in  broad  beds. 

300  bushels,  50  bags  tops  . 
1,000  to  1,200  doz  
1,200  to  1,500  doz.  12's    ... 
15  to  20  tons 
500  to  800  doz  
1,000  to  1,200  rolls    
2,500  to  3,000  rolls    

25  to  30  ... 
15  to  20  ... 
30  to  35  ... 
14  to  16  ... 
25  to  30  ... 
25  to  35  ... 
40  to  45  ... 

40  to     60 
40  to     60 
50  to     80 
30  to     40 
40  to    80 
45  to     65 
100  to  125 

Cucumbers,  Ridge   ... 
Kale      

4,000  to  6,000  doz.     ...     "... 
12  to  16  tons 

25  to  35  ... 
20  to  25 

45  to     75 
30  to     40 

Leeks   .  .  . 

500  to  1  000  doz   bunches 

14  to  18 

40  to     50 

Lettuce,  Cos      
Do.      Cabbage    ... 

2,500  to  3,000  doz  
4,000  to  5,000  doz  

25  to  35  ... 
25  to  35  ... 

60  to    80 
40  to  100 

Onions,  Dry       
Do.  Green,  bunched 
Parsley        
Parsnips     
Peas,  Green       
Potatoes,  Early 
Do.         Late  

10  to  15  tons       
6,000  to  8,000  market  bun. 
500  to  600  doz.  bunches  ... 
14  to  16  tons       
100  to  200  bushels     
4  to  6  tons  
8  to  10  tons  

20  to  25  ... 
40  to  45  ... 
20  to  25  ... 
13  to  15  ... 
16  to  20  ... 
15  to  20  ... 
15  to  20 

50  to    80 
60  to     90 
40  to     60 
25  to     35 
20  to     35 
30  to     45 
25  to     35 

Radishes      
Rhubarb      
Seakale,  Natural 

5,000  to  6,000  doz  
15  to  20  tons       
3,500  to  4,500  Ibs 

40  to  45  ... 
30  to  40  ... 
25  to  30 

75  to  110 
50  to     70 
50  to     75 

Savoys         
Shallots       

600  to  800  doz  
4  to  6  tons  

18  to  20  ... 
18  to  20 

35  to     45 
40  to     50 

Spinach       
Tomatoes    
Turnips,  Early  
Do.       Maincrop  ... 
Vegetable  Marrows... 

500  to  800  bushels    
7  to  10  tons        
300  to  350  doz.  bufi.  of  12  . 
15  to  20  tons       
1,000  to  1,500  doz.     ..,     .,, 

20  to  25     ... 
30  to  40     ... 
25  to  35     ... 
12  to  14     ... 
15  to  20     ... 

40  to     50 
80  to  100 
45  to     65 
25  to     30 
40  to     45 

Miscellaneous  Information.  439 

Average  Time  required  for  Garden  Seeds  to  Germinate. 


Days. 

Asparagus        ... 14  to  21 

Beans        7  to  14 

Beet ...  10  to  18 

Brassicae  (all  sorts)       ...  5  to  10 

Carrots     ...     12  to  18 

Chicory     5  to  10 

Cress 4  to    6 

Cucumbers  (in  the  open)  7  to  14 

Do.        (in  heat)     ...  2  to    4 

Endive      5  to  14 

Leeks 10  to  14 

Lettuce     6  to  10 

Average  Longevity 

Years. 

Asparagus    3 

Basil       8 

Beans     3 

Beet       6 

Borage 8 

Brassicae       5 

Cardoons      7 

Carrots 4 

Chicory 8 

Cress      5 

Cucumbers 6 

Endive 10 

Fennel 4 

Leeks     3 

Lettuce 5 

Marjoram,  Sweet       3 

Do.        Winter     5 

Melons  ..  5 


Melons  (in  heat)     3  to    6 

Mustard    3  to    4 

Onions       10  to  16 

Parsley     15  to  26 

Parsnips 10  to  20 

Peas 7  to  14 

Radishes 3  to    6 

Spinach     7  to  10 

Tomatoes  (in  heat)        ...  6  to  10 

Turnips     4  to  10 

V.  Marrows  (in  the  open)  7  to  14 

Do.         (in  heat)    ...  3  to    5 

of  Garden  Seeds. 

Years. 
Mustard 4 

Onions -..     ...  2 

Parsley 3 

Parsnips        2 

Peas       .,  3 

Radishes       5 

Rhubarb        3 

Rosemary     ... 4 

Sage       3 

Salsify 2 

Savory,  Summer  or  Winter    ...  3 

Scorzonera 2 

Seakale 1 

Spinach  (all  varieties)       5 

Thyme    > 3 

Tomatoes      4 

Turnips 5 

Vegetable  Marrows 6 


Number 
in  Cast. 

72's  Thimbles 


Diameter 
inside. 

I'm.     . 
7jin.     , 


Approximate  Sizes  of  Flower  Pots. 

NOTE.— The  numbers  and  sizes  of  Pots  vary  with  different  makers. 

Diameter  Depth  Number 

inside.  inside.  in  Cast. 

2in.     ...  2in.  24's      

72's  Thumbs     ...     2£in.     ...  2£in.  18's      

60's  Small         ...     2|in.     ...  2fin.  12's      8£in. 

60's  Medium     ...       3in.     ...  3|in.              8's      lOin. 

60's  Large         ...     3£in.     ...  3fin.              6's      llin. 

54's      4|in.     ...  4|in.              4's      12in. 

48's      Sin.     ...  5£in.              3's      14in. 

36's      SJin.     ...  Sfin.              2's      16in. 

32's                            6lin.     ...  6in.              1's      ...     ...     ...     18in. 


Depth 
inside, 
6|in. 

7in. 
Sin. 


llin. 
12in. 
13in. 
14in, 


440  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

Number  of  Plants  for  an  Acre,  at  given  distances  apart. 

(Adapted  front  Bailey's  Horticulturist's  Rule  Book.) 


(Ad 

2in.  x     6in. 
2,,    x     7,,       ... 
2,,    x     8,,       ... 
2,,    x     9,,       ... 
2  „    x  10  ,,       ... 
2  ,,    x     1ft. 
3  ,,    x     Gin. 
3  „    x     7  „       ... 
3  ,,    x     8  ,, 

rpted  from  Bailey's  Ho 
Plants. 
522,720 
448,045 
392,040 
348,480 
313,632 
261,360 
348,480 
298,697 
261,360 

rticultitrist's  Rule  Book.) 

1ft.  x  1ft.  9in. 
,,    x  2ft  

Plants, 
24,891 
21,780 

,,    x  2ft.  6in. 
x  3ft 

17,424 
14  520 

1  ,,    x  3ft.  6in. 
x  4ft. 

12,446 
10  890 

1  ,,    x  4ft.  6in. 
1       x  5ft. 

9,680 
8  712 

1ft.  Sin.  x  1ft.  3in. 
,,         x  1ft.  6in. 
x  1ft.  9in. 
x  2ft.      ... 
x  2ft.  6in. 
x  3ft.      ... 
x  3ft.  6in. 
x  4ft.      ... 
,,         x  4ft.  6in. 
,,         x  5ft. 
1ft.  6in.  x  1ft.  6in. 
,,         x  1ft.  9in. 
x  2ft.      ... 
,,         x  2ft.  6in. 
,,         x  3ft. 
,,         x  3ft.  6in. 
x  4ft.      ... 
x  4ft.  6in. 
x  5ft.      ... 
1ft.  9in.  x  1ft.  9in. 
x  2ft.       ... 
,,         x  2ft.  6in. 
,,         x  3ft. 
x  3ft.  6in. 
x  4ft.      ... 
,,         x  4ft.  6in. 
x  5ft.      ... 
2ft.  x  2ft  

27,878 
23,232 
19,913 
...     ...  17,424 
13,939 
11,616 
9,953 
8,712 
7,744 
6,969 
19,360 
...     ...  16,594 
14,520 
11,616 
9,680 
8,297 
7,260 
6,453 
5,808 
14,224 
12,445 
9,956 
8,297 
7,111 
6,223 
5,531 
4,978 
10,890 

3  ,,    x     9  „ 
3  „    x  10  „       ... 
3  ,,    x     1ft.       ... 
4  ,,    x     6in.      ... 
4,,    x     7,,       ... 
4  ,,    x     8  ,,       ... 
4  ,,    x     9  ,, 
4  ,,    x  10  ,, 
4  „    x     1ft.      ... 
5  ,,    x     6in. 
5  ,,    x     7  ,, 

232,320 
209,088 
174,240 
261,360 
224,022 
196,020 
174,240 
156,816 
130,680 
209,088 
179,218 

5  ,,    x     8  ,, 
5  ,,    x     9  ,, 

156,816 
139,392 

5  ,,    x  10  ,, 

125,452 

5  „    x     1ft.      ... 
6  ,,    x     6in.      ... 
6  ,,    x     7  ,, 
6  ,,    x     8  ,, 
6  ,,    x     9  ,,       ... 
6  ,,    x  10  ,, 
6  ,,    x     1ft. 
7  ,,    x     7in. 
7  ,,    x     »,, 

104,544 
174,240 
149,348 
130,680 
116,160 
...     ...     104,544 
87,120 
128,013 
112,011 

7,,    x     9,,       ... 
7  ,,    x  10  ,, 

99,562 
89,609 

7  ,,    x     1ft. 
8  ,,    x     Sin. 
8  ,,    x     9  ,, 

74,674 
98,010 
87,120 

2  ,,    x  2ft.  6in.      ... 
2        x  3ft 

8,712 
7  260 

8,,    x  10,,       ... 
'8  ,,    x     1ft.       ... 
9  ,,    x     9in.      ... 
9  „    x  10  „       ... 
9  „    x     1ft.       ... 
10  ,,    x  lOin. 
10  ,,    x     1ft. 
10  ,,    x  1ft.  3in. 
10  „    x  1ft.  6in. 
10  ,,    x    1ft.  9in. 
lOin.  x   2ft.        .:. 
10  ,,    x   2ft.  6in. 
10  „    x   3ft. 
10  ,,    x   3ft.  6in. 
10  „    x   4ft. 
1ft.  x  1ft. 
1  ,,    x  1ft.  3in.  ... 
1  ,,    x  1ft.  6in.  ... 

