PROFITABLE
DAIRYING
FOR
FARMERS AND DAIRYMEN
BY
G. H. BENKENDORF
_ Wisconsin Dairy School, Agrictultural College,
MADISON, WIS.
AND
K. L. HATCH
Winnebago County Agricultural School,
WINNECONNE, WIS.
" Att
Sy Vy at?
FOREWORD
HIS little book is not a text book
for the student of dairying, but
a manual for farmers and dairymen.
While the information contained
herein is believed to be as reliable as
that of scientific publications, it is set
down in a form adapted to the general
reader. No apologies are made for the
use of everyday language, as the writers
believe it best adapted to the needs of
those for whom this work is intended.
Neither are they convinced that the
same simplicity of style is not better
adapted to the student of scientific
agriculture.
@ Acknowledgment is made to those
who have assisted usin any way in the
production of this work, and especially
to the breeders who have permifted us
to use photographs of famous dairy
animals for illustrations.
BENKENDORE & HATCH
ven
LIBRARY of GONGKESS
\wo Gopies Recetyee
MAY 38 14908
wopyrimen Rly
av 2 1908
BLASSA Xe. Nu
2009 30
7 COPY Bs
Copyright
1908
TABLE OF GONTENTS
CHAPTER I. Introduction.
CHAPTER Il. Development of the Industry.
CHAPTER III. Composition of Milk.
CHAPTER IV. Secretion of Milk.
CHAPTER V. The Dairy Cow.
CHAPTER VI. The Babcock Test.
CHAPTER VII. Testing the Farm Herd.
CHAPTER VIII. Cream Separation.
CHAPTER IX. The Farm Separator.
CHAPTER X. Value of Skim Milk.
CHAPTER XI. The Barn.
CHAPTER Sie hes silo:
CHAPTER XIII. Feed for the Cow.
CHAPTER NIV. Relation of Dairying to the Soil.
CHAPTER XV. Care of the Cow.
CHAPTER XVI. Care of Utensils.
CHAPTER XYII. Care of Milk and Cream.
CHAPTER XVIII. Tuberculosis.
CuHaptTerR XIX. Disposing of Milk and Cream.
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I.
There is no branch of agriculture which yields so handsome and
so satisfactory returns to the farmer as the dairy industry, if prop-
erly pursued. To be sure there are other branches which yield
larger returns, but these large profits are more than compensated
for by the loss to the soil and the uncertainty of a safe return each
year. ‘Tobacco may be grown successfully for a number of years on
the same piece of ground, but the soil must be diligently worked
and extensively fertilized. In the end the overtaxed soil refuses to
respond and finally lies exhausted. So it is with grain farming.
One cannot draw continually on a bank account without renewing
his deposits there. Neither can the farmer draw continually from
the storehouse of plant food which he possesses, that is, from the
soil of his farm, without putting back the same amount of fertility
that he takes off with his crop, unless he wishes to wear out and
ruin his farm.
Now, in dairy farming the larger portion of all that is raised
on the farm is fed there and ultimately finds its way back to the
soil in the form of barnyard manure. The butter and cheese which
are sold from the farm contain so small a portion of soil matter
that the loss to the soil is scarcely perceptible. This is the chief
reason why dairy farming is proving so profitable and is coming so
rapidly into popular favor.
But this is not all. Dairy farming promotes crop rotation and
encourages the production of clover, alfalfa and other leguminous
crops which if fed on the farm do not wear out the soil, but may
positively add to its fertility. The progressive dairy farmer not
only finds himself placed, through his industry, in a position of
competence and ease, but under his wise management he finds the
soil of his farm growing richer and more productive. All of these
surprising assertions admit of absolute proof and will be fully dis-
cussed in the chapters which follow.
But the farmer who reads this must neither think it an over-
drawn case for dairy farming on the one hand, nor imagine on the
other hand that~all he has to do is to get a few cows and that
they will take care of him for the rest of his days. Both positions
are equally erroneous. No man can permanently succeed in any
undertaking without putting intelligent thought and energy into
his work. Neither can the dairy farmer.
The ability to secure profits from dairying lies in a thorough
knowledge of its fundamental principles. It is hoped that the
r)
information contained in this little book will be of Value to the
farmers who may chance to read it, in that it endeavors to set these
principles forth in a simple and practical way. The authors have
avoided the use of scientific terms so far as it is possible for them
to do so, and have tried to use language and illustrations easily
within the grasp of men not trained in scientific work. Wherever
it has been necessary to resort to unusual terms, these terms are °
fully explained in ordinary every-day language. If the farmer, into
whose hands this little book may happen to fall, will follow its
teachings, exercise due industry, patience and perseverance, he can-
not go far wrong in branching out into dairy farming, if he is not
already engaged therein. If he is already a dairyman, it is hoped
that it will render him service by assisting him to improve his
methods, thereby increasing his profits.
CHAPTER II.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDUSTRY.
Dairying as an agricultural industry is very old, but as a “com-
mercial” industry placed on a firm and sure scientific basis, it is
very new—less than a quarter of a century of age. This fact is
largely due to the invention of two machines which have com-
pletely revolutionized the whole industry. These two machines are
the Babcock tester and the centrifugal separator.
Previous to 1879 the only method in common use for the sep-
aration of fat from the milk was by setting the milk either in pans
or cans and allowing the cream to rise naturally, but in that year
two machines were invented, one in Denmark and the other in
Sweden, which made use of the principle of centrifugal force for
this separation, and were so constructed that the process was con-
tinuous. Since that time other inventors have placed modifications
of these machines on the market, but the principle employed is
always the same, until today there are a dozen or more styles of
thoroughly reliable centrifugal separators in every day use.
This method of separation effected so large a saving of butter
fat to the farmers that creameries rapidly sprang up, particularly
in the north central states, accompanied by cheese factories, only to
be defeated of their mission by dissatisfaction and fraud, because
there was no quick and satisfactory method for determining the
richness of the milk delivered by the patrons, and no way by which
a factoryman could determine the losses in skim milk, ete. In these
early creameries and cheese factories an unprincipled patron could
water his milk in order to get the lion’s share of the profits, as it
was then the custom to pay for milk by the pound, Of course such
6
fraud was certain to cause dissatisfaction, besides being manifestly
unjust.
Another thing well known even in those days, is that all cows
are not equally good fat producers, that is, all cows do not give
milk equally rich in fat, and the “pooling system,” as it is called,
where all farmers are paid the same price per hundred pounds of
milk without regard to its fat content, is plainly not equitable.
These two facts, viz.: that a patron could adulterate his milk
and thereby increase his profits, and that a patron, although not
adulterating his milk, could deliver milk from herds testing low in
fat, and receive the same amount of money per hundred pounds of
milk at the factory, led Dr. Babcock in an effort to solve the vexed
problem of providing the dairy world with a quick and easy method
for determining the fat content of milk. His labors resulted in the
invention of the Babcock test in the year 1890, which date marks
the beginning of active progress in the dairy industry. This inven-
tion is such a simple and practical method for the determination of
fat in milk, cream, butter and cheese that it has never been im-
proved upon, and it is doubtful if a better method will ever be
discovered. Dr. Babcock’s name is known the world over, and it is
certain that no other man has ever contributed such a rich legacy
to agriculture as has Dr. Babcock by the invention of this test. He
did not patent it but gave it free to a great agricultural population
where it found immediate adoption and widespread use.
As an illustration of the rapid development of the dairy indus-
try, it is only necessary to call attention to the census reports of
the United States, which show but five creameries and cheese fac-
tories within its domains in the year 1860. In 1890 this number
had increased to 4,712, and in 1905 statistics collected in the one
state of Wisconsin show a grand total of nearly 3,000 in that great
dairy state. The total value of all butter and cheese produced by the
factories within the United States in 1860 was but $23,500; in
1890 this value had increased to nearly $63,000,000, and in 1905
there was $45,000,000 worth of dairy products produced in the
state of Wisconsin alone. While the progress is more marked in
Wisconsin than in most of her sister states, yet her dairy develop-
ment may be regarded as typical. It is estimated that for 1907 the
value of the dairy products in the United States was over $700,-
000,000. And the end is not yet.
Notwithstanding the high prices paid for milk, butter and
cheese, milk and its products are among the very cheapest, most
wholesome and most nutritious articles of human food. There are
more digestible nutrients contained in twenty-five cents worth of
milk at six cents per quart than can be obtained from the same
7
amount of money expended for meat, fish, fruits or wegetables at
ordinary market prices. This fact will always operate to keep up
the prices of dairy products. The cow is the most economical food
producer extant. No one need fear an overproduction of dairy
products. Whatever may have been the ups and downs of the past,
certain it is that the future of the dairy industry looks exceedingly
bright.
CHAPTER III.
COMPOSITION OF MILK.
Milk as secreted is opaque and white in color. Normally it
usually has a slightly yellowish appearance, due to the fat globules
it contains. The white color is due to suspended particles reflecting
the light. Skim milk, or milk from which the fat has been re-
moved, has a bluish tinge due to the light reflecting on the casein -
and calcium phosphates of the milk. It has a sweetish taste when
drawn owing to the presence of the milk sugar.
Milk is heavier than water, having a specific gravity of about
1.029 to 1.033. This means that if we had a vessel that would
hold exactly 1,000 pounds of water, this same vessel would hold
1,029 to 1,033 pounds of milk.
Milk may be considered as consisting of two parts, viz.: the fat
and the serum. One hundred pounds of milk ordinarily contains
about 3.7 pounds of fat, the serum being all of the constituents of
the milk except the fat, or 96.3 pounds.
There is no chemical combination between the fat and the
serum, but the fat floats in the serum in the form of very small par-
ticles varying in size and number in different kinds of milk. The
number of fat globules in a cubic millimeter, which is about the
size of a pinhead, is from one to five million, depending, of course,
upon the kind of milk. Ordinary milk contains about two million
fat globules to the drop, and it is estimated by the Agricultural De-
partment at Washington that it would take a man ten years to
count this number at the rate of one hundred per minute, counting
ten hours per day.
When first drawn the fat globules are uniformly distributed, but
after standing a few minutes these globules gather into groups of
ten to one hundred, although we find throughout the milk small,
isolated, individual globules. Their average diameter is about one
five-thousandth of an inch; some are as large as one one-thousandth
of an inch, while others are so small that they appear under a micro-
scope like very tiny specks, too small to be measured.
The number of fat giobules increases as the veriod of lactation
advances, there being from two to three times as many in the same
8
volume at the end as at the beginning; the size, however, greatly
diminishes. The fat globules in milk of different breeds vary in size,
the largest ones being found in Jersey milk. The Ayrshire and
Holstein-Friesian cows have the smallest; the Shorthorn ranking
between the Jersey and Ayrshire, although certain strains of Short-
horn cows produce milk with very large fat globules. It may be
interesting to note that the largest fat globules on record were
found in Shorthorn milk.
The serum is composed of water and solids (usually designated
as solids not fat). These embrace such solids as casein, albumen,
sugar and ash, varying in amounts with different individual cows,
and with the fat comprise what are known as total solids. Below
is a table showing the average composition of milk:
WTO I Ses crags Teal get aires Yor bata yalianrcteta rene at nt Poets 87.4 per cent
Ea beac sees oasis shies caccale, bis ciel Se iete rete won eile 3.7 per cent
a8) | SUL TAYES dh Roars ps Cuenca G beor CS CRO IERcrST Ie CRIED .) per cent
GASCIING Rava ess ran osnc arene ono anes Gl costo DRT 2.7 per cent
IMT Su Sara sere ane reactor eee ete item 5.0 per cent
JES) OY ah Se eA ROS IOC oc reco eC AEC TA CK ONES .7 per cent
100.0
The most variable of these constituents is the fat; the casein,
albumen, sugar and ash being quite constant. The fat content
varies a great deal according to the breed. It is well known that
the milks of Jersey and Guernsey breeds are rich in fat. To show
these breed variations we append the following table compiled by
the agricultural experiment stations of America:
MEL SC Yas iaets chastevagentte se eiosmiae teenie Rie et eaeLars 5.385 per cent
(GUEENSC Yoo atianstsat cemtnsey ssc Meta Solo es OM Pere Cent
SMOMCMOIMY RM cc cocteksiaincote ntoksunls «ler eato ee nee ee pen Celt
EASES TNS Sey ars: ois eussee Meats spans 5 Susie ame te pce eens 3.66 per cent
ELOISteim=Wriesian arte wets ours eion 3.42 per cent
It must not be inferred from this that all Jersey cows produce
milk of such richness as given in this table. As a matter of fact
there is a great difference with the individuals of each breed. Cer-
tain Holstein-Friesian cows have been known to produce milk as low
as 2.8 per cent fat, and even lower, while other individual Holstein-
Friesian cows may produce milk containing 4.0 per cent fat. But
this table shows the average from a large number of cows.
The per cent of fat in milk changes somewhat with the period
of lactation. Professor Van Slyke of the Geneva Station, New
York, gives a table showing a gradual increase as the period of
lactation advances. It will be noticed that for the first five months
the milk did not increase in richness, but remained practically the
same; after that the fat of the milk gradually became richer as
the period advanced.
_
Month of Per cent of
Lactation Fat in Milk
i ROMP cee 2 eo RAS Rat ng Sat NA RY te Pac oe ma ro 4.54
a pak nn eG es ene Re Ree a a ee a een 4.33
2 Re ee UA ER MERE A eRe a A ti Ree me gk arc ome eet nce 4,28
7. eee PEE Tia, Pc aed Oe gh ey wr SERB Me PRES Ds ott) PE CS nis 4.39
eT E age 30k ee matante Ea aee n wnmb nies ANS Crna emskty 4.38
65 ois Soe Tera RCS Ce OR Te RT oo Ee 4.53
Y (RPP eer ee gens ho a see ene AH Cele ecole Ma en Soe are 4.56
(| ae ere ters oa snr PME pie Porn e ane APS TS Li prke. ah i 4.66
Oh 5 Ress Seat ed ct a sche RG 1c CH MC Ee oe goed oe 4.79
HK | eee Meee ym oes ta Regtben elton AD aCe EER Ee ye Natr part BN 5.00
The time between milkings has a great influence on the fat
content of the milk. It is quite generally known that morning
milk is richer than evening milk. This is not always true, but in
general we find that when a cow is milked three or four times a
day she will produce richer milk than when she is only milked
twice. Asa rule the richer milk follows the shorter period between
milkings. This is an important fact to bear in mind when the
milk of a cow is tested for its fat content.
Milk will vary a great deal in richness from day to day. The
health of the animal also has an influence on the variation of the
percentage of fat. Excitement may very materially reduce the quan-
tity of milk as well as the quality. It is therefore poor policy for
a dairyman to abuse his cows by beating them or by allowing them
to be chased by dogs.
The first milk after a cow freshens is termed colostrum milk.
Instead of having a solid not fat content of 9.0 per cent, it seldom
falls belows 18.0 per cent. The great increase in the solids not fat
is due to the increase in those substances which are very essential
as a food for the calf during the first three or four days after birth,
viz.: casein and albumen. The following table gives the composi-
tion of this milk, showing that the fat content is quite normal but
that the solids not fat differ greatly from the solids not fat in nor-
mal milk.
