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2 JOURNAL OF HIGHWAY RESEARCH

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS

CHANNEL CHANGE ADJACENT TO FOREST HIGHWAY IN OREGON

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. - - - - - - - - - - - - - See page 2 of cover for prices

PUBLIC ROADS teri: Recai

Issued by the

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BUREAURO Re PUBELC@ROADS
Volume 18, No. 9 November 1937

The reports of research published in this magazine are necessarily qualified by the conditions of the tests from which the data are obtained.
Whenever it is deemed possible to do so, generalizations are drawn from the results of the tests; and, unless this is done, the conclusions
formulated must be considered as specifically pertinent only to described conditions.

In This Issue

Page
Channele@hangeston; forest ighways sms) ec ne ee ee |
Experimental Erosion Control on Forest Highway Fills . . . . .. . =... I76

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i i ee a i ee ee

CHANNEL CHANGES ON FOREST HIGHWAYS

Reported by H. D. FARMER, Senior Highway Engineer, and A.B. LEWELLEN, Chief Engineering Inspector-Superintendent, District 1, Bureau of Public Roads

URING the past 6 or 8 years numerous forest

highways in Washington, Oregon, and Montana,

have been designed and constructed that involved
channel changes to improve the alinement. Prior to
this time alinement standards had been lower and there
was little need to dispute the right-of-way with streams.
It was obviously safe and conservative to leave the
streams in their long-established courses and build
around them or bridge over them when conditions be-
came critical. In those years the use of 20- to 56-
degree curves was common and was considered accept-
able practice in mountain road location.

With the advent of faster traffic, the former aline-
ment standards quickly became obsolete. The travel-
ing public demanded roads capable of serving more
safely faster moving vehicles. With the further im-
provement of motor vehicles, this demand became more
and more insistent. Obviously, one important factor
in the solution of the problem was the reduction of
curvature to a practical minimum.

Many of our primary forest highways are in moun-
tainous country where the most economical location, and
often the only feasible one, follows the course of some
tortuous stream. Characteristically, such streams al-
ternately flow through narrow, winding mountain
valleys and through sharply defined canyons. The
general problem of location in such situations is simple
since the stream is the major control. The solution
involves establishing a proper grade line, fitting the
alinement within the limitations imposed by the high-
water elevation and the topography of the valley, and
determining to what extent, if any, crowding or divert-
ing the stream or crossing it is justified in order to
obtain satisfactory alinement.

In deciding whether to introduce channel changes or
to leave the stream in its natural bed and use bridges,
landscape values must not be overlooked, especially
within the national parks or national forests. Bridges
of harmonious design with adequate waterways, in
general, do little violence to natural topography, but all
such structures entail special and perpetual main-
tenance costs. Of even greater importance, however,
is the high first cost of bridges. In contrast, channel
changes generally cost less to construct than bridges.
The saving is effected chiefly by the use of modern
methods of machine excavation. In spite of introduc-
ing some additional scar into the landscape, economy
and better alinement are more often possible with
channel changes; therefore, highway engineers of the
Northwest have carefully studied the advantages and
disadvantages of using channel changes instead of
bridges in locating certain roads. — .

Channel changes require careful study, especially if
a sizable stream is involved. ‘The streams have fol-
lowed the line of least resistance in eroding their present
channels, and equilibrium resulting from all the factors
of friction in the channel has been established. Where
this equilibrium is disturbed by constructing a steeper
and shorter channel, provision must be made for the
increased erosive capacity of the stream.

Since the carrying power of moving water varies as
the sixth power of its velocity, it is obvious that any
change resulting in an increase in velocity caused by
shortening and straightening a stream cannot be under-

22674—37

taken ina haphazard manner. The energy of the water
must be dissipated in such a way as to prevent destruc-
tive erosion. The transportation of channel debris to
downstream points where it might be deposited and
build up the stream bed enough to flood the roadway
and adjacent property must be prevented. The prob-
lem is one of duplicating, so far as possible, the friction
head in the original channel, or of providing a channel
capable of resisting the greater erosive force if a higher
current velocity is to be permitted.

SEVERAL PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN DESIGN OF CHANNEL CHANGES

As applied to forest highway construction in Wash-
ington, Oregon, and Montana, the ordinary principles
involved in channel change construction are briefly
summarized as follows:

1. The highway is located well above maximum high
water, allowing a margin of safety to cover factors
difficult to evaluate.

2. Material excavated from the channel is used in
constructing the roadway.

3. The stream side of embankments and the channel
slopes are protected by a 4- to 6-foot layer of angular
rock obtained either from the roadway excavation or
borrowed and placed as loose riprap. This rock pro-
tection is usually placed outside of the finished roadbed
prism and thus widens the shoulder on the stream side.
The additional width, if considered necessary, may
be utilized to support a guardrail, although the extra
width in itself is a margin of safety. Seventy-five
percent of the riprap material ranges from one-half
cubic foot to 1 cubic yard in size. The largest rocks
are placed at the bottom and are moved roughly into
place with crowbars.

4. Unless ample room is available to effect a wide
separation between the channel change and the road-
way prism, the roadway embankment slopes are usually
designed as part of the channel slopes so that the slope
is continuous from the road shoulder to the stream bed.
Berms are seldom used between the roadway and the
channel because erosion is apt to occur along the berm
unless it is carefully protected. The heavy course of
loose riprap provides sufficient material so that any
undercuts at the toe of the channel slope that may be
eroded by the stream are immediately filled with the
coarse material, thus effectively preventing further
erosion.

5. The channel designed has sufficient width and
depth to provide adequate carrying capacity. The
bottom of the channel is made sufficiently rough to
duplicate the original friction head or is of resistant
material that will permit the higher velocity without
erosion. Data are taken on the original channel above
and below the proposed change, and the new channel
is fitted into the old smoothly.