78,408 
65,340 
77,440 
69,696 
58,080 
62,726 
52,272 
41,817 
34,848 
29,869 
26,132 
20,908 
17,424 
14,935 
13,068 
43,560 
34,848 
29,040 

2  ,,    x  3ft.  6in.      ... 
2        x  4ft 

6,223 
5,445 

2  ,,    x  4ft.  6in.      ... 
2        x  5ft. 

4,840 
4,356 

2  ,     x  6  ., 

3,630 

3  ,,    x  3  ,,       

4,840 

3  ,,    x  3ft.  6in.      ... 
3       x  4ft 

4,148 
3,630 

3  ,,    x  4ft.  Gin.      ... 
3       x  5ft 

3,226 
.  .  .    2,904 

3  „    x  6,,       
4  ,,    x  4  ,,       

2,420 
2,722 

4  ,,    x  5  ,,       

2,178 

4  ,,    x  6  ,,       

1,185 

5  ,,    X  5  ,,        
5  ,,    X  6  ,,       
6  ,,    x  6  ,,        

1,742 
1,452 
1,210 

Miscellaneous  Information.  441 

Receptacles,  Weights,  Measures,  and  Terms  used  in 
Marketing  Produce. 

NOTE. — In  packing  produce  for  market  the  most  important  points 
to  observe  are  that  it  is  good,  clean,  and  attractive,  of  equal  quality 
throughout,  of  the  full  weight  or  measure  described,  and  in  parcels 
of  convenient  and  equal  size  and  shape.  Granted  these  points,  the 
particular  kind  of  receptacle  used  is  to  some  extent  immaterial, — 
in  fact  some  of  those  described  below  are  gradually  being  displaced 
by  others,  and  so  becoming  obsolete.  Still,  it  is  not  wise  to  disregard 
local  or  trade  customs  without  a  good  reason,  and  before  doing  so  the 
salesman  who  is  to  handle  the  produce  should  be  consulted. 

BAG. — A  sack  holding  from  J  to  1  cwt.,  according  to  nature  of  contents. 

BUNCH. — A  quantity  of  vegetables  or  herbs  tied  together,  the  size  and 
number  varying  with  the  season  and  the  market  to  which  they  are  sent. 

BUNDLE. — Such  vegetables  as  rhubarb,  asparagus,  and  seakale,  which 
consist  almost  entirely  of  stem  with  little  or  no  foliage,  are  made  up  in 
bundles,  the  size  of  which  varies  according  to  the  season  and  market.  A 
bundle  of  rhubarb  contains  from  2  or  3  sticks  at  the  beginning  of  the  forcing 
season  to  20  or  30  in  the  summer ;  asparagus,  100  to  120  shoots ;  seakale, 
12  to  18  heads. 

BUSHEL  BASKET. — A  wicker  basket  of  the  capacity  of  8  imperial  gallons. 
Used  for  various  kinds  of  vegetables  and  fruit.  In  most  cases  the  contents 
require  to  be  heaped  before  they  are  considered,  to  be  a  full  bushel. 

CHIP. — A  basket  made  of  thin  strips  of  wood,  interwoven.  Used  prin- 
cipally for  strawberries  and  raspberries,  but  also  occasionally  for  tomatoes, 
mushrooms,  &c.  Of  various  sizes,  the  holding  capacity  running  from  3lbs. 
to  12lbs. 

CRATE. — A  wicker-work  basket  used  for  packing  cauliflower,  broccoli,  and 
early  spring  cabbage,  the  holding  capacity  being  5  or  6  dozen. 

EMPTIES. — A  term  used  to  denote  empty  baskets  and  other  receptacles 
which  are  sent  to  the  grower  by  the  salesman,  to  be  filled  with  produce  and 
consigned  back  to  him. 

FLASKET.— A  basket  half  the  size  of  a  "  Load  "  basket,  which  see. 

FLAT. — An  oblong  shallow  lidded  basket  holding  a  bushel,  used  principally, 
though  not  exclusively,  for  marketing  cucumbers,  of  which  it  holds  from  2£ 
to  3J  dozen,  according  to  their  size.  Occasionally  it  is  used  for  choice  veget- 
ables, and  frequently  for  some  kinds  of  fruit. 

FLY. — A  receptacle  formed  of  cane,  with  open  wide  mesh,  used  for  con- 
veying herbs  to  market. 

HALF-BUSHEL. — A  basket  of  the  capacity  of  4  imperial  gallons,  used  for 
similar  purposes  to  the  "  Bushel  Basket." 

HALF-SIEVE.— See  "  Half-Bushel." 

HALVES.— Same  as  "  Half-Sieve  "  and  "  Half-Bushel." 


442  The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 

HANDLE  BASKET. — A  term  used  to  describe  an  oval  shallow  wicker 
basket,  with  a  cross-over  handle  and  a  movable  lid.  Capacity  about  a  peck. 
Much  used  in  the  Channel  Island  trade  for  tomatoes,  French  beans,  early 
peas,  &c.  Also  used  for  similar  purposes  inland,  especially  when  the  pro- 
duce is  of  good  class. 

HAMPER.— A  basket  used  for  potatoes  and  other  produce  in  the  Liverpool, 
Manchester,  and  other  markets  in  the  northern  counties. 

HAND. — A  term  used  to  describe  a  bunch  of  long  radishes,  which  are 
tied  up  in  such  a  way  that  the  roots  are  spread  out  fan-shaped.  The  hand 
contains  from  12  to  20  roots. 

JUNK. — A  measure  containing  two-thirds  of  a  bushel. 

KIPE. — A  Worcestershire  measure,  round  in  shape,  18in.  wide  at  top, 
1ft.  wide  at  bottom,  and  12in.  deep. 

LOAD.— An  oblong  basket,  30in.  long,  26in.  wide,  and  16in.  deep,  provided 
with  4  handles  and  detached  lid.  Will  hold  about  3  bushels  of  runner  beans 
or  2  cwt.  parsnips. 

In  the  Manchester  and  other  markets  in  the  northern  counties,  a  "load" 
of  potatoes  weighs  18  stones  (14lbs.  to  the  stone). 

PAD.— A  lidded  basket  of  oval  shape,  larger  at  top  than  bottom,  holding 
about  a  bushel.  Used  for  conveying  to  market  new  potatoes  and  various 
other  vegetables. 

PECK. — A  round  basket  holding  two  gallons,  or  a  quarter  of  a  bushel. 
Used  for  strawberries,  tomatoes,  mushrooms,  &c. 

POKE. — A  bag  used  for  marketing  onions.  Narrow  in  shape,  and  holds 
about  half  a  bushel. 

POT. — An  oblong  basket  much  used  in  the  Midlands  for  conveying  fruit 
and  vegetables  to  market ;  length  21in.,  width  14in.,  depth  15in.  Roughly, 
its  capacity  is  about  1£  bushels. 

PUNNET. — A  receptacle  made  in  various  sizes,  of  plaited  "  chip,"  or  thin 
shavings  of  wood  ;  used  for  salading,  strawberries,  seakale,  mushrooms,  &c. 

PUP  OR  PIP. — A  round  basket  with  a  broad  rim,  of  the  capacity  of  one 
gallon  ;  used  for  raspberries  and  strawberries,  of  which  they  hold  6lbs. 

QUARTER-SIEVE.— See  "  Peck." 

ROLL. — A  term  used  to  denote  a  bundle  of  celery. 

SACK— A  "  Bag  "  to  hold  1£  or  2  cwt. 

SCORE. — A  number  by  which  certain  classes  of  vegetables  are  sold  ;  the 
market  "  score  "  is  usually  taken  as  22. 

SIEVE.— See  "Bushel  Basket." 

STONE. — A  weight  of  14lbs. ;  used  chiefly  in  the  northern  markets. 

STRIKE. — A  round  basket  used  for  similar  purposes  to  a  "  Peck,"  and  of 
the  same  capacity,  but  wider  and  not  so  deep. 

In  some  of  the  northern  markets  a  "  Strike  "  has  the  capacity  of  about 
1£  bushels. 

TALLY. — A  term  used  in  the  London  markets,  denoting  5  dozen. 


Miscellaneous  Information. 


443 


Avoirdupois  Weight. 


16  Drams  make  ... 

16  Ounces 

28  Pounds  

4  Qrs.  or  112  Ibs. 
20  Hundredweights 


1  Ounce. 
Pound. 
Quarter. 
Cwt. 
Ton. 


Corn,  Dry,  or  Heaped  Measure. 