Water cies fs.culs a styercheGheanieenterctass sera 74.6 per cent
WME sh Sae ne bys eens gue taiana once etre te Rahs 3.6 per cent
CASEIN sis cco Ute tae eae ee Ie 4.0 per cent
TAT UT Olies ware cieite Panera eccncy et hea tak nea eee poets 13.6 per cent
Milk Sucaits, Secs cieieccneaeeer acerca 2.6 per cent
B ANSI ccrahegavacsean chasis. cestexe, sieve poten obs ee one 1.6 per cent
100.0
- However, these solids not fat constituents in the colostrum milk
decrease very rapidly so that the milk becomes “normal” at the
seventh or eighth milking. This colostrum milk, although it is not
in any way poisonous, is very undesirable for purposes other than
10
food for the calf. It should, therefore, not be delivered to a cream-
ery or cheese factory until it is fit for human use.
The casein in milk varies with different animals from 1.8 per
cent to 3.0 per cent, but in the individual it is quite constant. This
casein, with the albumen, comprise what are known as proteids of
milk. These proteids are very valuable as food and furnish the
muscle producing elements so essential. The casein and the fat
constitute what are known as the cheese solids of milk. These two
components determine the value of the milk for cheese production.
The sugar in the milk is an important constituent, but should
not be confused with commercial cane sugar. Milk sugar is only
about one-fourth as sweet as ordinary cane sugar. It is manufac-
tured from the whey at a few cheese factories in this country, but
has very little commercial value, being used only in putting up
modified milk, ete.
A great deal may be said in regard to the quality of milk as
affected by varying conditions, such as slow and fast milking, sudden
changes in the feed and the nervous condition of the cow. Suffice
it to say that a good dairyman will always treat his cows kindly,
will not be boisterous while handling them, will not excite them in
any way, will feed them regularly and provide shelter for them.
He will remember that the cow is one of his best friends and that
she represents so much capital invested, and that abusing her will
very materially affect the dividends that she will be able to pay him.
CHAPTER IV.
MILK SECRETION.
It is very essential that a dairyman should understand the
fundamental principles connected with his work. Not the least of
these is the secretion of milk. In this brief work we cannot discuss
in detail the various theories and opinions advanced in regard to
the secretion of milk, but will in a general way cover the ground
so that the reader will have a fair understanding.
Milk may be briefly defined as a characteristic secretion of the
mammary glands. Its primary function, naturally, is for the nutri-
tion of the young. As a food for young animals it cannot be ex-
celled, for it contains elements that are necessary for the building
up of the tissues of the body, and it contains these elements in the
proper proportion. The class of animals that suckle their young are
termed “mammals” and are nearly all four-footed animals. To this
order, however, belong some animals that live in the sea, such as
porpoises and whales, which secrete a fluid very similar to that of
the milk of land animals; but with a few exceptions all mammals
11
are land animals. We shall, however, confine our discussion of milk
in this work to that produced by cows, although the milk of other
animals, such as sheep and goats, is used as food in different places,
especially in various parts of Hurope.
The glands which secrete the milk are only two in number.
There may be one lobe to each gland, or, as in the case of the dog
or swine, several. In cows these lobes are termed “quarters,” and
there are two to each gland. These four quarters form what is
termed the udder.
These glands are separated from each other by a membrane.
There is, therefore, no connection between the right and left side
of the udder. Each teat has practically its own system of cisterns,
channels and cells, and although there seems to be some connection
between the two lobes in each gland, practically there is none.
This is shown by the fact that one of the quarters may be diseased
without affecting the other. It is well known, however, that we can
get more than half as much milk from one teat than we can if we
milk both teats at the same time, which shows that there must be
some relation between the two lobes.
Just above each teat we find a small cavity from which there
lead many small channels; these in turn lead to other but smaller
cavities. All these cavities are termed “cisterns.” These small
channels, with their cisterns, ramify the udder, becoming smaller
and smaller, finally terminating in cells. These are the alveoli
cells. The inner wall of the alveoli cell is made up of a layer of
very minute cells; sometimes there are two or three layers of these.
These small cells are filled with protoplasm, and when this proto-
plasm is discharged it is termed milk.
At one time it was the general belief that the udder was a reser-
voir, and it may be that many readers still have the impression that
this is the case. This is not true, for the total capacity of all the
reservoirs or cisterns is not one-fourth the yield of the milk.
The glands secrete milk all the time, but principally at the time
of milking. We can compare this to the secreting of tears by the
tear glands of the eye. These glands secrete tears all the time, but
especially when an animal experiences great joy or grief. Sim-
ilarly the nervous condition of the cow at the time of milking will
greatly influence the secretion of milk.
As previously stated, there are many theories advanced as to the
formation of milk. It is claimed by some that milk is filtered out
of the blood; the udder being well supplied with arteries and
veins probably gave rise to this idea.
We find, however, that there is*very little if any milk sugar in
the blood, while there is a great deal in milk. No casein is found
12
in the blood. It is also a fact that the albumen in milk coagulates
differently than the albumen of the blood. Further, it may be
stated that the ash in milk is that of potassium salts, while the ash
of the blood is largely that of sodium salts. It is believed that
somehow in the process of secretion certain parts of the blood are
changed into casein, that other constituents pass into the cells with-
out very much change, and when the cells within the alveoli cells
break down, the resulting product is milk.
The attention of the reader is now called to a very important
point, viz.: that the tendency of the cell is always to produce
milk of its own particular composition. This tendency is very con-
stant, and therefore the composition of milk cannot be permanently
changed by a change of feed. That is, the quantity of milk which a
cow produces may be considerably increased, but the quality will
remain practically the same. To make this plain, we may use this
illustration: A tree will always produce the same kind of fruit; by
giving the tree good food it is possible to increase its yield, but a
winesap tree will always produce winesap apples. So it is with the
cow. It is the nature of the cells to secrete a particular grade of
milk, and therefore no system of feeding will permanently increase
or decrease its fat content. The idea is prevalent among many
farmers that a cow can be made to give rich or poor milk, depend-
ing on what she is fed.
The Danes did a great deal of work along this line, experiment-
ing to see whether or not feed influenced the richness of the milk,
and in conducting their experiments used over a thousand animals.
The average variation was only about one one-hundredth of one
per cent. Such a shght variation cannot be attributed to the method
of feeding. Experiments have been conducted by taking a poor
herd of cows and testing each individual carefully and then feeding
judiciously. The quantity of milk produced was easily increased,
but the quality always remained normal.
The fact that “fat cannot be fed into a cow” is very important.
A farmer can test a heifer, and if she does not produce milk of a
satisfactory quality he need not keep her, for he may rest assured
that the quality of her milk will not materially change later on in
her life. In this way, therefore, it is possible for a farmer to build
up a good herd by selecting his cows. This topic will be discussed
more at length in a later chapter.
CHAPTER V. :
THE DAIRY COW.
Generally speaking, cattle may be classified as belonging to one
of three types, viz.: beef, dual purpose and dairy.
To the beef type belong those which are kept on farms solely for
their value as beef producers. They are as a rule compact in form,
having a broad back and a deep, wide body. ‘They are not adapted
for dairying inasmuch as they usually do not secrete more
milk than is necessary to raise the calf. They have small udders
and are not persistent in their flow of milk. There are, however,
individual exceptions among most of these breeds that produce a
fair amount of milk, but the tendency of the members of this
type is to convert their food into beef rather than into milk. To
this type belong the Shorthorns, Hereford, Aberdeen Angus, Gal-
loway and Sussex cattle.
To the dual purpose type belong those cattle that produce more
milk than those of the beef type, and at the same time flesh up
reasonably well. They are usually less in width than the beef
type and have larger udders. They are presumed to milk well
and when “dry” to convert their food rapidly into beef. ‘There are
many arguments produced both in favor of such a type and against
it. It is argued by some that such breeds are really necessary in
certain sections of this country. This type is many a farmer’s
ideal; but it is questionable whether or not such an ideal will ever
be profitably realized. The Red Polled, Devon, and Brown Swiss
cattle are the prominent breeds classed as dual purpose animals,
though strictly speaking as individuals they tend either to produce
milk or beef rather than both. Certain families of the Shorthorns
are also included because they give a fair quantity of good testing
milk and at the same time are fair producers of beef.
The dairy type includes such breeds as are not inclined to pro-
duce beef. They necessarily have less breadth of back, and, unlike
the beef breeds, fleshiness is not desired. Cows belonging to this
type should have a tendency to produce milk and not to convert
their food into beef. It would be difficult to describe in brief the
many desirable points which indicate a good dairy cow. Authorities
usually agree that the ideal cow should have what is termed a
“triple wedge” form. It must be noted, however, that occasionally
there are individuals that do not conform to the ideal yet are
good dairy cows. However, these are only exceptions. It is
of the utmost importance that the dairy cow have ample room in
her body for such organs as the lungs, heart, digestive and maternal
organs. This indicates a vigorous constitution which is necessary
14
in order that she may be able to withstand the strain of continually
producing large quantities of milk. This widening of the body
towards the rear gives to her the “wedge form.” Inasmuch as she
is usually compared to a machine which converts food into milk,
it is very essential that she have a large “barrel,” which is an indi-
eation that she can consume a large supply of food for the manu-
facture of her milk.
Drawing showing “triple wedge” form of a famous dairy cow. The
wedge form as viewed from the top over the shoulders is more pro-
nounced than in the drawing from the rear view, shown at the left.
The udder should be ample in size; it should have good form
with four well shaped teats; it should be soft after milking and
materially smaller than before milking. Meaty udders are very
undesirable as they indicate a lack of ‘capacity. Since the udder
must be well supplied with arteries and veins in order to furnish
the milk secreting cells with the food material from which they are
to secrete milk, a good cow usually has large milk veins under-
neath her belly.
A great deal more might be said as to the desirable character-
istics which a good dairy animal usually possesses, but suffice it
to say that the real test of her value as a dairy cow is her fat pro-
ducing qualities. This can only be learned by using a pair of
scales to ascertain the amount of milk she produces, and a fat test
to determine the richness of her milk. There are many cows that
give a good flow of milk, reasonably rich in fat, during the fore-
part of their period of lactation, yet cows of this kind may be very
undesirable animals to keep, owing to the fact that they may not
15
be persistent milkers. The value of the methods enfployed in de-
termining the productive qualities of an individual cow are dis-
cussed in detail in a separate chapter in this work to which we
respectfully refer the reader.
It is unfortunate for the dairy industry that we do not find
more pure bred stock in this country. We believe that the farmer
should raise pure bred stock because it is more profitable for him
to do so rather than to raise “scrubs.” It may cost a trifle more
to begin with, but it will be money well invested if he intends to
make dairying a paying business. In case he cannot begin with
pure bred stock, it will be well for him to grade up his cattle as
rapidly as possible by the use of a pure bred sire. It may be well
to discuss briefly a few of the distinctive dairy breeds, representa-
tives of which are found in almost every community.
Loretta D. World famous champion Jersey cow at the St. Louis
Exposition, 1904. This cow produced in 120 days 5,802.7 pounds milk
testing 4.82 per cent, or 280.16 pounds butter fat. Weight 1,075 pounds.
Courtesy of F. H. Scribner, Rosendale, Wis.
Jersey—As the name indicates, they originally came from
the Isle of Jersey, which is one of the small islands in the English
Channel. Here the people bred their cattle along distinctive lines,
with the result that they established a breed that has many able
and enthusiastic champions. The Jerseys are usually small cows,
weighing from 650 to 1,000 pounds, averaging about nine hundred
16
pounds each. They produce milk rich in fat testing 4.0 per cent
and over. As a rule they are persistent milkers but usually do not
produce large quantities of milk. This latter statement is used
as an argument against them. We find that these animals have
some good records to sustain their claim as a notable dairy breed.
At the World’s Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago in 1893, a
ninety-day test was conducted in which twenty-five Jerseys took
part. Several of these animals were sick, but in spite of this the
milk produced amounted to thirty-three pounds a day for each
cow. At the St. Louis Exposition in 1904, twenty-five cows pro-
duced milk averaging forty-one and one-half pounds for each day
for ninety days. These are remarkable showings and speak well
‘
Colantha 4th’s Johanna. World famous Holstein-Friesian cow which
produced in one year 27,432.5 pounds milk testing 3.64 per cent, yielding
998.25 pounds butter fat. This is the largest amount of fat produced in
one year by any cow of any breed. Courtesy of the owner, W. J. Gillett,
Rosendale, Wisconsin.
for this breed. Although small in stature, we believe the time will
come when breeders will be able to develop certain families of a
larger frame and more vigorous constitution than the Jersey of
the present time, and at the same time preserve in the families the
desirable qualities possessed by the Jersey cow of today.
HoustTEINn-FRiestAN—It is not known just where the ancestors
17
of this famous breed originated, but it is well known tWat Holstein-
Friesians have been in Holland for hundreds of years, and the
breed is one of the oldest, if not the oldest, in existence. The indi-
viduals have a large frame and weigh from 1,000 to 1,400 pounds.
They are good feeders of roughage, and on account of this stand in
favor with many farmers. The milk is not so rich as that of some
other breeds, but what it lacks in quality is usually made up in
quantity.
Yeksa Sunbeam. Celebrated Guernsey cow, owned by Helendale
Farms, Athens, Wisconsin. She produced within one year 14,920!8 pounds
milk testing 5.74 per cent, or 857.15 pounds butter fat. This amount of
fat would make more than 1,000 pounds of butter. Courtesy owner,
Rietbrock Estate.
The flow is, as a rule, exceedingly large and certain families of
this breed produce milk testing 4.0 per cent and over. The greatest
record of any cow for the amount of milk produced was that of a
Holstein-Friesian, viz., Pieterje Second. This remarkable animal
produced 30,31514 pounds of milk in one year. Cows of this breed
have been reported as producing as much as 12214 pounds of milk
per day. At the St. Louis Fair of 1904, fifteen Holstein-Friesian
cows were entered in competition with Jerseys and other breeds.
They were milked for 120 days and averaged 53.4 pounds each day.
It is safe to say that a good Holstein-Friesian cow will produce six
to seven thousand pounds of milk each year, if she is given proper
care and treatment.
GUERNSEY—This breed has become exceedingly popular within
the last few years. Like the Jersey, they derive their name from
the island on which they originated, which is another one of the
18
islands in the English Channel. Members of this breed have
larger frames than do the Jerseys. They also have more vigorous
constitutions and average 1,050 pounds in weight. They are good
milkers and their milk is of a superior quality which tests well.
This breed produces a butter fat which is distinctively yellow. In
fact some of the butter produced from the milk of Guernsey cows
and exhibited at a dairy convention was so yellow that it was be-
heved by the judges that it contained coloring matter. The butter
was accordingly analyzed and found to be entirely free from such
artificial ingredients. The milk from this breed is splendidly
adapted for city milk trade on account of this rich yellow tinge so
attractive to the customer. It is generally conceded that the milk
of the Guernsey is not quite so rich in fat as that of the Jersey, but
Typical Ayrshire cow. Owned by the Wisconsin Experiment Station,
Madison. Notice the peculiar shape of the horns and the characteristic
markings of this breed.
the quantity given is usually greater. At the Pan American Expo-
sition the Jersey milk tested 4.82 per cent while the Guernsey
tested 4.68 per cent.