6. If conditions permit, the bank of the new channel
opposite the road is cleared and grubbed for a width of
20 to 50 feet to weaken the bank so that if the channel
provided proves inadequate the stream will erode that
bank rather than the roadway embankment. In areas
containing large timber this practice insures that
erosion will not undermine the standing timber, causing
log jams and consequent destructive erosion.

169

170

PUB GERO AD'S

Vol. 18, No. 9

7. After construction, maintenance is carefully super-
vised to see that any deficiencies that develop are cor-
rected. In some instances increased friction is pro-
vided by placing impediments such as large, angular
rock in the channel bed. In other cases the channel is
widened to reduce the velocity and also increase the
friction.

It must be borne in mind that stream flow is a
powerful force very difficult to evaluate. It would be
surprising if some failures were not caused by the
extreme floods that occur once in 20 to 50 years. It has
been the history of railroads and highways that such
floods take toll of bridge structures as well. It is,
therefore, to be expected during critical floods that
some small failures of channel revisions will be experi-
enced. Failures of channel changes are most likely
to be minor in character and can be repaired at small
expense. After repair the weak features will have been
eliminated and the road should be safe for many years.

On roads of high standards in difficult terrain it is
sometimes cheaper to construct channel changes than
to build bridges, and, if large savings in first cost are
possible, assumption of the additional risk would seem
to be warranted. Even though they may be damaged
in some degree by occasional, unusual floods, it is
often sounder economic policy to build highways at
moderate cost, making use of channel changes where
reasonably safe, than to build expensive, ultra-conserva-
tive roads and bridges that will withstand all floods.
Since obsolescence is an important factor influencing
the useful lives of highways and future traffic demands
are often difficult to foresee, it will usually result in
ultimate economy to design roads and bridges to with-
stand floods normally to be anticipated and rebuild
them after damage by infrequent, abnormal floods.
The large mileage of roads needing improvement and
the limited funds available favor this policy.

In any locality, the inclusion of channel changes in
highway design will depend on a thorough understand-
ing of the characteristics of the streams involved and
of the tributary watershed. While channel changes
have proved their economic worth on many projects
in the Northwest where small or moderate-sized
streams are involved, and where the regimen of the
stream is not too severe, it is recognized that there are
many locations where channel changes would be dis-
tinctly hazardous. Channel changes cannot be used
indiscriminately.

Preservation of landscape values should be a cardinal
principle in any ‘highway design. It is recognized so
far as appearance is concerned that seldom can man-
made water courses improve on nature. Careful
planning, however, can minimize the artificiality of
channel changes. Vegetation, encouraged by ample
rainfall, will quickly cover the more noticeable con-
struction scars, but some of the attractive character-
istics of a natural stream unavoidably will be lost.
It is obvious, therefore, that if an alternate location
exists comparable in standards and costs which does
not involve channel changes, the alternate is to be
preferred.

EXAMPLES SHOW ECONOMY OF BUILDING CHANNEL CHANGES
INSTEAD OF BRIDGES

The following examples (projects A and B), for which
alternate design data are available, are cited to give
interesting comparisons. Both are on important routes
where high standards of alinement were considered
justified. Design data are included for a third example

(project C) involving major channel changes, but no
comparable alternate location was possible due to the
terrain.

Project A.—This project is on both the Federal-aid
and Forest Highway Systems in Oregon on one of the
more important transmountain highways. It is the
shortest and easiest route from the Willamette Valley
and points north to California and probably will divert
a portion of the traffic now carried by other parallel
routes. It is estimated that this highway will carry
from 500 to 1,000 vehicles per day.

The original design for the section discussed here
involved curves of 10 degrees or less without channel
changes. The alinement on each side for some dis-
tance consisted of long tangents and long-radius curves.
A period of several years intervened between the original
location survey and construction. When the section
was finally proposed for construction alternate designs
were studied with the result that, although the cost
was increased by approximately $11,000 per mile, the
benefits derived by using channel changes were con-
sidered to justify the additional expense on the 1.8
miles affected. The original design involving the
sharper curvature was considered dangerous and
inadequate.

Table 1 gives a comparison of the two lines. A
rough estimate showed that a design using bridges and
minor channel changes would have cost an additional
$28,000 per mile.

Five channel changes on project A will be illustrated
and described briefly.

TaBLE 1.—Comparison of curvature data for project A (1.8 miles
long) as originally surveyed and as finally constructed

pe fe Max Number of curves of—
curves|angle! epi
urve 90 30 4° 72 go g° 10°

Line

Num-| De- | De- |Num-|Num-|Num-|Num-|Num-|Num-|Num-
ber | grees | grees | ber ber ber ber ber ber ber
Oviging {sees 9 378 10 1 1 2 2 3
Constructed 3____ 6 194 7 1 2 1 2

1 All curves on the constructed line are spiraled, and spiral angles are included in
the total angle for the constructed line.
ithout channel changes.
3 With channel changes.

Figure 1, A shows the original terrain, looking up-
stream from station 1725, and figure 1, B shows the
completed channel change and road. The road has a
curve of 6°20’ and a grade of 5.5 percent. The grade
of the road exceeds the grade of the stream bed so that
the road gradually rises above the stream.

The channel is 38 feet wide at the bottom, and its
slopes are 1 to 1. The highway fill slopes are 1% to 1.
Sufficient angular rock for slope protection was ob-
tained from the adjacent excavation without expense
other than the cost of the unclassified excavation in-
volved. The new channel required approximately
5,000 cubic yards of excavation and is 600 feet long.

Figure 2, A shows the original terrain looking down-
stream from station 1728, and figure 2, B shows the
completed channel change and road. The road has a
curve of 6°30’ and its grade increases from 3.5 to 5.2
percent. The grade of the road exceeds the grade of the
stream bed so that the road gradually rises above the
stream.