2  Pints  make      Quart. 

4  Quarts Gallon. 

2  Gallons  or  16  Pints Peck. 

4  Pecks  or  8  Gallons Bushel. 

8  Bushels  or  2  Coombs          ...  1  Quarter. 


Long  Measure. 


12  Inches  make 

3  Feet  or  36  inches  ... 
5i  Yards  or  16i  feet  ... 
40  Perches  or  220  yards. 

8  Furlongs  or  1,760yds. 


Foot. 

Yard. 

Rod,  Pole  or  Perch 

Furlong. 

Mile. 


Surface  Measure. 


144  Square  Inches  make    ... 

9  Square  Feet  

30J  Square  Yards  

40  Square  Rods  

4    Roods  or  4,840  Sq.  yards 


Square  Foot. 
Square  Yard. 
Square  Rod. 
Rood, 

Acre. 


Fertilizing  Values  of  Poultry  Dung  and  Farmyard  Manure, 

Given  in  Pounds  per  Ton. 
Ducks  ...  Nitrogen  27  Ibs.  ...  Potash  13  Ibs.  ...  Lime  23  Ibs. ...  Phosph.  Acid  31  Ibs. 

Geese     .                                „        15    „     ...        „       21    „     ...      „      13    „  12  „ 

Hens 43    „     19    „      58    „ 39  „ 

Pigeons           47    „        25    „      44 41  „ 

Farmyard  Manure 10    „       12 39    „  6  „ 

Equivalent  Dressings  from  One  Square  Yard  to  One  Acre. 

1  cwt.  per  Acre  equals...  28  Ibs.  per  Rood  ..    fibs,  per  Square  Rod...   |  oz.  per  Sq.  Yard  (about) 


...56 
...    Icwt. 
...14    „ 
...2     , 


WEATHER   INDICATIONS. 

A  steady  barometer  indicates  a  continuance  of  the  weather  then  existing. 

A  slowly  rising  barometer  usually  indicates  fair  weather. 

A  rapid  rise  usually  indicates  unsettled  weather  or  the  approach  of  a 
storm  ;  or  it  may  mean  the  breaking-up  of  an  existing  storm. 

A  slowly  falling  barometer  indicates  the  approach  of  a  severe  storm. 

A  rapid  fall  of  the  barometer  indicates  high  winds  and  probable  rain. 

If  contiguous  clouds  move  in  various  directions  rain  is  likely  very  soon. 

When  small  black  clouds  scud  over  an  overcast  sky,  heavy  rain  and  bad 
weather  may  be  expected. 

A  pale  and  diffuse  sun  at  setting  portends  a  storm. 

A  deep  red  morning  sky  is  usually  followed  by  bad  weather. 

A  sonorous  condition  of  the  atmosphere  foretells  approaching  rain. 

Gaudy  hues  of  blue  and  purple  at  sunset  prophesy  rain  and  wind. 

When  the  sun  rises  bright  and  clear  and  shortly  after  becomes  overcast 
it  is  an  indication  that  rain  is  near. 

A  halo  round  the  moon  indicates  approaching  rain. 

Fleecy  or  cirrus  clouds  arranged  in  horizontal  bars  or  ribs  in  the  upper 
sky,  known  as  a  "  mackerel  sky,"  indicate  wet  or  foul  weather. 

Cumulus  clouds  that  preserve  a  well-rounded  form  and  float  high  in  the 
air  indicate  fair  weather. 

Anvil-shaped  cumulus  clouds  usually  indicate  thunderstorms. 

Cirro-cumulus  clouds — like  bunches  and  fleeces  of  wool  scattered  high  in 
the  sky — are  indications  of  still  and  dry  weather. 

When  the  rays  of  the  rising  sun  shoot  far  up  into  the  sky  fair  weather 
may  be  expected. 

A  bright  red  sunset  means  fair  weather  for  the  morrow,  but  a  copper- 
coloured  sunset  usually  portends  high  winds. 

A  grey  or  pale  rose  morning  sky  means  good  weather. 

Haziness — due  to  dust  in  the  atmosphere — is  indicative  of  dry  weather. 

When  haziness  suddenly  disappears  and  the  sun  sets  pale  and  the  sky  is 
very  clear,  rain  is  probable. 

Heavy  dew  indicates  fair  weather;  absence  of  dew  for  two  or  three 
mornings  in  succession  in  summer  is  a  precursor  of  rain. 

In  winter,  hoar  frost  two  or  three  mornings  in  succession  indicates  rain. 


INDEX. 


Acid,  phosphoric,  24. 

Acid  soils,  sweetened  by  lime  26; 
liable  to  pernicious  fungi,  401. 

Aeration  of  soils,  7. 

Air  and  sunshine,  140. 

Allotments  and  cottage  gardens,  in- 
tensive culture  on  —  explanation 
and  system,  109-112;  diagrams  for 
cropping,  112-117. 

Ammonia,  sulphate  of,  27. 

Anbury,  club-root  or,  426. 

Aphides,  404,  406. 

Aphis,  bean,  417  ;  cabbage,  418. 

Approximate  cost  of  fertilizing  units, 
38. 

Applying  the  wash  (spraying),  402. 

April  reminders,  371  ;  general  opera- 
tions, French  gardening,  372. 

Arrangement  and  plan  of  market 
garden  holding,  53-54. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  403. 

Artichoke,  globe,  see  Globe. 

Artichoke,  Jerusalem,  see  Jerusalem. 

Asparagus,  139,  145 ;  raising  the 
plants,  essential  points  in  forming 
a  plantation,  146;  planting,  148; 
general  routine,  149;  cutting  and 
bunching,  150;  forcing,  151  ;  man- 
ures, 153  ;  varieties,  154 ;  to  pack 
for  market,  386. 

Asparagus  beetle,  416  ;  fly,  417  ;  rust, 
424. 

Aspect  of  land,  best,  for  a  small 
holding,  43. 

August  reminders,  general  opera- 
tions, French  gardening,  377. 

Autumn  cultivation,  19. 

Bacteria,  soil,  16. 

Barren  soils,  17. 

Basic  slag,  30. 

Basil,  sweet,  212. 

Bastard  trenching,  11  ;  diagram,  12. 

Bean  aphis,  417;    pod  canker,  424; 

thrips,  422  ;  weevils,  423. 
Bean  straw  for  mats,  116. 
Beans,  broad,  sec  Broad. 
Beans,  dwarf,  sec  Dwarf. 
Beans,  runner,  sec  Runner. 
Bed,  the  seed,  119. 


Beds,  raised,  with  slope  to  south, 
137 ;  diagram,  138. 

Beds,  warm,  for  melons  and  cucum- 
bers, 99. 

Beet,  59,  113, 123,161  ;  sowing,  culti- 
vation, manures,  162 ;  varieties, 
163  ;  to  pack  for  market,  387. 

Beet  and  mangold  fly,  417  ;  rust,  425. 

Beetle,  asparagus,  415. 

Beetles,  flea,  409. 

Black,  fly,  422  ;  scab  or  wart  disease, 
potato,  429 ;  leg  or  stem  rot,  potato, 
429  ;  spot  of  tomatoes,  436. 

Blood,  dried,  28. 

Bone  meal  and  steamed  bone  flour, 
31. 

Bones,  dissolved,  31. 

Borage,  212. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  402,  405. 

Borecole  or  kale,  105  ;  sowing,  culti- 
vation, manures,  varieties,  164  ;  to 
pack  for  market,  388. 

Brassicas,  transplanting,  123. 

Broad  beans,  57,  116,  117,  138,  154; 
sowing,  succession,  cultivation, 
155;  manures,  varieties,  156;  to 
pack  for  market,  386. 

Broccoli,  58,  114,  117,  165;  sowing, 
cultivation,  heeling-in,  166;  man- 
ures, varieties,  167;  to  pack  for 
market,  388. 

Broccoli,  sprouting,  167. 

Brussels  sprouts,  58,  114,  116,  167; 
soil,  sowing,  succession,  planting, 
168 ;  intercropping,  cultivation, 
gathering,  manures,  varieties,  169  ; 
to  pack  for  market,  388. 

Brushwood  screen  for  seed  bed,  122. 

Business  methods  for  a  small  hold- 
ing, 46. 

Cabbage,  24,  57,  58,  99,  113,  138, 170  ; 
sowing,  planting,  intercropping, 
171  ;  succession,  manures,  varie- 
ties, 172;  tp  pack  for  market,  388. 

Cabbage  aphis,  418;  black  rot,  425; 
butterflies  and  moth,  418 ;  root  fly 
and  maggot,  419 ;  and  turnip  root 
gall  weevil,  420. 

Cabbage,  red,  172;  savoy,  296. 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


445 


Calcium  carbonate,  14,  15,  27. 

Calico  and  paper  shields,  134. 

Canker,  bean  pod,  424. 

Capital  required  for  French  garden- 
ing, 66 ;  for  small  holding,  39. 

Carbon  bi-sulphide,  403. 

Cardoons,  173. 

Carrot  fly,  420. 

Carrots,  58,  96,99,  100,  104,  112,  113, 
117,  123,  131,  136,  174;  forcing,  93, 
95,  97,  98,  101,  106,  175  ;  early  crops 
from  the  open,  176;  main-crops, 
177;  lifting  and  storing,  young 
roots  in  autumn,  178;  to  pack  for 
market,  389. 