It was at this exposition held at Buffalo that the ten-year-old
Guernsey cow, Mary Marshall, produced 5,611 pounds of milk,
yielding 301.13 pounds of butter fat. This test covered a period
of six months. The performances of Yeksa Sunbeam and Dolly
Bloom, both Guernsey cows, are explained in a note accompanying
the illustrations,
19
AYRSHIRE—These cows are found principally in New England
and Eastern States and Canada. They originally came from Scot-
land and possess a great deal of merit. Like the Holstein-Friesian
they are as a rule persistent milkers. They are medium sized
animals, weighing about one thousand pounds. The milk of this
breed of cows is particularly adapted for cheese making, owing to
the small size of its fat globules and its relatively large casein con-
tent. The milk tests usually from 3.5 to 4.0 per cent fat. At the
Pan American Exposition the five Ayrshire cows ranked second in
milk production, yielding 55 pounds per cow for each day of the
test.
CHAPTER VI.
THE BABCOCK TEST.
As has already been stated, the Babcock test is responsible for
much of the progress in dairying during the past fifteen years. Its
operation is so simple, the principles upon which it is based are so
easily understood, and its intelligent use by dairymen is of such
great importance that it is deemed quite proper to give considerable
space in this book to this test.
It will be remembered that milk is composed of water, fat, curd,
sugar and ash in various proportions, and that the fat globules are
simply floating or suspended in the milk serum. When these
globules rise to the top naturally they drag the curd and other
solids along with them and form a layer at the top, rich in fat,
which we call cream. Before the invention of the Babcock test it
was the practice in some places to collect samples of milk or cream,
churn them and melt the lumps of butter in graduated tubes, from
which the amount of fat could be estimated. The purpose of melt-
ing the churned butter was to collect the fat into a clear layer of
oil. Sometimes several churnings and consequent rechurnings
were necessary to make a clear test. This test, known as the churn
test, was a slow, laborious, and somewhat unreliable process.
In the Babcock test the separation of butter fat from the other
constituents is accomplished in a few minutes. The curd is dis-
solved by a strong acid which will not act upon the fat. The fat
globules are brought to the surface by whirling in a machine called
a centrifuge. This layer of fat is brought up into the neck of the
test bottles into which the samples of milk were placed at the be-
ginning of the test, and the percentage of fat read directly from the
neck of the test bottle. The entire test takes about ten to fifteen
minutes of time, is thoroughly reliable and can be made by anyone
possessing ordinary intelligence.
20
DETAILS OF THE TEST.
1. PREPARATION OF THE SAMPLE:
Great care is necessary in the preparation of the sample. If a
herd is to be tested the entire milk of the whole herd must be
thoroughly mixed before a portion is taken for testing. This mix-
ing is accomplished by pouring from one vessel to another, and the
sample taken immediately before any of the fat globules have had
time to rise. If the milk stands for a minute even after being
mixed, the sample will not be accurate, so rapidly do the fat
globules tend to come to the surface.
If a single cow is to be tested, she must first be milked perfectly
dry, then all of her milk must be thoroughly mixed and a portion
of this taken for testing. It is important to have all of the cow’s
milk, as the fat content tends to increase during the process of
milking, the strippings being much richer than the foremilk; often
the foremilk will test less than one per cent, and the strippings
over ten per cent. For this reason the sample can never be milked
into a separate vessel if accurate results are desired, but must be
taken from the whole amount of milk and then only after a thor-
ough stirring.
If a small sample is to be tested this too must be thoroughly
mixed before the final sample is taken in the pipette. If more than
one test is to be made from the same sample the sample should be
mixed each time before being drawn into the pipette. Thorough
mixing is the most important part of sampling, and good sampling
is one of the most important points to be observed in making a cor-
rect test.
2. FILLING THE TEST BOTTLE:
When the sample has been thoroughly mixed the milk should be
drawn into the pipette by suction with the mouth until it rises
above the mark on the stem. The forefinger of the hand in which
the pipette is held is then quickly placed on top of the pipette and
the milk is allowed to run down to the mark where it is checked
and held by the forefinger. The test bottle is taken in the other
hand, slightly inclined, the filled pipette introduced into the neck,
the finger is removed and the milk allowed to run down the side
of the neck into the test bottle. Great care should be used not to
lose any of the sample; even if a few drops are spilled the test
is spoiled and another test should be made. :
3. ADDING THE ACID:
Ordinary commercial sulphuric acid at a specific gravity of
1.82 to 1.83 is used. It may be purchased at any drug store for
three or four cents per pound. It is poisonous and must not be
21
allowed to come in contact with the skin, hands, clothing or tin
iron vessels. If by accident any should be spilled, it should |
washed off immediately, using plenty of water. An application ¢
dilute ammonia is very beneficial in neutralizing the acid.
In making the test the acid measure is filled to the mark wit
this acid, and the acid is poured down the inside of the neck of th
test bottle in the same way in which the milk was introduced. |
is important to let the acid run down the side of the bottle, an
not drop it straight down through the milk, as this will burn tl
curd and cause black particles of burned curd to rise into the fe
and spoil the test.
4. Mixine MILK anv ACID:
The milk and acid having been placed in the test bottle, a1
now mixed by taking the bottle by the neck and giving it.
rotary motion. The acid immediately dissolves the curd, the bott:
gets hot and the contents turn black.
5. WHIRLING AND FILLING BOTTLES:
The bottles are now placed in the machine and whirled fc
five minutes. They are then filled up to the bottom of the nec
with hot water, using either the acid measure or the pipette for th
purpose. If hard water is used the lime in it must be destroyed b
adding to it a drop of acid before filling the bottles, otherwise th
lime in the water may cause a foam to appear on the fat and spo
the reading. Only a drop of acid should be used, and to prever
accident this should be dropped from the acid measure and nc
from the bottle. Great care is necessary in handling this acid.
The bottles are whirled a second time for one minute, the fa
brought up into the neck far enough so that it can be read by add
ing a few drops more of hot water, the bottles returned to the teste
and whirled a third time for a minute or two, when they are take
out and read immediately.
6. READING THE Fat:
The fat column is read from its highest point to its lowest poin
while yet hot (130-145 degrees F.) and before it has had time t
solidify. If the fat should get cold it may be melted by placing th
bottles in hot water well up to the neck.
If both ends of the fat column are above the zero point, not
the reading of these two points and take their differences. For ex
ample: If the lowest point of the fat is 1.8 per cent and th
highest is 5.6 per cent, then the per cent of fat is 5.6—1.8 or 3.!
per cent. A quicker way is to place a pair of dividers with it
legs so spread that one of them rests on the highest point and th
other on the lowest point of the fat against the neck of the tes
22
bottle and then move it down so that the lower leg rests at the zero
point; the upper will rest at the correct reading of the fat.
?7. EMPTYING THE WASTE:
The waste in the bottles should never be emptied into anything
but earthen jars. This waste contains much strong acid, and should
be thrown where it cannot do injury to plants or animals. It is
usual to place a board cover over an ordinary jar, and then bore
holes about three-fourths of an inch in diameter through this
cover. Through these holes the necks of the inverted test bottles
are thrust and their contents allowed to drain into the waste jar.
The jar is then emptied where its contents are not likely to cause
injury, and washed out with hot water to remove the grease unde-
stroyed by the acid.
The importance of every dairyman owning a pair of scales and
a Babcock tester is discussed in a later chapter of this work. More
definite and minute instructions for making the test are usually
given with the apparatus by reliable dealers in dairy supplhes.
CHAPTER VII.
TESTING THE FARM HERD.
.
No dairyman should keep a cow that produces less than 250
pounds of butter fat annually, and an average of a pound a day for
300 days of the year is not too high a standard. Whole herds have
frequently been found which produced even more than that. Of
fifty-seven cows tested in Wisconsin in 1904 and 1905 for admis-
sion to the Advanced Register of the Holstein-Friesian Association,
during a period of one week, the highest record for that time was
2014 pounds, or nearly three pounds of butter fat daily. The low-
est was 11.6 pounds, and the average of the entire lot was a trifle
less than 15 pounds or over two pounds of fat daily per cow. Colan-
tha 4th’s Johanna was among this number, and was awarded first
place for producing 1214 pounds’of butter fat in a week, 375 days
after calving. ‘This remarkable animal has since preduced 998.26
pounds of butter fat during the year 1907, and by this phenomenal
yield has earned for herself the title of the “World’s Champion
Cow.” In asingle month this cow produced 110.83 pounds of but-
ter fat, a larger amount than is produced in a whole year by so
called “dairy cows” in many herds. While this cow has outstripped
all competitors and stands in a class by herself, there are many
others holding records of over five hundred pounds of butter fat
annually. ;
There is a cow in Wisconsin, belonging to the University herd,
23
of Red Polled origin, not essentially a dairy breedy that has a
record of 650 pounds in one year. In all the numerous “official”
tests that have been made in Wisconsin during the past few years,
very few of the cows have been found to fall below the three hun-
dred pound mark, and the majority of them exceed four hundred
pounds of butter fat annually.
Merry Maiden’s Third Son. Grand champion Jersey bull of the
World’s Fair, St. Louis, 1904. Grandson of the celebrated Brown Bessie.
Courtesy of the owner, H. C. Taylor, Orfordville, Wisconsin.
Adopting 300 pounds of butter fat as a standard which the
dairyman may reasonably expect his cows to attain, let us see what
such a cow is worth to him. It is well known that the amount of
butter made from a given quantity of butter fat exceeds the weight
of fat by about one-sixth. This is because of the water, curd and
salt, which are normal constituents of butter, and which, added to
the fat, increase its weight. Three hundred pounds of fat, then,
will make one-sixth more butter, or 350 pounds of butter. During
the past seven years good creamery butter has averaged about 24
cents per pound the year round. The cow that has returned to the
24
farmer 350 pounds of good butter has brought him $84, a pretty
neat sum. And here, too many let the calculation stop. Herein
lies the error. Though she has returned him this amount, he must
not forget that she has cost him something in feed and care. Dur-
ing the period from 1900 to 1908 this cost has not been far from
$40 per year in the north central states. Deducting this from the
amount received for the butter leaves a nice little profit of $44.
Neither must it be forgotten that in addition to this there is the
skim milk which has been fed to the pigs and calves, from which
additional profit has been secured. Nor should we forget that she
has probably eaten hay and grain raised on the farm, and the fer-
tility in the manure has found its way back to the soil.
se CIP
Shadybrook Gerben. Leading Holstein-Friesian cow at the Louisiana
Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, 1904. In 120 days she produced 8,101.7
pounds of milk testing 3.48 per cent, or 282.6 pounds butter fat. Notice
the wedge shaped form and the unusually large udder of this remark-
able cow. Weight 1,319 pounds. Courtesy owner, M. E. Moore, Cameron,
Missouri.
Let us suppose another case. Instead of producing fat for 350
pounds of butter let us see what would have been the result had
she produced sufficient fat for 200 pounds of butter only. This
butter at the same rate would have brought $48, and the farmer’s
profit would have been but $8, or less than one-fifth as much as that
of the first cow. In other words, the first cow is worth more to the
dairyman than five of the second.
25
Looking at it from still another point of view. Swppose another
cow can produce but 150 pounds of butter annually, what is she
worth? Let us see. At 24 cents per pound this amount of butter
is worth $36, or $4 less than it costs to keep the cow that produced
ite
Where dairying has been tried and abandoned as unprofitable,
in nine cases out of ten it has been because the farmer kept just
this kind of cows. How necessary then that he know just what each
member of his herd is worth to him. He can know this if he is
willing to spend the time and effort necessary to weigh and test the
milk of each cow in his herd.
The test is made in the following manner: A bottle holding
about a pint is labeled, showing the name and number of the cow,
and into this bottle is placed a piece of bichromate of potassium
the size of a pea. This chemical is a cheap preservative which can
be purchased at any drug store and keeps the sample from souring.
Before the milk is sampled it is thoroughly mixed as under
directions for sampling already given in the “chapter on the Bab-
cock Test, and a tablespoonful of this milk is placed in the bottle.
This sampling i is repeated at each successive milking and the sample
for testing is taken from this composite sample. In this way a
single test will answer for each cow. If the cream in the sample
gets thick or churns, it may be easily mixed up again with the milk
if the sample bottle is first placed in warm water. In making a
composite test, the same care should be exercised in mixing the
sample, as is necessary in all testing with the Babcock test.
By taking composite samples of the milk from each cow in the
herd, testing them weekly and keeping an accurate record of these
tests and of the weight of milk given by each cow every day of her
milking period, the dairyman may ascertain for himself exactly
what each cow is worth to him. This is the best and only reliable
method, and the one followed at most well regulated dairies. Of
course, it takes time, but it pays in the long run.
Fairly accurate results may be obtained, however, by weighing
and testing one day in each week during the whole period of lacta-
tion, multiplying the weight by 7 to get the amount given by
each cow. Another practical method is to take weights and com-
posite samples for six consecutive days each month during the whole
period of lactation, and multiplying these weights by 5 to get the
weight of milk given by each cow during each particular month of
her “milking period.
Too many farmers make a single weight and test of the milk of
their several cows and then let the matter drop. This is a serious
mistake, as it teaches next to nothing, and the only way that the
26
dairyman may know exactly what each of his cows is worth to him
is by testing frequently, weighing every day in the year and multi-
plying the total weight by the average test to get the weight of
butter fat. There are shorter methods requiring less time, but they
are all open to one objection—inaccuracy—and are not recom-
mended.
Dolly Bloom. Noted Guernsey cow. Has remarkable record of
17,297.5 pounds milk in one year, testing 4.87 per cent, yielding 836.2
pounds butter fat. Notice the characteristic Guernsey markings and
the well formed udder. Courtesy owner, Langwater Farms, North
Easton, Massachusetts.
The simplest and easiest of these methods is to weigh and test
the milk of each cow for six days during the fifth month of her
milking period. It has been shown by experiment that the fat pro-
duction for the fifth month represents to a considerable degree the
average production for the ten months that a cow is in milk. If
this be true then this weight multiplied by five will give the average
. 27
weight produced monthly, and this monthly average qpultiplied by
ten will give the total amount of milk produced in ten months, the
number of months every good dairy cow should give milk during
the year. This total amount of milk multipled by the test will
give the yield of fat, to which one-sixth is added to find the butter
yield. This method is rapid and fairly accurate. One example to
illustrate: Suppose a cow is found to give 100 pounds of milk in
six days. Then 100X5X10=5000 pounds of milk annually. The
test is 4.2 per cent. Then 5000 4.2 per cent—=210 lbs. butter fat;
1-6 of 210 is 35; then 210-+35—245, or this cow produces approx-
imately 245 pounds of butter annually.