The channel is 38 feet wide at the bottom. The new
channel is 500 feet long and required 2,100 cubic yards
of excavation. Rock for slope protection was obtained

November 1937

taceb iG ROADS

FicgurE 1.—ORIGINAL TERRAIN AND COMPLETED RoapD AND CHANNEL CHANGBR.
B, Tue Hiauway Fitt Storr Is RrprapreD at THE Botrom WHERE IT SERVES AS ONE BANK OF THE

CHANGE LOCATION.
STREAM.

x
ancl > Sm a

FicgurE 2.—A, ORIGINAL TERRAIN; AND B, CoMPLETED CHAN-
NEL CHANGE,

A, Tur Dotrep Liners Mark THE CHANNEL

Figure 3.—A CompLtetepD CHANNEL CHancEe Tat Diverts
THE STREAM From ITs ORIGINAL CHANNEL ENTIRELY.

from adjacent roadway excavation. The stream was
diverted entirely from its original channel.

Figure 3 shows a completed channel change looking
downstream from station 1738. This channel change,
which diverted the stream from its original channel
entirely, is 1,100 feet long and involved 22,000 cubic
yards of excavation. The channel change cost approx-
imately $9,000 and made possible an alinement that
otherwise would only have been possible by construct-
ing two bridges at a probable cost of $25,000.

Figure 4, A shows the original terrain, looking down-
stream from station 1766, and figure 4, C shows the
completed channel change and road. Figure 4, B
shows operations during construction of the new chan-
nel.

This channel change is 600 feet long and required
about 6,000 cubic yards of excavation. Most of the
rock for slope protection was obtained from adjacent

Pare Bl Can OA Dis

Vol. 18, No. 9

Ficgure 4.—A CHANNEL CHANGE AT VARIOUS STAGES oF Con-
STRUCTION: A, ORIGINAL TBRRAIN AS CLEARED OF TREES
AND UNDERGROWTH; B, CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONS; AND C,
THE New CHANNEL COMPLETED.

cuts. The left bank of the stream (fig. 4, C) has been
cleared and grubbed for a width of about 50 feet.

The completed channel change shown in figure 5, A is
4,000 feet long. This picture shows the channel change
looking upstream from station 1948. About 50,000
cubic yards of roadway embankment were required,
30,000 cubic yards of which were obtained from the

‘

channel excavation, and 20,000 cubic yards from cuts
at each end.

About 3,000 cubic yards of loose riprap were placed
in addition to rock brought from adjacent cuts. The
riprap (fig. 5, B) is a conglomerate rock of fair quality,
ranging in size from one-half cubic foot to one-half
cubic yard. This rock was dumped by trucks and
moved into place by crowbars.

Note how the channel has widened and material has
been deposited at the lower end (foreground, fig. 5, A).
This was caused by flattening of the stream orade and
by drift. It is expected that the next floodwaters will
scour the channel enough to remove this deposit.

CHANNEL CHANGES OFTEN ECONOMICAL MEANS OF ATTAINING
HIGH STANDARDS OF ALINEMENT

Project B.—This project is on a route that crosses the
Cascade Range. It follows practically a water grade
from the Willamette Valley to a point 3 miles from the
summit of the Cascade Range, which it climbs on a
5.5-percent grade, and then descends for 5 miles on a
5-percent grade to the central Oregon Plateau. This
route affords one of the most favorable crossings of the
Cascades and is expected to carry considerable traffic.

Six years ago a survey was made and a design pre-
pared that involved no major channel changes or
bridges. This design required several curves ranging
from 14° to 22° and represented the best alinement
possible without using bridges or major channel changes.
In later surveys, consideration of possible stream
crossings or channel changes revealed that much better
alinement was possible. The best obtainable aline-
ment was obtained by making major channel changes.
and cost less than the design involving bridges.

No direct cost comparison with the original design is
available since the surfaced road widths in the designs
were different. It is estimated that the road as con-
structed cost approximately 50 percent more than if it
had been constructed according to the original design
for the 5.6 miles where the stream was the control.
To improve the original alinement appreciably without
bridges or channel changes was impracticable. The
alinement of the highway on both sides of the section
for several miles is very good and to have constructed
a road with the alinement first considered would have
resulted in a bottle neck that would retard traffic.
Table 2 compares the alinement for the three designs.

The line as originally surveyed followed the stream
closely, thus reducing construction costs but necessitat-
ing sharp curves. The maximum curvature on the re-
vised line was 6°, but this line required four bridges and
several channel changes. Additional channel changes
were made to eliminate the bridges on the constructed
ine.

Figure 6 shows a channel change on project B during
construction and after completion. Figure 7 shows
several completed channel changes. Figure 8, A shows
a channel change and highway fill nearly completed, and
figure 8, B shows a completed channel change and high-
way fill protected by riprap.

Project C_—This project is on the road between Can-
yon City and Bear Gulch, Oreg., and follows the floor
of Canyon Creek for a distance of 8 miles. In many
places there is scarcely room for both the stream and the
highway. It was impracticable to work out any accept-
able alinement without channel changes. Even with
extensive channel changes the best alinement that could
be obtained involved 26 curves ranging from 10° to 28°,
with 6 curves exceeding 20°.

November 1937 i U B 'B if G R OA D SS Lid

Material excavated from the channel change
was used to construct the road.

Coarse rock helps prevent erosion of the
highway fill.

Ficgurs 5—Two Views or A ComMpPpLETED CHANNEL CHANGE.

Pir b al Cen UA D'S Vol. 18, No. 9

FIGURE 6,—PROGRE

The large boulders remaining in the stream
were later used for slope protection.

Lower, the left bank of the channel is cleared
of vegetation to permit erosion.

ss DurInac CONSTRUCTION OF A CHANNEL CHANGE.

November 1937

balieD el GRO A DiS

175

pS

Figure 7.—Typicat CHANNEL CHANGES Usep To Brnerit Roap Locations.

The grading of the road was completed in 1931 and it
has now gone through 6 years of winter and spring floods
without signs of damage. However, there have been
no unusually high floods.