Castor  seed  meal,  29. 

Caterpillars,  surface,  412. 

Cauliflower,  58,  85,  95,  96,  98,  99, 
100,  101,  106,  110,  112,  114,  115,  116, 
180;  sowing,  180;  protection  in 
winter,  181  ;  planting,  182 ;  culti- 
vation, manures,  varieties,  183 ; 
to  pack  for  market,  389. 

Celery,  58,  96,  100,  101,  104,  105,  106, 
113, 114, 184  ;  sowing,  184-5  ;  plant- 
ing, 185,  187 ;  preparation  of  tren- 
ches, 186  ;  general  treatment,  188  ; 
earthing-up,  188;  the  broad  bed 
system — English  and  French — 189, 
191  ;  blanching  on  broad  beds,  190, 
192;  storing  and  blanching  late 
crops — in  frames  192,  in  cellars 
194 ;  marketing,  manures,  varieties, 
195  ;  to  pack  for  market,  390. 

Celery  and  parsnip  fly,  421  ;  leaf 
diseases,  425. 

Celeriac,  100,  101,  105,  196;  to  pack 
for  market,  390. 

Centipedes,  410. 

Chards,  143. 

Chafer  beetles,  407. 

Chervil,  212. 

Chicory,  100,  101,  105,  139,  197;  to 
pack  for  market,  390. 

Chives,  212. 

Clay  soils,  24  ;  effect  of  lime  on,  14, 
52  ;  effect  of  nitrate  of  soda  on,  28  ; 
'  drainage  of,  9. 

Cloches,  68,  73,  81,  88,  101,  105,  122, 
133;  method  of  using,  with  dia- 
grams, 75,  97  ;  to  store  or  repair,  75. 

Cloche  carrier,  73  ;  peg,  74. 

Classification  of  soils,  6. 

Club  root  or  anbury,  426. 

Cold  frames,  construction  of,  132, 
342-4;  uses  of,  98,  101,  131,  345. 

Cold  frames  covered  with  paper  or 
calico,  123. 


Coleworts  or  collards,  57,  113,  116, 
198  ;  to  pack  for  market,  390. 

Composition  of  soils,  6, 16 ;  plants.  22 ; 
farmyard  manure,  25. 

Compost  heap,  27  ;  for  seed-beds  and 
hot-beds,  84. 

Conditions  necessary  to  success  in  a 
small  holder,  39. 

Co-operation,  48. 

Cost  of  fertilizing  units,  38. 

Cost  of  production,  438. 

Cottage  gardens  and  allotments,  in- 
tensive culture  on,  109-117. 

Crane  fly,  408. 

Cress,  mustard  and,  242. 

Cropping  a  small  holding,  53-59. 

Cucumber  and  melon  mildew,  rot,  427 

Cucumbers,  frame,  95,  99,  101,  105, 
129,  130,  200 ;  site  for  frames,  200  ; 
sowing,  making  hot-bed  for  seed, 
201  ;  management  of  young  plants, 
202;  preparing  the  beds,  203; 
planting,  training  and  general 
management,  204 ;  manures,  vari- 
eties, 206  ;  to  pack  for  market,  390. 

Cucumbers,  ridge,  58,  100,  114,  207; 
sowing,  planting,  protection,  cul- 
tivation, 208 ;  gathering,  varieties, 
209  ;  to  pack  for  market,  391. 

Cultivation,  spring,  autumn,  19  ;  140. 

Cultivation,  manuring,  and  cropping, 
rotations  of,  50-52. 

Cultivation  of  soils,  deep,  10. 

Cultivation  of  vegetables,  details  of 
the,  141-365. 

Cultures,  nitro-bacterine,  17. 

Cupram,  406. 

Daddy  long-legs  or  crane  fly,  408. 

December  reminders,  general  oper- 
ations, French  gardening,  381. 

Deep  cultivation,  10,  140;  on  clay 
soils,  12. 

Description  of  French  gardening,  63. 

Details  of  construction  of  frames  and 
lights,  69-71. 

Devices  for  forcing,  forwarding,  and 
protecting,  127-139. 

Diagrams  of  intercropping  on  allot- 
ments, 112-116. 

Diamond-backed  moth,  409. 

Dibbers,  124  ;  how  to  use,  122. 

Difficulties  in  the  way  of  a  perfect 
rotation,  51. 

Disease,  celery  leaf,  425  ;  mushroom, 
428  ;  potato,  431  ;  potato  black  scab 
or  wart,  429 ;  sclerotium,  434 ;  on 
tomatoes,  potato,  435. 


446 


Index. 


Diseased  plants,  401. 

Diseases,  fungoid,  24,  400,  424. 

Dissolved  bones,  31. 

Drain,  how  to,  8. 

Drainage,  7,  19,  44,  65,  140 ;  of  clay 
soils,  8  ;  surface  furrows, for,  8,  12. 

Drainage  on  small  holding,  44. 

Drain  pipes,  sizes  of,  10 ;  alterna- 
tives to,  10. 

Dried  blood,  28. 

Dwarf  or  French  beans,  57,  98,  100, 
112,113,115,156;  early  crops,  156; 
succession,  sowing  in  open,  157 ; 
intercropping,  gathering,  seed  sav- 
ing, manures,  158;  varieties,  159; 
to  pack  for  market,  387. 

Early  crops,  French  garden,  85-89. 

Effect  of  draining,  7, 8, 19 ;  of  ridging, 
12. 

Endive,  96,  100,  101,  105,  106,  131, 
209;  sowing,  cultivation,  210;  blan- 
ching, varieties,  211 ;  to  pack  for 
market,  391. 

Estimate  of  annual  income  and  out- 
lay, French  garden,  108. 

Essentials  of  successful  gardening, 
140. 

Evaporation,  effect  of,  on  soil,  8. 

Equalized  Peruvian  guano,  32. 

Farmyard  manure,  its  nature,  analy- 
sis, comparative  cost,  value  and 
use,  25,  26 ;  condition  in  which  to 
use,  140  ;  for  potatoes,  282  ;  fertil- 
izing value  compared  with  poultry 
dung,  443. 

February  reminders,  general  opera- 
tions, 368  ;  French  gardening,  369. 

Fennel,  213. 

Fertilizers — nitrogenous,  27;  phos- 
phatic,  30 ;  potassic,  31 ;  miscel- 
laneous, 32 ;  mixtures  which  may 
and  may  not  be  made,  34 ;  notes 
on  using,  34  ;  valuing  of,  35. 

Fertilizing  units,  approximate  cost 
of,  38. 

Fertility  of  soils,  6,  7,  13,  17. 

Finger  and  toe  or  anbury,  401. 

Fires,  smother  or  smoulder,  381. 

Fish  guano,  33. 

Flea  beetles,  409. 

Flower  pots,  approximate  sizes  of, 
439. 

Fly,  snowy,  412;  asparagus,  417; 
cabbage  root,  419;  carrot,  420; 
celery  and  parsnip,  421  ;  onion,  422 ; 
black  or  thunder,  422. 


Forcing,  forwarding,  and  protecting, 
devices  for,  127-139. 

Forcing  pit,  cheaply  constructed,  139. 

Frames  and  lights,  details  of  con- 
struction, 69-71. 

French  beans,  57,  98,  100,  112,  113, 
115,156. 

French  gardening,  63,  108;  general 
description  of,  63  ;  capital  required 
for,  66  ;  profits  to  be  expected,  67  ; 
frames  and  lights,  69;  cloche, 
cloche-carrier,  73  ;  cloche-peg,  74  ; 
to  repair  and  store  cloches,  to  use 
cloches,  75  ;  mats,  frame  for  straw 
mats,  76 ;  how  to  make  mats,  77 ; 
water,  78  ;  preparation  of  soil, 
81-82;  manure,  82-83;  preparing 
plants,  85 ;  protecting  plants,  89 ; 
intercropping,  90 ;  hot-beds  for 
frames,  with  diagram,  93 ;  sowing 
and  planting  frames,  93 ;  routine 
work,  94  ;  alternative  methods,  95  ; 
hot-beds  for  cloches,  with  diagram, 
96 ;  cold  beds  or  cold  frames,  98 ; 
warm  beds  for  melons  and  cucum- 
bers, 99  ;  various  other  methods  of 
forcing  and  forwarding ;  open-air 
crops,  100. 

French  garden  of  quarter- acre,  101 ; 
arrangement  and  equipment,  102  ; 
illustration  of  tools,  103 ;  prices 
obtained  for  produce,  104  ;  details 
of  cropping  and  sales  from  the 
various  beds,  105-107  ;  summary  of 
estimated  expenditure  for  equip- 
ment, with  annual  outlay  and 
receipts,  108. 

Frost-proof  bed,  136. 

Fungicides,  405. 

Fungoid  diseases,  24,  400,  424. 

Furrows,  cross  or  water,  8,  12. 

Gas-lime,  15  ;  for  wire-worm,  414. 

Gardening,  essentials  of  successful, 
140. 

Garden  seeds,  germination  of,  lon- 
gevity of  439. 

Glass-covered  protectors,  136-7. 

Globe  artichoke,  141 ;  to  pack  for 
market,  386. 

Grading,  packing,  and  marketing, 
382. 

Green  manuring,  27. 

Growing  for  market,  46 ;  for  direct 
supply,  47. 