Brown Bessie. Typical Jersey cow. Champion butter cow of the
ninety-day test at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 18938. During
the ninety days she produced 3,634 pounds of milk, yielding 178.12
pounds butter fat. Note the well formed and capacious udder. Cour-
tesy of the owner, H. C. Taylor, Orfordville, Wisconsin.
Every good dairyman should know about what each cow in his
herd is producing and send to the slaughter house all cows that are
not yielding him a profit. The only way for him to learn this is
by weighing and testing the milk from each cow in some such
manner as has been outlined herein, preferably for every day of
the time that the cow is in milk during the year. It should also
be added that he should take into account the amount of feed con-
sumed by each cow. It is not always the largest fat producers that
are the most profitable cows, but the ones that produce the largest
amount of fat at the least cost.
The following from Hoard’s Dairyman gives the actual herd
record as kept by an Oregon dairyman:
“Hoard’s Dairyman :—I enclose the report of our dairy herd of
20 cows for the year from Jan. Ist, 1907, to Dec. 31. Our herd
consists of mixed stock with some Jersey blood in most of them.
We bought a full blood Jersey bull last summer and are going to
breed up our herd.
“T credit each cow every month with what the price was at that
time and that causes the price received for the fat to differ with the
different cows. The butter was made at home and shipped to Port-
land, the milk is weighed mornings and evenings.”
Lbs. Butter-
No. of Cow. Lbs. Milk. Ave Test. Fat. Ave. Price. Amount.
Ae el acces 6,907 4.91 339.42 a2o $109.70
LS beeen EUS 4.08 322.09 337 109.00
Oi feats 7,158 4.41 315.70 332 104.82
SO eer 6,575 4.61 308.55 30 100.32
Ba ae aie hake 6,132 4.77 292.88 305 89.55
Giese eee Oley 3.56 282.15 334 94.46
Lee ee O42, 4.14 275.23 oot 93.10
ities. . 6400 3.9 252.35 B43 86.65
Ue ei GAOT 3.05 251.50 019 80.41
Dnt ie 3. So2 5,994 4.14 248.65 BOM 81.37
GMS Speers 5,123 4,62 Detieled O41 81.00
ieee csr 5,210 4.44 231.80 Bell 76.02
DOM hese 5,230 4.38 229.55 B20 75.20
tera ake: € 4,608 4.67 PANS SYS) .326 70.43
aby Conia 5,547 3.86 214.15 Say 71.16
NOS. mee 4588 4.55 209.16 .020 67.64
By eacteat: 5,787 3.6 208.66 “Ou 65.26
UD epare sc 3,943 4.438 174.90 297 52.00
Total . .107,986 4,604.72 $1,448.09
Ave. ... 6,000 4.26 255.81 .o14 80.45
EVEL AZ ORGOS te OlatCC oc. 1c, alee ta cncrnareeierslone ets. $36.65
INGCEMUROMge eee meas ine aretihee oh oie oars tines relic $43.80
Bane e oe 3,923 3.6 141.35 228 46.50
Shen seu OO 5.0 103.15 Pty ( 36.84
“Numbers 5 and 8 are heifers milked six and four and one-third
months respectively.
“Dallas, Ore.” * ok 8
Record of the world’s champion cow, Colantha 4th’s Johanna,
from Hoard’s Dairyman:
29
Test _
Month Milk, lbs. per cent. Fat Ibs.
IDO, ANSKOKG, WS) GEAVEs 34 6c aounoc 627.8 4.35 27.31
JAaANUArye AGT Meas OO kas 3.92 104.28
Le) oa DEEN ei” etaetperies ol altace usicinouuickondon HAL UMas 3.838 102,55
March 2. oScc% scmte nee seeks Aebersold Olkices 3.67 99.14
Anil att icerstuc to aeenes ap eee DU Sal 3.56 89.31
iW Eb tat Sere Oca ooo Camo ee PUM BPIO ahalo) 94.10
SUMEUE ath ces eto olecranon 2,353.7 3.45 81.20
Duly? Jan. dees nee Cheeta 223022 3.37 75.33
ATISUSt a5 Ss, sopra tiene feet ethece 1,788.6 3.95 70.65
September hociciciose «5 erenera che 1,756.11 3.69 64.80
OctoberBeis see ioe 2,031.8 3.30 67.05
INO Ver Grieteconcwics stefan ke clea ctene 1,994.8 3.61 72.00
December—22 days ......... 1,456.5 BAT 50.54
Motul vary ee eee al acre eee aoeal 3.64 998.26
“She has the following yearly record made when she was four
years old: Milk, 19,309.3 lbs.; fat, 693.54 Ibs.
Following are the seven day records made at five, eight, ten and
eleven months after calving and for periods of one week, under the
supervision of the Wisconsin College of Agriculture:
Fat
Time After Calving Milk, lbs. per cent. Fat lbs.
Hive tm Onthsieseiacne cee ere 613.0 3.56 21.80
OHA CETUS, Ge gooshcacaanesen 6 378.8 3.95 14.96
Reni amOnthns sens ears anime cet 468.7 3.40 15.95
Hlevenemonbhstemace sores 478.6 3.61 17.28
“The seven day record made eleven months after calving is the
largest ever made by a cow so far along in the period of lactation.
In fact, it beats all weekly records made eight months after calving.
“So far as we know this cow has made a clean sweep of all
records from the one day to the yearly.”
CHAPTER VIII.
CREAM SEPARATION.
There are three methods of cream separation in common use,
viz., gravity, dilution and centrifugal. Of these three, gravity is
the Aiboss and until very recent years the most widely used method.
It consists simply in setting the milk in cans or pans and allowing
the fat to rise to the top, it. being forced up by gravity because it is
so much lighter than the milk serum. In the dilution process cold
water is poured directly into the milk on the theory that it will
make the milk thinner and allow the fat globules to rise to the top
more easily. In the centrifugal process the fat is separated from
the milk by centrifugal force, that force which causes the mud to
30
fly from a rapidly revolving wagon wheel or the water from a grind-
stone. In this process the milk is run into a rapidly revolving bowl,
the heavier parts crowd to the outside and the fat or cream is forced
toward the center and each is crowded out through little holes
into spouts provided for the purpose of carrying them into their
respective vessels. Of these three methods centrifugal separation is
the most efficient.
One of the reasons why dairying, before the invention of the
Babcock test and the centrifugal separator, was unprofitable is
because of the large losses of butter fat in the skim milk separated
by the gravity process. No matter how careful the dairyman may
be to secure a low temperature, the one most favorable to good
separation by the gravity process, the skim milk losses are seldom
less than one per cent and often much more than that. Skim milk
from Jersey cows separated by the gravity process has been tested
and repeatedly found to contain three per cent of butter fat. Exten-
sive experiments conducted by the Cornell Station show an average
of over one per cent of fat in the skim milk when the whole milk
was set in water at a temperature of 60 degrees F. Since this one
per cent represents from one-fourth to one-third of all the fat in
average milk, this needless waste may easily change a profit into a
loss. To illustrate: Suppose a cow produces 200 pounds of butter
fat in a year. This is worth at 25¢ per pound, the sum of $50. If it
costs $40 to feed this cow for a year, the farmer’s net profit on her,
if all the fat is saved, is just $10. Now, suppose one-fourth of it
be lost in creaming it by the gravity procress, the remainder is
worth just $37.50, or $2.50 less than the cost of keeping the cow.
In the old-fashioned method of dairying this was too often the case.
This loss the centrifugal separator has saved and the Babcock test
has revealed the facts in the case. Little wonder it is that dairy-
ing is growing so rapidly into popular favor.
Dilution methods of separation are lkewise to be condemned
as extravagant and wasteful.
A few years ago dilution methods and apphances were on the
“boom,” but fortunately this “boom” was of short duration. Cor-
nell and many of the other experiment stations investigated the
dilution methods and compared them with the old fashioned gray-
ity methods. The average fat content of the skim milk by the dilu-
tion process was found to be three-fourths of one per cent when set
at 60 degrees F. This is about one-fifth of the entire fat content of
the whole milk. At the Kansas station still greater losses were
found to exist, the average being one per cent or equal to that sep-
arated by the gravity process. Even the much advertised Cooley
31
system showed an average of one per cent in the Cornell ex-
: >
periments.
Drawing showing relative fat losses in skim milk when separated
by (A) gravity, (B) dilution, and (C) centrifugal processes.
A B C
a (ef
Against these wasteful methods we should place the skim milk
tests of the centrifugal separator. Many have repeatedly tested the
skim milk of these machines, both hand and power, and have rarely
found it to contain .10 of one per cent, often so low as .02 of one
per cent when tested by the Babcock test. In the Cornell experi-
ments just referred to the average loss was from one- to two-tenths
per cent, varying with the different conditions and the different
styles of machines used. A good separator when not crowded and
run at the proper speed with milk at the right temperature should
not show to exceed one-tenth of one per cent of fat in the skim
milk by the Babcock test. This is the chief reason for the rapid
rise of the dairy industry since 1879, the year in which the centrifu-
gal separator was invented.
CHAPTER IX.
THE FARM SEPARATOR.
If the farmer is so remote from a factory that he finds it impos-
sible to haul his milk there, he may make use of the farm separator
to advantage. In the western states many farmers own and operate
separators, hence a word about the principles upon which their
operation is based and some general directions for their care and
use may not be out of place here.
As was stated in the preceding chapter, their operation depends
on centrifugal force. The old fashioned “sling-shot” serves to illus-
trate this principle. In this plaything a stone is placed in a little
hole cut in a piece of leather to which are attached two strings.
The “shot” is then whirled rapidly around the head and one of the
strings suddenly loosened when the stone flies off in a straight line.
The boy who is able to whirl his sling-shot with the greatest speed
succeeds in throwing his stone the farthest, that is he gives to it the
greatest force. Now, in the cream separator the builders have
figured out just how rapidly the bowls must rotate in order to
throw the skim milk all to the outside and force the fat globules to
the center. The separator must, therefore, be kept up to this cal-
32
culated speed if the separation is to be complete. This speed is
usually plainly marked on the machine and the operator should see
to it that the indicated speed is maintained.
There are two types of machines on the market, the disc and
the hollow bowl. In the disc machine the milk is separated in thin
layers and for this reason a slower speed may be maintained. In
the bowl machine there are fewer parts and therefore the ma-
chine is easier to clean, but it necessitates a much, higher speed
to separate the larger volume of milk. This increased speed means
more power and in some cases it may mean danger from the burst-
ing of the rapidly revolving bowl. However, the bowl type of
machine is being greatly improved and a style may yet be produced
that is not open to any of the above objections.
Another condition which affects the completeness of the separa-
tion is temperature. The best machines will not do close work on
cold milk. The most favorable temperature for the farmer to use
is from 90 degrees F. to 100 degrees F., or the temperature of milk
when it is first drawn from the cow. In no case should the milk
be allowed to cool or the cream to rise before separation. If the
milk is cold the fat losses are large and the machine is easily
clogged. If the cream has risen it may be churned in the machine
and the small granules of butter will be lost. It is a good practice
to run a quart of warm water through the machine to warm it up
before the milk is put into it.
To secure the best results and the cleanest and most nearly per-
fect cream, it is best to wash the separator each time after it is
used. The slime should be removed, and the parts thoroughly
scalded to destroy the germs which are certain to be present. These
germs are found in large quantities in the bowl and if not de-
stroyed by heat may cause serious damage to the cream. The sep-
arator should be washed twice daily and it should be thoroughly
scalded and dried in the sun. Heat and sunlight are death to germ
life.
All bearings should be kept thoroughly oiled with the best
separator oil. It is poor economy indeed to spoil a good machine
by using poor oil. Some separators that are still doing good work
have been known,to be in constant use for fifteen years. This is
because the machines have been well cared for.
33
CHAPTER X. ,
VALUE OF SKIM MILK.
When the milk is separated from the cream either at the farm
or at the factory, the farmer has, as a by-product of dairying, a
quantity of skim milk which is one of the very best of feeds for
calves, pigs and even chickens, ducks and geese. In some localities
there is a strong prejudice against the introduction of the centrifu-
gal separator on the ground that the skim milk is spoiled for feed.
This prejudice is wholly unfounded and clearly disproven by the
experience of both dairymen and investigators. In the first place
none of the food substances are removed from the milk but the
fat, and this fat can easily be supplied by a much cheaper
substitute. Butter fat is worth, say 30 cents per pound. 'T'wo or
three cents’ worth of oil meal will furnish as much food matter as
a pound of butter fat. Then all that the dairyman has to do is
to add a few pounds of oi] meal to each one hundred pounds of
skim milk and its feeding value is just as great as new or whole
milk. When the milk is separated on the farm this skim milk may
be fed warm and sweet soon after it is drawn from the cow and if
oil meal, bran, middlings, gluten feed, or some other cheap feed
rich in oil and protein is added to it in proper proportions, it is
fully the equal of whole milk as a feeding stuff. Experiments with
hand fed calves carried on at the Kansas Experiment Station have
conclusively demonstrated this fact. Good “baby beef” was made
with separator skim milk as a foundation feed, and the calves so
fed made greater gains at a less cost than those fed on whole milk.
The same results were obtained at the Iowa station.
Drawing showing the relation between the protein content of (A)
100 Ibs. of skim milk and a bushel of (B) oats, (C) corn, (D) barley,
(E) peas, (EF) rye, and 50 lbs. each of (G) bran, (H) middlings, (1)
brewers’ grains, and (J) clover hay.
34
The Nebraska and Missouri station records show similar results.
and, if further confirmation is needed, one has only to glance at the
composition of milk to know that there are over nine pounds of the
very best food solids, all easily digestible, left in every hundred
pounds of milk after the fat has been removed. Now, to restore the
feeding value it is only necessary to substitute for the fat an equal
amount of digestible nutrients. This, five or six pounds of any of
the protein foods mentioned above, will do.
Skim milk is especially valuable in hog raising, and it should
form the basis of food for these animals on every dairy farm. Some
farmers believe that the best and cheapest pork is made from corn
alone with nothing but water to drink. Here again experimenters
have proven that this is not the case. On the contrary, pork pro-
duced from this diet is much more expensive than that produced
from any kind of mixed feeds. But the largest profit in hog rais-
ing comes from young pork six or seven months old. The first one
hundred pounds of pork is always the cheapest to produce, the sec-
ond hundred pounds is a httle more costly, and so on until after
the hog is a year old and has been well fed up to this time, the
feed necessary to produce a pound of pork is actually worth more
than the pork produced. The farmer, then, makes the most money
on pig-pork, and pig-pork cannot be produced to advantage without
milk. Skim milk mixed with ground corn, ground oats, bran, oil
meal, middlings, or gluten feed, and supplemented during the fat-
tening period with a liberal allowance of corn, makes the very best
and cheapest pork.
CHAPTER XI.
THE BARN.
There are two buildings that the dairy farmer cannot well get
along without. <A good, clean, well ventilated barn in which to
house his herd, and one or more silos in which to store a supply
of palatable green food for the winter months.