No data are available as to comparative costs of al-
ternate designs. The material from the channel excava-
tion was used in building the roadbed. It was largely
gravel and boulders and was handled with power shovels
and trucks at a contract price of approximately 40 cents
per cubic yard. The adjacent hillside material is largely
rock which at the time the work was done would prob-

ably have cost approximately 75 cents per cubic yard to
move. Quantities on the adopted design were much
lighter than could have been obtained by sidehill con-
struction. It is obvious that the cost of the road as
built was considerably less than would have been the
case with sidehill construction and bridges, and the
alinement is better. Figure 7 shows several channel
changes on this project and the loose rock protection
used on the highway fill slopes extending into the
stream,

(Continued on page 182)

176 PiU LI ECe hip ADS

Vol. 18, No. 9

EXPERIMENTAL EROSION CONTROL ON
FOREST HIGHWAY FILLS

BY DISTRICT 2, BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS

of erosion control has grown tremendously during the

past several years. Until recently a relatively un-
explored field as related to highways, engineers are now
experimenting with various methods of preventing
erosion on highway fills.

Experimental work on forest highway fills in Cali-
fornia, though somewhat limited in extent and so recent
that conclusive evidence of the effectiveness of the
various types of control is not yet available, neverthe-
less gives some indication of the results to be expected.
The purpose of this work has been to determine the
most practical methods of preventing erosion and
encouraging revegetation on newly constructed fill
slopes under varying soil and climatic conditions.
Types of treatment have varied, from broadcasting
grain and other seeds on the slopes or covering with
forest duff, to more extensive methods using various
types of revetments or wattling.

The landscaping of roadsides to eliminate unsightly
construction scars and to give the roads a more pleas-
ing appearance has, within the past decade, been stimu-
lated in all States by a provision of highway legislation
enabling Federal funds to be spent for such purposes.
This landscaping has included the planting of desirable
vegetation along roadsides. The plantings have served
to help prevent erosion, though in this work the erosion
control effect was generally subordinated to the road-
side beautification objective.

Work of this character was performed on a project
in the Tahoe National Forest, in Sierra County, Calif.
Crested wheat seed was sown broadcast on two fills
late in the fall of 1935. Figure 1 shows one of the fills
8 months after planting. The soil in the fills was not
very erosible, and the chief value of the planting was
to screen the bare earth and thereby improve the
appearance of the roadside.

More extensive methods of erosion control were used
on three other forest highways in California as follows:
On route 20, in the Plumas National Forest in Plumas
County; route 61, in the Angeles National Forest in Los
Angeles County; and route 74, in the Sierra National
Forest in Madera County. Conditions on these three
projects represent almost the extremes where extensive
erosion control methods appear feasible or desirable.

Conditions on route 20 may be considered to represent
minimum needs. Clay predominates in the soil struc-
ture, though there is some rock that produces a certain
amount of stability. Although the precipitation is heavy,
it falls as snow which melts gradually and does not cause
concentrated run-off.

Conditions on route 61 represent the other extreme.
Here the soil is extremely erosible and most of the pre-
cipitation falls as rain in storms that are often cloud-
bursts. Furthermore, run-off from the highway enters
streams that furnish water for irrigation and city water
supplies, and it is imperative to avoid filling them
with debris.

The methods of erosion control used on these three
projects and the results obtained will be discussed in
some detail.

[ieee in the development of practical methods

Figure 1.—A Hireuway Finn 8 Montrus ArrerR CRESTED WHBAT
Hap BEEN PLANTED. .

WILLOW CUTTINGS PLANTED ON ROUTE 20

Route 20 is located in northeastern California, and
immediately following the completion of the road in
1935 the erosion control work was started.

Climatic conditions in this locality are not ordinarily
conducive to excessive erosion, as the snow melts slowly
since warm rains are infrequent. ‘The soil is chiefly
clay, with some rock. From 35 to 55 percent of the
soil passes a 200-mesh sieve. The large amount of fine
material in the soil indicated that saturation of the
newly constructed embankments might possibly result
in the loss of considerable material by mud flows or
slides. Surface scour was not considered an important
factor because of the absence of heavy rainfall and the
rapidity of reproduction of native vegetation.

In view of the favorable conditions existing on this
road, the erosion control considered necessary involved
stabilizing the fill slopes to an adequate depth below the
surface. ‘This was done by planting willow cuttings 3
feet long to a depth of 30 inches in the fill slopes. The
cuttings were planted in rows following contour lines,
spaced at vertical intervals of about 3 feet between
rows. ‘The spacing of the cuttings in rows varied from
1% feet on the highest fills to 3 feet on small fills.

The appearance of one of the fills after planting had
been completed is shown in figure 2.

For experimental purposes, on large fills the cuttings
were supplemented by brush ‘Wattles placed in trenches
directly above the cuttings. These trenches were 1 foot
wide and 1 foot deep, and were filled with willow limbs
and brush having an average length of 3% feet and maxi-
mum butt diameter of 2inches. The limbs were matted
together to form a continuous chain along the trench,
and were covered with a layer of small, newly cut fir
limbs. Sufficient earth was then shoveled on top to
hold all material in place. Further compaction was
obtained by workmen walking on the wattles during
construction operations. <A fringe of the newly cut
fir limbs was allowed to protrude above the surface in
order to disperse surface run-off.

Approximately 0.4 slope acres of the total of 4.1 acres

treated were supplemented with brush wattles. The
fill slopes were then seeded with wheat and native dock.

November 1937

Per Balel eR OA D'S

177

The costs of the work for the various spacings of
cuttings were as follows:

Spacing, feet Cost per slope-acre
Aimee ee bef og ee Bane $332
I one Set ek es ee 250
Se cs a De ne Oe 166

Willow cuttings spaced 1% feet apart and supple-
mented with brush wattles cost $847 per slope acre.