Guano — Peruvian,  equalized  Peru- 
vian, 32  ;  dissolved  Peruvian,  fish, 
phosphatic,  meat,  33. 


Index. 


447 


Hall  on  "soil  moisture,"  18. 

Hellebore  powder,  403. 

Herbs,  212 ;  to  pack  for  market,  392. 

Hoeing  and  mulching,  20,  140. 

Horse  radish,  215  ;  to  pack  for  mar- 
ket, 392. 

Hot-beds  for  frames,  91  ;  for  cloches, 
96 ;  to  make,  128  ;  to  manage,  130. 

How  to  drain,  8. 

Humus,  16,  25,  27,  140. 

Insect  pests,  406. 

Insect  pests  and  fungoid  diseases 
which  attack  vegetables,  400. 

Insecticides,  403. 

Introduction,  1. 

Intensive  cropping  for  three  years, 
plan  of  rotation  and,  60. 

Intensive  culture  on  small  holdings, 
41,  56;  on  allotments  and  cottage 
gardens,  109  ;  see  also  French  gar- 
dening. 

Intercropping,  90. 

Illustrations,  diagrams,  and  plans, 
list  of,  451-2. 

January  reminders,  general  opera- 
tions, 367  ;  French  gardening,  368. 

Jerusalem  artichokes,  144. 

July  reminders,  general  operations, 
French  gardening,  376. 

June  reminders,  374  ;  general  opera- 
tions, French  gardening,  375. 

Kainit,  25,  32. 

Kale,  58, 163  ;  to  pack  for  market,  388. 
Kropotkin  on  "  French  gardening," 
63  ;  on  "friendly  intercourse,"  117. 
King  on  "  soil  moisture,"  18. 

Lath  screen  for  seed-bed,  121. 

Laying-out,  cultivating,  and  inten- 
sively cropping  a  market  garden 
holding,  53. 

Lead,  arsenate  of,  403. 

Leaf-curl,  potato,  432. 

Leaf-spot,  strawberry,  435. 

Leeks,  216 ;  manures,  varieties,  217  ; 
to  pack  for  market,  392. 

Leguminous  plants,  24. 

Lettuce,  cabbage,  58,  85,  87,  95,  96, 
99,  100,  101,  104,  105,  106,  112,  113, 
114,  115,  116,  117,  131,  138,  218; 
forced,  219 ;  cold  frames,  sowing, 
220  ;  pricking  out,  protecting,  221  ; 
early  from  open-air,  main-crop  and 
summer,  222  ;  manures,  223  ;  vari- 
eties, 224  ;  to  pack  for  market,  392. 


Lettuce,  cos,  87,  97,  99,  101,  104,  106, 
114,  115,  116,  218;  forced,  219; 
frames,  sowing,  220  ;  pricking  out, 
protecting,  221  ;  early  from  the 
open,  main-crop,  and  summer,  222  ; 
manures,  223 ;  varieties,  224 ;  to 
pack  for  market,  392. 

Lettuce  mildew,  88,  427. 

Lime,  its  effect  on  clay,  quantities  to 
apply,  14 ;  its  functions  and  effects, 
25;  for  acid  or  "manure-sick" 
soils,  16,  26;  periodical  dressings, 
51  ;  a  base  for  fertilizers,  27,  30, 
52 ;  to  test  soils  for,  52 ;  in  rotation, 
54  ;  general  effect  of,  140  ;  for  pests 
and  diseases,  404. 

Liming,  cultivation,  manuring,  and, 
rotation  of,  50. 

Limphos,  30. 

Liquid  manures,  when  to  use,  35. 

List  of  .illustrations,  diagrams,  and 
plans,  451-2. 

Longevity  of  garden  seeds,  439. 

Long  measure,  443. 

Machines,  spraying,  402. 

Magnesia,  25. 

Management  of  hot-beds,  130. 

Manure,  its  general  application,  140  ; 
for  French  gardening,  79,  82 ;  for 
hot-beds,  91,  128. 

Manures  and  fertilizers,  22-38  ;  farm- 
yard, 25  ;  green  manuring,  compost 
heap,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  27 ; 
nitrate  of  soda,  nitrolim,  dried 
blood,  28;  rape  dust,  castor  seed 
meal,  soot,  shoddy,  29  ;  superphos- 
phates, limphos,  basic  slag,  30; 
bone  meal,  steamed  bone  flour, 
dissolved  bones,  sulphate  of  potash, 
muriate  of  potash,  31 ;  kainit,  Per- 
uvian guano,  equalized  Peruvian 
guano,  "32 ;  dissolved  Peruvian 
guano,  phosphatic  guano,  fish 
guano,  meat  guano,  33 ;  mixtures 
which  may  and  may  not  be  made, 
notes  on  using  fertilizers,  34  ;  valu- 
ing fertilizers,  35,;  unit  values  of 
fertilizers,  38. 

Manuring,  cultivation,  and  cropping, 
rotations  of,  50. 

Manure-sick  soil,  26. 

Manures  for — globe  artichokes  143 
Jerusalem  artichokes,  144  ;  aspara- 
gus, 153;  broad  beans,  156;  French 
beans,  158 ;  runner  beans,  161  ; 
beet,  162  ;  kale,  164  ;  broccoli,  167  ; 
Brussels  sprouts,  169 ;  cabbage 


448 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


172;  carrots,  179;  cauliflowers,  183; 
celery,  195;  cucumbers,  206  ;  leeks, 
217;  lettuces,  223;  mushrooms, 
232  ;  onions,  251  ;  peas,  264  ;  pota- 
toes, 281 ;  rhubarb,  293  ;  savoy  cab- 
bage, 297  ;  seakale,  308  ;  spinach, 
314  ;  strawberries,  335  ;  tomatoes, 
355 ;  turnips,  361 . 

March  reminders,  369  ;  general  oper- 
ations, 370 ;  French  gardening,  371 . 

Market  gardener,  the  small  holder  as 
a,  39. 

Market  garden  holding,  arrangement 
and  plan,  53. 

Market,  growing  for,  46. 

Marketing,  grading,  packing,  and 
382-399. 

Marketing  produce,  receptacles, 
weights,  measures,  and  terms  used 
in,  441. 

Materials  for  spraying,  403. 

Mat,  straw  76 ;  frame,  76 ;  making, 
77. 

May  reminders,  general  operations, 
373  ;  French  gardening,  374. 

Measure,  surface,  long,  dry,  443. 

Meat  guano,  33. 

Melons,  cantaloup  or  rock,  224 ;  sow- 
ing, management  of  plants,  pre- 
paring beds,  planting,  225  ;  general 
management,  226  ;  gathering,  228  ; 
varieties,  229  ;  to  pack  for  market, 
393. 

Melons  and  cucumbers,  warm  beds 
for,  99. 

Mildew — lettuce,  88,  427  ;  cucumber 
and  melon,  427 ;  pea,  428 ;  onion, 
429 ;  strawberry,  435. 

Millipedes  and  centipedes,  410. 

Mint,  to  propagate,  229  ;  forcing  and 
forwarding,  230 ;  to  pack  for  mar- 
ket, 394. 

Mint  rust,  427. 

Mixtures  of  fertilizers  which  may 
and  may  not  be  made,  34. 

Moisture,  soil,  see  Soil  moisture. 

Monthly  reminders,  368-381. 

Moth,  diamond-back,  409  ;  cabbage, 
418. 

Mulching,  hoeing  and,  20,  140. 

Muriate  of  potash,  31. 

Mushrooms,  230;  manure,  232; 
spawn,  232;  soil  for  casing,  233; 
preparation  of  the  manure,  234; 
ridge  beds,  234  ;  flat  beds,  spawn- 
ing, 236 ;  casing  or  soiling,  covering 
the  bed,  237  ;  heat  of  the  bed,  238; 
watering,  beds  in  odd  places,  239 ; 


gathering,  241;    cleanliness,  242; 

to  pack  for  market,  394. 
Mushroom  pest,  421  ;  disease,  428. 
Mustard  and  cress,  242 ;  to  pack  for 

market,  394. 

Necessity  for  good  seed,  the,  118. 

New  Zealand  spinach,  315. 

Nicotine,  404. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  28. 

Nitro-bacterine  cultures,  17. 

Nitrogen,  its  functions  and  effects,  23. 

Nitrogenous  fertilizers,  27. 

Nitrolim,  28. 

Notes  on  using  fertilizers,  34 ;  on 
valuing  fertilizers,  35. 

November  reminders,  general  opera- 
tions, French  gardening,  380. 

Number  of  plants  to  an  acre,  at  given 
distances  apart,  440. 

October  reminders,  general  opera- 
tions, French  gardening,  379. 

Onion  fly,  422  ;  mildew,  429. 

Onions,  25,  58, 113, 116, 123,  244  ;  pre- 
paration of  soil  for,  spring-sown, 
245;  harvesting,  246;  autumn- 
sown,  247;  large,  248;  spring 
or  green,  pickling,  potato,  250; 
manures,  251  ;  varieties,  252 ;  to 
pack  for  market,  394. 

Open-air  crops,  French  garden,  100. 

Origin  of  soils,  5. 

Packing  and  marketing,  grading, 
382. 

Paper  shields,  calico  and,  134. 

Paraffin  emulsion,  404. 

Parsley,  58,  90,  114,  131,  252;  to 
pack  for  market,  395. 

Parsnip  fly,  421. 