But little need be said about the construction of the barn. The
careful farmer will adapt the barn to the size of the farm, the
number of cows kept thereon, the kind of grain and roughage
stored for food, and other local conditions. He will undoubtedly
be able to draw his own plans, or to secure someone to design a barn
for him that will suit his own special needs better than any plan
which the writer can suggest. But there is one feature of barn con-
struction so greatly neglected that it deserves to be mentioned in
every treatise 9n dairy farming. ‘This important feature is ven-
tilation.
35
In our efforts to provide warm and comfortable quarters for our
stock we have overlooked, in many cases, the most important matter
of all—proper ventilation. As we enter some stables on a winter’s
morning, after the barn has been closed all night, we are almost
stifled by the odors and impurities which fill the air. These must
necessarily be very harmful to the animals that are forced to breathe
them over and over again. In such stables no provision is made for
admitting fresh air or for withdrawing that which has become
charged with impurities and robbed of its life-giving oxygen. Oxy-
gen is the one air element absolutely necessary to all animal life.
We ourselves know only too well the debilitating effect of breathing
bad air. The respiratory organs of animals are very similar to our
own and they too must suffer from the bad effects of breathing
impure air. Without doubt the alarming prevalence of tuberculosis
among dairy cattle is largely due to this cause. Hence this neg-
lected feature of barn construction is deemed worthy of detailed
mention in this book.
On the farm of Ex-Governor W. D. Hoard of Wisconsin, editor
of Hoard’s Dairyman, and one of the best authorities on dairying
in the world, may be seen a barn perfect in its ventilation. In
this barn the air is as pure and fresh and as free from bad odors
as it is in the most sanitary home. The method of ventilation in
use in this barn is known as the King system, and it is so perfect
in its operation, so inexpensive, and so easy to install that no up-
to-date dairy barn should be built without this or a similar system
of ventilation. =
—_— —
4
t
t
ry
a
t 4
A be aod ‘2
Drawing showing two methods of drawing off the bad air from the
dairy barn. In the figure at the right the best method of admitting
fresh air is shown.
36
Interior view of a modern, sanitary dairy barn where certified milk
is produced. Notice the cement floors and the boards placed on the
cement for the cows to lie on.
A method for tying cows; used frequently in up-to-date barns.
37
In this system air is taken in on the outside of the harn near the
ground, passes up through an air space in the walls made in the
form of a wooden box, and is admitted into the barn near the ceil-
ing. This method of admitting the air prevents draughts and forces
the bad air to the floor where it is drawn out through ventilating
flues that extend from one foot of the floor to above the roof of the
barn. It is important that these flues reach nearly to the floor, oth-
erwise the warm air of the barn which is to be found near the ceil-
ing, and not the bad air, which is to be found near the floor, will be
drawn off. These ventilating flues may be made from wood or from
galvanized iron, tin or sheet iron pipe. A single flue 2x2 feet, inside
measure, is said to be sufficient for twenty cows. The intake flues
should, be of the same capacity. { : If two or more smaller flues are
used, which in, the judgment of the writer is to be preferred, their
combined capacity should be the same as that. ofthe larger flue.
If more than twenty cows are to be stabled the size of “ane ventilating
flues should be increased proportionately.
This system was designed by Professor King of Wane, Wis-
consin, hence its name, and has found widespread adoption.
Fresh air is necessary to the health of the stock...So, too, is
light. It is well known that sunlight will destroy germ life. ‘The
dairyman while providing proper ventilation should ‘also provide for
admitting an abundance of sunlight into his barn. Fresh’ air and
plenty of sunlight are the surest means of preventing germ diseases
in the dairy herd.
CHAPTER XII.
THE SILO.
The silo is the one farm building that needs the most careful
construction. ‘The importance of silage as a feeding stuff is grow-
ing more apparent as dairying advances. Nature has provided in
summer proper food for most farm animals, and the nearer summer
conditions can be maintained throughout the year the greater will
be the farmer’s success. Hence the importance of silage as a feed-
ing stuff. It is a green feed preserved in its natural condition, or
nearly so, for winter feeding. As soon as the pasture gets short i in
the fall the silo may be opened and feeding of ensilage begun. In
this way there need be little if any diminution in the flow “of milk.
But the silage will not keep well in a poorly constructed silo.
Whatever the type of silo the farmer chooses to build, four things
must be observed: It must be strong, as nearly air tight as possible,
perfectly smooth on the inside, and placed on a strong, solid foun-
dation.
38
The silo must be almost air tight because the air contains germs
that will set to work upon the silage and cause it to spoil and decay
if the air is not excluded. Silage is something like canned fruit
in this respect. The silo must be strong because the green feed with
which it is filled is very heavy and packs down very solidly. This
exerts a tremendous pressure which will spring or burst the walls
of a poorly constructed silo and admit the air, causing the silage to
spoil. It should be perfectly smooth on the inside because the silage
should settle evenly. Projections or rough places on the inner
walls of a silo will prevent the even settling and cause dead air
spaces which will spoil the silage. It must rest on a strong, solid
foundation because the side pressure and weight at the bottom are
very great. This pressure may be so great as to burst a heavy stone
wall, and the great weight will cause a silo placed on a poor foun-
dation to settle out of shape and crack the walls.
‘ 94°90 189 =
Saeass 24
Drawing showing general plan for the construction of a double wall
silo with dead air space between, stone foundation, cement floor, venti-
lator on top and feeding and filling doors on opposite sides.
39
-
If this building is so constructed as to provide for sufficient
ventilation and to prevent freezing, and proper care is used in filling
the silo, the silage will be found to be one of the most satisfactory
feeds for dairy cows, especially when winter dairying is pursued.
There are four types of silos in common use, wood, brick, stone
and cement, but they are all built on the same general plan. A
hole four or five feet deep is dug in the ground. The bottom of
this hole is covered with a layer of concrete and cement and the
sides walled up for a foot or two above the top with a heavy stone
wall, at least two feet thick. On top of this wall the silo is built
in two thicknesses of whatever material is used, with a dead air
space between. The filling doors open to the outside, and the feed-
ing doors open into the barn. A ventilator is placed on top, and
the walls are strengthened with hoops, rods or iron bands. In
warmer climates where there is slight danger from frost, another
type known as the stave silo is used. This is very much like a large
barrel, and the cost of building such a silo is considerably less than
the double wall type.
CHAPTER XIII.
FEED FOR THE Cow.
The cow may be compared to a machine. When we stop to
consider that the real purpose of the cow from the dairyman’s
standpoint is to produce milk, in the same way that the purpose
of a machine is to produce some given article, we are justified in
making the comparison. We give the cow a certain quantity of food
and from this we expect her to maintain herself and at the same
time convert a good share of the food into milk. Good dairymen
realize that the profit comes from the excess of food that she con-
sumes over and above that required for her bodily maintenance.
Investigators have found that the daily maintenance ration of
a cow weighing about one thousand pounds is: .7 lbs. digestible
protein, 8.0 lbs. digestible carbohydrates, and 0.1 lb. ether extract.
Granting that the above is true we can easily see that a dairy-
man, in order to get profit from his herd must give each cow more
than the above maintenance ration before he can expect her to
return a profit to him. It would be a foolish engineer that would
only turn on steam sufficient to keep his engine moving, when it is
at his disposal to give it all the steam necessary to work it to its
full capacity. The engineer, therefore, takes into consideration the
size of the engine, the particular type of engine, and the work to
be performed. So, too, must the dairyman take into consideration
the size of the cow, her individuality and also the particular type
40
of cow. A three-year-old heifer cannot be expected to be as pro-
ductive as a cow several years older. A good type of cow will do
better work than a poor type, in the same way that a Corliss engine
will produce more power from a given amount of steam than a
common slide valve engine. Inasmuch as the individual require-
ments of the animal must be given some weight by a good dairyman
it can readily be seen that herd feeding is not advisable or profit-
able. It would be foolish for a dairyman, if he expects to get the
best results from his cows, to feed all the cows in the herd the same
way, regardless of whether they are giving 15, 20 or 30 Ibs. of milk
per day. This may be best emphasized by calling attention to the
standard rations used in this connection all over the world. ‘These
are suggested by the eminent German authorities, Wolff-Lehman, as
the result of their investigations.
Wotrr-LeHMANN Moprerep STANparps.
Digestible Nutrients
Dry Carbohy- Ether Nutri-
Matter Protein drates Extract tive
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Ratio
1. When giving 11 lbs. of milk daily. .25.0 1.6 10.0 oO Xo ff
2. When giving 1614 lbs of milk daily. .27.0 2.0 11.0 A 1:6.0
3. When giving 22 Ibs. of milk daily. .29.0 2.5 13.0 -D Ont
4. When giving 27% Ibs. of milk daily .32.0 Se 13.0 8 1 :4.5
Standard maintenance ration........18.0 aff 8.0 sil al galas:
In looking over this table the reader will at once notice that
the cow receives more feed when she is giving a larger quantity of
milk, especially is the proportional increase greater in protein than
in carbohydrates. The reason for this is very evident; protein is
a very essential part of all foods. It is, in fact, that part which de-
termines its value as a food; it is the nitrogenous part or that which
is necessary for the formation of muscles of the body, casein in
milk, ete. It is also argued by some that it is one of the sources
of fat in milk. Such feeds as clover, alfalfa, bran, and gluten con-
tain a great deal of protein, and for this reason they are very de-
sirable feeds. Carbohydrates are found in more or less abundance
in all feed and are easier to obtain than protein. Their chief prop-
erty is the maintaining of the heat of the body. Starches and
sugars are good examples of this class of feeds.
Ether extract, so called because this element is extracted by
ether when an examination of food is made under chemical analysis,
is, in homely language, the fat of the feed. The principal property
of this part of the food is similar to that of carbohydrates, that is
to maintain temperature. However, a pound of ether extract has
within it the elements of more heat than a pound of carbohydrates.
It is customary to say that one pound of ether extract has from
2.2 to 2.5 times the heat energy of a pound of carbohydrates.
41
In compounding a ration it is customary to estimate the amount
of dry matter in the feed, that is, the amount that the feed would
weigh if all the water it contained was driven off by heat. Sim-
ilarly it is necessary to estimate the amounts of protein, carbohy-
drates and ether extract. There are several things, however, that
must be taken into consideration. A good share of the protein is
not digestible and therefore the animal may be charged with
receiving protein which she cannot use. We are indebted to Prof.
W. A. Henry for the use of the following tables, taken from his
work, “Feeds and Feeding” :
TABLE I.
Water and total nutrients per 100 pounds feed.
Crude Nitrogen Ether
Feeding Stuffs Water Protein Fiber Free Extract
Roughage Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Extract Lbs.
Corn stover, field cured... .40.5 3.8 19.7 31.5 aa
Red 2elover sai. aoe ene oee 1A 24.8 38.1 30
MT aNVOVE OWT ORNs oro Rinwta.cxo oso ore UB 5.9 29.0 45.0 2.5
OSEESIDAWtts.. mom eee 9.2 4.0 37.0 42.4 2.3
Concentrates.
Corn dente... te eee 10.6 10.3 22, 70.4 5.0
Oats ee a ee ee 11.0 11.8 9.5 59.7 5.0
Wiheatibran—<h.cne eniooter 6 11.9 15.4 9.0 53.9 4.0
linseed meals OM Ras. sce ee oe 32.9 8.9 35.4 Wess
TABLE II.
Percentage Digestibility of Nutrients.
Nitrogen
Feeding Stuffs Dry Crude Free Ether
Roughage Matter’ Protein Fiber Extr. Extr
Corn stover in all varieties........60 45 67 61 62
Red” clover, hays see oe tet eee 5D 5D 46 64 53
Timothy, Whaiy* i7: shee sees BT 48 52 63 Hye
Oat Straws daacise Setreee ae one ase 48 30 54. 44 33
Concentrates. .
WORT has See csto ceo oer teat aekheee renee 91 76 58 93 86
OBES CR aie Oe cere oe a eee a eee 70 ri 20 76 83
Wheat Dranic ss eee eee cee 61 79 Pepe 69 68
Lanseed smeéall SO. Racer eit 79 89 57 78 89
TABLE III.
Total digestible substances in
Total 100 Pounds
Feeding Stuffs Dry Carbohy- Ether ~ Nutritive
Roughage Matter Protein drates Extract Ratio
GOLNRSiOVelaRere eee 59.5 ere 32.4 Onn 1 :20.0
Red telover haiyiese sceoseer 84.7 6.8 35.8 isfi shee tays:
Mimothiys sha yer- yee es 86.8 2.8 43.4 1.4 SONG
OtAStEAWarends as eerie as 90.8 1.2 38.6 0.8 IRB SEY /
Concentrates.
Corny or cornemedl|- erie 89.4 7.8 66.7 4.3 1: 9.8
Oats eas CO eer ar ceeneee sa. 89.0 9.2 47.3 4.2 1: 62
Wiheatsbrant.eeees sets: 88.1 nA 39.2 20 1S HY
Oil-mealstO VR ace se 90.8 29.3 oat 7.0 a lee ea 7
42
In the above, attention may be called to the total protein. con-
tent of wheat bran, which is 15.4 pounds per 100 pounds of the
feed. In the second table it will be learned that 79 per cent of the
15.4 pounds is digestible, leaving in all, as will be noticed in the
last table, only 12.2 pounds, the total protein available for the
animal.
Notice, also, oat straw. It contains, as is shown in the first
table, 4.0 per cent of protein, only 30 per cent, as shown in the
second table, is digestible, or, in other words, 100 pounds of oat
straw contains only 1.2 pounds of digestible protein. ‘The value
of knowing the amount of digestible nutrients the feed contains
cannot be overestimated.
It may be cited that certain feeds, such as oat straw, are so
deficient in nourishment that it would be necessary for a cow to
eat two or three hundred pounds of the same in order to furnish
her body with sufficient nourishment so that it would be able to
secrete twenty to twenty-four pounds of milk a day. This, of
course, is an impossibility, but is mentioned to show that a cow
cannot be turned out to a straw stack with the expectation that her
flow of milk will increase.
On the other hand it is well known that a pasture is about as
good a ration as we ordinarily find, and for this reason cows
usually give a large flow of milk during June and July because
all the elements necessary to maintain the body and manufacture
the milk are found in succulent pasture grass.
When we speak of a balanced ration we mean a ration where
the protein, carbohydrates and ether extracts are in about the right
proportion. The eminent German authorities, Wolff and Lehmann,
adopted a standard whereby every cow yielding twenty-two pounds
of milk daily should receive a ration containing 29 pounds of dry
matter, of which 2.5 pounds should be digestible protein, 13 pounds
digestible carbohydrates, and .5 pound digestible ether extract.
The nutritive ratio which they adopted was 1:5.7.
The matter of computing the nutritive ratio is not so difficult
as one might believe, and may be briefly explained as follows:
Multiply the digestible ether extract by 2.4 (inasmuch as it is pre-
sumed that each pound of ether extract furnishes 2.4 times the heat
units that are found in one pound of carbohydrates), add to this
the digestible carbohydrates, and divide the sum by the digestible
protein in the food. In the above multiplying .5 by 2.4 we get 1.2;
adding 1.2 to 13.0 we get the sum 14.2; dividing this by 2.5 we
get 5.7. The ratio of the protein, therefore, to the other constit-
uents is 1:5.7, or 1 part of protein to every 5.7 parts of carbo-
hydrates or their equivalent.