In spite of the precautions taken some minor slips
occurred. Figure 3, A shows minor slips on a fill after
the winter season of 1935-36. Figure 3, B shows the
same fill after having been repaired.

Excellent results were obtained on most of the fills
planted with willow cuttings. Figure 4 shows a fill
that had no failures. Although some of the plants
shown in this figure may die, the majority should
flourish and afford ample protection for revegetation
by indigenous shrubs and small plants.

=

Fieurr 2.—WitLtow Curtines PLANTED ON A HigHway Fiuu
TO PREVENT HROSION.

BRUSH LAYERS PLACED IN FILL SLOPES DURING
CONSTRUCTION

Route 61 is located in southern California. Soil and
climatic conditions are such that extensive erosion has
occurred on the fill slopes of nearby forest highways.
Heavy rains and snowfalls, the latter melting quickly
under warm rains and temperature, result in heavy and

rapid run-off. Extensive erosion occurs even on the
steep mountainsides despite native cover. Winds of
high velocity also cause erosion in this locality.

It was thought advisable to perform the erosion
control work during construction, since the unusually
high fills proposed would expose large areas of loose
material to the heavy rains common to the region.
The work was performed during the winter and spring
of 1935-36.

The soil with which the fills were constructed con-
sisted of disintegrated granite and disintegrated schist,
with some harder materials. It was found that the
soils could be classified according to composition as
follows:

Class 1.—Disintegrated schist or granite; 95 percent
passing the 2-inch sieve; 35 to 56 percent passing the
200-mesh sieve.

Class 2.—Disintegrated schist or granite and rock;
50 percent passing the 2-inch sieve; 10 to 25 percent
passing the 200-mesh sieve.

Class 3.—Rock; 25 percent passing the 2-inch sieve.

—A; Minor Siies or WATTLES AND Curtines THAT
B; THE Fitz SHowN ABOVE

FIGURE 3.
OccURRED ON A H1IGHway FIL.
ArrerR Havine Breen REPAIRED.

Fills composed of class 3 material were not treated.
Three kinds of protection work were used on this
project.

Method A.—Brush in full layers—All suitable brush
obtained from clearing operations was stockpiled for
future use in erosion-control work. This brush was
placed, during construction of the fill, along the outer
edge of the compacted layer in rows along contour lines.
The distance between rows depended upon the height
of the fill. In general, a 5-foot spacing was used on that
portion of a fill lying less than 40 feet below grade; a 4-
foot spacing was used from 40 to 70 feet below grade;
and a 3-foot interval was used on all portions of fills
lving 70 or more feet ‘below grade.

Figure 4.—ApPBARANCE OF A Fitt 9 MontuHS AFTER WILLOW
Curtines Hap BEEN PLANTED.

Each fill was compacted in layers with the outside
edge slightly higher than the center. Brush was placed
while the center of the fill was being compacted, thus
avoiding interference with grading operations.

Long- “stemmed brush or small logs were first placed
along the edge of the layer, parallel | to the centerline of
the road. Brush was then placed with stems inward
and at an angle of about 45 degrees with the edge of the
fill. The branches protruded from 12 to 24 inches
beyond the fill slope, and the stems extended into the

178

PUB LT CeROA DS

Vol. 18, No. 9

fill from 2 to 6 feet, depending on the length of brush
available. Small brush, roots, and small stumps were
used to fill in and complete the mat. After the brush
layer had been placed, a bulldozer was used to cover
the brush out to the slope line.

The placing and covering of brush layers are shown in
figure 5.

Particular attention was paid to extending the stems
well into the fill to insure stability and prevent slipping
or flowing of saturated surface material.

Figure 5.—A; Puacine a Layer or Brusu. B; a BULLDOZER
CovERING A BrusH LAYER WITH HartTH. THE BULLDOZER IS
PULLING A SHEEPSFOOT ROLLER USED To Compact THE FILL.

Method B.— Brush in fill layers with hay mat.—Brush
layers were first placed during construction of the fill,
according to method A. The area between brush rows
was then raked and smoothed, and alfalfa, barley, or
oat hay was spread, beginning at the top of the fill and
working downward by rows. After placing the hay,
common rye seed was sown and a thin layer of earth
was shoveled onto the hay from the area just below the
brush row. ‘The earth cover was intended to hold the
hay in place, cover the seed, and discourage feeding by
deer. After placing the earth cover, Italian rye and
Australian rye seed were broadcast over the entire area
of the fill slope. °

Hay was spread at the rate of 6 tons per slope acre;
common rye seed was sown at the rate of 100 pounds
per slope acre; and Italian or Australian rye seed at
the rate of 40 pounds per slope acre.

Method C—Stake and brush wattles with hay mat.—At
locations where brush was not readily available during
construction, fill slopes were treated after completion.

Fill slopes were first smoothed, and rows of 2-inch by
2-inch by 42-inch stakes were driven into the fill to a
depth of 34 inches and normal to the slope. The rows
were placed on contour lines at intervals of 3 to 5 feet,
and individual stakes were placed 3 feet 3 inches apart in

the rows. <A level path approximately 1 foot wide was
then excavated immediately above each row and brush
was placed horizontally above the stakes to form a
wattle.

The brush consisted almost entirely of manzanita,
buck brush, mountain lilac, scrub oak, and greasewood.
An effort was made to select brush with reasonably
straight stems and a number of small, leafy branches.
The length varied from 3 to 4 feet, and butt diameter
from 1 to 2 inches. For some fills, suitable brush could
be cut in the immediate vicinity; for others, it was
necessary to haul it in by truck.

The brush was interlaced and compacted to form a
wattle 1 foot wide and 1 to 1% feet high. The entire
thickness or height extended above the surface of the
fill, and the wattle rested against the supporting stakes.
After completion of the wattles the area between rows
was covered with hay, seeded, and covered with earth
as described under method B.