Parsnips,  59,  113,  254;  to  pack  for 
market,  395. 

Pea  and  bean  thrips,  422;  weevils, 
423. 

Pea  mildew,  428. 

Peas,  24,  58,  99,  114,  115,  116,  136, 
256  ;  soil  for,  preparation  of  soil  for, 
257 ;  sowing  in  pots,  258 ;  sowing 
in  the  open-air,  259  ;  intercropping, 
succession,  260 ;  mice  and  sparrows 
attacking,  261  ;  sticking,  262;  gene- 
ral culture  of,  watering  and  mulch- 
ing, gathering,  263  ;  manures,  264  ; 
varieties,  265  ;  to  pack  for  market, 
395. 

Peruvian  guano,  equalized,  32;  dis- 
solved, 33. 


Index. 


449 


Pests  and  diseases,  lime  for,  404. 

Pests,  insect,  400;  mushroom,  421. 

Phosphatic  fertilizers,  33. 

Phosphatic  guano,  33. 

Phosphoric  acid,  its  functions  and 
effects,  24. 

Physique  and  character   of    small-  I 
holder,  40. 

Pipe  drains,  see  Drainage. 

Pit,  cheaply  constructed  forcing,  159. 

Plan  of  French  garden,  with  scheme 
of  cropping,  101. 

Plan  of  small  holding  for  vegetable 
and  fruit  growing,  54. 

Plans  of  rotation  and  intensive  crop- 
ping for  three  years,  60-62. 

Plans,  list  of  illustrations,  diagrams, 
and,  452. 

Plant  foods  in  soil,  22. 

Planting,  sowing  and,  French  gar- 
den, 93. 

Plants,  composition  of,  22  ;  legumin- 
ous, 24  ;  structure  of,  24;  prepar- 
ing, for  French  garden,  85 ;  pro- 
tecting, 89;  diseased,  401. 

Plants  to  an  acre,  number  of,  440. 

Potash,  its  functions  and  effects,  24  ; 
its  abundance  and  deficiency  in 
various  soils,  24-25. 

Potash,  muriate  of,  sulphate  of,  31. 

Potassic  fertilizers,  31. 

Potato,  black  scab  or  wart  disease, 
black  leg  or  stem  rot,  429  ;  disease 
or  blight,  431  ;  leaf  curl,  432  ;  scab, 
433 ;  winter  rot,  434  ;  disease  on 
tomatoes,  435. 

Potatoes,  24,  57,  58,  99,  113,  115,  116, 
131, 265, 401  ;  soil  and  situation  for, 
preparation  of  soil  for,  266 ;  "seed" 
and  its  preparation,  267 ;  boxing 
and  sprouting,  269-71  ;  distances 
apart  and  depth  for  planting,  271  ; 
planting  and  general  culture,  272- 
276;  early,  in  the  garden,  276; 
forcing  in  frames,  277 ;  spraying, 
278;  lifting  and  storing,  279; 
manures,  281  ;  varieties,  283 ;  to 
pack  for  market,  396. 

Poultry  dung  and  farmyard  manure, 
comparative  fertilizing  values  of, 
443. 

Pricking-out,  125. 

Private  trade,  growing  for,  47-9. 

Production,  cost  of,  438. 

Profits  expected  from  French  gar- 
dening, 67,  108. 

Protecting,  devices  for  forcing,  for- 
warding and,  127-139. 


Protectors,  glass-covered,  136;  box, 

137. 
Preservation  of  soil  moisture,  20,  21, 

111,  140. 

Quantity  of  seed  to  sow,  437. 

Radishes,  58,  93,  96,  99,  101,  104,  106, 
113,  114,  115,  116,  131,  136,  138,283; 
crops  from  hot-beds,  284 ;  early 
crops  from  the  open,  285  ;  succes- 
sional  sowings,  varieties,  286;  to 
pack  for  market,  397. 

Raised  beds,  see  Beds. 

Rape  dust,  29. 

Receptacles,  weights,  measures,  and 
terms  used  in  marketing,  441. 

Red  cabbage,  172. 

Red  spiders,  411. 

Reminders,  monthly,  367-381. 

Returns  from  French  gardening,  es- 
timated, 107. 

Returns  per  acre  of  vegetable  crops, 
gross,  438. 

Rhubarb,  101,  105,112,139,287;  pre- 
paration of  soil  for,  287 ;  propaga- 
tion of,  288 ;  planting  of,  routine  of 
cultivation  for,  289 ;  gathering,  290  ; 
forcing,  291  ;  manures,  293  ;  varie- 
ties, 294  ;  to  pack  for  market,  397. 

Ridge  cucumbers,  207. 

Ridging  soil,  12. 

Rot,  cabbage  black,  425 ;  cucumber 
and  melon,  427 ;  potato  winter,  434 ; 
violet  root,  436. 

Rotation  and  intensive  cropping  for 
three  years,  plan  of,  60-62. 

Rotations  of  cultivation,  manuring, 
and  cropping,  50. 

Rotations,  reasons  for,  50. 

Routine  work,  French  garden,  94. 

Runner  beans,  58,  113,  159;  to  pack 
for  market,  387. 

Rust,  asparagus,  424 ;  beet,  425 ; 
mint,  427. 

Sage,  213. 

Salads,  129. 

Salsify,  294  ;  to  pack  for  market,  397. 

Savory,  summer,  winter,  213. 

Savoy  cabbage,  296 ;  manures,  vari- 
eties, 297  ;  to  pack  for  market,  397. 

Scab,  potato,  433. 

Sclerotium  disease,  434. 

Scorzonera,  296 ;  to  pack  for  market, 
397. 

Screen  for  seeds,  lath,  121  ;  brush- 
wood, 122. 


29 


450 


The  Profitable  Cult  lire -of  Vegetables. 


Seakale,  100,  101,  105,  112,  139,  298; 
preparation  of  soil  for,  298  ;  propa- 
gation by  seed,  299  ;  propagation 
by  thongs,  forming  a  plantation, 
300 ;  forcing  under  cover,  302 ; 
forcing  on  hot-beds  and  in  pits,  303 ; 
other  methods  of  forcing  in  the 
open,  306;  "natural"  seakale,307  ; 
manures,  varieties,  308;  to  pack 
for  market,  397. 

Seed  bed,  the,  and  its  preparation, 
119;  brushwood  screen  for,  122. 

Seeds,  necessity  for  good,  118,  140; 
varieties  to  choose,  118;  testing, 
119;  sowing,  120,140;  quantity  of , 
required,  437 ;  average  longevity  of, 
439 ;  average  time  for,  to  germin- 
ate, 439. 

Selection  of  a  small  holding,  42-45. 

September  reminders,  general  oper- 
ations, French  gardening,  378. 

Shallots,  57,  114,  116,  308;  to  pack 
for  market,  398. 

Shoddy  or  wool  refuse,  29. 

Situation  of  a  small  holding,  42. 

Sizes  of  flower  pots,  439. 

Slugs  and  snails,  411. 

Small-holder,  the,  as  a  market  gar- 
dener, 39 ;  constitution,  physique, 
character,  40. 

Small  holdings,  conditions  necessary 
to  success  on,  capital  required  for, 
39;  intensive  culture  on,  spade 
work  on,  41  ;  situation  of,  42  ;  as- 
pect of,  43;  soil  of,  drainage  of, 
water  for,  44  ;  manure  for,  tenure 
of,  45 ;  method  of  business  for,  46  ; 
rotations  of  cultivation,  manuring, 
and  liming  for,  50;  laying-out,  cul- 
tivating, and  cropping  a,  53  ;  plan 
of,  54;  rotation  of  crops  for,  55; 
plans  of  rotation  and  cropping  of  a, 
60,  61,  62. 

Smother  or  smoulder  fires,  381. 

Snowy  fly,  412. 

Soda,  nitrate  of,  28. 

Soil  bacteria,  16,  23. 

Soil,  for  small  holdings,  44 ;  for 
French  garden,  81  ;  for  seed  beds 
and  hot  beds,  83,  120. 

Soil  moisture,  17;  extracts  relating 
to,  from  Hall  and  King,  18;  to 
secure,  19;  to  conserve,  20,  21, 
111,  121,  140. 

Soils— origin  of,  5 ;  composition  of,  6, 
16;  well-balanced,  aeration  of ,  7 ; 
fertility  of,  6,  7,  13,  17  ;  texture  of, 
13,  14;  barren,  17;  chemical  effect 


of  lime  on,  25  ;  acid,  26,  401  ;  warm, 
110;  richness  of,  111. 

Soot,  29. 

Sowing,  120,  140 ;  and  planting,  93, 

Spade  \york  on  small  holdings,  41. 

Specialization,  advantages  of,  45. 

Spinach,  57,  58,  99,  100,  113,  116,  131, 
310;  summer,  311;  winter,  312; 
general  culture,  313  ;  manures,  var- 
ieties, 314  ;  to  pack  for  market,  398. 

Spinach  beet,  316. 

Spinach,  New  Zealand,  315. 

Spraying  machines,  402. 

Spraying,  materials  for,  403. 

Spring  cultivation,  19. 

Sprouting  broccoli,  167. 

Sprouts,  Brussels,  see  Brussels. 

Steamed  bone  flour,  31. 

Stem-rot,  potato  black-leg  or,  429. 

Straw,  bean,  116;  mats,  76,  135; 
manure,  21,  83. 