43
To better illustrate how to formulate a ration anéto show that
it is not so difficult but that it can be learned by any dairyman of
ordinary intelligence, we will assume that the farmer is located
somewhere in the central part of the United States, and has the
following feeds at his disposal, timothy, clover, corn, oats and
bran, from which to calculate a ration for his cows. The following
is a table of the digestible nutrients in the feeds named:
Digestible Nutrients in 100 Lbs.
TABLE IV.
Dry Matter
Feed in 100 Lbs. Protein
SPIN OUMY? oy gesee cee wastes Stee 86.8 2.8
AISIK@ICIOVIER tact on e-serioe ae 90.3 8.4
Corn toto eee ee eee 89.1 7.9
Oats: hie. Sa ee eee ears 89.0 9.2
IB ansaid Sasi ete onsen 88.1 12.3
Carbohy-
drates
43.4
42.5
66.7
47.3
39.2
Ether
Extract
1.4
1.5
4.3
4.2
2.7
The first thing a dairyman must do is to compute a trial ration.
Suppose he wants to feed a milch cow 10 pounds of timothy, 10
pounds of clover, 8 pounds of corn and 2 pounds of oats.
then calculate the ration as follows:
TABLE V.
Timothy Hay
86.8+100X10=8.68 Dry Matter.
2.8+100X10= .28 Protein.
43.4100 X 104.34 Carbohydrates.
1.4+100X10= .14 Ether Extract.
Alsike Clover
90.8100 X10=9.03 Dry Matter.
8.4+100*10= .84 Protein.
42.5+100X 10—4.25 Carbohydrates.
1.5+100X10= .15 Ether Pxtract.
Corn
89.1+100 X 8=7.128 Dry Matter.
7.7~100X8= .632 Protein.
66.7+100 X8=5.336 Carbohydrates.
4.3+-100X8= .34 Ether Extract.
Oats
89.0+-100X2=1.78 Dry Matter.
9.2—100X2= .184 Protein.
47.3100 X2= .946 Carbohydrates.
4.2+100X2= .084
Summarizing the foregoing he obtains the following:
TABLE VI.
He will
Digestible Nutriments
Dry Carbohy-
Feed Matter Protein drates
Timothy whays slOmiys ees eee ee 8.68 28 4.34
Alsike clover hay, 10 lbs....... 9.03 .84 4,25
Corny AS elDSthe eee eee eee 7.128 .632 5.336
Oats 2b tess ope cera siecieere 1.78 184 .946
Trial ‘Tatlon) os 7 ce ice ener 26.618 1.936 “14.872
Wolff-Lehman standard........ 29.0 2.5 13.0
44
Ether
Extract
14
In comparing the trial ration with that of the standard of Wolff
and Lehmann ration for a cow producing 22 pounds of milk, he
will find quite a deficiency in protein, and in order to correct this
he can reduce the corn ration to 4 pounds and give the animal 4
pounds additional bran. The ration will then read as follows:
TABLE VII.
Dry Carbohy- Ether
Feed Matter Protein drates Extract
Mimothys hay. LO IDS... 53. 6. 8.68 28 4.34 14
Alsike clover hay, 10 Ibs........ 9.03 84 4,25 15
Conn, 2) alitise oes sooo on uu coer 3.564 316 2.668 alts
OIG), WR Sia crane OCIA ore mca 1.78 184 .946 .084
AS raeitepre Al) Snmcgavovare co checays susie tens talons 3.524 488 1.568 .108
BUREN INO eee iain wens 3 See 26.578 2.108 13.772 652
Wolff-Lehman standard .......29.0 Di 13. 5O
In the revised trial ration the protein is a little low and the
nutritive ratio is only 1:7.2, rather than 1:5.7. We must take into
consideration that the standard given is the standard set by German
investigators and that many American authorities claim that 1:5.7
is entirely too narrow a ration to suit American conditions. Some
of the American authorities believe that instead of 2.5 pounds of
protein a cow giving 22 pounds of milk daily should receive about
2.1 pounds of protein.
The dairyman therefore can easily compute the amount of feed
that each cow should receive per day; and can also compute the
cost of this feed. By formulating several rations he can easily
calculate the rations that will cost him the least and in this way
he is able to save a great deal of money.
There is no subject connected with dairying which the interested
farmer can study with more profit to himself than that of feeding
the dairy cow. It is impossible in so brief a work as this to more
than mention what can be done, but we suggest that the book pub-
lished by Professor W. A. Henry of the Wisconsin Experiment
Station at Madison, should be in the possession of those in any
way connected with the feeding of dairy cows. There is no other
book available on the subject that is so practical and at the same
time so complete.
Herewith we append a list of the common feeds found in
America, which may be used for reference. The table shows the
dry matter and the digestible nutrients per 100 lbs. feeding stuff.
The data for the same is taken from “Feeds and Feeding :”
45
TABLE VIII.
—_
Dry Carbohy- Ether
Matter Protein drates Extract
Concentrates Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.
Gorne all analyses* aes eee 89.1 7.9 66.7 4.3
Gluten men ease eee eee aoe 91.8 25.8 43.3 11.0
IWihGait: joan: Scone beeen cce ener ¢ 89.5 10.2 69.2 Ly
Wihe@at. SOraiiees.,cks. nt ner oro ceur 88.1 OR 39.2 2.0
Wheat shorts as. sere ce ae 88.2 a 50.0 3.6
1 Bf ARTES One iy SOE RG ©. catlges at ick 88.4 9.9 67.6 a fea |
RVVERMDEAM a arccitonis eee 88.4 ial ' 50.3 2.0
RVOMSHOPRTSM 25.2% cre ce seebes es ares 90.7 11.9 45.1 1.6
Barleysste ack eee nee Eee aor 89.1 8.7 65.6 1.6
Malt cs proutsyerncce = creteeities sits 89.8 18.6 By eal a ear
Brewer’s grains, dried......... 91.8 15-7 36.3 5.1
Oatseei ai rea ee et res 89.0 9.2 47.3 4.2
Sorghum: Seedanwe. verses creates 87.2 7.0 52.1 ae |
KeaihirtGcornn vases nen eeiicscier 84.8 7.8 57.1 2.7
14 G10) seeescene Ales Carierere partir ec, Heir, ares 86.0 8.9 45.0 3.2
POT ASC OM Geis ores eaecrd crete onan 90.8 20.6 Aifeat 29.0
Linseed meal, old process...... 90.8 29.3 32.7 7.0
Linseed meal, new process..... 89.9 28.2 40.1 2.8
Cotton-seedemealiie c--iraen ae 91.8 Bie 16.9 12.2
PES Meee: circ ace oe ee 89.5 16.8 51.8 0.7
Soybean Veer tae ae 89.2 29.6 22.3 14.4
COW “DEAS Nee ee ine wees ae onee 18.3 54.2 153!
Roughage.
Fodder corn, field cured....... 57.8 2.5 34.6 122)
Corn stover, husked shock corn,
MeEldSGunede eee ele ee ees COED eT 32.4 0.7
Pasture grasses (mixed)...... 20.0 2.5 10.2 0.5
Hay.
BIRUTYNO TY, Ce Et eras ons eee <r Sree sieves 86.8 2.8 43.4 1.4
Orchardgerassisarsiassae ee 90.1 4.9 42.3 1.4
]RY ETS NICO) Oi toh oid cate Sa ae Pee cs eee Ged 4.8 46.9 1.0
Kentucky blue grass ......... 78.8 4.8 37.3 2.0
OF) 1G eae Septio b hoes odo tio ir oreas’c 91.1 4.3 46.4 15
Straw.
Whats cist jeutaeie ont aoeenl a atos 90.4 0.4 36.3 0.4
Oat sas ss,2aaie shee cites ae week ae 90.8 nee 38.6 0.8
Legume hay and straw.
Redeeclovers mediums... es. 84.7 6.8 35.8 ae
Red clover, mammoth.......... 78.8 5.7 , 922.0 1.9
AISie, ClOy CR Geenies aiceelsn cers 90.3 8.4 42.5 1.5
Crimsonmmclovenmamcreceeee cee 90.4 10.5 34.9 a4
Aaa Satay. aeratrete ets a eteroke wire 91.6 11.0 39.6 a2
OOW DEAS a ricbrtte ia crouse is ones 89.3 10.8 38.6 iil
Pa eVINE "StL A Were. cers Beccles nae 86.4 4.3 Beta 0.8
Silage.
COD. Rh aeteh thee seein ce aa ene 20.9 0.9 a lp 3} 0.7
ClOVOR Ese eee carte ceiceeos teres 28.0 2.0 13.5 1.0
AVEATE a a Aligelers ceaiene neraereteiets oe ache 27.5 3.0 8.5 1.9
46
Roots and tubers.
AGU RS eteteeaiccleist ater sakes e eos) ocece Palla 0.9 16.3 0.1
Ot COMMON! sa cciees cect sce s 13.0 1.2 8.8 0.1
RCE LS GUIS aha | Scssl-aisojarsio s).6 Svasesonene 13.5 isi 10.2 0.1
CCteIMAN SON sec ks Sees Scie 9.1 tal 5.4 0.1
Haidned ol Paha ey eee Svcee Gc ojee bveuele 11.4 1.0 8.1 0.2
Miscellaneous.
\ CEO) DG KEE" cetera tctecaecti ea eer ieca econ 1isy33 1.8 8.2 0.4
SEC MPU weve lencye cre thee erat races sete 10.2 0.6 7.3 0
AOUNS OMMTNKOs c aackerenrsthes) str evete 12.8 3.6 4.9 AEs
Cows’ milk, colostrum ........25.4 17.6 PET 3.6
Sicimemillke “Sravity joo. ..c ss. 9.6 Sl 4.7 0.8
Skim milk, centrifugal ........ 9.4 3.9 5.2 0.3
RUGEO RTI Ke on-set k ccnnden tae, wae. cane 9.9 3.9 4.0 1a:
WATE totems ctor etstek cos) dhl ait Sie elses! seas 6.6 0.8 4.7 0.1
CHAPTER XIV.
RELATION OF DAIRYING TO THE SOIL.
Progressive farmers have learned that exclusive grain farming
does not pay in the long run, and they have gone into dairying and
prospered. Now, why is dairy farming so much better? Because
the grain and hay raised on the farm are fed there and find their
way back to the soil in the form of barnyard manure. Very little
soil matter is sold from the farm in dairy farming. Professor W.
H. Dexter says: “The maintenance of soil fertility constitutes one
of the greatest opportunities for dairying. A ton of wheat worth
$22 removes from the farm $7.50 w orth of plant food. A ton of
butter worth $500 removes less than fifty Hous worth of plant food
from the farm.” A little calculation will show that the amount of
fertilizer contained in the manure produced annually by a dairy
cow is worth nearly twenty dollars, if it is carefully saved and
returned again to the land.
Again, the wise dairy farmer raises much clover, alfalfa, cow-
peas or soy beans for forage plants. These plants are legumes and
have associated with them microscopic germs called bacteria which
live in little nodules on the roots of these plants. To convince
yourself of this fact, pull up any one of the above mentioned plants
and examine its roots for these nodules. They are not always
to be found, but usually can be. Now, what is the use of these
germs? ‘The soil contains but small quantities of nitrogen, a sub-
stance without which no plant can grow, no animal thrive, indeed,
no life exist. This small quantity ‘of nitrogen is combined in the
soil with other elements in a form readily soluble in water, and in
this dissolved condition finds its way into the plant through
the roots. It is then built into the body of the plant. Animals
get all their nitrogen from the plants on which they feed, and the
47
plants get theirs from this small store of nitrogen in*the soil. The
air is four-fifths nitrogen, but, strangely enough, neither plants
nor animals can make use of this abundant supply of “free” nitro-
gen, as it is called. But the little germs living in the nodules en”
the roots of clover and other legumes, can and do make use of this
“free” nitrogen of the air. They take it and combine it with other
substances and store it up in these nodules in much the same
manner as the honey-bee stores up his supply of honey for the time
of need. The clover plant then robs the nodules of their stored-up
nitrogen and incorporates it into its own tissues. From the clover
it is passed on to the dairy cow, finds its way into the milk pail,
serves as food for pigs and calves and is ultimately returned again
to the soil in the form of barnyard manure. Thus it will be seen
that the use of clover, alfalfa and other legumes actually adds to the
store of nitrogen in the soil and the dairy farmer, instead of ex-
hausting the nitrogen in his soil finds it, under his intelligent man-
agement, continually improving.
It should be mentioned in this connection, however, that legumes
do not add potash or phosphoric acid to the soil, but like every
other plant, remove these substances. But since nitrogen is the
substance soonest exhausted from almost every soil, and since the
legumes raised on the farm are usually fed there, these plants may
be said to maintain the fertility of the soil.
In determining upon the kind of dairying to be pursued, the
farmer must be governed by conditions. Whether to sell his milk
or to make it into butter or cheese will depend upon his nearness
to factories and markets, the relative price of milk, butter and
cheese, and other local conditions. One fact must be constantly
kept in mind. All kinds of dairying are not equally ight on the
soil. The farmer who sells his milk to consumers takes from his
farm all the soil elements found in the whole milk. The sale of
cheese returns a portion of these soil elements in the whey, while
the sale of butter removes from the farm practically nothing of a
soil nature. The milk required to produce a ton of butter contains
450 pounds of fertilizing substances, worth about $45. The cheese
made from the same amount of milk removes about half as much
of these substances, while the total amount of soil matter in a
ton of butter has already been stated to be worth less than fifty
cents. All else being equal, it is better to make butter than cheese
for the market as it is so very light on the soil. Again, the skim
milk is available to feed on the farm, while whey has a much less
feeding value.
In order to compare the effect of dairying on the soil with the
other kinds of farming, let us suppose that forty acres of land will
48
suport ten cows. This is,easily possible, and there are those who
look forward to the time when they will have a cow to the acre on
our best dairy farms. Should each cow produce 5,000 pounds of
milk annually, we would have 50,000 pounds of milk. This amount
will make on the average 5,000 pounds of cheese or 2,000 pounds
of butter. It has already been shown that this amount of milk
if sold from the farm to city consumers, removes ahout $45 worth
of fertility, while the 5,000 pounds of cheese contains about $25
worth, and the ton of butter less than fifty cents worth. If clover
or any of the other legumes has been raised for feed it has prob-
ably turned this value in air nitrogen back into the soil, so that
very little if any of the fertility has been lost.
Now, what would be the result of raising grain, tobacco, potatoes
or beets for the market on the same plat of ground? Let us see.