Table 1 shows the areas treated by each method and
the costs.

Additional protection work not shown in table 1 was
done in the summer and fall of 1936.

Method A was used in treating fills of class 2 soils,
and methods B and C were used in treating fills of class
1 soils.

TaBLE 1.—Areas of fill slopes treated by three methods of erosion

control, and cost per acre for each method
Area of
Method slope | COSt Per

treated

Acres
A. sich age eee Lee oot ee a ee Cn pe ne 2.7 $213
[see See pee PRET NE. 22. ET 10.5 449
Cree kt ee eed ae eee Soll 715

FAILURE OF BRUSH WATTLES CAUSED BY SLIPPAGE OF SURFACE
MATERIAL

Some of the protection work was damaged by herds
of deer. Probably because of the scarcity of forage in
the surrounding mountains, the deer fed on the hay
placed on the fills. In some locations this resulted in
the complete loss of the hay mat and considerable dam-
age to the rest of the protection work. It was deemed
advisable to replace the hay and reseed the slopes prior
to winter storms, so this was done. Also, approxi-
mately 300 Yerba Santa root cuttings were planted per
slope-acre on slopes with southern exposures. This
plant is native to the locality. Its growth was par-
ticularly vigorous under conditions similar to those
existing on the fills where it was planted. All slopes
were seeded with Italian rye and burr clover, with
some acorns on slopes with northern exposures.

The protected fills were subjected to a severe test in
February 1936 during construction. Approximately 10
inches of rain fell, at times approaching the rate of 1
inch per hour. After this storm, damage to protected
and unprotected slopes was noted. (See figs. 6, 7, and 8.)

Fills protected by brush rows and hay mats eroded
the least. Brush rows without hay mats were less
effective protection, although they tended to break up
small mud flows and prevent the formation of large
channels.

Results to the middle of the winter season 1936-37,
following unusually severe winter conditions, show con-
siderable erosion of untreated fill slopes. There have

November 1937

Pep Dl Ca ROA DS

Figure 6.—APPEARANCES OF PROTECTED AND UNPROTECTED
Fitut Stores Arrer A Heavy Rain.

been some slips of wattled fills, but little erosion or loss
of material has occurred on brush-treated fills. Figure
9 shows damage to fills protected according to method
C. No protection work was performed on the upper
sections of the fills shown in figure 9 because of the rocky
material present.

The failure of wattles on some fills was probably
caused chiefly by shppage of the surface material.
Apparently the wattles were not as well anchored to the
fill as were the rows of brush laid’according to methods
Aand B.

The results obtained by the protection work, as
determined by an inspection made in March 1937, are
shown in table 2.

TABLE 2.—Results obtained on fill protection work on route 61

|
Treated

: | Area of Percentage

Method area in- areas a sre aaa

| spected failures of failure

Acres Acres

PN Ss. he at SUNS Shep el a Oe Aa RE ee A eee eis 0.4 24
13h. ee a Se A ee ee ee DES UE 10
Ce ee ee re ee eee ee ae 4.8 2.7 sre

FiaurEr 7.—F1Lut Stopes PrRotrectEeD AccORDING TO METHOp A.
PictTuRE SHows a Section Asout 70 FEET BELOW GRADE.

EXTREMELY EROSIBLE SOIL IN FILLS ON ROUTE 74

Route 74, located in east-central California, was
constructed during 1933 and 1934.

The soil on the fill slopes was not favorable to plant
growth and this, together with erosion, prevented re-
vegetation. The soil consisted of disintegrated gran-
ite with various percentages of hard rock particles.
The soil was also micaceous in various degrees, the

wes OES PERE ENR SOS
FigurE 8.—Srcrions or Fitt Stores Asour 70 Ferr Bretow
GraDE. A; Erosion ON AN UNPROTECTED Finu. B; a Frun

PROTECTED ACCORDING TO Mpruop A.

zi Gee ae ae ig es y ; os “a eat
Ficgurr 9.—Damacep Fitts THat Hap BEEN PROTECTED BY
BrusH WATTLES (METHOD C).

ek

mica content ranging from a trace to a maximum of 20
percent, and was extremely erosible. The grading of
the soil was approximately as follows:

Percent
i Ape UPE ee OlWeLOV EO: foc 28 Sok oa Seek ee eee 75-100
Passing he oO0-meshb sieve. ..22......--2-2<-cs---ee 20— 40

180

POR LGA DS

A typical example of gulley erosion in this type of
soil is shown in figure 10. Practically all of the higher
fills have northern exposures. Because most storms
come from the north, erosion is greatest on the fills
having northern exposures and least on fills having
southern exposures.

An outline of the proposed control work on route
74 was prepared by the Landscape Division of the
Forest Service, Region 5, and the work was done under
the direct supervision of a Forest Service foreman
with previous experience on similar work.

In general the methods of construction used were the
types outlined in the May 1936 edition of “‘Specifica-
tions for Erosion Control Methods’’, Manual of Region 5
of the Forest Service. The types used will be described
in detail.

IXAMPLE OF GULLEY EROSION OcCURRING IN SOIL
SIMILAR TO THAT ON Fiut SLoPES ON Route 74.

Fieu

Wattling method A (brush wattles and hay or straw).—
This method was used on the higher, more exposed fills
and consisted of brush wattles anchored with 3-foot
stakes driven 30 inches into the fill. The brush con-
sisted chiefly of very leafy chaparral and mountain lilac,
in lengths of about 4 feet and with a maximum butt
diameter of 1 inch. <A trench 1 foot wide and about 1
foot deep was dug immediately above the stake row.
The brush was laid and compacted into a wattle 1 foot
wide and 1% feet thick. The completed wattle ex-
tended 6 inches above the surface of the fill slope.
Sufficient earth was placed on the wattles after installa-
tion to hold the brush in place.