Strawberries,  99,  131,  139,317;  loca- 
for  growing,  318 ;  soil  and  its  pre- 
paration for,  319;  runners  from, 
320;  general  culture  of,  321 ;  plants 
of,  322 ;  summer  planting  of,  324  ; 
autumn  planting  of,  325 ;  spring 
planting  of,  326  ;  in  beds,  327  ;  the 
forcing  of,  329  ;  layering,  330 ;  pot- 
ting, 332 ;  varieties,  334  ;  manures, 
335  ;  to  pack  for  market,  398. 

Strawberry  leaf  spot,  mildew,  435. 

Structure  of  plants,  24. 

Subsoil,  7. 

Successful  gardening,  essentials  of, 
140. 

Sulphate  of  ammomia,  27  ;  of  copper, 
406;  of  potash,  31. 

Sulphide  of  potassium,  406. 

Sulphur,  406. 

Sunk  hot-bed,  131. 

Sunshine  and  air,  140. 

Superphosphates,  30. 

Surface  caterpillars,  412. 

Surface  furrows  for  drainage,  8,  12. 

Surface  measure,  443. 

Table  of  unit  values,  38. 

Tarragon,  214. 

Testing  soils  for  lime,  52 ;  seeds 
germination,  118. 

Texture  of  soil,  13,  14,  26,  29. 

The  soil  and  its  treatment,  5-12. 

The  small-holder  as  a  market  gar- 
dener, 39-41 ;  the  business  to  be 
carried  on,  46-49. 

The  laying-out,  cultivating,  and  crop- 
ping of  a  holding,  53-62. 


Index. 


451 


Thinning-out,  122,  140. 

Thrips,  pea  and  bean,  422. 

Thunder  fly,  black  fly  or,  422. 

Thyme,  common,  lemon,  214. 

Tomatoes,  25,  58,  98,  100,  101,  104, 
105,  106,  116,  130,336,401;  soil  for 
and  its  preparation,  338;  raising 
the  plants,  340 ;  planting  out,  345  ; 
supporting  the  plants,  346 ;  training 
and  culture  of,  347;  tying,  stopping, 
348 ;  thinning  the  foliage  of,  349 ; 
spraying  of,  gathering  the  fruit, 
350;  extra  early  from  the  open, 
varieties,  352;  manures,  355;.  to 
pack  fqr  market,  398. 

Tomatoes,  black  spot  on,  436  ;  potato 
disease  on,  435. 

Tools,  French  garden,  illustrated,  80. 

Transplanting,  123,  140. 

Trenching,  bastard,  11. 

Turnip  root  gall  weevil,  420. 

Turnips,  58,  96,  99,  100,  101,  104,  106, 
115,  131,  136,  357;  soil  for,  357; 
early  crops,  358 ;  general  culture, 
359 ;  storing,  manures,  361  ;  varie- 
ties, 362 ;  packing  for  market,  399. 

Unit  values,  table  of,  38. 

Valuing  fertilizers,  35. 

Vegetable  marrows,  58,  98,  100,  136, 
138,  362 ;  preparation  of  soil  for, 
sowing  in  the  open,  363;  plants 


and  planting,  364  ;  varieties,  365  ; 

packing  for  market,  399. 
Vegetables,  details  of  the  cultivation 

of,  141. 
Violet  root  rot,  436. 

Warm  bed  for  cucumbers  and 
melons,  99. 

Wart  disease,  potato  black  scab  or, 
429. 

Wash  for  spraying,  to  apply,  402. 

Water  furrows,  8,  12. 

Watering,  65,  111. 

Water-logged  soils,  44. 

Water,  necessity  for  abundant  sup- 
ply, 44 ;  copious  use  on  French 
garden,  65,  66,  102;  arrangement 
of  pipes  on  French  garden,  78. 

Weather,  103 ;  signs,  443. 

Weeds,  401. 

Weevil,  cabbage  and  turnip  root  gall, 
420  ;  pea  and  bean,  423. 

Well-balanced  soils,  7. 

Weights,  measures,  and  terms  used 
in  marketing  produce,  441. 

Weight,  avoirdupois,  443. 

Winter  rot,  potato,  434. 

Wire  worm,  29,  82,  413. 

Woodlice,  415. 

Wool  refuse,  shoddy  or,  29. 

Yield,   cost  of  production,  and  re- 
turns, 438.  •    • 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS,  DIAGRAMS, 
AND    PLANS. 


Page. 

Method  of  Draining  undulating  Field      .      9 

Method  of  Bastard  Trenching  ...  12 

Method  of  Ridging 13 

Plan  of  Smalt  Holding        .  '     .        .        .54 

Plan  of  Rotation  and  Cropping  (1st  year)  60 

(2nd  year)  61 

(3rd  year)  62 

Horn  of  Light 69 

Handle  of  Light 70 

Leg  of  Frame 70 

Frame  and  Lights 70 

End  of  Cross-bar  ,  .        .        .        .71 

Light  Stops 71 

Frame  Hook 71 

Watering  the  Frame 72 

Prop  for  Light 73 

Cloche 73 

Carrying  Cloches 74 

Tilted  Cloche 75 

Cloche  Peg 75 

Cloches  packed  away 75 


Page. 

Repaired  Cloche 75 

Arrangement  of  Cloches  in  relation  to 

Frame 75 

Frame  for  Mat-making  .  .  .  .77 
Arrangement  of  Water  Pipes — French 

Garden 79 

Arrangement  of  Soil  for  Hot-beds  .  .92 
Diagram  shewing  Manure  Linings  to 

Frames  on  Hot-beds  .  .  .  .94 
Diagram  explaining  working  of  Cloches  97 
Plan  of  Model  French  Garden  (J  acre)  .  101 

French  Garden  Tools 103 

Diagrams  showing  Intercropping  112  to  116 
Sowing  Seed  by  Hand  .  .  '  .  .120 

Lath  Screen 121 

Brushwood  Screen 122 

Tilted  Cloche 122 

How  Leaves  and  Roots  are  Shortened 

in  Transplanting 124 

Samples  of  EUbbers 124 

How  the  Dibber  is  Used  .  .  .  ,125 


452 


The  Profitable  Culture  of  Vegetables. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS,  &c.  (continued). 


Page. 

Hot-bed  on  Top  of  Ground  .  .  .  129 
Hot-bed  Sunk  in  Ground  .  .  .  .131 
Arrangement  of  Cold  Frames  .  .  .  132 

The  Cloche 133 

Cloche  made  from  Wire  and  Paper  .  .  134 
Calico  Screen  laid  over  Willow  Wands  .  135 
.Movable  Shield,  covered  with  Calico  or 

Mats 135 

Glass-covered  Plant  Protector.        .        .136 

Box  Plant  Protector 137 

Glass-covered  Trench  ....  137 
Raised  Beds,  with  slope  facing  south  .  138 
The  same  converted  into  Warm  Beds  .  138 
Diagram  of  Planting  Raised  Beds  .  .  138 
Roughly-made  Forcing  Pit  ...  139 

Globe  Artichoke 141 

A  Good  Sample  of  Globe  Artichoke  .        .  142 

Jerusalem  Artichoke 144 

Bundle  of  Giant  Asparagus       .        .        .  145 

Asparagus  Knife 150 

Cradle  for  Bunching  Asparagus  .  .  151 
Seville  Long-pod  Bean  ....  155 
Dwarf  French  Bean  .  .  .  .  .157 
Scarlet  Runner  Bean  .  .  .  .160 
Dell's  Dark  Crimson  Dwarf  Beet  .  .  162 
Intermediate  Moss-curled  Kale  .  .  163 

Sutton's  A  1  Kale 164 

Sutton's  Snow-white  Broccoli .        .        .165 

Brussels  Sprouts 168 

Sutton's  Flower  of  Spring  Cabbage  .  170 
Early  Etampes  Cabbage  .  .  .  .171 

Ivory-white  Cardoon 173 

Parisian  Forcing  Carrot     ....  175 

Dutch  Horn  Carrot 176 

James's  Scarlet  Intermediate  Carrot  .  177 
Sutton's  Magnum  Bonum  Cauliflower  .  180, 

Early  Dwarf  Erfurt 181 

Golden  Yellow  Large  Solid  Celery  .  .184 
Celery  after  the  Second  Earthing  .  .  188 
Celery  Finally  Earthed-up  .  .  .189 
American  Method  of  Tying  Celery  .  .  189 
Celery  planted  in  Broad  Beds  .  .  .190 
Method  of  Earthing  Celery  on  Broad  Bed  191 
Celery  Stored  in  Frame  ....  192 
Method  of  Blanching  Celery  with  Mats  .  193 
Market  Bundle  of  Celery  ....  195 
Celeriac,  or  Turnip-rooted  Celery  .  .  196 

Chicory  (Whitloef) 197 

Diagram  showing  intercropping  of  Cab- 
bage and  Colewort 199 

Rollinson's  Telegraph  Cucumber  .  .  200 
Sutton's  Every-day  Cucumber  .  .  201 
Diagram  showing  Method  of  Making 

Cucumber  or  Melon  Bed  .  .  .  204 
Green  Giant  Ridge  Cucumber  .  .  .207 
Green  Curled  Paris  Endive  .  .  .209 
Ruffec  Green  Curled  Endive  .  .  ,  .  210 