The average production of oats, corn, wheat, rye, barley and po-
tatoes for the United States, according to the year book of the
Department of Agriculture, is as follows:
COE T IS aa bes = ee re 30. bu. per acre
NSNCaitaeemcietieciod cee si acits. 4 ebDusy per acre
Cray tak nen Meee era re eve ks See 15 bu. per acre
(COMMU Cegercrapteueie on cei aisles ig ais Ae LO DUES PEL ACKS
IB ALC rime, west wee a ees es en aes 25 bu. per acre
JEQIEMAOES! “S55c06 ..90 bu. per acre
These averages are low oie Chi less than can ordinarily be
raised per acre with intelligent farming. But accepting these aver-
ages for our forty acre hie we have the following:
1,200 bushels of oats containing worth of soil fertility OG. Ooi) Moi 8,0)
560 bushels of wheat containing worth of soil fertility........ 125.00
600 bushels of rye containing worth of soil fertility.......... 120.00
1,000 bushels of corn containing worth of soil fertility........ 155.00
1,000 bushels of barley containing worth of soil fertility........ 145.00
3,600 bushels ef potatoes containing worth of soil fertility...... 160.00
If tobacco is grown instead of these, with 1,000 pounds of this
crop per. acre, $275 worth of soil fertility is sold, and with ten
tons of sugar beets per acre (a low estimate) $260 worth of soil
fertility is removed annually.
These calculations are based on the average analyses of the
above products, the average yield for the United States, and the
present price of commerci ial fertilizers, viz., nitrogen, 15 cents per
lb; phosphoric acid, 5 cents per lb., and potash, 5 cents per Ib.
It only requires a careful comparison of the above figures to con-
vince the thoughtful farmer of the great advantage of dairy farm-
ing over other lnes of agriculture. If it is impossible for the
farmer to go into dairy farming exclusively he can do the next best
thing, keep a few cows, raise legumes for feed, engage in diversified
farming, practice rotation of crops, sell less off the farm and feed
49
more on it. In this way he will preserve for himself more of his
most valuable asset, the fertility of the land.
acre farm when (A) milk, (B) cheese, (C) butter, (D) wheat, (E)
oats, (F) corn, (G) rye, (H) barley, (1) potatoes, (J) tobacco, (K)
beets, (LL) hay, are sold therefrom.
CHAPTER XV.
CARE OF THE COW.
One of the cardinal points that a good dairyman will observe
in handling his cows is regularity in all his work. He will feed
them at definite hours, and milk them at stated intervals; that
is, if a cow is milked at six in the morning she should be milked
at six o’clock at night, the best results being obtained when the
time between milkings is twelve hours. It may be interesting to
note that the records show that London receives its poorest milk
on Monday. This is accounted for by the fact that the farmers
are not so regular in their work on Sunday as during the rest of
the week.
If for any reason it is advisable to change the feed of a herd
it should be done gradually so that the cows will become accustomed
to the change and not be affected in any way. For instance, when
it becomes necessary to begin the feeding of ensilage a very small
portion should be fed the first time, followed by a gradual increase
in the amount. In this way cows will not get “off feed” so readily.
Many dairymen are so skillful that they can keep changing feeds
from time to time without the cows showing any bad effects. This
is due to their judicious method of feeding.
50
The real purpose of keeping cows is to make a profit, and he
is indeed a foolish dairyman who will furnish his cows with the
best of feed and shelter, and then spoil it all by abusing them.
If he is at all observing he will note within a very short time that
it does not pay to abuse or il-treat a cow. He must remember
that she is a brute and he is a man, and if she ill-behaves in any
way it is because she is following the law of nature and is trying
to protect herself. A cow will hold up her milk because she is not
in an equable frame of mind; perhaps she is afraid of punishment.
Some milker may have clubbed her with a milk stool and she
remembers it and is nervous. Scolding or loud and excited talk-
ing also make her nervous. It is needless to remark that chasing
cows with dogs is not going to improve either the flow of milk or
its quality. The practice of petting cows is to be commended, as
they respond to kind and gentle treatment in a way that is profit-
able for the owner.
When cows were still in their wild state, nature provided them
with horns to protect themselves and their offspring. However,
as the dairyman now protects his herd against the ravages of
wolves and other wild beasts, these appendages are not necessary
and should be removed. This can be done in a humane way when
they are calves and the effect is hardly noticeable. In case a cow
is purchased that has horns, she should be dehorned as soon as pos-
sible, both as a protection for her owner and also the members of the
herd. She will no doubt shrink in flesh at first, the flow of milk
may be somewhat less, and the test will be apt to drop, but these
are only temporary effects; in fact she will recover from this
shrinkage within a week or two and is likely to gain more than she
lost. Cattle that are dehorned become more docile and will not be
in constant dread of being hooked by other members of the herd.
They can be sheltered more conveniently; in fact there are so
many advantages in dehorning that we cannot urge it too strongly.
In a previous chapter attention was called to the fact that a
goodly share of the food provides heat and the maintenance for the
body. It, therefore, is plain that if the body is not properly pro-
tected it will take more feed to maintain a cow and for this reason
if for no other she should be well sheltered. It must be remembered
that she has not so thick a skin as the steer and not so much
fat on her body to protect her from the cold. That it is profitable
to protect her from the weather has been proven over and over
again. The Indiana Experiment Station conducted a series of ex-
periments and found that cows required less feed when well housed,
and that they gave more milk as a result of this care. In fact,
sheltering three cows for forty-eight days gave an increased profit
51
of $12.79, or $4.26 for each cow. This is quite anwitem when a
herd of twenty or thirty animals is considered. Just how cows
should be sheltered depends a great deal on the location of the dairy
farm, but in another chapter the importance of a good barn is dis-
cussed, and also the necessity for providing sufficient fresh air and
plenty of sunlight.
When sheltered during the winter season, it is very essential
that cows be given sufficient exercise so that they are kept in a
healthy condition. Some dairymen follow the rule that they allow
their cows to go out of doors on such days as are comfortable
for a man to walk about the yard for a’ short period of time
in his shirt sleeves. For instance, if it should be a cold, rainy, driz-
zing day there would not be much pleasure for a man to walk about
the yard without a coat and therefore it would not be advisable for
him to turn his cows out. If the cow is not protected from rain
as she should be, it has been demonstrated that the shrinkage of
milk may be as much as ten per cent, and in case of a storm to
which the cow is exposed, the shrinkage has been known to reach
forty per cent. ‘This, as every dairyman knows, is an enormous
loss and goes to prove that it pays to protect the cows. In summer
time they should be provided with a shady place where they can
rest during the heat of the day. In fly time it may be profitable
for the farmer to keep his cows in the barn during the day. He
can do this by soiling them, but in case they are put in the barn
it is well to darken the windows so that the flies will not bother
them. All dairymen know that when flies appear there is a great
loss in flesh and also a serious dropping off in the milk. For this
reason it may be well for the farmer to consider keeping his cows
in the barn altogether during the fly season. It may cause extra
work, but all told he will be amply repaid in money for the trouble.
In all his conduct and actions toward his friends, the cows,
the dairyman will always be governed by the bond of sympathy that
should exist between him and the animals in his charge. If he
follows these instincts he cannot make many serious mistakes in
his treatment and care of them. He will provide his cows with
clean, palatable food which they will eat with relish, rather than
feed which they will eat merely to keep from starving. He will
provide them with warm water to drink in winter, rather than ice-
cold water, because he feels he would not like to drink such water
himself. He will soon learn that it is profitable for him to warm
the water rather than to send them to the pond where he has
chopped a few holes in the ice, and expect them to drink sufficiently
to meet their requirements. Hxperiment stations have proven that
shrinkage in milk amounts to about eight per cent when this kind
of water is supplied.
Dairy barn on the Wisconsin Experiment grounds, Madison, showing
that art and utility may be combined with little additional expense.
Note the artistic silo in the foreground, above which is placed a large
water tank. To the left is seen the ventilating tower used in supplying
the cow barn underneath with pure, wholesome air.
CHAPTER XVI.
CARE OF UTENSILS.
Tinware is undoubtedly the most satisfactory material for
dairy utensils. Wooden vessels are very objectionable, inasmuch as
the pores of the wood absorb the milk, and, therefore, soon become
foul. In purchasing vessels those that are durable and well cov-
ered with tin should be selected. The corners should be flushed
with solder so that the milk will not have hiding places, thus
affording an opportunity for germs to grow. All utensils should
be washed with a brush, as it is far more sanitary than a cloth,
which will soon become foul in spite of the efforts made to keep
it clean. Greasy soap powders should be avoided. There are many
kinds of powder on the market that will dissolve dirt and grease
and are still sanitary. If nothing better can be obtained either sal
soda or borax may be used. One of the best purifying agencies that
the dairyman has is the sunlight. After the vessels are washed
53
they should be exposed to the sunshine and air, away*from the dust,
and placed so that they will drain well.
In washing tinware it should first be rinsed with cold water to
remove the milk; it should then be washed with lukewarm water
and finally scalded or steamed. If this method is followed it is
very easy to wash the separator. Many dairymen make the mistake
of flushing the separator with scalding hot water. This will have a
tendency to cook on the impurities and about the only way that
they can then be removed is to scrape them off with a knife. Where-
as, if the separator is flushed with lukewarm water, taken apart and
cleaned at once, it is not much of a task. It is needless to say that
the separator should be washed each time it is used.
It has been proven that if the separator is: allowed to stand
without being washed, the impurities will dry on so that it will
take considerable time and labor to wash it thoroughly. It is
labor actually saved to wash the separator twice a day and only
the separator that receives such care is in sanitary condition for
future use.
CHAPTER XVII.
CARE OF MILK AND CREAM.
Milk, as it is secreted in the cells of the udder, is germ free.
If it were possible to get the milk in this condition into germ free
receptacles and if it could then be kept free from contamination,
the milk would keep indefinitely. But this is impossible. A few
germs always work their way up into the cavities of the cistern
above the teat and multiply enormously, owing to the favorable
conditions existing there. If this first milk, or foremilk, as it is
called, is milked into the bucket, the practice of a good many
milkers, we can see at once that contamination is introduced
at the very beginning of the milking process. It is advisable to
throw this foremilk away, and really there is little loss, as it is not
very rich in fat.
The problem of the dairyman is to keep the milk from being
contaminated either by dirt entering into it or by its absorbing
undesirable odors. It is unnecessary to state that the stables should
be clean and dry and well ventilated; the health of the animals
demands it. In Denmark it is customary to whitewash the stables
four times each year; they have found that it is very profitable to
do this. Whitewash is odorless and very cheap, and it is a pity
that dairymen in general do not use it more freely.
It goes without saying that there should be no cesspools about
the stable, and the ground under the barn should be well drained.
54
Poor drainage cannot help but cause objectionable odors about the
barn.
One of the things a dairyman will observe carefully is to do his
feeding after milking so that the atmosphere will not contain so
much dust. He will also feed his cows such feeds as ensilage.
after milking rather than before or during milking time, because
the odor of these feeds will taint the milk.
The udder and flanks should be wiped with a damp cloth imme-
diately before milking so that dust and dirt will not be constantly
falling into the milk pails. It has been demonstrated that twenty
times as much dirt falls into the bucket when the udder is simply
in a soiled condition as when it is wiped with a damp cloth, and
one hundred times as much when the udder is dirty as when it
has been kept clean.
Cows should have ample bedding, but this bedding should not
be disturbed immediately before milking, inasmuch as that will
cause the air to be filled with small particles of dust, a large share
of which will find its way into the milk bucket.
The dairyman should always bear in mind that in handling
milk he is dealing with a food product. Therefore, if any of his
cows should be diseased or in ill health, or give gargety milk or
bloody milk, this milk should not be used for human consumption.
Colostrum milk or the milk which a cow secretes immediately
after calving should not, of course, be used for four or five days,
or until the milk has become normal: nor should cows’ milk be
used for the thirty days immediately before calving.
Taking everything into consideration, probably the best form
of pail that a dairyman can use is one that is covered, as such a
pail excludes practically all dirt. It has already been mentioned
that a dairyman is dealing with a food product, hence the advis-
ability of providing a clean, sanitary place in the barn where the
milk can be held during the ‘time of milking.
The milk should he strained as soon as ‘possible through several
thicknesses of cheesecloth. It is advised by some that milk should
be aerated to remove animal heat and the odors absorbed from cer-
tain feeds. Although much may be said in favor of it, great care
must be exercised in aerating milk. If a farmer is in doubt whether
to aerate his milk or to cool it, it would be better for him to cool it
for the reason that simply aerating will not reduce the temperature
of the milk sufficiently. Aerating must be done in a very cleanly,
sweet smelling place, otherwise during this process, the milk will
absorb undesirable odors. In case the milk is not separated it
should be cooled down at once, and this can only be done by plac-
ing the cans in cold water and stirring the milk frequently until
55
cold. It is not advisable, of course, to cover the cans tightly, be-
cause milk will have a better flavor if some of the odors of the
same are allowed to escape. It is poor policy to pour warm and
cold milk together for the purpose of cooling the warm milk.
This should never be done. In case a hand separator is used it is
not necessary to cool at once, because the separator will do better
work when the milk is at the temperature it comes from the cow.
The hand separator is becoming very popular. The advantages
in using one of these machines, such as the increased value of the
fresh skim milk and the amount of labor saved in hauling to the
factory, are so well known that further comment is unnecessary.
However, many farmers either wilfully or by reason of a lack of
knowledge utterly neglect to take care of their cream properly and
in this way bring the hand separator into disrepute. Cream should
be cooled down at once to prevent its souring. It should be placed
where the atmosphere is pure and where it will not absorb unde-
sirable odors. It should be delivered to the factory at least every
other day, and during the time that it is under the farmer’s care
it should be stirred occasionally. Many think that it is unnecessary
to cool the cream, inasmuch as the butter maker will have to sour
it anyway. It must be remembered that he should have control of
the ripening process in order to make a uniform product from day
to day. Even if the cream does not become sour, it ought not to
stand longer than forty-eight hours for the reason that many
organisms develop in cream held at a low temperature, and unfor-
tunately such organisms have the property of imparting a very
bitter flavor to the cream, which in turn is transmitted to the but-
ter. Cream should be delivered to the factory sweet and clean
before we have a right to expect the butter maker to place on the
market an article that will bring the highest cash price.
There are other sources of contamination that should be
guarded against. One of these is uncleanly habits on the part of
the milker. It is desirable that he be attired in clean overalls and
jacket; these need not be expensive and can be slipped on just
before milking. The hands of the milker should be washed clean
and dried before he begins his work. Much may be said as to the
method of milking, but it is understood by all practical dairy-
men that a cow should be milked with “dry” and not with wet
hands. Many have acquired the habit of milking “wet,” as it is
usually termed, and it may be hard for them to reform, but if they
will observe the filthiness of this practice they will recognize this
as a great source of contamination.
56
CHAPTER XVIII.
TUBERCULOSIS.
No treatise on the subject of dairying is complete unless some
mention is made of tuberculosis, that dreaded disease which has
already carried off thousands of cattle, and whose ravages continue,
almost unabated.
It is said that one out of every seven people who die, fall vic-
tims to tuberculosis, or consumption, as it is commonly called.
It is now pretty generally believed that tuberculosis in cattle and
consumption in the human family are practically one and the same
disease, and that this disease can be transmitted from one species
to the other. Young children fed on the milk of tuberculous cows
are likely to contract the disease, and calves and pigs consuming
infected milk are almost certain to be affected.
Tuberculosis is a germ disease, that is, it is caused by the growth
and multiplication of very minute organisms within the ani-
mal body. The disease cannot be contracted without the entrance
of these germs. The introduction of a single infected animal
into the herd is likely to inoculate the whole herd as the tubercle
germs are thrown off with the saliva and other excretions. These
germs when dry will live in the dark for months and, settling upon
the hay and other feed, are transmitted from animal to animal.
Skim milk from creameries and whey from cheese factories are
other sources of infection. Here the milk from infected cows is
mixed in a common tank with other milk and the whole supply
thus becomes contaminated. In this way the disease is often
spread throughout an entire neighborhood.
Tubercle bacilli cannot live at a temperature of 160 degrees
F., and in direct sunlight they die in less than two hours. Pas-
teurizing whey and skim milk, that is heating it to 160 degrees F.,
will kill these germs, and prevent the spread of disease from fac-
tory centers. Plenty of sunlight, fresh air and the use of white-
wash in stables, are effective means of preventing the rapid spread-
ing of the disease in herds.
However, the disease cannot be communicated from one vicinity
to another except through the introduction of diseased animals into
the neighborhood, and some states have required that all animals
imported within their borders should pass the tuberculin test.
Now what is this test?
The United States Department of Agriculture is engaged in
preparing and distributing tuberculin, a coffe- colored liquid, “which
if injected under the skin of infected animals will cause a rise in
57
the animal’s temperature. No change is produced, however, by
injecting this substance under the skin of a healthy animal. Dur-
ing the test the animals must be kept in as nearly a normal condi-
tion as possible Before injection four temperatures are taken with
a clinical thermometer, two hours apart. These temperatures are
taken by inserting the thermometer in the rectum and allowing
it to remain there for three or four minutes before reading. About
half a teaspoonful (2 c.c.) of the tuberculin is then injected un-
derneath the skin, usually at the shoulder, with an ordinary
hypodermic syringe. Eight to ten hours after injection five more
temperatures are taken in the same manner, two hours apart. A
rise in temperature of two degrees is considered a “positive reac-
tion,” that is, the animal is said to be diseased.
Diseased animals should be removed from the rest of the herd
and disposed of according to the law in force in the state.
The use of hand separators will prevent the introduction of
the disease from factory skim milk and if no animals are pur-
chased but those that have been tested, the herd may be kept free
from the disease. Dr. H. L. Russell, dean of the College of Agricul-
ture, University of Wisconsin, one of the greatest authorities on this
subject in this country, says in a recent bulletin published by the
Experiment Station at Madison:
“Tf dairy farmers will do three things they may keep their
herds free from the scourge :—
“First—Find out the actual condition of their herds by applying
the tuberculin test.
“Second—If found free, buy in the future only tested stock or
test them before admitting same to herd.
“Third—For young stock and hogs use skim milk separated at
home, or pasteurized properly at creamery or factory.
“Tf disease is found, reacting animals should be separated and
disposed of properly, and the barns adequately disinfected. In the
case of valuable animals, healthy calves may generally be secured
from reacting cows, if calves are separated at birth and fed on
boiled milk of mother or milk from non-reacting animals. Re-
member the danger from tuberculosis lies in its hidden course of
development, and for the sake of the herd itself, as well as for
human beings consuming the products of the herd, one cannot af-
ford to neglect taking such steps as are necessary to find out pos-
itively the condition of their herd. If a stock owner is in the habit
of buying and selling cattle, especially dairy stock, it is almost im-
possible to escape the disease. Even in some of the best beef breeds
the disease has been widely prevalent. * * * If only tested
dairy stock could be transferred from one owner to another the
58
rapid spread of the disease would be checked, and it would not
require much time to eradicate the herds already involved.”
CHAPTER XIX.
DISPOSING OF MILK AND CREAM.
Assuming that the dairyman has a herd that is producing a
good flow of milk, the question naturally arises, what shall he do
with this milk in order to have it yield him the largest net returns?
The answer can only be given by the dairyman himself after care-
fully studying his local situation. In certain localities it may be
advisable to handle milk in a way differing from that in another
locality, and local conditions must necessarily govern the methods:
of the disposal of milk. For instance, if a man is situated in close
proximity to a city where the consumption of whole milk is very
large it may be advisable for him to wholesale it directly to a milk
dealer, or have a private trade of liis own to which he can deliver
the same. In this case the necessary additional investment in
horses, wagons, etc., must be considered. In selling whole milk
it must also be remembered that nothing is returned to the farm
in the shape of skim milk. While the profits of selling milk in
this way may appear larger, two things must be borne in mind,
viz., the cost of delivery and the loss of the skim milk. The reader
is referred to an earlier chapter entitled “The Relation of Dairying
to the Soil,” which calls attention to the loss by removal of fertility
to the soil when selling whole milk off the farm.
Of course, if the farmer is eight or ten miles from a city such
a method will be out of the question. He may then be compelled
to sell his milk to a cheese factory, and in this case return to the
farm about ninety pounds of whey for every one hundred pounds
of milk delivered. The quality of whey varies greatly from time
to time, depending upon the care it receives at the factory. Its
food value is only about half as much as that of skim milk, because
all of the casein has been removed from the milk in the process of
cheese making.
Or he may have an opportunity to sell his milk to a creamery
where practically eighty pounds of skim milk are returned to him
for every one hundred pounds of milk delivered. Whether to sell
to a creamery rather than to a cheese factory, or vice versa, depends
entirely upon local conditions. However, he must not lose sight
of the fact that the skim milk returned is of more value to him
than the whey, if he can make use of the same for feeding purposes.
One of the most profitable methods in many places is the sell-
59
ing of milk in the shape of cream. Many objections have been
raised by creamerymen against the introduction of the hand sep-
arator, but there is no question but that in many localities this
is the only practical method that can be employed owing to the
distance that the farmers live from the creamery, making long
hauls necessary, which expense can be greatly reduced by deliver-
ing cream. Even in many important dairy regions of this coun-
try it has proven its worth, so that there is no question but that
the hand separator is bound to have a place on many farms. The
fact that the dairyman, owning one of these machines, has better
skim milk to feed his young stock is an important item. Then
again, we hear very much ehout the spread of tuberculosis and
there is’ no question but that this disease can be spread through
factory skim milk and whey. If the farmer wants to keep his
herd free from this dread disease it behooves him to be very careful
as to the feeding of these factory by-products.
Another important point is the fact that by the use of the hand
separator the bulk that must be cooled is very materially lessened.
Those who make an effort to deliver milk or cream in good condi-
tion appreciate this.
Instead of selling cream to a butter factory, it may be sold for
direct consumption. This is probably the most profitable method
and yields the largest returns. The demand for good cream is
rapidly increasing. In every city parties may be found who want
to get good cream and are willing to pay for it. They may be
hotel managers, boarding house keepers, candy makers, ice cream
manufacturers, and other people who are ready to contract. for
cream of a certain richness at a definite price per gallon.
To show that it pays to cater to this sort of trade let it be as-
sumed that a dairyman can sell a gallon of twenty-five per cent
cream for seventy cents. This may be more than a farmer can
obtain in certain sections, but it is a fact that in many parts of
this country even a higher price than this may be obtained.
A gallon of cream weighs from 8.2 to 8.4 pounds, depending
upon its richness. Roughly speaking a gallon of cream testing 25
per cent contains about 2 pounds of fat. This 2 pounds of fat
will make about 2 1-3 pounds of butter. If 70 cents is received for
a gallon of 25 per cent cream it is practically equivalent to 30
cents a pound for butter. Besides this the extra labor of ripening
the cream, washing the butter, salting and packing it are avoided.
There is no separator manufactured that will deliver cream
uniform in richness from day to day. Variations in tests, as has
been previously explained, may be due to the rate at which the
milk is fed into the bowl, the speed at which the separator is
60
turned, the richness of the milk, and the temperature of the milk.
For the above reasons occasional testing of the cream, therefore, to
determine its richness cannot be depended upon, and on this
account a farmer may be delivering a richer cream than is con-
tracted for, losing money thereby. He cannot expect to offset this
by delivering a poorer cream at times, because this will arouse
dissatisfaction and he will lay himself liable to a breach of con-
tract. The only safe way is to test the cream each time it is
delivered and then add sufficient milk to dilute it to the required
per cent of fat. This is called standardizing and is not so difficult
as might be imagined. How this may be done is best illustrated
by the use of the diagram below:
30 25
o-————__—_——5
Assuming that the dairyman has tested his cream and_ finds
that it contains 30 per cent fat, he will place the 30 in the upper
left hand corner of the square. It would be natural for him to
dilute the cream with skim milk which we will assume tests 0,
although it may test .1 of 1.0 per cent fat; for practical work,
however, it may be said to test nothing; 0, therefore, is placed in
the lower left hand corner. His contract calls for a 25 per cent
cream, and 25 is placed where the diagonal lines cross in the center
of the square. Subtracting 25 from 30 and following the diagonal
line we place the difference, 5, in the lower right hand corner.
The difference between 0 and 25 is 25 and we put that in the upper
right hand corner. We now have figures in each of the four cor-
ners. The diagram may sa be explained as follows: Of the 30
per cent cream we take 25 pounds and of the skim milk 5 pounds;
pouring these two ee we have 30 pounds of 25 per cent
cream. In other words, for every 25 pounds of 30 per cent cream
5 pounds of skim milk must be added to dilute the cream so that
it has a richness of 25 per cent fat, the quality of the cream con-
tracted for.
Again, let us assume that a dairyman has contracted to sell a
20 per cent cream. He places the 20 in the center of the diagram.
He tests his cream and finds that it contains 32 per cent fat. He
has no skim milk with which to dilute this cream and must use
whole milk. Upon testing the same he finds it to read 3.6 per cent
fat. As before, he puts the cream test in the upper left hand
corner and the milk test in the lower left hand corner. The dif-
61
ference between 20 and 32 is 12; this is placed in the lower right
hand corner. The difference between 20 and 3.6 is 16.4 which is
placed in the upper right hand corner. Now, for every 16.4 pounds
of 32 per cent cream he must add 12 pounds of milk testing 3.6
per cent, and when he pours these two together he will have 284
pounds of 20 per cent cream.
2. ———
The chief objection to the standardizing of cream is that it
requires the dairyman to make a test of the cream each time it is
to be delivered. This, however, is not a valid objection inasmuch
as the returns usually more than pay for the trouble.
Whether or not it will be profitable for a farmer to invest in an
equipment so that he can properly make butter is another question
that he only can answer. The question resolves itself into this:
Can he get an increased price for his product sufficient to warrant
incurring the additional expenditure of money and labor necessary
to produce a marketable product?
In certain sections of Europe butter is made of very sweet
eream which finds a ready sale. Such butter, however, has a pe-
culiar flat, insipid flavor, objectionable to most people at first, but
a taste for which can easily be acquired. This kind of butter does
not keep well and therefore must be delivered fresh from the churn.
In America people generally want what is known as ripened
cream butter. Such butter has better keeping qualities. Cream
for this kind of butter must undergo a fermentation process
which is usually termed “ripening.” One of the objects of
ripening cream is to produce flavor, and as flavor is a most im-
portant point to be considered it is evident that the ripening must
be done properly. ‘To hasten this process, and at the same time to
aid it, it is often advisable to add what is termed a “starter.” A
good starter is a quantity of milk or skim milk in which the
desirable organisms producing good flavors in butter have gained
the ascendency, and when added to the cream have a tendency to
check the development of the less desirable organisms. In this
way the dairyman may control the flavor of his butter.
The matter of temperature is also an important point. As a
rule cream is ripened at a temperature of 65 to 70 degrees F., and
when it reaches the right acidity (which may easily be determined
62
by any one of the many acidity tests available), the cream is
cooled to about 54 degrees and held at this temperature for at least
two hours before churning, with an occasional stirring. When cream
is held for three or four days before churning, it should be well
stirred at least twice each day. It is not desirable to hold cream at
a low temperature longer than necessary, because, as has been pre-
viously stated, at these low temperatures organisms develop that
produce bitter flavors. ‘Therefore the ripening process should be
started as soon as possible after separation because the development
of the lactic acid germs has a tendency to check the growth of these
bitter flavor organisms. Great care must also be exercised to see
that the cream does not get too sour, inasmuch as the keeping
quality of the butter may be seriously impaired by over ripening.
The best kind of a churn is one that has no internal parts. A
barrel churn is about as satisfactory as any on the market. The
cream, being at a low temperature, should not gather in much less
than thirty minutes, otherwise the butter is apt to have a soft
body. When the butter is gathered into granules about the size of
wheat grains the buttermilk should be drained off and some clean,
cold water added and the butter washed. Care should be exercised
to prevent overchurning, for when butter is gathered into large
lumps it cannot be washed properly. Since the purpose of washing
butter is to remove most of the curd it is very essential that the
granules be left small so that the curd can be easily removed.
The amount of salt added is governed by the demands of the
market. During the working process the salt should be given time
to dissolve so that when the butter has been worked enough there
will be no grittiness. It is very essential that the salt be uniformly
distributed throughout the butter, otherwise we obtain what is known
as mottles. Mottles are quite characteristic of dairy butter, and are
very undesirable. ‘They can easily be avoided by observing care in
the method of manufacturing the butter. The style of package is
regulated by the demand of the consumer, and of late years the one
pound prints and two pound rolls have become very popular. Any
other size or style of package may be used, but in every case the
package should be neat and attractive. In fact, the two points to
be observed in making butter are to produce an article that will
be attractive to the eye and tickle the palate.
In conclusion it may be well to compare the four methods of
disposing of milk. To make this comparison we will assume that
100 pounds of milk are sold to a milkman at $1.30; this milk
testing about 3.6 per cent fat, will make about 4.2 pounds of but-
ter, or about 10 pounds of cheese, or about 1.8 gallons of 25 per
cent cream. ‘he butter is valued at 25 cents per pound net, the
63
cheese at 11 cents per pound net and the cream containing 25 per
cent fat at 70 cents per gallon net.
It is likewise assumed that skim
milk is worth 30 cents per hundred and whey 15 cents per hundred,
and that the dairyman will receive about 80 pounds of skim milk
or 90 pounds of whey for every 100 pounds of milk he delivers to
the factory.
NP
market for the same.
100 lbs. milk testing 3.6 per cent fat—
Sold: ait=wholesall et aeris)sarntovatane. aectt ate clan oe ioreinic cou eek erorse Reo mee ment amate
Made into butter, 4.2 Ibs. at 25c per Ib..............$1.05
SOAlbs. skimi milk ate per 1OOMDS = mise career cies ate 24
; 1.29
Made into cheese; 10 bs) ab die per Ib: .5.: oa... ee 1.10
SO bs> wheysat. d5esper 100) WS ys ests = cies ero wicks 13
1.23
Sold as cream, 1.8 gal. 25 per cent cream at 70c per gal. 1.26
SQMIDS? Skeirna able Sa vrs hehe sin avers cts ene tere ore corstenetane a orate 24
1.50
From the above the reader can easily see the profit in selling
cream for direct consumption, providing he can get a suitable
Even at so low a figure as 60 cents per gal-
lon, the dairyman would receive $1.32 for his 100 pounds of milk.
64
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