The spaces between wattles were covered with either
hay or straw. Distances between rows of wattles and
between stakes in the rows were varied. It was origi-
nally intended to space rows on contour lines 3% feet

Figure 11.—A; Stakes Brine DRIVEN INTO A FILL IN BUILD-
ING BrusH WartTues. B; a Fitu Protectep By BRUSH
WATTLES AND Hay.

apart and to place stakes 18 inches apart in the rows.
This spacing was used on approximately 2 acres of the
total of 3.6 acres protected by this method. Figure 11
shows stakes being driven in a fill and a fill with ‘protec-
tion work completed.

Because construction with the rows 3% feet apart and
stakes 18 inches apart was too rapidly depleting avail-
able funds, distances between rows and stakes on the
remaining 1.6 acres were increased. The distance
between rows was increased to 4 feet (on a few small
fills to 44, and 5 feet) and stakes were driven 2 feet apart
in the rows.

Costs per slope acre were $828 for the closer spacing
and $620 for the wider spacing.

After being subjected to intense rains during the
winter 1936-37, fills on which the closer spacing was
used did not appear to be definitely superior to fills with
wider spacing of rows. Failures or partial failures by
slipping of the wattles amounted to approximately 18
percent on the closer spaced sections, and to 8 percent
on the wider spaced sections. However, as the closer
spacing was used on the more exposed and larger fills,
these percentages cannot be directly compared. Fail-
ures of fills protected by brush wattles and hay are
shown in figure 12.

Fourteen slopes on route 74 were protected by the
brush wattles and hay or straw.

Wattiling method B (hay wattles)—Hay wattles were
placed on nine slopes having a total area of 1.3 slope
acres. Six of these fills had southern exposures, and
three were on stable-appearing fills having northern
exposures. Stakes were driven on contour lines, with a
vertical interval of 3 feet between rows; and were spaced
2 feet apart in individual rows. These stakes were
3 feet long and were driven 30 inches into the fill.
A shallow trench about 1 foot wide was dug immediately

Vol. 18, No. 9

a

SE ——————

OO i eee i | ee eee

| November 1937
; ee - i

mihi Gak OA D'S

181

Figure 12.—F aiLures oF Fiut Protection Work. Tue Finn
SHOWN IN B Is THE SAME Fini As Is SHOWN IN Figure 11, B.

above each row and the wattle was placed in this trench.
The wattles were formed by twisting and compacting
oat hay and straw into a continuous bundle 4 inches in
diameter. The wattles were lightly covered with earth
to hold them in place. The entire slope was then cov-
ered with a layer of straw 4 inches deep.

The cost per slope acre was $256. Fills protected by
Oe method withstood the winter rains remarkably
well.

Some slipping occurred on one of the large fills having
a northern exposure. This failure, which amounted to
25 percent of the area of the fill, represented less than
4 percent of the total area protected by hay wattles.
Partial failure of a fill protected by hay wattles is
illustrated in figure 13.

Although fills protected by hay wattles were more
favorably situated than were those protected by brush
wattles, the former proved satisfactory and might
possibly give good results if used on more exposed fills.

Duff method.—In most cases the fills were trenched
before duff or litter was placed. The duff consisted of
pine needles, dead leaves, small twigs, small pieces of
bark, grass, and leaf mold or other humus. This ma-
terial was scraped from any available areas and spread
on the fills to an average depth of 1 inch. As work
progressed duff became increasingly difficult and ex-
pensive to obtain in sufficient quantity to complete the
work.

The scarcity of material added somewhat to the cost,
which was $337 per acre. Even if duff had been more
readily available, it is doubtful that this method could
be employed as cheaply as the hay-wattle method.

The duff method was used on 12 less-exposed fills
having a total area of 1.7 slope acres. Only three of
these fills had northern exposures. Very good results
were obtained and failures during the first winter oc-
curred on only two fills, both having northern exposures.
The areas showing damage were but 5 percent of the
total area treated by this method.

On two low fills, special effort was made to encourage
the growth of native plants. Material on an area hav-
ing a rich growth of native grasses and flowers was re-
served for these fills, and all duff, litter, humus and a
small amount of topsoil were removed. This material
was transported to the fills and spread by hand methods
to a depth of about 1 inch. Detailed costs were not
kept on this work, but estimated costs were less than
$200 per slope-acre. These fills showed but slight ero-
sion after the first winter, and a very good growth of
native plants had been established by the following
spring.

Route 74 was, to a large extent, experimental in the
use of various types of treatment recommended by the
Landscape Division of the Forest Service. In general
the results obtained were satisfactory.

Figure 13.—PartTiaAL FAILURE ON A FILL ProtectEep BY Hay
WATTLES.

CONCLUSIONS

Fills protected by the various methods on the three
projects were subjected to severe weathering during the
winter of 1936-387. An inspection made in March 1937
revealed that the greater part of the work successfully
prevented excessive erosion.

In view of the good results obtained by planting willow
cuttings on route 20, it is thought that their use alone,
without wattles, would prove as satisfactory as the
combination.

On route 61, a comparison of the costs and _ per-
centages of failure for the three methods used indicates
that method B (brush in fill layers with hay mat) has
been the most satisfactory in the types of soil en-
countered.

While the soils found on route 61 washed to some
extent, the major difficulty was their tendency to absorb
and hold large quantities of water. The extreme weight
of the saturated areas caused slides. The ideal treat-
ment for such soils would probably be some form of
waterproofing to prevent saturation. This would gen-
erally be economically impossible, and the only known
alternative is to stabilize the saturated areas by provid-
ing some form of anchorage. Considerable stabiliza-
tion can be attained by compacting fills to their extreme
edges, and by incorporating all available rock in the
fill slopes. Of the various forms of anchorage tried, the
most efficient was that of placing rows of brush during
fill construction. In spite of some failures of fills pro-
tected by this method, it is believed that satisfactory
results could be obtained by spacing the brush layers
closer and by using long-stemmed brush.

The types of work done on route 74 cannot be
directly compared because the different methods were
used on fills subjected to different weathering conditions.
However, the results indicate that the methods canbe

182

PUBLIC ROADS

Vol. 18, No. 9

used as recommended with a fair assurance of satis-
factory results on favorable types of soil.

Soils of the type and grading of those found on route
74 are subject to extreme erosion. These soils have little
tendency to absorb and hold large quantities of mois-
ture. Thus, while large slides do not occur on properly
constructed fills, the surfaces ravel rapidly. The most
suitable treatment for such soils is apparently the placing
of some form of mat to hold the surface in place and
prevent concentration of water in gullies. On low fills,
where extensive concentration of water cannot occur,
coverings of hay, straw, forest litter, or duff seem gen-
erally effective. On high fills anchorage of such cover-

ings is necessary, and means of diffusing the water and
preventing its concentration must be provided. Wat-
tles and trenches, constructed in accordance with
methods outlined in the Forest Service specifications,
appear to be generally satisfactory for these purposes.

The results of the control work on these three projects
have been of particular value in demonstrating the
need of making thorough advance study of each pro-
posed treatment and of adapting the methods to be
used to each area treated. The fill soils should be
studied to determine their reactions to the particular
erosive forces to which they are exposed.

CHANNEL CHANGES ON FOREST HIGHWAYS

(Continued from page 175)

TABLE 2.— Comparison of curvature data for project B (&.6 miles long) as originally surveyed, as revised, and as constructed

| |
Maxi Number of curves of—
axi-
Line Curves cea mum |— 7 aT - E A

BENS 1° 2° 3° 4° 5° 6° 7 8° 10° 12° 14° 20° 22°
Num- Num- | Num- | Num- | Num- | Num- | Num- | Num- | Num- | Num- | Num- | Num- | Num- | Num-

ber |Degrees|Degrees| ber ber ber ber ber ber ber ber ber ber ber ber ber
Orizinali(1931) see ee eee 29 1, 230 22}|\-e es A en ees 5 3 5 1 2 53 1 2 1
Revised (1934) saa ee eee 17 666 8 2 1 2 Oh ee Sealine ee 1 56 see eee Bee ere eet i Se ees ne
Constructed.222-2- = ee 14 558 6 1 1 4 5 2 lo \ecsesec2}iesen-en)|-5222 0 a eee eee

FiacuRE 8.—Two CHANNEL

Tue Rip-

CuHancEs: A, THIS
CHANGE STRAIGHTENS A MEANDERING STREAM.
RAPPED Store Brars THE FuLL Forcr oF THE CURRENT

CHANNEL

AROUND THE Curve. B, THe Lararest Rocks ArE PLACED
AT THE BorromM OF THE RIPRAPPED SLOPE.

183

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U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1937

PUBLICATIONS of the BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS

Any of the following publications may be purchased from
the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C. As his office is not connected with the
Department and as the Department does not sell publications,
please send no remittance to the United States Department of
Agriculture.

ANNUAL REPORTS

Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1924.
5 cents.

Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1927.
5 cents.

Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1928.
5 cents.

Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1929.
10 cents.

Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1931.
10 cents.

Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1933.
5 cents.

Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1934.
10 cents.

Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1935.
5 cents.

Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1936.
10 cents.

DEPARTMENT BULLETINS

No. 583D...Reports on Experimental Convict Road Camp,
Fulton County, Ga. 25 cents.

No. 1279D..Rural Highway Mileage, Income, and Expendi-
tures, 1921 and 1922. 15 cents.

No. 1486D. .Highway Bridge Location. 15 cents.

TECHNICAL BULLETINS

No. 55T...Highway Bridge Surveys. 20 cents.

No. 265T...Electrical Equipment on Movable Bridges.

35 cents.

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS

No. 76MP..The Results of Physical Tests of Road-Building
Rock. 25 cents.

No. 191IMP.Roadside Improvement.
No. 272MP.Construction of Private Driveways.
No. 279MP. Bibliography on Highway Lighting.
The Taxation of Motor Vehicles in 1932. 35 cents.

Guides to Traffic Safety.

10 cents.

10 cents.

10 cents.
5 cents.

Federal Legislation and Rules and Regulations Relating to
Highway Construction. 15 cents.

An Economic and Statistical Analysis of Highway-Construction
Expenditures. 15 cents.

Highway Bond Calculations. 10 cents.

Single copies of the following publications may be obtained
from the Bureau of Public Roads upon request. They cannot
be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents.

SEPARATE REPRINT FROM THE YEARBOOK

No. 1036Y..Road Work on Farm Outlets Needs Skill and
Right Equipment.

TRANSPORTATION SURVEY REPORTS
Report of a Survey of Transportation on the State Highway
System of Ohio (1927).

Report of a Survey of Transportation on the State Highways
of Vermont (1927).

Report of a Survey of Transportation on the State Highways
of New Hampshire (1927).

Report of a Plan of Highway Improvement in the Regional
Area of Cleveland, Ohio (1928).

Report of a Survey of Transportation on the State Highways
of Pennsylvania (1928).

Report of a Survey of Traffic on the Federal-Aid Highway
Systems of Eleven Western States (1930).

UNIFORM VEHICLE CODE

Act I.—Uniform Motor Vehicle Administration, Registration,

Certificate of Title, and Antitheft Act.
Act II.—Uniform Motor Vehicle Operators’ and Chauffeurs’

License Act.
Act II1.—Uniform Motor Vehicle Civil Liability Act.
Act 1V.—Uniform Motor Vehicle Safety Responsibility Act.
Act V.—Uniform Act Regulating Traffic on Highways.
Model Traffic Ordinances.

A complete list of the publications of the Bureau of Public
Roads, classified according to subject and including the more
important articles in Pusrtic Roaps, may be obtained upon
request addressed to the U. S. Bureau of Public Roads, Willard
Building, Washington, D. C.

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