Horse-radish -   .  215 

London  Broad  Flag  Leek  .  .  .  .216 
Hammersmith,  or  Hardy  Green  Winter 

Cabbage  Lettuce 218 

Sutton's  Heartwell  Cabbage  Lettuce  .  219 
Sutton's  Whiteheart  Cos  Lettuce  .  .  220 
Large  Rock  Prescott  Canteloup  Melon  .  225 
Melons  in  the  open-air,  mid  July  .  .  227 

Mushrooms 231 

Ridge-shaped  Mushroom  Bed  .  .  .  235 
Movable  Mushroom  Bed  on  Flat  Board  .  240 
Movable  Mushroom  Bed  against  a  Wall.  240 
Mustard  and  Cress,  in  Punnets  .  .  243 

Giant  Zittau  Onion 244     i 

Double-curled  Dwarf  Parsley    .        .        .  253    ; 


Page. 
Hollow-crowned  Parsnip   ....  255 

Gradus  Pea 256 

Gladstone  Pea 257 

Potatoes,  Sprouting  in  Tray  .  .  .  270 
Potato  Trays,  stacked  ....  271 
Seed  Potatoes,  sprouted  ....  271 
Section  of  Potato  Clamp  .  .  .  .280 
French  Breakfast  Radish  ....  284 
Scarlet  White-tipped  Turnip  Radish  .  284 

Forced  Rhubarb 287 

Salsify,  or  Vegetable  Oyster  .  .  .295 
Sutton's  Best  of  All  Savoy  Cabbage  .  296 

Seakale,  blanched 298 

Diagram  showing  method  of  intercrop- 
ping with  Seakale  .        .        .        .301 
Forcing  Pit  for  Seakale,  partly  made      .  305 
The  same,  showing  part  of  crop        .        .  305 

True  Shallot 309 

Jersey  or  False  Shallot  .  .  .  .309 
Lettuce-leaved  Spinach  .  .  .  .311 
Viroflay  Giant  Spinach  .  .  .  .312 
Large  Prickly  or  Winter  Spinach  .  .  313 
New  Zealand  Spinach  ....  315 

Spinach  Beet 316 

Royal  Sovereign  Strawberry    .        .        .317 

Strawberry  Runner 320 

Right  and  Wrong  Way  to  Plant  Straw- 
berries       .        .        .        .        .        .        .325 

Two  Methods  of  Layering  Strawberries  330 
Proper    Method    of    Re-potting    Straw- 
berries, from  small  to  large  pots  .  332 

The  Tomato 336 

Cold  Frames  in  which  Tomato  plants 

for  the  open-air  are  grown  during  May  343 
Typical     bunch     of     Carter's     Sunrise 

Tomato 353 

Sunrise  Tomato,  grown  against  a  fence  354 
Sutton's  Early  Snowball  Turnip  .  .  357 
Half-long  White  Forcing  Turnip  .  .  358 
Half-long  White  Jersey  Navet  .  .  .359 
Early  Six-weeks,  or  Jersey  Lily  Turnip  360 
White  Trailing  Marrow  .  .  .  .363 
Long  White  Bush  Marrow  .  .  .364 

Cabbage  Aphis 407 

The  Large  Cockchafer  .  .  .  .408 
Daddy  Long-legs  or  Crane  Fly  .  .  408 

Diamond-back  Moth 409 

Turnip  Flea- Beetle 409 

Millipedes  and  Centipedes         .        .        .  410 

Slugs  and  Snails 411 

Surface  Caterpillars  ,        .        .        .  413 

Skip-jack  Beetles  and  Wireworm  .  .  413 
Asparagus  attacked  by  the  Beetle  .  .  416 
Bean  Aphis  or  Black  Dolphin  .  .  .417 
Large  White  Cabbage  Butterfly  .  .  418 
Carrot  Fly  and  Maggot  .  .  .  .420 
Celery  and  Parsnip  Fly  and  Maggot  .  421 
Onion  Fly  and  Maggot  ....  422 
Pea  and  Bean  Thrips  ....  423 
Pea  and  Bean  Weevils  .  .  .  .423 
Asparagus  affected  by  Rust  .  .  ,  424 
Bean  Pods,  showing  Canker  .  .  .  425 
Turnip  attacked  by  Finger-and-Toe  .  426 
Diseased  Mushrooms  ....  428 
Onion  attacked  by  Mildew  .  .  .  429 
Potatoes  affected  with  Black  Scab  or 

Wart  Disease 430 

Diseased  Leaf  and  Tuber  of  Potatoes     .  431 

Potato  Leaf  Curl 432 

Potato  Tubers  infected  with  Scab  .  .  433 
Potato  Tuber  attacked  by  Winter  Rot  .  434 
Sclerotium  Disease 434 


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Profitable 
Manuring. 


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method  of  pruning  all  varieties  of  outdoor  fruit  trees. 

The  R.H.S.  Journal  says  of  this  work  : — "  Seldom  have  we  seen  a  more 
excellent  series  of  articles  upon  this  most  difficult  subject.  The  author  is  a 
practical  fruit  grower  who  has  learned  to  make  use  of  his  eyes,  to  think 
carefully  over  what  he  has  seen,  and  to  draw  accurate  inference  from  his 
observations.  No  fruit  grower  should  be  without  it." 

"  THE  SCIENCE  AND  PRACTICE  OF  MANURING." 

By  W.  DYKE. 

Is.       Post  Free,  Is.  Id. 

IN  12  CHAPTERS :— Origin  and  History  of  Manures.  Plants  and  their  Food  • 
Influence  of  Manures  on  Crops.  Soils  and  their  Influence  on  Manuring.  Facts  to  Guio'e 
Cultivators.  General  Manures.  Concentrated  Fertilizers.  Concentrated  Fertilizers  (con- 
tinued). Fertilizers  for  Vegetables.  Fertilizers  for  Fruit.  Fertilizers  for  Flowers.  Points 
to  Remember  when  Manuring. 

The  Guernsey  Press  says  of  this  work : — "  Every  chapter  seems  to  embody  something 
that  is  new,  or  old  facts  presented  with  new  dress  and  a  better  style  and  a  more  practical 
applicability  than  in  other  similar  works." 

The  Jersey  Evening  Post  says  :— "This  is  an  extraordinary  shilling's  worth,  and  is  the 
work  of  a  commercial  horticulturist,  the  result  of  actual  experience.  Mr.  Dyke  deals  in 
admirable  detail  with  facts  for  the  guidance  of  cultivators  in. respect  to  general  and  concen- 
trated fertilizers.  A  careful  study  of  Mr.  Dyke's  experiences  will  repay  any  grower,  and  the 
price  is  a  mere  bagatelle.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  a  half-guinea  book  obtainable  for  Is." 

The  Field  says  of  this  work :— "The  Science  and  Practice  of  Manuring  "  is  the  title  of  a 
useful  little  manual  by  Mr.  W.  Dyke,  F.R.H.S.,  published  by  the  Lockwood  Press  at  Is.  Mr. 
Dyke  discusses  the  broad  question  in  systematic  fashion,  explaining  in  the  first  place  the 
peculiar  character  of  the  different  manures,  and  in  the  second  the  requirements  of  the  various 
crops,  with  suggested  suitable  mixture." 

"HINTS   AND    WRINKLES    ON    TOMATO 
CULTURE  FOR  MARKET." 

With  which  is  presented  a  sure  safeguard  against  wire,worm. 
By  "OBSERVER"  (J.  Stoddart). 

Is.  net.         Post  free,  Is.  Id. 

"Gtntlemen, — With   my  Tomato  crops  last  season   I  followed,  to  the 
letter,  the  advice  given  in  your  excellent  book  on  Tomato  Culture.    My  crops 
were  far  and  away  the  best  I  have  ever  had.     Yours  faithfully, 
H.  J.  S.,  Worthing." 

(Names  and  addresses  given  on  application.) 

The  Guernsey  Press  says :— "  From  beginning  to  end  the  book 
is  full  of  sound  advice.  The  most  intelligent  and  up-to-date  grower 
can  learn  something  from  the  chapter  on  Manures." 

THE  LOCKWOOD  PRESS,  1  Mitre  Court,  Fleet  St.,  E.C. 


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FOR  THE   SURE   AND    ECONOMICAL 
DESTRUCTION    OF 

APHIDES 

(Green  Fly  or  Plant  Lice), 

AND  OTHER  SMALL  SOFT-BODIED  INSECTS, 

USE 

FELS-NAPTHA  SOAP 

Use  2  to  4  ozs.  of  soap  to  3  gallons 
of  water,  according  to  the  severity  of 
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of  warm  water  and  stir  well.  Syringe 
or  spray  the  affected  plants  thoroughly 
and  with  force.  One  application  is 
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2|d.  per  bar 
everywhere. 


460 
TYPE  SET  IN  THE  PRIVATE  PRINTING  OFFICE  AT  MAYI.AND,  ESSEX. 

PRINTED  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS,  ABERDEEN. 


FOURTEEN  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 


This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


SJan'SfiJiX 


SANTA  BARBARA 


QCCgll95Htt 


INTERUBRARY  LOAJt 


INTERLIBRARY 


JUL  2  7  137 


UNIV.  OF  CALIF. 
RECEIVED  B 


BERK. 


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SEP  2  3  1974 


20 


CIRCULATION  DEPT. 


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IfcJIERLlBRARY 


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REC.  ILL  APH    7  1C 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY