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The Quarterly Journal of
The Florida Academy of Sciences

A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research

J. C. Dickinson, Jr., Editor

VOLUME 238

Published by
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Gainesville, Florida

1960

DATES OF PUBLICATION

Number 1—July 8, 1960

Number 2—November 8, 1960
Number 3—December 29, 1960
Number 4—February 20, 1961

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 23

NUMBER 1

A preliminary Study on the Relationships between the Vege-
tation of a Mesic Hammock Community and a Sandhill
Community., By Carl D: Monk

Effect of Dietary L-triiodothyronine and Protein Level on the
Activity of the Succinoxidase of the Heart and Xanthine
Oxidase of the Liver of Swine. By R. L. Shirley, H. D.
Wallace, C. E. Norris, J. W. Carpenter and G. K. Davis.

Mammals of the Flint-Chattahoochee-Apalachicola River Area
of Florida, Georgia and Alabama. By Paul G. Pearson

The Growth and Development of Young Golden Mice,
Ochrotomys nuitalli. By James N: Layne

Scale and Scute Development of the Carangid Fish Caranx
erysos (Mitchill): By Frederick H. bern

Toward a Method in American Studies. By William Randel__

New Populations of West Indian Reptiles and Amphibians in
Southeastem Florida, (By) Wayne King

NUMBER 2

The Everglades National Park: A Wilderness Reserved.

By ‘Luella N° Dembaush =. 3s |

On the Grading and Identification of Domestic Commercial
Shrimps (Family Penaeidae) with a Tentative World List
of Commercial Penaeids. By Bonnie Eldred and Robert
1 LSU ONGC easel ta IA 0 ee ene 89

An Appraisal of a Current Recommendation of the American
Bankers Association. By Harold H. Kastner, Jr. 119

The Fishes of the Genus Pomacentrus in Florida and the
hvestemmbahamas. By Luis Rene Rivas... 130

Notes on the Causes of Discolored Water Along the South-
western Coast of Florida. By Robert F. Hutton 163

A Note on the Occurrence of the Shrimp, Penaeus brasiliensis
Latreille, in Biscayne Bay, Florida. By Bonnie Eldred 164

Spear of Swordfish, Xiphias gladius Linnaeus, Imbedded in
a Silk Shark, Eulamia floridana (Schroeder and ee
NEY \MHICCIM AE SEOTCIO Vicor J oO 165

Polyphosphoric Acid in an Undergraduate Laboratory
PxpemmentnBunkrank D. Popp 92 166

A Note on the Feeding Habits of the West Indian Sea Star
Oreaster reticulatus (Linnaeus). By Lowell P. Thomas 167

File Cabinet Research: The Adipose Tissue of American

Seicncemloday. By Robert M. Ingle 168
iINewsaancdmNotes. Edited By J. E. Hutchman_.._.. 170
NUMBER 3

The Caudal Lure of Various Juvenile Snakes.

mime apie Ne hc 173
Mental Health Interests of College Students. By James H.

Wiitiamsand Helen M. Wilhamss 0 201
Factors Determining Habitats of Certain Sulfur Bacteria.

UICC ORME CCK CY. aE 215

Ecology and Distribution of Marine Algae Found in Tampa
Bay, Boca Ciega Bay and at Tarpon Springs, Florida.
IS MMROMCO Or SEMINIpS 18s ve Ny ee 202

INewssamd Notes. Edited by J. E. Hutchman._. 961

NUMBER 4

Pregnancy Diagnosis in Selected Mammals Using the Male
Anuran Test. By Keith L. Hansen and John C. Thurber~

Some Growth Changes in the Stone Crab, Menippe mercenaria
(Say). BysRaymond ‘By Manning =

Tolerance of a Fresh-water Snail, Marisa cornuarietis L., to
Sea Water. By Burton P. Hunt]. See

Gray Squirrels Larcenously Feeding at Cracker-vending
Machines. By David K. Caldwell and Melba C. Caldwell

Chemical Microbiotic Relationships in Certain Florida Surface
Water Supplies of Flowing Waters in Florida. By James
B, Lackey and Georze B. Moran

An Annotated Check-list of Trematodes and Cestodes and
Their Vertebrate Hosts from Northwest Florida.
By Horace Lojtin.. eee

Effect of Age on Lipid Phosphorus, Ribo- and Desoxyribonu-
cleic Acids of the Heart and Muscle of Cattle. By R. L.
Shirley, A. C. Warnick, A. Z. Palmer and G. K. Davis__.

A Significant New Flagellate from Warm Mineral Springs,
Florida: By W.'T. Caleway Ee

Note on Paguristes cadenati, A Hermit Crab New to Florida.
By Anthony J. Provenzano, jr,

The Ecology of Marine Plants of Crystal Bay, Florida. By
Ronald C. Phillips

News and Notes

265

285

325

Quarterly Journal

of the

Florida Academy
of Sciences

Voi. 23 March. 1960 No. I

Contents

Monk—A Preliminary Study on the Relationships Between
the Vegetation of a Mesic Hammock Community and
me eonMimcommunity 2 1

Shirley, et al—Effect of Dietary L-Triiodothyronine and Pro-
tein Level on the Activity of the Succinoxidase of the

Heart and Xanthine Oxidase of the Liver of Swine________. 18
Pearson—Mammals of the Flint-Chattahoochee-Apalachicola
River Area of Florida, Georgia and Alabama —_________ ey ie
Layne—The Growth and Development of Young Golden Mice,
Mmrameeme smite 36
Berry—Scale and Scute Development of the Carangid Fish
Deammmenisos (viitchi|) 59
Randel—Toward a Method in American Studies __-__. 67

eG Ge we 71

VoL. 28 Marcu, 1960 No. 1

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research
Editor—J. C. Dickrnson, JR.

Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences
Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla.

The business offices of the Journau are centralized at the University of Florida,
Gainesville, Florida. Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should
be addressed to the Editor, Florida State Museum. Business Communications
should be addressed to A. G. Smith, Treasurer, Department of Physics. All
exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be addressed to
The Gift and Exchange Section, University of Florida Libraries.

Subscription price, Five Dollars a year
Mailed July 8, 1960

tae QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 23 Marcu, 1960 No;

A PRELIMINARY STUDY ON THE RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN THE VEGETATION OF A MESIC
HAMMOCK COMMUNITY AND A
SANDHILL COMMUNITY

Cart D. Monk
University of Florida

INTRODUCTION

The forest vegetation of northern Florida consists of a mosaic
of community types. Perhaps the most widespread community is
some variant of the low pine flatwoods which forms the vegetation
matrix. The low pine flatwoods may give way on better drained
soils to a sandhill type of community if fires are prevalent or to
some type of hammock community (an unflooded forest of predom-
inantly broad-leaved evergreen trees) if fires have been eliminated
for some time (Harper 1914, Laessle 1942). On the poorer drained
soils the low pine flatwoods may give way to some variety of swamp
forest, i.e. cypress swamp, mixed hardwood swamp, or bayhead
(Laessle 1942).

Perhaps one of the most influential factors involved in the pres-
ent expression of the vegetation in northern Florida concerns the
presence or absence of fire (Garren 1943). For several decades,
ecologists and foresters have recognized the important role that
periodic fires have played in the maintenance of the southeastern
conifer forest. In northern Florida there are two important forest
types within the southeastern conifer forest that are fire maintained
communities. One of these is situated on poorly drained soils and
the other on excessively drained soils. The community on poorly
drained soils is commonly referred to as the low pine flatwoods.
This community is dominated by some combination of slash pine
(Pinus elliottii Engelm.), longleaf pine (P. palustris Mill.), and pond

2 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

pine (P. serotina Michx.). The community occupying excessively
drained soils is called the sandhill community. The sandhill com-
munity is usually dominated by longleaf pine and turkey oak
(Quercus laevis Walt.), however, a variety of other oak species may
be locally dominant. When these two communities are protected
from fire the character of the community begins to change as a
result of plant succession. With continued protection from fire
the resulting community is the mesic hammock or the climax com-
munity (Laessle 1942). Laessle (1958) has presented preliminary
data on rates of succession in permanent quadrats in these com-
munities.

Northwest of Gainesville, Florida on the Devil's Millhopper
Road is located a tract of several thousand acres of forest known
locally as the San Felasco area. A large portion of this tract sup-
ports low pine flatwoods, sandhill, and mesic hammock communi-
ties. The entire area has been cleared or selectively logged in the
past, however, one area of about 20 acres supports a good mesic
hammock. A sandhill community is immediately adjacent to the
hammock. The last recorded fire in the sandhill community was
in 1955.

The proximity of a community approaching a climax condition
with a fire maintained community which has been free of fire for
5 years afforded an excellent opportunity to study the successful
relationship between the two communities.

The author wishes to express his gratitude to Mrs. Helen Phifer
Glass for permission to use the study area.

METHODS

Vegetation: A transect 250 m. x 20 m. was established in a
sandhill community and an adjoining hammock community. One
hundred meters of the transect occurred in the sandhill community,
50 meters in the transition zone, and 100 meters in the mesic ham-
mock community. The 250 m. x 20 m. transect was subdivided into
twenty-five 10 m. x 20 m. segments. The diameter of all trees over
1 inch d.b.h. was measured in each 10 m. x 20 m. segment.

Unoccupied space in the canopy and understory, and cover by
species in the shrub layer were recorded along a 250 meter line
transect which extended through the same area covered by the
larger transect.

MESIC HAMMOCK AND SANDHILL COMMUNITY 3

Soil: Composite soil samples from the 0-2, 2-6, 6-12, and 12-24
inch levels were collected in the sandhill community. transition
zone, and mesic hammock community. The samples were made
by placing together soil collected at the same level from six holes
in a given community. A total of three composite samples were
collected at each of the above depths in the sandhill and mesic
hammock communities while two composite samples were taken
from each depth in the transition zone. Before any tests were made
on the samples, each composite sample was thoroughly mixed and
then passed through a 2 mm. sieve.

The Bouyoucos hydrometer method was used for mechanical
analysis. Organic matter was determined by oxidizing the material
with potassium dichromate then titrating with ferrous sulfate. This
method faciliated the determination of carbon without the inter-
ference of the charcoal in the soil. Percent nitrogen was deter-
mined by the Kjeldahl method. Parts per million of Ca, Mg, P,
and K were determined by the Soil Testing Service at the University
of Florida.

RESULTS

Soil: The soil occupied by the hammock community has been
classified and mapped as Arredondo fine sand (Taylor et al. 1954).
The Arredondo soil is derived from phosphatic sands. The soil type
of the sandhill community is referred to as Lakeland fine sand.
Acid sands served as the parent material of the Lakeland soil
series. Whenever Lakeland and Arredondo soils are in juxtapo-
sition the result is a transitional soil. Data obtained from analyses
of the composite soil samples taken along the transect suggest that
the transition zone soil is more closely related to the Arredondo soil
type than to the Lakeland soil type. This is indicated by the fact
that the Arredondo and transition soils have a higher Ca content
than the Lakeland soil.

Most of the tests on soil samples collected along a transect which
extended from a sandhill community across a transition zone into a
mesic hammock placed the hammock and sandhill communities at
the two extremes with the transition zone intermediate (Table 1).
The hammock soil had the least sand and the most silt while the
sandhill soil had the most sand and the least silt. The percent clay
was about the same in the three areas with the possible exception
of the smaller amount in the 0-2 inch layer in the sandhill site.

JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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MESIC HAMMOCK AND SANDHILL COMMUNITY 5

Percent carbon, organic matter, and nitrogen were highest in
the hammock and lowest in the sandhill community. The carbon-
nitrogen ratios exhibited a reversal in the above trend.

Parts per million of Ca, Mg, P, and K were lowest in the sand-
hill soil and highest in the mesic hammock soil with the exception
of more Ca and P in the transition soil.

Charcoal was present in the soil from all of the communities.
No quantitative measurements were made, however, when the soils
were sieved, there appeared to be several-fold more in the sandhill
soil. Charcoal was observed to a depth of 24 inches in only the
sandhill community. The presence of charcoal at the 24 inch
depth in the sandhill community may be due to the activity of
pocket gophers, gopher turtles, or other animals which constantly
mix the soils of the different horizons.

Vegetation: The species compositional relationship between a
sandhill community, a mesic hammock community, and the transi-
tion zone, is partially shown when species basal area data, collected

along a transect which traversed the above communities, are con-
sidered together (Table 2).

TABLE 2

PERCENT BASAL AREA FOR ALL TREES WITH MORE THAN 1% OF
154.4 SQUARE FEET BASAL AREA. AREA SAMPLED, 250 M. x 20 M.

% Total Basal Area

Species Hammock Transition Sandhill
Magnolia grandiflora L. ale ——. —
Carpinus caroliniana Walt. 5.8 — —
Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K. Koch Boll —— —
Cornus florida L. 1.9 —— —
Ilex opaca Ait. 1.0 —— _—
Quercus laurifolia Michx. 39.4 0.8 —
Carya tomentosa Nutt. ifs) 3.3 —
Quercus falcata Michx. Ital 10.3 t
Pinus palustris Mill. — 0.8 Syl
Quercus laevis Walt. ——. t 14.9

Total % Basal Area 64.2 522) 20.

6 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The mesic hammock is dominated by laurel oak (Quercus lauri-
folia Michx.) and southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora L.).
The third and fourth important canopy species are white hickory
(Carya tomentosa Nutt.) and southern red oak (Quercus falcata
Michx.). White hickory is scattered throughout the hammock
though it is best represented in that portion which is fringed by
the transition zone. The southern red oak which occurred was en-
countered only in this outer portion. It is significant that most of
the larger southern red oak occurred along the contact between
the hammock and the transition zone. Four understory species,
American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana Walt.), eastern hop-
hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K. Koch), dogwood (Cornus
florida L.), and American holly (Ilex opaca Ait.), contribute ma-
terially to basal area in the mesic hammock (Table 2).

It is important to note that Pinus glabra Walt., Quercus nigra L.,
QO. michauxti Nutt., Osmanthus americanus (L.) Gray, Persea bor-
bonia (LL) Spreng., Prunus serotina Enrh., Cercis canadensis L., Tilia
sp., and Ulmus sp. were occasionally encountered in the mesic
hammock as trees and not in the transition zone nor in the sandhill
community.

The transition zone is characterized by southern red oak and
white hickory. These are the only two important trees in the
canopy of this zone (Table 2). Three other tree species were en-
countered in the transition zone as small trees. The laurel oaks
were young and they were more abundant on the hammock side
while turkey oak and longleaf pine were on the sandhill side of
the transition zone.

The sandhill community is dominated by turkey oak and long-
leaf pine. The importance of longleaf pine has been lessened in
the past by logging.

The data collected along the 250 meter line transect which
traversed the hammock-transition zone-sandhill community se-
quence are given in Table 3. The x’s in Table 3 indicate the com-
munity in which the species of the shrub layer occurred on the
transect. The asterisk denotes those species which contributed
at least 1% to shrub cover along the 250 meter transect.

Thirteen species were encountered only in the hammock, 8 in
the hammock and transition zone, 15 only in the transition zone,
1 in the transition zone and sandhill, 3 only in the sandhill, 1 in all
three communities, and none in both the hammock and sandhill.

TABLE 3
COVER DATA COLLECTED ALONG A 250 METER LINE TRANSECT.
100 METERS OCCURRED BOTH IN THE HAMMOCK AND
SANDHILL COMMUNITIES AND 50 METERS IN
THE TRANSITION ZONE. SEE TEXT FOR
EXPLANATION OF TABLE.

Species Hammock Transition Sandhill

Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K. Koch
Carpinus caroliniana Walt.

Prunus caroliniana (Mill.) Ait.

Ilex opaca Ait.

Tilia sp.

Euonymus americanus L.

Bignonia capreolata L.

Xanthovylum clava-herculis L.
Quercus michauxii Nutt.

Fraxinus sp.

Quercus nigra L.

Ulmus sp.

Smilax spp.

Callicarpa americana L.

Cercis canadensis L.

Osmanthus americanus (L.) Gray
Cornus florida L.

Smilax bona-nox L.

Quercus laurifolia Michx.

Carya tomentosa Nutt.

Vitis rotundifolia Michx.

Rhus copallina leucantha (Jacq.) DC
Quercus falcata Michx.

Vitis rufotomentosa Small —--
Liquidambar styraciflua L. a
Myrica cerifera L. —.
Sassafras albidium (Nutt.) Nees —
Viburnum spp. —
Persea borbonia (L.) Spreng. ——
Erythrina herbacea L. —-
Vaccinum caesium Greene —
Gelsemium sempervirens (L.) Ait. ——-
Ascyrum sp. —_—
Smilax glauca Walt. nae
Cornus stricta Lam. —
Castanea pumila (L.) Mill. —-
Pinus elliottii Engelm. —-
Asimina angustifolia A. Gray ——
Quercus laevis Walt. -_—
Chrysobalanus oblongifolius Michx. —— —
Asimina obovata (Willd.) Nash —— —

% Unoccupied space in shrub layer ri 45
% Overlap in shrub layer 5 36
% Unoccupied space in canopy 16 9

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8 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The occurrence of species along the transect indicates that the
hammock and transition zone are more closely related floristically
in the shrub layer than are the sandhill and transition zone. That
this is true is shown by the fact that seedlings (<1 foot in height)
and saplings (>1 foot in height< 1 inch d.b.h. (of two of the more
important canopy species (laurel oak and white hickory) in the ham-
mock community contribute more than 1% each to cover in the
shrub layer of the transition zone.

Total unoccupied space in the canopy, understory, and shrub
layers of the three communities gives some indication of their
vegetational structure. Stratification is best developed in the ham-
mock with a canopy, understory, and shrub layer. An understory
is absent in the transition zone and in the sandhill community. It
should be pointed out, however, that seedlings and saplings of un-
derstory species of dogwood, redbud (Cercis canadensis L.), and
American olive (Osmanthus americanus (L.) Gray) are present in
the shrub layer of the transition zone while such species are absent
from the shrub layer of the sandhill community.

~The shrub layer of the transition zone has several interesting
features: (1) it has the highest total cover of the three shrub layers
and (2) seven of the species in this layer are typically mesic ham-
mock tree species.
Discussion

Any attempt to explain the successional relationship between
the mesic hammock and sandhill communities must consider (1)
fire, (2) soil, and (3) vegetation. The partial separation of these in
the following discussion is done to faciliate presentation—not be-
cause they are separate entities.

Fire: It is not known how long this area has been subjected
to fires or how many fires have occurred in each of the communi-
ties. However, if the relative abundance of charcoal present in
the soil gives some indication of the frequency and intensity of fire,
it can be definitely stated that fire has been more prevalent in the
sandhill community.

The presence of charcoal in the surface soil of the hammock
suggests that fire has moved through that community, however, the
small amount of charcoal indicates that fire has not been as fre-
quent as in the sandhill community. This means that most of the
fires probably originate in the sandhill area and that most of these

MESIC HAMMOCK AND SANDHILL COMMUNITY 9

fires die out once they reach the edge of the hammock. Occasion-
ally an intense fire may move through the hammock consuming the
litter. A slow moving ground fire in the hammock would kill the
susceptible seedlings and saplings of the hammock trees without
greatly damaging the larger hammock trees. Frequent fires would
tend to prohibit the establishment of the hammock species in the
sandhill community. Thus frequent fires would tend to develop
sharp boundaries between the two communities. This is partially
illustrated by the narrowness (50 m.) of the transition zone.

Soil: Various soil analyses show that the soil of the transition
zone is intermediate to the hammock and sandhill soils in most char-
acteristics. However, the higher calcium content in the transition
soil suggests that the hammock and transition zone soils are more
closely related than are the sandhill and transition zone soils.

Thus soil and fire appear to be interrelated in some way in the
maintenance of the hammock and sandhill communities on the
two soil types. The interrelationship is probably connected with
the moisture supplying power of the soil. Average percent silt
and clay respectively for the 0-24 inch interval in the hammock,
transition zone, and sandhill soils are: 1.6, 4.7; 1.5, 3.0; 1.8, 1.9.
This alone would establish a moisture gradient with the sandhill
community occupying the drier end. It should be noted here that
the surface 2 inches of soil in the sandhill area had only 0.9 per
cent clay (Table 1).

The presence of organic matter in soils increase the water hold-
ing capacity. This becomes an important factor in sandy soils.
Organic matter determinations reveal that the hammock soil had
2.5 per cent while 1.2 per cent occurred in the transition zone soil
and 0.9 per cent in the sandhill soil. This coupled with percent
silt and clay should establish an even sharper moisture gradient.

The scarcity of organic matter and clay in the surface two inches
of soil in the sandhill community create an extremely xeric situa-
tion. This is important in two ways. (1) The xeric condition makes
the accumulated litter more inflamable. (2) The chances of a suc-
cessful introduction of hammock species between fires are decreased.

Vegetation: Species respond differently to fire. The sandhill
community is composed of species which can withstand frequent
fire while the hammock species, particularly the young individuals,
cannot. This fact immediately segregates hammock and _ sand-

10 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

hill species into two distinct communities. If the sandhill com-
munity is subjected to fire, hammock species cannot invade except
through the transition zone and then the invasion depends upon
the frequency and intensity of fire. If fires are intense enough to
burn into the transition zone, hammock species cannot survive long
enough to grow to a fire tolerant age. If fires are kept out of the
transition zone for a number of years, hammock species can invade
and reach a fire tolerant size and thereby the hammock successfully
encroaches onto the sandhill community. The reversal, sandhill
community encroaching onto the hammock community, is more
difficult. Once a hammock has been established, it is difficult for
fire to destroy the community. The hammock trees may be killed
back but they root sprout so rapidly that the hammock is usually
maintained.

The sandhill community has several characteristics which make
it more inflamable than the other communities involved. (1) The
openness of the sandhill community (59 per cent unoccupied space
in the canopy, no understory, and 87 per cent unoccupied space in
the shrub layer, Table 3) permits drying winds to pass through,
thus making the litter more inflamable. (2) The accumulation of
dead leaves of wiregrass and other herbaceous plants add consider-
able fuel to the sandhill community.

The distribution of species along the 250 meter transects il-
lustrate to some degree the successional mechanism. The presence
of hammock species (laurel oak, white hickory, flowering dogwood,
redbud, and American olive) as transgressives in the transition zone
suggests that the hammock is encroaching on the sandhill com-
munity. Also the existence of the larger southern red oak along the
hammock suggests that the present hammock margin was once
transitional.

The great concentration of flowering dogwood and white hickory
in the edge of the hammock, coupled with the abundant representa-
tion of transgressives of these species in the transition zone, sug-
gests that these two species join laurel oak as being the earlier ham-
mock species to invade the transition zone.

The transition zone between the mesic hammock and sandhill
communities in the San Felasco area is not simply a mixture of spe-
cies from these two communities, however, the transition zone
floristically is more closely related to a variant of the sandhill com-
munity. The sandhill community in northern Florida is typically

MESIC HAMMOCK AND SANDHILL COMMUNITY 11

dominated by longleaf pine and turkey oak, however, several major
variants exist. One of these is dominated by longleaf pine and
southern red oak. Soil differences are probably the most important
factors segregating these two variants. The turkey oak variant
appears to be more closely related to the excessively drained soils
which usually are derived from acid sands whereas the southern
red oak variant appears to be related to the better sandhill sites.
This often means that the southern red oak sites have more silt
and clay which augment the moisture supplying capacity of the
soils. Another important sandhill variant has sand post oak (Quer-
cus stellata margaretta (Ashe) Sarg.) as a co-dominant.

An interesting phenomenon is seen when various characteristics
of the transition zone are compared with the hammock and sandhill
communities. The soil of the transition zone appears to be more
closely related to the hammock soil than it is to the sandhill soil.
On the other hand the canopy in the transition zone, dominated by
southern red oak, is closely related to a major variant of the sand-
hill community while the shrub layer of the transition zone with
seedlings and saplings of laurel oak, white hickory, flowering dog-
wood, redbud ,and American olive, is beginning to show character-
istics of the hammock.

An interpretation of the hammock-transition zone-sandhill com-
munity sequence, dominated by laurel oak, southern red oak, and
turkey oak respectively, must consider the interaction of fire, soil
moisture, and light. The differential response of these three species
to fire, soil moisture, and light are as follows: (1) turkey oak and
southern red oak are fire tolerant, (2) laurel oak is the most shade
tolerant of these three species, and (8) laurel oak, southern red oak,
and turkey oak become segregated along a moisture gradient with
laurel oak occupying the more mesic sites, turkey oak the more
xeric sites, and southern red oak the intermediate sites.

SUMMARY

Soil and vegetation data were collected along transects which
extended from a sandhill community across a transition zone into
a mesic hammock community. The sandhill community is dom-
inated by longleaf pine and turkey oak, the transition zone by
southern red oak, and the hammock by laurel oak and magnolia.

12 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The presence of periodic fires normally prohibit the invasion
of hammock species into the sandhill community. The sandhill
community involved in this study has been free of fire for 5 years
and as a result the hammock community is beginning to encroach
onto the sandhill community through the transition zone. Laurel
oak, white hickory, and flowering dogwood appear to be the most
important species which advance the hammock onto the transition
zone.

The transition zone is floristically more closely related to the
sandhill community than it is to the hammock. In Florida there are
several major variants of the sandhill community. One of the im-
portant variants involves the replacement of turkey oak by southern
red oak. The turkey oak variant occupies the drier sandhill sites
while the southern red oak occupies the more mesic sandhill sites.
The southern red oak of the transition zone is apparently related
to the past frequent fires and the improved soil moisture.

LITERATURE CITED
GARREN, K. H.

1943. Effects of fire on vegetation of the southeastern United States. Bot.
Rev. 9: 617-654.

HARPER, R. M.
1914. The geography and vegetation of northern Florida. Fla. Geol. Surv.
6th Ann. Rept.

LAESSLE, A. M.

1942, The plant communities of the Welaka Area. Univ. of Fla. Publ.
Biol. Sci. Series.

1958. A report on succession studies of selected plant communities of the
University of Florida Conservation Reserve, Welaka, Florida. Fla.
Meads Scie, 21 1Ol= 12:

EAVIEORSSAG Menetwal:

1954. Soil Survey, Alachua County, Florida. Univ. of Fla. Expt. Sta.
Series 1940, No. 10.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(1), 1960.

EFFECT OF DIETARY L-TRHIODOTHYRONINE AND
PROTEIN LEVEL ON THE ACTIVITY OF THE
SUCCINOXIDASE OF THE HEART AND
XANTHINE OXIDASE OF THE LIVER
OF SWINE?

R. L. Samiry, H. D. Watiace, C. E. Norris, J. W. CARPENTER and
G. K. Davis

University of Florida

L-triiodothyronine is found in the animal body along with thy-
roxine and is quite active biologically (Pitt-Rivers, 1954). Thyroxine
preserves the activity of succinic-cytochrome C reductase in rat
heart homogenates, but does not increase the original activity (Krip-
ke and Bever, 1956). Wiswell (1955) observed that neither thyroxine
or triiodothyronine appreciably increased the oxygen uptake of
mitochondria from the heart of rats. Wainio et al (1954) found that
rats deprived of all protein had no decrease in succinic dehydrogen-
ase activity in the heart except for the total activity which was re-
lated to the size of the heart, which was reduced. Rats deprived
of protein were demonstrated to have a decrease in xanthine oxidase
activity in the liver by McQuarrie and Venosa (1945). Since then
others have observed this decline in xanthine oxidase activity in
the livers of rats, dogs and rabbits fed low protein diets or diets
deficient in certain amino acids.

The present study was made to determine the effect of dietary
triiodothyronine and protein level on the succinoxidase activity of
the heart and the xanthine oxidase activity of the liver of swine.

EXPERIMENTAL

_ Thirty-two weanling pigs of mixed breeding were divided on
the basis of sex, litter and weight into four dietary groups. Two
groups were fed 14 and 21 percent protein, respectively. Each
of these protein groups were subdivided into two groups each that
received 0 and 75 mg. (milligrams) of sodium L-triiodothyronine
per ton of feed, respectively. All dietary groups received equal
amounts of steamed bone meal, ground limestone, vitamins, trace

* Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series, No. 1059.

14 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

minerals and salt. The protein level was varied by altering the
ground corn and soybean oil meal concentrations. For details of
the diets see the study of Wallace et al. (1959) who reported on
the feedlot performance and carcass characteristics of these swine.

The animals were slaughtered by bleeding as their live weights
reached 192 = 7 pounds, and samples of the left ventricle of the
heart and liver were obtained within 15 minutes of the time of
sacrifice and frozen immediately at minus 8°C. Analyses were
made within a few days. The succinoxidase was determined mano-
metrically by the method of Schneider and Potter (1948) and xan-
thine oxidase by the manometric method of Dhungat and Sreeniy-
asan (1954). Statistical analyses of the data were made according
to Snedecor (1956).

a 32 = PER MG.N X 10
Ca enol = PER GM. WET WT,
<I >
Ey ee
ra ‘
& w 20
x
r<¢
Zz FiI6
—= a
=)
O 12
O mp
DG
Oo =
a
O
HORMONE, MG./TON O 75 f°) 75
PROTEIN, % 14 14 21 al

Fig. 1. Effect of dietary protein and L-triiodothyronine on succinoxidase
activity of the heart of swine. Each bar gives the mean value of 8 swine.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In Fig. 1 the data are presented graphically that were obtained
for the succinoxidase activity of the left ventricle of the swine fed
the two levels of protein, with and without L-triiodothyronine.
The values are expressed as ml. (milliliters) of oxygen uptake per

EFFECT OF DIETARY L-TRIIODOTHYRONINE AND PROTEIN 15

hour per gram of wet weight and per mg. of nitrogen present. On
the wet weight basis the four dietary groups all gave approximately
24 to 25 ml. of oxygen uptake per hour per gram of sample. On
the nitrogen basis all four dietary groups gave values of approxi-
mately 0.87 to 0.90 ml. of oxygen uptake per hour per mg. of nitro-
gen. The groups that received the hormone were slightly lower
than the others but the differences were not significant. These data
are in agreement with those of Wainio et al. (1954) on rats in re-
gard to the effect of protein.

a
Bless © ENDOGENOUS 0, UPTAKE
SS XANTHINE OXIDASE
za 7
©
=> 6
ui
Ss 5
avg
jal
BE
ene
oe ee
=X
fe) _
HORMONE,MG/T, 0 75
PROTEIN, % 14 14 2\ 2\ 14 14 21 21

Fig. 2. Effect of dietary protein and L-triiodothyronine on xanthine oxi-
dase activity and endogenous O: uptake of liver of swine. Each bar gives the
mean values of 8 swine.

In Fig. 2 data are shown graphically that were obtained for
xanthine oxidase activity and endogenous oxygen uptake of the
liver of the four dietary groups. The swine that received the tri-
iodothyronine had more xanthine oxidase activity at both protein
levels. Greater activity was also observed in the 21 than in the
14 percent protein dietary groups. The swine fed the 14 percent
protein ration, with and without the hormone, had 2.47 and 1.78
pl. (microliters) of oxygen uptake per mg. of nitrogen per hour,
respectively; while the corresponding values for the 21 percent
protein groups were 3.03 and 2.58, respectively. These variations

16 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

approached significance. They indicate that the hormone and high
percentages of protein in the diet stimulate xanthine oxidase activity
of the liver. Low protein diets have been shown to decrease xan-
thine oxidase activity in the liver of dogs as well as rats (Westerfeld
and Richert, 1954; Bothwell and Williams, 1954).

The decreased values for endogenous oxygen uptake in the liver
(Fig. 2) of the swine fed the triiodothyronine indicate that an in-
creased metabolic activity due to the hormone has decreased sub-
strates available for oxidation. The decrease approached signifi-
cance. Harper et al. (1953) observed a deficiency of the amino acid
threonine in the rat gave a decrease in endogenous respiration
of the liver.

Ribo- and desoxyribonucleic acids were also determined in the
hearts of the swine by the Ogur and Rosen perchloric acid extrac-
tion ultraviolet absorption method. The RNA varied among the
four dietary groups from 1.81 to 1.95 mg. per gram wet weight, and
corresponding values of DNA ranged from 1.50 to 1.59. These
values indicate that RNA and DNA in the heart are quite resistant
to this hormone and variation of protein in the diet.

SUMMARY

Thirty-two weanling swine were divided into four dietary
groups. Group 1 and 3 were fed 14 and 21 percent protein, re-
spectively. Corresponding groups 2 and 4 also received 75 mg. of
sodium L-triiodothyronine per ton of feed. The animals were
slaughtered when they reached 192 + 7 pounds of live weight and
samples of left ventricle and liver were obtained.

Succinoxidase activity in the heart varied among the dietary
groups from 24 to 25 ml. of oxygen uptake per hour per gram of
wet sample, and corresponding values of 0.87 to 0.90 ml. were
obtained per mg. of nitrogen present. The swine that received the
triiodothyronine had more xanthine oxidase activity in the liver
than those deprived of the hormone, and greater activity was ob-
served in the 21 than in the 14 percent protein groups. Endogen-
ous oxygen uptake in the liver was decreased in those animals that
were fed the hormone. The variations due to the above dietary
treatments did not reach the 5 percent level of significance.

Ribo- and desoxyribonucleic acids were also determined in the
hearts but were not found to be affected by the diets.

EFFECT OF DIETARY L-TRIODOTHYRONINE AND PROTEIN 17

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writers wish to thank Fay T. Warner, J. F. Easley, Dr.
G. E. Combs and Dr. A. Z. Palmer for indispensable aid in this
study. This study was financed in part by a grant-in-aid from the
National Heart Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (H-1318).

These data were presented at the National Meeting of the Fed.
Amer. Soc. Exptl. Biol., Atlantic City, N. J., April 13-17, 1959.

LITERATURE CITED

BOTHWELL, J. W., and J. N. WILLIAMS, JR.

1954. Effects of lysine deficiency upon enzyme activity in rat liver. Proc.
Soc. Exptl. Biol. Med. 85: 544-547.

DHUNGAT, S. B., and A. SREENIVASAN

1954. The use of pyrophosphate buffer for the manometric assay of xanthine
oxidase. J. Biol. Chem. 208: 845-851.

HARPER, A. E., W. J. MONSON, G. LITWACK, D. A. BENTON, J. N.
WILLIAMS, JR., and C. A. ELVEHJEM

1953. Effect of partial deficiency of threonine on enzyme activity and fat
deposition in liver. Proc. Soc. Exptl. Biol. Med. 84: 414-417.

KRIPKE, B. J., and A. T. BEVER

1956. Thyroxine and succinate oxidation. Arch. Biochem. and Biophys.
60: 320-328.

McQUARRIE, E. B., and A. T. VENOSA

1945. The effect of dietary protein intake on the xanthine oxidase activity
of rat liver. Science 101: 493-494.

PITT-RIVERS, ROSALIND

1954. Metabolic effects of compounds related to thyroxine in vivo: thyronine
derivatives. J. Clin. Endocrinology and Metabolism 14: 1444-1450.

SCHNEIDER, W. C., and V. R. POTTER

1943. The assay of animal tissues for respiratory enzymes II. Succinic
dehydrogenase and cytochrome oxidase. J. Biol. Chem. 149: 217-227.

SNEDECOR, GEORGE
1956. Statistical Methods. Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa.

WAINIO, W. W., J. B. ALLISON, B. EICHEL, P. PERSON and G. R.
ROWLEY

1954. Enzymes in protein depletion. II Oxidation enzymes of heart ven-
tricle. J. Nutr. 52: 565-578.

18 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

WALLACE, H.-D., C. E. NORRIS, G. E. COMBS, G. E. McCABE, and

A. Z. PALMER
1959. Influence of triiodothyronine on feedlot performance and carcass char-
acteristics of growing-finishing swine. J. Ani. Sci. 18: 1018-1024.

WESTERFELD, W. W., and D. A. RICHERT
1954. Acetaldehyde utilization by protein-depleted dogs and rats. Proc.
Soc. Exptl. Biol. Med. 87: 524-526.

WISWELL, JOHN G.
1955. Metabolic activity in vitro of some analogs of thyroxine. Am. J.
Physiol. 182: 301-306.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(1), 1960.

MAMMALS OF THE
FLINT-CHATTAHOOCHEE-APALACHICOLA RIVER AREA
OF FLORIDA, GEORGIA AND ALABAMA

PauL G. PEARSON
Rutgers—The State University

INTRODUCTION

The general features of the region now occupied by Lake Sem-
inole, a lake impounded by the Jim Woodruff Dam, have been
described by Hubbell, Laessle, and Dickinson (1956). That study
recorded the topography, vegetation and other major features of
the habitats in the Flint-Chattahoochee-Apalachicola drainage sys-
tems. It also outlined the studies that had been undertaken by
investigators associated with the Florida State Museum and financed
by the U. S. National Park Service and the National Science Founda-
tion.

The cursory investigations of the mammals of the region were
begun after much of the area had been bulldozed or otherwise
altered from its original state. I sampled the small mammal fauna
from 7 June through 3 August, 1955. During this period and for
more than a year afterward, Miss Bette Starner sampled the large
mammal fauna. Other specimens were occasionally collected by
investigators of other fauna or flora.

METHOpDS

The mammals of this region were surveyed largely by trapping,
although records of habitat occurrence were obtained by evidence
of tracks, scats or other signs. Bats were usually collected by shoot-
ing, but some were taken by hand from a cave.

The major trapping effort was with the Sherman Live (S) trap
measuring 2 x 214 x 614 inches. These traps were baited with oat-
meal, cornmeal and/or peanut butter and were usually spaced 50
feet apart on lines that were 50 feet apart. A small amount of
trapping was done with Museum Special (MS) snap traps and with
collassable wire-box traps measuring 9 x 9 x 27 inches. Scents
generally were used to attract the larger mammals into steel traps
placed in sets at the side of roads or paths.

20 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The nomenclature for the habitat types used below follows the
classification and descriptions by Hubbell, Laessle, and Dickinson
(1956), while that for mammals follows Hall and Kelson (1959).

RESULTS
Habitats:

Data on the various collecting sites given below include the lo-
cation, the type of habitats sampled, the number of trap-nights,
and the catch in the small mammal survey.

Site No. I. Abandoned farm, fields, and cleared forest 1314
miles north of Sneads on Highway 126 in Jackson County, Florida.
When this site was visited on 14-15 June, 1955, a neighboring farmer
told of damage to his peanut crop by raccoon, opossum, and skunk.
Traps were set in the abandoned house where rat feces were
found, and in a field that had been abandoned for 1 or 2 years. To
the east of this field was river bottom land that had been bulldozed
and would be flooded. Sherman traps were set out into this area
and the trap line passed through a small “island” of trees that had
not been cleared and that grew at a slightly higher elevation. One
raccoon, with a reddish color phase, was trapped at this site on
June 14, 1955. There was heavy sprout growth with a dense layer
of vines and broomsedge in the cleared area. Trapping results
are given in Table 1.

Site No. 2. Butler Landing off Highway 126 in Jackson County,
Florida. This site has been described as station 4 by Hubbell,
Laessle, and Dickinson (1956). During the time that this area was
trapped, 10-13 June, 1955, tracks of wildcat, raccoon, opossum, and
deer were seen along the natural levee of the Chattahoochee River.
Three raccoons were trapped at this site during June 1955. Two
trap lines ran perpendicular to the river and sampled the Flood
Plain Forest habitat and the data are in Table 1.

Site No. 3. Blue Springs-Tan Vat Hill area, 3 miles north of
Sneads on Highway 126 in Jackson County, Florida. Two habitat
types were trapped here on 10-13 June, 1955. One was in the
sprout regrowth in bulldozed floodplain along the creek from Blue
Springs (Table 1) while the other was dry oakland on the well-
drained slopes of Tan Vat Hill (station 31 of Hubbell, Laessle, and
Dickinson). Here some loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), black oak

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22 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

(Quercus velutina), white oak, (Quercus alba) sweet gum (Liquid-
ambar styraciflua) and other trees were found. Two trap lines were
run up the slopes of this hill (Table 1). Two cottontail rabbits were
collected in the sprout growth of this site.

Site No. 4. Heavy river-bottom forest below the Jim Wood-
ruff Dam and US 90 in Jackson County, Florida (Station 19 of Hub-
bell, Laessle, and Dickinson). An area typical of the floodplain
forest type was trapped 10-12 June, 1955 where a heavy canopy of
sycamore (Platenus occidentalis), water oak (Quercus nigra), sweet-
gum, box elder (Acer negunda) and water hickory (Carya aquatica),
existed. A dense palmetto (Seronoa) and Oplismenus cover was
found in the shrub and herb layers. Paralleling this habitat ,but
further from the river, was the alluvial swamp with a canopy of
tupelo gum (Nyssa aquatica), bald cypress (Taxodium distichum)
and others. Five opossum were trapped and the marsh rabbit was
recorded for this site, while small mammal data were collected on

18-20 June, 1955 (Table 1).

Site No. 5. Cypress Pond, 2 miles northeast of Grand Ridge,
Jackson County, Florida. This site was located in an oval depres-
sion with permanent water in the center and a deep forest around
the periphery. The canopy of pond-cypress (Taxodium ascendens),
water gum (Nyssa sylvatica), red maple (Acer rubrum), buttonbush
(Cephalanthus accidentalis) and others fit the description of the
cypress pond community of Hubbell, Laessle, and Dickinson. Live
and snap traps were placed 25 feet apart in a line that extended
about *% the total distance of the zone around and parallel to the
edge of the central pond. Trapping was continued from 31 July
through 3 August, 1955 where the live animals were marked and
released. Using the mark-and-release ratio of Hayne (1949) the
total population within range of these traps was estimated at 31.
One marsh rabbit was collected from a similar cypress pond, while
a fox squirrel was collected in the flatwoods adjacent to this site.

Site No. 6. A cave underneath a spur railroad leading to the
Gulf Power Plant in Jackson County Florida. This small cave in
the Miocene formations had only a small unlighted zone and this
was occupied by a colony of little brown bats, (Myotis austrori-
parius), some of which were collected on 19 and 25 July, 1955.

Site. No. 7. Ravines entering Flint River near Jim Woodruff
Dam in Decatur County, Georgia. Two examples of the rich forest

FLINT-CHATTAHOOCHEE-APALACHICOLA RIVER AREA 23

found along steep sided ravines (see Hubbell, Laessle, Dickinson)
were studied. One of these moist areas with considerable seepage
along its slopes, was across the street from the Reservoir office,
a little northeast of Chattahoochee. It was trapped 19-21 June with
a trap line running down the step slope and then along the bottom
near the small creek. The second ravine, only a short distance away,
was north of the housing units and south of the borrow-pit . This
area was trapped continuously from 17-25 July with the traps 25
feet apart on two lines 50 feet apart. These lines ran along the
bottom area near the small creek. Four gray fox and one opossum
were trapped on the cleared flood plain, just below and near this
site.

Site No. 8. Long leaf pine-oak barrens 1.8-2.4 miles northeast
of Chattahoochee in Decatur County, Georgia. Traps were set
22-23 June, 1955 just north of the borrow-pit and 1.8 miles north-
east of Chattahoochee. Here there was sparse arboreal coverage
which consisted almost exclusively of long leaf pine (Pinus palustris)
and black jack oak (Quercus marilandica). There was a heavy
ground cover of wire grass (Aristida stricta). A second area 2.4
miles from Chattahoochee in a similar habitat, except that the
canopy was more nearly closed, was trapped 22-24 June. In both
of these trap locations the animals were caught (Table 1) in traps
at the border of this habitat with a more mesic hardwood forest.
One cotton-tail rabbit was collected at this site.

Site No. 9. Dry oakland on ridge 2.8 miles Northeast of Chat-
tahoochee. Here the canopy was composed of very large live oak
(Quercus virginiana) trees, but there had been much disturbance
by man and there were patches of dense growth of small oaks 30
feet in height. The area was trapped 22-24 June (Table 1). Several
Peromyscus polionotus burrows were recorded here in the dry,
well-drained soils and two individuals were dug from burrows. One
skunk and two gray fox were trapped from this site.

Site No. 10. Water Pond of State Hospital, Chattahoochee,
Gadsden County, Florida. Around the edges of this pond and
around the power plant, bats were frequently seen and several sem-
inole bats were shot.

Site No. 11. Mosquito Creek area, 3 miles north of US 90 on
Georgia Highway 97, Decatur County, Georgia. Hubbell, Laessle
and Dickinson (1956) describe this fully as site 9. Mammals were

24 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

studied in the sandy hammock habitat west of the highway and
north of the creek. This was a very nice stand of perhaps near-
climax magnolia-beech forest. A line of 50 (S) with 24 snap traps
interspersed was run 1-4 July, 1955 parallel to the highway and
extending from the creek north to the dirt road, while three box
traps were set in an abandoned building near the bridge. An adult
female Neotoma and one large young were trapped in the house,
while another was taken in the forest by a snap trap. Two skunks
were also recorded and preserved from this site.

Site No. 12. Bulldozed flood plain 1.1 miles northeast of
Hutchinson Ferry, Decatur County, Georgia. Two-thirds of the
trapping effort 25-27 June, 1955 was in heavy cover of sprout
growth, vines, broomsedge and other grasses while the rest was in
a line extending through an area which had been burned that spring
and had a cover of sparse, new herbaceous growth. All captures
(Table 1) were made in the unburned habitat. Three cotton-tail
rabbits were shot here and one raccoon was trapped along a road
at this site.

Site No. 13. Area around Butler Creek beaver dam and pond
on Southlands Plantation in Decatur County, Georgia. There were
two beaver dams here. Above the lower one the trees had been
killed and the pond mostly filled with silt and vegetation, thus
producing a marsh. Above the second and newer dam there was
extensive killing of the trees in the sandy hammock that surrounded
Butler Creek. At the edge of this new pond there was a border of
sandy hammock and then a much larger area of planted pine forest.
In the trapping from 25-30 June, 1955, one trap line paralleled the
edge of the pond through the sandy hammock and through the
marsh. A second line was further away from the water (parallel to
the first line) and sampled the planted forest. One opossum was
taken at this site and one raccoon was trapped on the beaver dam.

Site No. 14. Southlands Plantation, Decatur County, Georgia.
Two lines of 15 (S) traps each were run 28-30 July in a planted pine
stand where all the hardwoods had been removed and where there
was a good ground cover of pine needles and wire grass. During
the same time 17 large box trap-nights caught nothing in and around
farm building at the Duke residence and one mole trap-night also
made no capture. One fox squirrel was captured on this planta-
tion.

FLINT-CHATTAHOOCHEE-APALACHICOLA RIVER AREA 25

Site No. 15. Near Sealey’s Lodge and Spring Creek, Lot 182,
in Seminole County, Georgia. At this site a line of 50 (S) mixed
with 20 snap traps were used 7-9 July on the 78 foot contour line
that had been brushed out. The line passed through good typical
sandy hammock, but with a heavy cover of low shrubs and small
trees. Also sampled by the line was more xeric habitat with long-
leaf pine, oaks and a ground cover of wire grass that was classified
as pine-oak barrens.

Site No. 16. Rays Lake, Seminole County, Georgia. When
this area was studied from 10-12 July, 1955, the water level was
extremely low and several zones were exposed at the edge of the
lake. Near the water was a zone with Juncus and other grasses
and sedges probably similar to that described by Hubbell, Laessle,
Dickinson as a Fluctuating Pond Margin. Above this was a large
area dominated by dog-fennel and further away from the water
was a zone of heavy cover produced by blackberry thickets, broom-
sedge, etc. On the northeast side of the lake was a forest of long-
leaf pine, laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia), water oak, and dogwood
(Cornus florida). The almost complete dominance by the very large
laurel oaks and the sandy soils qualified this as a dry oakland habi-
tat. Three Sigmodon were taken in 24 (S) trap nights in the Juncus
zone near the water, 4 Sigmondon and 2 Oryzomys were taken in
27 (S) trap nights in the dog fennel thickets, and 1 Sigmondon and 2
Peromyscus gossypinus were taken in 39 (S) trap nights in the more
permanent thickets of blackberry and broomsedge.

Site No. 17. Lewis's Pond near Ray’s Lake in Seminole County,
Georgia. This was very similar to the habitats surrounding Ray’s
Lake. Several Peromyscus polionotus burrows were seen in the
sandy soils near this pond. South of this area, in open flatwoods,
a red fox was trapped.

Data on the trapping with the Sherman Live traps can be sum-
marized for the various habitat types as shown in Tables 1 and 2.

SPECIES ACCOUNT!

Didelphis marsupialis pigra (Bangs). Opossum. The opossum
was seen, tracked, and caught most often in the vicinity of river

* Unless otherwise noted all specimens are in the University of Florida
Collections.

26 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

swamp or near water. Five of seven opossum were taken in river
swamp while one each was taken near a beaver pond and in a
ravine bottom forest. Two of the individuals were young adults.
Two adult females trapped in June had young in the pouch; one
had 11 young of about 1 to 1% inches in length, while the other
had six young and six active mammae. Average measurements
with the range in parenthesis for adults, are total length 726 (554-
801), tail length 336 (293-380), foot length 66 (39-54), ear from crown
AT (39-54), ear from notch 54 (51-56), and weight 2018 (1400-3471 g).

TABLE 2

AN ANALYSIS OF THE PERCENTAGE OF THE SHERMAN LIVE TRAPS
THAT CAUGHT VARIOUS SPECIES OF SMALL MAMMALS
ACCORDING TO HABIT

Habitat Total Re Re P. Sigmodon Ory-
Aira gossy- nuttalli polio- zomys Mus
Nights pinus notus

Pine-Oak

Barrens 201 2.9

Dry Oakland DT 4.6

Sandy Hammock 391 Mod ot

Ravine Forest 225 2.6

Flood Plain 2492 6.6 A

Forest

Alluvial Swamp 90 Wha

Cypress Pond 120 20.8

Pond Margin ~ 90 2.2 8.8 2.2

Planted Pine 138 st Hf

Old Field 30 23.3

Abandoned House 12 33.3

Cleared 214 9 1.4 KG

Floodplain

Marsh 102 ne) 2.9 9

Scalopus aquaticus australis (Chapman). Florida Mole. Only
one specimen was taken even though efforts were made to capture
moles in Sites 7, 13, 14, 15, and in a lawn in Chattahoochee. Mole
runways were found in most habitats excepting in the flood, swamp
areas or the driest, sandy soils. The male specimen (UF 1118) was
taken 27 July, 1955 at site 13 in Decatur County, Georgia. It meas-
ured 145 x 25 x 18 mm. The skull measurements were greatest

FLINT-CHATTAHOOCHEE-APALACHICOLA RIVER AREA 27

length 31.6, palatal length 13.4, mastoid breadth 16.9, interorbital
breadth 7.2, maxillary tooth row 9.8, and mandibular tooth row 9.8.
These skull measurements fall within the range given for australis
for greatest head width, and maxillary and mandibular tooth rows,
while the mastoid breadth is more in the range of howelli, (Jackson,
1915). The palatal length and interorbital breadth fall within the
ranges given for both australis and howelli. The skull of this speci-
men is not as flat as that pictured for howelli and is more like that
of australis. Because of the general size of this specimen and the
skull characteristics it is tentatively diagnosed as S. a. australis,
even though it is possibly intermediate between this and howelli.

Myotis a. austroriparius (Rhoads). Southeastern Little Brown
Bat. Nine specimens were collected on 19-25 July, 1955 from a
very small cave (Site 6) located under a railroad siding on the prop-
erty of the Gulf Power Plant in Jackson County, Florida. This
number represents only a fraction of the small colony that was
roosting in the small, limited, dark area of the cave. The average
measurements (with ranges in parenthesis) of the five males in the
collection are total length 92.2 (85-101), tail length 41.8 (38-46),
foot length 11.4 (10-12), ear from crown 11.6 (11-12), ear from notch
15.2 (14-16), and body weight 7.9 g. (6-10.5). The averages for
the four females are total length 102 (100-104), tail length 44.3
(41-48), foot length 12.75 (12-13), ear from crown 12.75 (12-13), ear
from notch 16 (15-17), and body weight 9.4 g. (9-9.5). Seven of
these specimens were a drabby, brown color while two were much
lighter, appearing more yellowish.

Lasiurus borealis borealis (Muller). Red Bat. This bat was
quite common and this or the very closely related seminole bat
was frequently seen around Chattahoochee and along various
bodies of water in the area. Two specimens were shot 30 June,
1955 at Site 13 in Decatur County, Georgia. Data on these are:
UF 1084 97 x 44 x 9 x 7/12 x 10% grams; this specimen had two
mammae which had lactated this summer. UF 1085, 103 x 46 x
10 x 8/12 x 12% grams, likewise this specimen had two mammae lac-
tating. Another female, UF 1053, was shot 22 June, 1955 at Site
10 and had measurements of 105 x 54 x 10 x 8/11 x 13.5 grams.

Lasiurus seminolus (Rhoads). Seminole Bat. Three specimens

of this common bat, all females, were collected and preserved from
Site 10. The data on them are: UF 1046, 103 x 46x 9x 13 g., 16

28 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

June, 1955; UF 1047, 112 x 57 x 10 x 8/13 x 18 g., 16 June, 1955;
UE ROS) seal xolOne 7/10 loree, ZONE waa

Sylvilagus palustris palustris (Bachman). Marsh Rabbit. Marsh
rabbits were most frequently seen along river-flood plain forests
and in thickets around cypress pond swamps. One specimen was
collected from Site 4 in flood-plain forest 2 November, 1955 (UF
1161), but no data are available on the specimen. Another speci-
men (UF 1083) was taken at Site 15 on 15 July, 1955 and had meas-
urements of: 455 x 32 x 87 x 61/75 x 1040 g. Specimen UF 1052,
a female, was taken 19 June, 1955 from a cypress pond and measured
483 x 38 x 82 x 59/74 x 1560 g.

Sylvilagus floridanus mallurus (Thomas). Cottontail Rabbit.
During the summer 1955, cottontails were most commonly found
in the areas of dense sprout growth in bulldozed areas that were
to be flooded. Five of the six specimens collected were taken in
this type of area while the other was collected in pine flatwoods
vegetation. Data on the four adult specimens are: total length
494 (365-464), tail length 47 (37-54), foot 99.5 (96-104), ear from
crown 67 (65-72), ear from notch 79 (75-85), and weight 1172 (840-
1500).

Sciurus carolinensis carolinensis (Gmelin). Southern Gray
Squirrel. These animals were most frequently sighted in alluvial
swamps, such as along Spring Creek, in the flood-plain forests, and
the ravine forests. Data on five adult specimens are: total length
437 (394-466), tail length 197 (143-248), foot 59 (53-63), ear from
crown 21.5 (21-23), ear from notch 30 (29-31), and weight 401
(352-442),

Sciurus niger niger (Linnaeus). Fox Squirrel. One specimen
that conforms in color and in geographic range to that of sub-
species niger as defined by Moore (1956) was shot about 2 miles
northeast of Grand Ridge, Jackson County, Florida on July 29,
1955. We surprised this squirrel as we were riding on a woods
road through typical pine-palmetto flatwoods. We approached at
high speed and continued chase on foot. After we had chased it
for several hundred feet, it suddenly disappeared into a small turtle
burrow. We made an attempt to smoke it out; we dug several feet
only to see the squirrel go deeper in the hole. When the digging
had proceeded to the end of the burrow, about 4 feet deep and to
a length of 6 feet, the squirrel jumped from the hole and climbed

FLINT-CHATTAHOOCHEE-APALACHICOLA RIVER AREA 29

a nearby pine tree from which it jumped to the ground (after being
fired upon) and it was then shot and killed. This specimen, UF
1110 was a lactating female with the following measurements:
637 x 318 x 87 x 18/31 x 975 g. The specimen appeared to have
a tumor on one ovary and uterine tube. A male, UF 1155, was col-
lected near Site 14 and measured 610 x 293 x 73 x 20/21 x 962 g.
Fox squirrels were also seen in dry oak Forest near Site 1 on 15
and 16 June, 1955.

Geomys pinetis (Rafinesque). Southeastern Pocket Gopher. A
few pocket gopher burrow systems were located on the west side
of the Chattahoochee River in well-drained sandy soils. An old
tunnel system was located at Sites 1 and 2. Two burrows at Site
2 were trapped June 14-17 with no success, while a single specimen
was taken at this site on August 3, 1955. The female, UF 1114,
was lactating and measured 245 x 88 x 32 x 4x 66 g. Pocket gopher
burrows were not seen on the eastern bank of the drainage system
and they were apparently not abundant anywhere in the area
studied.

Castor canadensis carolinensis (Rhoads). Beaver. This species
was recorded from the Apalachicola River drainage system south
of Chattahoochee and from Site 13. The beaver has been studied
in this region by Starner (1957).

Oryzomys palustris palustris (Harlan). Rice Rat. The rice rat
was trapped in a fresh-water marsh associated with an old, filled
beaver pond at Site 13 and along the margin of a lake at Site 16.
Two rice rats were taken in a dense dog-fennel thicket at the lake
margin. Data on 8 adult specimens are: total length 222 (186-261),
tail length 111 (90-126), foot length 30 (28-31), ear from crown 12.8
(11-14), ear from notch 16 (15-17), and weight 37 (24-50).

Peromyscus polionotus (Osgood). Oldfield Mouse. Subspecies
polionotus and albifrons (Hall and Kelson, 1959: 626) are supposed
to occur within the region of this study and the specimens have been
examined for color, body, and skull characteristics and measure-
ments. However, no subspecific determination can be made with
the material available and with the present knowledge of the
group. No distinction could be made on color characteristics, and
when the body and skull measurements given by Schwartz (1954)
for polionotus and algifrons were analysed statistically for significant

30 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

differences, none were found. It was therefore, useless to attempt
a subspecific determination based on these measurements.

Old-field mice were found in well-drained sand habitats in
bulldozed flood-plain areas, in dry oak land and especially in aban-
doned fields. The typical burrows of this species have been de-
scribed by Hayne (1936), Ivey (1949), and others. Two examples
were found in this study of a nest chamber with two escape tun-
nels instead of the usual one. One system had one escape tunnel
10” long that did not come near the soil surface, while the other
was 24” and did reach the surface. The other example had an
oval instead of a spherical nest chamber and two mice were taken
from one of the two escape burrows.

Data on 8 adults from Jackson County, Florida are total length
121 (115-132), tail length 49 (45-52), foot 17.1 (17-18), ear from crown
11.9 (11-12), notch 14.8 (14-17), and weight 9.4 (8-12 g). Data on 2
adults from Seminole County and 4 adults from Decatur County,
Georgia are: total length 125 (119-131), tail length 47 (45-50), foot
16.7 (15-18), ear from crown 12 (11-14), ear from notch 15.5 (14-16),
and weight 11 (9-15 g.).

Persymscus gossypinus gossypinus (LeConte). Cotton Mouse.
This was the most abundant mammal of the region and reference
to Tables 1 and 2 shows that they were present in most of the hab-
itats studied. It was most numerous in the poorly-drained areas such
as cypress pond borders, cypress dominated alluvial swamps, flood
plain forests, and ravine forests. It typically occupies old buildings
and was trapped in the only old building sampled. Studies of pell-
age and body measurements of specimens from the areas listed in
Table 3 give no clues for separation of different populations in the
areas. Data on the specimens preserved are summarized in Table 3.

Peromyscus nuttalli aureolus (Audubon and Bachman). Southern
Golden Mouse. This mouse was captured in the flood-plain forest
of Site 2 and in the sandy hammock of Site 13 along Butler Creek.
In both of these sites there was cover of low trees and shrubs to pro-
vide the typical habitat for golden mice as reported by Ivey (1949)
and by Pearson (1954). Data on five adults are: total length 167
(149-175), tail length 81 (71-89), foot 18.6 (18-19), ear from crown
13.4 (12-14), ear from notch 16.6 (15-17), and weight 16 (11.5-
20:32):

FLINT-CHATTAHOOCHEE-APALACHICOLA RIVER AREA 31

TABLE 3

SUMMARY OF DATA ON PEROMYSCUS GOSSYPINUS COLLECTIONS.
N REPRESENTS THE NUMBER OF SPECIMENS USED TO
DETERMINE MEANS AND RANGES OF MEASUREMENTS.

Total Tail

Location Specimen No. N Length Leth. Ft. Crown Notch Wt.
Jackson 1010-1019 2 Ome? TBS, Cage Navy eh Bho)
County, Fla. 1021-1029, 1115 154-200 61-90 21-24 14-16 17-19 16-30
Gadsden 1124-1128 4 174 Ca Si 2 ome OmenOES 23185
County, Fla. NGieUSGrao-ion 2-26) lol lG=Al23.5-68
Decatur 1057-1061 Sloat UU) PHB ALAS) USS) Dei}
County, Ga. 1104, 1141, 1152 140-198 61-86 22-23 13-15_-18-19 17-36.7
Seminole 1080-1082 ©) IO 7 DOG MSIL Wieh4b Balas)
County, Ga. 1098-1103 Sil SGE ai oon a2oMlo=lipeli 206 G:5-26

Sigmodon hispidus (Say and Ord). Cotton Rat. Cotton rats
were abundant in habitats with low thickets of vegetation and they
were especially abundant on the vast areas of sprout regrowth in
the bulldozed areas to be flooded.

The effect of the cover (and fire that removes it) on cotton rat
abundance was demonstrated at Site 12 when 60 trap-nights were
recorded from June 24-27, 1955, in unburned, dense regrowth and
30 trap-nights were recorded in an adjacent area where fire had
completely removed this vegetation. Eight Sigmodon were trapped
from the dense undergrowth while no captures were made in the
burned area.

No subspecific determination was made since no significant
differences could be observed between the measurements of this
collection and those given by Gardner (1948) in his description
of komareki or between these and the collection made by Pearson
(1954) of hispidus from Gulf Hammock, Florida. There was no
consistent pattern in coloration; some specimens showed the more
buffy dorsal coloration typical of komareki- while others did not.
Undoubtedly there must be intergradation of these two subspecies
in this boundary region.

Data on 9 adults from Jackson County are total length 263 (239-
277), tail length 104 (95-107), foot 31.8 (31-33), ear from crown 14.4
(13-17), ear from notch 19.8 (19-21), and weight 94 (61-129 g.). Sim-

ilar measurements on 5 adults from Decatur County, Georgia are

32 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

205 (149-265), 87 (67-110), 29 (25-33), 14.8 (12-16), 19 (16-21), and
78 (59-92). Measurements for 4 specimens from Seminole County,
Georgia are 277 (255-295), 108 (96-120), 31.8 (31-32), 15.8, (14-17),
20 (19-22) and 144 g. (78-215 g.).

Neotoma floridana floridana (Ord). Wood Rat. The subspecific
designation for the wood rats was made on the basis that all of the
specimens were taken east of the Apalachicola and Chattahoochee
Rivers and the majority seemed to have the darker dorsal colora-
tion and gray on the venter typical of floridana (Schwartz and
Odum, 1957). However, one specimen collected at Site 11 had
lighter dorsal coloration, and a white belly with gray only at the
sides of the abdomen as described for illinoensis by Schwartz and
Odum (1957). Since the collecting region is on the boundary be-
tween the distribution of floridana and illinoensis, intergradation
probably occurs. :

The woodrats were collected from the sandy hammock habitat
that bordered the beaver pond (Site 13) and in a similar habitat at
Site 11. In the former, the woodrats had inconspicuous nests. Two
were in the bases of large, upturned logs in an advanced state of
decay, while two other were in the hollow bases of living, upright
trees. Only small amounts of twigs were in and around these
nests. These nests were similar to those described for Gulf Ham-
mock, Florida by Pearson (1952).

Specimen UF 1064, collected 24 June, 1955, had 3 placental sears
and was lactating; while a female and large suckling young were
trapped at Site 11 on 3 July, 1955. Four mammae were well de-
veloped on each of two specimens taken in January, 1956; and
one of these females had one fetus with a crown-rump measure-
ment of 36 mm. This conforms to the conclusion of Pearson (1952)
that the woodrats breed throughout the year in the Gulf Hammock
region.

Data on 8 adult woodrats are: total length 372 (298-419), tail
length 172 (146-200), foot 38.8 (36-41), ear from crown 23.4 (21-26),
ear from notch 29 (26-31) and weight 250 (133-308 g.).

Microtus parvulus (A. H. Howell). Florida Pine Vole. Only one
skin, UF 1050 with no skull or measurements of any kind is avail-
able from collections in this study. It was collected in the town
of Chattahoochee, Gadsden County, Florida. Its pellage seems to

FLINT-CHATTAHOOCHEE-APALACHICOLA RIVER AREA 33

be more like that described for parvulus than for pinetorum and
on this basis, it is tentatively assigned to parvulus.

Rattus norvegicus norvegicus (Berkenhout). Norway Rat. One
specimen measuring 425 x 195 x 48 x 74/21 x 300 grams was found
dead on a Chattahoochee street while a second specimen (UF
1130) was taken 17 October, 1955 on Jim Woodruff Dam, and
it measured 410 x 187 x 43 x 15/24 x 224 grams. Workmen on the
dam reported that they were common around the construction area.

Mus musculus (Linnaeus). House Mouse. One juvenile (UF
1143) was collected in the cleared flood area near Site 7; while one
adult (UF 11389), taken in a building on the Southlands Plantation,
measured 150 x 70 x 18 x 9/12 x 10.8 grams. Another, (UF 1073)
was trapped in a fresh-water marsh at Site 13 and measured 159 x
Wixom L/S.

Vulpes fulva fulvua (Desmarest). Red Fox. A single female
specimen (UF 1111) was trapped 16 July, 1955 in Seminole County,
Georgia south of Site 17. It measured 902 x 316 x 149 x 80/84 x
2,510 grams and had corn, insects and rodent fur in its stomach.
Farmers around Lewiss Pond and generally in Seminole County
had reported that a few red fox occurred there.

Urocycon cineroargenteus floridanus (Rhoads). Gray Fox. Six
gray fox were trapped in this study, four of which were taken in the
bulldozed area to be flooded between the Dam and Site 7. The
other two were taken in oakland at Site 9. The stomach of one
specimen (UF 1123) contained wood, grass, and persimmon seeds;
while that of another (UF 1132) had herbaceous vegetation and
persimmon parts. The age-structure and populations and the fox
distribution in relation to vegetation and food supply have been
studied in Georgia by Wood (1958) and Wood, Davis, and Komarek
(1958). |

Measurements on 6 specimens are: total length 879 (799-940),
tail length 317 (300-338), foot length 135 (122-143), ear from crown
68 (66-72), ear from notch 72 (70-74) and weight 3683 (3195-4280).

Procyon lotor varius (Nelson and Goldman). Raccoon. The
small foot dimension of specimens from this region undoubtedly
distinguishes the group in this subspecies (Goldman, 1950). The
raccoon and tracks of the raccoon were most frequently seen along
the flood plain forests, river banks, bulldozed flood areas, and in
general, near water. Data on 6 specimen are: total length 720

34 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

(608-770), tail length 246 (231-273), foot 105 (98-112), ear from crown
51 (47-56), ear from notch 62 (56-65), and weight 3188 (2207-4000).

Mephitis mephitis elongata (Bongo). Striped Skunk. The
striped skunk was common in the area and was most frequently seen
dead on highways passing through flood plain forest (Site 4) or
sandy hammock (Site 11) or around farms. Data on 3 specimens
are: total length 620 (600-655), tail length 260 (228-290), foot 73
(65-88), ear from crown 14 (18-15), ear from notch 25.3 (22-29), and
weight 2118 (2099-2136).

SUMMARY

1. From an area now mostly covered by Lake Seminole, formed
when the Jim Woodruff Dam impounded the waters of the
Apalachicola, Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers, twenty-four spe-
cies of mammals were recorded.

2. At 17 study sites, 13 habitats were studied, and the distribution
of mammals was plotted with reference to these habitats.

3. The distribution of the small mammals in the various habitats
was studied, using degree of trapping success as a measure of
relative population levels.

LITERATURE CITED
GARDNER, M. A.
1948. An Undescribed Eastern Cotton Rat. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington
71: 97-98.
GOLDMAN, E. A.
1950. Raccoons of North and Middle America. N. A. Fauna 60: 1-153.

Ae heanGekcn hes keke SON
1959. The mammals of North America. Ronald Press, New York. 1083 pp.

HAYNE, DON W.
1936. Burrowing Habits of Peromyscus polionotus. J. Mamm. 17(4): 420-
491.
HAYNE, DON W.
1949. Two Methods for Estimating Populations from Trappings Records.

J. Mamm. 30(4): 399-411.
HUBBEMUS to He WAR SSE, Ae Me andi): 1G. DICKINSON

1956. The Flint-Chattahoochee-Apalachicola Region and Its Environments.
Bull. Fla. Sta. Mus. Biol. Sci. 1(1): 1-72.

FLINT-CHATTAHOOCHEE-APALACHICOLA RIVER AREA 35

IVEY, DEWITT
1949. Life-History Notes on Three Mice from the Florida East Coast.
J. Mamm. 30(2): 157-162.

JACKSON, HARTLEY H. T.
1915. A Review of the American Moles. N. A. Fauna 388: 1-100.

MOORE, JOSEPH C.
1956. Variation in the Fox Squirrel in Florida. Amer. Mid. Nat. 55(1):
41-65.

PEARSON, PAUL G.

1952. Observations Concerning the Life History and Ecology of the Wood-
rat, (Neotoma floridana floridana) (Ond). J. Mamm. 33(4): 459-463.

PEARSON, PAUL G.
1954. Mammals of Gulf Hammock, Levy County, Florida. Amer. Midl.
Nat. 51(2): 468-480.

SCHWARTZ, ALBERT
1954. Old-field Mice, Peromyscus polionotus, of South Carolina. J. Mamm.
35(4): 561-569.
SCHWARTZ, ALBERT, and EUGENE P. ODUM
1957. The Woodrats of the Eastern United States. J. Mamm. 38(2): 197-206.

STARNER, BETTE
1957. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville,
Florida.

WOOD, JOHN E.
1958. Age Structure and Productivity of a Gray Fox Population. J. Mamm.
39(1): 74-86.
WOOD, JOHN E., DAVIS, DAVID E., and E. V. KORNAREK

1958. The Distribution of Fox Populations in Relation to Vegetation in
Southern Georgia. Ecol. 39(1): 160-162.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(1), 1960.

THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG
GOLDEN MICE, OCHROTOMYS NUTTALLI?

James N. LAYNE
University of Florida

The golden mouse, Ochrotomys nuttalli (Harlan), although pre-
viously considered to be a highly divergent species in the genus
Peromyscus, has recently been accorded separate generic status
(Hooper, 1958). A number of references to the taxonomy, distribu-
tion, ecology, and habits of the golden mouse have appeared in the
literature, but there have been few comprehensive studies of the
biology of this interesting, semiarboreal rodent. Goodpaster and
Hoffmeister (1954) have given a general account of the life history
of the golden mouse in Kentucky, and Pearson (1953) and McCar-
ley (1958, 1959) have dealt with certain phases of its population
ecology in Florida and Texas. Although Goodpaster and Hoff-
meister (1954) give information on the growth and development
of the young, this aspect of the life history of the golden mouse
is as yet inadequately known. The present paper provides further
details of the physical and behavioral development of the young
together with data on the breeding season and litter sizes of the
species in Florida.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Observations have been made on 11 young of 5 litters born
in captivity to females trapped in the vicinity of Gainesville, Alachua
County. The growth and development of 4 litters (8 young) born
in July, 1959, were followed in detail. The remaining litter was
born to a female captured in January, 1960. This animal was found
in a weakened condition in the trap the day before parturition.
The young did not appear to be normally developed at birth, and
their subsequent growth and development were considerably re-
tarded in comparison with the other litters. Consequently, the
data from this litter have not been utilized in the following account.

The females gave birth to their young within 1 to 5 days after
capture, the births occurring during the following maximum time
intervals: 3 p.m.-9 a.m., 10 a.m.-12 noon, 4-8:30 p.m., 10 a.m.-5:30

* A contribution from the Department of Biology and Florida State Museum.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF GOLDEN MICE 37

p.m., and 6:30-9 a.m. Some indication of the magnitude of weight
gain prior to parturition is provided by one female that gave birth
to 2 young 5 days after capture. This animal weighed 20.0 grams
when trapped, 26.8 grams 3 days before birth, and 27.9 grams on
the day before partum. Another female weighed 24.2 grams on
tewday jreceding the birth of a litter of 2.

Sex was positively determined for 8 of the 11 young; these
consisted of 5 males and 3 females.

The young of all litters were weighed on the day of birth, as
soon after being discovered in the nest as possible, and measure-
ments were recorded for all surviving young of the 4 litters studied
in detail at each week of age from 1 through 8 weeks and at 35
weeks. Measurements were taken on anesthetized young and in-
cluded total length, tail length, hind foot length, and ear length
from notch. Body length was determined by subtracting tail
length from total length. Instantaneous relative and percentage
growth rates were calculated according to the method of Brody
(1945).

The young proved to be highly sensitive to ether anesthesia,
and, though considerable care was taken to remove them from
the ether jar prior to cessation of activity, over half of the young
were lost through failure to recover from etherization. Because
of the danger of over-anesthetizing the mice, it was not always
possible to obtain a fully relaxed individual for measuring. Thus
slight discrepancies in the measurements of the same individual
from one week to another are occasionally evident in the data.
Adult golden mice exhibited the same low tolerance to ether as
the young. Svihla (1932) has noted a marked difference in the
reaction to ether of Peromyscus maniculatus and P. leucopus, the
latter apparently resembling the golden mouse in its sensitivity
to the anesthetic.

BREEDING SEASON AND LITTER SIZE

Goodpaster and Hoffmeister (1954) recorded pregnancies in
golden mice in March, April, July, and October. McCarley (1958)
stated that breeding in eastern Texas apparently commences in
September and extends through the cooler months of the year.
There are few data on the breeding season of the golden mouse
in Florida. The 5 births recorded here occurred on July 10, 28,

38 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

29, 30 and January 27. In addition, 3 pregnant golden mice and a
lactating individual have been trapped in July, 2 gravid specimens
have been collected in September and November, and a female
with newborn young has been captured in a nest on March 12.
Barrington (1949) and Ivey (1949) also record pregnancies in Sep-
tember and November, and the latter notes finding nest young of
estimated ages of 1% months and 1 week in November and Decem-
ber, respectively. I have taken juveniles ranging from approxi-
mately 3 to 8 weeks of age in January, March, and September.

Goodpaster and Hoffmeister (1954) indicate a gestation period
of 29 or 30 days for the golden mouse, apparently on the basis of
a single female that was nursing a litter during at least a portion of
the pregnancy. Presumably, then, gestation in this species may
normally be somewhat shorter. However, allowing approximately
a month for gestation and back-dating to the approximate date of
conception in the above cases a total of 18 estimated breeding dates
is distributed as follows: June or July—5; August—4; October—l,
November—5; December—1; and late January or early February—
2. These limited data suggest that the breeding season of the
golden mouse in Florida extends over at least an 8-month interval,
with peaks possibly occurring in early summer and the fall.

Four of the litters born in captivity consisted of 2 young, and
one had 3. These plus other counts of embryos or nest young avail-
able, including data given by Barrington (1949) and Ivey (1949),
provide 11 records of Ochrotomys litters in Florida. These include
six cases of 2 embryos, three instances of 3 embryos or nest young,
and one case each of 4 and 5 embryos, giving a modal number of
2 and a mean of 2.7 young per litter. On the basis of this small
series it appears that the litter size of the golden mouse in Florida
does not differ significantly from that observed in Kentucky and
Texas populations (Goodpaster and Hoffmeister, 1954; McCarley,
1958).

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Pelage. Young examined within 3 or 4 hours of birth (Fig. 1,A)
were reddish in color, with a slightly grayish cast to the dorsum.
The skin was relatively smooth, and blood vessels were prominent,
particularly on the lower sides and limbs. The cranial sutures of
the skull were evident, and the viscera were visible through the
skin of the abdomen. The pinnae, which were somewhat lighter

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF GOLDEN MICE 39

in color than the remainder of the dorsum, were folded over and
sealed. The dark iris and pinkish lens of the eye were visible
through the sealed lids, and the line of fusion of the latter was
evidenced as a slight furrow. The mystacial vibrissal pads were
swollen, and the vibrissae themselves were well developed. The
longest of the series extended backward to the anterior margin
of the eye. Short bristles were fairly numerous on the lips and
chin, and widely scattered, longer, light colored hairs were present
on the dorsum. Dark pigment specks marking hair follicles were
visible in the skin of the dorsum as well. The tail was not notice-
ably bicolored and lacked hairs.

When approximately 12 hours old, the young had more fine
hairs on the dorsum than at birth, and stouter dark hairs were just
beginning to appear on the top of the head.

The skin of the young at 1 day of age appeared drier and more
rugose than at birth, and the dorsum was decidedly more dusky.
The viscera were still faintly visible through the skin of the abdo-
men. The density of the light hairs on the upper part of the body
had increased, and a few widely scattered ones were now present
on the lower sides and on the limbs above the ankles and wrists.
Dark hairs were visible on the crown, nape, and shoulders. The
tail was still hairless but had assumed a faint bicolor pattern due
to developing pigmentation on the dorsal surface. A dark patch
was evident on the ankles, although no hairs had yet appeared,
and a few dark pigment streaks were also present on the carpus.

By the 2nd day of age the dorsum of the young had darkened
further, and the ventral parts were somewhat lighter in color.
The skin was more opaque and had taken on a scale-like pattern.
Longer hairs were abundant over the dorsum and were more ob-
vious, although still quite sparse, on the venter. The dark hairs
on the dorsum had extended to the lower rump. The ankle patch
was more prominent and contained a few hairs. Scattered dark
hairs were also now visible on the wrists. Short hairs had extended
about half way out on the forefeet but did not reach much beyond
the ankles on the hind feet. The hairs just posterior to the ears and
those on the rump were the longest on the body. The pinnae
showed faint pigmentation on the anterior portion but no hairs
were yet visible. The skin on the tail was still smooth, and in most
individuals the outline of hairs could be seen beneath the surface

40 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

on the dorsal aspect, although in only one young had they actually
begun to erupt by the 2nd day. Teats were faintly evident in
females.

In 3-day-old young the dorsal skull sutures were no longer
visible, and the pelage was sufficiently developed on the upper
parts to produce a slightly fuzzy appearance. The head exhibited
a faint reddish-brown coloration, in contrast to the gray of the
rest of the body. The dark hairs on the back extended to the base
of the tail but remained densest anteriorly. A few dandruff-like
flakes of epidermis were visible on the backs of some specimens at
this age. Numerous dark hairs were growing on the ankles; those
on the wrists were fewer. No hairs were yet noted on the digits
or pinnae. A scale pattern was evident on the tail, and short hairs
had appeared.

On the following day the reddish-brown coloration of the head
was more apparent, and a tinge of similar color had appeared on
the nape. The long dorsal hairs were distinctly visible to the naked
eye, and the ventral pelage was much thicker, though still more
sparse than that on the upper parts. Short hairs were now present
on the digits, a coating of fine hair had appeared on the lateral
surfaces of the pinnae, and hairing of the tail was more distinct.
Scurfy epidermal scales were more abundant than on the previ-
ous day.

At 5 days of age (Fig. 1, B) the young were more or less reddish-
brown over the entire dorsum, although brightest on the head and
shoulders. The digits were well haired. The iris of the eye was
no longer visible, and the lids were covered with a fairly dense
growth of hair. The crease marking the line of fusion of the lids
was by now heavily pigmented and quite distinct.

The pelage had taken on a sleek, velvety sheen by the end of
the Ist week, (Fig. 1, C) and the young were now easily recognizable
as golden mice. Fewer epidermal scales were present on the dor-
sum at 7 days than at 6.

At 8 days of age no epidermal scales were visible on the back,
although they were still numerous on the ventral surface. The eye-
lids were fully haired, only the pigmented edges being glabrous.
The hairs on the pinnae were visible to the eye. By the following
day the number of epidermal scales on the belly had diminished,
and the hair on the ventral parts was noticeably thicker. By the

Fig. 1. Stages in the development of the golden mouse, Ochrotomys
nuttalli. A. Newborn young, B. Five days of age, C. One week of age.

Scale in each case equals approximately 1 cm.

42 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

10th day (Fig. 2, A) the epidermal scales had disappeared entirely,
and the dusky ankle and wrist patches were less obvious than be-
fore. At this age the pinnae began to assume a reddish tinge due
to the growth of the hair covering them. By the end of the second
week the juvenile pelage, which was decidedly duller than that of
the adult, appeared to be fully developed, except possibly for some
subsecuent increase in the length of the hairs.

Fig. 2. Stages in the development of the golden mouse. A. Ten days
of age, B. Three weeks of age. Scale in each case equals approximately 1
cm.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF GOLDEN MICE 43,

The post-juvenile molt apparently commences about the 4th
or 5th week. One young was molting at 31 days of age, and the
molt was apparently complete 10 days later. It appeared that the
pelage on the venter was replaced first and that the molt of the
upper parts progressed generally from the lower sides dorsally,
spreading anteriorly and posteriorly in the process. A buffy wash
appeared on the venter of this individual during the later stages
of the molt. A second specimen was molting at 4 weeks of age,
while another accidentally killed at the same age had not yet begun
to molt.

Few data are available on the chronology and pattern of adult
molts in this species. Of 56 study skins of adults from Georgia
and Florida examined in the University of Florida mammal col-
lection, only five exhibit molt. Three of these were collected in
October and one each in March and June.

Claws, ears, and eyes. The digits were not separated at birth,
and the claws were small, soft, conical structures. The claws ap-
peared sharper during the Ist day of age and by the 2nd were more
curved and opaque. The digits were well separated and the claws
were nearly of definitive shape by the 5th day of age.

The pinnae unfolded in most of the young on the day following
birth, although in one individual the ears did not unfold until the
2nd day. In some individuals the pinnae were still bent over or
projecting out to the sides on the Ist day and did not lie flat against
the head until the 2nd day. The external auditory meatus was dis-
tinctly open and the young exhibited a definite reaction to a sharp
squeak at 8 days of age in one litter, 9 days in another, and 10
days ina third. Im each case the external orifice of the ear ap-
peared to be patent a day earlier than that on which a reaction
to sound was actually elicited.

The eyes of two litters opened on the 11th day of age and those
of a third litter on the 12th day. Golden mouse young studied by
Goodpaster and Hoffmeister (1954) opened their eyes between the
11th and 15th days, the average being 12.8 days.

Dentition. The incisors were visible just below the surface of
the gums by the 3rd or 4th day of age. In one litter the teeth were
just perforating the gums on the 4th day and were well above the
gum line on the following day. In another litter the incisors erupted
on the 6th day. When the incisors first appeared above the gum

{4 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tissues they were chalky at the bases and rather translucent at the
tips. The lowers were about twice the length of the uppers, and
this approximate proportion persisted during subsequent growth
of the teeth.

The lower incisors were about 1 mm. long and the uppers, 0.5
mm., in one young at 11 days of age. On the 13th day the lower
incisors had increased to approximately 1.5 mm., and were faintly
yellowish at the base. At 2 weeks the lowers were about 3 mm.,
and the uppers somewhat over 1 mm. By the 8rd week both
pairs of incisors had taken on a distinctly yellowish cast. The cheek
teeth were fully developed in specimens killed at 4 and 5 weeks
of age.

Weaning. The young are apparently weaned at about 3 weeks
of age (Fig. 2, B) or slightly earlier. Young of all litters were found
nursing when uncovered in the nest for examination at 2 weeks of
age but not at 3, when they were first seen out of the nest at night.
The stomach of a young killed at 4 weeks of age contained only
solid food.

BEHAVIOR OF THE YOUNG

The young of the golden mouse appeared to be strong and well
coordinated at birth. They could cling to a finger without falling
off when the latter was held at about a 45 degree angle and if up-
set would twist and roll about until they regained an upright posi-
tion. They were also seen to lift the front half of the body clear
of the ground by thrusting upwards with the fore legs. The newly
born mice gave a rasping squeak that seemed particularly loud
and insistent.

At 1 day of age the young could take a few shaky steps, dragging
the venter on the substrate. They also seemed able to right them-
selves more easily than at birth and were better able to cling to
an inclined hand, always orienting with the head directed upwards.

Two-day-old young attempted to maintain an upright posture
and resisted being pushed over. The prehensile nature of the tail
was already evident. The young golden mice were only rarely
observed to give convulsive twitches when lying undisturbed in a
nest or cloth-lined dish. This behavior was not noted after the
3rd day of age. Young at 2 days of age were heard to give two
kinds of sounds: a high-pitched thin squeak and a lower-pitched
grating note.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF GOLDEN MICE 45

The young were noticeably stronger at 3 days of age. They
exhibited a rapid righting response when pushed over and could
cling to a finger held vertically by more or less wrapping their
body around it. This precocious tendency to cling to objects might
be considered as an arboreal adaptation in this species. Another
behavioral trait appearing at this age that might also be associated
with the semiarboreal habits of the golden mouse was a tendency
for the young to remain quietly in one spot.

The young were more active when 4 days of age. They could
scramble up the fingers and hang on upside down if the hand was
turned over. They exhibited a good sense of balance and made
obvious use of the semiprehensile tail in moving about. When to-
gether they tended to burrow beneath one another. They generally
rested on the venter with the feet splayed out and gave a clear
startle reaction when the tail was touched.

Five-day-old young could crawl from a flat surface into the
hand and could cling to a vertical %-inch hardware cloth screen.
At 6 days they could stand and walk with the venter off the sub-
strate, but still exhibited no tendency to move from wherever they
were placed.

By the end of the Ist week, the tendency of the mice to remain
motionless where placed was quite obvious. Mice of other species
of generally similar size and developmental rate tend to scramble
about a bit at this age, particularly if placed on an unfavorable
surface such as a cold balance pan. In a similar situation, the
golden mice, in contrast, merely drew their legs beneath them and
remained motionless.

By the 8th day of age the young began to exhibit some re-
sistance to being handled. When in the hand they were notice-
ably “clingy” and hard to put down, sometimes hanging from a
finger by one foot. Ten-day old young would begin to climb up
on a finger if proded and, once in the hand, would climb upwards
when the latter was inclined. At 12 or 13 days some of the young
were noticeably more jumpy than earlier, often leaping from the
hand when being removed from the nest. They could walk with
good coordination by the 13th day and exhibited the same delib-
erateness in their movements as the adults. They still exhibited
a tendency to huddle together. At 14 days of age the young were
first seen to wash, following etherization.

46 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The young were more active at 17 days of age and struggled
more when picked up. However, when in the hand they tended
to sit very quietly and allowed themselves to be stroked. They
were capable of running quite rapidly, but still exhibited a strong
predilection to remain motionless. When disturbed they cocked
the ears forward as do the adults under similar circumstances.
This “anxiety” pose was not noted earlier. One 17-day-old young
was seen to wash quickly after being returned to the cage follow-
ing examination. It confined the grooming actions to the head
only. When another young of the same age was returned to the
cage, it explored about before entering the nest, which it seemed
to recognize. Its movements while outside the nest were slow and
deliberate.

After the 3rd week the young began to spend more time out-
side of the nest at night. If surprised outside the nest when the
light was turned on in the laboratory, they often remained motion-
less and could be easily caught. Young and adults also exhibit
this sort of behavior in the field and can sometimes be caught by
hand. When the young were frightened into motion, they usually
attempted to climb the first object encountered. By about 5 weeks
of age the only young remaining alive had become quite wild and
difficult to capture. The same tendency toward increasing wildness
after a period in captivity has been noted in the case of adults
as well.

PARENTAL CARE

Female golden mice were usually docile when the young were
being taken from the nest for examination, often remaining quietly
in the nest and offering no resistance even when a young one was
being removed from the teat. None of the females ever exhibited
any tendency toward active defense of the young. If the female
left the nest when disturbed, she generally moved out deliberately,
sometimes giving the tail shake seen in Peromyscus and other ro-
dents, and took refuge in a particular corner of the cage. There she
would often assume a hunched-over pose with the ears laid forward
in the “anxiety” position. Females were ordinarily rather slow to
return to their young.

Often the mother would leave the nest with a young clinging
to a teat. Since the females moved slowly, the young golden mice
were seldom subjected to the rough treatment often received by

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF GOLDEN MICE 47

the young of other rodents when the parent dashes precipitously
from the nest dragging her litter along. Goodpaster and Hoff-
meister (1954) have previously commented on this point, and the
more or less deliberate movements of golden mice with or without
litters may have some correlation with the fact that they spend
much time climbing and moving about above ground. Day-old
young always dropped off the teat before the female left the nest
or were free when the examination was made. At 2 and 3 days
of age some young clung tenaciously to the teat, others held on
when the mother left the nest but could be removed with little
difficulty, and some fell off after being transported only a few inches
away from the nest. There seemed to be a general tendency for
the young to cling more firmly to the nipple after 3 or 4 days of
age, although there was still variation in their behavior in this con-
nection. On several occasions older young held onto the teat as
the mother climbed about the sides of the cage. One 12-day-old
young observed clinging to the teat actually walked behind the
mother as she moved along slowly. This was the oldest young
recorded as being attached to a teat outside the nest.

Females were observed to carry young on two occasions. Once
the mother was seen to remove the nursing young by licking the
area about the nipple and then manipulate the baby with both
hind and fore feet into the mouth. She grasped the young from
the dorsal side at a point just behind the nape and carried it about
the cage, finally depositing it in a corner where she proceeded to
wash it. Another time a mother was briefly observed carrying a
young by the back. Goodpaster and Hoffmeister (1954) stated that
the young observed during their study were always held from
the stomach side when being transported by the mother.

GROWTH

Individual weights and measurements of young golden mice
from birth through 8 weeks of age are given in Table 1. These
data, using means where more than one value is available for a
given age, are plotted on a semilogarithmic scale in Figures 3
(weight) and 4 (linear measurements). Instantaneous relative
growth rates are given above weekly segments of each plot, and
several significant developmental events are indicated along the
age axis.

48 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The mean weight and measurements of newborn golden mice
expressed as percentages of corresponding adult means (based on
a series of 18 specimens from north-central Florida) are as follows
(adult means in parentheses): weight, 13.2 (18.3 grams); total length,
32.6 (163.5 mm.); body length, 44.2 (88.3 mm.); tail length, 19.5
(75.2 mm.); and hind foot, 39.7 (18.4 mm.).

ABER

WEIGHTS AND MEASUREMENTS OF GOLDEN MICE FROM
BIRTH THROUGH 8 WEEKS OF AGE

Measurements, in millimeters

Litter Weight, Total Tail Hind

Age Number in grams Length Length Foot Ear*

Birth IL 2,.4,2.6 50 14 es =
2 AL O65) 57 IL) (oD ——
3 2.4.2.6 — — a ——
4 2,.0,2.4 54 155 7.0 —

1 week 1 3.7,4.0 (4-72) D5 ON5) IIL OSI IL IS 6.0,6.0
2 4.1 5 26 LO 6.0
4 4.2, 70 30 LTE 5) 6.0

2. weeks 1 6.0,6.0 97,102 41,40 ld: Se610 9.5,9.5
2 el 105 45 16.0 10.0
4 6.0 108 49 16.0 9.0

3 weeks il 9.1,9.2 1203123 BALI NSO) JT 5 NSaks-o
2 10.9 129 60 18 WQS)
4 8.8 130 64 18 1)

4 weeks I 11.9,12.9 32,130 56,60 19,19.5 IG 5)
Y 15.8 146 70 S25 14
4 JIL 144 CZ 18.5 Warp

5 weeks il 15.8 147 67 19 16

6 weeks IL 15.9 Sil 69 19 15

7 weeks ] 16.7 150 70 18.5 16

8 weeks iL 18.0 156 fall 18.5 17

* From notch.

Weight exhibited a higher instantaneous percentage growth
rate, 12.6 percent per day, in the week following birth than any
linear measurement. The relative gain in weight declined sharply
the 2nd week and then more vradually to the 5th, when a pro-
nounced break in the curve occurred. The weight of one speci-
men at 5 weeks was approximately 88 percent of the mean adult

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF GOLDEN MICE 49
weight. At 8 weeks of age this individual weighed only 0.3 grams

less than the average for adults and by the 35th week exceeded the
latter by 3.6 grams.

WM |
=
=
a
©
Zz
=
© a
WW =
= ee
Oz
=9 35>
2 =
nee ze OF
Se © 26 Bb
52 G wa a
aS fe |
=)
O J 2 3 4 5 6 i 8
AGE IN WEEKS

Fig. 3. Semilogarithmic plot of growth in weight of Ochrotomys nuttalli
from birth through 8 weeks of age. Instantaneous relative growth rates are
shown above weekly segments of the plot.

The tail had the highest relative growth rate of any linear di-
mension over the interval from birth to 3 weeks of age, at which
time it had reached about 76 percent of adult size. The tail was
about 93 percent of mean adult length by the 5th week and had
increased to only approximately 94 percent by the 8th week of
age. The tail of one specimen was 71 mm. long at 8 weeks and
75 mm. at 35 weeks.

Relative growth in total length was greater than that of body
length because of the contribution of the rapidly growing tail. At
3 weeks of age total length was about 77 percent of the adult mean,
and it increased to about 91 percent by the 5th week. A rather
marked decline in the relative increase of total length occurred
subsequent to the 8rd week. Instantaneous percentage growth
rates for total length fell below the 1 percent per day level after
the 5th week.

50 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Body length showed the lowest relative growth rates of any
linear measurement. A major break in the curve for this measure-
ment occurred at 3 weeks, when body length was about 77 percent
of the adult average. By the 5th week of age body length was ap-
proximately 90 percent of the adult mean, and instantaneous per-
centage growth rates were below 1 percent per day in subsequent
weekly intervals. A specimen with a body length of 156 mm. at
the 8th week of age showed an increase of 7 mm. by the 35th week.
Body length, like total length, exhibited a slightly higher instan-
taneous relative growth rate during the 2nd postnatal week than
the Ist. The reason for this is not evident.

Jo 0027. LOO) _ .005
TOTALLENGTH

BODY LENGTH
208?

.002_, .002

—___—————e

TAIL LENGTH

HIND FOOT LENGTH
00 ,__.000

000), = 2009E%.

EAR LENGTH

MEASUREMENTS IN MILLIMETERS

~POST-JUVENILE MOLT

WEANING IN
~ PROGRESS
FIRST SIGN OF

AGE IN WEEKS

Fig. 4. Semilogarithmic plot of linear growth data for Ochrotomys nut-
talli from birth through 8 weeks of age. Instantaneous relative growth rates
are shown above weekly segments of each plot.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF GOLDEN MICE ol

The hind foot grew rapidly during the first 2 weeks, at the end
of which it had attained about 87 percent of adult size. By the
following week, the hind foot was approximately 97 percent of
mean adult length, and, allowing for slight errors in measurements
of anesthetized young, it showed no further growth after 4 weeks
of age.

The pinna was first measured at 1 week of age. Relative growth
of this structure was higher than other linear measurements except
tail length until the 3rd week and exceeded that of the tail over
the 3 to 4 week interval. The ear averaged the same size as the
adult by the 4th week, and in one individual showed no growth be-
tween the 8th and 35th week of age.

The noticeable decline in instantaneous relative growth rates,
approximately 50 percent or less than the previous week’s rate,
evident at 3 weeks in the case of total length, body length, and tail
length is correlated with the period of weaning. The increase in
these measurements as well as in weight in a specimen at 35 weeks
of age as compared to 8 weeks is probably indicative of continued
slow growth in this species for a relatively prolonged period. In
this connection, Dice and Bradley (1942) found that, except in the
case of the hind foot, Peromyscus maniculatus continues to grow
slowly until 6 months of age or older.

DISCUSSION

Information on various aspects of growth and development of
several species of Peromyscus, including P. californicus, eremicus,
gossypinus, leucopus, maniculatus, polionotus, and truei, has been
given by several authors (Collins, 1923; Gottschang, 1956; Hoffmeis-
ter, 1951; King, 1958; Laffoday, 1957; McCabe and Blanchard, 1950;
Nicholson, 1941; Pournelle, 1952; Rand and Host, 1942; Seton, 1920;
and Svihla, 1932, 1934, 1935, 1936). These data, although not com-
plete in all cases, permit at least a gross comparison of develop-
mental and growth rates of the semiarboreal Ochrotomys with those
of a group of species of varying sizes and diverse habits of an allied
genus of rodents.

The erection of a pinnae is one of the well marked early develop-
mental events. This occurred on the Ist or 2nd day in the golden
mouse litters studied, whereas in P. maniculatus (several subspecies)
the ears do not become erect until the 2nd to 4th days. The ages

52 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

at which erection of the pinnae has been reported in other species
of Peromyscus vary from 3 to 5 days in P. polionotus, 3 to 6 days
in P. truei, and usually at 4 days in P. gossypinus.

Although the time of eruption of the incisors is difficult to
determine with accuracy, the available data suggest that the incisor
teeth appear at a relatively early age in Ochrotomys. The average
age at eruption of the incisors is 5.2 and 5.7 days in two subspecies
of P. maniculatus. In P. gossypinus and P. polionotus the incisors
make their appearance at from 5 to 7 days and on the 6th or 7th
day, respectively. In the golden mouse, however, the incisors
appeared as early as the 4th day.

The average ages at which the eyes of various subspecies of
P. maniculatus open range from 12.1 to 16.8 days, with about 14
or 15 days being the usual age. In other species of Peromyscus, the
eyes have been reported as opening generally on the 14th day (18-
16) in P. polionotus, about the 13th day (10-15) in P. leucopus, usually
from the 12th to the 14th in P. gossypinus, on the 13th or 14th in
P. californicus, and from the 15th to 17th and 15th to 20th in P.
eremicus and truei, respectively. The mean age at which the eyes
open in the golden mouse, combining the data of Goodpaster and
Hoffmeister (1954) and the present study, is 12.4 days (11-15). Thus,
this developmental stage appears to occur at a relatively early
age in Ochrotomys.

On the basis of observations on only two individuals, the post-
juvenile molt in the golden mouse may commence at about the same
age as in P. maniculatus gambeli and perhaps somewhat earlier,
on the average, than in P. leucopus, gossypinus, polionotus, truei,
and californicus.

Although fewer data are available on the behavioral and neu-
romotor development of species of Peromyscus and such informa-
tion obtained by different workers is somewhat difficult to interpret
on a comparative basis, it seems that Ochrotomys is behaviorally
precocious as well as physically so. One gains the impression from
observation and the literature that golden mice are quite strong
and well coordinated at birth as compared to various species of
Peromyscus. In the present study, young golden mice exhibited
a rapid righting response at 3 days of age, whereas the average age
of appearance of an immediate righting response in two subspecies
of P. maniculatus studied by King (1958) was 7.2 and 8.9 days.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF GOLDEN MICE 53

Ochrotomys young could also stand and scramble about before a
week old, whereas, with the exception of P. californicus, the species
of Peromyscus that have been studied in this regard (P. polionotus,
leucopus, maniculatus, and truei) apparently do not exhibit equiva-
lent locomotor advancement until the 2nd week of age.

Perhaps further evidence of relatively rapid neuromuscular
maturation in Ochrotomys is the low frequency of involuntary
twitching observed and the disappearance of this condition at
about 3 days of age. In contrast, Peromyscus floridanus still exhibits
such spasmodic twitching at 2 weeks of age (unpublished data).

Mean birth weights of P. polionotus, leucopus, and various sub-
species of P. maniculatus are appreciably less than that of the golden
mouse. The mean weight of newborn Ochrotomys compares rather
closely with those of P. gossypinus, truei, and eremicus, and is
greatly exceeded only by the young of the much larger P. cali-
fornicus. Ochrotomys neonates agree with those of the larger
species of Peromyscus in being relatively, as well as absolutely,
larger.

In a detailed analysis of growth of P. maniculatus (subspecies
gambeli), truei, and californicus, McCabe and Blanchard (1950)
indicate that the relative growth rate for weight during the Ist
week after birth becomes less with increasing species size, going
from .1687 for P. maniculatus to .1006 for P. californicus. Although
more nearly equivalent to the former in size and weight, the golden
mouse shows a relative growth rate (.125) for the lst week that is
more in agreement with the larger species.

Subsequent instantaneous growth rates for Ochrotomys approx-
imate or only slightly exceed those of the species of Peromyscus
through 5 weeks and then fall sharply below. Half adult weight,
and apparently full adult size, is attained at an earlier age in Ochro-
tomys than in the three Peromyscus species.

Another point of difference in the weight curves presently avail-
able for Ochrotomys and the Peromyscus species is the absence of
a break in decrease in rate coincident with the period of weaning.
This break in the curve, which is most pronounced in P. manicu-
latus, less so in truei, and least in californicus, is suggested by Mc-
Cabe and Blanchard as being the result of a relatively decreasing
milk supply followed by exploitation of new food resources fol-
lowing weaning. In the golden mouse instantaneous relative growth
rates decline in a more regular fashion over the period of weaning.

54 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Postnatal linear growth in Ochrotomys in comparison with spe-
cies of Peromyscus studied seemingly exhibits the same general
trends as growth in weight, instantaneous relative growth rates for
particular measurements being generally comparable at early ages
but achievement of full growth apparently being advanced in time
as the result of relatively greater size at birth and the compounding
of this difference during subsequent growth phases.

Although the data available for the golden mouse are limited,
the foregoing comparisons indicate that it develops at a relatively
more rapid rate than a number of Peromyscus species of comparable
and larger size. This accelerated postnatal growth rate is correlated
with a relatively long gestation period and the absolutely and pro-
portionately large size of the young at birth. McCabe and Blanch-
ard (1950) related differences in relative size and development at
birth of three species of Peromyscus to the occurrence of birth at
different points along a total growth curve from conception to
maturity.

The relatively rapid development and growth of the golden
mouse would appear to have adaptive significance from the stand-
point of its habits and ecology, since an accelerated ontogeny would
seem to be of distinct advantage to a semiarboreal species whose
young are often produced in relatively exposed and accessible tree
nests. The generally rapid development not only reduces the
length of time the young must remain confined in the nest but also
insures that important structures such as tail and hind foot are
well developed and fully functional at the time when the young
begin to make excursions from the nest. Particular behavorial
characteristics appearing during the development of the young and
which may be assumed to represent arboreal specializations in this
species are the tendencies to cling tenaciously at a relatively early
age, to respond to disturbance by remaining immobile, and, when
sufficiently disturbed, to seek escape by climbing. The freezing
response is also characteristic of the adult behavior pattern, and,
although sometimes attributed to fear, it might actually function
as a protective mechanism. It appears that the golden mouse is
not adapted for rapid movement above ground and ordinarily pro-
ceeds with deliberateness. Thus, the tendency to freeze when
alarmed rather than attempting precipitous flight may have sur-
vival value for the species. The tendency of the young not to

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF GOLDEN MICE ts)

move around actively may also serve to reduce the likelihood of
falling from the nest.

Foster (1959) has pointed out that slow and deliberate move-
ments are also characteristic of Peromyscus maniculatus gracilis, a
form which is semiarboreal though less strongly so than the golden
mouse, and has also assumed that this pattern of movements is an
adaptation for semiarboreal activity. She has also postulated that
the greater tendency to freeze in a grassland subspecies, P. m.
bairdii, is also adaptive in nature. The similar interpretation for
the freezing response in the golden mouse suggests that the same
behavioral characteristic in two taxa of widely divergent ecologies
and habits may be equally adaptive under markedly different en-
vironmental conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank James V. Griffo, Jr., for supplying two of the
pregnant golden mice used in this study. This paper is an outgrowth
of research supported in part by grant No. G-3215 from the National
Science Foundation. Grateful acknowledgment is also made to
Dr. John A. King, Roscoe B. Jackson Memorial Laboratory, Bar
Harbor, Maine, for his critical reading of the manuscript and useful
suggestions.

SUMMARY

Breeding records available for the golden mouse in Florida ex-
tend over an 8-month period, and mean litter size based on a total
orelelttters) is 2.7.

The development and growth of 8 captive-born young are de-
scribed. Young at birth had well developed vibrissae and scattered
hairs on the dorsum. The full juvenile pelage was nearly developed
by 2 weeks of age, and the post-juvenile molt began at about the
4th week of age in one young. The pinnae became erect on the
Ist or 2nd day, the incisors erupted between the 4th and 6th days,
and the eyes opened on the llth or 12th day. The young are
apparently weaned at about 3 weeks of age or slightly before.

Newly born young were relatively well coordinated. They
attempted to walk when 1 day old and by 3 days of age exhibited
a well developed righting response.

Mean weight and measurements at birth were: weight, 2.4 grams;
total length, 53.7 mm.; body length, 39.0 mm.; tail length, 14.7 mm.;

56 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

and hind foot length, 7.3 mm. Instantaneous percentage growth
rates for weight, total length, body length, and tail length dropped
below 1 percent per day after 5 weeks of age, at which time the
young were about 88 percent of mean adult weight and 91, 90,
and 93 percent of the adult averages for total, body and tail length,
respectively. Relative growth of the hind foot and ear dropped
below 1 percent per day after 3 and 4 weeks of age, respectively.

Compared to 7 species of Peromyscus for which data are avail-
able, the golden mouse appears to be precocious in its growth and
development. It is suggested that this relatively accelerated on-
togeny and certain specific behavioral patterns observed are adapt-
ively correlated with the semiarboreal habits of the species.

LITERATURE CITED

BARRINGTON, B. A., JR.
1949. Mammals of a north Florida flatwoods. Doctoral dissertation, Univ.
of Florida, 93 pp.

BRODY, S.
1945. Bioenergetics and growth. N. Y.: Reinhold Publ. Corp. 1023 pp.

COMEINS Eee.
1923. Studies of the pelage phases and nature of color variations in mice
of the genus Peromyscus. J. Exp. Zool., 38: 45-107.

DICE, L. R., and R. M. BRADLEY

1942. Growth in the deer-mouse, Peromyscus maniculatus. J. Mamm., 23:
416-427,

HOSTER DOROMEYS D:

1959. Differences in behavior and temperament between two races of the
deer mouse. J. Mamm., 40: 496-513.

COODPASTER, W. W., and DD. bh. HOEFEMEISTER
1954. Life-history of the golden mouse, Peromyscus nuttalli, in Kentucky.
J. Mamm., 35: 16-27.

COMSCHANG Hie
1956. Juvenile molt in Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis. J. Mamm.,
37: 516-520.

HOFFMEISTER, D. F.

1951. A taxonomic and evolutionary study of the Pinon mouse, Peromyscus
truei. Ill. Biol. Monogr., Vol. 21, No. 4, 104 pp.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF GOLDEN MICE oT

HOORER. E. TI.
1958. The male phallus in mice of the genus Peromyscus. Misc. Publ.
Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich., No. 105, 24 pp.

IVEYS RR. D.

1949. Life history notes on three mice from the Florida east coast. J.
Mamm., 30: 157-162.

KING J. A.

1958. Maternal behavior and behavioral development in two subspecies
of Peromyscus maniculatus. J. Mamm., 39: 177-190.

LAFFODAY, S. K.

1957. A study of prenatal and postnatal development in the oldfield mouse,
Peromyscus polionotus. Doctoral dissertation, Univ. of Florida,
124 pp.

McCABE, T. T., and BARBARA D. BLANCHARD

1950. Three species of Peromyscus. Rood Associates, Publishers, Santa
Barbara, California, 136 pp.

McCARLEY, H.

1958. Ecology, behavior and population dynamics of Peromyscus nuttalli
im eastern Texas. Texas J. Sci. 10: 147-171.

1959. A study of the dynamics of a population of Peromyscus gossypinus
and P. nuttalli subjected to the effects of x-irradiation. Amer. Midl.
Nat., 61: 447-469.

NICHOLSON, A. J.

1941. The homes and social habits of the wood-mouse (Peromyscus leucopus
noveboracensis) in southern Michigan. Amer. Midl. Nat., 25: 196-
223.

PEARSON, P. G.
1953. A field study of Peromyscus populations in Gulf Hammock, Florida.
Ecol., 34: 199-207.

POURNELLE, G. H.

1952. Reproduction and early post-natal development of the cotton mouse,
Peromyscus gossypinus gossypinus. J. Mamm., 33: 1-20.

RAND, A. L., and P. HOST

1942. Mammal notes from Highlands County, Florida. Results of the
Archbold Exped., No. 45, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 80: 1-21.

SIEVING Tih 406
1920. Breeding habits of captive deermice. J. Mamm., 1: 135.

58 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

SVIHLA, A.

1932. A comparative life history study of the mice of the genus Peromyscus.
Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich., No. 24, 39 pp.

1934. Development and growth of deermice (Peromyscus maniculatus arte-
misiae). J. Mamm., 15: 99-104.

1935. Development and growth of the prairie deermouse, Peromyscus man-
iculatus bairdii. J. Mamm., 16: 109-115.

1936. Development and growth of Peromyscus maniculatus oreas. J.
Mamm., 17: 132-137.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(1), 1960.

SCALE AND SCUTE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARANGID
FISH CARANX CRYSOS (MITCHILL)

FREDERICK H. Berry }
U. S. Fish AND WILDLIFE SERVICE
Brunswick, Georgia

In the genus Caranx, a scute is recognized as a modified scale
in the straight part of the lateral line (fig. 1). Description of the
scute and its development in Caranx crysos (Mitchill) is recorded
in this study. The scute is larger, thicker, and harder than other
body scales, and its posterior margin terminates in a spine or a
point. It contains a portion of the lateral line canal in a tube hav-
ing its anterior opening on the outer surface, its posterior opening
on the inner surface, and generally a pair of shorter tubes whose
anterior openings are confluent with the posterior opening of the
central tube and whose posterior openings are on the interior sur-
face of the scute near its posterior margin. These latter openings
furnish contact with the environment for this part of the lateral
line system—the posterior opening of the central tube joins the
anterior opening on the external but embedded portion of the next
posterior scute.

The numbers of scutes vary. Intraspecifically, they vary bilat-
erally; they vary up to certain body lengths with growth of the
fish (the scutes are in the process of formation to about 100 mm.
standard length in Caranx crysos, and fish smaller than this size
usually have less than the adult complement of scutes); and they
vary, usually within predictable limits, between adult fish of the
species. Interspecifically, their variation has been utilized tax-
onomically—pairs or groups of selected species can be separated
by the distinct ranges of their adult complement of scutes.

The recorded numbers of scutes counted may vary according to
the individual who counts them. One noted worker on Caranx
systematics (Nichols 1920: 30), after a brief discussion of scute
counts and their variation, concluded “that the personal equation
enters into their count somewhat.” To promote comparable counts

*U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Bio-
logical Laboratory, Brunswick, Georgia (Contribution Number 49, Biological
Ban tory, Brunswick, Georgia). Present address, U.S.F.W.S., LaJolla, Cali-
ornia.

60 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

by different workers, an exacting definition has been employed:
Primarily, counts are made to include all scutes from the most an-
terior to the most posterior completely developed scute. A com-
pletely developed scute either has a spine at its posterior margin or
its posterior margin is angled to a point with the angle formed
being not greater than 120°. The adult complement of scutes of
Caranx crysos ranges from about 46 to 56 (Berry 1959).

Fig. 1. Relative position of a completely developed scute on a specimen
of Caranx crysos of 82.5 mm. standard length. Dotted lines show the lateral]
line tubes and their openings on the internal surface of the scute.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARANGID FISH 61

MerTHOpS

Several hundred specimens of Caranx crysos from 5.4 to 438
mm. standard length (S.L.) were examined. A number of these
were stained with alizarin and cleared with potassium hydroxide,
and some were depigmented with hydrogen peroxide.

Observations on the formation and development of scales and
scutes apply only to those scales and scutes that are at least partly
ossified (and which consequently stain red with alizarine).

All body lengths are standard lengths (from tip of snout to end
of caudal base). The size of the smallest specimen available that
depicted a particular ontogenetic feature is used as the size of oc-
currence or development of that feature. There is some slight vari-
ation, however, in the body size at the acquisition of the various
characters.

Terminology of position or direction of the scales or scutes
accords with the normal position of the scale on the fish: outer re-
fers to the surface of the scale away from the body of the fish, inner
refers to that next to the body, dorsal refers to the aspect of the
scale that normally is directed toward the dorsal part of the fish.

SEQUENCE OF SCALE FORMATION

Scale formation is depicted diagramatically in figure 2.

At 9.8 mm. and smaller sizes no scales have formed.

At 10.4 mm. scales (potential scutes) along the straight part of
the lateral line have formed.

At 12.5 mm. a few scales have formed in the curved part of
the lateral line adjacent to the straight lateral line.

At 13.1 mm. scales along the entire portion of the curved part
of the lateral line have formed, and a few small rounded scales
have formed above and below the mid-posterior part of the lateral
line.

At 14.4 mm. scales have formed in single rows above and below
the straight lateral line.

At 16.0 mm. scales in the row above and below the straight
lateral line have developed circuli, a few scales have formed next
to these, and a few scales have formed above and below the curved
lateral line.

At 16.7 mm. additional scales have begun to form over the sides
of the body.

62 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Fig. 2. General sequence of appearance and development of scales in
Caranx crysos. Black areas represent scales and scutes in the lateral line.
Shaded areas represent scales of the body, fins, and head. Sizes are in milli-
meters of standard length.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARANGID FISH 63

At 18.3 mm. scales have covered the body except for small areas
anterior to the first dorsal and the pectoral fins, on the chest, and
on the end of the caudal base; and scales occur on the basal sheath
of the soft dorsal and anal fins.

At 19.6 mm. the straight part of the lateral line has extended
onto the caudal fin.

At 21.7 mm. a small elongated patch of scales has formed pos-
terior to the eye, and scales have extended onto the caudal fin.

At 23.3 mm. scales have essentially covered the body.

At 30.4 mm. scales are present on the head behind and below
the eye and on the posterior part of the head.

At 43.5 mm. scale rows are formed on the membranes between
the anterior dorsal and anal softrays.

At 59 mm. scales are on the caudal fin to more than one-half the
distance to the end.

At 70.5 mm. scales have started to form on the pectoral and
pelvic fins.

At 177 mm. scales are present on all parts of the fish except
the margins of the paired and soft fins, the spinous dorsal and anal
fins, the dorsal and anterior part of the head, the snout and jaws,
the interopercle and subopercle, and the major lower portions of
the preoperculum and operculum. This represents the ultimate
squamation in the adult.

ScUTE DEVELOPMENT

The lateral line scales and potential scutes are more highly
developed in the region of the anterior part of the caudal peduncle
than in other portions of the lateral line. Descriptions below are
of scales and scutes taken from this area. Scales and scutes anterior
and posterior to this area are progressively less developed.

The stages of development are shown in figure 3.

Specimens 9.8 mm. and smaller lack scales.

At 10.4 mm. the scales are convex anteriorly and concave pos-
teriorly. An opening in the scale base may be present or forming.
Slight thickenings extending out from the base are present on
the dorsal and ventral margins of the outer surface (fig. 3, A and B).

At 10.7 mm. the dorsal and ventral thickenings have become
ridge-like extending further above the base (C).

JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARANGID FISH 65

By 12.5 mm. the ridges have converged toward the midline
of the scale (D).

At 13.4 mm. the distal margins of the ridges have started bend-
ing toward each other (E).

At 14.4 mm. and 16.0 mm. the ridges have bent closer to each
other over the outer exposed portion of the base (F and G).

At 16.7 mm. the ridges have joined along part of their confluent
edges, and the anterior opening of the central tube has formed (H).

At 18.3 mm. projections extend anterio-laterally from the poste-
rior ends of the ridges (I). On some more advanced scales at this
size the ends of these projections become pointed and begin to
turn under the plane of the outer portion of this part of the scale,
and the posterior ends of the joined ridges have fused to form
the spine (J). This latter condition (J) demonstrates a completely
developed scute, by definition and by enumeration, while the other
scale (I), depicted from the same fish, does not.

At 20.3 mm. the posterior margin of the scute has filled out, and
elements on the inner surface are turning in posterio-medially to
form the secondary tubes (K).

At 23.3 mm. the scute structure is essentially completed (L).

With continued growth the tubes and their openings become
relatively smaller, as is depicted at 43.5 mm. (M), 107 mm. (N), and
177 mm. (O).

On some scutes of fish between about 25 and 35 mm., a smaller
secondary spine may form along the outer anterior portion of the
main posterior spine, but this secondary spine is temporary and is
probably overgrown by the thickening of the scale.

On the scutes of some fish between about 140 and 160 mm.,
small flattened spines are formed on the posterior margin over
the openings of the lateral tubes, but these also do not persist.

The maximum dorso-ventral measurements or diameters of
the scales and scutes illustrated in figure 3 are: A, 0.095 mm.; B,
0.088 mm.; C, 0.090 mm.; D, 0.14 mm.; E, 0.19 mm.; F, 0.19 mm.;
G, 0.29 mm.; H, 0.26 mm.; I, 0.89 mm.; J, 0.40 mm.; K, 0.59 mm.;
i, £19 mm.; M, 1.72 mm.; N, 4.73 mm.; O, 6.67 mm.

There are three principal results of this study. It supports
the generalization of Lowenstein (1957) that the development of
the sensory papillae and the canal systems of the lateral line ap-
pears to be related to the mode of life and habitat of the species,

66 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

with free-swimming forms [such as Caranx crysos], in which the
body is continuously exposed to the action of relative water move-
ment, usually having the canal system well-developed as protec-
tion for the delicate sensory papillae. It furnishes another poten-
tially discriminant character for systematic consideration. It affords
comprehension of an interesting and perhaps unique ontogenetic
process.
LITERATURE CITED

BERRY, FREDERICK H.
1959. Young jack crevalles (Caranx species) off the southeastern Atlantic
coast of the United States. Fish. Bull. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv.,
59(152): 413-535, figs. 1-98.
LOWENSTEIN, O.

1957. The sense organs: The acoustico-lateralis system. (Jn Brown, Mar-
garet E., Editor, The Physiology of fishes, Vol. 2) Ch. 2, pt. 2, p.
155-186.

NICHOLS, jt.
1920. On Caranx crysos, etc. Copeia, 1920 (81): 29-30.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(1), 1960.

TOWARD A METHOD IN AMERICAN STUDIES

WILLIAM RANDEL
Florida State University

Critics of American Studies have asked what its method is, or
what method it can possibly develop. It is unproductive, and
probably evasive, to retort by asking what method is recognized
as standard for other subjects—English, for example. Insistence
on a standard method may be one of the ways we acknowledge
the current ascendancy of the laboratory sciences, which do have
standardized methods. But the question of method has been seri-
ously raised not only by men dubious about American Studies
but also by some of its warmest defenders, who realize, as I think
we all must, that no subject can be taught without some kind of
method.

As an interdisciplinary curriculum, drawing selectively from
the subject matter of several established departments, American
Studies has no choice but to adopt the several methods of those de-
partments. By this I mean that the student working toward an
American Studies degree cannot study American history or litera-
ture or economics by a method of his own that differs noticeably
from the methods used in those courses, although beyond the class-
room he will have to apply special effort to integrate disparate
knowledge into some degree of meaningful wholeness. But once
a separate American Studies course is established, as I believe at
least one should be for any campus program, any mere compound-
ing of older methods soon proves unsatisfactory. The whole is not
or should not be merely the sum of its parts.

One of my students last semester remarked that “all roads lead
to American Studies,’ and I agree in the sense that the integrating
course should be capable of considering any facet of American civ-
ilization in a philosophic fashion. Is the method of philosophy,
then, the best to adopt? Since there are as yet no fixed principles,
it would have to be the inductive method, deferring hypotheses
until a vast number of separate facts are assembled. Speaking
generally, I believe we may safely say yes, the inductive method
of philosophy should govern, although we would no doubt say
the same for many academic subjects, especially the social sciences.

68 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Of all established disciplines, cultural anthropology, more spe-
cifically social anthropology, is the closest to American Studies in
governing purpose. One author defines the purpose of social an-
thropology as a quest for “the scientific generalizations about a
culture,” a limitation that may explain why social anthropologists
so often examine small, isolated cultures and shy away from any-
thing as big and complex as the culture of the United States. When
they do approach that culture, they usually confine themselves
to single cities, as the Lynds have done for “Middletown” and
Lloyd Warner for “Yankee City.” The stated purpose of American
Studies, which is to study American civilization as a whole, may
strike the social anthropologists as almost a defiance of the scientific
method, a brash abandonment or reversal of orderly process.

But whether or not the social anthropologists would admit the
family relationship, American Studies (as an integrating course)
must adopt, at least as part of its method, the method of the social
anthropologists, who begin with demography and ecology and pro-
ceed to three recognized stages: the biographical (how the people
live), the institutional (how they are organized), and the interper-
sonal (how they impinge on each other). The hypothetical average
student majoring in American Studies would take separate courses
related to all of these—courses in geography, history, sociology,
government, religion, economics—having in common the central
fact that each is an American course within its discipline. What
the integrating course may do, or must do, is to interrelate what is
learned in the separate department courses, or to restore the whole-
ness that academic specialization tends to destroy. But because
no one student can enroll in all the American courses in the several
departments, the integrating course must be equipped to fill in
what he has missed in the composite picture. The weakness of
merely piling up the methods of different departments, into the
compounded method alluded to earlier, becomes apparent when
we think of how many different departments may be involved, and
how many different teachers.

The social anthropology general approach has its limitations,
however, if my own experience of more than a decade has any
pertinence. American history has been too brief for its origins to
be lost in the past as would be true of most cultures. I doubt if
social anthropologists ever need to examine the foreign image of

TOWARD A METHOD IN AMERICAN STUDIES 69

isolated primitive cultures; but the foreign image of the United
States has, since the first settlements, been a significant shaping
force. In the second place, the origins abroad of all Americans
except the native Indians are known and can be examined, as
they can only be conjectured, if any existed, for most cultures.
These two are perhaps the most important reasons why American
civilization needs a special method of study. As a matter of fact,
either the origins abroad or the foreign image might well serve as
the first step in the method.

Our culture, moreover, has exhibited a far greater self-conscious-
ness than any other culture in history. What Greek or Frenchman
ever raises the question of whether there is a Greek or French cul-
ture? But Americans ask it; and at times in our history we have
been quite sensitive on the point, as in the early days of the re-
public when patriots were clamoring for an indigenous literature.
Abroad, too, there is intense curiosity about our civilization—it
is not merely local self-consciousness, clearly, but partly an aware-
ness, here and elsewhere, of the unique world leadership forced
by circumstance upon the American people—something the an-
thropologists never have to cope with on far-flung islands. The
searching questions, and the scholarly explanations, comprise a
substantial body of theory which alone would serve as subject
matter enough for any discipline, or at least as one more reason-
able starting point.

Perhaps it is time to present my conception of a method. In
practice I do not exhaust all of one part before introducing the
next, probably because exhausting any one part might take the
whole year. The foreign image, the major theories, the question
of who we are, the geographic and historical forces, the institu-
tions, the behavior—all of these may be touched on lightly and
left for subsequent development. Theories that tend toward singu-
larism must be shown to cancel each other out, to some extent,
without being discarded as completely useless. One line of de-
velopment deserving reiteration is the interaction of Transit and
Frontier—the diffusion of culture and the local conditions en-
forcing modification. This leads to a question that students always
respond to, of the major contributions Americans have made—the
things most properly called inventions, such as mass education,
the multi-purpose university, Pragmatism, jazz, functional archi-

70 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tecture, and judicial review. So many fascinating new roads of
inquiry keep opening that the teacher must often throw up road-
blocks and redirect class attention.

I have no ideal order to propose; it is more important to estab-
lish all these major facets of the total consideration, under the
assumption that even a thin grasp of all of them will make later
inquiry more intelligent. If more questions are raised than answers
given, at least a method of seeking the answers will exist as a
foundation. No student exposed to this method, I believe, will
ever again read a book “explaining” American civilization and
accept it uncritically, or listen to unsupported statements without
reflection. The method, then, has as its purpose an alert, con-
tinuing, critical interest in American civilization.

Two further comments. I have come to realize how pervasively
our popular myths tend to influence our institutions, our behavior,
and our total outlook; and I would insist that some awareness of
the major American myths be firmly established in student minds.
The effort may be difficult, since myths are often our most fervidly
cherished beliefs; but the effort must be made. The second and
final point, based on personal experience, is that the very best
way to approach an effective comprehension of our own civiliza-
tion is to spend a year or so in another country, not as a tourist,
or in military service, or in business, but as a student or teacher.
I wish it were somehow possible to require such a year abroad of
every college student; then perhaps we could hope for a more gen-
erally enlightened concept of the United States of the sort that
American Studies is trying to find a method of providing.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(1), 1960.

RESEARCH NOTE

New PopuLATIONs OF West INDIAN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS
IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA

Several subspecies of Anolis sagrei have long been known
to occur in Florida. Barbour (Copeia, 1931 (3): 87-88) described
Anolis stejnegeri from Key West. Oliver (1948. Amer. Mus.
Novitates, 1383: 1-36) later considered it a subspecies of A. sagrei.
Bell (Copeia, 1953 (1): 63) reported A. sagrei ordinatus from Miami.
Dueilman and Schwartz (1958, Bull. Florida State Mus., 3(5):
181-324), after an analysis of several characters, referred the Mi-
ami population to A. sagrei stejnegeri. Oliver (Copeia, 1950 (1):
50-56) reported A. s. sagrei from Tampa and St. Petersburg, and
A. s. ordinatus from Lake Worth (city). Nearly every coastal
city in South Florida, that is a port of entry for the steamship com-
panies which import West Indian produce, has a population of
accidentally introduced Antillean reptiles. Every population of
A. sagrei mentioned above, with the exception of the Lake Worth
population, occurs in a seaport. The Lake Worth population is
the result of a successful attempt by someone to establish the species
in that city. One seaport in southeastern Florida—Port of Palm
Beach, at Riviera Beach—has no previously recorded population of
West Indian reptiles. I visited the Port of Palm Beach on 31
January 1959 and found a colony of Anolis sagrei which occupied
an area of approximately two city blocks immediately adjacent to
the port. A series of 16 adults and juveniles were collected. Six
more were collected on 26 March 1959, a series of 14 on 30 March
1959, and six on 6 September 1959. Comparison of these series with
specimens of A. sagrei from the Bahamas, Cuba, Key West, and
Miami indicate that the Riviera Beach population is A. sagrei sagrei.
These lizards were probably introduced in shipments of fruit
brought from Cuba by the West India Fruit and Steamship Com-
pany.

Leiocephalus carinatus virescens was originally reported from
the vicinity of Miami by Barbour (Copeia, 1936 (2): 113). Duellman
and Schwartz (op. cit.: 284) later reported that the Miami popula-
tion of Leiocephalus was no longer in existence, but that a popu-
lation apparently did exist in Palm Beach County, Florida (op. cit.:
318). This report was based, at least in part, on three specimens in

72 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the University of Florida Collections, identified by George B. Rabb
of the Chicago Zoological Park as Leiocephalus carinatus armouri,
which occurs on the islands of the Little Bahama Bank. They were
collected by me during September and November 1955, on the
island of, and in the city of, Palm Beach, approximately one block
south of Royal Poinciana Way on Coconut Row. No juveniles or
eggs were seen at this time.

On 14 April 1959, Robert E. Woodruff, Survey Entomologist
for the Florida State Plant Board, collected several adult Leioceph-
alus from the same population, and reported seeing juveniles of
approximately three inches length. Local nurserymen, reported
that these lizards were frequently seen on other parts of the island.

On 27 August 1959, I again visited the locality and collected
six adult and juvenile specimens from the grounds of the White-
hall Museum (one-half block south of the locality that the 1955
specimens came from). On 31 August 1959, I collected five more
from the same area. Although no eggs were found, small juveniles
were numerous indicating a breeding population. The lizards
were most abundant on the grounds of the Poinciana Chapel and
the adjacent Whitehall Museum, and on the sea-wall immedi-
ately south of the museum. They were also numerous along
the sidewalk fronting the Poinciana Golf Links on South County
Road. Efforts were made to find the lizard on other parts of the
island, but in vain. The population seemed to be bounded by
Royal Poinciana Way to the north, Clarke Avenue to the south,
the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and Lake Worth (intracoastal water-
way) to the west. This area is approximately twenty city blocks.
A crew of city nurserymen informed me that the curly-tail lizards
were released in Palm Beach by the late J. N. Clarke, a pioneer res-
ident of Palm Beach. It was stated that the lizards first appeared
on Pendleton and Clarke Avenues near the Clarke home, however,
no date of introduction was given.

Hyla septentrionalis was first recorded from Florida at Key West
by Barbour (Copeia, 1931 (3): 140). Since that time it has been
recorded from many of the Florida Keys—Stock Island (Wright and
Wright, 1949, Handbook of Frogs and Toads, 3rd ed.: 338); Upper
Matecumbe Key (Trapido, 1947, Herpetologica, 3(6): 190); Vaca
Key (Peterson, Garrett, and Lantz, 1952, Herpetologica, 8(3): 63);
Key Largo and Big Pine Key (Allen and Neill, Copeia, 1953 (2): 127-

RESEARCH NOTES 73

128). Schwartz (Copeia, 1952 (2): 117) first reported H. septentri-
onalis on the mainland in Miami. Allen and Neill (op. cit.: 127)
added Paradise Key as a mainland population. Duellman and
Schwartz (op. cit.: 250) listed Miami as the most northern mainland
locality for this species. On 26 November 1959, Dale E. Birkenholz
of the Department of Biology, University of Florida, collected seven
adult H. septentrionalis in Dania, Broward County, Florida, ap-
proximately 20 miles north of Miami. These specimens were col-
lected at night from the plate-glass window of a store on Federal
Highway (US Hwy. 1), between Northeast 2nd and 3rd Streets.
Additional specimens were seen but not collected.

All of the above specimens are on deposit in the University of
Florida Collections. I would like to thank George B. Rabb, Robert
E. Woodruff, and Dale E. Birkenholz for the information and speci-
mens that they supplied, and Wm. J. Riemer for his help with the
manuscript.

WaynE KING
Department of Biology
University of Florida

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(1), 1960.

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{ Thy i)
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FOF CR

Ouarterly Journal

of the

Florida Academy

of Sciences

Vol. 23 Sume, INGO No. 2

Contents

Dambaugh—The Everglades National Park:
Pemyileemiess Weserved ie

Eldred—On the Grading and Identification of Domestic
Commercial Shrimps (Family Penaeidae) with a Tenta-
tive World List of Commercial Penaeids....____»_»_»__ 89

Kastner—An Appraisal of a Current Recommendation of
faeeamencan Bankers Association. 119

Rivas—The Fishes of the Genus Pomacentrus in Florida

guserie Vwestern Bahamas. 130
oe IN QUSS cui re 163
Pe cterOrrne GGItOr 2 169

SRE ESS SAGES UN SRA ea el gc 171

VoL, 23 JuNE, 1960 No. 2

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research
Editor—J. C. Dickinson, Jr.

Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences
Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla.

The business offices of the JouRNAL are centralized at the University of Florida,
Gainesville, Florida. Communications for the editor and all manuscripts
should be addressed to the Editor, Florida State Museum. Business Communi-
cations should be addressed to A. G. Smith, Treasurer, Department of Physics.
All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be addressed
to The Gift and Exchange Section, University of Florida Libraries.

Subscription price, Five Dollars a year
Mailed November 8, 1960

iia QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE
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VoL. 23 JuNE, 1960 No. 2

THE EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK:
A WILDERNESS RESERVED

LuELLA N. DAMBAUGH
University of Miami

If predictions come true within another twenty years there will
be two major contrasting land use types in southern Florida: one—
an artificial landscape, a very large super city; the other—a wilder-
ness landscape, the third largest national park in the United States
after Mount McKinley and Yellowstone. While there may be some
doubts about the former, the latter became reality when Congress
established the Everglades National Park on June 27, 1947, and
further when the 85th Congress (H.R. 6641, 1958) fixed the final
boundary lines of the park on July 2, 1958 (Fig. 1).

A NATURALIST’S PARADISE

This area is the first national park in which biological rather
than geological features are stressed. In addition to several major
plant associations and land forms, it is a natural rendezvous for
countless species of animals. There is a complete absence of per-
manent private settlement within the 1,337,800 acres that comprise
the park.!. No portions of the Seminole Indian Reservation, or of
the Indian camps along Tamiami Trail are included within the
boundaries. Excluded also is the privately owned agricultural land
in the “Hole in the Doughnut.” ?

* A bill introduced in the United States Senate and referred to the Com-
mittee on Interior and Insular Affairs authorized the Secretary of the Interior
to accept for Everglades National Park purposes, title to approximately 1,160
acres of land and submerged land, south of Everglades City, donated by 3
Collier deeds in 1951 and 1952 to the trustees of the Internal Improvement
Fund of the State of Florida for subsequent inclusion in the Everglades
National Park. 86th Congress, Ist Session, S. 2576 (August 21, 1959).

7 An area of some 22,000 acres of privately-owned land within the park,
extending southward from Long Pine Key, and completely surrounded by

78 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TAMIAMI TRAIL

“FISH-HOOK™ 7
DEVE

x
EVERGLADES Dh ie
x
NATIONAL PARK

1960 BI" ~% o

Map 1. EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK, FLORIDA.

Letters: P—Park Entrance, K—Key Largo, E—Everglades City,
M—Miami, H—Homestead, and F—Flamingo.

Numbers: 2—Hole in Doughnut, 3—Ten Thousand Islands, 4—
EEC River, 5—Shark River, 6—Whitewater Bay, and 7—Cape
Sable.

Large arrow: Direction of surface water flow.

Small arrows extending out from Miami—Extent of the continuously
built-up area as of 1959.

Nature is truly dominant. All aspects of nature are carefully
protected. What an eerie and thrilling sight, indeed it was to see
an §-foot alligator walking along the beach in front of the Lodge
at Flamingo, just about dusk one evening as the tide was going
out! How rightfully disappointing it must have been for the
young couple, who were fishing in a 15-foot outboard about 14
miles from shore in Florida Bay, after they managed to catch and

Federal lands. “....no parcel .... shall be acquired (by the Secretary of
Interior) without the consent of its owner so long as it is used exclusively for
agricultural purposes, including housing, directly incident thereto, or is lying
fallow or remains in its natural state....” Public Law 85-482, 85th Congress,
EUR. 6641 (July 2.1958), 5

EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK: WILDERNESS RESERVED 79

tow into the docks at Flamingo a 500-pound sea turtle, to be
greeted by the Park Ranger. “That turtle is protected,” said the
Ranger. “Okay, Ill put it back near the dock so its fins can heal,”
said the young man. “No,” said the Ranger, “Put it back where
you found it.”

Mosquitoes—the large, stinging, brackish water species—are
quite numerous, yet they, too, are indispensable in the scheme of
things. As one of the local employees put it, “We need the mos-
quitoes because the fish depend upon them and the birds eat the
fish.”

A TRAVERSE

From the main entrance to the Park beyond Homestead the
only road through the Park continues generally southwest to
Flamingo on the Florida Bay. There are found the only accommo-
dations within the park for over-night visitors (lodge, snack bar,
restaurant, museum, and marina). The impression gained by a
traverse of the highway is that there are vast expanses of compar-
atively level land where grass and sky meet. And correctly so,
for fresh water and salt water prairies cover some 75 per cent
of the park surface (Table 1). While maximum elevation is about
8 feet (5.2 feet at Royal Palm Hammock), the land dips imper-
ceptively some two to three inches per mile toward the southwest.

TABLE’ 1

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
IN EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK *

Plant Association Per cent
WAPBUUS TE BROS ka av ng nm TD 42
Open glades, or saw-grass marsh _ ME AON ie UN 36
A AMOM ONC MLOTCS Cammuiateanes Plan RA ne ee sh ee 15
Cems DSR POTS I le nn ato are TAT 3
CON DISS a a ert ee We ee a eo 2
el EAU © Kaun ae tr cri ME Oras 7 Neenah ides W SolE oo oI PS AA A 2

* Source: Royal Palm Ranger Station, Everglades National Park.

The eastern half of the park area is underlain with Miami
oolitic limestone. Formed by a shallow sea some 80,000 years

80 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ago during the Pleistocene, this rock forms a broad plateau under
Miami, the Florida Keys, the Eastern “Glades, and Florida Bay.
As a result of the acid action of surface water on the oolite, it con-
tains many solution holes. The western half of the park is under-
lain with the Tamiami Formation, consisting of calcareous sand-
stones and sandy limestones, that absorbs and carries good under-
ground water. Those limestone rocks were deposited during the
Pliocene more than 2,000,000 years ago (Bull. 442, 1948).

NATURAL VEGETATION ASSOCIATIONS

Piney woods and hammocks predominate on the slightly higher
ground in the east. One of the largest stands of Caribbean pine
in the United States is that on Long Pine Key. Hammocks com-
posed of hardwood species are interspersed. Royal Palm Ham-
mock, one of the largest of its kind in the park, is made up of
woody plants. The first story is composed of tall trees (mahogany,
live-oak, gumbo-limbo, royal palm), with a dense jungle-like un-
derstory of shrubs, woody vines (strangler fig), ferns, and epiphytes
(air plants and orchids). Smaller stands of woody plants are re-
ferred to as “heads” and are given a prefix according to the dom-
inant species of tree found, as for example, “cypress head,’ or
“mahogany head.” In the solution holes many species of plants
survive during prolonged droughts (Davis, 1943).

Tall grasses and sedges, chiefly saw-grass, dotted with small,
elongated clumps of shrubs and trees take over on the Tamiami
Formation on the west. In this slough and tree-island area, known
as the Tamiami Slough, the sloughs are wide and elongated with
patches of needlegrass, bladderworts, water lilies, and other aquatic
plants (Davis, 1948). The plants of the tree-islands range from
bay-heads made up of red bay, dahoon holly, wax-myrtle, custard
apple, and others, to sub-tropical hammocks with many hardwood
ikECS:

A third plant association is the mangrove (Davis, 1943). Cov-
ering the coastal littoral, the islands in the bays, and the Ten
Thousand Islands along the southwest coast (even the upper
Florida Keys in the early days) the mangrove forest ranges in
height all the way from mere hedgerows near the headwaters
of the rivers to a height of 80 feet at the mouths of the Shark
and Harney Rivers (Map 1).

EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK: WILDERNESS RESERVED 81

The mangrove is a true climax forest, having developed from
a pioneer red mangrove stage on lands covered by tides, through
a black mangrove and salt marsh stage on soils affected only by
high tides, to a white mangrove stage (buttonwoods and other
transition zone plants) on fresh-water marshes above the highest
spring and storm tide levels. These successional stages in the
development of mangrove communities help protect the shoreline
from erosion, and extend the coastline seaward (Davis, 1943).
Thousands of arching, stilt-like roots projecting down from the
trunks of the red mangrove trap silt and organic debris in the
swamps and river mouths building peat and marl soils 10 to 12
feet deep in places. The red mangrove also produces viviparous
seedlings that germinate on the parent tree and send down roots
several feet long. When the seedling falls, the heavy root holds
it upright as if floats, but when the root tip strikes mud, it begins
to grow and form a new tree.

The Cape Sable-Flamingo littoral is exceptional, for a marl
prairie covered with sea strand plants, extends some 3 to 5 miles
inland (Map U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1958). This is the
only beach and dune area from Cape Romano along the south-
west and south coasts. The sand beaches and marl ridges (of
very recent formation) are constructional land forms above high
tide level. Brackish-water lakes and landlocked bays (White-
water Bay, Coot Bay, West Lake, Cuthbert Lake) lie inland (Map
1). The upper beach and low dunes are fairly well covered with
plants. From the shoreline the change is from: herbs and low
shrubs, to grasses and salt water marsh vegetation, and finally to
mangrove forests (Davis, 1943).

From the park entrance to Flamingo the transition in natural
vegetation is very noticeable: from piney woods with understory
of palmetto and grass; through saw-grass prairies sprinkled with
hammocks and heads; then salt water prairies interspersed with
small, scattered clumps of mangrove; and finally, to the high, nearly
impenetrable mangrove forests.

ANIMAL LIFE

This wilderness is alive with animals. Birds, resident and mi-
gratory, find suitable habitats. Large bird breeding colonies are
in the Ten Thousand Islands (Duck Rock and Corkscrew Swamp

82 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Sanctuary) south of Everglades City, near Flamingo (Cuthbert
Rookery), and elsewhere. The Cape Sable area is a feeding
ground for wading birds, shore-birds, and waterfowl. Rare birds
are the Roseate Spoonbill, the Swallowtail Kite, the Great White
Heron (about 1,000 in the park today, almost all of which are in
Florida Bay area), and the Reddish Egret (only 150 in the park).?
It is thrilling, indeed, to take a boat ride on Florida Bay about
sundown. Many flocks of Egrets and Ibises can be seen leaving
the mainland, where they fed by day, to fly across the Bay to
Oyster Island, or other islands to roost in the treetops during the
night.

There is a great variety of marine life in the warm, shallow
waters of Whitewater Bay, Florida Bay, and the Gulf of Mexico.
The food chain (Davis, 1953) is evident: plankton—copepods eat
plankton—small fish eat copepods—big fish eat small fish and birds
eat fish—all life then decays enriching the waters. Oysters, shrimp,
tarpon, snook, garfish, alligators, porpoises, and other marine life
abound. The manatee, the crocodile, and the loggerhead turtle
are much rarer. This turtle may lay as many as 120 to 130 eggs on
Cape Sable beaches.

Other animals are: opossum, otter, racoon, white-tailed deer,
gray fox, black bear, fox squirrel, and cougar (Dietz, 1958). There
are many species of snakes, including three, the cottonmouth moc-
casin, diamond-back rattlesnake, and coral snake, which are poison-
ous.

THE EARLY PEOPLE

This vast living wilderness of South Florida guards zealously
the secret of the aboriginal Indians. The areal distribution of the
various groups still remains a topic of much controversy. One
body of opinion holds that the Calusas held forth along the lower
west coast and the Tekestas along the lower east coast (Dodd,
1956).

Early in the 16th century when the Spanish visited the region,
from Tampa Bay southward to the Florida Keys the area was
occupied by Calusa Indians. On the eastern end of Horr’s Island,
in the Ten Thousand Islands, Stirling found extensive shell mounds,
overgrown with dense underbrush, perhaps the most recent in

* Data from Flamingo Ranger Station, 1959.

EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK: WILDERNESS RESERVED 83

Florida, indicating the area to which the Calusas probably made
their final retreat (Stirling, 1931).

The Tekestas, according to Andrews and Andrews in Jonathan
Dickinson's Journal (1945), were found by the Spanish in the Miami
area. They were said to be scattered along the east coast from the
Keys to a point beyond Cape Canaveral. They were friendly to
the Spanish. The Calusas held forth from the southernmost point
of Florida to the vicinity of Tampa Bay.

Another body of opinion is that expressed by Hernando d’ Esca-
lente Fontaneda (1854) who for 17 years was a captive of the
Calusa Indians. This 13-year-old lad was on his way to Spain for
his education when misfortune befell him. After his release from
the Indians he wrote a Memoir. The domain of the Calusas, ac-
cording to Fontaneda, extended from Tampa southward to the
lower Florida Keys and up the east coast to Hobe Sound. It con-
sisted of 50 or more towns and many villages, mostly coastal loca-
tions where seafood was abundant.

The remnants of the early Indian groups were absorbed later
by the Seminoles. The ancestors of this tribe separated from the
main body of the Creeks, then moved into Florida from the north
in the early 1700's (Cohen, 1836). There was not sufficient game
to support the Seminole Indians by the time Florida became a
state (February 22, 1819), yet efforts were unsuccessful to have
them migrate west of the Mississippi River, give up all claim to
land in Florida, and reunite with the Creeks.

THE Park Topay

Today the park has its headquarters on Krome Avenue, Home-
stead, several ranger and patrol stations, two fire towers, over-
night accommodations at Flamingo, two planned and controlled
picnic areas, and a camping ground at Flamingo. Bird walks, sports
fishing, and guided tours enable visitors to gain some appreciation
of the uniqueness of this vast and varied wilderness. When Mis-
sion 66 (the ten-year program initiated in 1956 designed to improve
our national parks) is culminated, there will be more and better
facilities to handle the increasing number of visitors to Everglades
National Park. A large visitor's center at the main entrance to the
park is now under construction. Planned for completion by the
summer of 1961, it will house the administrative unit of the park.

84 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

All visitors will then be oriented, by means of talks, film, and dem-
onstrations prior to their entry into the park.

PROBLEMS TO BE FACED

Even though the boundary lines have been settled there remain
several problems growing out of natural and man-induced condi-
tions yet to be resolved. For example, when an accumulated excess
of rainfall occurred in South Florida during the summer and fall
of 1959, the water table rose to unprecedented heights, thus greatly
diminishing the area of dry ground within the park. Soon the
hammocks became over-populated with land animals. Among
them were deer that faced starvation because high water in the
glades covered their usual feeding grounds. “Operation Mercy”
(Miami News, 1959) consisted of a light plane that spotted the
hammocks from the air and directed surface air-boats to them.
Men then tossed hundreds of pounds of carrots and bales of mixed
alfalfa and timothy hay in on the hammocks.

Fires are prohibited in the park without a permit. Yet during
the winter drought season, fires are a problem. In the past fires
probably retarded, or altered the ecology of certain plant associ-
ations. They may have accelerated the rate of depletion of certain
animal species by causing them to migrate into areas to which
they were not adapted.

The height of ground water during dry season and the amount
of fresh water flowing out of the Everglades into the Gulf of
Mexico are prime requisites not only to the status of the bird rook-
eries teeming with hundreds of thousands of nesting birds, but
also to the feeding and nursery grounds for shrimp, tarpon, snook,
and other game fish. Their survival depends upon the food chain.
The naturalists estimate (Miami News, 1958) that a young White
Ibis will eat an average of 55 crayfish a day, along with grasshop-
pers, frogs, and even snakes. The total volume of food which this
population demands is astronomical. The sloughs, ponds, and
swales lying at the headwaters of the rivers teem with crustacea,
aquatic insects, frogs, and snakes. Under normal conditions they
are able to reproduce in such numbers as to rapidly replace the
vast numbers taken by the predators. Further, in a broad belt of
quiet, shallow, brackish water where the rotting leaves and branches
of the mangrove form a thick peat, the roots trap other material

EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK: WILDERNESS RESERVED 85

as it washes out of the glades. All of this is broken down into ni-
trates and phosphates—the nutrients that initiate the food chain
of the sea (H.R. 1854, 1958).

The Kissimmee-Lake Okeechobee-Everglades region originally
made up a hydrologic unit (Davis, 1943 and Bull. 442). The waters
from some 5,000 square miles drained from the north into the Lake
which had no outlets. On occasions flood waters spilled over the
southern rim and moved slowly through the Everglades out to sea.

At the present time surface waters, largely of meteorologic
origin, flow in a wide arc south-southeast of the lake, then in a
southwesterly direction south of Tamiami Trail (Map 1) discharging
into Whitewater Bay and the Gulf of Mexico through a labrynth
of interlacing channels, marshes, embayments, and estuaries. Large
canals, constructed since the 1880’s to divert water from Lake
Okeechobee to the Gulf of Mexico and to the Atlantic Ocean, to-
gether with the continued reclamation of land for agricultural and
grazing purposes, undoubtedly have reduced the volume of water
flowing through the park, thus placing an even greater dependence
than formerly upon rainfall for maintaining desired water levels
in the park.

When the winter season is rainy, all is well. Normally, winter
is a season of drought. This condition, together with the high
rate of evaporation and transpiration from the prairies and marshes,
lowers ground water levels. While saw-grass and related plant
associations survive, the habitats of animals are adversely affected.

Engineers altered the northern part of this original hydrologic
region (Davis, 1943). They control the level of Lake Okeechobee,
allocate waters from the lake when needed for agricultural pur-
poses, or remove surplus waters from the land. The southern por-
tion remains largely untouched by man.

Excessive rains over the central or southern parts of the state
are welcomed by park naturalists, but are feared by the land de-
velopers of Dade County. The latter group strongly advocates the
continuation of Levee 31 (Map 1) around the southern end of the
county and up the east coast as far as Snapper Creek, the “fish
hook” levee, as a bulwark against rising waters in the Everglades
to the west. Keeping in mind the highly permeable nature of the
underlying limestone rocks, and the inadequacy of Levee 31 to

86 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

prevent seepage underneath (Bull. 442), this proposal seems un-
sound.

Dade County is growing rapidly. The population tripled be-
tween 1945 and 1960. If predictions come true, within another two
decades, it will more than double (Table 2). The recent urban
thrust to the west of Miami, south of Tamiami Trail, and to the
south of the city along U. S. Highway No. 1 (Map 1) has caused
land values and taxes to skyrocket. High pinelands, most sought-
after for building purposes, are already at a premium. In fact, the
purpose to which any unused land may be put, whether for home-
sites, golf courses, industrial, or other uses invites much delibera-
tion.

TABLE 2

POPULATION GROWTH OF DADE COUNTY *

Year Number

Io) oe cere OE see en eee Me NOMEN CE eR SA Gt 815,138
NOS Oe Pete oe Des gels oe ae ot a 495,084
OS a re La 0 ee | ee ees 703,777
TG GO esc ee SE ee ee it ie ee ae | 973,000
ALL |G bs Yi cana ces) Be ne) CMR] OO RR CEN exo, Maer sheen Se 1,321,000
ST etl 5. Suk B ye See PR te St a Ae eg Ly 2S 1,621,000
Ji gs eee ne ene Pe Wave ne aE ee ET Pete 1,867,000
KS to (0) ee Aarne aN er es Re ANAS TR Be el 2,071,000

* Source: Handbook of Southeast Florida. Miami-Ft. Lauderdale-West
Palm Beach. Bureau of Business and Economic Research. University of
Miami. Vol. 12, No. 1 (January 1959), p. 10.

In my opinion, however, one of the most basic problems con-
fronting South Florida is not the actual conflict over the area of
land reserved for wilderness, and that specified for urban develop-
ment, but rather the concern over the availability of water to serve
the opposing needs of the wilderness-urban complex. Perhaps a
workable solution might be forthcoming if scientific experimenta-
tion precedes rational engineering projects. This will involve:
(1) diverting surplus waters, from whatever source, through the
park rather than into the seas, and (2) keeping water table at a
normal dependable height, plus the reclamation of certain unused
lands, east of the park boundary.

EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK: WILDERNESS RESERVED 87

LITERATURE CITED
COHEN, MYER M.

1836. Notices of Florida and the Campaigns. N.Y.: B. B. Hussey. Pp. 30,
49, 53, 61-62.
DAVIS, JOHN H.
1943. The Natural Features of Southern Florida. Florida Geological Sur-
vey. Geological Survey Bulletin, 25. Pp. 53, 55, 61, 210-11, 242,
259, 266, 273-74.
DAVIS, JOHN H.

1953. Natural Vegetation, Florida’s Basic Resource. Quarterly Journal
Florida Academy of Sciences, 16, No. 2. P. 76.

DICKINSON, JONATHAN

1945. Jonathan Dickinson's Journal, or God’s Protective Providence, being
the Narrative of a Journey from Port Royal in Jamaica to Philadelphia
between August 23, 1696 and April 1, 1697. (Edited by E. W.
Andrews and C. M. Andrews. Yale University Press, New Haven.)

DEITZ, LEW
1958. Cape Sable’s Mangrove Wilderness. Field and Stream, 63, No. 8.

DODD, DOROTHY

1956. The Land of Romance. Tallahassee: Florida State Department of
Agriculture.

FONTENADA, HERNANDO bE ESCALANTE

1854. Memoria de las casas y costa y Indios de la Florida. In Buckingham
Smith’s Letter of Hernando de Soto and Memoir of Hernando de
Escalante Fontenada. Washington.

EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK HEADQUARTERS. 1959

Maps and other data obtained from the headquarters in Homestead
and at Royal Palm and Flamingo Ranger Stations.

MIAMI NEWS. May 6, 1958
Okeechobee Waters Needed to Save Glades Rookeries.

MIAMI NEWS. October 23, 1959
“Operation Mercy Feeds Glades Deer.

STIRLING, MATTHEW W.

1931. Mounds of the Vanished Calusa Indians of Florida. (From Explora-
tions and Field-Work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1930.) Wash-
ington.

UNITED STATES COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY. March 31, 1958
Everglades National Park, Whitewater Bay. Map with scale 1:50,000.

88 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1948
Soil Conservation Service. Soils, Geology, and Water Control in
the Everglades Region. Bulletin 442. Pp. 14-17, 25, 106.
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1950

Everglades National Park. A brochure containing map.

UNITED STATES HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. June 5, 1958
85th Congress, 2d Session, Report No. 1854.

UNITED STATES HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. July 2, 1958

H.R. 6641, Public Law 85-482. This law fixed the boundary of
Everglades National Park.

UNITED STATES SENATE. August 21, 1959

86th Congress, Ist Session, S. 2576. A bill to authorize the addition
of certain donated lands to Everglades National Park.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(2), 1960

ON THE GRADING AND IDENTIFICATION OF DOMESTIC
COMMERCIAL SHRIMPS (FAMILY PENAEIDAE) WITH
A TENTATIVE WORLD LIST OF COMMERCIAL
PENAEIDS

BONNIE ELDRED AND Ropert F. Hurron
Florida State Board of Conservation Marine Laboratory }

INTRODUCTION

The shrimp industry in the United States has grown yearly
due to the consumers’ demand for shrimp and shrimp products.
According to the Commercial Fisheries Review (1959) the 1958
domestic production of shrimps (heads-on) in the United States
was approximately 212 million pounds valued at 76 million dollars.
In addition to the domestic supply, about 86 million pounds of
headless shrimps from 39 foreign countries were imported into the
United States during 1958.

The imports of frozen raw headless shrimps, composed of many
unfamiliar species, and the lack of reliable criteria to distinguish
the domestic headless shrimps present problems connected with
developing grade standards. Charles F. Lee, Technological Lab-
oratory, U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, College Park, Mary-
land, working with others on developing voluntary grade standards
intended mainly for the packer-grader-distributor of frozen raw
headless shrimps, feeling that the color of the headless shrimps
and ‘the presence or absence of a “groove” are almost valueless’
in identifying headless shrimps, wrote us concerning the possibility
of identifying shrimps by observations of the “tail” portion only.
Several papers in reference to identifying domestic heads-on com-
mercial shrimps have been published (Broad, 1949; Voss, 1955;
Anderson, 1958; and others), but much confusion still exists in the
identification of these species, especially. when headless.

Mr. Lee also included a copy of a tentative draft, designated as
“Review Draft No. 2, U. S. Standards for Grades of Frozen Raw
Headless Shrimp,’ for our opinion concerning the feasibility of
applying Section 1. of this draft to the grading of domestic and
foreign shrimps by in-plant inspectors trained in food technology
but lacking knowledge of shrimp biology. Section 1. follows:

1 Contribution No. 46 from The Fla. State Board of Conservation Marine
Lab. Maritime Base, Bayboro Hrbr. St. Petersburg, Florida.

90 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

“Product description. Frozen raw headless shrimp are clean, whole-
some, headed, shell-on shrimp of regular commercial species of the
genus Penaeus and other species of similar characteristics. (In order
to promote fair marketing practices the common color designation—
white, pink, brown, etc.,—should be indicated; and, if the shrimp
are not Penaeus, the correct species name or the recognized common
name, if any, must be used to identify the product.) ... ”

In this report we have attempted to clarify some of the factors
related to shrimps that perplex those involved in developing grade
standards. A brief history and the distribution are presented on
the commercial shrimps (tribe Penaeidea, family Penaeidae, and
tribe Caridea) reported from domestic and foreign fisheries.

The vernacular terms, common color names, and the variable
color characteristics of shrimps are discussed in regard to the pro-
motion of fair marketing practices.

Although no attempt was made to provide identifying characters
for foreign shrimps, reliable abdominal characters for identifying
domestic commercial species (family Penaeidae) are described and
illustrated.

HisToricaL REVIEW

TRIBE PENAEIDEA

Family Penaeidae

The major part of the world’s production of shrimps is based
on those species belonging to the family Penaeidae. This family
is composed of about 27 genera which include over 200 described
species (Milne-Edwards and Bouvier, 1909; Burkenroad, 1934a,
1934b, 1936a, 1938, and 1939; Anderson and Lindner, 1943; Kubo,
1955; Menon, 1955; Racek, 1955a; Dall, 1958). These shrimps are
commonly called penaeids.

Approximately 66 species of 15 genera have been reported to
our knowledge in the commercial fisheries of various parts of the
world. These species and their general distribution are shown in
Table I.

Table I is based on reports by Burkenroad (1936a, 1938, and
1939); Cheung (1959); Heldt (1938); Holthuis (1959); Holthuis and
Gottlieb (1958); Hudinaga (1942); Kesteven and Job (1957); Lind-
ner (1957); Lunz (1957); Racek (1955a); U. S. Fish and Wildlife
Service (1958); Villadolid and Villaluz (1951); and reports pub-
lished in the Proceedings of the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council,

TENTATIVE WORLD LIST OF COMMERCIAL PENAEIDS

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TENTATIVE WORLD LIST OF COMMERCIAL PENAEIDS

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vOMOULyY YyNOS
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olor J-opuy SIO, Wuosqop “W
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TENTATIVE WORLD LIST OF COMMERCIAL PENAEIDS 95

8rd Session (1951), 5th Session (1954), and 6th Session (1955), by
many authors (cited in the references). Table I should be consid-
ered provisional since other genera and species of penaeids un-
doubtedly occur in the world’s fisheries.

The geographical range of many of the species is not included
in Table I. It lists only the general localities where these species
have been reported in the fisheries.

Twenty-five species of the genus Penaeus (Table I) are re-
ported in the domestic and foreign fisheries. Species of this genus,
because of their abundance and relatively large size, compose the
major part of the world’s production of shrimps.

In addition to the genus Penaeus, 14 other genera including 41
commercial penaeid species are shown in Table I. Many of these
shrimps, because of their small size or sporadic habits, are not of
major importance to some countries, in others, even the smallest
species are utilized.

Tribe Caridea

Several families of shrimps belonging to the tribe Caridea
(commonly called caridean shrimps) are included in domestic and
foreign production. Fisheries, based on shrimps of the families
Pandalidae and Cragonidae, exist along the Pacific coast of the
United States (Schaefers, 1953; Schaefers and Johnson, 1957; and
Bonnot, 1932). Species of these families are also utilized in foreign
countries (Mistakidis, 1957; Lindner, 1957; and U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, 1958).

Shrimps of the family Palaemonidae are a part of the catches
from many Indo-Pacific, Caribbean, and South American countries
(Panikker and Menon, 1955; Lindner, 1957; and Holthuis, 1956,
1959). Species of the genera Palaemon and Macrobrachium (family
Palaemonidae) are cultivated in fresh-water areas of some Indo-
Pacific countries (Djajadiredja and Sachlan (1955); and others).
Specimens of Macrobrachium were observed on many occasions in
the markets of Cuba and Mexico (Robert M. Ingle, personal com-
munication). According to Viosca (1957) Macrobrachium speci-
mens are taken in commercial quantities from fresh and slightly
brackish waters of Louisiana.

Although the abdominal or “tail” portion of the shrimps of both
the Penaeidea and Caridea consist of six segments and the tail
fan, the two tribes are readily separated. In the Penaeidea the

96 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

second (anterior) abdominal segment overlaps only the third seg-
ment (Figure 1). In contrast, in the Caridea the second abdominal
segment overlaps both the first and the third segment in a saddle-
like manner (Figure 2).

abdominal seqments

carina (ridge)

Figure 1. Abdominal or “tail” portion of a penaeid shrimp (lateral view).

abdominal segments

Figure 2. Abdominal or “tail” portion of a caridean shrimp (lateral view).

VERNACULAR TERMS AND COMMON COLOR NAMES

Certain vernacular terms, applied to shrimps, have different
localized connotations, but no standard universal meanings. Many
such terms are actually synonymous with the word “shrimp” and
are applied to a penaeid, caridean, deep-sea, offshore, inshore, salt-
water, fresh-water, small, or large shrimp.

Prawn and shrimp. Many persons have interpreted the term
“prawn” to mean large specimens and the term “shrimp” to mean
small specimens. Others have confined the term “prawn” to salt-
water specimens and the term “shrimp” to fresh-water specimens.

TENTATIVE WORLD LIST OF COMMERCIAL PENAEIDS oi

Voss (1955) classified those species of the tribe Caridea as
“prawns and those species of the tribe Penaeidea as “shrimps”.

Many authors from England, India, and Australia apply the
term “prawn” only to species of the Penaeidea.

Publications (English translations) by authors from Indo-Pacific
countries assign the terms “prawn” or “shrimp” to species of both
the tribes Penaeidea and Caridea.

Mistakidis (1957) used the common name “pink shrimp” for
the caridean, Pandalus montagui, while Cole (1958) and others em-
ployed “prawn” for Palaemon serratus, Pandalus borealis, and
other carideans. P. borealis, P. platyceros, P. hypsinotus and other
commercial carideans from the North American Pacific are called
“shrimps (Schaefers, 1953).

Although the generally accepted term “shrimps” is used for
those species in the domestic catch, extremely large specimens of
Penaeus setiferus from the offshore waters of Louisiana are at
times called “Gulf prawns” (Viosca, 1957).

Langostino and camaron. According to Lindner (1957) the
generally used terms, throughout Latin America, are “langostino”
for large shrimp and “camaron” for small shrimp. In Mexico
“camaron’ is used for all salt-water shrimps, and “langostino” is
employed for fresh-water palamonids of the tribe Caridea. Lind-
ner reported that in Chile all marine and fresh-water shrimps are
called “camaron” and the lobster-like crustaceans of the family
Galathaeidae are called “langostino”.

Grooved and non-grooved shrimps. These terms are commonly
associated with the domestic commercial species; for example, P.
setiferus is called the non-grooved shrimp because of the absence
of grooves on the head and “tail”, whereas, P. duorarum and P.
aztecus are called grooved shrimps because of the presence of
grooves. Other grooved and non-grooved species of the genus
Penaeus occurring in the foreign fisheries are designated in Table I.

Other vernacular terms associated with foreign shrimps are too
numerous to mention here but may be found in the reports of many
workers.

Shrimps throughout the world assume many colors. This color-
ation is due to small color bodies (chromatophores) scattered or
grouped in patterns. These chromatophores, when expanded,
color the shrimps pink, brown, green, etc. When the chromato-

98 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

phores are contracted the shrimps appear white or colorless. This
process of coloration, generally associated with the habitats or be-
havior of the shrimps, provides protection. The coloration of one
species may vary greatly with the growth, environment, and dis-
ease.

Because of variation of color within the species, the use of
color names generally applied to shrimps can be a source of much
confusion. Many species, sometimes of different families may
assume the same coloration, thus, bear the same color name; also,
one species may assume different colors, consequently, will bear
many color names. Examples are shown in the following color

groups: e

1. White shrimp.

a. The color “white” and the common name “white shrimp” are
associated with the domestic commercial penaeid, P. setiferus,
especially those specimens from the coast of Louisiana and Texas.

b. We have seen many “white” or “colorless” specimens of the
domestic penaeid, P. duorarum, from the west coast of Florida.

c. Penaeid shrimps from foreign fisheries, such as P. styllirostris, P.
occidentalis, P. vannamei, P. schmitti, P. aztecus, are often “white”
and at this time are called by the natives “white or blanco shrimp”
(Lindner, 1957).

Pink shrimp.

a. The domestic commercial penaeid, P. duorarum (Form A), pro-
duced from the Campeche and Tortugas shrimping grounds of
the Gulf of Mexico is generally “pink” in color and the common
name “pink shrimp” is associated with this species.

b. The small penaeid, Trachypeneus similis, abundant in the Cam-
peche and Tortugas areas is also “pink” in color. Very small
“pink” specimens of T. constrictus are abundant on the Tortugas
grounds. These species of Trachypeneus are possibly mistaken by
shrimpers for young specimens of Penaeus aztecus or P. duorarum
(Hildebrand, 1954; and Eldred, 1959).

c. Several “pink” colored penaeid species occur in foreign fisheries,
such as P. duorarum (Form B), P. brasiliensis, P. brevirostris,
Hymenopenaeus mulleri, Artemesia longinaris (Lindner, 1957).

d. Caridean species of “pink shrimps” belonging to the family
Pandalidae, occurring in domestic and foreign fisheries are: Panda-
lus jordani, P. borealis, (Stern, 1957); P. montagui (Mistakidis,
1957); and Heterocarpus reedi (Lindner, 1957).

Brown shrimp.

a. The names “brownies” and “brown shrimp” and the color “brown”
are associated with the domestic commercial penaeid, Penaeus
aztecus (Form A).

ws)

TENTATIVE WORLD LIST OF COMMERCIAL PENAEIDS 99

b. Many “brown” colored specimens of P. duorarum occur in do-

mestic catches from inshore areas.

The domestic commercial penaeid, Xiphopeneus kroyeri, commonly
called the “sea bob”, is “brown” in color.

Foreign penaeid species often called “brown shrimp” are: Penaeus
brasiliensis, P. californiensis, Protrachypene precipua, Trachypeneus
faoe, T. byrdi, and Xiphopeneus riveti (Lindner, 1957).

Green shrimp.

Although Penaeus setiferus is often called the “white shrimp’, this
species is called the “green shrimp” in the Jacksonville, Florida,
area.

According to De Sylva (1954), specimens of P. duorarum from the
inshore waters of Florida, from New Smyrna to Fort Pierce, are
called the “green shrimp”. We have seen many “green” specimens
of P. duorarum from other inshore areas.

We have obtained many “green” specimens of P. aztecus from the
east coast of Florida. One of the common names for P. aztecus
in Louisiana is “green lake shrimp” (Viosca, 1957).

Packages of imported frozen shrimp “tails” called “green shrimp”
are found occasionally in one of the local super markets. These
specimens were identified as P. schmitti.

Gray shrimp.

Burkenroad (1949) referred to P. setiferus in the North Carolina
fishery as the “gray shrimp”. The use of this name was also
reported by De Sylva (1954) for P. setiferus occurring north of New
Smyrna, Florida. P. setiferus is often called the “gray shrimp” in
Pensacola Bay, Florida.

Red shrimp.

The name “red shrimp” was reported for P. aztecus from the east
coast of Florida (De Sylva, 1954), and Texas (Broad, 1949).

P. duorarum is often called the “red shrimp” by live bait shrimp
producers and retailers along both coasts of Florida.

The deep-water shrimp, Hymenopenaeus robustus, is known as the
“royal red shrimp”. Many other deep-water penaeids and cari-
deans are “red” in color.

Blue shrimp.

Although the blue chromatophores are often predominant on speci-
mens of Penaeus setiferus, the name “blue shrimp” has not to our
knowledge been applied to this species.

A predominance of the blue-black chromatophores found on many
penaeid species is often associated with a diseased condition of
the shrimp caused by microsporidian parasites (Sprague, 1950;
Woodburn et al, 1957; Hutton et al, 1959; Kruse, 1959; and Iver-
sen and Manning, 1959). These shrimps are called “cotton or
milk shrimp” because of the unhealthy appearance of the abdom-
inal musculature.

Figure 3. Penaeus duorarum (Form A), Cedar Key, Florida, with abdominal
spot (lateral view).

Figure 4. Penaeus duorarum (Form _ A), Cedar Key, Florida, with faint
indication of abdominal spot (lateral view).

Figure 5. Penaeus aztecus (Form A), Indian River, Florida, with abdominal
spot (lateral view).

TENTATIVE WORLD LIST OF COMMERCIAL PENAEIDS 101

c. Three species of penaeids produced from the Pacific coast of Cen-
tral and South America (P. styllirostris, P. vannamei, and P. occi-
dentalis) are often called “blue shrimps” (Lindner, 1957). Hig-
man (1959) reported on the “blue shrimp” P. schmitti from the
coast of Surinam. Racek (1955) gave the vernacular name “blue
tiger prawn’ for Indo-Pacific penaeid, P. caeruleus.

8. Spotted shrimp.

a. The name “spotted shrimp” was applied to the North Carolina
specimens of P. duorarum by Burkenroad (1949). He reported the
presence of a reddish-brown pigmented spot located at the juncture
of the third and fourth abdominal segments of P. duorarum
(Figure 3) as a simple test to distinguish this species from P.»az-
tecus. The name “brown-spotted shrimp” is associated with the
inshore Gulf of Mexico specimens of P. duorarum and the name
“pink-spotted shrimp” is often applied to the offshore specimens.
We have seen many specimens of P. duorarum lacking abdominal
spots. Figure 4 shows a specimen with a faint indication of a
spot. Idyll (1950) reporting on P. duorarum from the Tortugas
grounds, stated that after death the spots fade and are not visible
on most individuals by the time they are shipped from Key West.

b. The presence of an abdominal spot must be used cautiously as the
sole diagnostic test to distinguish P. duorarum from P. aztecus.
Specimens of P. aztecus from the east coast of Florida and Apa-
lachicola Bay, and possibly other areas, often bear abdominal spots
as shown in Figure 5.

ec. The small rock shrimp, Sicyonia dorsalis, (Figure 6) from the
Tortugas grounds, generally shows an abdominal spot; specimens
of Trachypeneus constrictus from the same area often have spots.
These two very small species have not been reported in the com-
mercial catch, therefore, are not listed in Table I.

d. Samples of penaeids from Cuba, examined by Eldred, showed
specimens of Penaeus duorarum (Form B) with very light tan to
dark abdominal spots. Some specimens contained no spots (Figure
7a). Specimens of P. brasiliensis (Figure 7b) also showed tan or
blue spots more prominent in some cases than those of P. duorarum.
Higman (1959) reported that commercial quantities of “pink-
spotted shrimp’, P. brasiliensis, were taken in depths of about 23
to 40 fathoms along the coast of Surinam. MHolthuis (1959) de-
scribed P. brasiliensis specimens from Surinam and French Guiana
as reddish in color with dark red abdominal spots.

GRADING OF SHRIMPS

According to Idyll (1950) it is important to distinguish and
separate the common domestic shrimps (Penaeus setiferus, P. duo-
rarum, and P. aztecus) for market purposes because of price differ-
ences.

Figure 6. Sicyonia dorsalis, Tortugas, Florida, with abdominal spot (lateral
view).

Figure 7. a. Penaeus duorarum (Form B), Cuba, with no abdominal spot
(lateral view).

b. P. brasiliensis, Cuba, with abdominal spot (lateral view).

TENTATIVE WORLD LIST OF COMMERCIAL PENAEIDS — 108

Clifford (1955) and the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1959)
reported a price differential between domestic shrimps, with the
“non-grooved white shrimp” generally bringing higher prices than
the “grooved pink and brown shrimps’. One member of the in-
dustry, however, informed us that, generally speaking, “white and
pink shrimps’ command a higher price than “brown shrimp”. We
were also informed that some markets will only take certain colors
of shrimps.

Before 1947, the bulk of the domestic catch consisted of the
white colored shrimp, P. setiferus, with Xiphopeneus kroyeri, and
Penaeus aztecus, making up the remainder. These two latter spe-
cies were rarely sold on the fresh market because of color or size,
but were dried, canned or peeled. The first large catches of the
brown colored shrimp, P. aztecus, from the coast of Texas in 1947,
were refused by many dealers because of color. Lyles (1951) re-
ported on the educational efforts used to overcome the consumers
resistance to the brown colored shrimp. According to Hildebrand
(1955) the first catches of the pink colored shrimp, P. duorarum,
from the Campeche Banks were refused because of marketing
difficulties.

Since most consumers have little knowledge of the species of
shrimps, and have rarely seen shrimps with the heads on, it is evi-
dent that this price differential is not based on the choice of spe-
cies, but on the consumers’ preference of size and color. A survey
by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1959), on the consumers’
preference of shrimps, listed size and color as the most important
factors, with freshness and taste of product following next.

Although it is not the aim of this report to establish standards
for proper grading of domestic and foreign frozen raw headless
shrimps, the following aspects should be considered by those per-
sons involved with this problem:

1. The method of grading domestic and foreign shrimps by use of color
may be questionable, in regards to promoting fair marketing practices,
for several reasons: First, different species of both grooved and non-
grooved penaeids could be graded as white shrimps because of color,
consequently, the consumer would, at times, possibly pay a higher
price for the same species when colored white than when colored
brown, blue, green, etc. Second, many different species of both the
tribes Penaeidea and Caridea assume, at times, the same color, there-
fore, if only color was used to describe the product, the consumer
would have no assurance of receiving the same product at each pur-
chase.

104 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

2. The use of common names to identify the product is worthless since
many species bear the same common names; also, different common
names are often associated with one species.

3. The application of scientific names to grading of domestic shrimps is
possible because of our knowledge of species that are produced in
this country. The “tails” or abdominal portions of the commercial
domestic species contain distinguishing characters; therefore, the
“tails” of each species may be separated. If both the scientific name
and the color were used to identify the product, it appears that this
method would be more conducive to promoting fair marketing prac-
tices.

4, Although Table I shows a tentative list of foreign commercial penaeid
species, we have no knowledge of how many of these are being im-
ported into the United States. It is probable that the species of the
genus Penaeus constitute the bulk of the imports of frozen raw head-
less shrimp at this time. However, to determine the feasibility of
applying scientific names to the foreign shrimps, a thorough study of
the species from each country is necessary.

ABDOMINAL CHARACTERS FOR IDENTIFYING THE . DOMESTIC
COMMERCIAL SHRIMPS (FAMILY PENAEIDAE)

Springer and Bullis (1956) reported that 30 penaeid species were
collected during the exploratory operations by the OrEcon in the
Gulf of Mexico and adjacent waters from 1950 to 1955. Included
in these collections were many offshore species obtained in depths
to 930 fathoms. In addition to the commercial shrimps collected,
other species, small in size or few in number, were obtained from
inshore estuarine areas to a depth of 70 fathoms.

Voss (1955) included 19 species in his key to the domestic com-
mercial and potentially commercial shrimps (family Penaeidae).
Voss referred to Penaeus schmitti as a domestic species; however,
Burkenroad (1936b) and Holthuis (1959) described P. schmitti as
a southern species occurring in the Caribbean area and the At-
lantic coasts of Central and South America. This species was not
recorded by Springer and Bullis (1956). However, a few pounds
of P. schmitti specimens were obtained from the Atlantic, offshore
Cape Canaveral, Florida, (Harvey Bullis, Jr., personal communica-
tion) during an exploratory trip in 1956 and again in 1957. This
species was taken in 30 fathoms along with P. aztecus and P.
duorarum.

TENTATIVE WORLD LIST OF COMMERCIAL PENAEIDS _ 105

Figure 8. Penaeus duorarum (Form A). .
a. abdominal portion (lateral view).
b. posterodorsal part of 6th abdominal segment (lateral view).
c. posterior part of the abdomen (dorsal view).
d. 6th abdominal segment (cross section).

106 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Three grooved penaeids (P. brasiliensis, P. duorarum and P. az-
tecus) were included by Voss as domestic species. Prior to the
studies of Burkenroad (1939) the name P. brasiliensis was applied
to all grooved penaeids from the north and south Atlantic. Burken-
road separated this P. brasiliensis group into P. duorarum (Forms
A and B), P. aztecus (Forms A, B and C) and P. brasiliensis. In
Table I the geographical distribution of the above species is based
on the studies of Burkenroad (1939). According to Burkenroad,
P. brasiliensis does not occur in the Gulf of Mexico. He reported,
however, the presence of this species from Atlantic North America
(based on one male specimen obtained from offshore Cape Hat-
teras by the AxBatross from 13 fathoms on October 19, 1874).
Examination by Eldred of many thousands of grooved domestic
penaeids has failed to disclose any specimens of P. brasiliensis.
This species was not collected by Springer and Bullis (1956).

Although many species of penaeids have been reported from
the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic North America, it is doubtful that
more than seven species are of commercial importance at the pres-
ent time.

The illustrations in Figure 8 through Figure 14 are based on
adult specimens of these seven species. The total length in milli-
meters (from the tip of the rostrum to the tip of the telson) is given
for each shrimp. The scale in millimeters used for each drawing
is indicated. The abdominal parts of a penaeid shrimp are labeled
in Figure 1.

Penaeus duorarum (Form A) grooved shrimp, Figure 8

Figure 8 is based on a 190 mm. female specimen from the Tor-
tugas grounds. Figure 8b, shows the structure of the narrow
grooves related to this species. Figure 8c, illustrates the position
and structure of the median dorsal carina or ridge and the two
narrow grooves adjoining the carina of the 6th abdominal segment.
Figure 8d, a cross section cut through the 6th abdominal segment
at the place indicated by the arrow, further illustrates the narrow,
channel-like nature of the grooves.

The lateral edges of the telson shown in Figure 8c are smooth
and devoid of spines. The exo-skeleton of this species is smooth
and shiny.

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9. Penaeus aztecus (Form A).

a. abdominal portion (lateral view).
b. posterodorsal part of 6th abdominal segment (lateral view).

c. posterior part of abdomen (dorsal view).
d. 6th abdominal segment (cross section).

Figure

108 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

P. duorarum (Form B) from foreign fisheries (Table I) has ab-
dominal grooves different from those of P. duorarum (Form A).
The structures of the grooves of P. duorarum (Form B) were de-
scribed by Burkenroad (1939).

Penaeus aztecus (Form A) grooved shrimp, Figure 9

Figure 9 is based on a 190 mm. female specimen from the Cam-
peche banks. Figure 9b shows the structure of the open, wide
grooves related to this species. In Figure 9c and 9d, the two wide
grooves along the median dorsal carina of the 6th abdominal seg-
ment may be noted.

The lateral edges of the telson of this species lacks any spines
(Figure 9c). The exo-skeleton is smooth and shiny.

The abdominal grooves of P. aztecus (Form B and C) from for-
eign fisheries (Table I) are not alike and both are different from
the grooves of P. aztecus (Form A). Burkenroad (1939) described
the grooves of the Forms B and C of P. aztecus.

Penaeus setiferus, non-grooved shrimp, Figure 10

Figure 10 is based on a 167 mm. female specimen from the
coast of Texas. Figure 10b and 10c, shows the presence of the
dorsal carina and the absence of a groove. The indentation of
the ventral margin of the lst abdominal segment (Figure 10a) of
this species does not occur on this segment of P. duorarum and
oO ZUCCUS:

The lateral edges of the telson (Figure 10c) contain no spines.
The exo-skeleton is smooth and shiny.

P. schmitti (Table I) is very similar to P. setiferus. However,
Burkenroad (1939) reported that the structure of the ventral mar-
gins of the lst abdominal segments of these two species are not
alike.

Trachypeneus similis, Figure 11

The abundance of this small sized species in the Tortugas area
was reported by Ingle et al (1959) and from the Campeche area
by Hildebrand (1954). Eldred (1959) found “tails” of this species
mixed with “tails” of Penaeus duorarum in boxes of commercially
frozen shrimp. Being “pink” in color, Trachypeneus similis could
possibly be mistaken for the young of Penaeus duorarum; there-
fore, distinguishing abdominal characters of Trachypeneus similis
are included here.

<
NIX)

Figure 10. Penaeus setiferus.
a. abdominal portion (lateral view).
posterodorsal part of 6th abdominal segment (lateral view).

c. posterior part of the abdomen (dorsal view).
d. 6th abdominal segment (cross section).

110 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Figure 11 is based on an 86 mm. female specimen of T. similis
from the Tortugas grounds. Located on the lateral edges of the
telson (Figure 11lb) are three pairs of small spines and one pair
of large spines. Very fine bristly hairs are concentrated on the
Ath, 5th, 6th abdominal segments, the telson and the uropods.
By running a finger over the posterior part of this species the
bristly nature of these hairs may be denoted. The exo-skeleton is
rather dull in appearance.

Figure 11. Trachypeneus similis. Figure 12. Hymenopenaeus
a. abdominal portion robustus.
(lateral view). a. abdominal portion
b. posterior part of the (lateral view).
abdomen (dorsal b. posterior part of the
view). abdomen (dorsal

view).

TENTATIVE WORLD LIST OF COMMERCIAL PENAEIDS | Ill

Hymenopenaeus robustus, royal red shrimp, Figure 12

Figure 12 is based on a 178 mm. female specimen from off-
shore Jacksonville, Florida (depth 300 fathoms). One pair of
spines occur on the lateral edges of the telson (Figure 12b). The
entire body of this species is covered with very fine hairs that are
soft to the touch. The exo-skeleton has a dull velvet-like appear-
ance.

Xiphopeneus kroyeri, sea bob, Figure 18

Figure 13 is based on a 110 mm. femal especimen from off-
shore Apalachicola Bay, Florida. This species may be distin-
guished by the dorsal spines located on the posterior part of the
Ath and 5th abdominal segments (Figure 13a and 18b). The differ-
ence in the dorsal and ventral structure of the Ist abdominal seg-
ment in contrast to the other species described here may be noted
in Figure lla. The pleopods or swimming legs are quite long
in proportion to the size of the body of this species. The exo-
skeleton is smooth and shiny.

Figure 18. Xiphopeneus kroyeri.

a. abdominal portion (lateral view).
b. dorsal part of 4th and 5th abdominal segments (lateral view).

112 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Sicyonia brevirostris, rock shrimp, Figure 14

Although other species of rock shrimp occur in the domestic
waters, they are too small to be of commercial value. Catches of
S. brevirostris ranging from approximately 25 to 30 shrimp (heads
off) to a pound were reported by Lunz (1957).

Figure 14, a lateral view of an 85 mm. male specimen from
the Tortugas grounds, illustrates the deep sculptured abdominal
grooves and many tubercles. The body is covered with soft fine
hairs. The thick hard shell has a chalk-like appearance.

Figure 14. Sicyonia brevirostris.
abdominal portion (lateral view).

SUMMARY

Reliable abdominal characters for identifying the domestic
commercial species (family Penaeidae) are described and _illus-
trated. The general distribution of 66 species of 15 genera (fam-
ily Penaeidae) reported from domestic and foreign shrimp fisheries
are listed. Vernacular terms, common color names, and abdominal
characters of commercial shrimps (tribes Penaeidea and Caridea)
are discussed.

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RACEK, A. A.

1955a. Littoral Penaeinae from New South Wales and adjacent Queensland
waters. Aust. J. Mar. and Freshw. Res., 6(2): 209-241.

TENTATIVE WORLD LIST OF COMMERCIAL PENAEIDS 117

1955b. Penaeid prawn fisheries of Australia with special reference to New
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SCHAEFERS, E. A.

1953. Shellfish explorations in certain southeastern Alaskan waters by the
Johnie Ne Cobb,-spring 1952. Comm, Fish. Rev, U. S., 15(8): 1=18.
SCHAEFERS, E. A., and H. C. JOHNSON

1957. Shrimp explorations off the Washington coast, fall 1955 and spring
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1956. Collections by the Oregon in the Gulf of Mexico. Spec. sci. Rep.,
U. S. Fish. Wildl. Serv., No. 196: 1-134.

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1957. The new shrimp industry of Washington. Proc. Gulf. Carib. Fish.
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118 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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1957. The live bait shrimp industry of the west coast of Florida (Cedar
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Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(2), 1960

AN APPRAISAL OF A CURRENT RECOMMENDATION OF
THE AMERICAN BANKERS ASSOCIATION

Harold H. Kastner, Jr.
St. Johns River Junior College

Government efforts to combat inflation and depression in the
American economy is, in part, dependent upon the degree of
monetary control which can be maintained. The Board of Govy-
ernors of the Federal Reserve can greatly influence the existing
supply of money and credit through manipulation of the reserve
requirements. The Economic Policy Commission of the American
Bankers Association (1957) has recommended the adoption of a
new member bank reserve requirement plan. A rigorous exam-
ination of any plan which could influence effective monetary con-
trol seems pertinent. In the following discussion Part I gives an
outline of the plan and some of the arguments presented by the
Commission in support of their recommendation. Part II is a brief
analysis of the arguments presented in Part J. Part III presents
the motivations from which this plan has probably emanated and
reveals the efficacy this plan could have on monetary policy if it
were adopted.

There are five parts to the Commission's recommended plan.
They are:

1. Reduction of reserve requirements for demand deposits to 10 per cent.

2. Eliminate geographical differences in reserve requirements for de-
mand deposits.

3. Authorize the Reserve authorities to vary the reserve requirement
for demand deposits over a range of 8 to 12 per cent.

4. Reduction of time deposit reserve requirements to 2 per cent.

5. Permit the inclusion of vault cash in legal reserves.

Various arguments are presented by the Commission in sup-
port of this recommendation. For example, it is claimed that it
is desirable to reduce the reserve requirements in order to permit
banks to meet the expanding credit and banking needs of the
economy. Such flexibility of the banking system would help banks
supply the needs of rapidly growing communities and to restore
some of their secondary assets. The benefits obtained from in-

120 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

creasing bank incomes will help banks to strengthen their capital
accounts and to attract adequate personnel needed to serve the
public’s needs. It is admitted that the change in reserves would
provide more money for present growth than is needed. However,
this growth was based upon an estimate. It is recognized that
this estimate is a conservative one and that economic needs for
growth will probably require the excess money made available.

The argument for accepting the proposed 10 per cent reserve
requirement is reinforced by the fact that this figure is close to the
average which was maintained prior to 1936. Furthermore, this
figure approaches what was considered during 1917 to 1936 as
a proper contribution by the member banks to a central reserve
system. The Commission suggests that a “target date” should be
set for their plan. This approach would help to win banker sup-
port since it would permit a reasonable, satisfactory redistribution
of the reserve burden without producing hardships for some
bankers.

The importance of liquidity in reference to reserve require-
ments is clearly taken to task by this report. Required reserves
are considered to contribute little to a bank’s ability to meet cash
demands since they must be maintained. The present high reserve
requirements of today may be regarded as an unnecessary burden.
As a matter of fact, high requirements may press bank investment
committees to seek earning assets which are high yielding and
usually carry a high degree of risk. If this happens then the high
reserves will have caused the banks to be less liquid. By including
vault cash as part of the reserve requirements, the liquidity of
banks is strengthened. Also, since vault cash is considered part
of the working reserve, the recommendation that it be included in
reserve requirements is an additional guarantee of bank liquidity.
Vault cash as a reserve requirement will not only benefit bank
liquidity but will reduce the cost of currency shipping from the
Federal Reserve. This would eliminate many handling costs.

The Commission contends that the flexibility of four percentage
points in changing demand deposit reserve requirements should
provide the Board of Governors with adequate control for meet-
ing emergencies. The Board should be given the power to lower
demand deposit reserve requirements to eight per cent and raise
the level to twelve per cent. The lowering of the time deposit

RECOMMENDATION OF THE BANKERS ASSOCIATION | 121

reserve requirement will place commercial banks on a more equal
competitive basis with other thrift institutions.

Finally, the Commission contends that banks have the right to
expect requirements to be no higher than is necessary for the
Federal Reserve to maintain a central credit control.

No attempt has been made in Part I to provide the complete
argument presented by the Economic Policy Commission. The
arguments presented were chosen for their seemingly strong sup-
port of the Commission’s plan. A close examination of some of
these arguments proves quite enlightening and in some cases, as
will be seen, quite alarming.

First, let us examine the argument that it is desirable to reduce
reserve requirements to obtain greater flexibility, strengthen capi-
tal accounts, and to attract adequate banking personnel. This
argument implicitly assumes that present reserve requirements are
not expansive enough. The Commission appears to desire more
power to create credit. This would empower the banking system
with unmitigated means of expanding the economy’s money sup-
ply to meet business demands. This is another way of saying the
banking system would be able to feed the fires of inflation without
restraint. Ostensibly, such action would undermine government
efforts to maintain monetary control. Snavely (1954: 425-434)
asseverates that the present reserves should be supplemented by
an asset reserve plan. This plan would require specific percentages
of various classes of loans and investments be kept on deposit by
the Federal Reserve Banks. The advantage of this plan is that con-
trol of bank credit expansion during periods of inflation could be
enhanced. However, Snavely (Loc. cit.: 483) cautions that even
this plan may not be successful because some banks, in an effort
to maintain current banker-borrower rapport, may not raise interest
charges accordingly. If an increase in the reserve requirements
may not prove adequate to control credit expansion, it is question-
able that a decrease in these reserves can make monetary control
very effective.

The Commission's contention that capital accounts need strength-
ening supports the need to increase reserves rather than decrease

122 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

them. If present banking policies are not financially stable steps
should be taken to ensure the necessary soundness be accomplished.

The report's comment concerning the need for attracting ade-
quate banking personnel is a factor which needs close scrutiny.
This leads to a conclusion that the money creating power of the
nation plus the safekeeping of the major part of our money supply
is currently in inadequate hands. This certainly cannot be ac-
cepted as a valid argument for decreasing reserve requirements
and for increasing the banks’ money creating power. On the con-
trary, it would suggest that the present money creating ability of
the banking system be contracted. Furthermore, it would strongly
indicate that banking personnel should be checked for efficiency.

The next argument to be examined is the need for greater bank-
ing flexibility to handle the economic growth of the nation. The
impression conveyed is that the present reserve system cannot
expand the money supply sufficiently. The accuracy of this con-
tention depends upon the manner in which the term “sufficient”
is interpreted. If the desired result is to permit monetary expan-
sion regardless of the inflationary consequences this argument
could be valid. On the otherhand, if “sufficient” is considered to
apply to monetary control of inflation, the Commission’s recom-
mendation must be viewed as fatuous.

Under the provisions of the recommended plan the loan co-
efficient could be greatly expanded. Should the response co-
efficient increase as the Commission predicts, which would nec-
essarily accompany an increase in economic growth, banks could
count on larger gross returns on earning assets. The significance
of this windfall will be discussed below in Part III. The result
of such a change in reserve requirements is perspicuous. The
banks of the United States would be in a position to declare
greater dividends for their stockholders.

The Commission's statement that a 10 per cent reserve require-
ment is close to the average maintained prior to 1936 and ap-
proaches what was considered a proper contribution by member
banks between 1917 to 1936, presents one of the weakest argu-
ments in this report. Not only should it be viewed skeptically
but with fear by proponents of strong monetary control. During
the period cited the United States faced a primary post war de-
pression between 1920-22, a secondary post war depression be-

RECOMMENDATION OF THE BANKERS ASSOCIATION — 128

tween 1930-36, many bank failures, and even a bank moratorium.
(Samuelson: 1958: 250-251) It is not the purpose of this paper to
go into a historical review of this period. Many economic cir-
cumstances existed which contributed to the problems involved.
Certainly the banking system was not at complete fault, but it
contributed more than its share to the confusion. It should be
sufficient to say that this period does not recognize banking at its
best. Many of the earning assets which were chosen by the bank
investment committees of the period cited would be rejected today
as unsound investments. Furthermore, any comparison of the
reserve requirements needed for a depression period with the
requirements considered necessary for an inflationary period can-
not be taken seriously in the realm of monetary policy. It is
alarming to think that responsible banking officials would like to
return to the banking practices of the period cited and perhaps to
handle the nation’s money supply in the same manner.

An interesting argument is the one presented concerning the
advantages a “target-date” will have in obtaining bankers support
of this plan and to redistribute the reserve burden without inflict-
ing hardships on some banks. The Commission’s statistics ac-
knowledge that as of June 30, 1956, the reserve ratios against
demand deposits were 20% for Central reserve city banks, 18%
for Reserve city banks, and 12% for County banks. For this same
date the reserve requirement against time deposits was 5%. With
these figures in mind it is difficult to comprehend any burden of
distribution on banks with the changed reserve requirements.
None of the member banks’ reserve requirements were below the
proposed reserve requirements. Furthermore, Appendix A of this
report indicates that only three states, Iowa, Kentucky, and South
Carolina, had reserves requirements below the Commission’s rec-
ommendation. This means that only a fraction of the total banking
population of the United States would experience any hardships
should they choose to join the Federal Reserve System under the
new plan. It should be noted that such banks would not be com-
pelled to join. Ostensibly, the hardship argument is a minor one.
The need for convincing bankers that this proposal is desirable,
with the exception of the three states mentioned above, is recondite.
This plan would immediately increase the earning asset capacity
of all member banks plus the majority of non-member banks. It

124 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

would seem unlikely that anyone would have to convince bank
stockholders that they should accept an increased return on their
investment.

The views expressed in regard to the importance of reserve
requirements to bank liquidity seem inconsistent with other argu-
ments presented. The argument given above concerning vault
cash is an example. Vault cash reserve requirements were con-
sidered to enhance a bank's liquidity position. At the same time
this report purports that reserve requirements contribute little to
liquidity. The Commission seems to have some difficulty in taking
a stand on this issue. In addition, by expressing a fear that a high
reserve requirement results in banks carrying high risk earning
assets the Commission has emphasized an apparent truism. Not
only is the present reserve requirement inadequate to maintain
bank liquidity but present banking personnel are willing to dis-
regard sound banking investments for highly speculative purposes
if given the opportunity. Probably no better argument can be
found to support a 100% reserve requirement plan and to take the
money creating power away from the commercial banking sys-
tem. It should be noted that even this plan has its limitations as
far as monetary controls is concerned. Higgins (1941: 91) suggests
that time deposits could be so large that monetary control could
not be maintained. Certainly if present reserve requirements can-
not provide the necessary monetary controls there is little reason
to believe that a lower reserve requirement will improve matters.

The Commission also believes that by lowering the time deposit
reserve requirements that the competitive status of banks with other
thrift institutions could be improved. This argument would leave
the reader with the impression that the only reason banks are not
on equal competitive footing with thrift institutions is the present
reserve requirements for time deposits. One of the main reasons
many banks are having trouble competing with thrift institutions
is that they are not willing to pay as high an interest rate on time
deposits. If banks are to improve their position by the reduced
reserve requirements it would seem that the banks should be will-
ing to increase the present amount of interest which they pay.
Such an argument would seem pertinent to this suggestion. How-
ever, it is conspicuous by its absence. The greatest advantage to
be gained here is the increase in the loan coefficient. More will be

RECOMMENDATION OF THE BANKERS ASSOCIATION — 125

said about this in Part III below. It should also be mentioned here
that the growth anticipated by the commercial banks would require
$7.4 billion additional reserves over the next five years if the present
reserve requirements are maintained. The Commission makes no
mention of part of this growth being handled by the thrift institu-
tions. It is patent that no competition is expected for this new
growth. If the thrift institutions are as strong competitors as the
Commission contends, it is doubtful that the banking system will
need such reserves. On the other hand, if no competition is ex-
pected, what can be said for the former argument? Once again
the Commission gives evidence of its inconsistency.

The recommendation that a variation of four percentage points
in the demand deposit reserve requirements is sufficient to enable
the Board of Governors to maintain adequate credit control is
questionable. It could readily be argued that such a range in
reserve requirement might provide as adequate control as the
Board now maintains under the present reserve system. However,
the polemic question today seems to be whether or not the present
system is very effective. The word “adequate” is an ambiguous
term for such an analysis. Should the Commission desire to give
a pertinent argument on this point it should designate a specific
frame of reference. Similar confusion is found in the report's ad-
vocation that reserve requirements should be no larger than is
necessary for the Federal Reserve to maintain a central credit
control. Reed (1947: 280) believes that it is necessary to compel
all demand deposit banks to belong to the Federal Reserve System
to maintain credit control. In 1948 the American Bankers Associ-
ation (op. cit.: 2) supported the Uniform Reserve Plan which claims
that deposit requirements should be 30 per cent against interbank
deposits whether demand or time; 20 per cent against other de-
mand deposits and 6 per cent against other time deposits. It is
manifest that the term “necessary is as ambiguous here as “ade-
quate’ is above.

The final reference in Part I concerns the “rights” of the com-
mercial banks. This contention is probably the most temerarious
of all. Legally, the banking system has no so called “rights” to
create money other than those privileges granted to it by Federal
authority. Should Congress decide to adopt Charles O. Hardy’s
brick standard and designate warehouse certificates as a median

126 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of circulation, the banking system would have no legal right to
protest. This argument of “rights” is legally invalid and cannot
be taken seriously.

In Part II above, the attempt has been made to show that many
of the Commission's arguments are either invalid or unsound con-
tentions. There must be some reason other than those presented
for bankers to propose such a plan. The real reason is quite ob-
vious. If this plan were accepted the banking system could im-
mediately acquire a sizable increase in earning assets. Naturally,
this would result in a large “windfall” of profits to the banks.
What the American Bankers Association is asking for is a large
banking subsidy which will result in a considerable increase in
banking profits. This discussion is not concerned with the casuistry
of this suggestion. Rigorous claims in this direction are probably
just as valid as those which favor the present farm support pro-
gram.

The amount of this subsidy would be quite large. The Com-
mission readily admits that if this proposal were in effect at the
present time (presumably June 30, 1956) total required reserves
would be $7.7 billion lower than their actual present level of $18.4
billion. To fully appreciate what this means consider what would
happen to the loan coefficient (Shaw, 1950: 136) if the reserve re-
quirements recommended by the Commission are utilized.

Assume that the following distribution is made of money created
out of surplus reserves.

A = 60% for demand deposits
B = 20% for time deposits
€) — 107) for cunmency use
D = 10% for working reserve

Using the symbols designated for each of these categories, the cash
drain, designated as K, out of every surplus dollar of reserves, will
equal (A multiplied by the reserve for demand deposits) plus (B
multiplied by the reserve for time deposits) plus C and D. Substi-
tuting the Commission’s recommended reserve requirements:

K =(A x 10%) + (Bx 2%) + C+D

K = ( $.06) +( $.004) + ( $.10) + ( $.10)
K = $.264

RECOMMENDATION OF THE BANKERS ASSOCIATION — 127

The loan coefficient, which designates the amount of earning

assets that may be bought with each dollar of surplus, equals —.
To determine the loan coefficient of the recommended plan the

1
surplus reserves should be multiplied by —. Substituting the cash
K

drain determined above for K and the surplus reserves created by
the new plan, we get:

x $7,700 million — $29,166.67 million.

.264

This means that the primary effect of this plan is to provide the
banking system $29,166.67 million of new earning assets. If the
interest rate was assumed to be 6 percent, the banking system
would receive an additional income of approximately $1,750 million
dollars. It might be argued that this figure would only be true
if the response coefficient were the same as the loan coefficient.
But even if commercial borrowers refused to borrow any of this
amount, banks could probably obtain Treasury bills at 2 percent
which would yield a little over $583 million. But even this figure
derived at a modest rate of interest would be inaccurate. There
would also be a smaller per cent of working reserves required.
The proposed plan permits vault cash to be considered as part of
the required reserves. The Commission acknowledges that the
required reserve balances with the Reserve banks would be $9.8
billion lower than the current level of $18.4 billion. This allows
$2,168 million of vault cash reserves. Having this cash on hand
would make it possible for banks to lower the percentage of nor-
mal working reserves considerably. Let us assume for illustration
purposes that this reduced working reserve requirements by one-
half. Substituting 5 percent for D instead of 10 percent, the cash
drain becomes:

K = (A x 10%) + (
K = ( $.06) + ( $.004)
K = $

128 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Using the loan coefficient as before we find that the result will
be a potential loan capacity of approximately $39,690.72 million.
Using the minimum 2 per cent return on Treasury bills, this would
provide an approximate revenue of $793.81 million to the banks.

So far only computations considering the newly created surplus
reserves have been made. Upward adjustments in loans already
computed on the basis of the present coefficient would be in order.
For example, a decrease in working reserves would make pur-
chasing of additional earning assets possible.

CONCLUSIONS

The ratios utilized above for the currency drain and the work-
ing reserve drain were chosen arbitrarily. In actual practice it is
most probably that they would be even lower. It is patent that
all member banks would receive a large windfall. The banking
world’s alacrity to embark upon the recommended plan is easily
ascertained.

The efficacy this plan would have on the total money supply
is paramount. Using the monetary coefficient (Ibid.) the amount
of money banks could add to the total supply can be determined.
Substituting the figures used in the original formulas and using
the letter “M” to designate the monetary coefficient we find:

1-B

NE x Surplus Reserves
1-.20

M = x $7,700 million
.264

M = $23,383% million

This indicates that if the original assumptions made above con-
cerning the distribution of surplus reserves are maintained, the
banking system could increase the money supply by approximately
$23,333 million. The impact this increase would have on the total
economy cannot be accurately determined without additional
knowledge. Such factors as the status of the economy at the time
this increase occurs plus the response of borrowers would have to
be known. What can be determined however, is that such an un-
restrained increase in the money supply could greatly hamper any

RECOMMENDATION OF THE BANKERS ASSOCIATION — 129

planned program of monetary control already inaugurated. Fur-
thermore, the control the central banking authorities would have
over future contraction and expansion of credit would be greatly
curtailed. This loss of control could facilitate the economy’s
fluctuations towards either inflation or depression.

LITERATURE CITED

AMERICAN BANKERS ASSOCIATION

1957. A report prepared by the Economic Policy Commission, Member
Bank Reserve Requirements. American Bankers Association, New
York.

HIGGINS, BENJAMIN
1941. Comments on 100 Per Cent Money. American Economic Review,
31(12): 91-96.
REED, HAROLD L.

1947. Principles of Banking Reform. American Economic Review, 37(16):
277-288.

SAMUELSON, PAUL A.

1958. Chapter 13, on business cycles and forecasting, in Economics, An
Introductory Analysis, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York.

SHAW, EDWARD S.

1950. Chapter 1 on money in the economic system, Chapter 6 on earning
assets and loan coefficients, Chapter 7 on variation in loan and mon-
etary coefficients, and Chapter 8 on response coefficients, in Money,
Income, and Monetary Policy. Richard D. Irwin, Inc., Chicago.

SNAVELY, WILLIAM P.

1954. The Asset Reserve Plan: An Appraisal. Southern Economics Journal,
21(4): 425-434.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(2), 1960

THE FISHES OF THE GENUS POMACENTRUS IN FLORIDA
AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS!

Luis RENE Rivas
University of Miami

INTRODUCTION

As already pointed out by Hildebrand (in Longley and Hilde-
brand, 1941: 177), the American Atlantic species of Pomacentrus
have been the source of considerable confusion. Parr (1930: 67-83),
the first to study the problem critically, laid the groundwork for
future investigations. Later, Longley and Hildebrand (1941: 177-
183), on the basis of field observations and the examination of
freshly preserved material, indicated some of the difficulties, and
greatly improved on the knowledge of the group. In spite of the
latter contribution however, the recognition and identification of
the species has been difficult and the nomenclatorial status of most
of them has remained misunderstood.

The present study is a contribution towards the solution of the
above mentioned problems. It is based on material mostly from
South Florida and the Western Bahamas. The species discussed
in this paper comprise all of those so far known from the Western
Atlantic (Florida to Brazil). Owing to the geographical limitations
of the material studied however, the present work is not intended
as revisional.

Grateful acknowledgement is expressed to the following per-
sons for their help in making the present study possible.

Madame L. Bauchot, Museum National d Histoire Naturelle,
Paris, France (MNHN), kindly sent taxonomic data and photo-
graphs of the types of Pomacentrus fuscus, P. planifrons, P. varia-
bilis and P. pictus. Mrs. M. Dick, Museum of Comparative Zool-
ogy, Harvard University (MCZ), contributed valuable information
on the types of P. xanthurus = variabilis, P. analis — leucostictus
and P. caudalis = leucostictus. Miss Margaret Storey, Natural
History Museum, Stanford University (SNHM), sent data on the
types of Eupomacentrus diencaeus = Pomacentrus variabilis. Dr.
Leonard P. Schultz, United States National Museum (USNM),
loaned critical material from Bahia, Brazil and Tortugas, Florida.

"Contribution No. 36 from the Ichthyological Laboratory and Museum,
Department of Zoology, University of Miami.

FISHES IN FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS _ 1381

Mr. Wes Bartelt of Neptune Gardens, Marathon, Florida, collected
and helped with the collection of material in the Florida Keys.
Robert A. Martin, Senior Assistant in Ichthyology, University of
Miami, helped with collections in the Biscayne Bay area. John
S. Coles, Junior Assistant, contributed valuable material from
Bimini, Bahamas. Mrs. Robert A. Martin, developed and printed
some of the photographs.

With the exception of the material referred to above, the
present study is based on the collections of the University of
Miami Ichthyological Museum (UMIM). A total of 472 speci-
mens were examined from Florida and the Western Bahamas.
The number (in parentheses) following the Catalogue number, in-
dicates the number of specimens in the lot.

METHODS

Measurements were made to the tenth of a millimeter with
finely pointed vernier calipers graduated in millimeters.

The standard length was measured from the anterior tip of
the upper lip (snout tip) to the middle of the caudal base. Unless
otherwise indicated, the standard length is always stated as “length”.
The predorsal length, prepelvic length, preanal length, head length,
snout length and maxillary length, were also measured from the
snout tip to the following points: Predorsal length, to the origin
of the erect dorsal fin; prepelvic length, to the insertion of the ap-
pressed, left pelvic fin; preanal length, to the origin of the erect
anal fin; head length, to the tip of the opercular spine; snout length,
to the nearest point on the fleshy margin of the orbit; maxillary
length, to its posterior tip. The orbit diameter is the greatest hori-
zontal distance between its anterior and posterior fleshy margins.
The interorbital width is the shortest distance between the upper
fleshy margins of the orbit. The suborbital width is measured at
the posterior tip of the maxillary, to the nearest point on the fleshy
margin of the orbit. The body depth is measured from the origin
of the erect dorsal fin to the insertion of the appressed left pelvic
fin. The caudal peduncle depth is the least depth. The pectoral
and pelvic fin lengths were measured from their insertions to the
tip of the appressed fin. The anal fin length was measured from
the origin of the erect fin to its tip. The upper caudal lobe length
was measured from the middle of the caudal base.

132. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Proportions are expressed in thousandths of the length. The
ontogenetic change of proportional characters is indicated in Table
1 by symbols in parentheses as follows. (I), means isometric, (A+),
positively allometric and (A—), negatively allometric. A repre-
sentative graded series, combining specimens from both Florida
and the Bahamas, was used for each species in the construction of
this Table.

The last two dorsal and anal rays were counted separately except
when it was obvious that they were actually the branches of a
single ray split to the base. All pectoral rays were counted. Cheek
scale rows were counted as the number of scales along a line be-
tween the edge of the suborbital and the angle of the preopercle.
Only the lateral line scales bearing a tube were counted.

Tables 2 to 5, expressing the frequency distribution and vari-
ation of meristic characters, are based on all the material examined,
except specimens less than about 30 mm. in length.

GENERIC STATUS

The species considered in the present study belong to the pan-
tropical group of pomacentrids characterized by the following com-
bination of characters: Lateral line incomplete, terminating under
posterior part of dorsal fin; teeth compressed, close-set, in a single
series; suborbital and preopercle serrate; dorsal spines, 12; lateral
line scales bearing tubes, 15 to 22. This group has generally been
included by most authors in the genus Pomacentrus Lacépede
(1802: 508). Jordan and Evermann (1898: 1549, 1550) and later
Jordan, Evermann and Clark (1930: 413) however, included the
American species under the nominal genus Eupomacentrus Bleeker
(1877: 73) on the basis of the single row of teeth, as opposed to an
inner series of a few teeth in Pomacentrus (sensu stricto).

A survey of the literature shows that usually, the species with
uniserial teeth have 12 dorsal spines and those with an inner series
have 13 spines. The type species of Pomacentrus, Chaetodon pavo
Bloch (1787: 44), has 13 dorsal spines and an inner series of teeth,
whereas Chaetodon lividus Bloch and Schneider (1801: 235), the
type species of Eupomacentrus, has 12 dorsal spines and a single
row of teeth. Both these species occur throughout the Indo-Pacific,
from the Red Sea and western Indian Ocean eastward to the Mar-
quesas.

FISHES IN FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS — 133

All of the thirteen currently accepted nominal American species
(five Atlantic, eight Pacific), have 12 dorsal spines and uniserial
teeth, but at least five Indo-Pacific species and one Hawaiian have
the same combination of characters.

It would seem from the above, that Euwpomacentrus may be
acceptable as a valid genus, but certainly not to only include the
American species as proposed by Jordan and Evermann (loc. cit.)
Pending a world-wide revision of the group, the species herein dis-
cussed are retained in the genus Pomacentrus.

EVALUATION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF TAXONOMIC CHARACTERS

The most obvious and striking taxonomic characters involve
general and detailed features of coloration, some of which appar-
ently have been overlooked in the past. Each species has its own
distinctive color pattern especially in life and most of the diagnostic
color features remain even after years of preservation. An attempt
has been made in this study to correlate the permanency or change
of color, between freshly (10% formalin) and long-preserved (70%
alcohol) material, with the following results.

The grey, black, yellow, orange or dark-blue ground colors,
gradually change to corresponding intensities of brown after a
few years of preservation. The lateral dark bars and the dark spot
on the dorsal fin, back of caudal peduncle (supracaudal spot) and
pectoral base, remain distinct after more than one hundred years
of preservation, as shown by the types of Pomacentrus pictus, P.
fuscus, P. planifrons and P. variabilis. Blue spots, streaks and lines
on the head and body, gradually become dark-brown, but the
smaller blue spots on the dorsal and anal fin eventually fade. Pale
or colorless areas of the body or fins remain unchanged.

Certain features of the color pattern appear to be constant and
do not show variation within a species. Others may show variation
correlated with growth or sex.

With some exceptions, proportions are rather uniform and not
very significant as diagnostic characters (Table 1). The prepelvic
length, caudal peduncle depth, orbit diameter and _ interorbital
width, are about the same in all the five species. The other pro-
portional characters overlap one another, but many of them show
significant mean differences between two or more species.

134 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

_ The number of dorsal and anal rays is about the same in all of
the species (except Pomacentrus leucostictus), but pectoral ray and
lateral line scale counts show some significant differences despite

the broad overlap (Tables 2-5).

The material examined shows a definite correlation between
color pattern and proportional and meristic characters. In addi-
tion, the mean proportional and meristic differences among these
forms become even more significant in expressing specific distinc-
tion, on the basis of geographical, ecological and behavioral rela-
tionships.

The species discussed in the present study are sympatric and
occupy the same general habitat (syntopic). They are abundant
in shallow water around coral stacks, stone piles and crevices along
rocky shores, or even in small tidal pools. With the proper tech-
nique, most of the species can be collected together in restricted
areas no larger than a city block. Representatives of all of five
species were recently collected between Key Vaca (Marathon) and
Sombrero Reef, Florida Keys, a distance of about four nautical miles
and depths ranging from two to fifteen feet.

Numerous underwater observations conducted by me indicate
that some of the species may have microhabitat preferences. In
areas where several or all five species occur together however,
they are always in close association and when frightened, one or
more individuals of several species may seek refuge in the same
crevice.

In the light of the above, these forms appear as truly distinct
genetic entities rather than variants of one or two species (Meek
and Hildebrand, 1925: 700; Breder, 1927: 54; Beebe and Tee-Van,
1928: 195; Parr, 1930: 67-82). Most of the so-called “extreme ’,
“intermediate”, or questionable individuals, are referable to some
species, but a few seem to represent hybrids, a possibility suggested
by Parr (loc. cit.) and discussed in the last section of the present
study.

The material studied indicates that the total complement of
diagnostic characters for all species, is not established until the in-
dividuals reach a length of about 30 mm. Smaller specimens how-
ever, can be identified by a process of elimination and comparison
with the tables and descriptions.

¢
t

135

FISHES IN FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS

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136

TABLE 2

JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF NUMBER OF DORSAL RAYS, IN THE
SPECIES OF POMACENTRUS FROM FLORIDA AND

Species No. 13
P. fuscus 148
P. variabilis DT
P. planifrons 7
P. pictus 46
P. leucostictus 123 i

THE WESTERN BAHAMAS.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF NUMBER OF ANAL RAYS, IN
OF POMACENTRUS FROM FLORIDA AND

SPECIES

14 15 16 17
2 57 87 2
) 23 29 2

3 3 1
1 26 18 il
9 78 35
TABLE 3

THE WESTERN BAHAMAS.

Range

14-17
14-17
15-17
14-17
13-16

Range

13-15
12-15
13-14
13-15
12-14

Species No. 12, 13 14 lS
P. fuscus 148 Wl UD 2;
P. variabilis 57 iL 20 82 4
P. planifrons U IL 6
P. pictus 46 14 30 2,
P. leucostictus 123 3 81 39

TABLE 4

Mean

13.53

13.68
13.86
13.74
13.29

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF NUMBER OF PECTORAL RAYS,

IN THE SPECIES OF POMACENTRUS FROM FLORIDA

AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS.

Species INOW ele 18 IG SX) ke. BY)
P. fuscus 148 Spee OGRme on
P. variabilis Bd ee Ge BXs} 2
P. planifrons 7 6 1
P. pictus 46 Ow 6
P. leucostictus 1:23 I Ya a

TABLE 5

Range

20-22
18-21
19-20
18-20
17-19

Mean

21.08
LO
19.14
19.02
18.38

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF NUMBER OF LATERAL LINE
SCALES, IN THE SPECIES OF POMACENTRUS FROM

Species No. Lg
P. fuscus 148
P. variabilis 57
P. planifrons ri
P. pictus 46
P. leucostictus 128 1

FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS.

18 19 20 oil Range Mean
3 JK) 1) il 18-21 ilar
2 28 OT 18-20 19.43
J) 3 3 18-20 19.28
2 ILI 30 3 18-21 19.73

24 66 32 17-20

FISHES IN FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS _ 187

The following key combines the most diagnostic color, propor-
tional and meristic characters, as a preliminary step towards identi-
fication.

Kry

la.—Anterior half to four fifths of body very dark, the posterior half to fifth,
more or less abruptly light-colored; dark and light coloration extend-
ing on dorsal and anal fin. Dark marking on insertion of pectoral
fin present and conspicuous, extending downward as an elongate
blotch to or beyond middle of pectoral base. Dark spot on dorsal
fin and on back of caudal peduncle, always absent. Tip of anal fin
reaching beyond vertical from tip of dorsal fin. Snout equal to
or less than three-fourths of orbit. Cheek scales in 3 rows.

1. Pomacentrus pictus

1b.—Color pattern of body not as above. Dark marking on insertion of pec-
toral fin obsolete or reduced to a spot at upper end of pectoral base.
Dark spot on dorsal fin always present in young, sometimes per-
sisting in adults. Dark spot on back of caudal peduncle present or
absent. Tip of anal fin not reaching beyond vertical from tip of
dorsal fin. Snout greater than three-fourths to about equal orbit.
Cheek scales in 4 rows.

2a.—Vertical dark stripes on sides of body and caudal peduncle, present
and conspicuous. Streaks or lines on top of snout, interorbital
or nape absent. Rows of spots on nape, back or upper sides
of body absent. Anal fin about equal to or shorter than upper
caudal lobe; reaching to or slightly beyond vertical from cau-
dal base. Pectoral rays 20 to 22, usually 21, rarely 20.
2. Pomacentrus fuscus

2b.—Vertical dark stripes on sides of body present or absent; obsolete or
absent on sides of caudal peduncle. Streaks or lines on top
of snout, interorbital or nape, present or absent. Rows of
spots on nape, back or upper sides of body, present or absent.
Anal fin longer than upper caudal lobe; reaching well beyond
vertical from caudal base. Pectoral rays 17 to 21, rarely 21.

3a.—Scaled sheath of spinous dorsal fin without spots. Top of
snout, interorbital, nape and back without streaks or
lines, sometimes with a few scattered spots. Dorsal fin
spot when present (young), about equal to or larger than
eye, its lower half extending on back, usually to lateral
line. Back not abruptly darker than rest of body. An-
terior profile steep, slightly convex to nearly straight in
adults. Body depth about one half of length or greater
in adults. Pectoral rays usually 19, rarely 18 or 20.

3. Pomacentrus planifrons

3b.—Scaled sheath of spinous dorsal fin profusely spotted. Top of
snout with two diverging streaks in adult, occurring as

138 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

parallel lines on top of snout, interorbital and nape in
young; nape and back with longitudinal rows of spots.
Dorsal fin spot when present (young), smaller than eye,
not extending on back, or only its lower third or fourth.
Back more or less abruptly darker than rest of body in
young, sometimes in adults. Anterior profile not steep,
always strongly convex. Body depth less than half of
length in young and adults. Pectoral rays usually 18 or
20 Srarelyal/ sores
4a.—Dorsal fin spot when present (young), low, its lower third
or fourth extending on back. Spot on back of cau-
dal peduncle present, sometimes obsolete. Spot at
insertion of pectoral fin diffuse or obsolete. Verti-
cal dark bars on sides of body, present and conspic-
uous. Pectoral rays 19 to 21, usually 20.
4. Pomacentrus variabilis

4b.—Dorsal fin spot when present (young), high, not in con-
tact with back. Spot on back of caudal peduncie
always absent. Spot at insertion of pectoral fin
present and conspicuous. Vertical dark bars. on
sides of body usually absent, diffuse when present.
Pectoral rays 17 to 19, usually 18.
5. Pomacentrus leucostictus

1. POMACENTRUS PICTUS Castelnau
Figures 1, 5

Pomacentrus pictus Castelnau, 1855: 9 (original description; Brazil),
jl, Py iter, IL

Pomacentrus partitus Poey, 1868: 327 (original description; Cuba).
Howell-Rivero, 1938: 208 (holotype in MCZ, no. 14680). Long-
ley, in Longley and Hildebrand, 1941: 180 (habitat, coloration,
nesting habits, range; Tortugas, Florida). Briggs, 1958: 283
(listed, range; Florida).

Eupomacentrus partitus, Jordan and Evermann, 1898: 1558 (descrip-
tion after Poey; Cuba). Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930: 414
(listed, range).

Pomacentrus freemani Beebe and Tee-Van, 1928: 196 (original de-
scription, comparisons, figure; Port-au-Prince Bay, Haiti). Parr,
1930: 80, 81 (compared with P. partitus; Bahamas).

Pomacentrus fuscus forma C Parr, 1930: 68-83 (description, compari-
sons, comments, material; Bahamas), figs. 16, 17.

The original description of Pomacentrus pictus was given by
Castelnau in the following sentence: “Differe du précédent [Poma-
centrus variabilis| par sa couleur entiérement noire et sa queue
dont la partie supérieure est d'un jaune-citron”. This statement
is too short and inadequate to enable full recognition, but it does

seem to eliminate Pomacentrus fuscus, P. planifrons, P. variabilis

FISHES IN FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS — 139

and the young and females of P. leucostictus. It is interesting to
note that Castelnau himself recognized fuscus as distinct from his
variabilis and pictus.

Recognition of the present species is now possible through a
study of the type, 70.5 mm. in length, from Bahia, Brazil (MNHN
8280), based on detailed data including a photograph (Figure 1)
sent by Mme. Bauchot. After 110 years in alcohol, the general
coloration is very dark-brown. There is no spot on the dorsal fin
or the back of the caudal peduncle. The pectoral fins are color-
less, but their bases are very dark-brown. The lower caudal lobe
is very dark, with the exception of the median rays. The upper
lobe is colorless like the pectorals. The other fins are dark-brown,
like the general coloration of the body.

Figure 1. Pomacentrus pictus. Holotype, 70.5 mm. in length from Bahia,
Brazil, MNHN 8280. (Photograph, courtesy of Mme. Bauchot).

The Florida and Bahamas material referable to the present
species, is in general agreement with the type in color pattern,
especially the larger specimen, 56.5 mm. in length, which has been
in alcohol for twelve years (UMIM 102, Bimini, Bahamas). The
very dark-brown pectoral base (black in life and freshly preserved
material) is diagnostic of the species and is shown in Castelnau’s
figure. The pectoral fin is lemon-yellow in life and freshly pre-
served specimens, as also shown by Castelnau in his figure. This
character is also diagnostic of the species. In Pomacentrus fuscus,

140 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

P. variabilis and P. leucostictus, the pectoral fins are colorless even
in life, but they are sometimes yellow in P. planifrons. In the latter
species however, a supracaudal spot is always present and conspic-
uous, but always absent in P. pictus.

The color pattern of this species is quite distinctive and strik-
ingly different from that of the other four. Extensive variation in
the extent of the dark and light areas of the body and fins may
occur, as shown by Parr (1930: 75, fig. 17). This may explain the
rather unusual color pattern of the caudal fin of the type, as shown
by Castelnau’s figure and as indicated in his original description.

The available material is also in agreement with the type in the
diagnostic proportional characters by which the species is distin-
guished from the other four (Table 1). In the type, the snout is
less than three-fourths of the orbit diameter and the tip of the anal
fin reaches beyond a vertical from the tip of the dorsal. The tips
of the fins, except the pelvics, appear to be somewhat damaged
and their lengths are therefore unreliable. The pelvic fin length
is 341. Other body proportions of the type are as follows: Pre-
dorsal length, 397; prepelvic length, 412; head length, 291; orbit
diameter, 99; caudal peduncle depth, 142. The left pectoral fin
has 19 rays and the right, 20. There are 19 lateral line scales and
3 rows of cheek scales. The latter character is diagnostic.

From the original description and the holotype (MCZ 14680),
Pomacentrus partitus Poey may be readily recognized as a synonym
of P. pictus. Longley, in Longley and Hildebrand (1941: 180),
synonymized P. freemani with P. partitus without comment. This
however, had been previously established by Parr (1930: 80, 81).

The caudal lobes in Pomacentrus pictus are acute and usually
quite sharply pointed or even filamentous, especially the upper lobe.
The soft dorsal and anal fin are also very pointed. The anal fin is
frequently filamentous and extends well beyond a vertical from the
caudal base, usually by a distance about equal to or greater than
the snout length.

The typical color pattern of the body is established at a length
of about 15 mm. and the diagnostic dark blotch on the pectoral base,
at about 25 mm. Streaks or lines on the snout, interorbital or nape,
are always absent, as well as rows of spots on the back and upper
sides of body. Dark, vertical stripes may be present in some speci-
mens, but they are confined to the dark areas of the sides of the

FISHES IN FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS § 141

bedy. The caudal fin is usually pale but occasionally it may be
wholly or partly dusky to very dark. In contrast with the other
four species, the dorsal fin spot is never present in the young or
adult. The absence of a spot on the back of the caudal peduncle,
is a character shared with Pomacentrus leucostictus. The colora-
tion in life has been described by Longley, in Longley and Hilde-
brand (1941: 180)

In addition to the characters given in the key, the present spe-
cies differs from the other four in the longer anal fin and upper
caudal lobe (Table 1). It is intermediate in meristic characters
(Tables 2-5), except the number of cheek scale rows.

Forty-six specimens were examined from the following localities.
Bimini Harbor, Bahamas: UMIM 102 (1); UMIM 2881 (6). Mo-
lasses Reef, Florida: UMIM 2833 (13). Sombrero Reef, Florida:
UMIM 2848 (26).

2. POMACENTRUS FUSCUS Cuvier and Valenciennes

Figures 2, 6

Pomacentrus fuscus Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1830: 324 (original de-
scription, comparison, internal anatomy; Brazil). Briggs, 1958:
283 (listed, range; Florida).

Pomacentrus adustus Troschel, in von Muller, 1865: 633 (original de-
scription; comparisons; Atlantic coast of Mexico). Longley and
Hildebrand, 1941: 178 (comparisons, description, reproduction;
Tortugas, Florida). Briggs, 1958: 283 = variabilis (listed, range;
Florida).

Pomacentrus dorsopunicaus Poey, 1868: 328 (original description;
Cuba).

Pomacentrus obscuratus Poey, 1876: 101 (original description; Cuba).
Howell-Rivero, 1938: 208 (types in MCZ, no. 14681).

Eupomacentrus fuscus, Jordan and Evermann, 1898: 1552 (descrip-
tion, comments, range; Key West and Bahia).

Pomacentrus fuscus forma D Parr, 1930: 69-83 (description, compari-
son, comments, material; Bahamas), fig. 18.

Eupomacentrus rubridorsalis Beebe and Hollister, 1931: 85 (original
description, comments; Chatham Bay, Union Island, Grenadines),
fig. 16. Beebe and Tee-Van, 1933: 189, 190 (description, figure,
range; Bermuda).

As pointed out by Longley (in Longley and Hildebrand, 1941:
178), the present species has been frequently misinterpreted or not
fully recognized. This is further emphasized by the above synony-
my and the additional nomenclatorial confusion introduced by
Longley himself (loc. cit.).

142 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Measurements, counts and a photograph (Figure 2) of the holo-
type of Pomacentrus fuscus (MNHN 8281), have been received
from Mme. Bauchot. The specimen, in good state of preservation,
measures 87 mm. in length and was collected in Brazil by Delalande.
The proportions and counts are as follows. Predorsal length, 448.
Preanal length, 730. Prepelvic length, 402. Head length, 305.
Snout length, 92. Maxillary length, 90. Orbit diameter, 92. Sub-
orbital width, 41. Body depth, 472. Caudal peduncle depth, 155.
Pectoral fin length, 293. Pelvic fin length, 345. Anal fin length,
374. Upper caudal lobe length, 368. Dorsal spines, 12. Dorsal
rays, 15; anal, 18; pectoral, 21 (erroneously stated as 18 in the
original description). Lateral line scales, 20.

Figure 2. Pomacentrus fuscus. Holotype, 87 mm. in length from Brazil,
MNHN 8281. (Photograph, courtesy of Mme. Bauchot).

Comparison of the above proportions and counts with those
of the Florida and Bahamas specimens (see tables), leaves no doubt
as to their being conspecific. The vertical, dark stripes on the sides
of the body and caudal peduncle, a diagnostic character, are present
in the holotype of Pomacentrus fuscus. After more than 130 years
in preservation, the general coloration of the type is described by
Mme. Bauchot (in litt.) as: “ ... brun doré y compris les nageoires
D, A, C, V. Membrane interradiaire de la dorsale épineuse frangée
de brun foncé. Pectorales claires”. Three specimens, 46.4, 81 and
91 mm. in length from Bahia, Brazil (USNM 48327), have been
examined and found to be in agreement with the holotype and
the Florida and Bahamas material.

FISHES IN FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS _ 148

The assignment of the present species to Pomacentrus adustus
by Longley (loc. cit.), was probably due to his failure to study the
type of P. fuscus. The original description of fuscus is not detailed
enough to recognize the species and contains the erroneous and
misleading statement of 18 pectoral rays. Longley’ attempt to
dismiss the ~ . . . true fuscus ...” as a larger fish, without much
comment or proof, is hardly valid. The Brazilian specimens re-
ferred to above are no larger than the larger specimens examined
from Florida and the Bahamas.

Attempts to locate the type of Pomacentrus adustus have met
with failure, but the original description clearly refers to the present
species, as shown by Longley (loc. cit.). Although the number of
pectoral rays was stated as “19” by Troschel, it is quite possible that
one or two of the very small, close-set lowest rays, might have been
missed. ‘Troschel’s attempt to distinguish adustus from fuscus on
the basis of body depth, number of fin rays and geographical dis-
tribution, is not valid in the presence of the new evidence.

The identity of Pomacentrus dorsopunicaus, P. obscuratus and
P. rubridorsalis (see synonymy above), with the present species,
has already been shown by Longley (L.c.).

The Bahamas material referred to by Parr (1930: 69-83) as
“forma D”, is obviously Pomacentrus fuscus as he himself clearly
demonstrated on the basis of color pattern and proportions. Failure
to consider meristic characters however, probably prevented his
arriving at a full understanding of this and some of the other
species.

In Pomacentrus fuscus, the dorsal fin spot, the supracaudal spot
and the vertical stripes on the sides of the body, are already evident
at a length of about 12 mm. The dorsal fin spot and supracaudal
spot however, begin to fade at a length of about 35 to 40 mm. and
entirely disappear at a length of 45 to 50 mm. The dorsal fin spot
is usually smaller than the eye and only its lower third or fourth
extends on the back and never to the lateral line. Streaks or lines
on the upper part of the snout, interorbital or nape, are never pres-
ent in the young or adult. Rows of spots on the back are always
absent, but the young usually have a few scattered round dots on
the snout and the interorbital space. The general coloration is uni-
formly light to dark-brown or nearly black. The pectoral fin is col-
orless but the other fins are dusky and usually darker than the body,

144 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

especially the dorsal and the anal. The life colors have been well
described by Longley (in Longley and Hildebrand, 1941: 179).

In the present species, the soft dorsal and anal fin are rounded
and the latter sometimes extends somewhat beyond a vertical from
the caudal base, by a distance not greater than the pupil diameter.
The upper caudal lobe is occasionally somewhat pointed but the
lower is always rounded.

This species differs from the other four in the number of pec-
toral rays, shorter pelvic and anal fin and in the presence of verti-
cal, dark bars on the sides of the caudal peduncle.

In addition to the material referred to above, one hundred and
seventy-six specimens were examined from the following localities.
Ocean side, South Bimini, Bahamas: UMIM 635 (52). Ocean side,
North Bimini, Bahamas: UMIM 63] (7). Anguilla Island, Cay
Sal Bank, Bahamas: UMIM 373 (63). Elbow Cay, Cay Sal Bank,
Bahamas: UMIM 378 (1). Cay Sal, Cay Sal Bank, Bahamas: UMIM
389 (1). Nicholls Town, North Andros Island, Bahamas: UMIM 1808
(7). Biscayne Bay, Miami, Florida: UMIM 375 (1). Ocean side, Key
Largo, Florida; UMIM 2813 (7). Virginia Key, Miami, Florida:
UMIM 2909 (8). Molasses Reef, Florida Keys: UMIM 2831 (22).
Sombrero Reef, Florida Keys: UMIM 2847 (10). Port Henderson,
Jamaica: UMIM 388 (2).

3. POMACENTRUS PLANIFRONS Cuvier and Valenciennes

Figures 3, 7

Pomacentrus planifrons Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1830: 323 (original
description, comparison, comments; Martinique). Longley, in
Longley and Hildebrand, 1941: 178 (comparisons), 180, 181
(coloration in life, comparisons, eggs, nesting habits; Tortugas,
Florida). Briggs, 1958: 283 (listed, range; Florida).

Eupomacentrus planifrons, Jordan and Evermann, 1898: 1559 (de-
scription after Cuvier and Valenciennes; Martinique). Jordan,
Evermann and Clark, 1930: 414 (listed, range).

Eupomacentrus chrysus Bean, 1906a: 32 (original description; Ber-
muda); 1906b: 61, fig. 4. Beebe and Tee-Van, 1933: 189 (de-
scription, figure; Bermuda).

Pomacentrus fuscus forma B, Parr, 1930: 68-83 (description, compari-
son, comments, material; Bahamas), fig. 15.

The present species is hardly recognizable from the original
description, except for the statement concerning the “... a peu
pres rectiligne . . . ” anterior profile, which is diagnostic. Full
recognition is now possible through a study of the holotype, 60

FISHES IN FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS | 145

mm. in length, collected in Martinique by Plée. Measurements,
counts and a photograph (Figure 3) of the specimen (MNHN 547)
were furnished by Mme. Bauchot. A study of the photograph
and the measurements, indicate that the type specimen is mal-
formed in the region of the caudal peduncle and the anal base.
The caudal peduncle is unusually short, as indicated in the original
description. For this reason, the measurements are not reliable,
but the large, dark, saddle-like spot on the back of the caudal
peduncle, clearly present in the holotype, is diagnostic of the spe-
cies. The counts for the. holotype are as follows. Dorsal spines,
iw Dorsalnays, lo; anal, 13: pectoral, 19:- Lateral line scales, 18.

Figure 3. Pomacentrus planifrons. Holotype, 60 mm. in length from
Martinique, MNHN 547. (Photograph, courtesy of Mme. Bauchot).

Longley (in Longley and Hildebrand, 1941: 180), synonymized
Eupomacentrus chrysus with Pomacentrus planifrons without com-
ment. This seems to be well justified since the original description
and figure of chrysus clearly refer to the present species, as already
suspected by Parr (1930: 80).

Parr (1930: 79, 80), discussed eleven large specimens of question-
able relationship and arrived at the tentative conclusion that they
were referable to his formae B (planifrons), D (fuscus) or both.
He also considered the possibility that these questionable speci-

146 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

mens might represent an unrecognized form. Parr’ specimens
4, 5 and 8, with“... vertical striations and . . . a sharply marked,
saddle-like supracaudal spot ... ”, were 82, 80 and 72 mm. in
length respectively. At this large size, the color pattern indicates
that these specimens could only be Pomacentrus planifrons or
P. variabilis. His table of proportional characters (loc. cit.: 738)
shows the suborbital width as 4.2 percent of the length for speci-
men 8, and 3.7 and 3.8 respectively for specimens 4 and 5. The
suborbital width is a markedly positive allometric character and
at those lengths, the above percentages would correspond with
planifrons or variabilis. When the “distance from snout to dorsal”
(predorsal length) and the body depth of these questionable speci-
mens is analized in the same manner, it becomes apparent that
specimen 8 is Pomacentrus planifrons and specimens 4 and 5, P.
variabilis. In regard to color, as correlated with size, the remain-
ing eight questionable specimens could be P. fuscus, P. variabilis,
P. leucostictus or a mixture of all three. Further application of the
above method of analysis however, shows that on the basis of
head length, suborbital width, predorsal length and body depth
(see Table 1), specimens 1, 2, 6, 7 and 9, are probably fuscus, 10
and 11, variabilis and 3, leucostictus. The supracaudal spot is
sometimes absent or obsolete in variabilis, but the lateral, vertical
bars are always present and conspicuous. Large males of leu-
costictus are uniformly brownish black, sometimes with slight in-
dications of vertical striations (as described by Parr) and resemble
very closely the adults of fuscus (see below, under Pomacentrus
leucostictus).

The material at hand indicates a definite correlation between
the nearly straight anterior profile, the broader suborbital and the
presence of a supracaudal spot and lateral bars, in the larger
adults of Pomacentrus planifrons. The young and half-grown up to
about 50 mm. in length, can always be distinguished from those of
the other four species, by the extent and larger size of the dorsal
fin spot as described in item 3a of the key. Hatf-grown and adults
40 mm. in length or larger, can always be recognized by the greater
body depth and the nearly straight anterior profile. Critical exam-
ination of a graded series of P. planifrons from 26 mm. young to
78 mm. adult, shows a gradual ontogenetic change and discloses
no questionable specimens that might be confused with another

FISHES IN FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS _ 147

species. The dorsal spot fades and disappears at a length of about
50 to 60 mm. The supracaudal spot and the lateral bars are always
present and persist in the adult. The back is never abruptly darker
than the rest of the body.

Eight specimens were examined from the following localities.
Sombrero Reef, Florida Keys: UMIM 2850 (6). Bimini Harbor,
Bahamas: UMIM 103 (1); UMIM 2880 (1).

4, POMACENTRUS VARIABILIS Castelnau
Figures 4, &
Pomacentrus variabilis Castelnau, 1855: 9 (original description; Bra-
ZAleple os) fe. 3.

Pomacentrus xanthurus Poey, 1860: 190 (original description; Cuba);
1868: 326 (coloration; Cuba). Howell-Rivero, 1938: 207 (cotypes
in MCZ, no. 14677a). Longley and Hildebrand, 1941: 177
(recognized as valid species), 179, 180 (comparison), 181 (sy-
nonymy, characters, comparison, distribution; Tortugas, Florida),
182 (comparison). Briggs, 1938: 283 (listed, range; Florida).

Pomacentrus flaviventer Troschel, in von Miller, 1865: 633 (original
description; Atlantic coast of Mexico). Longley and Hildebrand,
1941: 178, 179, 181 (comparisons; synonym of P. xanthurus).

Eupomacentrus diencaeus Jordan and Rutter, 1898: 116 (original de-
scription; Jamaica). Jordan and Evermann, 1898: 1552 (de-
scription, comparison; Jamaica). Jordan, Evermann and Clark,
1930: 413 (listed; Jamaica).

Eupomacentrus nepenthe Nichols, 1921: 1 (original description; Berry
Islands, Bahamas), fig. 1.

Since its original publication in 1855, until the present, the name
variabilis has remained overlooked or misconstrued as applying to
the present species. Although far too brief and inadequate, the
original description and figure offer several clues towards partial
recognition. From his comments, it would seem that Castelnau had
obtained specimens from the fish market in which the dark-blue
of the back (fresh specimens) would gradually turn dark-brown.
The rest of the body however, would remain yellow. He also
mentions the presence of a round black spot “... sur le dos, en
avant de la nageoire .. . ” without specifying which fin. Ob-
viously, this refers to either the dorsal fin spot or the supracaudal
spot, probably the latter. The above combination of color charac-
ters would seem to eliminate Pomacentrus fuscus and P. pictus,
and the presence of a supracaudal spot would eliminate P. leucos-
tictus.

148 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The species may be now fully recognized through a study of
the types from Bahia, Brazil, based on data sent by Mme. Bauchot,
including a photograph (Figure 4). There are two specimens, 70.5
and 73 mm. in length (MNHN 8135), of which the longer is here
designated as the lectotype (Figure 4). They both have a dorsal fin
spot overlapping the back and a well marked spot on the back
of the caudal peduncle. As already indicated, these spots dis-
appear at a length of 45 to 50 mm. in Pomacentrus fuscus and are
always absent in P. pictus. The dorsal fin spot disappears at a
length of 50 to 60 mm. in P. planifrons. In P. leucostictus, the
dorsal fin spot is not in contact with the back in specimens longer
than 25 mm. and entirely disappears at a length of 55 mm. The
supracaudal spot is always absent in P. leucostictus. The general
coloration of the types of P. variabilis is described (in litt.) by Mme.
Bauchot as follows: “La tinte générale du corps est brun clair, y
compris les nageoires, sauf le bord de la membrane interradiaire de
la Dorsale qui est brun plus fonce. Il semble quil y ait des rayures
transversales plus sombres correspondant aux rangées décailles,
mais lIalteration des couleurs dans lalcool (depuis 110 ans) rend
cet examen difficile.”

Figure 4. Pomacentrus variabilis. Lectotype, 73 mm. in length from
Bahia, Brazil, MNHN 8135. (Photograph, courtesy of Mme. Bauchot).

The Florida and Bahamas material is also in agreement with
the types, in diagnostic proportional characters. In the types of
variabilis, the body depth is 466 and 469. In two specimens, 59.6

FISHES IN FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS 149

and 74 mm. in length from Biscayne Bay and Sombrero Reef, Flor-
ida, respectively, the body depth is 465 and 493. In two speci-
mens of Pomacentrus fuscus, 66 and 72 mm. from Molasses Reef,
Florida Keys, the body depth is 524 and 514 respectviely. In two
specimens of P. planifrons, 63 and 77.8 mm. from Sombrero Reef,
Florida Keys, the body depth is 500 and 506 (see also Table 1).
Comparison of other proportional characters on the basis of the
same specimens follows. Predorsal length: P. variabilis, 397, 411
(types); 406, 410; P. fuscus, 422, 414; P. planifrons, 422, 425. Upper
caudal lobe length: P. variabilis, 305, 315 (types); 324, 317; P. fuscus,
349 (damaged in 72 mm. specimen); P. planifrons, 343, 347. Both
types of P. variabilis have 21 pectoral rays and 20 lateral line scales.

A study and comparison of the material at hand with the original
description and types of Pomacentrus xanthurus, indicates that the
latter is conspecific with P. variabilis. Data on the types of
xanthurus (MCZ 4677a) including a photograph, have been re-
ceived from Mrs. M. Dick. There are three specimens in good
condition, 68, 79 and 80 mm. in length, of which the smallest is
the holotype. The pectoral fin, which in variabilis is longer than in
leucostictus (Table 1), has the following lengths for the types: 294
(holotype), 304 and 300. The anal fin and upper caudal lobe are
shorter in variabilis than in leucostictus and have the following
lengths for the cotypes (apparently damaged in the holotype):
Anal fin, 368, 375; upper caudal lobe, 317, 338. The anal fin in
variabilis is longer than in fuscus and shorter than in pictus and
planifrons. The upper caudal lobe is shorter in variabilis than in
planifrons, fuscus and pictus, especially the latter. Counts for
the holotype and the two cotypes of xanthurus are as follows. Dorsal
spines, 12. Dorsal rays, 15; anal, 13; pectoral, 19 (holotype), 20, 19.
Lateral line scales, 20.

The identity of Pomacentrus flaviventer with P. xanthurus = vari-
abilis, previously recognized by Longley and Hildebrand (loc. cit.),
is now further confirmed by the material at hand and the original
description of flaviventer.

Longley (in Longley and Hildebrand, loc. cit.), synonymized
Eupomacentrus diencaeus with Pomacentrus adustus = fuscus
without comment. The original description of diencaeus and the
comments by Jordan and Evermann (1898: 1553) however, indicate
that this nominal form is conspecific with Pomacentrus variabilis.

150 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

This is now confirmed by measurements and counts of the types of
diencaeus (SNHM 4969) made available by Miss Margaret Storey.
There are two specimens 81 and 81.2 mm. in length, with the fol-
lowing proportions and counts. Predorsal length, 377, 419. Body
depth, 495, 497. Pectoral fin length, 290, 306. Anal fin length,
443, 432. Pectoral rays, 20. These proportions and counts are di-
agnostic of Pomacentrus variabilis.

The inclusion of Eupomacentrus nepenthe in the synonymy of
Pomacentrus leucostictus by Longley (l.c.), does not seem to be
justified. The original description and figure of nepenthe indicate
that this nominal species is apparently conspecific with Pomacen-
trus variabilis. As described in items 4a and 4b of the key and
below, the dorsal fin spot persists in the adult and overlaps the back
in variabilis but not in leucostictus. In nepenthe, the dorsal fin
spot is described and figured as overlapping the back. In addi-
tion, the holotype of nepenthe is 61 mm. in length and at this size,
the dorsal spot has disappeared in leucostictus. The“... shallow
concavity ...” in the anterior profile of the type of nepenthe,
is apparently an artifact in preservation. In pomacentrids, as in
many other groups of fishes, rigor mortis from slow death before
immersion in preservative, causes upturning of the head resulting
in a concavity along the anterior profile.

The material from Tortugas, Florida (USNM 61066), referred
to Pomacentrus xanthurus by Hildebrand (in Longley and Hilde-
brand, l.c.), has been examined. There are five specimens of which
two, 46 and 76 mm. in length, are variabilis and three, 58, 67 and
72 mm., are leucostictus. Both of the variabilis specimens have
20 pectoral rays and a black spot on the back of the caudal peduncle.
The smaller specimen still bears the dorsal fin spot partly over-
lapping the back. The leucostictus specimens have 19 pectoral
rays and no spot on the back of the caudal peduncle; the smallest
specimen has the spot high up on the dorsal fin, not in contact
with the back.

Caldwell and Briggs (1957: 4), tentatively referred to Poma-
centrus xanthurus fifty-one specimens 11 to 59 mm. in length, col-
lected in Panama City, Florida. Judging from their comments on
coloration, it would seem that these authors had P. fuscus or per-
haps a mixture of two or more species.

Owing to the misinterpretations hitherto involved in the appli-
cation of the name variabilis, the identity of the material so re-

FISHES IN FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS 151

corded by Springer and Woodburn (1960: 69) needs verification.
No diagnosis or other taxonomic clues are given in that publication.

The dorsal fin spot, vertical dark bars on the sides, streaks and
lines on the head, and body and fin spotting, are already evident at
a length of 15 to 18 mm. in Pomacentrus variabilis. The supracau-
dal spot appears at a length of about 22 mm. and although persist-
ing in the adult, it may be obsolete or absent in some specimens
regardless of size. In 46 specimens 22 to 74 mm. in length chosen
at random from the Florida and Bahamas material, the spot was
present in 35, obsolete in 7 and absent in 4. The dorsal fin spot
always partly overlaps the back and may become obscure in larger
adult specimens. The lateral bars are always present and con-
spicuous. The back is always more or less abruptly darker (blue
in life) than the rest of the body which is light colored (orange-
yellow in life).

In addition to material discussed above, sixty-seven specimens
were examined from the following localities. Ocean side, North
Bimini, Bahamas: UMIM 642 (1). Ocean side, South Bimini, Ba-
hamas: UMIM 645 (5). Anguilla Island, Cay Sal Bank, Bahamas:
UMIM 376 (26). Boca Raton Inlet, Florida: UMIM 2728 (1). Bis-
cayne Bay, Miami, Florida: UMIM 379 (1). Virginia Key, Miami,
Florida: UMIM 2907 (8); UMIM 3146 (3). Molasses Reef, Florida
Keys: UMIM 2834 (1). Sombrero Reef, Florida Keys: UMIM 2849
(ale):

5. POMACENTRUS LEUCOsTICTUS Miller and Troschel
Figure 9

Pomacentrus leucostictus Miller and Troschel, 1848: 674 (original
description, comparison; Barbados). Longley, in Longley and
Hildebrand, 1941: 178, 180 (comparisons), 181-183 (comparisons,
synonymy in part, occurrence, description, sexes, breeding habits;
Tortugas, Florida). Briggs, 1958: 283 (listed, range; Florida).

Pomacentrus otophorus Poey, 1860: 188 (original description; Cuba);
1868: 326 (coloration; Cuba).

Pomacentrus atrocyaneus Poey, 1860: 190 (original description; Cuba);
1868: 327 (coloration, body depth; Cuba).

Pomacentrus analis Poey, 1868: 327 (original description; Cuba).
Howell-Rivero, 1938: 208 (holotype in MCZ, no. 14678).

Pomacentrus caudalis Poey, 1868: 328 (original description; Cuba).
Howell-Rivero, 1938: 208 (types in MCZ, no. 14682).

Pomacentrus analis forma xanthus Metzelaar, 1919: 98 (description;
Curacao; Bonaire; St. Eustatius).

Pomacentrus fuscus forma A Parr, 1930: 68-83 (description, compari-
son, comments, material; Bahamas), fig. 14.

Pomacentrus fuscus forma E Parr, 1930: 68-83 (description, compari-
son, comments, material; Bahamas), fig. 19.

152. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Figure 5. (left). Pomacentrus pictus. Freshly preserved adult, 46 mm. in
length from Molasses Reef. Florida Keys, UMIM 2833. (Photograph by the
author).

Figure 6. (right). Pomacentrus fuscus. Freshly preserved adult, 65.3
mm. in length from Molasses Reef, Florida Keys, UMIM 2831. (Photograph
by the author).

Figure 7. Pomacentrus planifrons. Freshly preserved adult, 48.5 mm. in
See Sombrero Reef, Florida Keys, UMIM 2850. (Photograph by the
author).

Figure 8. (left). Pomacentrus variabilis. Freshly preserved adult, 59.6 mm.
a ee ae Sombrero Reef, Florida Keys, UMIM 2849. (Photograph by
the author).

Figure 9. (right). Pomacentrus leucostictus. Freshly preserved adult, 52.2
mm. in length from ocean side of Key Largo, Florida, UMIM 2814. (Photo-
graph by the author.)

FISHES IN FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS — 153

The original description separates Pomacentrus leucostictus
from P. pictus, P. fuscus and P. planifrons, but not from P. vari-
abilis. Water however, Troschel himself (in von Muller, 1865: 633)
recognized the differences between his P. flaviventer = variabilis
and P. leucostictus and thereby made the latter fully recognizable.
The type or types of leucostictus have apparently been lost.

The original description of Pomacentrus otophorus indicates
that this nominal species was probably based on a large adult male
of P. leucostictus. The size correlated with the coloration, the an-
terior profile, the elongation of vertical fins and the number of
pectoral rays are all diagnostic of leucostictus. The type is not
found at the Museum of Comparative Zoology which is the usual
depository of Poey’s types (Howell-Rivero, 1938). Many of Poey’s
type specimens however, originally believed lost, have later been
located at the U. S. National Museum.

Jordan and Evermann (1898: 1552), synonymized Pomacentrus
atrocyaneus with P. fuscus, but later Longley (in Longley and
Hildebrand, 1941: 181) included atrocyaneus in the synonymy of
leucostictus. The type of atrocyaneus is apparently not available,
but the original description indicates that it was probably based,
as otophorus, on an adult male of leucostictus.

As already indicated by Longley (l.c.), Pomacentrus analis
appears to be a synonym of P. leucostictus. Mrs. Dick has ex-
amined the material (MCZ 14678) of analis reported by Howell-
Rivero (1938: 208) as the holotype. She reports that there are three
specimens, 18, 38 and 41 mm. in length. These specimens have
18, 18 and 17 pectoral rays respectively, a spot on the dorsal fin,
no spot on the back of the caudal peduncle and no lateral stripes.
In addition, there are two other lots sent by Poey as P. analis (MCZ
14676 and 14679). There are three specimens, 52, 60 and 60 mm.
in length, in lot 14676. These have 18, 18 and 19 pectoral rays
respectively and no lateral stripes or a dorsal or supracaudal spot.
Lot 14679 comprises a single specimen 69 mm. in length, with 18
pectoral rays, no lateral stripes and no dorsal or supracaudal spot.
A standard length of 69 mm. would correspond to a total length of
about 95 mm., as stated by Poey for the specimen on which his
original description of Pomacentrus analis was based. It would
seem therefore, that this specimen, MCZ 14679, is the holotype of
analis, not MCZ 14678 as stated by Howell-Rivero (l.c.).

154 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Mrs. Dick has also examined Poey’s types of Pomacentrus cau-
dalis (MCZ 14682). There are seven specimens, 15, 17, 25, 26, 29,
32 and 40 mm. in length. The 25 mm. specimen has 19 pectoral
rays and a dorsal and supracaudal spot; it is probably P. variabilis.
The rest of the specimens have the dorsal fin spot but no supra-
caudal spot or lateral stripes. They have 18 or 19 pectoral rays
and the 40 mm. specimen is probably the holotype and only speci-
men on which the original description of caudalis was based.
This nominal form is apparently also a synonym of Pomacentrus
leucostictus as indicated by Jordan and Evermann (1898: 1557).

On the basis of color pattern, proportions and the figure, Poma-
centrus fuscus forma A represents P. leucostictus as Parr himself
suspected and demonstrated. His forma E, apparently is also leu-
costictus and seems to have been based on poorly preserved speci-
mens. As already discussed for Pomacentrus nepenthe (see above
under P. variabilis), stiffening of the body produced by rigor mortis
before preservation, causes upturning of the head and straighten-
ing of the anterior profile. In addition, the general background
color becomes paler and features such as spots, streaks and lines
are more or less faded. The upturning of the head produces arti-
ficial lengthening of the body and shortening of the anterior profile.
As a result of this, the body depth and the predorsal length appear
to be smaller. These characters were used by Parr to distinguish
his forma E, in addition to the lighter color and lack of regular
markings. He also indicated that specimen 3 of his forma E, showed
. . some very faint, minute dots, which, according to their ar-
rangement might possibly be interpreted as identical with the dor-
sal dots of forma A [leucostictus].” As already suggested by Parr
(1930: 80), Pomacentrus analis forma xanthus Metzelaar is similar
to his forma E, and probably for the same reasons discussed above.

According to the material examined, the dorsal fin spot is already
evident and conspicuous in Pomacentrus leucostictus, at a length
of 10 mm. and it fades and disappears at a length of about 40 to 55
mm. At a length of about 25 mm., the dorsal spot is high on the
fin and no longer in contact with the back. At the same length,
the spot at the base of the pectoral fin is already present as well as
the numerous dots on the scaly sheath of the dorsal fin. The streaks
and lines on the snout, interorbital, nape and back, appear at a
length of about 15 mm. and the rows of spots on the back and upper

FISHES IN FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS © 155

sides of body are already evident at a length of about 20 mm. The
spot on the back of the caudal peduncle is always absent in P.
leucostictus.

In the young of both sexes, up to about 40 mm. in length, the
back is dark (blue in life) and shades more or less abruptly to light
(yellow in life) on the rest of the body. Adult males about 40 mm.
in length or larger, are uniformly very dark including the fins except
the pectorals. In this respect they resemble Pomacentrus fuscus
but can always be distinguished by the low pectoral ray count, the
more slender body, the shorter pectoral fin and the longer anal fin.
In adult females, the body is less uniformly dark than in adult males,
the belly and lower sides being lighter and the caudal peduncle
and caudal fin much lighter than the rest. Vertical dark stripes
may occasionally be present in both males and females, but they
are much less conspicuous than in the other species and are absent
on the sides of the caudal peduncle. The occurrence of sexual
dichromatism in P. leucostictus was first shown by Longley (in
Longley and Hildebrand, 1941: 182). A detailed description of
the coloration in life is given by him in that publication.

The fewer pectoral rays correlated with a more slender body
and shorter pectoral fins, diagnose Pomacentrus leucostictus and
distinguish it from the other four species.

One hundred and fifty-five specimens were examined from the
following localities. Bimini Harbor, Bahamas: UMIM 372 (24);
UMIM 622 (1); UMIM 2878 (29). Ocean side, North Bimini, Ba-
hamas: UMIM 821 (3); UMIM 2884 (5). Ocean side, South Bimini,
Bahamas: UMIM 643 (6). Anguilla Island, Cay Sal Bank, Ba-
hamas: UMIM 371 (49). Nicholls Town, North Andros, Bahamas:
UMIM 2683 (1). Virginia Key, Miami, Florida: UMIM 2907 (7).
Cape Florida, Biscayne Key, Miami, Florida: UMIM 782 (1).
Ocean side, Key Largo, Florida Keys: UMIM 2814 (6). Molasses
Reef, Florida Keys: UMIM 2832 (1). Sombrero Reef, Florida Keys:
UMIM 2852 (21).

PROBABLE HyBrips

During the process of sorting and identification of the material
reported upon in this paper, six specimens were found which did
not agree with any of the species. These specimens range from
22.5 to 40.2 mm. in length and they all represent the same form.
Further study and comparison indicate that this material may be

156 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

interpreted as representing a hybrid form rather than an unde-
scribed species.

The assumed hybrids appear to be more or less intermediate
between Pomacentrus planifrons and P. leucostictus. ‘These two
species differ significantly in at least six proportional characters
(Table 6), but meristic differences do not seem to be significant
enough to be considered. The hybrids have 16 dorsal rays, 14
anal rays, 19 or 20 pectoral rays and 19 lateral line scales. Although
not easily measurable, the curvature of the anterior profile is
strikingly different between P. planifrons and P. leucostictus. It is
straight or nearly so in planifrons but strongly convex in leuco-
stictus. The hybrids show an intermediate condition in this re-
spect also.

Several features of the coloration are also markedly different
between Pomacentrus planifrons and P. leucostictus. In planifrons,
the lower half of the dorsal fin spot extends on the back whereas in
leucostictus it is placed high up on the fin and is not in contact
with the back. In the hybrids, the dorsal fin spot is intermediate
in position. Streaks, lines and rows of spots on the head and upper
sides of the body are absent in planifrons but present and conspic-
uous in leucostictus. In the hybrids, these characters appear to be
intermediate. In specimens of planifrons of about the same size as
the hybrids, the ground color is uniformly light (saffron-yellow in
life). In specimens of leucostictus of corresponding size, the back
and dorsal parts of the head are very dark (blue in life) in sharp
contrast with the rest of the body which is very light (yellow in
life). In the hybrids, these color features are again, intermediate.
The supracaudal spot is large and conspicuous in planifrons but
absent in leucostictus. In the hybrids, the supracaudal spot ap-
pears to be absent, but careful microscopic examination of that area
shows a noticeable intensification of pigmentation in some of the
specimens. The possibility exists that the supracaudal spot may
be a recessive character in planifrons and that if so, it therefore
would not appear in the present assumed hybrid form. A good
life-color photograph of the hybrid, was recently published by
Straughan (1960: 5), under the name of “honey demoiselle”.

Application of the “hybrid index” developed by Hubbs and

Kuronuma (1942: 291) indicates various degrees of intermediacy
in the hybrids (Table 6). When all the mean hybrid indices for

157

FISHES IN FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS

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158 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

each proportional character are averaged however, the total mean
hybrid index is 43, which is fairly close to perfect intermediacy (50).

As pointed out by Hubbs (1955: 17-19), spawning time and area,
mating behavior, cohabitation and relative abundance of potential
parental species, appear to be significant in conditioning natural
hybridization. These conditions, as they apply to Pomacentrus
planifrons and P. leucostictus, seem to be favorable in leading to
natural hybridization, according to the following discussion.

As indicated by Longley (in Longley and Hildebrand, 1941:
178-183) and underwater observations by the present writer, the
Florida and Bahamas species of Pomacentrus spawn at the same
time, at least during June and July. The extent of the spawning
season for the individual species is not known. According to Long-
ley (l.c.), reproduction in P. adustus = fuscus, continues actively in
August and the material examined for the present study, contains
specimens of P. variabilis and P. leucostictus as small as 18 and 14
mm. in length respectively, collected in August. It is interesting to
note that the smallest hybrid (22.5 mm.) was collected in June
(Bimini, Bahamas), the next largest (26.5 mm.) in early August
(Molasses Reef, Florida Keys) and a series of three (30, 34 and 35.5
mm.), in November (Cay Sal Bank, Bahamas). The largest speci-
men (40.2 mm.) was collected in late August (Bimini, Bahamas).

In addition to synchronous spawning, these species frequently
occur together in close association, as already discussed in the sec-
tion on taxonomic characters. Furthermore, their very close
morphological relationship would seem to indicate that they are
also closely related genetically and physiologically.

As to the occurrence and relative abundance of the assumed
parental species and hybrids, in the areas where the latter were
collected, the following conditions seem to be significant. The 22.5
mm. specimen (UMIM 3122) from the ocean side of South Bimini,
Bahamas, was collected with six specimens of Pomacentrus leuco-
stictus 12 to 52 mm. in length (UMIM 643). . The 40.2 mm. speci-
men (UMIM 2883) from Bimini Harbor, was collected with 29 speci-
mens of leucostictus 20 to 58 mm. (UMIM 2878) and one specimen
of planifrons 26 mm. in length (UMIM 2880). Previous collecting
in the same area had yielded 24 specimens of leucostictus 20 to 59
mm. in length (UMIM 372) and one specimen of planifrons, 61.5
mm. in length (UMIM 103), but no hybrids. The three 30, 34 and

FISHES IN FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS 159

30.9 mm. specimens (UMIM 3121) from Anguilla Island, Cay Sal
Bank, Bahamas, were collected with 49 specimens of leucostictus,
9 to 61 mm. in length (UMIM 3871). The 26.5 mm. specimen (UMIM
3123), was collected at Molasses Reef, Florida Keys, with one speci-
men of leucostictus, 55 mm. in length (UMIM 2832). It is also
significant, that the six hybrids represent only 1.3 percent of the total
number of specimens (472) examined in this study.

Underwater observations by myself and several collectors of
“marine tropicals” (personal communications), indicate that al-
though their vertical distribution overlaps, Pomacentrus planifrons
is rarer and occurs at greater depths than P. leucostictus. These
two species are easily recognized in the field by trained collectors
who refer to planifrons as the “orange demoiselle” and to leuco-
stictus as the “beau gregory. At the time of collection in Mo-
lasses Reef, a few specimens of planifrons were seen in deeper water
(fifteen feet), but not taken, due to the limitations of the equipment
(face-mask, snorkel and hand nets). In shallower water however
(six feet), most of the specimens seen and taken, were Pomacentrus
pictus but very few leucostictus, of which only one was taken.
Later, at Sombrero Reef, a similar condition was observed. In this
locality however, intensive collecting in deeper water (fifteen feet)
with “aqualung” and hand nets, produced six specimens of plani-
frons and twenty-six of pictus. No Pomacentrus fuscus, variabilis
or leucostictus were seen in this area, but these species were later
found in relative abundance in shallower water (two to six feet)
not far away.

The occurrence and relative abundance in areas of contact, of
Pomacentrus planifrons and P. leucostictus, as discussed above,
would seem conducive to hybridization between these two species.
Hybridization would also seem possible between other pairs of
species in the group, but the material at hand has not revealed any
other possible hybrids.

Admittedly, the above analyses and comments are not critical
enough to allow definite conclusions. Experimental work is re-
quired before hybridization in Pomacentrus (and other groups of
fishes) is established. The possibility of breeding pomacentrids
under controlled laboratory conditions, has been demonstrated by
Garnaud (1957: 211).

160 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

LITERATURE CITED
BEANS Ee

1906a. Descriptions of new Bermudian fishes. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing-
ton, vol. 19, pp. 29-34.

1906b. A catalogue of the fishes of Bermuda. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Publ.,
Zools Ser) voluc. no. 2. pps 2-92)

BEEBE, W., and G. HOLLISTER

1931. New species of fish from the West Indies. Zoologica, vol. 12, pp.
84-88, figs. 15-17.

BEEBE, W., and J. TEE-VAN
1928. The fishes of Port-au-Prince Bay, Haiti. Zoologica, vol. 10, no. 1,
pp. 1-279, figs.
1933. Field book of the shore fishes of Bermuda, xiv + 337 pp., 348 illus.
New York.

BLEEKER, P.

1877. Mémoire sur les chromides marins ou pomacentroides de l’Inde archi-
pélagique. Nat. Verb. Holl. Maatsch. Haarlem, 3 ser. ,vol. 2, 166 pp.

BLOCH, M. E.

1787. Naturgeschichte der auslandischen Fische. Pt. 2, xii + 260 pp.,
216 pls. Berlin.

BLOCH, M. E., and J. G. SCHNEIDER

1801. M. E. Blochii . . . systema ichthyologiae iconibus ex illustratum,
lx + 584 pp., 10 pls. Bibliopolio Sanderiano comm. Berolini.

BREDER, C. M.

1927. Scientific results of the first oceanographic expedition of the Pawnee,
1925: Fishes. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll., vol. 1, art. 1, 90 pp.,
36 figs.

BRIGGS, J. C.

1958. A list of Florida fishes and their distribution. Bull. Florida State
Mus., Biol. Sci., vol. 2, no. 8, pp. 323-318, 3 figs.

CALDWELL DD: {K. and J.G.) BRICES
1957. Range extensions of western north Atlantic fishes with notes on some
soles of the genus Gymnachirus. Bull. Florida State Mus., Biol. Sci.,
oll, A, in@, Ib, IID joyox

CASTELNAU, F. de L. de
1855. Animaux nouveaux ou rares recuellis pendant lexpédition dans les
parties centrales de /Amérique du sud, de Rio de Janeiro a Lima, et
de Lima au Para, vol. 2: Poissons, xii + 112 pp., 50 pls. Paris.

FISHES IN FLORIDA AND THE WESTERN BAHAMAS _ 161

CUVIER, G., and A. VALENCIENNES
1830. Histoire naturelle des poissons, vol. 5, xx + 374 pp., pls. 100-140.
Paris.
GARNAUD, J.

1957. Ethologie de Dascyllus trimaculatus (Ruppell). Bull. Inst. Océanogr.
Monaco, vol. 54, no. 1096, 10 pp., 3 figs.

HOWELL-RIVERO, L.

1938. List of the fishes, types of Poey, in the Museum of Comparative
Zoology. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 82, no. 3, pp. 169-227.

HUBBS, C. L.
1955. Hybridization between fish species in nature. Syst. Zool., vol. 4.
MOn le Onpp.. Oo! figs.
HUBBS, C. L., and K. KURONUMA
1942. Analysis of hybridization in nature between two species of Japanese
flounders. Pap. Michigan Acad. Sci., Arts, and Lett., vol. 27 (1941),
pp. 267-306, 4 pls., 5 figs.
JORDAN, D. S., and B. W. EVERMANN

1898. The fishes of north and middle America. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus.,
MOMA(pt 2. pp, xxx —- 1241-2183.

JORDAN, D. S., and C. RUTTER

1898. A collection of fishes made by Joseph Seed Roberts in Kingston,
Jamaica. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 49, pp. 91-133.

JORDAN, D. S., B. W. EVERMANN, and H. W. CLARK

1930. Check list of the fishes and fishlike vertebrates of north and middle
America . .. etc. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish. (1928), pt. 2, App. 10,
670 pp.

LACEPEDE, B. G.

1802. Histoire naturelle de poissons, vol. 4, xliv + 728 pp., 16 pls. Plassan,
Paris.

LONGLEY, W. H., and S. F. HILDEBRAND ©

1941. Systematic catalogue of the fishes of Tortugas, Florida. Carnegie
Inst. Washington Publ. 535, xiii + 331 pp., 34 pls.

MEEK, S. E., and S. F. HILDEBRAND

1925. The marine fishes of Panama. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Publ. no. 226,
HOO, St, Voll US, joe Dy jojoy voxbs Se SSISIO(, ole Paa7OL

METZELAAR, J.

1919. Over Tropisch Atlantische Visschen, pt. i (West Indian fishes), 179
pp., 50 figs. Amsterdam.

162 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

MULLER, J. W. ven

1865. Reisen in den Vereinigten Staaten, Canada und Mexico, vol. 3 (list

of fishes from Mexico), pp. 623-643.
MUM MR pov vonssancdl) He ROSGE EI

1848. Fishes. In Schomburgk’s “The history of Barbados ... ,” pp.

665-678. London.
NICHOLS, J. T.

1921. A new pomacentrid and blenny from the Bahamas. American Mus.

INoveno 26.02 ppe lati:
BARRA]. EE.

1930. Teleostean shore and shallow-water fishes from the Bahamas and
Turks Island. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll., vol. 3, art. 4, 148
pp., 38 figs.

ROBY. VE:

1860. Poissons de Cuba, especes nouvelles. Mem. Hist. Nat. Isla de Cuba,
VOle 2s ante 40 ppy lho=soG:

1868. Synopsis piscium cubensium. Rep. Fis.-Nat. Isla de Cuba, vol. 2,
pp. 279-484.

1876. Enumeratio piscium cubensium, pt. 2. Anal. Soc. Espanola Hist.
Nate volo. pp. lol-Jee 2anls:
SPRINGER, V. G., and K. D. WOODBURN

1960. An ecological study of the fishes of the Tampa Bay area. Florida
State Brd. Conserv., Marine Lab., Prof. Pap. Ser., no. 1, 104 pp.,
18 figs.

STRAUGHAM, R. P. L.

1960. Small marine aquariums are practical! Tropical fish hobbyist, vol. 8
(27), in, D, JO, Dal CG) use.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(2), 1960

RESEARCH NOTES

NOTES ON THE CAUSES OF DISCOLORED WATER ALONG THE
SOUTHWESTERN COAST OF FLORIDA *

Heavy rains and flooding of low-lying coastal areas in southern Florida
during the early part of March, 1960, caused many of the estuaries, bays,
passes and inshore areas to become discolored with runoff and erosion products
from shore. This was especially true in the Tampa Bay area. In addition to
physical discoloration of seawater along the southwestern coast of Florida
other causes of discoloration which are biological in origin are frequently noted
in the same area. Hutton (1956, Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 19(%): 123-146),
summarized the known biological causes of discolored water in the coastal
waters of Florida.

A species of dinoflagellate, Gymnodinium breve Davis, periodically in-
creases in number and discolors coastal waters of the southwestern part of
Florida. This phenomenon is popularly known as “Red Tide’. Fish-kills
are commonly associated with this phenomenon. A species of blue-green alga,
Skujaella (Trichodesmium) thiebauti De Toni, also commonly discolors the
southwestern coastal waters of Florida. Boat captains, airplane pilots and
others frequently report discolorations caused by S. thiebauti as “Red Tide’,
but fish-kills caused by this alga are not known from the area.

During the early part of the year 1960 three causes of discolored water,
biological in origin, were noted in the coastal waters of southwestern Florida.
They are recorded as follows:

PROTOZOA

Dinoflagellata

1. Gymnodinium breve Davis, 1948.

This dinoflagellate was responsible for discolored inshore waters and fish-
kills between Cape Romano and Englewood during the first three weeks of
January. Water samples taken in the area by agents of the Florida State
Board of Conservation and examined by biologists of the same Department
revealed “counts” of as high as 7,000,000 cells per liter.

Mr. B. Z. May, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, St. Petersburg Beach,
Florida, (personal communication) reported discolored water and dead _ fish
associated with high concentrations of G. breve. from 15 to 35 miles west of
Egmont Key on 23 March 1960. One water sample collected from this area
and examined by a U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biologist (personal com-
munication) contained more than 6,000,000 cells per liter.

2. Gymnodinium splendens Lebour, 1925.
Mr. Joseph Humphries, of this laboratory noted discolored water covering
an area of several square miles in Tampa Bay south of Gandy Bridge on 27
March. A water sample collected from the discolored area by Mr. Humphries
was examined by me and the agent resvonsible for the discoloration identified

* Contribution No. 45, Fla. St. Bd. Conserv. Mar. Lab.

164 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

as G. splendens. Although more than 5,000,000 cells per liter were present
in the water sample there was no apparent damage to fish life.

ARTHROPODA

Crustacea
3. Acartia tonsa Dana, 1849, and Labidocera aestiva Wheeler, 1900.

Two commercial fishermen, Mr. Ross Black and Mr. Herman Reisler,
Sarasota, (personal communication) reported noting a streak of reddish brown
discolored water in the Gulf of Mexico one and one-half miles west of Big
Sarasota Pass at 11:00 A.M., 29 March. It was approximately one mile in
width and extended towards the beach. Dead fish were not present in the
area and mackerel were frequently seen jumping from the water by Messrs.
Black and Reisler. I examined a water sample collected by Messrs. Black
and Reisler. It contained more than 350,000 copepods per liter of the species
identified as A. tonsa. This identification was confirmed by Dr. Thomas E.
Bowman, United States National Museum, Washington, D. C., who identified
a second species of copepod from the water sample as L. aestiva. This second
species was much less abundant than A. tonsa—Rosertr F. Hurron, Florida
State Board of Conservation Marine Laboratory. St. Petersburg, Florida.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(2), 1960

A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE SHRIMP, PENAEUS
BRASILIENSIS LATREILLE, IN BISCAYNE BAY, FLORIDA’

In recent reports on shrimp investigations of Biscayne Bay, Sibenaler
(1953, Fla. St. Bd. Conserv., Tech. Ser. No. 6: 1-20); Higman (1956, Fla. St.
Bd. Consery., Tech. Ser. No. 16: 1-23); Costello (1958, Gulf Fishery Investiga-
tions, Annual Report, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service: 32-35); and Costello
and Allen (1959, Gulf Fishery Investigations, Annual Report, U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service: 13-18) mention only one species, Penaeus duorarum in this
area.

However, three samples of shrimp obtained from Biscayne Bay showed
two closely related grooved species, P. duorarum and P. brasiliensis. No au-
thentic previous record of the occurrence of P. brasiliensis from this area is evi-
dent in the literature. Burkenroad (1934, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 68(2):
61-143) confined the grooved North and South American specimens of Penaeus
under the name of P. brasiliensis and reported a wide distribution for this
species ranging on the east coasts of the Americas from about 41° north to 32°
south latitude.

Burkenroad’s (1939, Bull. Bingham Oceanog. Coll. 6(art. 6): 1-62) further
studies of the North American specimens of Division II of Penaeus established
three distinct species from this P. brasiliensis complex: P. aztecus (Form <A)
distribution Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic North America; P. duorarum (Form
A) distribution Gulf of Mexico, Atlantic North America, and Bermuda; and
P. brasiliensis, distribution Atlantic North America (based on one specimen

* Contribution No. 47, Fla. St. Bd. Conserv. Mar. Lab.

RESEARCH NOTES 165

from offshore Cape Hatteras), and Bermuda. In addition, Burkenroad (op.
cit.: 1-62) recognized several well-defined sub-species or forms of the above
three species which occur in the Caribbean, South American Atlantic, and the
west coast of Africa.

The first two Biscayne Bay samples (2 December 1960 and 2 February
1960) contained mostly P. duorarum. The presence of only a few adult speci-
mens of P. brasiliensis in the two samples suggested the possibility that these
individuals had migrated into the bay from the Atlantic.

The third sample (10 July 1960) however, contained juvenile, sub-adult,
and adult specimens of both P. brasiliensis and P. duorarum. Many of the
adult females of P. duorarum, and one adult female of P. brasiliensis, were
found impregnated. The presence of juveniles of both species in this sample
indicate that there are two grooved penaeid species indigenous to Biscayne Bay.

P. duorarum and P. brasiliensis of Biscayne Bay are so closely related that
it is difficult to distinguish the two species by a cursory examination. Most of
the specimens of both species bore abdominal spots and all specimens were
brown in color. The dorsal grooves of the sixth abdominal somite of P. bra-
siliensis resemble the narrow channel-like grooves of P. duorarum (Form A)
but in some instances, the grooves of P. brasiliensis were found completely
closed.

In contrast, Cuban specimens of P. brasiliensis showed wider grooves
similar to those of P. aztecus (Form A). This variation of the abdominal
grooves of the southern and northern specimens of P. brasiliensis was pointed
out by Burkenroad (ov. cit.: 1-62).

The petasmata of the adult males and the thelyca of the adult females
of the two species (described and figured by Burkenroad, op. cit.: 1-62) can
be distinguished with the unaided eye or with a hand lens. However, char-
acteristics of the sex organs of the juveniles and sub-adults of the two species
can only be differentiated microscopically.

I wish to extend my thanks to Conservation Agent William Saunderson,
Mr. Robert Still, commercial shrimper, and Mr. Thomas Costello, Jr., U. S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, for obtaining the shrimp samples.—BONNIE ELDRED,
Florida State Board of Conservation Marine Laboratory.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(2), 1960

SPEAR OF SWORDFISH, XIPHIAS GLADIUS LINNAEUS,
IMBEDDED IN A SILK SHARK, EULAMIA FLORIDANA
(SCHROEDER AND SPRINGER)

On April 5, 1958, I caught an eight-foot silk shark, Eulamia floridana
(Schroeder and Springer), about 15 miles southeast of Lower Matecumbe Key
in the Florida Keys. This is nearly over the 100 fathom contour near the
western edge of the Florida Current. The capture of this particular shark
is of interest since a portion of a swordfish spear was embedded in its back.
The fragment, nearly 176 mm. in length, projected about two inches. Appar-
ently the spear entered at an angle, penetrated completely through the shark,
and broke off, leaving the broken posterior end of the fragment halfway through
the shark. Although the wound had not healed, the injury probably was not

166 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

recent since the projecting fragment was slightly worn and discolored and
some algal growth was present.

Another occurrence of similar nature has been reported to me by Dr.
Gilbert L. Voss. In the summer of 1940 a seven and one-half foot sailfish,
Istiophorus americanus Cuy. and Val., was taken off Boynton Beach, Florida
by Capt. Walter R. Voss. The fish carried in its back the spear of another
sailfish of about the same size. The spear had entered at right angles to
the body about midway between head and tail at a point half way from the
midline to the dorsal surface and projected about four inches from each side.
The wound had completely healed. The fish put up the usual fight and
seemed to suffer no adverse effects.

Such occurrences are comparatively rare, although billfish (Istiophoridae)
and swordfish spears have been found in boat hulls, bales of rubber (Barnard,
1951 Aust. Mus. Mag., 10(4): 265; Smith, 1956 Nature, 178: 1065) and other
fishes. Gudger (1940 Mem. Royal Asiatic Soc. of Bengal, 12(2): 215-315)
summarizes earlier writings. Shark attacks on free-swimming swordfish are
reported and a small swordfish has been taken from the stomach of a mako
shark, Isurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque. The nature of these attacks is unknown.
Perhaps the silk shark and swordfish collided while feeding through the same
school of fish. Spears of marlin and sailfish broken off in other billfish prob-
ably result from such action. Smith (loc. cit.) attributes to pugnacity the
presence of spears of billfishes and swordfish in bales of rubber that washed
ashore in South Africa. However, billfishes often chase small fishes which
seek shelter around debris. Since the larger fish cannot stop or turn abruptly,
occasional collision with debris and boats seems inevitable, and this may be
the case with swordfish. However, attacks on boats may at times be purpose-
ful, at least with the swordfish.

Wisner (1958 Pacific Sci., 12(1): 60-70) questions the use of the spear in
feeding although he gives several examples of tunas, one of which weighed
157 pounds, and other fishes which had been pierced by billfish spears and
found in the stomach contents. He thinks, however, that these occurrences
are accidental as they are relatively rare.

In my opinion, ramming other large fish or inanimate objects with the
spear is accidental in most cases since it may result in breaking off the spear.

I am grateful to Col. John K. Howard and Drs. Gilbert L. Voss and C.
Richard Robins for advice. WALTER A. Starck, II, Marine Laboratory, Uni-
versity of Miami, Miami, Fla. Contribution 278 from the Marine Laboratory,
University of Miami.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(2), 1960

POLYPHOSPHORIC ACID IN AN UNDERGRADUATE
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT

The use of many reagents which are of great importance in organic syn-
thesis is restricted in the undergraduate organic chemistry laboratory because
of the hazards involved, the expense, or the special apparatus required (ie.
HF, BF;, CH.N,, LiAlH:, lig. NHs). The importance of polyphosphoric acid
as a reagent in organic chemistry has been reviewed by Popp and McEwen

RESEARCH NOTES 167

(1958, Chem. Reviews, 58: 321-401). Polyphosphoric acid is relatively in-
expensive, requires no special apparatus and is safe enough to be used by the
average undergraduate student. With this in mind, we have attempted to de-
sign an experiment which makes use of polyphosphoric acid.

In designing such an experiment we considered the fact that the prepa-
ration and reactions of heterocyclic compounds are often neglected in under-
graduate laboratories. Schimelpfenig (1959, Journ. Chem. Education, 36: 570)
has discussed the undergraduate laboratory synthesis of heterocyclic com-
pounds and from that it is apparent that the few such experiments available
either require an excessive amount of time or lead to relatively unimportant
classes of compounds.

It has been found that the preparation of 2-phenylindole could be carried
out in a simple manner, in a short period of time, using the important poly-
phosphoric acid to give a good yield of a solid compound which is a member
of an important class of heterocyclic compounds. The procedure adopted is
based on a modification of work reported by Kissman, Farnsworth and Witkop
(1952, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 74: 3948-3949).

Experimental Procedures

Preparation of 2-Phenylindole-—Heat a mixture of 5.6 g. of acetophenone
and 5.0 g. of phenylhydrazine on a boiling water bath for 30 minutes. Add
this hot mixture to 60 g. of polyphosphoric acid which has been preheated on
the boiling water bath. Stir this mixture for 5 minutes and pour into 250 ml.
of ice water. Stir to insure complete solution of the polyphosphoric acid and
filter to collect the precipitated 2-phenylindole. Wash the solid with water
and dry. The solid can be recrystallized from aqueous-ethanol if necessary.

In a typical performance the melting point of the 2-phenylindole was 181-
184° and the yield was 80%.

The author would like to acknowledge many helpful discussions with
Dr. Harry P. Schultz—Franx D. Popp, Department of Chemistry, University
of Miami.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(2), 1960

A NOTE ON THE FEEDING HABITS OF THE WEsT INDIAN SEA STAR
Oreaster reticulatus (Linnaeus)'

The large sea star Oreaster reticulatus (Linnaeus) is a common West In-
dian species extending from South Carolina to Brazil and east to the Cape
Verde Islands (Clark, 1933. Sci. Surv. P.R. 16(1): 1-147). Dried, it is sold in
curio shops throughout its range. Despite its common occurrence there is
nothing recorded about its food habits. I have observed Oreaster many times
with its stomach everted into small depressions in the coralline sand and
Thalassia bottoms on which it lives. Examination revealed nothing either in
the depression or in the stomach which might be of food value. Possibly any
organic material close to the stomach wall is digested in this manner.

Recently I saw an Oreaster in Biscayne Bay (Florida) eating a small un-
attached sponge of the genus Ircinia (probably Ircinia fasciculata). The sea

* Contribution No. 277 from The Marine Laboratory, University of Miami.
This work was supported by National Science Foundation Grant Number 14521.

168 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

star was humped over the sponge and had everted its stomach onto a portion
of it. The part of the sponge covered by the stomach was very flaccid, some-
what lighter in color than the rest of the animal, and had a shredded appear-
ance. The remaining portion was firm and appeared alive. Dr. John Randall
of this laboratory has written me that in the Virgin Islands he saw an Oreastet
eating an unidentified svonge.

Although sponges are rarely eaten by other animals, several starfish are
known to feed on them. Rodenhouse and Guberlet (1946. Univ. Wash. Publ.
Biol. 12(3): 21-48) mention that Pteraster tesselatus Ives eats sponges, and
MacGinitie and MacGinitie (1949. Natural history of marine animals. Mc-
Graw-Hill, New York) list sponges as part of the diet of Patiria miniata (Brandt).
Both species occur on the Pacific coast of the United States. The British sea
star Asterina gibbosa (Pennant) is reported by MacBride (1909. The Cam-
bridge natural history, 1: 427-622. Macmillan, London) to eat sponges and
ascidians—LoweELt P. THomas, Marine Laboratory, University of Miami.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(2), 1960

LETTER TO THE EDITOR

FILE CABINET RESEARCH: THE ADIPOSE TISSUE OF
AMERICAN SCIENCE TODAY

Most of us can remember times when financial support for scientific
investigations was difficult to obtain. Many studies were completed only by
virtue of the enthusiasm and zeal of the individual workers. These toilers
were obliged to substitute ingenuity for equipment, free personal time for
grants-in-aid, and vacations for stipends.

But there was an intimacy with the project and insight into the data
which, coupled with a keen urge to reveal any advancement in understand-
ing, resulted in well-prepared, detailed and, in most cases, highly intelligible
additions to the literature.

Following the Second World War, there was a surge of cash for research
unprecedented in this country. To a certain extent stimulated by the dramatic
results of research that tangibly affected the outcome of conflict, governmental
agencies, industry and private sources made available enormous sums. One
of the results of so much so soon was the change in posture of many university
departments. They now became oriented to research as never before, some
of them largely assuming the status of creatures of contractural arrangements.

But what about quality? Were there seasoned and mature men of science
available to transform this cash, through the alchemy of skill, intuition, drudg-
ery and experience into notable advancement? The answer is a qualified
no. Although the race to supply scientists to meet the challenge has been
a good one, there has been a lag. This plus the instinctive desire for more of
the easily available dollars on the part of many administrators has resulted
in a headlong series of undertakings that have all the characteristics of empire
building.

LETTER TO THE EDITOR 169

Under this scheme of things, contracts are often sought and accepted
whether personnel is available to do the work or not. Later, after the ink is
dry on the documents, a frantic search is launched for persons who might be
able to meet muster for the work concerned. At other times, projects are taken
on which are simply added collaterally to existing organizations with the sci-
entists involved partitioning their days between various money producing
accounts. As this system grows we have such ridiculous developments as, in
one particular case, a scientist’s time being divided among jobs so minutely
that it was listed to three decimal places percentage-wise.

These frantic undertakings have produced mountains of data, millions of
observations and trainloads of records. Some of this has, as we all know,
received critical and ingenious analysis and provided a more profound under-
standing of our universe. But much of it has received a perfunctory evaluation
with perhaps a mimeographed summary of hastily drawn conclusions, elim-
inating most of the dearly purchased data of possible use to later workers. In
this milieu, very little time is available for time-consuming thought (pondering,
if you will), orderly presentation of data, or extensive consultation with other
scientists who might offer a slightly different perspective.

It seems propitious to face these facts and to do something about them.
We might, as one organization did, undertake no new projects until all pres-
ently available data has been properly evaluated and made available through
some processed or published report. Or we might establish an International
Publication Year (assuming that some of the rest of the world is faced with the
same problem), in which all scientists, under governmental leadership, would
bend their energies to a vast digestion process. This could result in the greatest
production of assimilatable publications, as end products, in the history of the
world.

The first of these proposals is, understandably, the most promising. A
system could be established whereby, at the end of each research project, a
certain lenth of time would be programmed for analysis of data, preparation of
tables, graphs and illustrative material, and other activities attendant to the
preparation of manuscripts suitable for publication. This period should be
generously allotted and strong assurances and commitments should be de-
veloped to dramatize the preemptory nature of the arrangement.

The alternative is frightening. Inevitably, there will be a contest of
gigantic proportions in which total victory will be the prize. On the one
hand will be the white coated scientists, rushing to the fray; and, on the other
side, will be the grim-faced file-cabinet makers, straining their mills to keep
ahead.—Rosert M. Ince, Director of Research, Florida State Board of Con-
servation, Tallahassee, Florida.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 23(2), 1960

NEWS & NOTES
Edited by

J. E. HurcHMan
Florida Southern College

Letters have gone to each school in Florida requesting brief news items
of interest to FAS members. To help assure publication of worthy news items,
please see that we are provided a concise statement thereof promptly.

St. Petersburg: FLORIDA PRESBYTERIAN COLLEGE opened this
September. The science faculty comprises Dr. I. G. Foster, Chairman Di-
vision of Mathematics & Natural Sciences and Professor of Physics, from
V.M.I.; Dr. Robert Meacham, Professor of Mathematics, from University of
Florida; Dr. Jack Wilson, Assistant Professor of Mathematics, from Central
College of Iowa; Dr. George Reid from Rutgers, and Dr. Dennis Anderson
handling Biology; Dr. Dexter Squibb from Western Carolina College and Mr.
Joe Davis officiating in Chemistry.

Lakeland: FLORIDA SOUTHERN COLLEGE faculty and_ students
heard an interesting report from Professor Gilbert P. Richardson concerning
his recent visit to a number of schools behind the Iron Curtain. He is avail-
able to neighboring faculties on invitation. Richardson’s lecture is made more
impressive by the slides he shows of himself at various critical areas.

Tampa: The new UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH FLORIDA opened its doors
September 26th to fourteen hundred freshmen. Governor Collins spoke
at the morning convocation, followed by open house. More than twenty of
the hundred faculty members will be in the sciences, which include this year
Physical, Biological, Zoological, Chemical Sciences, also Geology, Physics and
Astronomy. Science Hall will house the sciences this year. Additional build-
ings will be available for Life Sciences next year.

Washington: Dr. Detlev W. Bronk, President of the National Academy
of Sciences—National Research Council, has announced the appointment of
Dr. Edward P. Espenshade, Jr., Chairman of the Academy-Research Council’s
Division of Earth Sciences. Dr. Espenshade succeeds Dr. John N. Adkins.
Of the many projects planned, the one to drill a hole through the earth’s crust,
will catch the popular attention.

Washington: Dr. Emil W. Haury, Head of the Department of Anthro-
pology at the University of Arizona, has been appointed Chairman of the
Academy-Research Council’s Division of Anthropology and Psychology, suc-
ceeding Neal E. Miller. Dr. Haury is recognized as an authority on the early
cultures of the southwestern United States.

Washington: Dr. J. Barkley Rosser has been appointed Chairman of
the Mathematics Division of the Academy-Research Council. He succeeds
Dr. Samuel S. Weeks. A native Floridian, Dr. Rosser has been active in vari-
ous mathematical and research organizations and is the author of several books
in the field of symbolic logic and in rocket ballistics.

NEWS AND NOTES al

Washington: Professor Robert C. Elderfield has recently been appointed
Chairman of the Academy-Research Council’s Division of Chemistry and Chem-
ical Technology. Elderfield succeeds Dr. Ernest H. Volwiler. Dr. Robert W.
Cairns was named chairman-designate.

Washington: A committee headed by Dr. Ira L. Baldwin has been an-
nounced by the National Academy of Sciences, to investigate the relationship
between chemical control of agricultural pests and conservation of America’s
wildlife population.

Washington: Although far too extensive to be summarized here, an In-
ternational Expedition to the Indian Ocean is being planned by the Academy-
Research Council. The Committee has expressed the hope that the Expedi-
tion, in addition to acquiring fundamental knowledge, will afford unusual
benefits to the heavily populated protein-deficient nations on the ocean's
perimeter.

Washington: The American Institute of Biological Sciences is currently
translating and publishing seven Russian research journals in biology. These
journals are translated with support from the National Science Foundation,
which is eager that such information be more widely distributed to biologists
throughout the world. It is hoped that this material will aid biologists in re-
search, prevent duplication of work, give some idea of the work being done
by Soviet scientists in the field of biology, and also bring about a better inter-
national understanding among scientists.

Because of the support of the National Science Foundation, the AIBS
can offer these translations at a fraction of their publication cost, with even
further price reduction to AIBS members and to academic and non-profit
libraries. This reduction, the AIBS feels, places the translation within the
reach of all biologists.

The journals currently being translated are: Doklady: Biological Sciences
Section; Doklady: Botanical Sciences Section; Doklady: Biochemistry Section;
Plant Physiology; Microbiology; Soviet Soil Science; and Entomological Re-
view.

In addition to its program of Russian Biological Journal translations, the
AIBS has instituted a separate program of translation and publication of se-
lected Russian Monographs in biology.

It was felt that the program of Journal translations was not sufficient to
cover all of the significant work being done in all fields of biology by Russian
scientists. With the aid of competent authorities, the AIBS has translated
and published six Russian monographs and one monograph is in the process
of being published. In addition, several prominent monographs in various
biological areas are being considered by the AIBS and the National Science
Foundation for translation and publication. The monographs that have been
published are: Origins of Angiospermous Plants by A. L. Takhtajan; Problems
in the Classification of Antagonists of Actinomycetes by G. F. Gauze; Marine
Biology, Trudi Institute of Oceanology, Vol. XX, edited by B. N. Nikitin;
Arachnoidea by A. A. Zakhvatkin; and Arachnida by B. I. Pomerantzev. The
manuscript for Plants and X rays by L. P. Breslavets is in the final stages of
preparation and should be published early in 1960.

172 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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“The Florida Academy of Sciences Medal may be presented
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s&-

“a

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Ouarterly Journal

of the

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of Seiences

Vol. 23 September, 1960 No. 3
Contents
Neill—The Caudal Lure of Various Juvenile Snakes_________- 178
Williams—Mental Health Interests of College Students._.__ 201

Lackey—Factors Determining Habitats of Certain
UID UEE JEON OTS a Ee UNE GM ea A ea A 215

Phillips—Ecology and Distribution of Marine Algae Found
in Tampa Bay, Boca Ciega Bay and at Tarpon Springs,
STOOLS, os ea EI SRI Sem ee ae ee Oe 222

eivgenns pagal INGO aM Ne a a GINA ALO 261

VoL. 23 SEPTEMBER, 1960 No. 38

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF
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Editor—J. C. Dick1nson, Jr.

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Von 23 SEPTEMBER, 1960 No. 3

THE CAUDAL LURE OF VARIOUS JUVENILE SNAKES

WitrreD T. NEILL
Research Division, Ross Allen's Reptile Institute, Inc.
Silver Springs, Florida

During recent studies on the herpetofauna of British Hon-
duras, I noted certain juvenile pit vipers with bright yellow tails.
The occurrence of a yellow tail in various young snakes is of broad
zoOlogical interest, for in some cases the brightly colored append-
age is said to function as a lure, attracting lizards and frogs to
within the snake’s striking range. Previous reviews of this phenom-
enon have been incomplete, the literature has not been satisfactorily
collated, and several aspects of the topic merit further discussion.

THE CaupDAL LURE IN THE PiT VIPERS

The account may begin with the pit vipers (family Viperidae,
subfamily Crotalinae).

Ditmars (1907) was the first to describe the caudal lure. He
noted that young of the copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) had
bright sulfur-yellow tails. When living food was introduced into
their cage, the young snakes would wriggle their tails in a manner
remarkably suggestive of writhing grubs or maggots. Among dry
leaves, the reptiles’ skin patterns blended so well with the sur-
roundings that, from a short distance away, only the writhing tails
could be seen. Ditmars thought it probable that frogs would be
deceived by the lure. These observations appeared in other writ-
IMesnomOitmars: (e. 2. 1922 1936).

Henry (1925) described apparently successful luring by a white-
tailed juvenile of an Asiatic moccasin (Agkistrodon hypnale).
When lizards were placed in the cage, the snake began waving
its caudal appendage. A lizard was eventually caught and eaten.
Pvcraft (1925) stated that this tail wriggling was carried on by the

174 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

light-tailed young of the copperhead, of the cottonmouth (A. pisciv-
orus), and of the fer-de-lance (Bothrops atrox). He noted that
the brightly colored tail of the young snake would begin to writhe
when frogs were placed in the cage, and that the snake itself was
well camouflaged while luring. Cott (1940), following Pycraft,
remarked on the yellow tail tip of the young copperhead, cotton-
mouth, and fer-de-lance; he accepted the interpretation that the
structure served as a lure.

Kauffeld (1943) raised broods of the banded rock rattlesnake
(Crotalus lepidus klauberi) and of the twin-spotted rattlesnake
(C. p. pricei). The young rock rattlers had sulfur-yellow tails; the
twin-spotted rattlers did not. The rock rattlers often lay coiled,
excellently camouflaged, and motionless except for the tail; this
appendage was wriggled in a fashion exceedingly reminiscent of
an insect larva. The twin-spotted rattlers, with dark tails, exhib-
ited no such behavior. Kauffeld felt that in nature the tail of the
young rock rattler might well lure a lizard, but he could not defi-
nitely associate tail-waving with hunger or with feeding behavior
in captivity. He also questioned Henry's (loc. cit.) observations.
This same year, M. A. Smith (1943) mentioned impressively suc-
cessful luring of lizards by Henry's examples of Agkistrodon hyp-
nale.

Next, I described luring behavior in a brood of southern cop-
perheads (Agkistrodon c. contortrix) from near Augusta, Richmond
County, Georgia (Neill, 1948). The behavior was evoked from
the snakes by the presence of cricket frogs (Acris g. gryllus). Sub-
sequently I observed the phenomenon in another copperhead
brood from the same area. On the basis of these additional obser-
vations I should like to emphasize certain points of the earlier
discussion.

1. Tail-waving was not carried on in the dark. This might
have been expected, for the similarity of the “bait” to a worm or
insect larva involves optical properties: shape and movement, as
well as the pallid, unmarked coloration. Such a close similarity
in optical properties, of the snake's tail to a larva, might at first
seem unnecessary; but it has been shown that frogs are capable
of distinguishing between various classes of potential prey (Cott,
loc. cit.), and the same is true of lizards (idem).

2. Tail-waving was not carried on in strong light. This, too,

THE CAUDAL LURE OF VARIOUS JUVENILE SNAKES 175

might have been anticipated. In bright surroundings the outlines
of the snake proper are apt to be clearly distinguishable; the
efficacy of the lure is reduced, and the possibility of exposure to
ophiophagous predators is increased. Also, in the habitat of the
copperhead there are few frogs that forage in bright sunlight
although some lizards may do so.

It is difficult to say, in the absence of direct measurement,
just what degree of illumination inhibited the luring behavior.
The human optical system, very adaptable, does not register the
fact that the light intensity in a room with ordinary artificial illum-
ination may be several thousand times less than in the out-of-doors.
The two Augusta broods were kept in a box open to light only at
the top. When the box was placed, during daylight hours, on the
floor and in a corner of a room with windows, the snakes would
usually begin tail-waving as soon as frogs were offered. Luring
was rarely attempted in direct artificial light, which might actually
have been insufficient rather than too bright; nor was it attempted
when the box was placed near a window through which strong
natural light fell.

I would estimate that a degree of illumination, suitable for
luring, obtains in nature for several hours during morning and
evening in the honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) tangles, kudzu
(Pueraria thunbergiana) thickets, and brushy stream margins that
make up the usual habitat of the copperhead in the Augusta area.

In general, luring was attempted when the illumination was
such as to permit the yellow tail to stand out clearly, yet to ob-
scure the outlines of the snake proper.

3. Tail-waving was not carried on unless the snakes were on
a concealing background. This is similarly consistent with the
theory of luring.

4. Tail-waving was not carried on unless frogs were present
and hopping about. (I did not experiment with lizards.) In
nature such behavior would go far toward assuring that the lure
would be seen by prey and not by some animal capable of making
off with the whole snake.

Kauffeld (loc. cit.) noted that his rock rattlers waved the tail
not only in the presence of lizards but also “when no lizard was
in sight, or when [the writhing tail] could not have been seen
by the lizard.” These observations are not inconsistent with mine,

176 JOURNAL: OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

even though at first they might appear to be. In interpreting rep-
tile behavior, one must carefully avoid anthropomorphism, and
must also think of such behavior in terms of virtually automatic
responses to stimuli. In the luring behavior, the stimulus (aware-
ness of the nearby presence of suitable prey) evokes from the
snake an overt response (tail-waving). The awareness need not be
a matter of vision. Rattlesnakes have, for example, a keen sense
of smell, and can distinguish among various odors (Cowles and
Phelan, 1958). Also, by means of the pit organ which is an infra-
red receptor, they can distinguish objects that are either warmer
or colder than the background (Noble and Schmidt, 1937; Bullock
and Cowles, 1952). It is possible that Kauffeld’s rattlers were
from time to time receiving an olfactory stimulus that triggered
the luring behavior. My copperheads waved the tail only when
frogs were hopping about; when the amphibians settled to rest,
the raised tails were lowered. In this case the stimulus was either
visual or else involved infrared reception, perhaps both. How-
ever, I suspect that young copperheads might also respond to an
olfactory stimulus, in a cage that was impregnated with the odor
of some potential prey. It is also possible that an internal stimu-
lus, hunger, combines with external ones to bring about luring
behavior.

Returning to the literature, in 1948 my colleague, Ross Allen,
observed successful luring by young of the cantil or Mexican moc-
casin (Agkistrodon bilineatus). He made a series of photographs
clearly showing that toads, treefrogs, and lizards were attracted
to the waving yellow tails. These photographs accompanied his
article, but only one was selected for publication (Allen, 1949).
Some others of the series were used by Atz (1950) in a popular
account of luring. As the most revealing of Allen’s photographs
have never appeared in any technical journal, I include some of
them here (Fig. 1, a-d). They should set at rest any remaining
doubt concerning the efficacy of the caudal lure.

In Fig. 1, a, an anole (Anolis c. carolinensis) has observed the
lure. In Fig. 1, b, the lizard has moved into the snake’s striking
range, and has reared to seize the lure. In Fig. 1, c, an oak toad
(Bufo quercicus) manifests interest in the lure. In Fig. 1, d, the
toad has hopped onto the coiled snake in an effort to reach the
lure. Allen found that the cantil could readily lure green tree-

THE CAUDAL LURE OF VARIOUS JUVENILE SNAKES TATE

Fig. 1. Juveniles of the cantil, Agkistrodon b. bilineatus, luring an
anole (a-b) and a toad (c-d). For further description see text.

178 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

frogs (Hyla cinerea), squirrel treefrogs (H. squirella), anoles, and
oak toads, but would strike and eat only the first three of these
species. Of course, toads, somewhat protected by glandular se-
cretions, are refused by many snakes that accept other anurans.

The cantils, like the copperheads, did not use the lure in the
dark. Allen’s unpublished notes reveal that they were also re-
luctant to wave the tail in bright light. He found it difficult to
illuminate the snakes sufficiently to permit the making of photo-
graphs, without also inhibiting tail-waving.

Allen’s article pointed out that the resemblance of the snake’s
yellow tail tip to an invertebrate was enhanced by a gray terminal
spot, suggestive of a caterpillars head. (In the southern copper-
head, a comparable marking closely simulates paired eye-spots,
and behind these are minute transverse dark lines resembling
segmentation or wrinkling.)

Popular accounts of luring by Agkistrodon bilineatus and A.
hypnale were presented by Blaedel (1953, 1954, 1955).

Burger and Smith (1950) introduced a complication. They
found that, among three broods of the fer-de-lance, only the males
were provided with yellow tail tips. In the females, the tip of
the tail was but slightly lighter than the remainder of the append-
age, with dorsal blotches extending virtually throughout. Burger
and Smith’s snakes sometimes held up the tail but did not wave it
or use it to lure prey.

The sexually dimorphic broods were from Mexico, Guatemala,
and Colombia. Ditmars (1937) figured a yellow-tailed example
from Honduras, and a brood of young from a Honduran parent.
In this latter photograph, most of the snakes are coiled in such a
fashion as to conceal the tail; but in at least some of the figured
individuals, this appendage is not immaculate yellow but is marked
as in Burger and Smith’s females. (A somewhat sharper print of
Ditmars figure appeared in Pope, 1944.) It may be presumed
that the fer-de-lance exhibits a dimorphism of tail color in Hon-
duras, as in countries to the north and south thereof. A yellow-
tailed Costa Rican example is identified as a male (Taylor, 1954).
Also, I have examined newborn fer-de-lance from British Hon-
duras, in the collection of Ross Allen and myself, finding that, as
reported by Burger and Smith, a yellow tail characterizes the juve-
nile male only.

THE CAUDAL LURE OF VARIOUS JUVENILE SNAKES 179

It may be significant that records of this sexual dimorphism in
the fer-de-lance all relate to broods of the population called Both-
rops atrox asper, a name revived by Smith and Taylor (1945).
The subspecies is presumed to range from Mexico through Cen-
tral America into Colombia and perhaps somewhat beyond. The
subspecific splitting has been disavowed by Amaral (1954); but
whether taxonomically distinct or not, the population is a north-
erly offshoot of an essentially South American stock. The more
southerly B. atrox may well be yellow-tailed in both sexes. Cer-
tainly some large Neotropical lanceheads, closely related to B.
atrox, exhibit the bright yellow tail tip in male and female. Fig.
2, a, portrays one individual of a litter of Bothrops born at the Rep-
tile Institute. The young are as large as those of B. atrox, and, while
presently unidentified, represent one of the near allies of that
species. Both sexes are yellow-tailed.

Burger and Smith thought it possible that the fer-de-lance
might be losing the yellow tail tip because as a juvenile it feeds
to a considerable extent upon prey that is not attracted by a worm-
like lure. Their specimens, while accepting frogs, also ate other
snakes, which probably could not be lured. It might be added
that a yellow tail tip is very conspicuous and could well attract
an occasional visually oriented ophiophage. Loss of the juvenile
yellow tail color, in a species or population, may therefore reflect
not only the nature of the snake’s available prey but also the
nature of the local ophiophages.

There is one report of geographic variation in the tail color
of a juvenile lancehead, in this case involving both sexes. H. M.
Smith (1943) stated that in a more northerly Mexican population
of the jumping viper, the tail tip of the young was never yellow,
whereas in a more southerly one it was always yellow. Smith
thought he was dealing with two species, but both are now con-
sidered Bothrops nummifer (Neill and Allen, 1960). British Hon-
duras juveniles, examined by me, combine the characters of the
two nominal forms, but are always yellow-tailed in both sexes.
(Burger and Smith were puzzled by a report that the young jump-
ing viper ate crickets and grasshoppers, which of course are not
lured. However, these food items were almost surely secondarily
ingested. A frog, lizard, or salamander, packed with insects, is
eaten by a snake; the lizard or amphibian is digested but its stomach

180 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Fig. 2. (a) Neonatal Bothrops species, showing the yellow tail tip. The
character is present in both sexes. (b) Two neonatal cottonmouths, Agkistro-
don p. piscivorus. The caudal lure terminates in a small knob, resembling
the head of an insect larva. (c) Juvenile pygmy rattlesnake, Sistrurus mili-
arius barbouri, showing the brightly colored tail. (d) Juvenile dwarf boa,
Tropidophis melanurus. The contrast between the yellowish-tan body and
the sulfur yellow tail is greater in the living specimen than the photograph
would suggest.

THE CAUDAL LURE OF VARIOUS JUVENILE SNAKES 181

contents are not (Neill and Allen, 1956). The indigestible, chitin-
ous insect fragments remain in the snake's digestive tract long after
the primarily ingested prey has vanished.)

Although this geographic variation in juvenile tail color is
theoretically explicable in the light of varying selective factors, it
is difficult to see why in the fer-de-lance, or a population thereof,
the bright tail should have been lost in females yet remain fairly
well developed in males. Of course, the reproductive organs ot
the male snake are carried in the tail rather than the body. In
the male the caudal appendage is usually longer and stouter at
the base than in the female, for it must contain the large hemi-
penes, their specialized muscles, and vascularization. The tail
of the male must undergo different embryonic development, and
be under somewhat different genetic control. Also, the caudal
appendage of the male, being longer, is better adapted for modi-
fication into a lure, and in most if not all of the tail-waving species,
the yellow tail tip is somewhat more conspicuous in the male.

Returning again to the literature, Hylander (1951) described
the use of the caudal lure by the copperhead, but the account
was obtained from me and did not involve any new observations.
Klauber (1956) summarized the observations of Kauffeld (loc. cit.),
Allen (loc. cit.), and Smith and Burger (loc. cit.). Wright and
Wright (1957), citing only Neill (loc. cit.) and Smith and Burger,
stated that the use of the yellow tail tip as a lure was “not wholly
confirmed.” About the same time, Schmidt and Inger (1957) stated
that the yellow tail tip of the cottonmouth, like that of the copper-
head, was believed to function as a lure.

Finally, Wharton (1960) observed use of the caudal lure by
young cottonmouths from Florida, providing a sketch of the luring
posture and of the positions assumed by the writhing tails. As
the lure of the cottonmouth has not been figured photographically,
I provide an illustration (Fig. 2, b).

Wharton's snakes did not wave the tail during the night even
under artificial illumination. Apparently, luring behavior was
evoked from the reptiles by the presence of toads in the cage.
However, the toads seemingly were not attracted to the lure, and
were not eaten.

It may be mentioned that cottonmouths of all ages refuse toads,
within my experience. (It will be recalled that Allen’s cantils

182 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

similarly ignored toads even though these anurans were attracted
to the lure.) No doubt, to observe under captive conditions the
entire process of luring, the experimenter will find it necessary to
provide food animals that are acceptable to the snake, that feed
upon worms or larvae comparable in size and appearance to the
reptile’s yellow tail tip, and that find food visually. It should also be
borne in mind that frogs or lizards, suddenly placed in the snake's
cage, may not adjust to captivity therein for days or weeks, per-
haps never. Vivarium keepers well know that some amphibians
and reptiles refuse all food in captivity, and eventually starve.

To recapitulate briefly, successful use of the caudal lure has
been observed and thoroughly documented in the Mexican Agkis-
trodon bilineatus. The United States species, A. contortrix and
A. piscivorus, are provided with exactly the same sort of lure as
A. bilineatus, and they employ it in precisely the same fashion
when potential prey is introduced. The frogs and lizards, de-
ceived by the caudal lure of A. bilineatus, were of species that in
nature are associated with A. contortrix and A. piscivorus. It
should no longer be questioned that in all three New World moc-
casins the yellow tail tip of the juvenile functions as a lure. In
view of observations on these moccasins, and the Old World A.
hypnale, I would have no hesitancy in granting that Kauffeld’s
(loc. cit.) rock rattlers were also carrying on luring behavior. It
is not surprising that prey is not always successfully lured under
the abnormal conditions of captivity.

THe YELLOW Tait Tip IN CERTAIN JUVENILE Pir VIPERS

Luring, a distinctive behavior pattern involving manipulation
of the yellow tail tip, has thus been reported in juveniles of Agkis-
trodon contortrix, A. piscivorus, A. bilineatus, A. hypnale, Bothrops
atrox, and Crotalus lepidus klauberi. In all of these it is definitely
known that the yellow color of the tail tip is lost with age. In
the rattler the tail becomes salmon, remaining in contrast with the
body; in all the others it darkens and assumes the general body col-
oration. In the copperhead and cottonmouth, at least, some trace
of the bright tail color may persist (as a greenish-yellow tinge) into
the second year of life, or even beyond. This was noted for the
broad-banded copperhead (A. c. laticinctus) by Ditmars (1907) in
the first published account of luring.

THE CAUDAL LURE OF VARIOUS JUVENILE NSAKES 183

Among snakes there are often various changes of color from
the juvenile to the adult, and these ontogenetic changes are a func-
tion of time rather than of growth. That is to say, a young snake
that is feeding heavily will grow rapidly, and so will exhibit the
juvenile coloration at a fairly large size; whereas a young snake
that is on a minimum diet will grow very slowly, and will still be
rather small when the ontogenetic color change is complete. There-
fore the yellow tail tip, like other juvenile color characters, is not
always lost at the same body length within each species.

Ontogenetic loss of the yellow tail color was reported for the
copperhead well before luring had ever been observed (e. g.,
Stejneger, 1895). However, many other pit vipers, described in
the early literature as being yellow-tailed, white-tailed, or red-
tailed, remain practically unknown even today, and in some of
these cases nothing is known of the brightly colored appendage
beyond the mere fact of its existence. But when the various ref-
erences are collated, it appears likely that quite a few of these
snakes are provided with a typical caudal lure as in Agkistrodon
bilineatus. A brief review of the literature, and of available speci-
mens, is warranted.

In the Japanese Agkistrodon halys blomhoffi, the tail tip of
the young is always “light colored” (Stejneger, 1907). I find that
it is dark in adults, of both the reddish and the blackish color
phases. In the more northerly (Tamaulipan) race of the cantil
(Agkistrodon bilineatus taylori), the tail tip was “yellow-green,”
in a young example (Burger and Robertson, 1951).

The tail tip is “bright yellow” in the young of the southern Pa-
cific rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis helleri), but becomes gray or black
with age (Klauber, loc. cit.). In newborn young of the canebrake
rattlesnake (C. horridus atricaudatus) the dorsal surface of the tail
is gray with darker transverse bands, but the lateral and ventral sur-
faces of the appendage are tinged with sulfur-yellow (personal ob-
servation in the Upper Coastal Plain of eastern Georgia and nearby
South Carolina). As the tail of the male is longer than that of the
female, the former sex is more definitely yellow-tailed. In this spe-
cies, with which I am especially familiar, the young probably do not
practice luring; but the yellow tinge of the tail, so like that of the
juvenile moccasin, is apt to be a vestigial character. A yellow tail
tip is also suggested in the South American rattlesnake (C. durissus

184 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

terrificus), and will probably be found, at least in vestigial form,
among several other rattlers when neonatal examples become avail-
able for study.

In the pygmy rattlesnake (Sistrurus miliarius) the young are
born with “bright-yellow” tails (Klauber, loc. cit.). I find that, in
a small living example of the Floridian subspecies (S. m. barbouri),
with two rattle segments and a button, the scales of the distal por-
tion of the tail are edged with deep chrome yellow and are mostly
centered with red, so that the gross appearance is close to a cad-
mium orange. The red involves the rattle matrix and the first
rattle segment. The color is different from the sulfur-yellow or
greenish-yellow of Agkistrodon contortrix. As the yellow-tailed
juvenile of the pygmy rattler has not been illustrated, I provide a
photograph of an individual collected at Silver Springs, Marion
County, Florida (Fig. 2, c). It is not the specimen described, but
a smaller and younger one.

Among the New World lancehead snakes, a Panamanian species
(Bothrops leptura) was described as new on the basis of its long,
thin, “yellow and unspotted” tail (Amaral, 1923). An Ecuadorian
lancehead (B. alticola) has the distal portion of the tail “white (red
in lifeP?)” according to Parker (1934). I find that in a half-grown
specimen of the Peruvian B. oligolepis, the distal portion of the
tail shows orange-brown spots with whitish interspaces, while the
remainder of the tail, like the body, is marked with black and
greenish-yellow. Almost surely the caudal pattern is character-
istic of an ontogenetic stage between a yellow-tailed juvenile and
a dark-tailed adult. The copperhead, cottonmouth, cantil, and fer-
de-lance go through a similar stage, during which the dorsal pat-
tern begins to appear, in pallid version, on the tail.

The tail is red in Bothrops schlegeli, according to Schmidt and
Inger (loc. cit.), while in another species, unnamed by them, it is
lemon yellow. Taylor (loc. cit.) described and figured examples
of Costa Rican B. schlegeli, one with “orange” on the tail tip but
others with the tail spotted like the body and not distinctively
marked.

In Asia are also found various lancehead snakes. Two Old
World species seem especially close to the arboreal lanceheads of
the New World (Maslin, 1942); and at least one of these (Trimere-
surus wagleri) has a tail that is “usually red or reddish-brown”

THE CAUDAL LURE OF VARIOUS JUVENILE SNAKES 185

(Boulenger, 1912). This must be true only of the young, for in
the adult the tail is blackish with green speckles (Schmidt and
Inger, loc. cit.).

In Malaya the end of the tail of Trimeresurus gramineus is red
or yellow (Boulenger, loc. cit.); “pale reddish” in China (Pope and
Pope, 1933). T. erythrurus, thought by Stejneger (1907) to be
merely a red-tailed or yellow-tailed “phase” of T. gramineus, was
considered by Pope and Pope to be a distinct species; they de-
scribed a specimen in which the tail tip was greenish-brown with
dark brown bands. De Rooij (1917) mentioned the “red” tail tip
of T. sumatranus; the “yellow or red” one of T. gramineus; the
reddish one of T. puniceus; and the “reddish or reddish-brown”
one of IT. wagleri. The tail tip is red or reddish in Malayan T.
sumatranus and T. borneensis (Boulenger, loc. cit.); pale reddish
in Chinese T. stejnegeri and T. albolabris (Pope, 1935). Taylor
and Elbel (1958) mentioned individuals of Siamese T. albolabris
with brown-spotted tails and others with “uniformly colored” or
“grayish, not brown spotted” tails. It was not stated whether the
apparent dimorphism was correlated with sex or size. Gtinther
(1864) described an Indian species (T. strigatus) in which the tail
of the young, but not of the adult, was “white.” The end of the
tail was “uniform light brown” in an example of T. popeorum from
Siam; very light, to judge from the illustration (Taylor and Elbel,
loc. cit.). According to Stejneger (1907), the tail tip was “uniform
light-colored (yellow?) in the young but not the adult of T. ele-
gans from the southern Ryukyu Islands. (In this and other para-
graphs I have brought up to date the generic nomenclature of
earlier authors.)

It is thus evident that many pit vipers, not as yet observed to
carry on luring, are provided when young with a brightly colored,
usually yellow, worm-like tail tip; the bright color vanishes with
age, being replaced by the general body pattern. This is pre-
cisely the condition obtaining in pit vipers known to lure prey.
It is probable that in all these crotaline snakes the yellow tail tip
of the juvenile is either a caudal lure or a vestigial remnant
thereof.

Puzzling, however, are references to red-tailed pit vipers.
Schmidt and Inger (loc. cit.) stated that many Trimeresurus, in-
eluding T. puniceus, are red-tailed. They gave no indication of

186 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

believing that this was a juvenile character only, and seemed to
feel that the New World Bothrops schlegeli was also persistently
red-tailed. Certainly in Crotalus lepidus klauberi the yellow cau-
dal lure eventually becomes reddish, and remains so. Could a
red tail also be used to lure some kind of prey?

In several harmless snakes of the family Colubridae, the under
side of the tail is red. When the snake is disturbed, the append-
age is curled in such a way as to display the bright under side
(Davis, 1948; Mertens, 1946; Neill, 1951). In the large but harm-
less South American cribo (Drymarchon c. corais) the tail and
posterior part of the body are deep yellow while the remainder of
the snake is black. When approached, the reptile raises the
bright tail in the air and waves it about (personal observation).
However, the red tail of various pit vipers is not apt to be compar-
ably aposematic, for it is not displayed upon disturbance. The
Crotalus, like others of its genus, generally rests with the rattle
elevated, so that the tail is of necessity conspicuous; but the red-
tailed lanceheads, of the both the Old World and the New, are
arboreal, and the appendage is usually coiled for support around
a twig or branch. In such a position it is not especially in evi-
dence.

In many snakes of the family Elapidae, subfamily Elapinae,
the tail is brightly colored at least on the under side. When the
snake is disturbed, the appendage is curled into a head-like ball
and elevated, while the actual head is kept low (Mertens, 1946;
Neill, 1951; Schmidt and Inger, loc. cit.). Presumably predators
are deceived into directing their attack toward the wrong end of
the snake. However, this is not apt to be the function of the red
tail in pit vipers, which usually do not raise the caudal appendage
or lower the head when a predator appears. Yet almost surely
the red tail color will be found to serve some function.

Most references to white, gray, ivory, light brown, or pale red
tails of young pit vipers are probably based on preserved examples
from which the red or yellow pigments have been partly or wholly
dissolved.

A green or greenish-yellow tail probably results from a com-
bination of the usual yellow pigment with a Tyndall blue, the
latter resulting from melanin deposits beneath pellucid tissues.

THE CAUDAL LURE OF VARIOUS JUVENILE SNAKES 187

Thus, in spite of literature references to various tail colors
among juvenile pit vipers, only two or at the most three pigments
seem to be involved. In at least a majority of the species men-
tioned herein, the pigment of the juvenile tail tip is essentially a
yellow, varying interspecifically in intensity, and evanescent in
preservatives. A red may also be present from birth, as in Sistrurus
miliarius, or may develop later as in Crotalus lepidus. As _ this
red is not so fleeting in preservatives, it may be one of the reddish
melanins. A darker melanin may, through a Tyndall effect, give
the yellow a greenish cast, and may eventually replace the yellow
caudally.

The scattered literature references, when analyzed, reveal that
the caudal lure, or some indication thereof, is widespread among
pit vipers. I did not learn the appearance of the tail in hatchlings
of the bushmaster (Lachesis muta); or in the young of the so-called
“hog-nosed vipers, a group of small lanceheads ranging from
Mexico to South America and probably meriting generic separa-
tion from Bothrops. With these possible exceptions, yellow-tailed
juveniles occur in every presently recognized genus of the family
Viperidae, subfamily Crotalinae. Evidently the yellow tail tip
is an ancient character, antedating the generic separation and dis-
persal of the pit vipers. It should therefore be looked for in other
families of snakes.

THE YELLOW Tait Tre IN OTHER SNAKE FAMILIES

Closest relatives of the pit vipers are the true vipers (family
Viperidae, subfamily Viperinae). There seems to be no reference
to a viperine snake that is yellow-tailed as a juvenile. In the
Egyptian Cerastes vipera, there is sexual dimorphism in tail color,
but it characterizes adults as well as juveniles. According to Marx
(1958), in most males the tail is colored like the body (pallid, sandy)
and has a black terminal spot; in most females the entire append-
age is black. Schnurrenberger (1959), who examined living speci-
mens, pointed out that in the male the tail is actually lighter than
the body. The original description of a Liberian viper, Atractaspis
corpulentum, made no mention of a light tail, but subsequent au-
thors have noted specimens in which the tail was “entirely white”
or partially .. . white or cream;” see Taylor and Weyer (1958).

188 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Snakes of the family Elapidae mostly lack a caudal lure. This
situation would be expected among the marine snakes of the elapid
subfamily Hydrophiinae, in which the tail is oar-like. Of the sub-
family Elapinae, the death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus) of the
Australian region is unique in having the build and certain habits
of a viper. According to De Rooij (loc. cit.), its tail may be either
yellow-tipped or all black; an accompanying pen-and-ink illustra-
tion of a young example seems to show a caudal lure much as in,
say, Agkistrodon piscivorus. In the death adder the tail is of nearly
uniform diameter throughout, very slender in contrast with the
heavy body. The terminal scute of the tail is modified into a
curved spine, and the entire appendage resembles a scorpion’s
sting. The resemblance is impressively close, and in Australia it
is popularly but erroneously believed that the snake conveys its
venom by means of a caudal “sting.” The reptile has the habit of
lying coiled and camouflaged in small, open spots along trails
through patches of jungle, and at the edges of clearings in densely
wooded areas (personal observation in the Markham Valley area
of New Guinea). It is unlikely that the modification of this snake's
tail is a case of protective resemblance. The outlines and behavior
of the snake are probably more discouraging to predators than
the appearance of a scorpion’s sting. It would not be surprising
to find that the young death adder lures some scorpion-eating prey.
Many organisms eat scorpions, and a few are even known to direct
their attack at the arachnid’s uplifted sting.

The harmless and rear-fanged snakes (family Colubridae), for
all their diversity, apparently are not provided with the caudal
lure. In the rainbow snake (Abastor erythrogrammus) of the south-
eastern United States, the hatchling females have larger and darker
spots on the under side of the tail than do the males (Richmond,
1954), but no reason for the dimorphism has been suggested. A
caudal lure would not be expected among the secretive blind
snakes (families Typhlopidae and Leptotyphlopidae). Many of
these are scarcely larger than worms themselves, and feed on
ants or termites. The tail is very short and blunt, resembling the
head. In some species both head and tail are bright yellow, in
contrast with the dark body; presumably the condition is con-
fusing to some predators. In the families Xenopeltidae, Uropelti-
dae, and Aniliidae, there is no indication of the caudal Jure. al-

THE CAUDAL LURE OF VARIOUS JUVENILE SNAKES 189

though in all these groups there are interesting modifications of
the tail, as regards structure and/or use. 7

In the boa and python family, the Boidae, the yellow tail makes
its appearance again. Barbour (1937) may have been the first to
note the similarity in tail coior between young moccasins and cer-
tain young boas. He found that the end of the tail was “bright
yellow’ in a brood of Trachyboa boulengeri, a dwarf boa from
Panama. He noted that a similar condition obtained in the dwart
boas of the genus Tropidophis. Although not mentioning the
possibility that the appendange might serve as a lure, Barbour did
offer the interesting comment that a yellow tail tip “must be a
character as ancient as black temporal stripes, cross bands be-
tween the eyes, loreal stripes, and other color features which are
probably among the most ancient and stable of reptilian charact-
ers. .. [Perhaps] the agkistrodons sprang from some early ophidian
stock having a common ancestry with these little terrestrial boids
- for the brilliant yellow tails of young moccasins are strikingly
similar.”

The genus Tropidophis, closely related to Trachyboa, is repre-
sented by about half-a-dozen species in the West Indies, plus two
in South America. There are references to a yellow tail tip in
the young of Tropidophis maculatus pilsbryi, T. melanurus, and
T. nigriventris, all Cuban (Bailey, 1937). Bailey also mentioned a
black terminal scute in T. nigriventris. In a young specimen of
T. parkeri from Little Cayman Island, the distal part of the tail
was ‘light green with minute black tip” (Grant, 1940b). Grant
referred to the brightly colored tail tip of T. parkeri as a “caudal
finger and noted that in an adult female the green was still evi-
dent through brown speckling. An early account, cited by Stull
(1928), considered the blunt, brightly colored tail of young T. par-
dalis to be “curved for clasping.” In T. pardalis stejnegeri of Ja-
maica, the tail tip was olive above and yellow below; in T. maculatus
stulli of this island, the last half of the tail was bright yellow be-
neath (Grant, 1940a). Hoopes (1938) described ontogenetic change
in Cuban T. melanurus; just as in various moccasins, the tail tip
was yellow at birth but darkened with age. Stejneger (1917)
provided a line drawing of the tail in Cuban T. pardalis, but other-
wise the yellow tail of the juvenile dwarf boas has not been illus-

190 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

trated. I therefore include a photograph of a young T. melanurus
(Fig. 2, d).

Barbour and Ramsden (1919) thought that Tropidophis melanu-
rus, in spite of the meaning of its specific name (“black tail’),
never developed a black tail. However, Grant (1957) described
the ontogenetic change of tail color from greenish to black. Grant,
also Schwartz and Thomas (1960), indicated a possibility of sexual
dimorphism in the adult tail color of this species, but neither paper
made clear the nature of this dimorphism. T. pardalis evidently
develops a black tail, and may show some geographic variation
in the degree to which the caudal appendage darkens with age
(Bailey, loc. cit.; Hecht et al., 1955). Here again, from the litera-
ture it cannot be determined whether sexual dimorphism is in-
volved in the adult tail color.

Hecht et al. (loc. cit.) noted that yellow-tailed young of Tropi-
dophis pardalis often held the caudal appendage erect. They
thought the bright tail tip might be aposematic. They noted that
several of their specimens had part, and in one case all, of the tail
missing, and attributed this to the work of visually oriented pred-
ators, perhaps land crabs. (It should be noted that many snakes
frequently are found lacking a part or all of the tail. The North
American species of Natrix and Thamnophis are often so muti-
lated, and the condition in these has been ascribed to turtles.
Actually, the condition also is of common occurrence in some very
secretive snakes, e. g., Tantilla canula of the Yucatan Peninsula.
It is, at least in most cases, not the work of predators but the
result of a widespread ophidian disease which for want of a better
name I have called tail-rot. The tail becomes dry and bloodless
toward the tip, which breaks away. The progress of the disease
may soon be halted, or may continue until the entire appendage
is lost; but in any event the snake recovers without other harm.)
Hecht et al. opposed the idea that the yellow tail tip of Bahaman
T. pardalis functioned as a lure, because they considered the snake
to be secretive or nocturnal. However, wholly nocturnal snakes
are very few, perhaps because insolation is involved with Vitamin
D metabolism or with pituitary-governed physiological cycles. So-
called “nocturnal” snakes usually are also crepuscular, if indeed
they do not venture abroad in the early morning hours. Further-
more, Barbour and Ramsden (loc. cit.) noted that this snake in

THE CAUDAL LURE OF VARIOUS JUVENILE SNAKES 191

the Bahamas “frequently appears crawling by daylight after heavy
thunder showers.” Barbour and Ramsden thought the reptiles
were driven from their retreats by rainwater flooding, but this
is improbable; secretive, non-aquatic snakes usually are confined
to habitats where there is no danger of flooding except under un-
usual weather conditions. It is more likely that T. pardalis, like
many other secretive snakes, prowls after rains in order to catch
certain prey species that also come forth at such times. Hecht
et al. were told by local residents that T. pardalis appeared after
rains; and these authors quoted an account of similar habits in
the Jamaican T. maculatus jamaicensis. C. B. Lewis (in Grant,
1940b) stated that T. melanurus caymanensis was caught in num-
bers after the rains on Grand Cayman Island.

Hecht et al. noted that examples of Tropidophis pardalis, kept
captive by them, accepted small lizards, especially anoles; but
suggested that young treefrogs (Hyla septentrionalis) might be a
prey in some areas. Stull (loc. cit.) included literature references
to predation upon treefrogs (Hyla pulchrilineata) by the Haitian
T. maculatus haetianus; and on treefrogs (H. septentrionalis), a
lizard, and birds by the Cuban T. melanurus. (The latter snake
is much larger than its congeners, more arboreal, and less secre-
tive.) Young T. melanurus caymanensis ate frogs (Eleutherodac-
tylus species) in captivity (Lewis in Grant, 1940b). An anole
(Anolis sagrei) was found in an example of T. parkeri from Little
Cayman Island (Grant, 1940b).

When the literature on Tropidophis is reviewed in toto, there
is strong circumstantial evidence that the yellow tail functions
as a lure, just as in some Agkistrodon. The tail tip of the young
Tropidophis, as in the young moccasins, is either yellow or green-
ish. In at least some of the Tropidophis, just as in some Agkistro-
don, the tip of the tail bears a terminal spot of gray or black, en-
hancing the resemblance of the appendage to some vermiform in-
vertebrate. The dwarf boas’ tails are muscular and prehensile,
capable of the rhythmic, wave-like motions through which the
lure is put in Agkistrodon. The food of Tropidophis, except per-
haps in adults of the large, aberrant T. melanurus, consists largely
of frogs and lizards, both of which are susceptible to luring.
Specific food records for Tropidophis mention frogs of the genus
Hyla and lizards of the genus Anolis; both genera are known to be

192 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

susceptible to the caudal lure of Agkistrodon. In the dwarf boas,
as in moccasins, the yellow tail of the juvenile is lost with age. The
situation in Tropidophis closely parallels that in Agkistrodon, and
one might well accept the same explanation for the yellow tail tip
of both (and of Trachyboa).

When Barbour (loc. cit.) speculated regarding the yellow tail
of moccasin and dwarf boa as a common inheritance from some
early ophidian stock, he remarked, “I hardly expect that this no-
tion is worthy of serious consideration.” Today the idea, while
still unproven, has more to recommend it. Boas are among the
earliest of snakes to appear in the fossil record (Bellairs and Un-
derwood, 1951). Modern boas are, structurally, the most primi-
tive of snakes (Dowling, 1959). There is “growing evidence” that
the viperids were derived from some boa-like stock (Savage, 1957).

Boas and vipers, for all their differences, have several features
in common. In both families, live-bearing species far outnumber
egg-laying ones. In all members of both families, the pupil of the
eye is round in dim light but forms a vertical slit in bright sun.
The habitus of a generalized boa, with broad head, stout body,
and short, muscular tail, is also met with among many vipers; and
both families have likewise produced more elongate, thoroughly
arboreal species with notably prehensile tails. More significantly,
perhaps, the facial pit of the crotaline snakes finds a close counter-
part only in the labial pits of the boids. (Pit-like structures occur
in a few viperine and colubrid snakes, but are not especially well
developed and are of unknown function.)

Interestingly, some of these similarities could be involved with
the caudal lure. The pupil modification permits vision in dim
light without concomitant dazzling in bright light; and as men-
tioned, luring is carried on in dim light. The motion of the lure,
described by Kauffeld (loc. cit.) as “peristaltic” and shown by Whar-
ton (loc. cit.) to be wave-like, is possible only to a species with a
muscular tail. In boas, whether arboreal or not, the muscular tail
functions during the constriction of prey. Pit vipers are not con-
strictors, yet they usually have muscular, even prehensile, tails.
Allen and Swindell (1948) illustrated prehensility of the tail in the
cottonmouth; I have noted it in the young copperhead, which can
easily support itself from the tail tip only; Niceforo Maria (1933)
remarked on the prehensile tail of the young fer-de-lance. Most

THE CAUDAL LURE OF VARIOUS JUVENILE SNAKES 193

of the red-tailed or yellow-tailed Bothrops and Trimeresurus are
aboreal, with a prehensile caudal appendage. Only in rattle-
snakes is there a trend toward loss of caudal flexibility, and this is
not especially evident in the more primitive species which have
proportionately long, slender tails and small rattles. Sensory pits
supplement vision, permitting an accurate strike even when the
snake’s eyes are masked (Klauber, loc. cit.; Noble and Schmidt, loc.
cit.).

This is not to contend that the characters, held in common by
boas and pit vipers, have evolved in response to luring. Rather,
the lure, a primitive character, is apt to be lost when a snake de-
velops diurnality; or some modification of the tail that limits its
flexibility; or some method of predation not involving sensitivity
to infrared or visible radiation (as in the chemoreceptive tracking
of prey); or a habit of preying upon organisms that cannot be lured.
This theory would explain why the boids, primitive and possibly
ancestral to several other snake groups, have not passed on the
caudal lure to all of their descendants.

It may be asked how widespread the yellow tail is among the
Boidae. It does not occur in Charina and Eryx, burrowing snakes
with a blunt tail resembling the head; nor in Lichanura of the arid
southwestern United States and nearby areas. I find it lacking in
broods of Epicrates striatus, E. cenchris, Corallus enydris, C. canina,
Eunectes murinus, E. gigas, and Boa constrictor. The tail color
is not known in Xenoboa, the Round Island boas (Casarea and
Bolyeria, perhaps not truly boid), the pythons (several Old World
genera), or in Loxocemus (probably not boid). It would not be
surprising to find a yellow tail in the young of Ungaliophis conti-
nentalis of Guatemala, or in the Old World dwarf boas (Enygrus).

SUMMARY

Except for some primitive species with vestigial “claspers” or
anal spurs, snakes lack external, functional limbs. In the absence
of limbs the tail has become modified for such diverse purposes
as swimming, surface progression, burrowing, prehension and
constriction, sound production, defense (by a sharp terminal spine),
warning display, phragmosis, and mimicry (of a snake's head).
Modification of the tail simultaneously extends, where necessary,
to its shape, its color, and its use. It should therefore not be sur-

194 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

prising to find that the tail, normally somewhat vermiform, has in
some species been modified into a lure which closely resembles
a worm or insect larva. The caudal lure is present in the juvenile
only, at least in those species that have been well studied. The
modification of the tail involves a worm-like shape thereto; a
bright color thereof, sometimes with a dark terminal spot remin-
iscent of a larva’s head; and a habit of wriggling the appendage
in slow, wave-like motion. In general, tail waving is carried on
only when the snake is camouflaged, is in dim light, and is pro-
vided with suitable prey. Lizards and frogs, nearly all of which
are visually oriented predators upon worms and larvae, are suscept-
ible to the lure, which they will actually try to grasp. Treefrogs,
toads, anoles, skinks, and geckoes have been reported as attracted
by the lure.

The bright tail of the juvenile snake is usually yellow or yellow-
ish-green. Generally, with age the yellow tail darkens and be-
comes colored like the body. However, in at least one and perhaps
several species, it becomes reddish. The function of the red tail
tip is unknown, as is that of the black tail developed by a few
species.

A brightly colored tail tip, usually yellow, occurs in the young
of most and perhaps all boas of the genera Tropidophis and
Trachyboa; in three New World moccasins (Agkistrodon contortrix,
A. piscivorus, and A. bilineatus) and at least two Old World ones
(A. hypnale and A. halys blomhoffi); in at least three rattlesnakes
(Crotalus lepidus klauberi, C. viridis helleri, and Sistrurus miliarius);
in at least five or six New World lancehead snakes (genus Bothrops)
and about nine Old World ones (genus Trimeresurus).

Attempted luring, upon the introduction of prey, has been
definitely reported for Agkistrodon contortrix, A. piscivorus, A.
bilineatus, A. hypnale, and Crotalus lepidus klauberi; and somewhat
less definitely for Bothrops atrox.

Fully successful luring, resulting in the capture of prey such
as lizards and treefrogs, has been noted for Agkistrodon hypnale
and A. bilineatus. Attempted but unsuccessful luring in captivity
is the fault of the experimenter who has not provided wholly nat-
ural conditions. Snakes that attempt luring in captivity may be
inferred to carry on successful luring in nature. Indeed, one might
infer that luring is carried on by all snakes provided, as a juvenile

THE CAUDAL LURE OF VARIOUS JUVENILE SNAKES 195

and in both sexes, with a bright tail tip. Thus the discovery of
luring behavior is to be anticipated in several additional Bothrops,
Trimeresurus, Tropidophis, and the Trachyboa, at the least. How-
ever, several factors might exert selection pressure toward loss of
the bright tail color, and the character is therefore apt to be vestig-
ial in some species or populations. For example, one might expect
loss of the lure in Tropidophis inhabiting various small, ecologically
unbalanced islands of the West Indies. The caudal lure may well
prove vestigial in several Crotalus, perhaps Sistrurus miliarius, a
few Trimeresurus, some Bothrops, and some Tropidophis.

Sexual dimorphism of tail color, whether confined to juveniles
as in Bothrops atrox asper, or evident at all ages, is inexplicable,
but might be correlated with anatomical peculiarities of the tail
in the male.

Although the literature is scattered and at times tantalizingly
incomplete, when it is collated it implies that one explanation will
suffice to embrace all known cases of juvenile snakes with brightly
colored tail tips. At least, all the observations and inferences can
be encompassed by a single theory. It is postulated that the caudal
lure is a primitive character, which has for various reasons been
lost in several phylogenetic lines, but has been retained by some
small boas and many pit vipers.

In any event, possible exceptions and remaining problems
should not obscure the interesting fact that in some snakes the tail
of the juvenile is modified into, and successfully employed as, a
lure for frogs and lizards.

LITERATURE CITED
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1949. Observations of the feeding habits of the juvenile cantil. Copeia,
1949 (3): 225-226.
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BAILEY, JOSEPH R.
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1937. Ovoviviparity in Trachyboa. Copeia, 1937 (2): 189.

BARBOUR, THOMAS, and CHARLES T. RAMSDEN

1919. The herpetology of Cuba. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., 47 (2): 71-218,
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1951. The origin of snakes. Biol. Rev. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 26 (2): 198-
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BLAEDEL, NIELS

1953. Sjove Dyr. Hans Reitzels Forlag, K¢benhavn.
1954. Snodige Dyr. Steensballe, Oslo.
1955. Underliga Djur. Natur och Kultur, Stockholm.

BOULENGER, GEORGE A.

1912. A vertebrate fauna of the Malay Peninsula from the Isthmus of Kra
to Singapore including the adjacent islands. Taylor and Francis,
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BULLOCK, THEODORE H., and RAYMOND B. COWLES
1952. Physiology of an infrared receptor: the facial pit of pit vipers.
Science, 115 (2994): 541-543.
BURGER, W. LESLIE, and WILLIAM B. ROBERTSON
1951. A new subspecies of the Mexican moccasin, Agkistrodon bilineatus.
Unio. Kansas Sci. Bull), 34, pt. 1 (5)? 2113-218, 1 pl:
BURGER, W.. LESLIE, and PHILIP W. SMITH
1950. The coloration of the tail tip of young fer-de-lances: sexual di-
morphism rather than adaptive coloration. Science, 112 (2911):
431-433.
COMA EWGE
1940. Adaptive Coloration in Animals. Oxford Univ. Press, London.

COWLES, R. B., and R. L. PHELAN
1958. Olfaction in rattlesnakes. Copeia, 1958 (2): 77-83.

DAVIS, D. DWIGHT

1948. Flash display of aposematic colors in Farancia and other snakes.
Copeia, 1948 (3): 208-211.

THE CAUDAL LURE OF VARIOUS JUVENILE SNAKES 197

DE ROOT, NELLY
1917. The Reptiles of the Indo-Australian Archipelago. E. J. Brill, Leiden.

DITMARS, RAYMOND L.

1907. The Reptile Book. Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, New York.
Other editions 1915, 1922.

1936. The Reptiles of North America. Doubleday, Doran & Co., Garden
City, New York.

1937. Snakes of the World. MacMillan Co., New York.

DOWLING, HERNDON G.
1959. Classification of the Serpentes: a critical review. Copeia, 1959
(1): 38-52.
GRANT, CHAPMAN

1940a. The herpetology of Jamaica. II. The reptiles. Bull. Inst. Jamaica,
Science Ser. (1): 61-148.

1940b. The herpetology of the Cayman Islands. Ibid., (2): 1-56.
1957. The black tailed Tropidophis (Reptilia: Serpentes). Herpetologica,
1S (2)154:
GUNTHER, A. Cail G.
1864. The Reptiles of British India. Ray Soc., London.

HECHT, M. K., V. WALTERS, and G. RAMM

1955. Observations on the natural history of the Bahaman pigmy boa,
Tropidophis pardalis, with notes on autohemorrhage. Copeia, 1955
(3): 249-251.

HENRY, G. M.

1925. Notes on Ancistrodon hypnale, the hump-nosed viper. Ceylon Jour.
SClen belo: 2-200.

HOOPES, ISABEL

1938. Further notes on Tropidophis melanurus Schlegel in captivity.
Copeia, 1938 (4): 203-204.

HYCANDER, C.. J.

1951. Adventures with Reptiles: the Story of Ross Allen. Julian Messner,
Inc., New York.

KAUFFELD, CARL F.

1943. Growth and feeding of newborn Price’s and green rock rattlesnakes.
Amer. Midl. Nat., 29 (3): 607-614.

KLAUBER, LAURENCE M.

1956. Rattlesnakes: Their Habits, Life Histories, and Influence on Mau-
kind. 2 vols. Univ. Calif. Press.

198 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

MARX, HYMEN

1958. Sexual dimorphism in coloration in the viper Cerastes vipera L.
Nat. Hist. Misc., (164); 1-2.

MASLIN, T: PAUL

1942. Evidence for the separation of the crotalid genera Trimeresurus and
Bothrops, with a key to the genus Trimeresurus. Copeia, 1942
(1): 18-24.

MERTENS, ROBERT

1946. Die Warn- und Droh-Reaktionen der Reptilien. Abh. senckenberg.
naturf. Ges., (471): 1-108.

NET ES VEE RED) ae
1948. The yellow tail of juvenile copperheads. Herpetologica, 4 (5): 161.

1951. Notes on the natural history of certain North American snakes.
Pubs. Research Div., Ross Allen’s Reptile Inst., 1 (5): 47-60.

NEILL; WILFRED T., and E. ROSS ALLEN

1956. Secondarily ingested food items in snakes. Herpetologica, 12 (3):
Qa NAs

1960. Noteworthy snakes from British Honduras. Ibid., 16 (3): 145-162.

NICEFORO MARIA, HERMANO

1933. Contribucion al estudio de la erpetologia Colombiana. Extracto del
“Libro conmemorativo del segundo Centenario de don José Celestino
Bruno Mutis y Bosio”’: 1-53.

NOBLE, G. K., and A. SCHMIDT

1937. The structure and function of the facial and labial pits of snakes.
Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 77 (8): 263-288.

PARKER, H. W.

1934. Reptiles and amphibians from southern Ecuador. Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist., ser. 10, 14: 264-273.

POPE, CLIFFORD H.
1935. The Reptiles of China. Turtles, Crocodilians, Snakes, Lizards. Amer.
Mus. Nat. Hist., New York.

1944. The Poisonous Snakes of the New World. N. Y. Zool. Soc., New
York.

POPE, CLIFFORD H., and SARAH H. POPE

1933. A study of the green pit-vipers of southeastern Asia and Malaysia,
commonly identified as Trimeresurus: gramineus (Shaw), with de-
scription of a new species from peninsular India. Amer. Mus. Nov.,
(620): 1-12. |

THE CAUDAL LURE OF VARIOUS JUVENILE SNAKES 199

PYCRAFT, W. P.
1925. Camouflage in Nature. 2nd ed. London.

RICHMOND, NEIL D.
1954. Variation and sexual dimorphism in hatchlings of the rainbow snake,
Abastor erythrogrammus. Copeia, 1954 (2): 87-92.
SAVAGE, JAY M.
1957. (Review of) Osteology of the Reptiles. Copeia, 1957 (2): 162-166.

SCHMIDT, KARL P., and ROBERT F. INGER
1957. Living Reptiles of the World. Doubleday and Co., New York.

SCHNURRENBERGER, HANS
1959. Observations on behavior in two Libyan species of viperine snakes.
Herpetologica, 15 (2): 70-72.
SCHWARTZ, ALBERT, and RICHARD THOMAS
1960. Four new snakes (Tropidophis, Dromicus, Alsophis) from the Isla de
Pinos and Cuba. Ibid., 16 (2): 73-90.
SMITH, HOBART M.

1943. Summary of the collections of snakes and crocodilians made in
Mexico under the Walter Rathbone Bacon Traveling Scholarship.
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 93 (8169): 393-504.

SMITH, HOBART M., and EDWARD H. TAYLOR
1945. An annotated checklist and key to the snakes of Mexico. U. S. Nat.
Mus., Bull., (187): 1-239.
SMITH, MALCOLM A.
1943. The Fauna of British India, Ceylon, and Burma. Vol. 3. Taylor
and Francis, London.
STEJNEGER, LEONHARD

1895. The poisonous snakes of North America. Rept. U. S. Nat. Mus.
1893: 337-487.

1907. Herpetology of Japan and adjacent territory. U.S. Nat. Mus., Bull.,
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1917. Cuban amphibians and reptiles collected for the United States Na-
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(2205): 259-291.

STULL, OLIVE G.
1928. A revision of the genus Tropidophis. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ.
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1954. Further studies on the serpents of Costa Rica. Univ. Kansas Sci.
Bull;, 36, pt. 2 (11): 673-801.

200 . JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TAYLOR, EDWARD HH), and ROBERT E. ELBEL

1958. Contribution to the herpetology of Thailand. Ibid., 38, pt. 2 (18):
1033-1189.

TAYLOR, EDWARD H., and DORA WEYER

1958. Report on a collection of amphibians and reptiles from Harbel, Re-
public of Liberia. Ibid., (14): 1191-1229.

WHARTON, ©; HH:

1960. Birth and behavior of a brood of cottonmouths, Agkistrodon piscivo-
rus piscivorus with notes on tail-luring. Herpetologica, 16 (2):
125-129.

WRIGHT, A. H., and ANNA A. WRIGHT

1957. Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada. Comstock
Pub. Associates, Ithaca. 2 vols.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 28(8), 1960.

MENTAL HEALTH INTERESTS OF COLLEGE STUDENTS !

James H. WILLIAMS
Florida State University
and
HeLten M. WILLIAMS
Florida State Hospital

PURPOSE AND METHOD

Mental health education programs have proceeded on the as-
sumption that problems of mental illness concern every member
of society. Consequently, these programs have made available to
the public a considerable amount and variety of mental health in-
formation. However, in spite of this major effort, little research
attention has been given to determining the facets of the public’s
interest in mental health. With this need in mind, our study set
out to describe the mental health interests of a sample of college
students.

The data for the research were obtained by questionnaire from
112 Florida State University students. They were enrolled in social
welfare and social science courses during the fall of 1959. By
academic class the subjects were classified as follows; 38 fresh-
men, 28 sophomores, 20 juniors, and 15 seniors. The sample in-
cluded 40 males and 72 females.

The questionnaire consisted of 160 mental health topics grouped
into 15 major categories. It was constructed by collecting a list
of topics from books and periodicals on mental health, psychology,
education, sociology, and psychiatry. Also, each student in another
social welfare course agreed to submit a list of five mental health
topics in which he had an interest. These two rather lengthy lists
of questions were then edited and grouped into 15 logical cate-
gories.

The data as presented in Table 1 were ordered in the following
three ways; by the 15 major categories of mental health interests,
by individual topic within each category, and by rank order of in-
dividual topic irrespective of category. The statistics needed for
this ordering of the data were computed in the following manner.

* Acknowledgement is made to the Florida Council on Mental Health Train-
ing and Research of the Florida State Board of Health for partial financial
support of this research project.

202 . JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Percentages of all subjects responding to a major interest category
were summed and divided by the number of questions per cat-
egory to obtain a mean percentage for each one of the 15 catego-
ries. Using these means the categories were ordered. The per-
centages in each topic were ordered within the major category.
Finally, the percentage scores on individual topics were placed
in rank order irrespective of category.

FINDINGS

The four major categories of most interest to the students in
this study were “symptoms, “types of treatment, “prognosis,” and
“mental hospitals in the treatment of mental illness.” The mean
percentages of undergraduates evidencing concern for these cate-
gories were 64.1, 59.4, 56.2, and 55.8, respectively. On the other
hand, of least interest to subjects of this study were “specific symp-
toms of mental illness” (37.6 per cent), “adult stresses causing men-
tal illness” (39.5 per cent), “physical causes of mental illness” (39.8
per cent), and “general considerations for the treatment of mental
illness” (46.4 per cent).

There were 160 topics within the 15 major categories. The
individual mental health topic in which most of the students were
interested (90.2 per cent) was the “first signs of mental illness’.
The items next in rank order were the “behavior of mentally ill
children,” “from which mental illnesses are people likely to re-
cover?’, and “heredity as a cause of mental illness,” all with 78.6
per cent response. The two topics ranked 5.5th were “conditions
in mental hospitals,” and “sex habits as a cause of mental illness”
to which slightly over three-fourths of the students indicated an
interest. “Understanding feelings, tensions, and worries as a pre-
vention of mental illness,” and “unhappy marriage as a cause of
mental illness” were both ranked 7.5th with exactly three-fourths
of the subjects expressing an interest in the topics. Those items
which tied for 13th place were “psychotherapy as a type of treat-

ment of mental illness,” “facilities for treatment of mental illness,”
and “facilities for treatment of emotionally disturbed children” all
of which had 72.3 per cent of the subjects expressing an interest
in them. The topic ranked 15th was “can mental illness be cured?”

with 70.5 per cent of the students indicating their interest.

MENTAL HEALTH INTERESTS OF COLLEGE STUDENTS = 208

Of the 160 topics the one of least interest to the subjects of this
study was “cursed by the devil as a cause of mental illness” to
which only 7.1 per cent of them responded. Other topics which
were of little concern to the students were “retirement” and “un-
employment’ as adult stresses causing mental illness with ranks
of 159 and 158 and having only 15.2 and 17.0 percentages of stu-
dents responding. Ranked 157th was “frequent job changes as a
specific symptom of mental illness” with 18.8 per cent interested.
The three topics ranked 155th were “help for the aging as a pre-
vention of mental illness,” “extreme elation,” and “bizarre behavior
which were specific symptoms of mental illness”; the percentage
response here was 19.6 each. “Congenital defects as a physical
cause and “destructiveness as specific symptoms of mental illness”
were tied for the 152.5th rank with 21.4 per cent of the sample in-
dicating these topics of interest. The 15lst rank was “incidence
of different types of mental illness in the United States” which had
a percentage of 23.3. “Sibling rivalry as a childhood experience
causing mental illness’ was ranked 149.5th along with “encepha-
litis as a physical cause” with just under one-fourth of the subjects
interested. The 148th and 147th places were taken by the topics,
“inability to learn as a specific symptom of mental illness” and “the
care of chronically ill patients”, with 25.0 and 25.9 percentages,
respectively. The 145.5th rank comprised the topics “feeble mind-
edness as a physical cause of mental illness” and “irrational be-
havior as a specific symptom of mental illness” in which only 26.8
per cent expressed interest.

CONCLUSIONS

This sample of college students expressed considerable gen-
eral interest in mental health topics. This interest was evidenced
by the frequency of their responses. At the same time, there was
a rather striking variation of student interest in the topics. They
were mainly concerned with what practical measures should one
take when a mental illness strikes. In other words, most of all,
they wanted to know: how can mental illness be detected; what
can be done to treat it; what facilities are available for its treat-
ment; and what are the chances for recovery. As important as are
these interest areas for mental health education it was somewhat
disappointing to the authors that the students assigned lower pri-

JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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214 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

orities of interest to such topics as causes of mental illness, com-
munity acceptance of mental patients, and prevention of mental
illness. Finally, further study needs to be done on other groups,
including community leaders, school teachers, parents, and many
others to adequately determine the true interests of the community
as regards mental illness.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 23(3), 1960.

FACTORS DETERMINING HABITATS OF CERTAIN
SULFUR BACTERIA !

James B. LACKEY
University of Florida

Organisms usually termed sulfur bacteria comprise several quite
divergent groups, (Bisset and Grace, 1954), depending on their
relationship to sulfur. Field and laboratory studies of their oc-
currence have led to certain conclusions and questions as to factors
governing their distribution in nature.

LIGHT

It is expected that for photosynthetic species, light is a necessity.
We have not found Chromatium species and Chlorobium growing
in the absence of light, despite having examined many situations,
which otherwise, apparently, would be favorable for their growth.
But there are so many other necessary factors for their growth that
they rarely attain spectacular numbers. Chlorobium is common in
the shallow waters of Lake Alice on the University of Florida Cam-
pus, which likewise contains large numbers of various species of
Chromatium and several species of Beggiatoa. Sodon Lake, Mich-
igan, has had its Chlorobium population well investigated (Bick-
nell, 1949), although it occurs there at considerable depths. Butlin
and Postgate (1954) have commented on a heavy growth of Chroma-
tium at Kempton Park, Middlesex, England. At Woodland, Cali-
fornia, there is a pink pond due to Thiopedia rosea, according to
a picture sent by Dr. W. J. Oswald (1960). This pond receives
the effluent from a rendering plant. Various species of Chroma-
tium have been found in Hays method sewage treatment plants,
(Lackey and Dixon, 1949). Not all situations where sulfur bacteria
occur are heavily polluted however; patches are common in the
outfall of the cooling water from the air conditioning plant of the
University of Florida Medical College. This is deep well water,
and apparently only H2S is the determining nutritive factor for
their dense occurrence. Lake Alice on the University of Florida
campus is not polluted, although its organic content is high due

* This work was supported by a grant-in-aid from the National Institutes
of Health, U.S. Public Health Service.

216 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

to decaying vegetation and light penetration into its vegetation
covered waters is certainly small in much of its area.

Species of Beggiatoa however, pose a real question. Prof.
Wilson Calaway of our laboratory, working with heavy natural
growth, found that jars containing debris, if placed in the light,
showed a disappearance of the organisms. If however, the jars
were placed in the dark, in a short time, perhaps an hour, the top
of the debris became covered with Beggiatoa species. This was
not a response to direct sunlight but to diffuse light, and it is a
repeatable phenomenon. Blue green algae—Oscillatoria and Spir-
ulina—likewise migrate to the top, but stay there—a direct photo-
tactic response. This behavior of Beggiatoa is not yet explained.

TEMPERATURE

Field observations indicate that temperature plays little part
in the distribution of sulfur bacteria. Warm Mineral Springs in
southern Florida contains virtually all the known species of sulfur
bacteria, often in great massive growths. Its temperature is a con-
stant 28.5°C, and yet the same sulfur bacteria found there have
been found in hot sunlight in the marshes around Woods Hole,
Mass., and on the ocean floor at depths of 90 to 125 feet at La Jolla,
California. One new genus and species thus far found only at Warm
Springs was thought at first to be temperature-limited, but subse-
quently was found in the Inland Waterway at Titusville at a tem-
perature of 15°C. Pagosa Hot Springs in Colorado has sulfur
bacteria growing in its drainage and around its edges, in water
not tolerable to the hand. All indications from field studies indi-
cate that sulfur bacteria are widely tolerant of temperature.

BAROMETRIC PRESSURE

Not much information has been accumulated by us in this
regard. But the same (morphologic) species of Beggiatoa have
been found at sea level, and at depths of 125 feet at La Jolla. B.
alba and B. minima have been found at the lowest point (Bad
Waters) in Death Valley, and at Pagosa Hot Springs, near the
10,000 foot elevation in Colorado. The same applies to Thiothrix
tenuis and T. nivea. Zobell, in a series of papers not cited here,
discusses the effects of hydrostatic pressures up to 600 atmospheres

DETERMINING HABITATS OF SULFUR BACTERIA 217

on various deep sea bacteria, but none of these belong to the groups
considered here.

OsMoTIC PRESSURE

Observations on this factor are based largely on salinities. Lake
Alice is a fresh water habitat, not containing any unusual concen-
trations of salts. Warm Mineral Springs is about half connate sea
water. Bad Waters is a pool in Death Valley very high in mag-
nesium sulfate, and some of the salterns we have examined have
been highly hypersaline. Yet some species have been tolerant of
all environments. Chromatium is not too abundant in Warm Min-
eral Springs, but sometimes colors salterns, where however, it can
be confused with pink blue green algae.

For some species however, either osmotic pressure or salinity
may be a deciding factor. Thus the unnamed new sulfur bacte-
rium has been found only at half strength sea water, and Beggiatoa
gigantea and B. arachnoidea, both easily recognizable by their huge
size, have not been found in less than half strength sea water.
Some of the species listed in Bergey (1957) as occurring in fresh,
or in salt water, have now been found over a wider range. An
example is Thiospirillopsis, originally described by Uphof (1927)
from Welaka, Fla. This is a fresh water spring. The organism
apparently has not been recorded again until now, but occurs in
Warm Mineral Springs.

HypROGEN ION CONCENTRATION

Wherever we have checked the pH of a natural water contain-
ing substantial numbers of sulfur bacteria, it has been slightly to
strongly alkaline. This might be expected because so many of
the sulfur bacteria occur both in the ocean and fresh water. It
is also generally believed that these are archaic bacteria, and a
possible connotation is that they originated in the ocean, ie., in
an alkaline habitat. On the other hand, the evolution of H.S
tends toward acidity.

Acid natural waters are none too common except in granitic
regions, and costal plain areas. In Florida many lakes and marshes
are acid and generally brown from tannic and humic acids. There
are very few sulfur bacteria, at least Beggiatoaceae, Achromatia-
ceae, and Thiorhodaceae either in the mud or the waters of these

218 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

lakes. Hundreds of examinations of such waters have been made,
including consistent examination of slides hung at various levels
in Lake Santa Fe (pH 5.7-5.9). While very heavy growths appeared
on the slides, no identifyable bacteria of the aforementioned three
groups occurred, even on the slides hung practically touching the
bottom, where any evolution of H,S might occur. There is abun-
dant organic matter in these lakes, so that H2S evolution might be
expected. Of course, other substances in the water might be lim-
iting rather than pH, but the picture is striking. Laboratory
(mixed) cultures are also generally alkaline. It is noteworthy that
Vera Prokesova (1959) found noticeable correlation between the
stratification of Chromatium and the slightly alkaline range of pH
in two Czechoslovakian pools she studied in 1955-57. The correla-
tion was not absolute, since in most cases Chromatium was present
vertically throughout the pools, but its great numbers tended to
be in the range 7.0-8.4, rather than in the range 6.4-7.0.

PHYSICAL SUBSTRATE

The crawling or gliding forms seem equally at ease in mud,
sand or on a solid substrate; but they are never found in the open
water. On the contrary it is not unusual to find Spirulina or Oscil-
latoria when centrifuging open water. This is not in accord with
some ideas expressed by Bisset and Grace (1954) and is even less
true for Thiovulum referred to by them as a “gliding” organism.
This genus (there is probably only one species) is an active and
fast swimmer, with a spinning motion. When they settle, they
remain still until they disintegrate or swim away.

Attaching forms (Thiothrix, Thiodendron) seem to prefer either
blue green algae such as Lyngbya or dead woody or grass stems.
The algal choice is so pronounced, despite the presence of other
algae, as to be more than a coincidence.

CHEMICAL SUBSTRATES

These organisms generally utilize sulfides or sulfates, with
H.S as the principal source of energy. It is difficult to correlate
the amount of H.S present with the numbers of sulfur bacteria
present, at least mathmatically, but a spring with a pronounced
odor of H2S generally has a white coating, and usually red splotches
of Beggiatoaceae and Thiorhodaceae. H»2S as such is awkward

DETERMINING HABITATS OF SULFUR BACTERIA 219

to analyze, and huge numbers of sulfur bacteria are difficult to
count. Meaningful comparisons between strands of Beggiatoa
gigantea, 50 » in diameter and 2000 » long, and a cell of Chroma-
tium okenii 6 » in diameter and 10 p» long tend to be without sig-
nificance when one notes 100 of the first and 6000 of the second.
Often one may find small numbers without a noticeable smell of
H.S, but there are other indications of its presence, such as black
mud, and decaying vegetation. A survey of salt marshes and
other locations at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, produced 15 genera
and 29 species, the only ones in great numbers being in drainage
ditches from the Barnstable marshes. These were the only situ-
ations where there was a noticeable smell of H.S. Mud from the
bottom of the Eel Pond generally yielded a few species, and a few
individuals. The mud was black, but only rarely was a trace of
H2S odor detectable. This is not surprising. Ingle (1955) investi-
gating the muds of Mobile Bay, Ala., suspected an odor he de-
tected of being H2S, but could find none on repeated analyses for
it. Morgan (1957) examined six samples of mud from Boca Ciega
Bay, Fla., and found oxygen consumed values from 4980 to 27,800
ppm, yet only three of these odorous samples showed H.S—a trace,
0.031 and 0.37 ppm. There is generally no dearth of SO4—sea
water contains an abundance and decaying mats of grass in the
Barnstable marshes must have had a large amount. But in muds
it generally becomes available slowly.

It is also probable that these organisms require at least a trace
of oxygen. At Lake Butler, Fla., water containing no dissolved
oxygen and 0.5 ppm H.S is fed into a 55 gallon drum. No sulfur
bacteria grow in this drum. Water from it, siphoned continuously
into a second drum contains 0.1 ppm Os, 0.2 ppm H2S and a dense
growth of Beggiatoa alba, B. leptomitiformis, and Thiothrix tenuis.
In Warm Mineral Spring, Fla., H2S is found from 160 feet (deep-
est sampling point) to the surface, where sulfur bacteria are abun-
dant. But effective light penetrates only to a depth of about 35
feet. Below this the walls are coated with only one organism—
a brown bacterium. From this point up, blue green algae and
several species of sulfur bacteria grow.

It is also probable that high concentrations (more than 5 ppm)
of H2S are toxic. Sulfur bacteria are killed if the lid on a jar con-
taining them is turned tightly for 24 hours, but if removed, they

220 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

remain alive. Also, they either demand a constant supply of H.S,
or are killed by oxygenation of the water. In the laboratory they
quickly die, except in the bottom of jars, if the jars contain growing
algae in the light. And in the runs from sulfur springs, the dis-
appearance of sulfur bacteria is correlated with the degree of
turbulence, resulting in a loss of H2S, and a pick up, to near satura-
tion, of Os.

As to other nutrient requirements, there is little knowledge.
Very few pure cultures except of Thiorhodaceae, have been made.
Formulae for some of these are well known, and yet cultural re-
quirements still leave much to be desired. Beggiatoaceae and
forms such as Thiovulum need substances from decaying eelgrass
or hay. Enrichment cultures in decoctions of these are success-
ful, isolation cultures are not. Cultures attempted on decaying
Fucus, Ascophyllum and Chorda, all brown algae, gave negative
results.

In summary, it seems that most of the sulfur bacteria are tol-
erant of a wide range of most environmental conditions but that
all require some H.S and at least a trace of oxygen.

Beggiatoa gigantea, B. arachnoidea and Thiodendron seem to
require a somewhat high salt content. All seem to prefer alkaline
water.

LITERATURE CITED

BERGEYS MANUAL, ROBERT S. BREED, E.G.D. MURRAY, and
NATHAN R. SMITH, Editors

1957. Bergeys Manual of Determinative Bacteriology. 7th Ed. Baltimore,
Md. The Williams and Wilkins Co. XVIII + 1094.
BICKNELL, ALICE K.
1949. The Occurrence of a Green Sulphur Bacterium in Sodon Lake.
Lloydia. 12. pp. 188-184.
BISSET, K. S., and JOYCE B. GRACE

1954. The Nature and relationships of autotrophic bacteria. In “Auto-
trophic Micro-organisms” Cambridge, England. The University Press.
WALES = x80).

INGLE, ROBERT M., A. RUSSELL CEURVELS, and
RICHARD LEINECKER
1955. Chemical and Biological Studies of the Muds of Mobile Bay. Con-
tribution No. 139 of the Marine Laboratory of the University of
Miami. pp. 1-14.

DETERMINING HABITATS OF SULFUR BACTERIA 221

LACKEY, JAMES B., and R. M. DIXON
1943. Some biological aspects of the Hays Process of sewage treatment.
Sewage Works Journal. XV. 6. pp. 1189-1152.
MORGAN, GEORGE B.
1957. Personal communication in a report on HS in mud samples from
St. Petersburg, Florida.
OSWALD, W. J.
1960. Personal letter and photograph.

PROKESOVA, VERA
1959. Hydrobiological Research of Two Naturally Polluted Ponds in the
Woody Inundation Area of the Elbe. Acto Societatis Zoological
Bohemoslovenicae. XX. I. pp. 34-69.
UIPISIOUR I Oneail ale

1927. Zur Okologie der Schwefelbakterien in den Schwefelquellen Mittel-
floridas. pp. 71-84. Arch. Hydrobiol., 18.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 28(8), 1960.

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE
FOUND IN TAMPA BAY, BOCA CIEGA BAY
AND AT TARPON SPRINGS, FLORIDA

RONALD C. PHILLIPS
Florida State Board of Conservation Marine Laboratory }

INTRODUCTION

It is generally accepted that Tampa Bay lies in the subtropics
but near the line of division between the subtropical and warm
temperate zones of the Florida west coast. From my previous work
(Phillips, 1960) on seagrasses in this area, I concluded that this
applied to marine environments as well as to the terrestrial environ-
ments.

A study of marine algae was conducted at various stations in
Tampa Bay, Boca Ciega Bay, and at Tarpon Springs on the Florida
west coast from September, 1957, to April, 1959. Most intensive
observations were made from December, 1957, in all three areas
through December 1958, in Tampa Bay, through March, 1959,
in Boca Ciega Bay, and through April, 1959, at Tarpon Springs.
The study was considered important owing to the scattered nature
of algal observations in this strategic area in previous years.

Tidal submergence and emergence, temperature, salinity, light,
substratum, and degree of exposure of the locality were the major
environmental variables considered.

Several authors listed algae from the Tampa Bay region: Earle
(1956), Taylor (1936, 1954), and Hutton et al. (1956). All algae
reported by these authors will be designated in the annotated list.
Dr. Clark Rogerson of the New York Botanical Garden generously
sent field notes made by Dr. M. A. Howe during a visit to Port
Tampa in Tampa Bay on 22 November 1902 (personal communica-
tion). Several genera of algae listed will be treated in the dis-
cussion.

In this paper 195 taxa of algae are reported. Of these 186 taxa
were found by me.

In the annotated list these terms are used: littoral (intertidal)

* Contribution No. 49 from The Fla. St. Bd. Cons. Mar. Lab. Bayboro
Hrbr. St. Petersburg, Fle.

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE 223

and upper infralittoral [depths from mean level of low tides down-
ward to five to ten meters—Feldmann (1954)|. Summer as desig-
nated extends from June through August, autumn extends from
September through November, winter from December through
February, and spring from March through May. This grouping
is arbitrary as environmental conditions of certain seasons extend
into others, but this seasonal classification does provide a more
thorough delineation of plant occurrence.

Acknowledgment is made to Messrs. Raymond Guess, General
Agent, and A. B. Mann, Conservation Agent, for their help in col-
lecting algae at Tarpon Springs. Sincere appreciation is accorded
to Mr. George Goldie of Goldie’s Fish Camp at Tarpon. Springs
and to the brothers Grant and Howard O'Neill, owners of the Sky-
way Boat Basin in Boca Ciega Bay, for permitting the use of their
boat ramps. Acknowledgment is extended to Dr. V. G. Springer
and Mr. K. D. Woodburn for data contributed to the paper. The
encouragement and help of Mr. R. M. Ingle, Director of Research,
and Dr. R. F. Hutton, Biologist-In-Charge, throughout the study
is sincerely appreciated.

I am indebted to Dr. Wm. Randolph Taylor, University of Mich-
igan, to Dr. H. J. Humm, Duke University, to Dr. P. C. Silva, Uni-
versity of Illinois, and to Dr. Francis Drouet, University of Arizona,
for several algal identifications.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Nine stations were visited monthly, three each in Tampa Bay,
Boca Ciega Bay, and at Tarpon Springs, to observe and collect
the plants and to make hydrographic observations. The stations
in Tampa Bay were chosen to conform to the salinity gradient
existing in the Bay. Boca Ciega Bay stations were selected ac-
cording to minimum water depth. At Tarpon Springs stations were
chosen according to prevailing water depth and degree of wave
exposure of the locality. Miscellaneous collections from all parts
of Tampa Bay, Boca Ciega Bay, and Tarpon Springs are included
imytne data.

Water temperature was noted at the time of collection using a
centigrade thermometer. Water was collected and brought to the
laboratory in sealed jars for salinity determinations. All salinities

224. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

were taken from bottom samplings and were determined with a
hydrometer type salinometer.

Water turbidity was not measured as bottom could usually
be seen from the water surface at all stations except at Cats Point
Bank and Pine Key in Boca Ciega Bay.

Tidal data, such as stage of tide (flood or ebb) and type of tide
(neap or spring), was taken. Depth of water was recorded.

Collecting methods varied according to the situation. In the
clear water surrounding the Anclote Keys at Tarpon Springs skin-
diving was the most effective collection method. An aqualung
was used in water 14-18 feet deep northwest of the Anclote Keys.
In very shallow water collections were made by wading. In sev-
eral areas a box type dredge was hauled along the bottom from
a boat.

All plants collected in the field were preserved in a 10% solu-
tion of formaldehyde.

Plants collected are retained in the herbarium of the Florida
State Board of Conservation Marine Laboratory.

DESCRIPTIONS OF STATIONS

Extensive descriptions of Tampa Bay, Boca Ciega Bay, and the
Tarpon Springs area and the regularly visited stations are con-
tained in Phillips (op. cit.). Some description of these areas will
be included here. Location of regularly collected stations is given
rie), Jeez ok

Tampa Bay

Tampa Bay as defined in this paper does not include Boca Ciega
Bay. It comprises Old Tampa Bay, Tampa Bay, and Hillsboro
Bay. The following data was taken from Olson (1953): the total
area of Tampa Bay was 319 square miles; the bottom areas under
six feet of water were 92.5 square miles (approximately 20% of
the bay); because the mean depth was 11 feet, he considered Tampa
Bay as a shallow body of water; four important streams flow into
Tampa Bay, but their discharge is probably a minor factor in the
flushing of the bay; a salinity gradient was present in the bay.

According to the 1958 East Coast Tide Tables the mean tidal
range at the Municipal pier in St. Petersburg is 1.4 feet, and the
spring range is 1.6 feet. At the north end of Old Tampa Bay the
mean range is 1.9 feet, and the spring range is 2.5 feet.

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE 225

83° 00'

OSJIXAW 3O 41N9

AN CLOTE\G
KEYS

82°30!

©)

ey
““ TARPON SPRINGS

THE W\:::
NARROWSW\.>,

Fig. 1. Map of Tampa Bay area with location of regularly collected sta-
tions. 1. Beach Drive, SE; 2. Lower Gandy Flat; 3. Mobbly Bay; 4. Cats
Point Bank; 5. Bird Key Middle Ground; 6. Pine Key; 7. Anclote Anchorage;
8. Southeast corner of North Anclote Key; 9. Flat north of North Anclote Key.

226 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The substrates in Tampa Bay vary from a firm to soft muddy
sand near shore on shallow flats to the soft mud in deeper water.
Several of the very soft mud samples were collected from water
15-18 feet deep. Goodell and Gorsline (1959) concluded that
generally speaking, over substantial areas of the bottom, Tampa
Bay sediments were fairly uniform. Other unreported work indi-
cates that a more detailed study would reveal differences, particu-
larly in the deeper, less washed regions.

The water of Tampa Bay is relatively turbid, although bottom
details were easily seen from the surface at the regularly visited
stations. Bottom was not seen in any area in water deeper than
six feet, but on 21 July 1943 Shoemaker (1954) recorded a Secchi
disc reading of 3.7 meters in the spoil area just east of the Sunshine
Skyway and south of the “Cut A” Channel. Turbidity is probably
higher in summer than in winter owing to high precipitation in
summer. It was noticed that water clarity was greater in winter
than in summer. This aspect needs further study.

The following three stations were regularly visited each month
for one year.

At Beach Drive, 17th.-19th. Ave., SE, in St. Petersburg, water
depths on the deeper portions of the flat varied from six inches
to three feet on the spring tides. Over most of the flat seagrass
leaves and algae were exposed to the air on lowest spring low
tides. After exposure bleaching and killing of leaves and algal
portions exposed were observed. Diplanthera wrightii was ex-
tremely abundant on the flat, but was apparently replaced by
Ruppia maritima during late winter and spring. Thalassia testud-
inum and Syringodium filiforme were limited to the portions of
the flat not exposed at extreme low tides. Lowest observed water
temperature (13.0°C.) occurred in February 1958, and the highest
(34.5°C.) occurred in July and September, 1958. Observed mean
salinity was 24.7 o/oo.

At Lower Gandy Flat water depths at high tide were usually
three feet and as low as 18 inches at low tide. Seagrasses and algae
were never observed exposed to the air. Syringodium was ex-
tremely abundant over the flat during the warmer months of the
year. Ruppia and Diplanthera were relatively sparse on the flat
as compared to Syringodium abundance. Lowest observed water
temperature (12.5 °C.) occurred in February 1958, and the highest

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE 227

(31.0 °C.) occurred in September 1958. Mean observed salinity
was 23.1 o/oo.

Water depths on the shallow flats in Mobbly Bay varied from
four feet at mean high tide to six inches at extremely low tide.
Seagrass leaves and algae were never exposed to the air. Syringo-
dium was abundant on the shallow flats, but was observed in lesser
abundance in water six feet deep at mean low tide. Diplanthera
was sparse here while Ruppia was slightly more abundant. East
of the station on the north shore of Old Tampa Bay Ruppia was
extremely dense. Lowest observed water temperature (7.0 °C.)
occurred in February 1958, and the highest (31.0 °C.) occurred in
September 1958. Mean observed salinity was 21.3 o/oo.

Miscellaneous observations were taken at Lewis Island near
the Beach Drive station, at Mermaid Point and in Papys Bayou
near Lower Gandy Flat, at North Shore Drive in St. Petersburg,
at Big Island Flat north of Lower Gandy Flat, in Hillsboro Bay,
shoreline from Courtney-Campbell Causeway around Davis Island
to Hillsboro Bay, at the southwest tip of Booth Point near Mobbly
Bay, and in Coopers Bayou near Mobbly Bay. The conditions
found in these areas are similar to those of the regularly visited
stations near them.

Boca Ciega Bay

Hutton e¢ al. (op. cit.) described this bay as an elongate coastal
lagoon, separated from the Gulf of Mexico by barrier islands and
connected to it by several passes. Maximum extension was over
16 miles with an average width of about two miles. They found
the average depth to be four feet.

The north to south boundaries, as given by Hutton ef al. (op.
cit.) and accepted by the author are: The Narrows at the north
to a line from Pt. Pinellas to the northeast tip of Mullet Key and
from the northwest tip of Mullet Key to the southern tip of Pass-a-
Grille Beach.

No major streams flow into Boca Ciega Bay. South of Corey
Causeway brackish water from Tampa Bay may exert the greatest
influence in diluting sea water.

The mean tidal range, as given in the 1958 East Coast Tide
Tables, at Pass-A-Grille is 1.3 feet, and the spring range is 1.7 feet.

228 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

At Gulfport the mean tidal range is 1.5 feet, and the spring range
SmlaVeheet

Substrates in the bay vary from firm to soft muddy sand. Per-
sons wading on the latter type bottom would sink to knee depth.

A great amount of dredging and filling for creation of real
estate has occurred in the bay north of Corey Causeway and on
the west side of the bay near the barrier islands. The water is
relatively turbid. Bottom details were difficult to see from the
surface in four and one-half feet of water, and over soft oozy
mud the water visibility is reduced (cf., Cats Point Bank).

The three stations briefly described here were visited monthly
for 16 months.

At Cats Point Bank depths varied from three feet at spring high
tide to exposed conditions at extremely low spring tides. During
exposure Thalassia and Diplanthera leaves and algae were sub-
jected to air exposure. A bleaching and killing of exposed por-
tions was later observed. The substrate was an extremely soft
muddy sand which supported vast growth of Thalassia and Di-
planthera. Ruppia appeared in late winter and spring of 1957-
1958. Lowest observed water temperature (14.0 °C.) occurred in
December 1957, and the highest (36.9 °C.) occurred in July 1958.
The observed mean salinity was 31.1 o0/oo.

Depths on Bird Key Middle Ground varied from three feet at
spring high tide to exposed conditions at extremely low spring
tides. Seagrass leaves and algae were exposed to the air at these
times. The substrate was a firm muddy sand. Thalassia was
abundant and dense over the flat. Diplanthera was abundant in
localized patches. Lowest observed water temperature (16.0 °C.)
occurred in March 1958, and the highest (33.5 °C.) occurred in
June 1958. The observed mean salinity was 31.2 o/oo.

At Pine Key Station the depth ranged from three feet on spring
high tide to seven inches on one extremely low spring tide. Plant
exposure was never observed. The substrate was very soft but
supported a dense carpet of Diplanthera with abundant Thalassia
interspersed in localized areas. Lowest observed water tempera-
ture (20.0 °C.) occurred in December 1958, and the highest (30.5
°C.) occurred in September 1958. The observed mean salinity
was 31.5 0/oo.

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE 229

Miscellaneous observations are included from Egmont Key,
Mullet Key, Tarpon Key, Pass-A-Grille Beach, Cabbage Key, Max-
imo Point near Cats Point Bank, Gulfport Beach, Bird Key, Boca
Ciega Isle, and Pinellas Point. All these locations resemble the
regularly visited stations sufficiently to exclude comment except
for Egmont Key and Pass-A-Grille Beach.

Egmont Key is exposed to the open Gulf of Mexico, and thus
the salinity is higher than that in the bay. The bottom is predom-
inantly sand with a sparse algal flora, although abundant Codium
taylori was collected on pilings near shore.

On the bay side at the extreme southern tip of Pass-A-Grille
Beach concrete blocks were found at the base of the sea wall.
Sediment was trapped on the blocks, and algal growth was dense
on this substrate. The algal assemblage found here was not seen
at any other locations regularly visited in Boca Ciega Bay. Sar-
gassum, two species of Caulerpa, Polysiphonia, Ceramium, Graci-
laria, Centroceras, Ulva, and several species of blue-green algae
were very conspicuous and abundant. Possibly, such an assem-
blage would prevail if exposed rock were commonly found in other
portions of Boca Ciega Bay; however, I feel that the proximity of
this location to the influx of seawater from the Gulf aids the lux-
uriant algal growth.

Tarpon Springs

Most of the collecting was done around the Anclote Keys where
the extremely clear water was relatively shallow with depths of
three to 12 feet prevailing for many square miles. All areas were
exposed to the open Gulf of Mexico.

The Anclote River is the only major stream discharging into
the offshore water. Near the end of the study considerable dilu-
tion of the salt water was observed at the three stations. This
dilution at exposed localities is perplexing, since the discharge from
the Anclote River probably is not of sufficient magnitude to explain
it. Possibly offshore fresh-water springs occur in the vicinity of
the Anclote Keys.

itheymean) tidal range at the Anclote Keys is 2.1 feet, and the
spring tidal range is 2.7 feet (East Coast Tide Tables, 1957).

The tidal currents are strong at maximum ebb and flood and
seem to be strongest at the stations northwest of the Anclote River.

230 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The substrates are uniformly of firm to moderately soft muddy
sand in three to 12 feet of water. The softer substrates were found
in shallower water, e.g., three to six feet deep. Northwest of the
Anclote Keys, about five and one-half to seven and one-half miles
offshore in 14-18 feet depths, exposed rock was commonly found
rising above the muddy, shelly sand substrate.

The following three stations were visited monthly for 17 months.

A station was regularly visited in the Anclote Anchorage where
depths varied from seven feet on flood tide to four and one-half
feet on spring low tide. Thalassia was extremely abundant with
sparse occasional growths of Diplanthera, Syringodium, and Hal-
ophila engelmannii interspersed. Lowest observed water tempera-
ture (13.3 °C.) occurred in December 1958, and the highest (31.6
°C.) occurred in July 1958. Observed mean salinity was 28.4 o/oo.

At the southeast corner of North Anclote Key water depths
varied from four feet at spring high tide to three inches at ex-
tremely low spring tides. Thalassia, which was extremely dense in
this area, was subjected to leaf air exposure on the lowest tides.
No algal exposure was noted. Close to shore Diplanthera was
abundant. Lowest observed water temperature (13.0 °C.) occurred
in December 1958, and the highest (31.1 °C.) occurred in July 1958.
Observed mean salinity was 28.0 o/oo.

North of north Anclote Key algae were collected on a Thalassia
covered flat where depths varied from five and one-half feet at
spring high tide to two feet at extremely low spring tides. Syringo-
dium and Diplanthera were sparse at this station. Lowest observed
water temperature (13.3 °C.) occurred in December 1958, and the
highest (31.9 °C.) occurred in July 1958. Observed mean salinity
was 29.2 0/oo.

Miscellaneous stations were made at the mouth of the Anclote
River where conditions approximated those at the southeast corner
of North Anclote Key, at #4 flashing light approximately two miles
north of Anclote Key in 12 feet of water but where the substrate
and plants resembled those in shallower water, and in 14-18 feet
of water northwest of Anclote Key where the seagrasses became
sparse on bottoms with exposed rock.

Table I lists the water temperatures and salinities recorded at
the time of collection at the stations regularly visited. These sta-
tion abbreviations are used: in Tampa Bay—BD—Beach Drive,

231

OF MARINE ALGAE

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION

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JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION

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234 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

LGF—Lower Gandy Flat, MB—Mobbly Bay. In Boca Ciega
Bay—CPB—Cats Point Bank, BK MG—Bird Key Middle Ground,
PK—Pine Key. At Tarpon Springs—AA—between Pier and south-
ern tip of Anclote Key in Anclote Anchorage, SE—southeast cor-
ner of North Anclote Key, FN—flat north of North Anclote Key.

These additional abbreviations are used in the annotated list:
Tampa Bay—LI—Lewis Island; MP-T—Mermaid Point; PB—
Papys Bayou; BIF—Big Island Flat; NSD—North Shore Drive, St.
Petersburg; HB—Hillsboro Bay; HCPA—shoreline from Court-
ney-Campbell Causeway around Davis Island to Hillsboro Bay;
SWTBP—southwest tip of Booth Point; CB—Cooper’s Bayou. In
Boca Ciega Bay—EK—Egmont Key; MK—Mullet Key; M—Tar-
pon Key; PAGB—Pass-A-Grille Beach; ECK—east of Cabbage
Key; MP—Maximo Point; GB—Gulfport Beach; BK—Bird Key;
BCI—Boca Ciega Isle; PP—Pinellas Point. At Tarpon Springs—
MAR—mouth of Anclote River; #4FL—+#4 flashing light; 0-14—
approximately 5.5 nautical miles offshore in 14 feet of water;
0-18—approximately 7.5 nautical miles offshore, 18 feet deep.

ANNOTATED List OF SPECIES
MYOXPHYCEAE

Anacystis aeruginosa Dr. & Daily. HB; winter 1958; on shells; upper infra-
littoral. *

Calothrix aeruginea Thur. BIF; autumn 1957; on Spyridia filamentosa; upper
infralittoral. *

Calothrix confervicola (Roth) C.Ag. CB, MK, M, FN, AA; winter and spring
1958-1959: sparse to abundant on Spyridia filamentosa, Ceramium di-
aphanum, Polysiphonia harveyi, Polysiphonia ferulacea, and Thalassia;
upper infralittoral.*

Calothrix pilosa Harv. LGF, CPB, BKMG, MK, #4FL; autumn and early
winter 1958, more abundant in late autumn and early winter than in
early autumn; sparse to very abundant on Polysiphonia ramentacea,
Spyridia filamentosa, Laurencia gemmifera, Thalassia; littoral and upper
infralittoral. ”

Calothrix sp. BD; summer 1958; on Ruppia; littoral. *

Entophysalis conferta Dr. & Daily. BKMG; winter 1958; abundant on tuni-
cates; littoral.

Entophysalis deusta Dr. & Daily. SE; winter 1958; very abundant on shells;
littoral. °

1 Attached taxa limited to Tampa Bay; * euryhaline taxa; °* attached taxa
limited to Tarpon Springs.

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE 235

Lyngbya aestuarii (Mert.) Liebm. LGF, BIF, MB; autumn 1957; on Spyridia
filamentosa and Syringodium; upper infralittoral. *

Lyngbya confervoides C.Ag. MB, CPB, EK, MP; summer and autumn 1957,
1958, more abundant in summer than in autumn; sparse to very abundant
on Thalassia, Syringodium and bare sandy bottom; littoral and upper
infralittoral.

Lyngbya gracilis (Menegh.)Rab. PK, 0-18; autumn 1958; sparse on Thalassia
and Padina vickersiae; upper infralittoral.

Lyngbya majuscula Harv. CPB, BKMG, EK, Mk, AA, MAR, #4FL; summer
and autumn 1957, 1958, most abundant at end of summer; sparse to very
abundant on muddy sand bottom, sand bottom, Laurencia poitei, Lauren-
cia gemmifera, and floating; littoral and upper infralittoral.

Lyngbya meneghiniana (Kutz.)Gom. CPB, FN; winter 1958; rare to abundant
on Thalassia and Syringodium; littoral and upper infralittoral.

Lyngbya mittsii Phillips. CPB, BKMG: winter 1958; sparse on Thalassia; lit-
toral.

Lyngbya rosea Taylor. EK; summer 1958; abundant and entangled in Poly-
siphonia subtilissima; upper infralittoral.

Lyngbya semiplena (C.Ag.)J.Ag. BD: autumn 1958; abundant on _ twigs;
littoral. *

Lyngbya sordida (Zanard.)Gom. PK, PAGB, FN, AA, SE; winter 1958; rare

| to very abundant on Polysiphonia ferulacea, Polysiphonia denudata, Sar-
gassum filipendula, Thalassia; littoral and upper infralittoral.

Lyngbya thalassiae Phillips. AA, SE, 0-14; winter 1958-1959; sparse on
Thalassia and Caulerpa cupressoides; littoral and upper infralittoral. *

Lyngbya sp. MP; summer 1958; abundant; upper infralittoral.

Mastigocoleus testarum Lagerheim. HB; winter 1958; on shells; upper infra-
littoral. *

Microcoleus chthonoplastes (Fl. Dan.)Thur. BD, LGF, BIF: autumn and win-
ter 1957-1958; sparse on Spyridia filamentosa and entangled in epiphytes;
littoral and upper infralittoral. *

Oscillatoria bonnemaisonii (Crouan)Gom. SE; spring 1959; very abundant on
Thalassia; littoral. *

Oscillatoria corallinae (Kutz.)Gom. PAGB; winter 1958; abundant in muddy
bottom; littoral.

Oscillatoria nigro-viridis Thwait. LGF; autumn 1958; very abundant on
Diplanthera; upper infralittoral. *

Oscillatoria subuliformis (Thwait.)Gom. MB; winter 1958; entangled in Spy-
ridia filamentosa; upper infralittoral. *

Oscillatoria tenuis C.Ag. var. natans (Kutz.)Gom. SE; spring 1959; sparse on
Thalassia; littoral. *

Oscillatoria williamsii Drouet. SE, 0-18; spring and autumn 1958, 1959:
sparse on Thalassia; littoral and upper infralittoral. *

236 . JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Plectonema nostocorum Born. BKMG, FN; winter and spring 1958-1959;
abundant on Enteromorpha flexuosa and Thalassia; littoral and upper in-
fralittoral.

Schizothirx violacea Gard. AA; winter 1959; abundant on Thalassia; upper
infralittoral. °

Spirulina subsalsa Oerstedt var. oceanica (Crouan)Gom. PAGB, FN; winter
1958-1959; sparse to abundant on Thalassia and in mud; littoral and upper
infralittoral.

CHLOROPHYCEAE

Acetabularia crenulata Lamx. SE; late spring, summer, and autumn, found
dead in early winter 1957, 1958; very abundant on shells; upper infra-
littoral; spores found in late autumn. [Reported also by Taylor (1936)
and Earle (op. cit.) from Tarpon Springs.]. *

Acetabularia farlowii Solms. SE; autumn and early winter 1958; very abun-
dant on shells; upper infralittoral; spores found in late autumn. *

Acetabularia pusilla (Howe) Collins. SE; early winter 1958; sparse on shells;
upper infralittoral. *

Acetabularia sp. SE; spring 1958; one sporeling on Thalassia; upper infra-
littoral. *

Acicularia schenckii (Moebius)Solms. SE; early winter 1957; commonly found
on shells; upper infralittoral. °

Anadyomene stellata (Wulf.)\C.Ag. FN, AA, #4FL; found throughout the
year 1957, 1958, 1959, most abundant in spring and summer; rare to
abundant on Digenia simplex and shells; upper infralittoral. *

Batophora oerstedi J.Ag. FN, SE, 0-18; autumn, winter, spring 1957, 1958;
rare to abundant on shells, wood, Digenia simplex; upper infralittoral;
spores found in early winter. [Reported also by Taylor (1936) and by
Earle (op. cit.) from Tarpon Springs]. *

Bryopsis hypnoides Lamx. PAGB; winter 1958; sparse on tunicates and detritus
covered rocks; littoral.

Bryopsis pennata Lamx. MK in November, Pass-A-Grille in March on rocks,
pilings, and shells. (Reported by Earle, op. cit.).

Caulerpa ashmeadii Harv. FN, AA, MAR, #4FL, 0-14, 0-18; found through-
out the year 1957, 1958, 1959, at most stations it is most abundant dur-
ing summer and autumn but sometimes very abundant in mild winters;
sparse to very abundant on muddy sand bottom; upper infralittoral. [Re-
ported also by Taylor (1936) and Earle (op. cit.) from Tarpon Springs]. °

Caulerpa crassifolia (C.Ag.)J.Ag. Piney Point, southwest end of Tampa Bay.
[Reported by Taylor (1954) and by Earle (op. cit.) from MK in October
and frorn St. Petersburg Beach in August on bottom.].

Caulerpa crassifolia (C.Ag.)J.Ag. fa. mexicana (Sonder)J.Ag. PAGB; winter
1958: very abundant on rock; upper infralittoral.

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE 237

Caulerpa crassifolia (C.Ag.)J.Ag. fa. typica (Weber)Bgrgs. BKMG; autumn
1958; rare; floating.

Caulerpa cupressoides (West)C.Ag. var. cupressoides. 0-14; winter 1958;
common on muddy sand bottom; upper infralittoral. °

Caulerpa prolifera (Forsskal)Lamx. AA; autumn and early winter 1958; sparse
on muddy sand bottom; upper infralittoral. [Reported also by Taylor
(1936) and by Earle (op. cit.) from HB and from MK in May on sandy,
muddy, or rocky bottom. ]. *

Caulerpa sertularioides (Gmel.)Howe. PAGB; winter 1958; very abundant
on detritus covered rocks; littoral and upper infralittoral; plants dwarf
in comparison to those found offshore in 35-60 feet deep. [Reported
also by Earle (op. cit.) from Pass-A-Grille in November on sandy bottom
along Thalassia.|.

Chaetomorpha brachygona Hary. LGF, CPB; spring 1958; sparse; floating. *

Chaetomorpha gracilis Kutz. BIF; autumn 1957; on Spyridia filamentosa;
upper infralittoral. ’

Chaetomorpha linum (Mull.)Kutz. MB; late summer 1958; very abundant:
floating. *

Cladophora fascicularis (Mert.)Kutz. HB, PAGB; winter 1958; rare on detritus
covered rocks and bryozoan; littoral and upper infralittoral.

Cladophora fuliginosa Kutz. CPB; autumn 1957; very abundant in clumps
on muddy sand bottom; littoral.

Cladophora delicatula Mont. BIF; autumn 1957; on Spyridia filamentosa;
upper infralittoral. *

Cladophora glaucescens (Griffiths)Harv. BD, BIF, CB, CPB, BKMG, FN;
autumn and winter 1957-1958, most abundant in October; rare to very
abundant on shells, Thalassia, Diplanthera, Syringodium; littoral and
upper infralittoral. °

Cladophora luteola Harv. BD, LGF, CPB, BKMG, FN, AA, SE; autumn,
winter, and early spring 1958-1959; rare to very abundant on Thalassia,
Diplanthera; littoral and upper infralittoral. *

Cladophora sp. LGF, FN; autumn and spring 1957, 1959; on Spyridia fila-
mentosa and Thalassia; upper infralittoral.

Cladophoropsis macromeres Taylor. 0-18; autumn 1958; rare, entangled in
algae; upper infralittoral.

Cladophoropsis membranacea (C.Ag.)Bgrgs. [Reported by Taylor (1936) from
Tarpon Springs.].

Codium decorticatum (Woodward)Howe. CPB; autumn 1957; rare; floating.

Codium taylori Silva. EK, PAGB; summer, autumn, and early winter 1958;

common to abundant on pilings and rock; upper infralittoral. [Reported
also by Earle (op. cit.) from MK in August on limestone rock.].

Derbesia vaucheriaeformis (Harv.)J.Ag. CPB; autumn 1958; very abundant
on Gracilaria verrucosa; littoral.

238 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Endoderme viride (Reinke)Lagerh. MK; found in and on Sargassum, Poly-
siphonia, and Callithamnion; January 1953. [Reported by Earle (op. cit.)].

Enteromorpha clathrata (Roth)Grev. BD; spring 1958; sparse on shells; lit-
toral. *

Enteromorpha crinita (Roth)J.Ag. CPB, MK; winter 1958; sparse to abundant
on shells; littoral and upper infralittoral.

Enteromorpha flexuosa (Wulf.)J.Ag. BD, LGF, BIF, MB, CPB, BKMG,
PK, M, PAGB, MP, PP, SE; late autumn, winter, and spring (once found
through summer at BD but in microscopic size) 1957, 1958, 1959; sparse
to very abundant on shells, muddy sand bottom, Diplanthera, Syringo-
dium, Ruppia, Thalassia; littoral and upper infralittoral; plants dwarfed
in late spring as water warms after winter. *

Enteromorpha intestinalis (L.)Grev. BD, LGF, BIF, MB, CB, LI, SWTBP,
PB, HCPA, CPB, BKMG, PAGB, MP, BCI; late autumn, winter, and
spring 1957, 1958, 1959; sparse to very abundant on shells, rocks, tuni-
cates, Thalassia, and muddy sand bottom, most abundant and luxuriant
in winter; littoral and upper infralittoral. [Reported also by Earle (op.
cit.) from the Courtney-Campbell Causeway].

Enteromorpha lingulata J.Ag. BD, LGF, BIF, CPB; winter and early spring
1957-1958; sparse to abundant on shells; littoral and upper infralittoral.
[Reported also by Earle (op. cit.) from the Courtney-Campbell Causeway
and by Taylor (1936) and Earle (op. cit.) from Tarpon Springs. ]. ?

Enteromorpha plumosa Kutz. BD, LGF, MB, CB, CPB, BKMG; autumn and
winter 1957-1958; sparse to abundant on shells, Thalassia, Diplanthera,
Syringodium; littoral and upper infralittoral; dwarf plants in early autumn.

Enteromorpha prolifera (Fl.Dan.)J.Ag. BD, LGF, MB, SWTBP, HB, CPB,
BKMG, PK, MK, M, PAGB, MP, BK; autumn, winter, and spring 1957-
1958, 1959; sparse to abundant on shells, Thalassia, Diplanthera, Syringo-
dium; littoral and upper infralittoral; dwarf plants in early autumn and late
spring and in Boca Ciega Bay. [Reported also by Earle (op. cit.) from
MK on Thalassia and algae in November and by Hutton et al. (op. cit.)
from Boca Ciega Bay].

Enteromorpha ramulosa (Smith)Hooker. BD, LGF, MB, LI, MP, FN; winter
1957-1958; sparse to very abundant on rocks, shells, Thalassia, Diplan-
thera; littoral and upperinfralittoral. *

Enteromorpha salina Kutz. BD, LGF, LI, HB, CPB, BKMG, PK, MK, M,
FN; winter and spring 1958-1959; sparse to abundant on shells, Thalassia,
Syringodium, Polysiphonia ramentacea; littoral and upper infralittoral. *

Enteromorpha sp. BD; winter 1957-1958; common to abundant on shells and
Diplanthera; littoral. *

Epicladia flustrae Reinke. PAGB; winter 1958; abundant on tunicates; lit-
toral.

Gomontia polyrhiza (Lagerh.)B. & F. HB, BKMG; winter 1958; sparse on
tunicates, shells and in shells; littoral.

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE 239

Halimeda tridens (E. & S.)Lamx. fa. tripartita (Barton)Collins. FN, AA, SE,
MAR, #4FL, 0-14, 0-18; throughout the year 1957-1959; sparse to very
abundant on muddy sand bottom, most abundant in late spring, summer,
and autumn; upper infralittoral. [Reported also by Taylor (1936) and
Earle (op. cit.) from Tarpon Springs.]. °

Monostroma latissima (Kutz.)Wittrock. Davis Causeway in Old Tampa Bay.
[Reported by Earle (op. cit.)].

Penicillus capitatus Lamarck. FN, AA, SE, MAR, #4FL, 0-14, 0-18; through-
out the year 1957-1959; sparse to very abundant on muddy sand bottom,
usually most abundant in warmer months of the year but in mild win-
ters no reduction in abundance is apparent; upper infralittoral. [Reported
also by Taylor (1936) and Earle (op. cit.) from Tarpon Springs.]. ®

Penicillus lamourouxii Decaisne. SE; spring and winter 1958; sparse on muddy
sand bottom; upper infralittoral. *

Phaeophila dendroides (Crouan)Batters. MK, SE; winter and spring 1958-
1959; sparse to abundant on Thalassia and in Hypnea musciformis; littoral
and upper infralittoral.

Protoderma marinum Reinke. BD, CPB; late autumn and winter 1958; sparse
on Thalassia and Diplanthera; littoral.

Rhizoclonium kerneri Stockmayer. BD, LGF, CPB; autumn and winter 1957-
1958, 1959; sparse to abundant on Diplanthera, Thalassia, Sargassum
filipendula; littoral.

Rhizoclonium kochianum Kutz. BD, LGF, BIF; autumn and winter 1957-
1958; on Spyridia filamentosa; upper infralittoral. [Reported also by
Earle (op. cit.) from Gandy Bridge, Tampa Bay.]. *

Rhizoclonium riparium (Roth)Harv. Gandy Bridge, Tampa Bay. [Reported
by Earle (op. cit.)].

Udotea conglutinata (Sol.)/Lamx. FN, AA, SE, MAR, #4FL, 0-14, 0-18;
throughout the year 1957-1959, most abundant in late autumn, winter,
and spring; sparse to abundant on muddy sand bottom; upper infralit-
toral. °

Ulva fasciata Delile. HB. [Reported by Taylor (1936) and by Earle (op. cit.)].

Ulva lactuca L. Piney Point, on south west end of Tampa Bay. [Reported by
Taylor (1954)].

Ulva lactuca L. var. latissima (L.)DeCandolle. BD, MP-T, LGF, BIF, MB,
PB, HCPA, CPB, PK, M, PAGB, MP, GB, PP; throughout the year 1957-
1959; sparse to very abundant on shells; littoral and upper infralittoral;
abundance seems to increase in spring with a large abundance in summer
and autumn and a decrease in late autumn. [Reported also by Taylor
(1936) from HB and by Hutton ef al. (op. cit.) from Boca Ciega Bay].

Ulva lactuca L. var. rigida (C.Ag.)LeJolis. BD, MB, HB, PAGB; winter and
early spring 1958; sparse to very abundant on shells and rock; littoral and
upper infralittoral.

240 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Ulvella lens Crouan. CPB, BKMG, AA; autumn and winter 1958-1959; rare
to abundant on Thalassia, more abundant in winter; littoral and upper
infralittoral.

PHAEOPHYCEAE

Dictyota cervicornis Kutz. MP, AA, 0-14, 0-18; summer, autumn, and early
winter 1957, 1958; sparse to abundant on rock, unattached at MP; upper
infralittoral. [Reported also by Hutton et al (op. cit.) from Boca Ciega
Bay and by Taylor (1936) from Tarpon Springs].

Dictyota dentata Lamx. CPB; autumn 1957; sparse unattached.

Dictyota dichotoma (Huds.)Lamx. FN, SE; autumn and early winter 1957;
sparse to abundant, unattached.

Dictyota linearis (L.)Grev. MP; autumn 1957; sparse, unattached.

Dictyota pardalis Kutz. sensu Bgrgs. 0-18; autumn 1958; rare on rock;
upper infralittoral. °

Ectocarpus duchassaingianus Grun. CPB, BKMG, PK, PAGB; autumn and
winter 1958-1959; sparse to very abundant on Thalassia, Chondria lepto-
cremon, and bryozoan; littoral and upper infralittoral; pleurilocular gam-
etangia present, at PK in January 1959 plants on Thalassia were sterile
but were fruiting on Chondria leptocremon which was itself epiphytic on
Thalassia.

Ectocarpus elachistaeformis Heydrich. BD, MB, CPB, BKMG; autumn, win-
ter, and early spring 1958-1959; sparse to very abundant on Thalassia,
Syringodium, Spyridia filamentosa; littoral and upper infralittoral.

Ectocarpus mitchellae Wary. 'BD, UGH, BIF, PB CPB) BRKMG a ekeaEe
found throughout the year at BD but only in autumn, winter, and spring
at all other stations 1957, 1958, 1959; mostly abundant to very abundant,
sparse in late spring and summer, on Thalassia, Diplanthera, Syringodium,
Ruppia, Enteromorpha, and shells; littoral and upper infralittoral; with
pleurilocular gametangia.

Ectocarpus rallsiae Vick. BKMG; autumn 1958; very abundant on Thalassia
and tunicates; littoral; unilocular sporangia and pleurilocular gametangia.

Ectocarpus siliculosus (Dillw.)Lyngbye. BD, HB, CPB; winter and _ spring
1958; sparse to very abundant on Thalassia and Diplanthera, much not
attached at BD; littoral; unilocular sporangia and pleurilocular gametangia;
became sparse at BD in spring but remained very abundant at CPB.

Ectocarpus sp. BD, LGF, BIF, M, MP; winter, spring, and summer 1957-
1958; sparse to abundant on Diplanthera, Ruppia, and shells; littoral and
upper infralittoral.

Eudesme zosterae (J.Ag.)Kylin. CPB, MK, BCI, FN; winter and spring 1957-
1958, 1959; sparse to very abundant on Thalassia, sparse in Boca Ciega
Bay; littoral and upper infralittoral; at FN found only near a bird guano
collecting rack.

Myrionema strangulans Grev. BKMG, FN, AA, SE; winter and spring 1959;
very abundant on Thalassia; littoral at BKMG, upper infralittoral at Tar-
pon Springs.

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE 241

Myriotrichia subcorymbosus (Holden in Collins)Blomquist. BD, LGF, BIF,
MB, CPB, BKMG, GB, PK, MK, FN, AA, SE; found only in autumn,
winter, and spring at all stations except at BD where it was found also
in summer, 1957-1959; sparse to very abundant on Thalassia, Diplanthera,
Syringodium, Ruppia, Enteromorpha prolifera, Gracilaria verrucosa, most
abundant in late autumn, winter, and spring; littoral and upper infra-
littoral; pleurilocular gemetangia always found. *

Padina vickersiae Hoyt. 0-18; autumn 1958; sparse on rock; upper infralit-
Oma. ©

Rosenvingea intricata (J.Ag.)Borgs. BD, CPB, BKMG, PK, M, MP, FN, SE:
winter and spring 1958-1959; sparse to very abundant on Thalassia,
Diplanthera, and Syringodium, most abundant in winter. *

Sargassum filipendula C.Ag. LGF, PAGB, SE, 0-14; autumn, winter, and
spring on rocks at PAGB and 0-14, unattached at all other stations; upper
infralittoral. °

Sargassum polyceratium Mont. BD; winter 1958; rare, unattached.

Sargassum pteropleuron Grun. FN, AA, SE, MAR, #4FL; throughout the
year 1957-1959: sparse to abundant, unattached. [Reported also by Tay-
lor (1936) from Tarpon Springs].

Sphacelaria furcigera Kutz. BD, M, LGF, BIF; autumn and spring 1957,
1958; sparse to abundant on Syringodium; upper infralittoral; found with
propagulae. *

RHODOPHYCEAE

Acanthophora muscoides (L.)Bory. BD, LGF, BIF, MB, CB, SWTBP, HCPA,
CPB, BKMG, PK, M, ECK, MP; found throughout the year but most
abundant in autumn and early winter, generally sparse in winter 1957-
1959; sparse to abundant, usually unattached, occasionally on Thalassia,
Syringodium, or worm tubes; littoral and upper infralittoral; at BD found
with antheridia in October and with tetraspores in November. [Reported
also by Hutton et al (op. cit.) from Boca Ciega Bay].

Acanthophora spicifera (Vahl)Bgrgs. LGF, BIF, MB, CB, M; autumn 1957;
abundant, usually unattached, but once found on Spyridia filamentosa;
upper infralittoral; antheridial at M in September.

Acrochaetium crassipes Bérgs. CPB, PAGB; winter 1958-1959; sparse on
Thalassia and Ceramium tenuissimum; littoral.

Acrochaetium flexuosum Vick. BD, LGF, MB, CB, CPB, PAGB; summer,
autumn, and winter 1957-1958; rare to very abundant on Thalassia,
Diplanthera, Syringodium, Ruppia, and a bryozoan; littoral and upper
infralittoral; all with monospores.

Acrochaetium sagraeanum (Mont.)Born. PK; winter 1959; rare on Thalassia;
upper infralittoral.

Acrochaetium sancti-thomae Bgrgs. CPB, BKMG; winter and early spring
1959; sparse on Thalassia and Spyridia filamentosa; littoral; with mono-
spores at CPB in winter.

242 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Acrochaetium sargassi Bgrgs. BD, LGF, PAGB; found throughout the year
1957-1958; abundant on Diplanthera, Syringodium, Ruppia, and on a
bryozoan; littoral and upper infralittoral; monospores found at all sta-
tions.

Acrochaetium seriatum B¢grgs. BD, LGF, MB, PK, MK; found throughout the
year 1958; sparse to very abundant on Thalassia, Diplanthera, Syringo-
dium, and Sargassum filipendula; littoral and upper infralittoral; mono-
spores found in spring at BD, MB, and MK, but in December at PK.

Acrochaetium sp. BD, LGF, BIF, MP; autumn, winter, and spring 1957-
1958; sparse to abundant on Diplanthera, Syringodium, and Spyridia fila-
mentosa; littoral and upper infralittoral.

Agardhiella ramosissima (Harv.)Kylin. FN; autumn 1958; very abundant, un-
attached; cystocarpic.

Agardhiella tenera (J.Ag.)Schmitz. BD, LGF, BIF, MB, NSD, SWTBP, HB,
PB, CPB, MK, PAGB, MP; autumn, winter and spring 1957, 1958, 1959;
sparse to very abundant, attached only at CPB and PAGB on shells and
rocks; littoral; cystocarpic at PAGB in December 1958.

Bostrychia montagnei Harv. SE; winter 1958; rare on sponge skeleton; littoral. °

Bostrychia rivularis Harv. CB; autumn 1957; abundant on mangrove roots;
littoral. *

Botryocladia occidentalis (Bgrgs.)Kylin. SE; winter 1957; rare, floating.

Callithamnion sp. EK; summer 1958; sparse on Codium taylori; upper infra-
littoral.

Centroceras clavulatum (C.Ag.)Mont. BD, LGF, MB, CPB, BKMG, Pk, MK,
PAGB, MP, GB, PP, FN, AA, SE, #4FL; found throughout the year
1957-1959, most abundant in winter and spring, found in bloom propor-
tions at CPB, BKMG in February and March 1959; sparse to very abun-
dant on Thalassia, Diplanthera, Syringodium, Ruppia, Acanthophora mus-
coides, Gracilaria verrucosa, Enteromorpha ramulosa, Chondria littoralis,
Polysiphonia ramentacea, Batophora oerstedi, and on detritus covered
rocks; littoral and upper infralittoral; tetrasporic at LGF in January and
August 1958, at CPB in March 1958, and at SE in September 1958,
antheridial at MB in April 1958 and at BKMG in October 1958, and
cystocarpic at MB in May 1958 and at BKMG in October 1958. [Re-
ported also by Taylor (1936) from HB]. ?

Ceramium byssoideum Harv. BD, LGF, CPB, BKMG, PK, Mk, M, SE, 0-18;
autumn and early winter 1958; sparse to very abundant on Thalassia,
Diplanthera, Syringodium and animal material; littoral and uper infra-
littoral. *

Ceramium codii (Richards)Mazoyer. FN, AA; winter 1958-1959; sparse on
Thalassia, Syringodium, and Halimeda tridens; upper infralittoral. °

Ceramium deslongchampsii Chauvin. BD; autumn 1957; sparse on Lomentaria
baileyana; littoral. *

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE 243

Ceramium cruciatum Collins & Hervey. FN; spring 1959; sparse on Thalassia;
upper infralittoral; tetrasporic. °

Ceramium diaphanum Roth. M; winter 1958; sparse on Gracilaria verrucosa;
upper infralittoral.

Ceramium rubrum (Huds.)C.Ag. MB; autumn 1957; on Syringodium; upper
infralittoral. *

Ceramium subtile J.Ag. BD, CPB, BKMG, PK, FN, AA, SE, 0-14, 0-18;
autumn, winter, and spring 1958-1959; sparse to very abundant on
Thalassia, Syringodium, Diplanthera, Caulerpa ashmeadii, Halimeda tri-
dens, Caulerpa cupressoides, Batophora oerstedi, Acetabularia farlowii,
Laurencia gemmifera, other algae; littoral and upper infralittoral; in
bloom proportions at CPB in March, at BKMG and PK in December
through March, tetrasporic at FN in April. ”

Ceramium tenuissimum (Lyngbye)J.Ag. BD, LGF, BIF, SWTBP, BKMG,
PK, EK, PAGB, FN, AA, SE, MAR, #4FL, 0-18; found throughout the
year 1957-1959; sparse to very abundant on Thalassia, Diplanthera,
Syringodium, Ruppia, Acanthophora muscoides, Polysiphonia subtilissima,
Caulerpa crassifolia, Laurencia poitei, Polysiphonia denudata, Polysi-
phonia ferulacea, Halimeda tridens, Caulerpa ashmeadii; littoral and
upper infralittoral; most abundant in autumn and early winter; anth-
eridial at FN in March 1959 and cystocarpic at AA in December 1958
and at SE in November 1958. [Reported also by Hutton et al (op. cit.)
from Boca Ciega Bay]. *

Ceramium tenuissimum (Lyngbye)J.Ag. var. arachnoideum (C.Ag.)J.Ag. FN,
AA; spring 1959; abundant on Thalassia; upper infralittoral. °

Ceramium sp. EK, MP, #4FL; found in June 1958 at EK, February 1958
at MP, and in November 1957 at #4FL; sparse on Thalassia, Syringo-
dium, and Codium taylori; upper infralittoral; tetrasporic at EK.

Champia parvula (C.Ag.)Harv. BD, LGF, BIF, MB, HB, CPB, MK, BK, BCI,
PP, FN, SE, 0-14, 0-18; found throughout the year 1957-1959; sparse
to abundant on Thalassia, Diplanthera, Syringodium, Udotea conglutinata,
Sargassum pteropleuron, Caulerpa cupressoides, Halimeda tridens, Lau-
rencia gemmifera, often unattached; littoral and upper infralittoral; tetra-
sporic at MP in March 1958, at SE in November 1958, at 0-14 in De-
cember 1958, and at 0-18 in September and November 1958, cystocarpic
at MP in March 1958, at 0-14 in December 1958, and at 0-18 in Septem-
ber 1958. ?

Chondria curvilineata Collins & Hervey. FN, AA, SE; April 1959; sparse to
abundant on Thalassia; littoral and upper infralittoral; tetrasporic at AA
and SE, cystocarpic at FN. *

Chondria dasyphylla (Wood.)C.Ag. MK, AA; spring 1958, 1959; sparse, un-
attached at MK but on Thalassia at AA; upper infralittoral; tetrasporic
at MK.

Chondria leptocremon (Melville)DeToni. PK, PAGB, FN, AA, SE, 0-14;
autumn, winter, and spring 1958-1959; sparse to very abundant on Tha-

244 JOURNAL OF ‘THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

lassia, Caulerpa crassifolia, Halimeda tridens, Caulerpa cupressoides, and
on rock; littoral and upper infralittoral; tetrasporic at AA in September,
October, February, and March 1958-1959 and at SE in March 1959;
cystocarpic at PK in November 1958 and at AA in January and February
1958; antheridial at AA in October 1958.

Chondria littoralis Harv. MK, PP: spring 1958; sparse to abundant, un-
attached but once found on Diplanthera at MK; upper infralittoral.

Chondria sedifolia Harv. PK, MK; autumn and early winter 1958; very
abundant on Thalassia; upper infralittoral; tetrasporic at MK, cystocarpic
at PK.

Chondria tenuissima (Goodenough and Woodward)C.Ag. BIF, CPB; autumn
and spring, 1957, 1958; unattached; cystocarpic at CPB in April 1958.

Chondria sp. SE; spring 1958; sparse on Penicillus lamourouxii; upper infra-
littoral. °

Corallina cubensis (Mont.)Kutz. emend. Borgs. 0-18; autumn 1958; abundant
on Digenia simplex; upper infralittoral. *

Dasya pedicellata (C.Ag.)C.Ag. BD, MB; spring 1958; sparse, unattached;
tetrasporic at BD in March 1958 and cystocarpic at BD in March 1958
and at MB in March 1958.

Digenia simplex (Wulf.)C.Ag. FN, AA, SE, #4FL, 0-18; throughout the year,
often on Thalassia and on rock, but mostly unattached; upper infralit-
toral. °

Erythrotrichia carnea (Dillw.)J.Ag. BD, LGF, BIF, MB, CB, CPB, BKMG,
PK, EK, M, PAGB, MP, GB, AA, SE, 0-18; throughout the year on Tha-
lassia, Diplanthera, Syringodium, Ruppia, Enteromorpha lingulata, En-
teromorpha flexuosa, Cladophora luteola, Myriotrichia subcorymbosus,
Gracilaria verrucosa, Polysiphonia macrocarpa, Spyridia filamentosa, Cen-
troceras clavulatum, Polysiphonia havanensis, Polysiphonia ramentacea,
Ceramium tenuissimum, Callithamnion sp., Lyngbya sordida, on diatoms
and bryozoan; littoral and upper infralittoral. [Reported also by Hutton
et al (op. cit.) from Boca Ciega Bay]. °

Eucheuma gelidium (J.Ag.)J.Ag. [Reported by Taylor (1936) from Tarpon
Springs].

Eucheuma isiforme (C.Ag.)J.Ag. LGF, BIF; winter and spring 1958; sparse,
unattached.

Fosliella farinosa (Lamx.)Howe. FN, AA, SE; autumn, winter and spring
1958-1959: very abundant on Thalassia; littoral and upper infralittoral;
cystocarpic at FN in April 1959, at AA in March 1959; and at SE in
December 1958. ®

Fosliella lejolisii (Rosanoff)Howe. CPB, BKMG, PK, MK, MP, FN, AA, SE,
#4FL, 0-18; autumn, winter, and spring 1957-1958, 1958-1959; abundant
to very abundant on Thalassia, Halophila engelmannii and all algae
found; littoral and upper infralittoral; cystocarpic at PK in October and
December 1958, at FN in December 1958 and March 1959, at AA in

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE 245

December 1958 and January, March, and April 1959, and at SE in April
1959.

Gelidiella acerosa (F¢rsskal)Feldmann & Hamel. BCI, MI; autumn 1955;
very abundant, unattached. [Reported as Geldium rigidum by Hutton
et al. (op. cit.)].

Gelidium corneum (Huds.)Lamx. LGF, GB: summer and autumn 1958; abun-
dant on shells and piling; upper infralittoral.

Gelidium crinale (Turn.)Lamx. LGF; winter and summer 1958; sparse to
abundant on Sargassum filipendula in winter, unattached in summer 1958.
[Reported also by Taylor (1936) from HB].

Goniotrichum alsidii (Zanard.)Howe. BD, LGF, BIF, CPB, BKMG, Pk, Mk,
M, PAGB, FN; autumn, winter, and spring 1957-1958, 1958-1959; sparse
to very abundant on Thalassia, Diplanthera, Syringodium, Ruppia, Gracil-
aria verrucosa, Hypnea cervicornis, Ceramium tenuissimum, Polysiphonia
ramentacea, Ceramium subtile, Polysiphonia binneyi, Hypnea musciformis,
Ceramium diaphanum, Polysiphonia denudata, Polysiphonia harveyi, Poly-
siphonia ferulacea, Ceramium cruciatum; littoral and upper infralittoral. °

Grateloupia filicina (Wulf.)C.Ag. PAGB; winter 1958; rare on rock; upper
infralittoral; cystocarpic.

Griffithsia globulifera Harv. FN, SE, #4FL, 0-14, 0-18; autumn, winter, and
spring 1957, 1958-1959; sparse to abundant on Thalassia, Polysiphonia
denudata, Caulerpa cupressoides, and Halimeda tridens; upper infralit-
toral; tetrasporic at 0-14 in December 1958, and cystocarpic at SE in
November 1958 and #4FL in November 1957. ®

Griffithsia tenuis C.Ag. FN, AA; late winter and spring 1959; sparse on Tha-
lassia; wpper infralittoral; tetrasporic at AA in April; antheridial at FN
in February and March. *

Gracilaria blodgettii Harv. BD, LGF, MB, CPB, BKMG, MK, M, ECK, MP;
autumn, winter, and spring 1957-1958; sparse to abundant, mostly un-
attached, some plants on shells at CPB.

Gracilaria damaecornis J.Ag. BD, LGF, NSD; autumn and winter 1957-1958;
sparse, unattached; cystocarpic at BD in January 1958.

Gracilaria foliifera (Fgrsskal)Bgrgs. PAGB; early winter 1958; very abundant
on rocks; upper infralittoral; some very small plants are cystocarpic, much
larger plants are sterile.

Gracilaria verrucosa (Huds.)Papenf. BD, LGF, BIF, MB, CB, NSD, SWTBP,
HB, PB, HCPA, MP-T, CPB, BKMG, PK, MK, M, ECK, MP, BCI, PP;
found throughout the year 1957-1959; sparse to very abundant, only once
found attached at BD where a few plants were on a shell; at certain times
at the regularly collected stations in Tampa Bay and Boca Ciega Bay vast
amounts of the species were found; tetrasporic at CB in September 1957.
[Reported also by Taylor (1936) from HB, and by Taylor (1954) from
Piney Pt., southwest end of Tampa Bay, and by Hutton ef al. (op. cit.)
from Boca Ciega Bay].

246 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Gracilaria sp. BD: autumn 1957: rare, unattached.

Halymenia agardhii DeToni. 0-18; autumn 1958 sparse on rock; upper infra-
littoral. *

Herposiphonia secunda (C.Ag.)Ambronn. FN, AA; autumn and spring 1958,
1959; rare to very abundant 1958, 1959 on Thalassia; upper infralittoral;
tetrasporic at AA in November 1958, cystocarpic at AA in October and
November 1958 and in April 1959. ®

Herposiphonia tenella (C.Ag.)Ambronn. CPB, BKMG, PK, MK, AA, SE:
throughout the year 1958-1959; sparse to very abundant on Thalassia,
Polysiphonia ramentacea, and on tunicates; littoral and upper infralittoral;
most abundant in autumn and spring; tetrasporic at CPB in November
1958, cystocarpic at BKMG in October 1958.

Hildenbrandtia prototypus Nardo. 0-18; autumn 1958; very abundant on
rocks; upper infralittoral; tetrasporic in September. °

Hypnea cervicornis J.Ag. BD, LGF, CB, CPB, BKMG, MK, M, MP; autumn,
winter, and spring 1957, 1958, 1959; sparse to very abundant, found at-
tached only at BKMG in February 1959; littoral; most abundant in spring.
[Reported by Hutton et al. (op. cit.) from Boca Ciega Bay].

Hypnea cornuta (Lamx.)J.Ag. BD, BKMG; autumn, winter, and spring 1958;
abundant, unattached.

Hypnea musciformis (Wulf.)Lamx. BD, MP-T, LGF, BIF, HB, PB, HCPA,
CPB, BKMG, EK, MK, MP, GB, PP; found throughout the year 1957-
1959; sparse to very abundant, unattached; tetrasporic at BD in Decem-
ber 1958; often hugh quantities of the species are found at stations at
all times of the year, especially at BD; in winter the plant dwarfs and
loses the hamate tips. [Reported also by Taylor (1954) from Piney Pt.,
southwest end of Tampa Bay, and by Hutton et al. (op. cit.) from Boca
Ciega Bay].

Hypnea spinella (C.Ag.)Kutz. LGF, BIF, CPB, MP; autumn 1957; sparse,
unattached.

Jania capillacea Hary. FN; spring 1958 and winter 1958-1959; sparse on
Thalassia, Syringodium, and on a shell; upper infralittoral; cystocarpic in
March and December 1958. *

Laurencia gemmifera Harv. FN, #4FL, 0-14, 0-18; autumn, winter, and
spring 1958-1959; sparse to very abundant on Thalassia and rocks; upper
infralittoral; most abundant in autumn; cystocarpic at 0-18 in November. *

Laurencia intricata Lamx. 0-18; autumn 1958; sparse on Dictyota cervicornis;
upper infralittoral. *

Laurencia microcladia Kutz. FN; winter 1957, 1959; sparse on Thalassia;
upper infralittoral; tetrasporic in February 1959. *

Laurencia papillosa (F¢rsskal)Grev. MK; spring 1958; sparse on Thalassia;
upper infralittoral.

Laurencia poitei (Lamx.)Howe. MB, BKMG, ECK, FN, AA, SE, MAR, #4FL,
0-18; found throughout the year 1957-1959; sparse to very abundant on
Thalassia at MB, some on Thalassia at FN and AA, and some on Halimeda

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE 247

tridens at SE, some on rock at 0-18, mostly unattached; upper infralittoral;
tetrasporic at FN in October 1957; tremendous abundance at all Tarpon
Springs stations throughout the year except at 0-18. [Reported also by
Taylor (1936) from Tarpon Springs]. ”

Laurencia sp. SE; autumn 1958; sparse on Sargassum filipendula; wpper in-
fralittoral. *

Lomentaria baileyana (Harv.)Farlow. BD, CPB, BKMG, PK, Mk, PAGB, ECK,
MP, BK, PP, SE; found throughout the year 1957-1959; sparse to very
abundant, mostly unattached, but occasionally on Thalassia, algae, tuni-
cates, shells, and worm tubes; upper infralittoral; cystocarpic at BKMG
in October 1958, cystocarpic at CPB in October 1958, and antheridial at
BKMG in October 1958. [Reported by Hutton et al. (op. cit.) from Boca
Ciega Bay]. ”

Lophosiphonia bermudensis Collins & Hervey. CPB, BKMG; autumn 1958;
very abundant on Thalassia; littoral; tetrasporic at BKMG in October
1958, cystocarpic at CPB in October 1958, and antheridial at BKMG in
October 1958.

Lophosiphonia saccorhiza Collins & Hervey. FN, AA, SE; autumn, winter,
and spring 1958-1959; sparse to very abundant on Thalassia, abundance
seems to be indifferent to season of years; upper infralittoral; tetrasporic
and antheridial at AA in October 1958. °

Melobesia membranacea (Esper)Lamx. FN; spring 1959; abundant on Thalas-
sia; upper infralittoral; cystocarpic in April. *

Polysiphonia binneyi Harv. BKMG, PK, AA; winter and spring 1959; sparse
on Thalassia; upper infralittoral.

Polysiphonia denudata (Dillw.)Kutz. BD, LGF, MB, HB, PAGB, SE, 0-14;
winter, spring, and autumn 1958; sparse to very abundant on Gracilaria
verrucosa, Sargassum filipendula, Caulerpa cupressoides, on shells and
rocks, occasionally unattached; littoral and upper infralittoral; tetrasporic
at BD in January, at MB in March and at HB in February, cystocarpic at
SE in November. ”

Polysiphonia ferulacea (Suhr.)J.Ag. BD, LGF, BIF, BKMG, FN, AA, SE;
found throughout the year but mostly in autumn, winter, and spring 1957,
1958-1959; sparse to very abundant on Thalassia, Diplanthera, Laurencia
poitei, and Udotea conglutinata; littoral and upper infralittoral; tetra-
sporic at LGF in November 1957, at BKMG in November 1958, at FN
in November 1958, and April 1959, cystocarpic at BD in October 1957,
at LGF in October 1958, at BIF in October 1957, and at AA in Decem-
ber 1958 and in April 1959; antheridial at AA in April 1959. *

Polysiphonia gorgoniae Harv. AA, MAR, #4FL, 0-18; autumn 1957, 1958;
sparse on Halimeda tridens, Sargassum pteropleuron, and Laurencia gem-
mifera; upper infralittoral. *

Polysiphonia harveyi Bailey. FN; spring 1958; sparse, unattached. *

Polysiphonia havanensis Mont. CPB, BKMG; winter and spring 1958-1959;
sparse on Thalassia; littoral.

248 - JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Polysiphonia howei Hollenberg. CPB, FN, AA, SE, #4FL; found throughout
the year 1958-1959; sparse to very abundant on Thalassia and Penicillus
lamourouxii; littoral and upper infralittoral; tetrasporic at AA in March
1959, cystocarpic at FN in July 1959 and at AA in December 1958, an-
theridial at CPB in September 1958 and at FN in March 1959; abundance
not seemingly related to season of year.

Polysiphonia macrocarpa Harv. LGF, CPB, BKMG, PK, FN, SE, #4FL,
0-18 autumn, winter, and spring 1957, 1958-1959; sparse on Thalassia,
Diplanthera, Batophora oerstedi, Caulerpa ashmeadii, and Digenia sim-
plex; littoral and upper infralittoral; tetrasporic at SE in December 1957,
cystocarpic at CPB and PK in December 1958, at BKMG in October and
November 1958, at #4FL in November 1957 and at 0-18 in November
NO5Si2

Polysiphonia ramentacea Harv. BD, LGF, PK, FN, AA; autumn, winter, and
spring 1958-1959; sparse to abundant on Thalassia, Diplanthera, and
Syringodium; upper infralittoral. [Reported also by Taylor (1936) from
Tarpon Springs]. °

Polysiphonia subtilissima Mont. BD, BIF, EK; autumn 1957, spring, summer
1958; sparse to abundant on Syringodium, Gracilaria verrucosa, and
Wurdemannia miniata; upper infralittoral; tetrasporic at BD in May 1958.

Polysiphonia sp. BD, SWTBP; autumn and spring 1957, 1958; sparse on
Diplanthera and Lomentaria baileyana; littoral and upper infralittoral. *

Rhabdonia ramosissima (Hary.)J.Ag. BD, BIF, 0-18; winter, spring, and
autumn 1958; sparse, most unattached, once found at 0-18 on rock; upper
infralittoral; cystocarpic at BD in March 1958.

Spyridia filamentosa (Wulf.)Harv. BD, MP-T, LGF, BIF, MB, CB, NSD,
SWTBP, HB, HCPA, CPB, PK, MK, M, MP, GB, BK, PP, FN; AA, 0=16:
found throughout the year 1957-1959; sparse to very abundant, mostly
unattached but occasional plants found on Thalassia, Diplanthera Syrin-
godium, Ruppia, Gracilaria verrucosa, Caulerpa ashmeadii, Halimeda
tridens, and on shells; littoral and upper infralittoral; usually most abun-
dant in warmer months, March through November, but occasionally very
abundant at some stations in winter with mild conditions; at several sta-
tions (BD, LGF, MB, CPB, M, MP) vast amounts were found. [Reported
also by Taylor (1936) from HB, and by Taylor (1954) from Piney Point,
southwest end of Tampa Bay]. ”

Wurdemannia miniata (Drav.)Feldmann & Hamel. EK; summer 1958; abun-
dant on shells; upper infralittoral.

XANTHOPHYCEAE

Vaucheria sp. MB; autumn and winter 1957-1958; abundant on muddy sand
bottom; upper infralittoral. *

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF. MARINE ALGAE 249

DISCUSSION

Seasonal distribution studies of all species listed were not pos-
sible because algal epiphytic studies of seagrass leaves were not
initiated at all stations at the beginning of the work, and because
several miscellaneous collections exhibited species records. How-
ever, the seasonal distribution of most species in the list represents
data from adequate collecting at stations visited each month.

At all stations regularly visited seagrasses were dense. This
growth influenced algae in several ways. First, seagrass leaves
provide a solid base for epiphytic growth; second, large quantities
of unattached algae often accumulate owing to the hindrance
against tidal movement by the leaves; third, Codiaceous green algae
are commonly found in areas with seagrasses, probably because of
the soft muddy sand bottoms which usually obtain in areas of sea-
grass growth (this is exemplified at Tarpon Springs); and fourth,
seagrasses provide a moderate amount of protection from severe
wave or current action.

Noteworthy are the enormous amounts of unattached red and
attached green algae often present at stations in Tampa Bay, Boca
Ciega Bay, and at Tarpon Springs.

The following discussion presents this data along with the sea-
sonal variation of the algae involved. The green algae encountered
in abundance in Tampa Bay and Boca Ciega Bay were Enteromor-
pha intestinalis and Ulva lactuca, and the red algal species found
so abundantly were: Hypnea musciformis, Gracilaria verrucosa, and
Spyridia filamentosa. In April 1958 Hypnea cornuta was abundant
on Bird Key Middle Ground, but this phenomenon was cursory.
At Tarpon Springs, Laurencia poitei was extremely abundant and
plants of several species of Codiaceae were abundant. Seagrass
epiphytes often formed blooms, but no discussion will be made of
this flora. A seasonal study of algal epiphytes on the seagrass leaves
would be most profitable.

At Beach Drive Hypnea musciformis was relatively abundant
throughout the year, but was least abundant in February and March
1958, and most abundant in April through July. The species was
drastically reduced in August and September, and then became
very abundant from October through December 1958. This spe-
cies appeared to be dominant at this station. Gracilaria verrucosa

250 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

was least abundant in May and June 1958, and most abundant in
March and April and from July through December 1958. The
species was found throughout the year. Spyridia filamentosa was
not found from November 1957 through March 1958. It appeared
in sparse quantity in April 1958, but in July through September
1958 the quantity increased. Abundance reduced in October
through the end of the study. Ulva lactuca latissima was found
throughout the year, but except for the spring months, February
through June 1958, when plant abundance was large, plants were
sparse. Enteromorpha intestinalis was only abundant during the
winter months, November 1957 through January 1958. Plants per-
sisted through April and then disappeared. Abundant quantities
again reappeared in December 1958. Individual algal species
abundance varied, but during each month of the year at least one
species was extremely abundant.

At Lower Gandy Flat Hypnea musciformis was abundant in
December 1957 and January 1958. Plants then disappeared, but
in June 1958 an immense quantity was found. Plants of this
species were sparse after this month until the end of the study.
Gracilaria verrucosa was found throughout the year, and except for
July 1958, when abundance was reduced, was extremely abundant
at all times. Of the algal species found on this flat Gracilaria was
dominant. Spyridia filamentosa was found throughout the year
and was sparse except during the months of April through July
1958 when vast quantities of plants were present. Ulva was only
found from April through November 1958. From May through
September abundance was immense. - Enteromorpha was only
found from November 1957 through March 1958, and was abun-
dant only in February. During every month of the year one algal
species was extremely abundant, even though individual species
varied in abundance.

Hypnea musciformis was never found in Mobbly Bay. Graci-
laria verrucosa was found throughout the year and was extremely
abundant from December 1957 through May 1958. Sparse quanti-
ties obtained in June and July, but an enormous abundance was
found in August 1958. After this month quantities were sparse.
This species was dominant at the station. Spyridia filamentosa was
found throughout the year except during October and November
1958. The species was extremely abundant from April through

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE 251

August 1958. Ulva lactuca was sporadic in occurrence. It was
sparsely found only in these months: February, March, August,
September, and December 1958. Enteromorpha intestinalis was
extremely abundant in December 1957 and January 1958, but
diminished in abundance thereafter and finally disappeared in
June 1958. One algal species was extremely abundant during each
month of the year, except from September through December 1958,
when, for some unexplained reason, all macroscopic algae became
scarce.

At Cats Point Bank in Boca Ciega Bay Hypnea musciformis
was only found in May 1958 and was rare. Gracilaria verrucosa
was sporadic in occurrence, but was very abundant in May 1958.
Spyridia filamentosa, excepting six months, was observed from
November 1957 through March 1959. During April, May, June,
July, September, October, and December 1958 and January 1959
immense quantities of the species was present. Ulva lactuca latis-
sima was recorded every month from November 1957 through
March 1959, except during December 1957, February and March
1958 and March 1959. In November 1957, January, April, May,
September through December 1958, and January 1959, the species
was very abundant. If any algal species was dominant at this sta-
tion, Ulva probably was. Enteromorpha intestinalis was only re-
corded in April 1958, but was abundant.

Hypnea musciformis was only found in May, June, and De-
cember 1958 in 16 months of collecting at Bird Key Middle Ground,
but was extremely abundant in May and June. Gracilaria verru-
cosa was only sparsely found on four collecting trips, in November
1957, March 1958, and January and February 1959. Spyridia fila-
mentosa was very abundant in July 1958, but was never recorded
on any other collecting trip. Ulva lactuca latissima was never
recorded at this station. Enteromorpha intestinalis was recorded
only in February 1959. No unattached macroscopic alga was dom-
inant on the flat.

At Pine Key Hypnea musciformis and Enteromorpha intestinalis
were not found from October 1958 through March 1959. The other
three algal species were extremely sporadic in occurrence and never
abundant. No unattached macroscopic alga was dominant at the
station.

252 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Of the three Boca Ciega Bay stations the most abundant
quantities of macroscopic algae were found at Cats Point Bank.
However, even the latter station does not begin to approximate
the bottom algal coverage found at the Tampa Bay stations.

At Tarpon Springs algae different from Tampa Bay and Boca
Ciega Bay were found. Except for Laurencia poitei, which was
often found unattached and in enormous quantity, the most abun-
dant macroscopic benthic algae were green algae of the Codiaceae
and one species of Caulerpa. These species are: Penicillus capi-
tatus, Halimeda tridens tripartita, Udotea conglutinata, and Caul-
erpa ashmeadii. The mass of algae so abundant in Tampa Bay and,
to some extent, in Boca Ciega Bay consist of species different from
those existing in the offshore areas of Tarpon Springs. It is in-
teresting to note here that most algal species common to Boca
Ciega Bay and Tarpon Springs were epiphytic forms.

At the station located in the Anclote Anchorage Laurencia poitei
was only recorded on four trips from monthly visits from June
1958 through February 1960. Penicillus capitatus was present
every month, and was usually sparse. Halimeda was present every
month and was usually sparse, except for one increase in abundance
in September 1958. After this month abundance declined. Udotea
was not conspicuous at the station. It was sporadically observed,
and was always sparse. Caulerpa was the dominant of the benthic
algae. It was present every month and was always extremely
abundant.

At the southeast corner of North Anclote Key the observations
on benthic algae extended from December 1957 through December
1958. Laurencia was present every month and was extremely
abundant from December through May, after which the plants
became sparse. Penicillus was extremely abundant during the
year, except for a slight decline in abundance in October and No-
vember. Halimeda and Udotea were very sparse and not conspicu-
ous. Caulerpa was not found at this station. Penicillus was the
dominant alga of these five species.

On the flat north of North Anclote Key Laurencia was always
observed and in immense quantity from December 1957 through
January 1959. This species was dominant at the station. Peni-
cillus, Halimeda, and Udotea were occasionally abundant, but

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE 253

usually were sparse. Udotea was most abundant during the winter
months. Caulerpa was only found three times in sparse amounts.

TABLE II—TOTALS OF TAXA FOUND IN STUDY AREAS.

3 S Z D
: ro) o on)
Q, a Qa, -S
o) a o) jor
S ae re = m=
Tampa Bay 29 9 36 12 86
Beach Drive 16 i 30 3 56
Lower Gandy Flat 14 5) 26 4 39
Mobbly Bay 8 2 15 8 28
Boca Ciega Bay 32 14 ol 14 ele
Cats Point Bank ie 8 25 5 55
Bird Key Middle Ground 10 7 HI 5 43
Pine Key 4 4 19 2 29
Tarpon Springs 24 10 AT 14 95
Anclote Anchorage 8 4 23 5 AO
SE corner of North Anclote Key 13 6 24 6 49
Flat north of North Anclote Key 11 6 29 5 51
0-14* 5 2 6 if! 14
0-18** 6 3 18 2 29

*__based on one collection.

**___bhased on two collections.

Table II gives species composition of Tampa Bay, Boca Ciega
Bay, and at Tarpon Springs. Those numbers appearing in the
general column of Tampa Bay, etc., are the total taxa of each algal
class found in Tampa Bay, Boca Ciega Bay, or at Tarpon Springs,
all stations included. Table III contains a synopsis of the num-
ber of taxa found at each regularly collected station in a particular
area and compares the three areas.

In Tampa Bay the number of species present at a station was
reduced as one proceeded northward. This might be due to the
salinity gradient. In Boca Ciega Bay Cats Point Bank produced

254 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TABLE III—TABULATION OF TAXA

Tampa Bay

No. of taxa found only at Beach
Drive of the Tampa Bay stations

No. of taxa found only at Lower
Gandy Flat of the Tampa Bay stations

No. of taxa found only at
Mobbly Bay of the Tampa Bay stations

Total no. of taxa found only in Tampa Bay

No. of taxa found in Tampa Bay found also
in Boca Ciega Bay but not at Tarpon Springs

No. of taxa found in Tampa Bay found also
at Tarpon Springs but not in Boca Ciega Bay

No. of taxa found in all three areas

No. of taxa found in common at Beach Drive,
Lower Gandy Flat, and Mobby Bay

No. of epiphytic taxa
Boca Ciega Bay
No. of taxa found only at Cats

Point Bank of the bay stations

No. of taxa found only at

Bird Key Middle Ground of the bay stations
No. of taxa found only at

Pine Key of the bay stations

Total no. of taxa found

only in Boca Ciega Bay

No. of taxa found in the bay found also

in Tampa Bay but not at Tarpon Springs

No. of taxa found in the bay found also
at Tarpon Springs but not in Tampa Bay

No. of taxa found in all three areas

No. of taxa found in common at:Cats Point
Bank, Bird Key Middle Ground, and Pine Key

No. of epiphytic taxa

IN COLLECTING AREAS,

Myxophyceae

Ke)

Chlorophyceae

(os)

-~l

Phaeophyceae

Rhodophyceae

12
24

11
37

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE 2595

TABLE I1I—Continued

Myxophyceae
Chlorophyceae
Phaeophyceae
Rhodophyceae

Tarpon Springs

No. of taxa found only at the AA station

of the Tarpon Springs stations 1 2) 0 2
No. of taxa found only at the SE

station of the Tarpon Springs stations 3 8 0 5
No. of taxa found only at the FN

station of the Tarpon Springs stations 3 4 iL 6
Total no. of taxa found only at Tarpon Springs 6 15) 4 25
No. of taxa found at Tarpon Springs found

also in Tampa Bay but not in Boca Ciega Bay 0 i 0 1
No. of taxa found at Tarpon Springs found also

in Boca Ciega Bay but not in Tampa Bay 6 2 3 if
No. of taxa found in all three areas Y) if 3 14
No. of taxa found in common

at the AA, SE, and FN stations 1 4 8 12
No. of epiphytic taxa 13 il 4 40

the greatest number of species of the regularly collected stations.
Species characteristic of brackish waters (e.g., Tampa Bay) were
abundant at this station, Enteromorpha spp., Ulva, and Gracilaria
verrucosa. The flat north of North Anclote Key was found with
the greatest number of species at Tarpon Springs. At Tarpon
Springs a tropical marine algal assemblage was found, character-
ized by Penicillus, Halimeda, Udotea, Caulerpa, Acetabularia, and
Batophora. Reference to Table III will show that the number of
taxa found in common with Tampa Bay was insignificant.

The areas northwest of Anclote Key in 14-18 feet of water
should be more intensively collected. It was found that as rock
was encountered the abundance of attached macroscopic red algae
increased. At all stations in all areas the number of epiphytic
species, especially on seagrass leaves, was great.

256 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Of the 86 taxa of algae found in Tampa Bay, 30 were found only
in Tampa Bay (35% of total listed flora). Fifty-four taxa were
found as epiphytes. Thirty-two taxa were also found in Boca Ciega
Bay but not at Tarpon Springs. Only two taxa were also found
at Tarpon Springs that were not found in Boca Ciega Bay (Clad-
ophora sp. and Rhabdonia ramosissima-drift in Tampa Bay). Twen-
ty-six taxa were found in all three areas.

In Boca Ciega Bay 111 taxa of algae were found. Thirty-five
taxa were limited to this bay (32% of total listed flora). Thirty-
two taxa were found in common with Tampa Bay, while 18 taxa
were found in common with Tarpon Springs. Twenty-six species
were found in all three areas.

At Tarpon Springs 95 taxa were found. Of these 50 taxa were
found only at Tarpon Springs (53% of total listed flora—significant
figure). Only two forms were found in common with Tampa Bay,
and 18 taxa were found in common with Boca Ciega Bay. Twenty-
six taxa were found in all three areas.

In determining whether a species was stenohaline or euryhaline,
I decided it was stenohaline if it was found only in a particular area
and euryhaline if it was found in all three areas. If a plant was
found only in Tampa Bay the indication was that it might be an
obligate brackish water plant. If a species was found in Tampa
Bay and Boca Ciega Bay but not at Tarpon Springs or in Boca Ciega
Bay and in either of the other two areas no decision on the salinity
tolerance was made.

Twenty-two attached taxa were found only in Tampa Bay and
were designated as brackish water plants, 24 taxa were euryhaline,
and 24 more taxa were found in Tampa Bay and Boca Ciega Bay
but not at Tarpon Springs. The taxa not found attached were not
considered in this discussion. Thirty-two attached taxa were found
only in Boca Ciega Bay, 25 attached taxa were euryhaline, and 39
attached taxa were also found in either Tampa Bay or at Tarpon
Springs. Forty-five attached taxa designated as stenohaline were
restricted to Tarpon Springs, 25 attached taxa were euryhaline,
and 17 additional attached taxa were found also in either Boca
Ciega Bay or Tampa Bay. Further collecting could reveal differ-
ences.

It is concluded that Tampa Bay displays a typical brackish
water flora, the number of marine species decreasing as the mean

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE 257

salinity decreases. Despite the fact that a moderate number of
species were limited to Boca Ciega Bay, most of the species found
there were also found in one of the other two areas or in both, sig-
nifying that Boca Ciega Bay constitutes a transition between the
brackish water estuarine condition found in Tampa Bay and the
marine condition found at Tarpon Springs. Several species found
in Tampa Bay which are typically marine species represented de-
tached plants carried in by water currents. However, the large
masses of unattached red algae found in the seagrass beds in Tampa
Bay were not shifted by water currents (e.g., Gracilaria verrucosa,
Hypnea musciformis, and Spyridia filamentosa).

It is noteworthy to state that nine of 16 taxa of green algae
found at Beach Drive, SE, in Tampa Bay were forms of Entero-
morpha. At Lower Gandy Flat, seven of 14 taxa of green algae
were Enteromorpha, and at Mobbly Bay five of eight green algal
taxa of green algae were Enteromorpha. At Beach Drive and
Mobbly Bay two additional taxa of green algae were the two varie-
ties of Ulva lactuca. These algae are indicative of an estuary or
of brackish water.

It appears that a rigid seasonal control of the presence of species
does not exist. Of the 86 taxa found in Tampa Bay, two were
found only in summer. Sixty-six taxa were limited to some portion
of autumn, winter, or spring. Fourteen taxa were found through-
out the year. This indicates that the relative abundance of species
during the hot summer months is quite low and that the highest
number of species is found during autumn, winter, and spring or
some portion of this period. This also indicates the relative mild-
ness of the weather during the colder months.

Of the 111 taxa of plants found in Boca Ciega Bay most were
found either during the winter or some portion of the autumn, win-
ter, and spring (60 taxa). Seventeen taxa were found throughout
the year. Twenty taxa were found during the three seasons of
autumn, winter and spring. Only four taxa were restricted to the
summer months. It is possible that the summer water temperatures
of the shallow Tampa Bay and Boca Ciega Bay were sufficiently
high to limit growth. One water temperature reading in five and
one-half inches of water at Cats Point Bank in Boca Ciega Bay in
July 1958 was 39.8°C. It is possible that algal growth may be cur-
tailed when water temperatures exceed 30.0°C. This aspect re-
quires critical study. |

258 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

At Tarpon Springs the same seasonal picture obtained. No taxa
were found only in summer. Eighteen taxa were found throughout
the year. The data from Tarpon Springs also indicated that the
greatest number of species were found during the autumn, winter,
and spring or some portion of this period (55 taxa).

This discussion emphasizes the subtropical nature of the flora,
and the relative mildness of winter.

According to Dr. Clark Rogerson (personal communication) Dr.
Howe made these field notes from Port Tampa in Tampa Bay in
1902; Acanthophora—unattached, Spyridia—common in shallow
water, Ulva—on stones in low littoral, Enteromorpha in low littoral,
Amphibia (= Bostrychia) on mangrove shoots and on Salsola stems
in littoral, Caloglossa on Salsola stems in littoral, Chondria—unat-
tached, Ceramion—unattached, Spirulina subsolsa—on Acantho-
phora. Despite the fact that many of Dr. Howe’s collections remain
unidentified these sketchy field notes are interesting as these algae
found back in 1902 were also found in Tampa Bay in this study.
Also interesting is the observance of Enteromorpha and Ulva on
22 November 1902, for in my study Enteromorpha, particularly,
was found to appear and proliferate in November. Evidently Spy-
ridia was a conspicuous element of the flora at Port Tampa in 1902
as it was in the bay in 1957-1959. Dr. Howe’s notice of Caloglossa
is noteworthy, for I did not find the genus in my study [it is pre-
sumed that the species would be Caloglossa leprieurii (Mont.)
J.Ag.].

SUMMARY

Marine algae in Tampa Bay, Boca Ciega Bay, and at Tarpon
Springs were studied on monthly visits from September, 1957,
to April, 1959. One hundred and ninety-five taxa of algae are re-
ported. Extensive seasonal data could not be obtained on all spe-
cies listed as algal epiphytic studies of seagrass leaves were not
initiated at the beginning of the study and because of the existence
of sporadic miscellaneous collections.

Nine stations, three each in Tampa Bay, Boca Ciega Bay, and
at Tarpon Springs, were visited monthly to collect and observe
plants and to record hydrographic information, e.g., water tempera-
ture, salinity, depth of water, stage and type of tide, water clarity,
and substrate. The observed mean salinity at Beach Drive, SE,
was 24.7 o/oo, was 23.1 o/oo at Lower Gandy Flat, and was 21.3

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE 259

o0/oo at Mobbly Bay in Tampa Bay. This gradient is believed to
adversely influence marine algal growth. Table II displays a re-
duction of number of algal taxa from Beach Drive to Mobbly Bay.

Large masses of unattached red algae were found at most sta-
tions and often an abundance of attached green algae was found.
In the bays Hypnea musciformis, Gracilaria verrucosa, and Spyridia
filamentosa were abundant. At Tarpon Springs Laurencia poitei
was plentiful. Enteromorpha intestinalis formed massive growths
in Tampa Bay and at Cats Point Bank in winter and spring. At
Tarpon Springs several species of Codiaceae were abundant. A
high percentage of the flora in all three areas were epiphytic species.

Eighty-six taxa of algae were found in Tampa Bay, 111 taxa
were recorded in Boca Ciega Bay, and 95 taxa were listed from
Tarpon Springs. Of the Tampa Bay flora 35% was limited to
that bay, 32% of the Boca Ciega Bay flora was restricted to that
bay, while 52% of the Tarpon Springs flora was limited to that
area.

It was concluded that Tampa Bay exhibited a brackish water
flora, that Boca Ciega Bay displayed a flora transitional between
Tampa Bay and the marine flora found at Tarpon Springs.

In all the areas the greatest number of species were found dur-
ing autumn, winter, and spring or during some portion of this
period.

LITERATURE CITED
EARLE, S. A.

1956. Marine Chlorophyta of the upper west coast of Florida. Unpublished
masters thesis. Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.

FELDMAN, J.

1954. Ecology of marine algae. Manual of Phycology. Ed. by G. M.
Smith. Chronica Botanica Co., Waltham, Mass.

GOODELL, H. G., and D. S. GORSLINE
1959. Sedimentary textural analysis of Tampa Bay, Florida. Preliminary
data report from the Sediment Research Laboratory. Dept. of
Geology. Florida State University, Tallahassee. mimeo.

HUTTON, R. F., B. ELDRED, K. D. WOODBURN, and R. M. INGLE
1956. The ecology of Boca Ciega Bay with special reference to dredging
and filling operations. Florida State Board of Conservation Marine
Laboratory, St. Petersburg, Technical Series No. 21: 1-38.

260 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

OLSON ES Caw.

1953. Tampa Bay studies. Report No. 1. Oceanographic Institute, Florida
State University, Contribution No. 19: 1-27.

PHILLIPS, R: 'C.

1960. Observations on the ecology and distribution of the Florida sea-

grasses. Prof. Pap. Series, No. 2. Fla. St. Bd. Conserv. Mar. Lab.
St. Petersburg.

SHOEMAKER, W. S.

1954. Light penetration in the Gulf of Mexico. Fish. Bull., U. S. 89:
139-141.

TAYLOR, W. R.

1936. Notes on algae from the tropical Atlantic Ocean, III. Papers Mich.
Acad. Sci., Arts & Lett., 21: 199-207.

—. 1954. Distribution of marine algae in the Gulf of Mexico. Papers
Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts & Lett., 39: 85-109.

U. S. Dept. Commerce, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1957. Tide Tables
(1958). East Coast, North and South America (Including Green-
land). U.S. Govern. Print. Office.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 23(3), 1960.

NEWS AND NOTES
Edited by

J. E. HurcamMan
Florida Southern College

Mariana: Three members of the faculty of Chipola Junior College were
active in N. S. F. Institutes this last summer: R. R. Stevens (Biology), Vander-
bilt University; A. S. Johnson (Physics), Clemson College; and Charles Adams,
Auburn.

Orlando: Mr. Charles J. Biggers (Biology) was a NSF participant study-
ing at the University of Oklahoma.

Jacksonville: We have just received the following list of the state co-
ordinating committee members from Dr. James B. Fleek, Chairman. In ad-
dition to other duties they have the responsibility of collecting news items on
their own campus unless a special reporter has been appointed. Help them
get all news of interest to FAS members so that your school does not draw a
blank in this department.

Barry College, 11300 NE 2nd Ave., Miami 38—Sister M. Angita
Bethune-Cookman College, Daytona Beach—R. J. Gainous

Central Florida Junior College, Ocala—William J. McCawley

Chippola Junior College, Marianna—Albert S. Johnson

Dade County Jr. College, 1410 NE 2nd Ave., Miami, 32—Lewis D. Ober
Florida A. & M. University, Tallahassee—E. Earl Ware

Florida Christian College, Temple Terrace, Tampa 10—W. D. Burgess
Florida N. & I. Memorial College, St. Augustine—A. B. Williams
Florida Presbyterian College, P. O. Box 387, St. Petersburg 31—I. G. Foster
Florida Southern College, Lakeland—J. E. Hutchman

Florida State University, Tallahassee—Vernon Fox

Gulf Coast Jr. College, Panama City, Flai—Prof. Maurice Swann
Jacksonville University, Jacksonville 11—James B. Fleek

Orlando Junior College, 901 Highland St.—Charles J. Biggers

Palm Beach Junior College, 400 S. Congress Ave.—Craig Gathman
Pensacola Junior College, 614 N. Palofax St.—E. G. Owens

Rollins College, Winter Park, Herbert Hellwege

St. Petersburg Junior College, 6605 5th Ave. (10) Mary Louise Stork
Stetson University, Deland—A. M. Winchester

University of Florida, Gainesville—Francis E. Ray

University of Tampa, Tampa 6—Robert J. Dew

University of Miami, Coral Gables 34—Burton Hunt

University of South Florida, 349 Plant Ave., Tampa—Sidney J. French
Florida Presbyterian College, P. O. Box 387, St. Petersburg—I. G. Foster

Lakeland: Florida Southern College faculty chalked up a good record
last summer: Five received Ph. D. degrees—O. S. Bandy from University of
Florida; J. Birney Gross from George Peabody College for Teachers; Wm. R.
Linneman from University of Illinois; Thomas B. Swann, Jr., from University
of Florida; Robert Lee Zimmerman from Duke. Three received M. A. De-

262 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
grees—Mrs. Sylvia S. Hardaway, University of Florida; John R. Sandbach,
State University of Iowa; Harold M. Smeltzly from Temple. Eighteen in-
cluding two under National Science Foundation Grants completed courses of
advanced study in other schools; twenty-seven taught in Colleges and Institu-
tions; six had writings published; fifty traveled extensively in USA and five in
foreign countries; six were active in miscellaneous improvement fields.

Washington: National Science Foundation has announced a program for
the design and development of new laboratory equipment for school and col-
leges teaching of mathematics, science, and engineering. Deadline for pro-
posals is December 15. Application for proper forms should be made to
NSF, Washington, D. C.

Tampa: Dr. Glenn E. Woolfenden has been appointed by Dr. Ashford
to the dual role of Reporter and Membership Chairman for the University of
South Florida. A drive to recruit a minimum of thirty members is under way.

Notice! This Department will give honorable mention to the first school
that reports 100% science faculty membership in FAS. Get revised member-
ship application forms from Dr. James B. Lackey, Secretary (U. of Fla.). Com-
pleted application with check attached goes to Dr. Alex G. Smith, Treasurer
(OMor Hila):

Jacksonville: New members of the faculty at J. U. are: Chemistry—Dr.
R. Milford White, Ph. D., Physical Chemistory, U. at Kansas, 1960; Biology—
Dr. Rhodes B. Holliman, Ph. D., Fla. State U., 1960, Parasitology; Mr. J. Hill
Hamon, M.S. SOC. SCI.—Dr. Robert Lee Goulding, Head, Dept. of Ed. (On
FSU faculty for many years); Dr. Claude E. Thompson, Prof. of Psychology;
Mrs. MarylaLan D. Picht, Instr. Hist. & Soc. Sci.

This Department congratulates Jacksonville University for forming a
Sigma Xi Club on its campus with eighteen members.

Dr. Harold Barrett, Director of the Millar-Wilson Laboratory, has a $5500
grant from the Petroleum Research Fund of the Amer. Chem. Soc. for research
on Pyrimidine Precursors.

Lakeland: This fall Florida Southern College started a second year of
Educational Television on Channel 3, Tampa, WEDU.. The program is de-
signed to stimulate interest in foreign languages presenting conversational Ger-
man as an entertaining show that gives the cultural background of German
speaking countries. News on Art, Science and Literature trom these countries
are obtained every week from the Washington Embassy and Consular Agencies
in New York and presented on the show. Guests from these countries are in-
terviewed and participate in teaching German phrases. Pictures and maps
are used to describe the countries and outstanding personalities, artists, and
scientists of these countries are introduced through short biographies and _ pic-
tures. The title of the show is “ALLERLET” (all kinds of things) written
and performed by Dr. Juliana Jordan, Chairman, German Department, FSC.
A conversational textbook is used, “Spoken German”. Since the first show
started in 1959 under the title “Gasthaus”, 385 books have been ordered. Let-
ters received from 34 cities in Florida indicate a large miscellaneous audience.
Jack Renninger, alumnus of FSC, 1951, is the director.

Tallahassee: Dr. E. Earl Ware, Acting Head of Biology Department,
Florida A & M University, has furnished the following news: Mr. C. W.

NEWS AND NOTES 263

Pryor, head of the Biology Department, Florida A & M University, is on leave
at Kansas University. He is currently a National Science Foundation granteee
and is working with Dr. Cora Downs on a problem of Histochemical changes
in cultured mammalian cells. Mr. Pryor has also chosen his dissertation prob-
lem,—Antigenic and Metabolic differences between the Red and White Pox
Variants of Vaccinia and cowpox.

Dr. Margaret S. Collins is on leave with a grant through the resources
of the Department of Zoology at the University of Minnesota. She will be
engaged in studies on anthropod integuments in connection with her work on
water loss through the integument of various species of Florida termies.

Professor Joseph J. White comes to us this year from Elizabeth City State
Teachers College as Assistant Professor in Zoology. Miss Julia M. Hardin joins
the biology staff as an instructor in biology. She has a Master of Science from
Howard University and has studied at Brandeis University.

The Department anticipates the promotion of a state wide High School
Science fair to be held on the University’s Campus sometime during the Spring
Semester.

Panama City: William H. Good, science instructor at Gulf Coast Junior
College, was among the 20 high school and college teachers from 12 states who
attended an institute in radiation biology the past summer at Florida State
University. The institute, first of its kind held at FSU, was sponsored and
financed by the NSF and the AEC. A grant from the NSF provided support
for the 10 high school and the 10 college teachers at the intitute. The AEC
has provided funds to supply the special laboratory equipment required to
maintain the institute.

The science and math division at Gulf Coast Junior College moved into
a new science building this year, the first building constructed on the new
college campus at Gulf Coast Junior College, in Panama City, Florida. Thus
far, other divisions in the college have remained in the old quarters across
Highway 98, West, but these are expected to join the science and math divisions
sometime in the spring semester.

Mr. Maurice Swann, science instructor, is a firm believer in the power of
mass communications these days. Mr. Swann, who wanted a telescope for
use in the various school science clubs he sponsors in Bay County, told the
area newspapers and radio-TV stations he was in the market for a good, cheap
telescope. Less than a day later he was flooded with calls and before the
week was out, his science clubs had their telescope.

The science and math divisions are working closely now with a new di-
vision, general engineering technology, which is being offered at Gulf Coast
for the first time. Gulf Coast is the first junior college in the state to offer
such a program, which President Richard Morley feels “is designed to keep
pace with Florida’s fast-growing industrial progress.”

The Junior Engineering Technical Society, No. 673, has been organized
at Gulf Coast Junior College to serve those science and engineering students
enrolled. Advisors for the club have been contacted from each of the major
industrial, professional and armed service branches of the Panama City area.
Club activities have been greatly implemented through facilities provided by
the recently completed science building.

264 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Tampa: Classes at the University of South Florida began on schedule
September 26, 1960. Of the approximately 120 charter faculty members the
following are in the natural science division under the direction of T. A. Ash-
ford:

Biological Science: E. P. Martin, chairman, ecology, T. C. Helvey, bio-
physics, G. E. Nelson, ecology and ornithology, J. O. Krivanek, study of slime
molds and embryology, G. K. Burlingham, plant physiology, C. F. Cole, ichthy-
ology, F. E. Friedl, parasitology, G. G. Robinson, comparative physiology,
G. E. Woolfenden, ornithology, J. D. Ray, O. Lakela, and J. P. Patman, plant
taxonomy, and A. A. Latina, plant anatomy.

Physical Science: C. C. Clark, chairman, H. W. Kendall, physics, gaseous
electronics, J. E. Fernandez, physical organic chemistry, W. J. Ragan, geology,
F. F. Agens, physical science, L. E. Monley, analytic chemistry, F. M. Dudley,
chemistry, T. W. G. Solomons, synthetic organic chemistry, and J. A. Carr,
gemology.

Mathematics: R. C. Yates, chairman, D. C. Rose, function theory (series),
F. L. Cleaver, point set topology, geometry of numbers, G. J. Cowell, W. J.
Davis, R. Li, Fairchild, S. Frank, G. €. Kidder, I. Ri Euckenbachwandmhnen.
Smith.

Tampa: Examinations Committee Moves! New offices of the Examina-
tions Committee will be located in Tampa, Florida. The University of South
Florida has generously provided ample space in its new $1,200,000 Science
Building to house all activities of the Examinations Committee. The Commit-
tee was transferred from Saint Louis University during the last week of Oc-
tober. The Committee’s Test Distribution Center began operations from its
new home on November 1, 1960. All correspondence and orders should be
addressed to: EXAMINATIONS COMMITTEE—ACS, University of South
Florida, Tampa 4, Florida.

West Palm Beach: ‘The Science and Mathematics Departments of Roose-
velt Junior College is in the process of organizing a “Science Club” under the
sponsorship of Miss Ruby L. Bullock of the Mathematics Department and Sam-
uel H. Cooke of the Science Department.

Mr. Samuel H. Cooke, teacher of Physical and Biological Sciences at
Roosevelt Junior College was guest speaker at the National Science Institute
of High School Teachers at Albany State College, Albany, Georgia the last
week in June 1960. He, also, attended the Workshop on Community Junior
College at Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan from August
list to 12th:

Lakeland: The Robert S. Bly Chapter of the Student Affiliate of the
American Chemical Society at Florida Southern College for the year 1960-61,
began with a definite membership of twenty-five students and a potential for
many more by the end of the semester. The chapter plans a Science Fair
(Chemitry Magic Chow) and a banquet to be held sometime the latter part of
April. Other programs and tentative field trips are planned throughout the
school year. The Bly Chapter was awarded superior rating by the ACS
Council Committee on Chemical Education in the ACS October 1960 News-
letter, “for submitting a report of a superior nature.” The organization and its
members are very proud of this honor and are striving to receive it again this
year. Professor Austin H. Beebe is faculty adviser to the student affiliate.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS

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Quarterly Journal

of the

Florida Academy

of Sciences

Vol. 23 December. 1960 No. 4
Contents
Hansen—Pregnancy Diagnosis in Selected Mammals Using
eemeneatcivananram) eS 00 265
Manning—Some Growth Changes in the Stone Crab,
Memppe Mercenaria (Say) 3 278
Hunt—Tolerance of a Fresh-Water Snail, Marisa Cornuarietis
WOM ar Vater 278
Caldwell—Gray Squirrels Larcenously Feeding at Cracker-
Peer amemmtaehines) 200) ee 285

Lackey—Chemical Microbiotic Relationships in Certain
Florida Surface Water Supplies of Flowing Waters

SEMEL OTe) Eee ine eee RR Nk 289
Loftin—An Annotated Check-List of Trematodes and Cestodes
and Their Vertebrate Hosts from Northwest Florida ______ 302

Shirley—Effect of Age on Lipid Phosphorus, Ribo- and
Desoxyribonucleic Acids of the Heart and Muscle

OE CLRUBE IS cg TRS es RR 315
Calaway—A Significant New Flagellate from Warm

Mimcrnmomrmmes, Hloridai 319
Provenzano—Note on Paguristes Cadenati, a Hermit Crab

Ee eprom UV peat 325

Phillips—The Ecology of Marine Plants of Crystal Bay, Florida 328
Reema NOG oc. kw 338

VoL. 23 DECEMBER, 1960 No. 4

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research
Editor—J. C. Dickinson, Jr.

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fmm QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE
BeOriDA ACADEMY, OF SCIENCES

Vor. 23 DECEMBER, 1960 No. 4

PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS IN SELECTED MAMMALS
USING THE MALE ANURAN TEST

KeirH L. HANSEN AND JOHN C. THURBER!
Stetson University

Early pregnancy diagnosis using the male anuran test seems
to have reached its highest degree of success on the human species.
Anuran biological assays are based upon the fact that hormones
of placental origin will stimulate spermiation in the male salientian.
The male anuran test has been accomplished with at least some
measure of success upon both the mare (Sakuma, 1952) and the
cow (Bhaduri and Bardhan, 1949). Using Japanese frogs and toads,
Sakuma (1952) reported that negative reactions resulted in attempts
to diagnose the pregnant ox, swine, goat, and rabbit.

It was therefore the purpose of our study to investigate the
use and reliability of the male anuran test on four species (cow,
horse, dog, chimpanzee) representing the four principal placental
types among mammals.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The general procedure followed the use of the standard male
anuran test for the diagnosis of pregnancy. The test animals em-
ployed were males of the southern toad (Bufo t. terrestris) and
southern leopard frog (Rana pipiens sphenocephala). Both of these
forms have been shown to be reliable test animals in the determina-
tion of early human pregnancy (Hansen, 1960). Fluids hypothe-
sized to contain a gonadotropic hormone were subcutaneously
injected in amounts varying both in quantity and concentration.
The injected animals were allowed a reaction time of 2-3 hours,

* Present address: Biology Department, Seacrest High School, Delray Beach,
Florida.

NIAN 4 1084

266 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

at which time cloacal fluid was removed with a small pipette by
capillarity. The cloacal fluid was examined microscopically for
spermatozoa, the presence of which indicates a positive reaction,
or pregnancy.

The four mammals selected on the basis of their morphological
placental type included the horse—diffuse placenta; cow—cotyl-
edonary placenta; dog—zonary placenta; and chimpanzee—dis-
coidal placenta.

Urine, milk, and fecal matter from pregnant bovines was ob-
tained for testing from local dairies. Bovine urine is most easily
taken by massaging and titillating the escutheon area of the cow.
Blood serum from pregnant mares and bitches was received through
the assistance of local veterinarians. Chimpanzee pregnancy urine
and fecal samples were generously supplied by the Yerkes Labora-
tories of Primate Biology of Emory University at Orange Park,
Florida. The details of the treatment and preparation of the vari-
ous injection materials will be discussed accompanying the results.

RESULTS

Bovine tests. Following the technique of Bhaduri and Bardhan
(1957), bovine fecal solutions were prepared by adding 10 grams
of feces in 100 cc. of distilled water. This solution was thoroughly
shaken, strained through muslin, filtered, centrifuged, and then in-
jected into test animals. Since negative results were obtained in
all but one case using this technique, a method for concentrating
the gonadotropic factor was employed after Bhaduri, Chakravarti,
and Bardhan (1955). In this method, 30 grams of feces in 100 cc.
of distilled water was thoroughly shaken for 30 minutes, strained
through muslin, filtered, and refrigerated over night. The follow-
ing day, 15 grams of aluminum-oxide was added to the solution
and it was shaken for 30 minutes. The residual aluminum-oxide
was then shaken with 15 cc. of distilled water, filtered, neutralized
with dilute hydrochloric acid and tested for its activity in the lab-
oratory animals. Milk from pregnant cattle was injected whole and
diluted with distilled water. Bovine pregnancy urine was centri-
fuged to remove extraneous materials and injected both dilute
and as whole urine.

Except for a low percentage of positive tests using the water-
fecal solution (20%) and the water-milk solution (29%), attempts

DIAGNOSIS IN MAMMALS USING MALE ANURAN TEST — 267

to diagnose pregnancy in the cow were completely negative (Table
I). The single positive test using the water-fecal solution was ob-
tained on a cow in the 16th day of gestation. The frog used for
this test received a 6 cc. injection of a 1:1 water-fecal solution.
The four positive reactions from milk injections were from two
cows, one in the 16th and the other in the 75th day of gestation.

TABLE I

RESULTS OF ANURAN PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS UPON MAMMALS
REPRESENTING THE FOUR PLACENTAL TYPES.

Anuran Teck Resal Per-
Tested Mammal Injection Test No. CeeN uns centage
Preparation Animal Tests Pos. Neg. Accuracy
Water-fecal 1) ObS6 = 5 il 4 20
solution
Cow Al. oxide- R.p.s. 3 0 5) 0
(Bos taurus) fecal sol.
Preg. urine R.p.s. 3 0 3 0
Milk R.p.s. 14 4 10 29
Blood serum Bitty 2 2 0
Horse
(Equus caballus) Blood serum Beate i 3 4 48
Dog
(Canis familaris) Blood serum Bete 2 0 2 0)
Water-fecal 8 R.p.s. 12 0 12 0
solution A B.t.t.
Chimpanzee Alcohol- Beet: ii 0 7 0
(Pan satyrus) fecal sol.
Al. oxide- state DD 0 2 0
fecal sol.
Preg. urine B.t.t. 10 0 10 0

R.p.s.*—Rana pipiens sphenocephala.
B.t.t. *—Bufo t. terrestris.

268 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY- OF SCIENCES

The frogs used each received a 1:1 water-milk solution injection.
Control tests using all types of injection solutions proved totally
negative.

Mare tests. The most reliable pregnancy prediction among the
four mammals tested was obtained with the horse (48%). Utilizing
blood serum exclusively, three correct positives in seven tests re-
sulted from known pregnancies (Table I). The three toads re-
sponding positively received injections of 1.0, 2.0, and 2.8 cc. of
serum each. Four animals giving negative results were later defi-
nitely established as non-pregnancies.

Dog tests. Of four tests conducted using blood serum, two were
found in time to have been conducted on non-pregnant bitches.
This resulted in only two tests being carried to completion on preg-
nant dogs and both gave negative reactions (Table I). These two
animals were in approximately their 35th and 42nd day of gesta-
tion.

Chimpanzee tests. Using a water-fecal solution, 12 tests resulted
negatively on the chimpanzee (Table I). Females in their 18th,
62nd, 105th and 130th day of gestation were tested with 3, 3, 2,
and 4 tests respectively. Seven tests made on two individuals
(62nd and 130th day of pregnancy) using an alcohol-precipitation
method for the fecal solution proved negative. The alcohol-pre-
cipitation technique was effected as follows: 30 grams of feces
was shaken in 75 cc. of distilled water for 30 minutes, filtered, cen-
trifuged, and decanted. Then 30 cc. of the decant was treated with
four volumes of 90% alcohol. The resulting flocculent precipitate
was centrifuged and the sediment dried on filter paper. This pre-
cipitate was then shaken for 5 minutes in 15 cc. of distilled water,
filtered, and injected. An aluminum-oxide precipitation method
(see bovine tests) using fecal solutions from the same two indi-
viduals also gave negative results.

Urine samples from chimpanzees in their 33rd, 110th, and 182nd
day of gestation, tested in 4, 3, and 3 toads respectively, all gave
negative reactions (Table: 1).

Human tests. It is well established that early human pregnancy
urine induces spermiation in an ever increasing number of male
anuran species throughout the world. Since some success in preg-
nancy determination had been achieved using bovine fecal solu-

DIAGNOSIS IN MAMMALS USING MALE ANURAN TEST = 269

tions, three tests employing human fecal solutions were attempted.
In all three cases, positive results were obtained. These were
further corroborated by positive tests using urine samples from
these same three individuals. An attempt in these same three cases
to employ saliva as the injection material resulted negatively.

DISCUSSION

The basis for the biological pregnancy assay rests upon the fact
that gonadotropic hormones of one species will stimulate the gonads
of another species. Pregnancy diagnosis in humans, using the an-
uran test, is by the detection of gonadotropic hormones present in
the urine. Turner (1949) points out that placental products vary
markedly among the different mammalian groups. Depending upon
the mammal, the hormone is produced by either the fetal or ma-
ternal placenta (Witschi, 1956). In the mare for example, there is
evidence that the gonadotropic hormone is derived from the en-
dometrial cups rather than from chorionic tissue (Turner, 1949).
With the human, on the other hand, chorionic gonadotropin appears
to be produced by certain cells of the chorionic villi which are
endocrinal in nature. The hormone is then released into the ma-
ternal blood supply which is quite rich in the area of placental at-
tachment. The hormone in some mammals is removed in varying
amounts by the kidneys. According to Witschi (1956), in the human
the hormone titer is 6 to 10 times higher in the blood serum than
in the urine.

In cattle and now in human feces, gonadotropins have been
found which initiate spermiation in anuran test animals. The ques-
tion arises as to the mode of entry of these hormones into the in-
testinal contents. Although there is the possibility of entry ac-
companying the digestive enzymes, this does not seem likely. The
negative results obtained with human saliva offers at least partial
evidence to negate this possibility. It seems more probable that
the gonadotropic hormone pass from the blood in the capillary-rich
intestinal mucosa into the chyme. The absorption of water by the
colon would probably further concentrate the hormone in the feces.

The source of the pregnancy hormone in milk is also problem-
atic. Almost surely, by some physiological mechanism, the hor-
mone enters the milk during its production in the mammary tissues.

270 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

It is rather difficult to explain our inability to reproduce results
somewhat comparable to that of Bhaduri, Chakravarti, and Bard-
han (1955) in their diagnosis of bovine pregnancy. Efforts were
made to use a wide range of dilutions and concentrations of injec-
tion materials to allow for the possibility of either low or high hor-
mone titers. Although it is possible that the test animals (male
southern toads and southern leopard frogs) were refractory, their
positive response to human urine and fecal solutions would help
nullify this hypothesis. It seems more likely that the inconsistency
lies with the bovine species tested here. Some clarification is
gained from a review of the literature dealing with bovine preg-
nancy diagnosis by Bhaduri and Bardhan (1957). These workers
list eight ranid and bufonid species which have been successfully
used as test animals for pregnancy determination in cattle. How-
ever, four other bufonid species are reported as giving negative
or inconsistent results. The results on the pregnant ox as recorded
by Sakuma (1952) in addition to the results from this work add two
more records on the negative side of the ledger. In the light of
these data one might question the general reliability of the anuran
test in bovine pregnancy detection.

The high percentage of negative responses when using horse
serum may possibly be explained by the fact that no definite dates
were known on the gestation period of the mares involved. Since
the gonadotropic hormone in horse serum is detectable by rat and
rabbit tests from the 45th to the 140th day of gestation (Cole and
Hart, 1942), it is likely that the negative reactions were due to
hormonal deficiencies. This is definitely true in the case of one
mare which was practically at full term when tested.

The complete absence of positive responses in tests made on
the chimpanzee was striking since the chimp is usually assigned
the closest relationship to man of any living species. According
to Witschi (1956), man is the only species so far known in which
the placental hormone is formed exclusively by the embryo. Since
the chimpanzee is of the same placental type as man, there is a
strong probability that the gonadotropic hormone of the former
might also be of fetal origin. From the results of our work, it
would seem that the gonadotropic hormone production in the
chimpanzee is proportionately less than found in the human. This
is in part substantiated by Zuckerman (1935) who stated that the
Ascheim-Zondek urine reaction for the diagnosis of pregnancy is

DIAGNOSIS IN MAMMALS USING MALE ANURAN TEST 271

given by the chimpanzee, but it appears to be usable only for a
limited period toward the beginning of pregnancy. He also pointed
out that the urine of pregnant monkeys is incapable of giving re-
sponses to the Ascheim-Zondek test. In a comparison of rhesus
monkeys and humans, Witschi (1956) writes, “the hormonal picture
in human pregnancy differs mostly by the relatively enormous
quantities of hormones that are produced in the chorionic placen-
tas, particularly chorionic gonadotropin, estrogen, and_ progest-
erone. It would appear, therefore, that the anuran pregnancy
test is not applicable in its use on the chimpanzee due to a quanti-
tative factor in gonadotropic hormone production.

From the results of this work we are led to conclude that the
placental type peculiar to any one mammal seems to have little
direct bearing upon the reaction of that species to the male anuran
pregnancy test. It would seem rather that placental gonadotropic
hormone production is the critical factor to be considered. This is
evidenced by the human which is unique even among the primates
for its liberation of large amounts of chorionic gonadotropin.

SUMMARY

1. Results from anuran pregnancy tests, using the southern toad
(Bufo t. terrestris) and southern leopard frog (Rana pipiens spheno-
cephala) as test animals, upon mammals (cow, horse, dog, chim-
panzee) representing the four placental types are given.

2. Although a low percentage of accuracy was achieved using
water-fecal solutions (20%) and milk (29%) as injection material,
all other attempts to diagnose pregnancy in the cow proved nega-
tive.

3. An accuracy of 43% was obtained using horse serum and it
is believed that higher results might be expected if tests were made
on mares in gestation between the 45th and 140th day.

4. Blood serum from pregnant bitches resulted in negative re-
actions.

5. Complete negative results were obtained from water-fecal
solutions, aluminum-oxide and alcohol-fecal precipitants, and urine
from the chimpanzee.

6. Human fecal solutions were found to react positively in the

272 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

anuran pregnancy test, while saliva from the same individuals re-
acted negatively.

7. On the basis of the mammals herein studied, we are led to
conclude that the placental type peculiar to any one mammal does
not seem to have any direct bearing upon its reaction to the anuran
test for pregnancy diagnosis.

LITERATURE CITED

BHADURI, J. L., and N. R. BARDHAN

1949. A preliminary note on the use of the male toad, Bufo melanostictus
(Schneid), as a test for bovine pregnancy. Sci. and Culture, 15(2):
78-80.

1957. Bovine faecal gametokinetic activity in the male toad, Bufo stomaticus.
Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta Mookerjee Memor., 1957: 275-282.
BHADURIL, J. L., R. N. CHAKRAVARTI, and N. R. BARDHAN
1955. Extraction and concentration of the gametokinetic-active principle of
bovine feces by alcohol-precipitation and alumina-adsorption tech-
nique. Amer. J. Veterinary Research, 16(59): 286-290.
COLE, H:. H.; and G. H. HART
1942. Diagnosis of pregnancy in the mare by hormonal means. J. Amer.
Vet. Med. Assc., 101: 124-128.
HANSEN, K. L.
1960. The use of male southern toads and southern leopard frogs for
pregnancy diagnosis. Herpetologica, 16(1): 33-38.
SAKUMA, Y.
1952. The semen excretion test of male batrachia for the diagnosis of early
pregnancy in the mare. Tohoku J. Agric. Research, 3(1): 69-81.
THUIRIN ORS (Ci, ID)
1949. General endocrinology. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia. 604 pp.

WITSCHI, E.
1956. Development of vertebrates. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia.
588 pp.
ZUCKERMAN, S.

1935. The Ascheim-Zondek diagnosis of pregnancy in the chimpanzee.
Amer. J. Physiol., 110(3): 597-601.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., (1960) 23(4), 1961.

SOME GROWTH CHANGES IN THE STONE CRAB,
MENIPPE MERCENARIA (SAY) !

RAYMOND B. MANNING
University of Miami

Changes in body form with growth are well-known in decapod
crustaceans. Among those noted are a shifting of the position of
the orbits, sexual differentiation of the brachyuran abdomen, and
disproportional growth of appendages. Teissier (1960) summar-
ized some aspects of relative growth, and gave examples of this
phenomenon in various crustaceans.

In the Brachyura, particularly in the mud crabs, Family Xanthi-
dae, body proportions are used as generic and specific characters.
These proportions are relatively constant in mature individuals, and,
in many species, are essential for identification. The shape of the
juvenile is often quite different from that of the adult, giving rise
to difficulties in identification. Young of many species of xanthids
have not been described, and, unless series are available, are often
difficult to properly identify.

The stone crab, Menippe mercenaria (Say), is a common inhabi-
tant of inshore waters from North Carolina to Mexico (Rathbun,
1930). The narrow frontal region is the most characteristic feature
of the adult stone crab. A marked difference in the relative width
of the fronto-orbital region was noted in a series of juvenile M.
mercenaria collected in the northern part of Florida Bay during a
study of the ecology of Florida Bay estuaries supported by the
Florida State Board of Conservation. The following observations
were made on a series of M. mercenaria from South Florida, most
of which were collected in the above-mentioned area. All of the
material is deposited in the collections of The Marine Laboratory,
University of Miami. |

In mature specimens of M. mercenaria, the fronto-orbital width
is less than half the carapace width. In the juveniles, the orbits
are widely separated, and consequently the fronto-orbital width is
much greater in relation to the width of the carapace. The transi-
tion zone between the juvenile and adult carapace shape is be-
tween 20 to 30 mm. carapace length.

* Contribution No. 294 from The Marine Laboratory, University of Miami,
Miami, Florida.

274 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Changes in fronto-orbital width with increasing size are sum-
marized in Table 1 and shown in Figure 1.

TABLE 1

MEASUREMENTS OF MENIPPE MERCENARIA, WITH THE FRONTO-
ORBITAL WIDTH EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE
OF CARAPACE WIDTH.

FOW, as
(GIL CW FOW % CW
OO G ie eas ae eas ROL EG SLES ca 1W7all 24.0 13.8 Sie
PAL) 16.4 10.4 63.4
9.9 14.1 9.1 64.5
6.9 9.4 6.8 HQ
LO) NO) rie Ad otal A A taped eee 62.8 91.2 O6.7 40.2
22.3 O2.1 16.9 52.6
10.6 14.6 9.5 (SJ
8.0 Tail led 67.6
6.7 9.2 6.7 72.8
Sex not determined _-- 5.9 8.3 5.8 69.9
Pal 7.0 5.4 77.1
49 6.8 Bad CoL0)

The characteristic shape of the frontal lobes in the adult crab
is not evident in specimens smaller than 20 mm. carapace length.
Under 14 mm. carapace length, the lobes are only slightly sinuate.

Stridulation ridges are not evident in specimens smaller than
15 mm. carapace length. Although these ridges are well developed
in adult M. mercenaria, stridulating has not been observed in this
species (Guinot-Dumortier and Dumortier, 1960).

The juvenile stone crab, then, is in the process of gradual adop-
tion of adult characters during the time of its growth from 14 to 30
mm. in carapace length.

Habitat. Hay and Shore (1918) reported that in North Carolina
juvenile M. mercenaria were found in deeper channels where they
lived under shell fragments. In northwest Florida, Menippe appar-
ently prefers turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum) flats (Wass, op. cit.)
Florida Bay juveniles are most often found on the hard bottom of
tidal channels rather than in the Thalassia flats, which in this area

bo
=i
Ol

SOME GROWTH CHANGES IN THE STONE CRAB

Figure 1. Outline sketches of the carapace of Menippe mercenaria, showing
the change in fronto-orbital width with increasing size. (a.)
Q. Ce WO inane (0) Of Chive SiO mms (yrs Gane Oi
mm. a, b, and c not magnified to same scale.

276 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

are heavily silted. Juveniles but not adults are readily trawled in
Florida Bay suggesting that the young stages do not form permanent
burrows as do the adults. The adults support a restricted trap
fishery in deeper channels west and north of Florida Bay proper.

Juveniles, under 8 mm. carapace length, were collected in Flor-
ida Bay from October through April, indicating an extended spawn-
ing season in this area. Neither juveniles nor adults were collected
in salinities less than 31 0/oo during the three-year survey.

Color. Both Hay and Shore, and Wass remarked on the dark
color of the carapace in the juveniles. Florida Bay specimens were
predominantly black or deep maroon with contrasting dots of lighter
color scattered irregularly on the carapace. The legs of the juve-
niles were conspicuously banded with red and cream, the lighter
color on the joints.

Remarks. Wass (1955) noted the superficial resemblance of
M. mercenaria, Panopeus herbsti H. Milne-Ewards, and Eurytium
limosum (Say), and pointed out that the habitat of the latter two
species did not overlap with that of the former. However, as the
ranges of the three species overlap, and as all three may be found
in collections lacking habitat information, the following notes on
external appearance are given as an aid to the separation of the
species.

E. limosum can readily be distinguished from M. mercenaria
by the following characters. The carapace of Eurytium is much
broader than long and very convex anteroposteriorly, and the an-
terior margin is flattened, not rounded in general appearance. The
frontal lobes are smooth, not bilobed, and the lateral teeth are
sharply set off. The fingers of the chelipeds are light in color, not
dark as in Menippe and P. herbsti.

P. herbsti has a carapace intermediate in shape between that
of the other two species. The carapace is not nearly as wide in
relation to length as in Eurytium, which it resembles in the flatness
of the front. The lateral teeth of the carapace are sharply set off,
and the transverse ridges on the carapace, characteristic of the
genus, are lacking in the other two species.

Summary. The juveniles of the stone crab, Menippe mercenaria,
differ from the adults in several characteristics. The most prom-
inent difference is in the relative position of the orbits, which are
far apart in the juvenile, close together in the adult. Small speci-
mens do not show subdivisions of the submedian frontal lobes, and

SOME GROWTH CHANGES IN THE STONE CRAB 277

the stridulating organ on the palm, characteristic of adults, is not
visible in very small specimens. The lateral teeth on the carapace
are smoother and more rounded in the juvenile. The young are
usually darker in color than the adults, and, unlike the latter, do
not form permanent burrows.

LITERATURE CrTrED

GUINOT-DUMORTIER, DANIELLE, and BERNARD DUMORTIER
1960. La stridulation chez les crabes. Crustaceana, 1(2): 117-155, text
nese 22)
HAY, W. P., and C. A. SHORE
1918. The decapod Crustacea of Beaufort, North Carolina, and the sur-
rounding region. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish., 35: 869-475, textfigs.
1-20 pls. 25-89.
RATHBUN, MARY J.
1930. The cancroid crabs of America of the Families Euryalidae, Portunidae,
Atelecyclidae, Cancridae, and Xanthidae. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus.,
152: i-xvi, 1-609, textfigs. 1-85, pls. 1-230.
TEISSIER, GEORGES
1960. Relative growth. Chap. 16 in: Waterman, Talbot H., Ed., The
physiology of Crustacea. Vol. 1, Metabolism and growth, pp. 537-
560, textfigs. 1-5.
WASS, MARVIN L.

1955. The decapod crustaceans of Alligator Harbor and adjacent inshore
areas of northwestern Florida. Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci., 18(8):
129-176, textfigs. 1-13.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., (1960) 23(4), 1961.

TOLERANCE OF A FRESH-WATER SNAIL,
MARISA CORNUARIETIS L., TO SEA WATER

Burton P. Hunt
University of Miami

A flourishing and expanding population of an exotic fresh-water
snail, Marisa cornuarietis L., was discovered in the Coral Gables
Canal at the western boundary (Red Road) of Coral Gables, Florida
in 1957 (Hunt, 1958). Marisa is native to northern South America
(Baker, 1930) and in recent years has been introduced into Cuba
(Penalver, 1950), Puerto Rico (Harry and Cumbie, 1956; Oliver-
Gonzalez, et al., 1956), and south Florida. Following the discoy-
ery of Marisa, it was learned that the population center was lo-
cated upstream from the discovery site and the species was slowly
spreading westward toward the interconnected series of canals
located in the Everglades south of Lake Okeechobee and moving
rapidly downstream toward the brackish water regions of the canal.
A few snails were observed in the canal in areas where the salinity
ranges up to 20 per cent of sea water and dead shells were seen
further down the canal in areas of much higher salinity.

Adult Marisa reach large size (many Florida individuals have
a maximum diameter of more than 2 inches) and are voracious
herbivores (Chernin, et al., 1956; Hunt, 1958; Michelson and Au-
gustine, 1957). For these reasons some apprehension exists con-
cerning the possible deleterious effect of this snail on the aquatic
vegetation and the natural ecological relationships in the canals of
south Florida. In the three years since the initial discovery, the
snail has spread westward and has reached the Tamiami Canal,
which provides access to the entire Everglades area.

It seemed desirable to determine the tolerance of the snail to
the increasing salinity of the Coral Gables Canal as it nears Bis-
cayne Bay to determine if it could gain access to other canal sys-
tems by moving along the shore of the Bay from one canal mouth
to another. Some species of fresh-water snails, such as Physa
heterostropha, Lymnaea stagnalis appressa, Lymnaea _pulustris,
Goniobasis virginica, Amnicola limosa, and Planorbis antrosus, occur
in slightly brackish conditions near the mouths of rivers (Bailey,
1929; Richards, 1929a, 1929b). Richards (1929b) showed experi-

TOLERANCE OF FRESH-WATER SNAIL TO SEA WATER 279

mentally that Physa heterostropha (Say) can live under experimental
conditions in 25 per cent sea water and that snails from at least
one population of this species can exist for a short time in 40 to
50 per cent sea water. That some fresh-water snails possess great
ability to adapt to salt-water conditions is evidenced by the report,
as cited by Richards (1929b), that the European fresh-water snail
Physa fontinalis was able to adjust over a period of many months
to full strength sea water (Beaudant, 1816).

METHODS

In the laboratory the snails were subjected to two types of ex-
perimental conditions. The acutely toxic effect of sea water was
determined by introducing the snails directly from fresh water into
water of higher salinity. In other experiments the snails were sub-
jected to gradually increasing saline conditions in order to deter-
mine their ability to adjust.

Fresh water (chloride content 20 to 30 ppm) was obtained from
the Coral Gables Canal where the snails were abundant. Sea
water was obtained from or near the mouth of the same canal.
Mixtures of the two were used to obtain desired salinities for the
experiments. Such water mixtures could be expected to reason-
ably approximate the varying brackish water conditions existing
in the canal. The canal and aquaria water mixtures exhibited a
reserve pH range of 8.0 to 8.3 and a total alkalinity range of 142
to 216 ppm.

Adult experimental animals were held in gallon aquaria, and
smaller containers were used for experimental groups of young
snails and egg masses. In acute toxicity experiments with un-
hatched snails, each egg mass was cut into several parts so that
identical material could be incubated under different conditions
of salinity. All aquaria were aerated during the experiments al-
though adult snails proved to be very hardy and quite capable of
living under rather stagnant conditions. The aquaria were cleaned
of debris and excrement and the water changed periodically. Ca-
bomba was provided as the principal food plant for adults, and
masses of filamentous algae (Spyrogyra, Ulothrix, and others) were
provided in the jars with the very small snails. The salinities em-
ployed in the experiments seemed not to affect the food plants ad-
versely. No control of temperature was possible, and water tem-

280 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY-OF SCIENCES

peratures ranged from 15° to 31°C. during the period of experi-
mentation. Salinity was estimated by measuring the chloride con-
tent of the water by the Mohr method and expressed in terms of
parts per thousand (0/oo) of chloride radical and as per cent of
sea water.

The following criteria were employed to judge the well-being
of the snails. Whenever “normal” movement and feeding were
reduced, the snails were judged to be adversely affected. A lethar-
gic muscular response when the extended foot of the animal was
touched by a probe indicated poor condition. Withdrawal of the
foot into the shell and closing of the shell aperture by the operculum
for a prolonged period indicated very poor condition. Death was
indicated when no muscular response was elicited by probing the
soft parts of the animal. Other authors have employed similar
criteria (Harry, et al., 1957; Richards, 1929b).

AcutE Toxiciry EXPERIMENTS

Preliminary experiments showed that adult Marisa survived
less than 24 hours when placed directly in water in which the
chloride content was above 31.6 per cent sea water (6 0/oo). Newly-
hatched and juvenile snails were slightly less resistant. The median
tolerance limit of adults was determined by setting up a series of
aquaria in which the chloride content successively increased by
250 ppm. Twenty-five specimens, which measured from one to
one and one-half inches, were placed in each aquarium. No
snails died in the control groups and no mortality occurred in
water with a chloride content of 23.7 per cent of sea water or less.
The snails in the latter concentration were held for 168 hours with
no mortality. All snails in 29 per cent sea water were dead at the
end of 96 hours. The median tolerance limits, at temperatures
ranging from 27° to 29°C. were: 48 hours, 5.3 o/oo; 72 hours, 5.2
o/oo; 96 hours, 4.9 o/oo. These chlorinity values indicate 27.9,
27.4 and 25.8 per cent of sea water respectively.

Juvenile snails with a shell diameter of 7 to 14 mm. were tested
in a similar manner but too few were available for statistical pur-
poses. However, their resistance seemed to be the same as that
of the adults.

Young snails with a maximum shell diameter of 2.5 to 4.6 mm.
were subjected to similar experimental conditions. Their resist-

TOLERANCE OF FRESH-WATER SNAIL TO SEA WATER 281

ance was somewhat less, as indicated by the median tolerance limit
of 24.2 per cent sea water (4.6 0/oo) for 72 hours and 23.1 per cent
sea water (4.4 0/oo) for 96 hours.

Unhatched snails which were big enough to be seen moving
about inside the egg chorion were also subjected to high salinities
and were considerably more resistant than the adults. While
the lethal points were more difficult to determine with accuracy,
it required a contact of 96 hours with 39.5 per cent sea water (7.5
o/oo) to kill the older non-hatched snails and a similar period of
contact with 34 per cent sea water (6.5 o/oo) to kill the younger
non-hatched snails. Perhaps the jelly of the egg mass and the egg
shell offered some protection. Embryonated eggs in which the
young snail was not yet recognizable were killed at much lower
salinities.

CuMULATIVE Toxiciry EXPERIMENTS

Adult, young and unhatched snails were not adversely affected
by 10 per cent sea water and the experimental groups were started
at this level. At intervals of 3 to 5 days the salinity was increased
by about 2 to 3 per cent sea water until all snails were dead.

The initial experiments involved five aquaria with 5 adults in
each aquarium and three groups of 5 specimens each set up as con-
trols. This experiment, conducted during the winter when the
temperature ranged from 15° to 27°C., continued for 57 days. The
snails appeared to behave normally until the salinity reached about
26 per cent of sea water. Beyond this point some debility was evi-
denced by some snails; others were affected slightly, if at all. The
first mortality occurred when 20 per cent of the snails died after 4
days in 29.5 to 30.2 per cent sea water. Twenty per cent of the
snails managed to survive 5 days at salinities between 34.7 and
39.5 per cent of sea water and one hardy individual survived 3 days
in 37.3 per cent sea water.

The second group, consisting of 60 experimental snails and 20
controls were treated in a manner similar tc the first group. This
experimental period lasted 46 days, during which the temperature
ranged from 25° to 381°C. No mortality occurred until a salinity
of 31.6 per cent of sea water was reached, when 7 per cent of the
group died during the 4-day interval. After 5 days in salinities
which ranged from 32.1 to 34.2 per cent sea water, all animals were
dead. No mortality occurred among the control animals.

282 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

A comparison of the two groups of adults indicates that the
snails are slightly more resistant to high salinity at lower tempera-
tures and that despite considerable individual variation, a salinity
of about 30 per cent of sea water (5.7 0/00) marks the approximate
immediate lethal limit. While adult snails were held for almost
three months in water in which the chloride content was maintained
near 24 per cent sea water, it is doubtful that they could continue
to live successfully in salinities much higher than this value.

Juvenile snails 8 to 16 mm. in greatest diameter were subjected
to the same procedures employed with the adults. Mortality began
when the salinity reached 28 per cent of sea water, and only one
individual survived as long as two days in 32 per cent sea water.

Approximately 500 young snails, 2 to 5 mm. in diameter, were
also subjected to increasing salinity. Noticeable mortality began
when the salinity reached about 23 per cent of sea water and con-
tinued at a rather rapid rate until the last survivor succumbed when
the salinity reached 31.5 per cent of sea water. These results in-
dicate that very young snails are less resistant and less able to
adapt than are the larger individuals.

Although unhatched snails showed comparatively great re-
sistance when placed directly in highly saline water, a deleterious
cumulative effect was noted in egg masses incubated in 21 to 23.6
per cent sea water. At these and slightly higher salinities, retarda-
tion in development was apparent in that there was a delay of a
day or two in hatching and the hatchlings were definitely smaller
than the controls. In 26 per cent sea water, hatching was delayed
as much as 4 days and considerable mortality occurred. At salinity
levels of about 30 per cent sea water, none of the snails were able
to hatch, although some of them lived as long as 11 days beyond
the time when the controls hatched. Egg masses incubated in 18
per cent sea water showed no noticeable ill effects.

The cumulative effect was also very noticeable in terms of the
reduced growth rate shown by young snails. About 300 young
were hatched in 10 per cent sea water, divided into three groups,
then placed in containers in which the salinity was gradually in-
creased to 20 per cent of sea water. Salinities in the three contain-
ers were then maintained between 21 and 24 per cent of sea water
for 100, 102 and 111 days, respectively. At the end of these
periods only about 16 per cent of the snails survived, and the aver-

TOLERANCE OF FRESH-WATER SNAIL TO SEA WATER — 288

age shell diameter was 4.9, 5.0 and 5.5 mm., respectively. A con-
trol group, also consisting of about 300 newly-hatched snails, was
similarly divided and placed in containers in which the salinity
did not exceed 18 per cent of sea water. About 64 per cent of
these snails survived at the end of the 50-day experimental period.
Although a great disparity in size was noted (4.5 to 14 mm.), the
average diameter was 6.9 mm. at the end of 50 days. Comparison
of the two groups shows that the growth rate of the snails in the
higher salinities was reduced by more than 50 per cent.

Although all sizes of Marisa showed a limited ability to adjust
to gradually increasing salinity, it seems certain that the species
cannot continuously tolerate conditions in which the salinity is
higher than about 25 per cent sea water (4.8 0/oo). It is doubtful
that it could become acclimated to appreciably higher salinity even
over a period of many months. The tolerance level is sufficiently
low that there seems to be no possibility of the species moving
from canal mouth to canal mouth since the usual salinity of the
inshore marine environment constitutes an impassable barrier.

LITERATURE CITED
BAILEY, JOSHUA L.

1929. Fresh water mollusca in brackish water. Nautilus, 43: 34.

BAKER, H. B.

1930. The mollusca collected by the University of Michigan-Williamson
expedition to Venezuela. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool., University of Michi-
gan, No. 210: 1-94.

BEAUDANT, F. S.

1816. Memoire sur la possibilité de faire vivre des mollusques fluviatiles
dans les eaux salines. Jour. de Physique, T. 83: 268-284.

CHERNIN, ELI, EDWARD H. MICHELSON, and
DONALD L. AUGUSTINE

1956. Studies on the biological control of schistosome-bearing snails. I. The
control of Australorbis glabratus populations by the snail Marisa
cornuarietis, under laboratory conditions. Am. J. Trop. Med. and
Hyg., 5(2): 297-307.

HARRY, HAROLD W., and BILLY G. CUMBIE

1956. Stream gradient as a criterion of lotic habitats suitable for Austra-
lorbis glabratus in Puerto Rico. Am. J. Trop. Med. and Hyg., 5(5):
921-928.

284 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

HARRY, HAROLD W., BILLY G. CUMBIE, and
JOSE MARTINEZ de JESUS

1957. Studies on the quality of fresh waters of Puerto Rico relative to the
occurrence of Australorbis glabratus (Say). Am. J. Trop. Med. and
Hyg., 6(2): 313-822.
HUNT, BURTON P.
1958. Introduction of Marisa into Florida. Nautilus, 72(2): 53-55.

MICHELSON, EDWARD H., and DONALD L. AUGUSTINE

1957. Studies on the biological control of schistosome-bearing snails. V. The
control of Biomphalaria pfeifferi populations by the snail, Marisa
cornuarietis, under laboratory conditions. J. Parasitology, 43(2): 185.

OLIVER-GONZALEZ, J., M. P. BAUMAN, and A. S. BENENSON

1956. Effect of the snail Marisa cornuarietis on Australorbis glabratus in
natural bodies of water in Puerto Rico. Am. J. Trop. Med. and
Hyg., 5(2): 290-296.

PENALVER, L. M.

1950. Infeccion experimental de moluscos fluviales Cubanos con Schisto-
soma mansoni. Arch. Venezol. Patol. Trop. Y Parasitol. Med., 2:
297-308.

RICHARDS, HORACE G.
1929a. Freshwater snails in brackish water. Nautilus, 42: 129-130.

1929b. The resistance of the freshwater snail Physa heterostropha (Say) to
sea water. Biol. Bull., 57(2): 292-299.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., (1960) 23(4), 1961.

GRAY SQUIRRELS LARCENOUSLY FEEDING AT
CRACKER-VENDING MACHINES 1

Davin K. CALDWELL? AND MELBA C. CALDWELL 2
United States Fish and Wildlife Service

In a recent paper, Layne and Woolfenden (1958: 595) described
an unusual food source, that of insects from car radiators, exploited
by the gray squirrel, Sciurus c. carolinensis. This note describes
a circumstance of gray squirrels feeding from an unusual source
directly provided by man, ie., cracker-vending machines.

Briefly and anonymously mentioned in the local newspaper
(Brunswick News for March 7, 1960, p. 12) several weeks previous
to our observations, we first witnessed the activity of the squirrels
during the last week of March, 1960, at the Wanderer Motel, a
large hostelry located adjacent to the open ocean beach, on Jekyll
Island, Georgia. Our observations were corroborated by employees
of the motel who told us that they frequently observed the squirrels
in the act of feeding in this same manner.

While the island is heavily wooded and supports abundant wild-
life, the immediate site of the motel has been subjected to consid-
erable clearing, with the result that only a few oak trees remain to
support the local population of squirrels. This has probably been
an important contributing factor in driving the squirrels to this
unusual foraging activity.

Three commercial vending machines of the type which dispense
small packages of cellophane- or waxed paper-wrapped crackers,
cookies, and candy are visited by the thieves. The machines are
located at different places along the very long motel building, each
placed in a small hallway open at each end so that the squirrels
have easy access and escape routes. A fourth machine, while in
a place open to the outside, is so situated that the squirrels would
have to go into a very confined area to rob it. They do not visit
this machine.

* Contribution No. 55, U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological
Laboratory, Brunswick, Georgia.

* Present address: Los Angeles County Museum, Los Angeles, California.

286 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The same procedure was followed by each squirrel in obtain-
ing the crackers. Jumping and climbing up into the slot where
the crackers normally are dispensed (Fig. 1), the squirrels thrust
their forelegs, head, or even the entire body (except the tail) up out
of sight into the mechanism of the machine (Fig. 2). Mhesutact
package of crackers could not be dislodged, so the squirrels tore
and bit open the cellophane wrapping and extracted one of the
four crackers (Fig. 3). Returning to the ground, the larcenous
squirrels carried the cracker away to consume it (Fig. 4)—often a
matter of a hundred yards or more. We did not observe their
doing so, and, according to the employees questioned, the squirrels
apparently never eat the cracker in the immediate vicinity of the

Figures 1-4. Left to right, top to bottom. 1. Squirrel jumping into slot.
2. Body thrust up into mechanism of machine. 38. Emerging
with cracker. 4. Going away with cracker to consume it in
a safe place.

SQUIRRELS FEEDING AT VENDING MACHINES 287

machine—probably because of its relatively enclosed and insecure
location and its proximity to considerable human activity. Other
crackers in the package were extracted in a like manner until the
last one or two remained. The squirrels could then remove these,
still enclosed in cellophane, and carry them away. The wrapper
was never left at the machine, but was always carried away, leaving
only crumbs on the ledge of the slot to mark the theft. Only
crackers were taken—possibly due to the ease with which the
package could be opened (the candy was in heavy wax paper) and
the contents extracted. Malt-flavored peanut butter and cracker
sandwiches were most often selected, though cheese-flavored ones
were also taken. This also was most probably due to the greater
ease with which the slot containing this type of cracker could be
robbed, a fact which we determined by reaching up into the slots
and feeling the packages in place.

At least three squirrels were involved, and probably more.
These three converged on the motel from different directions, and
always from those directions. At one time, two of them were in
the act of robbing different machines just after the third had de-
parted and was still in sight.

We could not guess whether the cracker machines were dis-
covered by the squirrels through independent activity or by learn-
ing from others. We did observe that at least one of the squirrels
was aware of the presence of at least two of the machines, for be-
ing disturbed just before entering one, it made its way directly
to a second machine where it obtained a cracker. The machines
are several hundred feet apart and out of line of sight.

Activity seemed to take place intermittently, mostly during the
daylight hours of early morning and late afternoon—particularly so
in the early morning while activity at the motel was still limited.

A similar phenomenon was recently pictured and briefly dis-
cussed (Anonymous, 1960: 128) for an unnamed species of squirrel
(Sciurus griseus ?) at the San Diego Zoo in California. In this in-
stance, whole peanuts were taken from a commercial vending ma-
chine. The bags apparently were torn in a like manner as the squir-
rel could not take the entire package from the machine.

We wish to thank William W. Anderson and Jack W. Gehringer,
of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service at Brunswick, for the critical
examination of the manuscript.

288 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

LITERATURE CITED

ANONYMOUS
1960. Culprit caught with the cache. Life Magazine, 48(9): 128, for
March 7.

LAYNE, JAMES N., and GLEN E. WOOLFENDEN

1958. Gray squirrels feeding on insects in car radiators. Jour. Mammalogy,
39(4): 595-596.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., (1960) 23(4), 1961.

CHEMICAL MICROBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS IN CERTAIN
FLORIDA SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES OF
FLOWING WATERS IN FLORIDA

James B. Lackey AnD GrEorGE B. Morcan
University of Florida

INTRODUCTION

Prior to 1935 very little was known about the kinds and quantity
of microorganisms in North American streams; even less about the
ecological factors responsible for what organisms were present in
a given stream. Abroad, there existed a considerable literature,
largely listed by Limanowska (1912) and J. des Cilleuls (1928).
Kofoid (1908) and Allen (1920) had produced the most comprehen-
sive studies in the United States. In 1935 the Stream Pollution
Investigations Station, U.S.P.H.S., now the Taft Engineering Cen-
ter, began a program which continues to the present and which
has resulted in an investigation of streams in almost every impor-
tant river basin in the United States. In most cases a studied effort
has been made to evaluate the biologic effects of entering industrial
wastes, as well as other environmental factors. Work in this field
has spread to state laboratories, university laboratories, the AEC,
industrial organizations, and others, until today a wide program
of stream pollution studies is under way.

FACTORS IN ORGANISM OCCURRENCE

The presence in abundance, or the absence, of a particular ani-
mal or plant species from a given stream station may be due to a
variety of factors. For example, a particular chemical substance
may be missing or be present in too low a concentration, or in too
high a concentration. The water temperature, water age or water
turbulence may be wrong. We have gradually dismissed the con-
cept that a particular species may serve as an indicator, except in a
few extreme cases. There is also a striking lack of agreement on
the interpretation of similar field data. Thus Patrick (1950) and
Yount (1956) are able to draw diametrically opposite conclusions

The work reported here was supported in part by a research grant, RG-4640,
from the National Institutes of Health, United States Public Health Service.

290 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

from similar sets of field data. Certain generalizations, however,
are gradually taking form. It is apparent that streams in regions
underlain by calcareous rocks tend to have much larger popula-
tions and more species than streams draining granitic rock areas.
It is also apparent that streams having a steep gradient resulting
in high turbulence do not usually develop rich suspended biotas.
Great quantities of rooted or floating macroscopic plants tend to
produce rather low microscopic populations in the water in which
they live. For example, a heavy covering of water hyacinth (Fich-
hornia crassipes) or duck weed (Lemna: Spirodela) is a very ef-
fective factor in shutting out light, limiting the dissolved oxygen
content and taking up the available nutrients. Fortunately there
are not too many natural waters in which such a condition exists.

Probably the most sharply limiting factor is the amount of ni-
trate and phosphate present in a stream. It has been demon-
strated repeatedly by workers such as Ball and Tanner (1951),
Nelson and Edmondson (1955) and many others that these fertiliz-
ing substances when added to a natural water are as effective in
producing aquatic growths referred to as plankton, as they are effec-
tive in a field of corn. There are some qualifications to this statement.
For example, growths of certain blue green algae are not too de-
pendent on nitrates because they can fix nitrogen from the air.
Allen (1956) showed that Anabaena cylindrica, a relatively common
stream blue green, fixed atmospheric nitrogen even when it was
present in the substrate, except if it was present as urea or am-
monia. How widespread is this ability has not yet been proved.

Type FLORIDA SITUATIONS

Usually the fertilizing substances added to streams come from
one or more of three sources: domestic sewerage, treated or un-
treated; trade wastes; fertilizer from arable land or pasture land.
In Florida there is a fourth source for phosphorus—our so-called
Bone Valley, the extensive phosphate deposits which are concen-
trated largely in central Florida. However, there are Florida streams
which do not receive substantial contributions from any of these
sources. The Santa Fe River, for example, does not have a large
urban population anywhere along its approximately 150 miles of
course. Much of its basin is wooded, it receives no industrial waste,
and it has no intensively fertilized farm land drainage. Its pH is
near 7.0, its flow is sufficiently slow to allow aging of the water, and

MICROBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS IN FLORIDA WATERS 291

the only unusual feature is its very high color, due to tannic and
humic acids, in its upper reaches.

There are also polluted streams in Florida, of which the Peace
River is sometimes cited as an example. This has a wooded valley,
but its population density is greater and there is more industry
along its banks than along the Santa Fe. The two largest man-made
contributions are from citrus processing and from the phosphate
mining industry in the headwaters area.

Other unusual situations in Florida are exemplified by the large
springs, there being 20 in the state any one of which “would serve
a city of over 500,000 population” (Ferguson et. al., 1947). Many
of these have been subject to chemical analysis and show various
differences. Most of them contain some nitrate; some reach the
surface with ample dissolved oxygen, others with none. For almost
all of them which have been examined, there is a large and heavy
growth of aquatic vegetation, and usually a large microscopic flora
and fauna in the spring run (Whitford, 1956, and Odum, 1957,
1957a).

THe SANTA FE River or FLORA

This diversity of Florida waters has occasioned a number of
studies (Pierce, 1947, Smith et. al., 1954, and Lackey, 1956) in re-
gard to the chemistry, pollution, and microbiota of various Florida
streams, springs and lakes. The Santa Fe system has been studied
for three years or more, as representing a stream but little influenced
by man. Table I gives the number of species of the algae and proto-
zoa which occurred in the 81 plankton samples of Santa Fe water
analyzed in 1953-54. There were 332 species or genera. This would
appear to be a very large list, and actually it compares favorably
with streams such as the White River of Indiana (Lackey and Hupp,
1956) and the Scioto River of Ohio (Lackey, 1941) which have been
much more intensively studied.

The one striking difference between the Santa Fe and Ohio
Valley microbiota is quantitative. The two streams of the Ohio
Valley have populations many times as great, species for species,
as the Santa Fe. No comparative tables are given for they would be
too lengthy, but there is an abundance of data to support the state-
ment. Thus in the Santa Fe the average number of organisms (algae
and protozoa) per milliliter per sample was 331; in the White River
it was 6745 or about 20 times greater, volume for volume, than in

292 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the Santa Fe. Even in Lytle Creek (Lackey, 1956), a very small,
short stream, there were 820 to 8475 organisms per milliliter per
sample. If the samples from Santa Fe and Hampton Lakes, the two
headwater lakes of the Santa Fe system, were omitted, the average
number for the river stations would be low indeed.

TABLE I

NUMBER OF SPECIES IN PRINCIPAL GROUPS OF ALGAE AND
PROTOZOA IN 81 SAMPLES FROM THE SANTA FE
RIVER (FLORIDA) SYSTEM.

Bee .

Seu 2

Stations oS = — a

ae 5 = s 3 ° A
= & : 3 S a 5 Sp =
o& © 6 8 3) Ca
Number of Samples __ 12 5 12 10 9 13 11 9
Blue Green Algae _____ eh 6 4 4 13 6 5 6
Green Algae* —...- 85 30 8 13 66 19 7 20
Yellow Green Algae __ 7 6 6 5 10 5 3 2
Olive Green Algae _____ 3 2 5 8 5 2 8 3
Dinoflagellates 7 9 it 5 8 5 2 3
release oe ee 4 1 0 12 43 15 2, 4
IDiaAtOmMS2 eo vad alent hee 16 7 ILL 22, 16 D5) 21 Pal
Flagellate Protozoa ___ 4 2 6 1 13 3 7 2
Amoeboid Protozoa 3 if 1 a M7 3 5 5
Ciliate Protozoa 1L7/ 3 8 7 We 6 8 6
Total Species 107 67 56 GS) Zo) 89 73 T2

* Includes green Volvocales and Chloromonadida.

This does not mean that Santa Fe River water is unsuitable for
microorganisms which are the primary food chain organisms. As
a matter of fact it is a rather good stream for fishing, especially for
a member of the bream family, locally very aptly termed “stump
knocker” because they browse along submerged logs and stumps.
Evidently they find ample food. One of the Santa Fe stations is
partly to wholly stagnant at times, and often a watering place for
cattle. This station, Mikeville, usually has high numbers of species
and individuals comparable to the numbers found in barnyard

MICROBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS IN FLORIDA WATERS 293

pools. The only bloom of Euglena haematoides noted in Florida
studies thus far occurred there. The cause of this abundant micro-
biota undoubtedly lies in the local enrichment due to cattle drop-
pings and urine. The connotation, however, is that the water itself
is not suitable as a milieu.

TABLE II
ANALYSES OF SANTA FE RIVER SYSTEMS FOR JUNE AND JULY, 1956.

Hard-
5 Day ness
BOD NO; PO, CaCO; Fe SO, HCO,
ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm
Bell MW, Trace 0.00028 365 0.41 Al 176
0.8 Trace 0.00031 321 0.35 49 188
Oleno 3.9 Trace 0.00040 174 0.23 29 114
Doll 0.03 0.00170 142, 0.48 14 PAT
Mikeville Ue 0.21 0.00090 IPAS) 0.46 oe 85
1B RS) 0.41 0.00120 aD 0.55 30 96
Brooker 4.6 0.001 0.00014 162 0.37 39 36

3.8 0.02 0.00160 142 0.47 31 ol

Hampton Lake 2.1 0.08 0.00032 114 0.14 21 52
ILoZ 0.01 0.00015 101 0.08 13 36

Lake Santa Fe 2.0 Trace 0.00030 85 0.20 26 52
L683 0.08 0.00014 120 0.16 lat 46

Table II shows certain characteristics of the Santa Fe at four
river stations and two headwater lakes, June 20 and July 17, 1956.
Five day BOD values indicate a stream low in organic matter except
at the Mikeville station. The NO; and PO, values are also very
low. On the basis of general experience it is believed that there is
too little NOs3, too littlke PO, and the N/P ratios are wrong; ie.,
only limited growth should be found except at Mikeville. Sawyer
and Lackey (1944) on the basis of their Wisconsin lakes studies came
to regard 0.30 ppm NOs and 0.015 ppm PO, as threshold values
above which sharp increases in plankton might be expected. This
assumes a ratio of between 20 and 30 N to one of P. Values shown
in Table II are far below the ratio and the 0.30 and 0.015 values.

294 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The PO, values in Table II are extrapolated, and it is possible that
the total available P was higher, in view of the rapid turmover of
phosphorus in nature, and the softness of the Santa Fe water.

THe PrEaceE RivER OF FLORIDA

The Peace River is expected to have higher amounts of POg,
and as shown by Table III it does. Its 5 day BOD indicates an
organic content well above that of the Santa Fe, and actually about
twice what might be expected in most unpolluted streams. The
nitrate content instead of being high, is low, so that the N/P ratio
is nearer 2 or 3 to 1 rather than 20-80 to 1.

TABLE III
PEACE RIVER DATA OF DECEMBER 8, 1956

5 Day
Sampling BOD NO; PO, Ca Color Temp: = DIO;
Station ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm pH °€
Bartow 3.4 0.05 0.034 12 62 7.98 15.4 7.46
Homeland 6.2 0.11 0.026 Te 28 7.20 15:8 6.50

Fort Meade 9.9 0.09 0.041 18 26 Hol) ee 8.00
Bowling Green 10.3 0.14 0.038 14 32 TAD 14.3 7.36
Zolpho Springs 8.4 0.13 0.041 14 34 aoe 14.9 9.80
Arcadia EG 0.08 0.041 18 31 7.38 16.2 9.05

Nevertheless, the Peace carries a much larger volume of plank-
ton than the Santa Fe. Table IV shows very briefly the species
plankton composition of the Peace, for samples collected in 1953,
1956 and 1957. Again, it is indicated that if enough samples were
to be examined, the total list of species would easily be comparable
to that of any other stream. There are two striking things about
these Peace River samples: the few ciliates and diatoms, both as
to numbers of cells and as to species; and, contrariwise, the dom-
inance of the blue green algae. Since there are no recognizable
directly inhibitory characteristics other than the N/P ratio, one is
tempted to ascribe this blue green dominance to the possibility
of fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by the algae. Such fixation is
well known (Allen, 1956), but exactly what species accomplish it
in nature and under what conditions, is still under investigation.

MICROBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS IN FLORIDA WATERS 295

One other factor for the Peace might well be the amount of cal-
cium available—the blue green algae, unlike the green algae, use
calcium in large quantities.

TABLE IV

NUMBER OF SPECIES IN PRINCIPAL GROUPS OF ALGAE AND
PROTOZOA IN THE PEACE RIVER AT SEVEN STATIONS.

lelhwe (Gineein Alice), 2 cd Lal
CrecnmAlcae including Chloromonadida —.-. 45
Nie lcm @ncenm Nigaehy mee 6 TA
lke Gireemn AUG i Se aes ae ree ean an oe 2
Le ringunlenane eae eA er 2
TEC UTWSTIST EGS ~ enc Tl 32
PO MBAROMRMS eee ee ce 18
Plate liettemEnOtOzZ ay eee Ean I 8
POE OTC MKOLOZO Ames tenet Oe a 5
(Cilale DOO, ae te eee ee 20
PNoealleriamplae Sani lesn eet ee 160 species

Only one of the Peace stations showed large numbers of Euglen-
ophyceae. On March 24, 1957, 25 species were found in the samples
and 16 of these were found only at Bartow. This is the only large
town contributing sewage to the river, and it is a striking example
of the often-stated thesis that large numbers of Euglenophyceae,
rather than individual species, are evidence of recent fertilization
by sewage.

FLORIDA SPRINGS

These springs are well described by Ferguson, et. al. (1947) as
to location and general hydrography and chemistry. Two are said
to be among the largest in the world, there are 17 which are first
magnitude, and hundreds whose flow is 1 cfs or more. Their
chemical composition varies from spring to spring, but is uniform
in time for each individual spring. Many are of rather low mineral
content, many are sulfur springs. Many of them have short runs
before they enter a river such as the Suwannee and others form
rivers—as the Silver River or the Chassahowitzka. In these cases
very little attention has been paid to their microbiota, and except
for benthic forms or those attached to microscopic vegetation, this

296 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

microbiota would be small in species number and quantity. The
larger vegetation has been studied to some extent (Odum, 1957a)
and in the case of the sulfur springs the microbiota has been studied
for several. Thus in the run from Green Cove Spring and in that
from Orange Spring, the run is carpeted for some distance down-
stream with Beggiatoa and Thiothrix, along with other organisms
all seemingly of the same association. In Salt Springs, Marion
County (non-sulfur, but with 2439 ppm Cl), the run is packed with
vegetation for a long distance below the spring and the microbiota
is extrusive. It is not listed here because the surveys have been
too few.

WaRM MINERAL SPRINGS

One of the more unusual Florida springs, formerly called Warm
Salt Springs, is in Sarasota County, Southwest Florida. It flows
about 9,000,000 gallons daily, of 84° F. water. An analysis of the
water is shown in Table V, together with some physical character-
istics.

TABLE V

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
WARM MINERAL SPRINGS

IDrissolkyec!| Soli 2 17812.00 ppm 17988.00 ppm
Wolatilen SOlig sine: ener 17.10% (600° C. for
30 minutes)

Chlornidesiiae weal a sae) eee ee 9350.00 ppm
Soalionm, Jeowiscriinn 2 5124.00 ppm
Lin Op AG ERIE 2 ae ee 0.12 ppm 0.09 ppm
Sil @eny eek 8 ke ar deste aI eo ee eee 18.00 ppm 23.80 ppm
Calcite: te Erte Min ea ettae 766.00 ppm 596.00 ppm
MiaoneSiiinigeie ssa. ae ee 471.00 ppm
Bicarbonateu (El C ©) yas ameemen 167.00 ppm
Iorll leleinciess (CaCO). 5846.00 ppm
Nitrate (NOs) 2 iu pe Uhr aes ee 0.05 ppm
O26 (Dissolve) yest eee 0.0016 ppm
FO) 5 (EO Call) gaara ate Ae Aa at 0.0037 ppm
FASS pave te ome eee hs Seah, Se 0.162 ppm
NTIS oct Sarat atch ES ak de oA ote 0.078 ppm
SO eta eR Eee ee EO Were eee 1704.00 ppm
Chemical Oxygen Demand

(DiGlavoranetwe)) 813.00 ppm

Dissolvede@xy cena eae ae 0.00 ppm

MICROBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS IN FLORIDA WATERS 297

As shown in Table V, the water of this spring is essentially half
sea water; what the ecologists term “polyhaline” (Dahl, 1956).
Table VI gives the partial composition of the flora and fauna, im-
mediately (50 feet or 4 seconds) after leaving the spring enclosure.
The amazing thing about this table is the curious mixture of or-
ganisms it shows. The large number of sulfur bacteria includes
most of the known species of reducers, as well as one new genus
and species. Some of the oxidizers are also present. All these
forms are anaerobes. There are a number of blue green algae,
which grow at the surface and on submerged vegetation chara and
debris but do not occur in the deeper parts of the run. There are
very few green algae or chlorophyll-containing flagellates except
Trentonia flagellata of which there is an endemic population. Rhizo-
pod protozoa are limited but Gromia oviformis, two Heliozoa and
two Foraminifera occur. Colorless flagellates and ciliates are
abundant. Most of these latter two groups are normally met with
in sea water of approximately 30 ppt salinity. In addition they
occur in aerobic situations rather than anaerobic. From Table V
one can understand the great clumps of Beggiatoa gigantea or
B. alba spreading as a continuous white cover over the entire bot-
tom of the spring run. They are not obligate anaerobes, however;
or if they are, they are physiologically different from their oceanic
counterparts, because both species are found sparingly at Cedar
Keys on the mud flats washed by Gulf water which is certainly not
devoid of oxygen. The flagellates and ciliates of Table VI, when
brought into the laboratory from Cedar Keys, die quickly of oxygen
exhaustion, but live for several days if the containers are such
that the sample remains oxygenated. Morphologically similar or-
ganisms from Warm Mineral Spring continue to thrive for weeks
in deep vessels containing no oxygen, at least in the bottom of the
containers. However, when there is no longer any HS in the jar,
the sulfur bacteria die, then most of the protozoa die, and finally
a static condition is obtained in which there is a limited biota con-
sisting principally of blue green algae and a few species of pro-
tozoa.

There is a toxic threshold for H.S in these laboratory cultures,
however, H2S has long been held to be toxic, and while the limiting
amount in air or water varies for different organisms, it is very low,
less than 10 ppm for most aerobic organisms. If the Warm Mineral
Springs containers have tops screwed on tightly, the HS accumu-

298 . JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

lates within, and in a few hours Beggiatoa, Thiothrix, Achromatium,
and the algae and protozoa are dead. This also applies to the new
sulfur bacterium Thiodendrum mucosa. This bit of information,
as yet without a quantitative evaluation, indicates the organisms in
this water have a relatively high resistance to HS toxicity and that
most of them tolerate H.S, rather than that their energy production
system demands more than a small amount. In fact, the informa-
tion strongly suggests that the facultative condition so commonly
observed in many bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa is possible
because of: (a) tolerance of relatively high H».S thresholds; (b)
energy production systems not tied to free oxygen, but possibly to
utilization of more than a single substance.

TABLE VI

ORGANISMS OCCURRING IN WARM SPRINGS RUN, WITHIN
50 FEET OF OUTLET.

Sulfansbacteria ek 2 ek CAR Eel 2 aa eee ee 8 genera 15 species
Biwevereenval wae’ awe We sels eae lee 10 genera 14 species
Green! val gae. (inl Se ete aa ne ae 3 genera 4 species
| EG co 0 oh Paes ay eee i, EA mn De Zr 9 genera 11 species
JSuallsceie (Eaolloydless Youll a 6 genera 6 species
Elagellates protozoa eases ayaa nek een wee 9 genera 12 species
Amie bOrdseprOtOZ Oa ars ciel Senay hie Ae 5 genera 5 species
Gilfates protozoal et St 7a Ate UE ew epee 31 genera 35 species
Discussion

Many quantitative and qualitative analyses of the biotas of
Florida streams and waters are available and in general they agree
with the statements made in this discussion. It is quite evident
that the environmental limits encountered in an unpolluted stream
such as the Santa Fe, are not so stringent as to be exclusive for a
great many organisms, and a large variety of organisms does occur
there. That they occur sparingly is due to a lack in abundance of
the necessary nutrients, especially nitrates and phosphates. There
is no mention of iron bacteria in Table I but actually the Santa Fe
is one of the few Florida streams containing appreciable iron, and
one of the few in which iron bacteria occur in abundance. It has
been asked if the high color is not a limiting factor, but the humic

MICROBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS IN FLORIDA WATERS 299

and tannic acids causing or accompanying it apparently are not re-
strictive, at least in the concentrations observed. This is indicated
by the huge growths at Mikesville, and in cedar or cypress swamps.
Certainly the color should not interfere with photosynthesis; Krauss
(1956) showed that for Chlorella the electromagnetic energy nat-
urally available for photosynthesis is greater than the amount used
under optimum conditions.

At the same time, some explanation should be made for the
apparently special biotas encountered in certain situations. In the
Peace river the high percentage (quantitatively) of the blue green
algae is puzzling. It seems that with sufficient examination the
Peace might show as long a species list as other streams. Perhaps
the quantities of blue greens might be explained by an ability to fix
atmospheric nitrogen and use some of the overabundance of phos-
phorus. However, Rodhe (1950) has shown that excess phosphorus
may become a maximum limiting factor for certain algae, in this
case, not applicable to some of the blue greens.

Of course many special biotas have an obvious explanation such
as direct toxicity of a waste, oxygen depletion, temperature or
other factor. Even these are not always clear cut however as wit-
nessed in the biota of the run from Warm Mineral Springs. It
has long been known that some organisms are tolerant of such a
wide environmental range that they may be found in both sea
and fresh water. There are others which are exclusively fresh
water or marine, and the barrier usually assumed for them is sa-
linity. Many of those in warm mineral spring have not hitherto
been found except in ocean water, or at least extuarine water ap-
proaching oceanic salinities. But Warm Mineral Springs departs
from oceanic water not alone in being about half as saline; it is
anaerobic, it is warm, it contains much more H2S, and varies in
other chemical aspects. Yet it is much more favorable apparently,
for most of the species of sulfur reducing bacteria, and is certainly
highly favorable for many marine ciliates. We are simply left
without an adequate explanation for the biota encountered.

Perhaps the most inescapable conclusion to be drawn from the
situations reported on, is that most cases are complex, however
obvious they appear, and that we should be very careful in ascrib-
ing the presence or absence of an organism to any single chemical
(or other, for that matter) factor.

3800 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

LITERATURE CrrED
ALLEN M. B.

1956. Photosynthetic Nitrogen Fixation by Blue-Green Algae, Sci. Monthly,
SOMNOW PDA OSS:
ALLEN, W.E.
1920. A Quantitative and Statistical Study of the Plankton of the San
Joaquin River and Its Tributaries in and Near Stockton, Calif. in
Coll., Agric. Exp: Sta., Tech. Bull. 223.
BALL, ROBERT C. and HOWARD A. TANNER
1951. The Biological Effects of Fertilizer on a Warm-water Lake, Mich. State
Coll., Agric. Exp. Sta., Tech. Bull., 233.
GHLILITWILS, Iie IDIES
1928. Revue General des Etudes Sur le Plancton des Grands Fleuves ou
Rivieres, Intern. Rev. de. ges. Hydrobiol. u. Hudergr., 22, pp. 141-146.
DAHL, ERIK
1956. Ecological Salinity Boundaries in Poikilohaline Waters, Oikos, 7,
IN@ 5 IE toe LS,
FERGUSON, G: E., C. W. LINGHAM: S. K: LOVE) and) Ra O, VERNON
1947. Springs of Florida, Geol. Bull. 31, State of Florida, Dept. of Con-
servation, Florida Geological Survey.
KRAUSS, R. W.
1956. Photosynthesis in the Algae, Ind. and Eng. Chemistry, 48, No. 9,
Dea Sie
KOFOID, C. A.

1908. The Plankton of the Illinois River 1894-99, with Introductory Notes
Upon the Hydrography of the Illinois River and Its Basin. II. Con-
stituent Organisms and Their Seasonal Distribution, II. State Lab.,
Natural Hist. Bull., 8, pp. 1-11.

LACKEY, J. B. and EUGENE R. HUPP

1956. Plankton Populations in Indiana’s White River, Journ. Am. Water
Wks. Assoc., 48, No. 8, pp. 1024-1037.

LACKEY, J. B.

1941. Plankton Studies. A Study of the Pollution and Natural Purification
of the Scioto River, Robert W. Kuhr, et al., Pub. Health Bull., 276,
U. S: Public Health Service.

LACKEY, JAMES B.

1956. Stream Enrichment and Microbiota, Pub. Health Reports, 71, p. 7.
(A reprint of this paper, Technical Paper Series No. 119, Engineering
Progress at the Uniy. of Fla. vol. 10, No. 10, contains a list of all

MICROBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS IN FLORIDA WATERS 301

species of algae and protozoa found in a two years’ study of the
Santa Fe River of Florida.)
LIMANOWSKA, H.
1912. Die Algenflora der Limmat, Arch. f. Hydrobiol. 70, p. 39.

NELSON, P. R. and W. T. EDMONDSON
1955. Limnological Effects of Fertilizing Bare Lake, Alaska. Fish. Bull.,
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 56, p. 102.
ODUM, HOWARD T.

1957a. Primary Production Measurements in Eleven Florida Springs and a
Marine Turtle Grass Community, Limnology and Oceanography 2,

pp. 55-97.
ODUM, HOWARD T.
1957. Trophic Structure and Productivity of Silver Springs, Florida, Eco-
logical Monographs, 27, pp. 55-112.

PATRICK, RUTH
1950. Biological Measure of Stream Conditions, Sewage and Industrial
Wastes, 22, pp. 926-938.

PIERCE, E. LOWE
1947. An Annual Cycle of the Plankton and Chemistry of Four Aquatic
Habitats in Northern Florida, Univ. Fla. Studies, Biol. Science Series,
4(3). Univ. Fla. Press.
RODHE, WILHELM

1950. Environmental Requirements of Fresh Water Plankton Algae, Sym-
bolae Bot. Upsalienses, 10, No. 1, pp. 1-149.

SAWYER, C. N., J. B. LACKEY, and A. T. LENZ

1944. Investigation of the Odor Nuisance Occurring in the Madison Lakes,
particularly Lakes Monona, Waubesa, Kegonsa, from July, 1943 to
July, 1944. Mimeographed and privately circulated by the Goy-
ernors Committee, Daniel W. Mead, Chairman, Madison, Wisconsin.

SMITH, DAVID B., JOHN W. WAKEFIELD, HERBERT A. BEVIS and
EARL B. PHELPS

1954. Stream Sanitation iin Florida, Fla. Eng. Series 1.

WHITFORD, L. A.

1956. The Communities of Algae in the Springs and Spring Streams of
Florida, Ecology, 37, p. 294.

YOUNT, J. L.

1956. Productivity of Florida Springs, Third Annual Report to Biology
Branch, Office of Naval Research.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., (1960) 23(4), 1961.

AN ANNOTATED CHECK-LIST OF TREMATODES AND
CESTODES AND THEIR VERTEBRATE HOSTS
FROM NORTHWEST FLORIDA !

Horace Lortin
Florida State University

Research on various phases of helminthology has been under
way at Florida State University since about 1950. As a result of
these investigations, an appreciable number of parasitic flatworms
have been discovered in the northwest section of Florida, particu-
larly near the F.S.U. Oceanographic Institute’s marine laboratory
at Alligator Harbor (Franklin County), and in Leon County and
surrounding areas. The monogenetic trematodes of marine fishes
have been studied in detail by Hargis (1955a-1957) and the find-
ings widely published. However, few of the Digenea and none
of the Cestoda from the region have been recorded in the literature.
The present check-list of parasitic flatworms and their hosts (ex-
cluding the work of Hargis) was prepared to bring together the
results of these various studies as an aid to future workers on the
helminths of this region.

The Florida State University slide collection, personal collections
of graduate students, published reports and unpublished student
papers were used as sources for this list. Only worms identified
to genus and/or species are included. Identifications are those of
the workers named in the annotated list; no attempt was made to
check their identifications. Many specimens in the F.S.U. collec-
tion have not yet been identified; these remain for future study.

This check-list is presented in two parts: a systematic list of
worms; and a host list in which the parasites are presented accord-
ing to their vertebrate hosts. This host list is annotated. For con-
venience, the taxonomic scheme of Dawes (1946) was followed for
the Monogenea, of Yamaguti (1958) for the Digenea, and of Wardle
and McLeod (1952) for the Cestoda.

Following each name in the systematic list is a letter in paren-
theses, referring to the class of the vertebrate host: (C) for Chon-
drichthyes, (O) for Osteichthyes, (A) for Amphibia, (R) for Reptilia,
(B) for Aves, and (M) for Mammalia. The reader may be guided

*A contribution from the Department of Biological Sciences and from the
Oceanographic Institute (No. 157), Florida State University, Tallahassee.

CHECK-LIST OF TREMATODES AND CESTODES 303

by these letters to the appropriate section of the host list for further
details. Preceding each name in the systematic list is a numeral,
given serially for each group of parasites (Monogenea, Digenea,
Cestoda). Corresponding numbers appear in the host list following
the name of each parasite as an aid in cross reference.

Routinely, each entry in the host list contains, in order, the name
of the parasite, host, location in host, locality, and the identifier.
When a record has already appeared in the literature, the identi-
fiers name includes a citation. Other pertinent remarks may follow.

I wish to thank Dr. R. B. Short, under whose direction most
of these studies were made, and Dr. Short’s students for their gen-
erous cooperation in the preparation of this check-list.

SYSTEMATIC List
Class TREMATODA

Order MONOGENEA

Family DacryLocyrmAE Bychowsky, 1933
1. Urocleidus principalis (Mizelle, 1936) Mizelle & Hughes, 1938. (O)

Family DiscocoryLipaE Price, 1936
2. Grubea sp. (O)

Family PoLysroMATIDAE Gamble, 1896

Neopolystoma orbiculare (Stunkard, 1916) Price, 1939. (R)
Polystoma integerrimum (Frolich, 1791) Rudolphi, 1808. (A)
Polystomoidella oblonga (Wright, 1879) Price, 1939. (R)

SAS Ge

Order DIGENEA

Family ACANTHOCOLPIDAE Lihe, 1909
1. Stephanostomum sp. (O)

Family ALLOCREADIIDAE Stossich, 1908

2. Opecoeloides fimbriatus (Linton, 1934) Sogandares-Bernal & Hutton,
1959. (O)

Family BRACHYLAEMIDAE Joyeux & Foley, 1930
3. Brachylaema sp. (B)

Family BucEPHALIDAE Poche, 1907
Bucephalopsis sp. (O)
Bucephalus cuculus McCrady, 1874. (O)

Family CycLocoELipAE Kossack, 1911
6. Cyclocoelum obscurum Leidy, 1887. (B)

304 § JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Family DicrocoELupAE Odhner, 1911

7. Brachylecithum americanum Denton, 1945. (B)

Family DipymMozormAE Poche, 1907
8. Distomum fenestratum Linton, 1907. (O)

Family DreLosromipaE Poirier, 1886

9. Pharyngostomoides ovale Chandler & Rausch, 1946. (M)
10. Posthodiplostomum sp. (B)

Family ECHINOSTOMATIDAE Poche, 1926

11. Echinochasmus sp. (B)
12. Echinoparyphium sp. (B)
13. Echinostoma sp. (B)

14. Himasthla sp. (B)

15. Longicollia sp. (B)

16. Stephanoprora sp. (B)

Family Eucoryiipar Skrjabin, 1924
17. Tanaisia sp. (B)

Family GorcopErmaE Looss, 1901
18. Gorgoderina sp. (A)
19. Nagmia floridensis Markell, 1953. (C)
20. Phyllodistomum sp. (O)

Family Hemrurmar Luhe, 1901
21. Tubulovesicula sp. (O)
22. Sterrhurus floridensis Manter, 1934. (O)

Family HerEropHympAE Odhner, 1914
23. Galactosomum spinetum Braun, 1901. (B)
24. Tetracladium sp. (B)
Family LEcrrHopENDRUDAE Odhner, 1910

25. Lecithodendrium sp. (M)

Family MicroOPHALLIDAE Travassos, 1920
26. Gynaecotyla riggini Dery, 1958. (B)
27. Maritrema gratiosum Nicoll, 1907. (B)
28. Maritrema sp. (B)
29. Spelotrema sp. (B)
Family OpisTHORCHIIDAE Braun, 1901
30. Pachytrema sanguineus Linton, 1928. (B)

Family ParaMpHistomipaE Fischoeder, 1901
31. Megalodiscus sp. (A)

Family PHmLOPHTHALMIDAE Travassos, 1921
32. Parorchis acanthus (Nicoll, 1906) Nicoll, 1907. (B)

44,

45.
46.

AT.

48.

CHECK-LIST OF TREMATODES AND CESTODES

Family PLAcionCcHIIDAE Ward, 1917

Haematoloechus floedae Harwood, 1932. (A)
Haematoloechus medioplexus Staftord, 1902. (A)

Family PLeorcHmDAE Poche, 1926

Pleorchis americanus Liuhe, 1906. (O)

Family PRONOCEPHALIDAE Looss, 1902

Macravestibulum sp. (R)

Family PROTERODIPLOSTOMIDAE Dubois, 1936

Crocodilicola pseudostoma (Willemoes-Suhm, 1870) Poche, 1925.

Polycotyle ornata Willemoes-Suhm, 1870. (R)

Family PsttosroMATIDAE Odhner, 1913

. Psilochasmus sp. (B)

Family RHopaLiAsIpAE (Looss, 1899) Yamaguti, 1958
Rhopalias baculifer Braun, 1900. (M)
Rhopalias coronatus (Rudolphi, 1819) Stiles & Hassall, 1898.
Family SANGUINICOLIDAE Graff, 1907

Cardicola laruei Short, 1953. (O)
Selachohemecus olsoni Short, 1954. (C)

Family SprrorcHmpaAE Stunkard, 1921
Vasotrema sp. (R)

Family SrricEmAE Railliet, 1919

Cardiocephalus medioconiger Dubois & Vigueras, 1949. (B)
Cotylurus aquavis (Guberlet, 1922) Szidat, 1928. (B)

Family TELoRcHUDAE Stunkard, 1924
Telorchis sp. (R)

Family TROGLOTREMATIDAE Braun, 1914
Renicola glandoloba Witenberg, 1929. (B)

Class CESTODA

ils

Subclass EUCESTODA
Order PROTEOCEPHALA
| Family PROTEOCEPHALIDAE La Rue, 1914
Ophiotaenia sp. (A)
Order TETRAPHYLLIDEA

Family ONCHOBOTHRIIDAE Braun, 1900
Acanthobothrium sp. (C)

(R)

305

306 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Family PHyYLLOBOTHRUDAE Braun, 1900

Anthobothrium spp. (C)
4, Echeneibothrium sp. (C)

Order TRYPANORHYNCHA

Family EUrETRARHYNCHIDAE Guiart, 1927

Parachristianella dimegacantha Kruse, 1959. (C)
Parachristianella monomegacantha Kruse, 1959. (C)
Prochristianella_penaei Kruse, 1959. (C)

Order CYCLOPHYLLIDEA

Family ANOPLOCEPHALIDAE Cholodkovsky, 1902
8. Atriotaenia sp. (M)
9. Oochoristica mephitis Skinker, 1935. (M)
10. Oochoristica procyonis Chandler, 1942. (M)

SSP SKM

Family Dimtepipmar Railliet & Henry, 1909

11. Dipylidium caninum Linnaeus. (M)
1 Lizaesp eB)
13. Paricterotaenia sp. (B)

Family HyMENOLEPIDIDAE Railliet & Henry, 1909
14. Fimbriaria sp. (B)
15. Hymenolepis sp. (B)
16. Oligorchis sp. (B)

Family TarennpaE Ludwig, 1886
17. Hydatigera lyncis Skinker, 1935. (M)
18. Hydatigera taeniaeformis Batsch, 1786. (M)
19. Taenia pisiformis Bloch, 1780. (M)
Order PSEUDOPHYLLIDEA

Family DrpoTHRIOCEPHALIDAE Lihe, 1902

Spirometra mansonoides Mueller, 1935. (M)
21. Spirometra urichi Cameron, 1936. (M)

ANNOTATED Host List
CHONDRICHTHYES
Trematoda: DIGENEA

Family GorRGODERIDAE

Nagmia floridensis (19). Host: Dasyatis sabina (ray). Coelom. Alligator
Harbor. W. E. Brillhart.

Famliy SANGUINICOLIDAE

Selachohemecus olsoni (43). Host: Scoliodon terrae-novae (Sharpnosed
Shark). In heart. Alligator Harbor. Short (1954).

CHECK-LIST OF TREMATODES AND CESTODES 307

Cestoda: TETRAPHYLLIDEA

Family ONCHOBOTHRUDAE

Acanthobothrium sp. (2). Host: Dasyatis sabina (ray). Spiral valve. Alli-
gator Harbor. D. N. Kruse.

Family PHyLLOBOTHRUDAE

Anthrobothrium spp. (3). Host: Dasyatis sabina (ray). Spiral valve. Alli-
gator Harbor. R. T. Damian. Two distinct species.

Echeneibothrium sp. (4). Host: Dasyatis sabina (ray). Spiral valve. Alli-
gator Harbor. R. T. Damian.

Cestoda: TRYPANORHYNCHA

Family EUTETRARHYNCHIDAE

Parachristianella dimegacantha (5). Adult and definitive host unknown;
plerocerci in Penaeus duorarum (shrimp). Alligator Harbor. Kruse (1959).

Parachristianella monomegacantha (6). Adult and definitive host unknown;
plerocerci in Penaeus duorarum (shrimp). Alligator Harbor. Kruse (1959).

Prochristianella penaei (7). Adult and definitive host unknown; plerocerci
in Penaeus aztecus, P. duorarum, and P. setiferus (shrimps). Alligator Harbor.
Kruse (1959).

OSTEICHTHYES
Trematoda: MONOGENEA

Family DacryLoGyRIDAE

Urocleidus principalis (1). Host: Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth Bass).
Gills; eon Co. R. T. Damian.

Family DiscocoTryLiDAE

Grubea sp. (2). Host: Caranx crysos (Blue Runner). Gills. Alligator Har-
bor. A. Wagner.

Trematoda: DIGENEA
Family ACANTHOCOLPIDAE
Stephanostomum sp. (1). Host: Menticirrhus americanus (Whiting). In-
testine. Alligator Harbor. Martha Nez.

Family ALLOCREADIDAE
Opecoeloides fimbriatus (2). Host: Menticirrhus americanus (Whiting);
intestine; metacercariae in Penaeus duorarum (shrimp). Alligator Harbor and
Apalachicola Bay, Franklin Co.; St. Marks River mouth, Wakulla Co. Kruse
(1959).
Family BuCEPHALIDAE
Bucephalopsis sp. (4). Host: Sciaenops ocellata (Redfish). Intestine. Alli-
gator Harbor. G. T. Riggin.
Bucephalus cuculus (5). Definitive host not known; young forms in Cras-
sostrea virginica (oyster). Apalachicola Bay, Franklin Co. R. W. Menzel.

308 . JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Family DipyMozompae (?)

Distomum fenestratum (8). Definitive host not known; immature forms in
intestine of various marine fishes. Alligator Harbor. R. B. Short. Though
the adults are unknown, this worm is believed to belong to the family Didy-
mozoidae (Cable, 1955).

Family GoRGODERIDAE

Phyllodistomum sp. (20). Host: Ictalurus natalis (Yellow Catfish). Coelom
and kidney. Fresh water creek, Leon Co. H. Loftin.

Family HremruripArE

Sterrhurus floridensis (22). Host: Centropristes melanus (Blackfish). In-
testine. Alligator Harbor. D. N. Kruse.

Tubulovesicula sp. (21). Definitive host not known; metacercariae were
taken beneath the external ovarian membrane and from cysts in the body wall
of Cynoscion arenarius (Sand Trout). Alligator Harbor. R. B. Short. Some
of the metacercariae were with eggs and were therefore progenetic.

Family PLEORCHIIDAE
Pleorchis americanus (35). Host: Cynoscion arenarius (Sand Trout). In-
testine. Alligator Harbor. P. C. White. Previously reported from Mass., in
C. regalis.
Family SANGUINICOLIDAE

Cardicola laruei (42). Host: Cynoscion arenarius (Sand Trout) and C.
nebulosus (Spotted Squeteague). Heart. Alligator Harbor and St. Marks flats,
Wakulla Co. Short (1953).

AMPHIBIA
Trematoda: MONOGENEA

Family PoLYySTOMATIDAE

Polystoma integerrimum (4). Host: Hyla cinerea (Green Tree Frog). Blad-
der. Near Tallahassee, Leon Co. R. B. Holliman.

Trematoda: DIGENEA
Family GorGODERIDAE

Gorgoderina sp. (18). Host: Eurycea longicauda (Three-lined Salamander).
Location in host not known. Leon Co. H. Loftin.

Family PARAMPHISTOMIDAE

Megalodiscus sp. (31). Host: Rana catesbeiana (Bullfrog). Colon. Near
Tallahassee, Leon Co. H. Loftin.

Family PLAGIORCHIIDAE
Haematoloechus floedae (33). Host: Rana catesbeiana (Bullfrog). Lungs.
Leon Co. R. T. Damian.

Haematoloechus medioplexus (34). Host: Rana pipiens (Leopard Frog).
Lungs. Leon Co. D.N. Kruse.

CHECK-LIST OF TREMATODES AND CESTODES 309

Cestoda: PROTEOCEPHALA

Family PROTEOCEPHALIDAE

Ophiotaenia sp. (1). Host: Siren lacertina (Great Siren). Intestine. Leon
Comenel. Damian.

REPTILIA
Trematoda: MONOGENEA

Family PoLYsTOMATIDAE

Neopolystoma orbiculare (3). Host: Deirochelys reticularia (Chicken Turtle).
Bladder. Leon Co. R. T. Damian.

Polystomoidella oblonga (5). Host: Sternotherus odoratus (Common Musk
Turtle). Bladder. Leon Co. L. C. Oglesby.

Trematoda: DIGENEA

Family PRONOCEPHALIDAE

Macravestibulum sp. (36). Host: Pseudomys floridana (Coastal Plain Tur-
tle). Upper intestine. Leon Co. R. T. Damian. A new species to be de-
scribed by Damian.

Family PROTERODIPLOSTOMIDAE
Crocodilicola pseudostoma (37). Host: Alligator mississippiensis (Alligator).
Intestine. Northwest Florida. D. N. Kruse.
Polycotyle ornata (38). Host: Alligator mississippiensis (Alligator). In-
testine. Northwest Florida. D. N. Kruse.

Family SprroRCHIIDAE

Vasotrema sp. (44). Host: Trionyx ferox (Soft-shelled Turtle). Location
in host not determined. Franklin Co. H. Loftin.

Family TELORCHIIDAE

Telorchis sp. (47). Host: Pseudemys floridana (Coastal Plain Turtle). In-
testine. Leon Co. R. T. Damian.

AVES
Trematoda: DIGENEA

Family BRACHYLAEMIDAE

Brachylaema sp. (3). Host: Hylocichla ustulata (Swainson’s Thrush). In-
testine. Alligator Harbor. H. Loftin.

Family CycLOCOELIDAE

Cyclocoelum obscurum (6). Hosts: Catoptrophorus semipalmatus (Willet),
Calidris canutus (Knot), Limnodromus griseus (Short-billed Dowitcher), and
Aythya collaris (Ring-necked Duck). Air sacs and coelom. Shorebirds taken
at Alligator Harbor; the duck at Lake Iamonia, Leon Co. MacInnis (1959);
and H. Loftin.

310 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Family D1icROCOELIIDAE

Brachylecithum americanum (7). Host: Agelaius phoenicus (Redwinged
Blackbird). Liver. Alligator Harbor. E. A. Kelly.

Family DreLostoMIDAE

Posthodiplostomum sp. (10). Host: Hydranassa tricolor (Louisiana Heron).
Intestine. Wakulla River, Wakulla Co. D. W. Dery.

Family ECHINOSTOMATIDAE

Echinochasmus sp. (11). Host: Charadrius semipalmatus (Semipalmated
Plover). Intestine. Alligator Harbor. A. N. Sastry.

Echinoparyphium sp. (12). Host: Squatarola squatarola (Black-bellied
Plover). Intestine. Shell Point, Wakulla Co. H. Loftin.

Echinostoma sp. (18). Host: Corvus brachyrhynchos (Common Crow). In-
testine. Alligator Harbor. D. N. Kruse.

Himasthla sp. (14). Host: Erolia alpina (Dunlin). Intestine. Wakulla Co.
C. E. King and A. J. MacInnis.

Longicollia sp. (15). Host: Erolia alpina (Dunlin). Intestine. Wakulla
Beach, Wakulla Co. E. L. Tyson. Yamaguti (1958: 652) lists only one species
of this genus, L. echinata, from west Siberia in Capella gallinago (Common
Snipe).
Stephanoprora sp. (16). Hosts: Thalasseus maximus (Royal Tern) and
Squatarola squatarola (Black-bellied Plover). Intestine. Tern from Alligator
Harbor; plover from Shell Point, Wakulla Co. D. N. Kruse and H. Loftin.

Family EucoryLIDAE

Tanaisia sp. (17). Host: Limnodromus griseus (Short-billed Dowitcher).
Kidney. Shell Point, Wakulla Co. H. Loftin.

Family HETrEROPHYIDAE
Galactosomum spinetum (23). Host: Gelochelidon nilotica (Gull-billed
Tern). Air sacs or coelom. Alligator Harbor. MacInnis (1959).
Tetracladium sp. (24). Host: Sterna forsteri (Forster's Tern). Lower colon.
Alligator Harbor. R. T. Damian. Yamaguti (1958: 724) lists only one species
of this genus, T. sternae, from Russia in Sterna hirundo (Common Tern).

Family MicRopPHALLIDAE

Gynaecotyla riggini (26). Hosts: Arenaria interpres (Ruddy Turnstone),
and Catoptrophorus semipalmatus (Willet). Intestine. Alligator Harbor. Dery
(1958) and MacInnis (1959).

Maritrema gratiosum (27). Host: Lininodromus griseus (Short-billed Dow-
itcher). Intestine. Alligator Harbor. R. B. Short.

Maritrema sp. (28). Host: Limnodromus griseus (Short-billed Dowitcher).
Intestine. Shell Point, Wakulla Co. H. Loftin. Distinct from M. gratiosum.

Spelotrema sp. (29). Host: Aythya affinis. (Lesser Scaup). Intestine.
Carrabelle, Franklin Co. A. N. Sastry.

CHECK-LIST OF TREMATODES AND CESTODES 311

Family OpisTHORCHIIDAE

Pachytrema sanguineus (30). Host: Thalasseus maximus (Royal Tern).
Gall bladder. Alligator Harbor. MacInnis (1959).

Family PHILOPHTHALMIDAE

Parorchis acanthus (32). Hosts: Arenaria interpres (Ruddy Turnstone)
and Limnodromus griseus (Short-billed Dowitcher). Cloaca. Alligator Har-
bor. W. E. Brillhart and R. B. Short. Cercariae from the snail, Cerithidia
scalariformis, found at Shell Point, Wakulla Co., encysted on glassware in
laboratory. Fed to chicks by P. D. Lewis, the metacercariae developed into
adult P. acanthus in about 14 days.

Family PstLosTtOMATIDAE

Psilochasmus sp. (89). Host: Squatarola squatarola (Black-bellied Plover).
Intestine. Shell Pt., Wakulla Co. H. Loftin.

Family STRIGEIDAE
Cardiocephalus medioconiger (45). Hosts: Sterna forsteri (Forster’s Tern),
Thalasseus maximus (Royal Tern), and Larus atricilla (Laughing Gull). Small
intestine. Alligator Harbor. MacInnis (1959).

Cotylurus aquavis (46). Host: Larus atricilla (Laughing Gull). Intestine.
Alligator Harbor. L. C. Oglesby.

Family TROGLOTREMATIDAE

Renicola glandoloba (48). Hosts: Larus atricilla (Laughing Gull) and
Sterna hirundo (Common Tern). Kidney. Alligator Harbor. MacInnis (1959).
MacInnis found only one previous report of this species, in Puffinus kuhlii (a
shearwater) from Suez. L. C. Oglesby reported an unidentified specimen of
this genus from Alligator Harbor from Sterna forsteri (Forster's Tern).

Cestoda: CYCLOPHYLLIDEA

Family DILEPIDIDAE
Liga sp. (12). Host: Squatarola squatarola (Black-bellied Plover). Intestine.
Shell Point, Wakulla Co. H. Loftin.

Paricterotaenia sp. (18). Host: Larus atricilla (Laughing Gull). Small in-
testine. Alligator Harbor. R. T. Damian.

Family HyMENOLEPIDIDAE
Fimbriaria sp. (14). Host: Podilymbus podiceps (Pied-billed Grebe). In-
testine. Leon Co. A. J. MacInnis.
Hymenolepis sp. (15). Hosts: Limnodromus griseus (Short-billed Dowitch-

er) and Podilymbus podiceps (Pied-billed Grebe). Intestine. Dowitcher from
Alligator Harbor; grebe from Leon Co. D. N. Kruse.

Oligorchis sp. (16). Host: Cyanocitta cristata (Blue Jay). Intestine. Tal-
lahassee, Leon Co. R. T. Damian.

312 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

MAMMALIA
Trematoda: DIGENEA

Family DreLosToMIDAE

Pharyngostomoides ovale (9). Host: Procyon lotor (Raccoon). Intestine.
Jefferson Co. E. L. Tyson.

Family LECcITHODENDRIDAE

Lecithodendrium sp. (25). Host: Dasypterus floridanus (Florida Yellow
Bat). Intestine. St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, Wakulla Co. D. N. Kruse.

Family RHOPALIASIDAE
Rhopalias baculifer (40). Host: Didelphis marsupialis (Opossum). Intes-
time. eon, Con) DaNe Kruse:

Rhopalias coronatus (41). Host: Didelphis marsupialis (Opossum). In-
testine. Leon Co. L. C. Oglesby.

Cestoda: CYCLOPHYLLIDEA

Family ANOPLOCEPHALIDAE

Atriotaenia sp. (8). Host: Procyon lotor (Raccoon). Intestine. Jefferson
Co; L. GE; Oglesby,

Oochoristica mephitis (9). Mephitis elongatus (Skunk). Intestine. Jeffer-
son Co. E. L. Tyson.

Oochoristica procyonis (10). Host: Procyon lotor (Raccoon). Intestine.
jetterson) Co, El) Dyson.

Family DimEpmimar

Dipylidium caninum (11). Host: Canis familiaris (Dog). Intestine. Leon
Co. R. B. Holliman et al.

Family TAENUDAE

Hydatigera lyncis (17). Host: Lynx rufus (Bobcat). Intestine. Jefferson
(CO, 18, Jb, Alyaom,

Hydatigera taeniaeformis (18). Host: Lynx rufus (Bobcat). Intestine. Jeft-
erson’ Go) ii, ia. divson:

Taenia pisiformis (19). Hosts: Canis familiaris (Dog), Felis domestica (Cat),
and Lynx rufus (Bobcat). Dog and cat from Leon Co.; bobcat from Jefferson
Co. A. Wagner and E. L. Tyson, respectively.

Cestoda: PSEUDOPHYLLIDEA

Family DrsorHrioCEPHALIDAE
Spirometra mansonoides (20). Host: Lynx rufus (Bobcat). Intestine. Pan-
acea, Franklin Co.; and Jefferson Co. A. Wagner and E. L. Tyson, respectively.
Spirometra urichi (21). Host: Lynx rufus (Bobcat). Intestine. Panacea,
Franklin Co. A. Wagner. This and the above specimen of Spirometra man-
soides from Panacea were taken from the same bobcat.

CHECK-LIST OF TREMATODES AND CESTODES 313

LITERATURE CITED

GCABEE, RR. M.
1955. Affinities of the trematode family Didymozoidae. J. Parasit., 41,
Supply ps 20.
DAWES, B.

1946. The trematoda, with special reference to British and other European
forms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 644 pp.

DERY, D.W.

1958. A revision of the genus Gynaecotyla (Microphallidae: Trematoda) with
a description of Gynaecotyla riggini n. sp. J. Parasit., 44: 110-112.

PEAR EIS W. J., JR.

1955a. Monogenetic trematodes of Gulf of Mexico fishes. Part I. The
superfamily Gyrodactyloidea. Biol. Bull., 108: 125-137.

1955b. Monogenetic trematodes of Gulf of Mexico fishes. Part II. The
superfamily Gyrodactyloidea (continued). J. Parasit., 41: 185-193.

1955c. Monogenetic trematodes of Gulf of Mexico fishes. Part III. The
superfamily Gyrodactyloidea (continued). Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci.,
18: 33-47,

1955d. Monogenetic trematodes of Gulf of Mexico fishes. Part IV. The
superfamily Capsaloidea Price, 1936. Rev. Iberica Parasit., Vol.
Extras O55: 116,

1955e. Monogenetic trematodes of Gulf of Mexico fishes. Part V. The
superfamily Capsaloidea. Trans. Am. Micr. Soc., 74: 203-225.

1955f. Monogenetic trematodes of Gulf of Mexico fishes. Part VI. The
superfamilies Polystomatoidea Price, 1936, and Diclidophoroidea
Price; 1986. ‘Trans. Am. Micr. Soc., 74: 361-377.

1955g. Monogenetic trematodes of Gulf of Mexico fishes. Part VII. The
superfamily Diclidophoroidea Price, 1936 (continued). Quart. J. Fla.
Acad Scie) 182 113-119)

1955h. Monogenetic trematodes of Gulf of Mexico fishes. Part IX. The
family Diclidophoridae Fuhrmann, 1928. Trans. Am. Micr. Soc.,
7A; 377-388.

1956a. Monogenetic trematodes of Gulf of Mexico fishes. Part VIII. The
superfamily Diclidophoroidea Price, 1936 (continued). Proc. Hel-
minth. Soc. Washington, 23: 5-13.

1956b. Monogenetic trematodes of Gulf of Mexico fishes. Part X. The
family Microcotylidae Taschenberg, 1879. Trans. Am. Micr. Soc.,
75: 436-453.

1956c. Monogenetic trematodes of Gulf of Mexico fishes. Part XI. The
family Microcotylidae Taschenberg, 1879 (continued). Proc. Hel-
minth. Soc. Washington, 23: 153-162.

314 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

1956d. Monogenetic trematodes of Gulf of Mexico fishes. Part XII. The
family Gastrocotylidae Price, 1943. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf & Carib.,
6: 28-43.

1957. Monogenetic trematodes of Gulf of Mexico fishes. Part XIII. The
family Gastrocotylidae Price, 1943 (continued). Trans. Am. Micr.
SOG. WOE Ie.

KRUSE, D. N.

1959. Parasites of the commercial shrimps, Penaeus aztecus Ives, P. duora-
rum Burkenroad, and P. setiferus (Linnaeus). Tulane Stud. Zool.,
7: 123-144,

MacINNIS, A. J.

1959. Some helminth parasites, mostly from marine birds, from the north-
west Gulf coast of Florida. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Florida
State University.

SHORE Res B:

1953. A new blood fluke, Cardicola laruei n.g., n.sp., (Aporocotylidae) from
marine fishes. J. Parasit., 39: 304-309.

1954. A new blood fluke, Selachohemecus olsoni, n.g., n. sp., (Aporocotyli-
dae) from the Sharp-nosed shark, Scoliodon terrae-novae. Proc. Hel-
minth. Soc. Washington, 21: 78-82.

WARDLE, R. A., and J. A. McLEOD

1952. The zoology of tapeworms. Minneapolis: U. of Minnesota Press,
780 pp.

YAMAGUTTI, S.

1958. Systema helminthum. Vol. I. The digenetic trematodes of verte-
brates. New York: Interscience Publ., 1575 pp.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., (1960) 23(4), 1961.

EFFECT OF AGE ON LIPID PHOSPHORUS, RIBO- AND
DESOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACIDS OF THE HEART AND
MUSCLE OF CATTLE! 2

R L. Surrey, A. C. Warnick, A. Z. PALMER AND G. K. Davis
University of Florida

Noble, Boucek and Lewis (1954) observed that older rats had
less phospholipid in the heart than younger ones. Mirsky and Ris
(1949) demonstrated that several different species had characteristic
levels of DNA (desoxyribonucleic acid) in their tissues. Davidson
and Leslie (1951) studied DNA in chick heart explants as a measure
of the number of cells present, and observed that intensive cell
division was characterized by a large incerase in RNA (ribonucleic
acid). Davidson and Waymouth (1944) found that the total nucleic
acid per unit weight in sheep heart was about twice as great in the
embryo as in the adult. Prolonged protein depletion in the rat was
found by Mandel, et. al. (1950) to almost half the RNA in the liver
and kidney and to have no effect on the brain; the DNA was not
affected. The present study was made to determine the effect of
animal age on the lipid phosphorus, RNA and DNA of the heart
and muscle of cows and calves fed varying levels of protein.

EXPERIMENTAL

Sixteen Brahman-Shorthorn crossbred cows, 3 and 4 years old,
were divided (5, 5, 6) into 3 dietary groups. The groups were fed
0.9, 1.3 and 3.0 pounds of 41% protein cottonseed meal and 42,
56 and 70 pounds of Pangola grass silage per day, respectively, dur-
ing 3 months before and 3 months after calving. After this period
of concentrate feeding the cows and their 16 calves were placed
on a mixed grass-clover pasture without supplement, beginning in
June, for approximately 3 months before being slaughtered.

Samples of the left ventricle and gracilis muscle were obtained
within 10 minutes after being sacrificed by bleeding and chemical

' Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series, No. 1063.

> The writers wish to thank Fay T. Warner and J. W. Carpenter for tech-
nical assistance. This study was financed in part by a grant-in-aid of the
National Heart Institute, P.H.S. (H-1318).

316 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

analyses started immediately. The lipid phosphorus, RNA and
DNA were determined by the Ogur and Rosen modification of
the Schmidt-Thannhauser-Schneider technique as described by Vol-
kin and Cohn (1954). Statistical analyses of the data were made
according to Snedecor (1956).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The dietary protein levels had no effect on the compounds
studied and for this reason data for the dietary treatments are not
presented. The values obtained for the concentration of lipid
phosphorus in the heart and gracilis muscle of the cows and their
6 month old calves are shown in Table I. The ventricles of the
calves had approximately 40% more (P<0.01) lipid phosphorus
present than those of their mothers. The greater concentration
of lipid phosphorus observed in the muscle of the calves was not
significant. These observations concur with those of Noble, Bou-
cek, and Lewis (1954) who studied the effect of age on the phos-
pholipids of the heart of rats. The ventricle of cattle has about
10 times as much succinoxidase activity as the gracilis muscle
(Shirley, et. al., 1959). Nason and Lehman (1956) demonstrated
that lipids were a factor in succinate oxidation through the cyto-
chrome system. As phospholipids in the heart in the present study
were found to be almost double that present in the muscle it ap-
pears that high concentration of phospholipids and succinoxidase
activity are closely associated.

In Table I data are presented that were obtained for the RNA
and DNA of the ventricles and gracilis muscle of the cattle. There
was more (P<0.01) DNA in the heart and more (P<0.01) RNA in
the heart and muscle of the calves than in their dams. These differ-
ences suggest that both the RNA and DNA concentrations in cattle
heart and muscle are a measure of rate of growth, as pointed out
to be the case with RNA in chick heart explants by Davidson and
Leslie (1951). The variation in cattle is not likely due to dilution
of the nucleic acids by other cellular components as was concluded ~
by Herrman (1952) to have occurred in chick embryo muscle. This
is believed to be the case as water and protein vary only to the
extent of about 2% in heart and in gracilis muscle between veal
and mature cattle, and the young calf has only about 3% more fat
in the heart and 2% less in the gracilis muscle (Albritton, 1954).

ACIDS OF THE HEART AND MUSCLES OF CATTLE 317

Additional data have been collected on twenty 3-year-old cows,
similar to those of the present study that had 16.8 + 0.5% protein
in the left ventricle, while 14 corresponding 1-year heifers had
16.0 + 0.7% present. These 83-year-old cows had 20.2 + 1.2%
protein in the gracilis muscle.

TABLE I

EFFECT OF AGE ON THE LIPID PHOSPHORUS, RIBO- AND
DESOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACIDS OF THE HEART
AND MUSCLE OF CATTLE

ug./Gm. Fresh Wt.

COWS calves
3-4 yr. old 6 mo. old
Ventricle, left:
Lipid P DX a2) By 409 + 38l
RNA 1383 + 191 2016 + 274
DNA S63. -2 0125 1442 + 299
Gracilis Muscle:
Lipid P 179 + 9 194 + 27
RNA 880 + 50 PARSy ae KOS)
DNA S75) se O71 662 + 42

* Means and standard deviations of 16 cows and their 16 calves. Signifi-
cance: The calves had more (P<0.01) lipid P, RNA and DNA in the heart,
and more (P<0.01) RNA in the muscle than their dams. The greater concen-
trations of lipid P and DNA in the muscles of the calves were not significant.

SUMMARY

Sixteen 3 and 4-year-old cows were divided about equally into
3 dietary groups and fed 3 levels of protein for 3 months before
and 3 months after calving, at which time in June they were all
placed on a mixed grass-clover pasture for 3 months prior to being
sacrificed. The calves had higher (P<0.01) concentrations of lipid
phosphorus, RNA and DNA in the heart, and more (P<0.01) RNA
in the gracilis muscle than their mothers. Higher concentrations
of lipid phosphorus and DNA observed in the muscles of the calves
were not significant. The rations had no effect on these tissue
constituents.

3818 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

LITERATURE CITED
PEIRCE TON, 18,5 (Ci,

1954. Standard values in nutrition and metabolism. W. B. Saunders Co.,
Bhilae pps slOG=in
DAVIDSON, J. N., and I. LESLIE
1951. The changing cell number and composition of chick heart explants
growing in vitro. Exptl. Cell Res. 2: 366-387.
DAVIDSON, J. N., and C. WAYMOUTH
1944. Tissue nucleic acids. 1. Ribonucleic acids and nucleotides in em-
bryonic and adult tissue. Biochem. J. 38: 39-50.
HERRMAN, H.
1952. Studies in muscle development. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 55: 99-108.

MANDEL, P., M. JACOB, and L: MANDEL
1950. Etude sur le metabolisme des acides nucleiques. Bull. soc. chim.
biol. 32: 80-88.
IMDURSIQE, XG dic, eaovel 1El IRIS
1949. Variable and constant components of chromosomes. Nature 163:
666-667.
NASON, A., and I. R. LEHMAN
1956. The role of lipides in electron transport. J. Biol. Chem. 222: 511-
530.
NOBIEE Nae ke J. DOUCHK ands. was eraNvils
1954. A relationship of tissue lipids to sex and body weight in the albino
rat. . @ire.) Ress 9251-34:
SEbUNO NC Ie bps Ihe TID IRV AGE OAIRINIICCIK.
le He LINC ES. andiG. ke DAVIS
1959. Effect of dietary protein level on several oxidative enzymes of the
heart, muscle and liver of cattle. J. Nutrition 67: 159-166.
SNEDECOR, G. W.
1956. Statistical Methods. 5th. Edition. The Iowa State University Press,
Ames, Iowa.
VOLKIN, E., and W. E. COHN

1954. Methods of Biochemical Analysis. D. Glick, Ed., Interscience Pub-
lishemmincswN Youls2or-so0o:

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., (1960) 23(4), 1961.

A SIGNIFICANT NEW FLAGELLATE FROM WARM
MINERAL SPRINGS, FLORIDA

W. T. CALAwAy
University of Florida

Warm Mineral Springs near Venice, Florida, presents a rather
rigorous environment for microscopic forms of life. A high saline
content, a lack of dissolved oxygen, the presence of hydrogen sul-
fide, an elevated temperature, and strong currents all contribute to
conditions that evidently exclude many forms found in the other
springs of Florida. While the biota contains a few well-known
forms, particularly members of the plant kingdom, such as the
sulphur bacteria, Beggiatoa spp., and filamentous blue green algae,
Oscillatoria spp., the fauna of the spring is in many ways unique.
It is not surprising, therefore, that the flagellate here described
should be found or that it should have characteristics that evidently
set it aside as a distinct genus but without strong ties to presently
known groups. Search of the literature has revealed no report
of similar forms.

Several papers have discussed the spring and its chemical and
physical characteristics (Bovee, 1959; Ferguson et. al., 1947; Lackey,
1957, and Odum, 1953). It is sufficient to note here that in this highly
eutrophic environment containing hydrogen sulfide and an appre-
ciable salt concentration there has already been found by Bovee
(Loc. cit.), Hartman (1958), and Lackey (Loc. cit.) some organisms
which were unknown before their investigations and which have
not been found elsewhere. Also of interest is the paucity of flagel-
lates mentioned by Lackey, with only Euglenophyceae being noted,
and a similar rarity of amebas with no groups specified; the latter
amended by Bovee who found certain marine amebas in some
abundance.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Samples were collected from Warm Mineral Springs on May
23, 1960, by Dr. James B. Lackey and returned to the Earle B.
Phelps Laboratory at the University of Florida where they were
examined the next day. The organism here described was discov-
ered in only one of the several samples, and several dozen indi-
viduals were seen and studied during the next two days. Measure-
ments were made on approximately a dozen of these flagellates;
and about a dozen more were carefully further scrutinized for de-

3820 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tails of morphology, granules and other characteristics. Still other
individuals were present, but no count of their numbers was at-
tempted.

The sample came from a point about 75 yards down Salt Creek,
which is the outlet from the spring. This sample contained the
sulphur bacteria Beggiatoa gigantea, B. mirabilis, B. alba and B.
leptomitiformis and a considerable amount of filamentous blue
green algae; chiefly, Oscillatoria spp. Several ciliates, round worms
(nematoda) and crustaceans were also present.

These organisms were examined in wet mounts using a recent
model Zeiss Phase Contrast Microscope with a built in light source.
Most of the examinations were made at 400x. The microscope is
fitted with a calibrated ocular reticule and measurements were made
while using phase illumination.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FLAGELLATE
Bilorum n. gen. multiforme n. sp.

Preliminary observation showed that each organism bears two
flagella, equal in length, each arising antero-laterally from a sep-
arate basal granule. Since no other colorless flagellate so bears its
flagella, the organism is considered the type form of Bilorum n. gen.,
exemplified by the flagellar positions. The body is variable in
shape. Smaller pyriform or oval forms were usually found against
the underside of the coverglass (Fig. 1, a and b). The larger,
more elongated, and sometimes cephalated, spindleform organisms
(Fig. 1, c and d) were found only on the substrate. The animals
are bilaterally symmetrical but the antero-posterior axis is often
curved or bent. The body is almost circular in cross section. The
cuticular layer is thin and delicate and no markings in or on it
were distinguished. Individual organisms maintain a fairly con-
stant shape but the body is very plastic. The posterior tail-like
portion of the longer form may be extended and then partially
withdrawn in a manner reminiscent of the cytoplasmic movements
of certain species of Cercobodo.

The organism varies in length from 14y or less, for the pyriform
and oval types, to as much as 90u for the cephalated spindleform
types. There is a gradual change from the small form to the large
one as indicated by examining Fig. 1, a, b, c and d (in that order),
and by the fact that several cephalated organisms intermediate in

FLAGELLATE FROM WARM MINERAL SPRINGS, FLORIDA 321

size between the organism of Fig. 1, c (25) and the organism of
Fig. 1, d (70%) were observed. Measurements of both the oval and
elongated organisms gave transverse dimensions between the nar-
row limits of 3u and 4.54 at the widest point of the body.

Figure 1. (a) An organism of small size showing slightly different morphol-
ogy from (b) X 2000; (b) another organism of small size with apparent vesicu-
lar nucleus and two granules of the mid-body region X 2000; (c) organism
of medium size showing production of pseudopodium from the anterior face
X 2000; (d) a large caphalated form X 1000.

In the more elongated animals, protoplasmic sheaths, appar-
ently extended from the body, cover the proximal *% to %4 of the

322 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

flagella. The cuticle around the base of each flagellum is especially
noticeable under the phase illumination, appearing as a dense, thick-
ened area. The flagella of the shorter forms are devoid of such
covering along their lengths. As shown in Fig. 1, c, a pseudopodium
was seen on one organism. This arose from the anterior border,
but was not visibly employed either in locomotion or feeding. Its
utility as an organelle is as yet undetermined. The nucleus is a
densely-homogeneous, spherical structure. Invariably it is the
most anterior of the cluster of inclusions in the posterior portion
of the body. It is vesicular, 1» in diameter, with a spherical endo-
some, 0.54 in diameter.

Each flagellum originates from a distinct latero-anterior basal
granule. There are also other granules near the anterior margin
which are not associated with the flagella. These number about
half a dozen; and are about 0.3 in diameter, solid, light refractile,
but not crystalline. The granules stand out strongly as dense dark
bodies against the light grey background of the cytoplasm under
the dark-contrast, phase illumination.

In several of these flagellates, two other particularly distinct
granules were also observed. These were in lateral positions just
forward of the nucleus (see Fig. 1, b), which is always slightly sub-
median. These granules were similar in size and appearance to
those near the anterior margin. Still other granules are present
among the “vacuoles” of the posterior portion. These granules are
also similar to the anterior ones in size and appearance. ‘The or-
ganism does not have a contractile vacuole. The “vacuoles” men-
tioned measure 0.5 to Ip, are spheroidal or ovate, and contain
fluid, light-refractile material, perhaps oils.

While the flagella are very active, the movement of the organ-
ism seems to be largely independent of flagellar action. The more
elongated animals, as illustrated in Fig. 1, c and d, frequently glide
about in an almost sinuous manner. The action of the flagella,
however, produces vibration of the body sufficient to interfere with
careful observation during periods when they are active. While
the motion is usually forward, it frequently reverses and sometimes
seems to result from attachment and contraction of the posterior
attenuation. At times, however, it covers a greater distance than
can be readily accounted for in this manner. The shorter types
of the flagellate are more active than the elongated forms. With
these, as with the elongated forms, the flagella do not seem to

FLAGELLATE FROM WARM MINERAL SPRINGS, FLORIDA 325

account for all of the motion since the flagella frequently trail when
the organism pauses after very active movement. Again, the mo-
tion is not always forward but is so more frequently in the shorter
type than in the elongated type.

Reproduction was not observed.

DISCUSSION

Since chlorophyll is absent in the cells of this flagellate, the
nutrition must be either saprozoic or holozoic. The presence of
the granules of the anterior margin and the similar granules of the
posterior portion, the observed pseudopodia and the vacuoles of
the posterior portion all favor a tentative diagnosis for holozoic nu-
trition. The observation of a vacuole in the anterior portion of
one organism, even though nothing active could be distinguished
within the vacuole, would lend some substance to this diagnosis.
The vacuoles of the posterior area also lacked noticeable inclusions,
but their appearance under phase contrast indicates they might
well contain lipoidal residues of digestive processes. The evidence
for holozoic nutrition is not wholly conclusive and the possibility
of accessory saprozoic nutrition has not been eliminated.

No previously known flagellate bears two opposite, laterally
originating flagella. This flagellate evidently is a member of a
new genus. It has no apparent relation to colorless chlamydom-
onads which have two anterior flagella springing antero-laterally
from a papilla. The nearest relatives appear to be in the family
Amphimonadidae, members of which have two equal flagella.
Illustrations of Amphimonads indicate that the points of emergence
of the flagella may be somewhat separated and that the posterior
cell-tip at times forms a protoplasmic stem (Hall, 1953).

The possibility that this organism may be a primitive, distomate
flagellate is an interesting conjecture. The definitely lateral origin
of the flagella and the noted thickening of the area where the fla-
gella emerge support such an hypothesis. If the thickening differ-
entiated into a mouth structure (the presence of pseudopods in this
region may well indicate the ability of the area temporarily to un-
dergo such change), the next step might well be the development
of a binucleate condition; and such an organism would then be
approaching a form similar to the present distomate genera Trepo-
monas, Hexamitus and Trigonomonas.

3824 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The name Bilorum n. g. multiforme n. sp., is proposed for this
organism; the genus because of its two flagella (lorum = scourge,
whip, rein), and the species because of the great variation in
morphology between individuals (multiforme = many form). Since
no similar organism is known to have been described heretofore,
this is designated as the type species of the genus.

Tentative classification: (after Hall, 1953)

Phylum Protozoa
Subphylum Mastigophora
Class Zoomastigophorea
Order Protomastigida
Family Amphimonadidae
Genus Bilorum n. gen.
Species B. multiforme n. sp.

I wish to express my grateful appreciation to Dr. Eugene Bovee
and Dr. James B. Lackey for their encouragement, suggestions and
criticisms and to Dr. Joseph Brunet for assistance in selecting the
correct Latin forms for the name of this flagellate.

LITERATURE CITED
BOVEE, EUGENE C.
1959. “Amebas of Warm Mineral Springs, Florida, Including Cochliopo-
dium papyrum N. Sp.”; Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 21: 241-247.
FERGUSON, G. E., C. W. LINGHAM, S. K. LOVE, and R. O. VERNON
1947. “Springs of Florida”; Geol. Bull. No. 31, Fla. State Dept. of Con-
servation, Fla. Geol. Survey, Tallahassee.
JEUNE by, RY, LP
1953. Protozoology, p. 178-180. New York.

HARTMAN, OLGA
1958. “A New Nereid Worm from Warm Mineral Springs, Florida, with a
Review of the Genus Nicon Kinberg’; Journ. Washington Academy
of Sciences, 48: 263-266.
LACKEY, JAMES B.
1957. “A New Large Ciliate from Warm Mineral Springs”; Quart. Journ.
Florida Academy of Sciences, 20: 255-260.
ODUM, H. T.

1953. “Dissolved Phosphorus in Florida Waters”; Report of Investigations,
No. 9, Fla. State Dept. of Conservation, Fla. Geol. Survey, Tallahas-
see.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., (1960) 23(4), 1961.

NOTE ON PAGURISTES CADENATI, A HERMIT CRAB
NEW TO FLORIDA !

ANTHONY J. PROVENZANO, JR.
University of Miami

A single specimen of a new species of pagurid crab taken at
Martinique was described by Forest (1954) but no additional speci-
mens have been reported. As the type locality is some 1500 miles
south-east of Miami, the discovery of Paguristes cadenati Forest
in the Florida Keys establishes a considerable extension of range
for this species. Material examined:

1 male, CL 13.5 mm, 8 miles off Indian Key, about 60 miles
South-S.E. of Miami, Florida, at 20 ft. on patch reef. 7 May
1960. Walter A. Starck, II, col UMML 32: 1760.

1 female, CL 8.5 mm (damaged), and fragments of 3 additional
specimens, Sombrero Reef, Florida, about 90 miles South of
Miami, Florida, winter 1958-59. Wallace Tobin, col. UMML
Boral oll,

Among the features which set P. cadenati apart from other
West Indian Paguristes are: the almost total lack of setation on
the anterior hard parts as opposed to the normally heavy setation
of other species, the absence of spines on the pereiopods, the unique
shape of the chelipeds with dorsal depressions on the manus and
carpus (Forest, 1954, Fig. 2) and the color. Forest gives a detailed
description of the species which will not be repeated here, but a
discussion of some differences between the present material and
the holotype is possible.

The chief coloration in life is a very brilliant scarlet. The pereio-
pods are solidly colored in the present material and even after
drying or several months in alcohol, the vivid red color is largely
retained. The anterior carapace and cephalic appendages are ir-
regularly mottled with red and white. None of the six specimens
now known shows exactly the same mottled pattern on the anterior
carapace, but all are solidly colored on the pereiopods.

The gill count for P. cadenati was given by Forest as 11 pairs,

2 pega 2unon No. 293 from the Marine Laboratory, University of Miami,
Florida.

326 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

but according to Wass (in litt.) who has communicated with Forest
on the matter, this is an error. Examination of one of the present
specimens reveals the presence of 13 pairs of gills, as in other mem-
bers of the genus.

A feature often used in pagurid systematics is eye-stalk width-
length ratio and ratio of eyestalk length to width of anterior cara-
pace. While often useful, these ratios may sometimes vary so much
with changing size that erroneous conclusions may result from
placing too much weight on this character. The point was dis-
cussed briefly by Provenzano (1960: 122). While the ratio of eye-
stalk length to width of front in the present material (five speci-
mens) is similar to that of the holotype, the ratio of maximum eye-
stalk width to eyestalk length appears somewhat variable as indi-
cated im: Malble ae

TABLE 1

THE RATIO OF MAXIMUM EYESTALK WIDTH TO EYESTALK LENGTH
IN PAGURISTES CADENATI, EXPRESSED AS AN INDEX. THE
INDEX FOR THE HOLOTYPE WAS DETERMINED
FROM ITS ILLUSTRATION.

Ophthalmic

Carapace length Sex Index
13mm _ (holotype) male 0.25
13.5 male 0.18

8.5 female 0.18

8.0 P 0.25

7.0 P 0.20

6.2 P 0.25

A total of at least 19 nominal species of Paguristes is now known
from various localities in the Caribbean (Forest, 1954; Wass, 1955;
Holthuis, 1959). P. cadenati follows P. lymani M-Ed. & Bouvier
and six littoral species (Provenzano, 1959) as the eighth member of
this genus known from Florida waters.

I am indebted to divers Wally Tobin and Walter Starck for
the material studied.

A HERMIT CRAB NEW TO FLORIDA 327

LITERATURE CITED

FOREST, J.

1954. Sur un pagure littoral nouveau de la Martinique, Paguristes cadenati,
sp. nov. Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. nat., Ser. 2, 26(3): 353-857, 3 figs.

HOLTHUIS, L. B.

1959. The Crustacea Decapoda of Suriname (Dutch Guiana) Zool. Ver-
hand., 44: 1-296, 16 pls., 69 text figs.

PROVENZANO, A. J.
1959. The shallow-water hermit crabs of Florida. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf &
Carib., 9(4): 349-420, 21 figs.
1960. Notes on Bermuda hermit crabs. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf & Carib.,
HOC) bial lets:

WASS, M. L.

1955. The decapod crustaceans of Alligator Harbor and adjacent inshore
areas of nortwestern Florida. Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci., 18(8):129-
176, 13 text figs.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., (1960) 23(4), 1961.

THE ECOLOGY OF MARINE PLANTS OF
CRYSTAL BAY, FLORIDA

Ronatp C. PHILLies
Florida State Board of Conservation Marine Laboratory !

Large amounts of attached and unattached marine algae were
found in Crystal Bay on the Florida west coast. A field study
was undertaken when the unusual hydrographic conditions of the
area were realized. Even though Crystal Bay is open and com-
pletely exposed to the Gulf of Mexico, it was found that water
salinities were considerably lower than normal sea water con-
centration.

Collecting trips were made to Crystal Bay on 17 April 1958
(trip No. 1), on 16 June 1958 (trip No. 2), and on 16 February 1959
(trip No. 3). The algae seemingly endure low salinity here and
even flourish in it, if numbers of individuals and vigor of plants are
any indication of organisms well suited to their environment.
Fresh water from Crystal River emptying into Crystal Bay prob-
ably dilutes the sea water. Its origin is from springs and is undoubt-
edly “hard”. Possibly the plants have adapted to some compound
in addition to sodium chloride to maintain osmotic pressure (prob-
ably calcium or magnesium salts). The algae found in Crystal Bay
are not species typically found in an estuary or which might charact-
erize an estuary.

Dawson (1955) found that salinity characteristics were estuarine
and recorded a mean salinity of 16.0 0/00 in Crystal Bay from
September 1951 through August 1952. He noted the maximum
salinity range at any one station to be 19.1 0/oo and observed the
maximum salinity range in the bay to be 3.2-28.4 o/oo. The sta-
tion with the 19.1 0/oo range was located on the dredged channel
from Crystal river mouth to the Gulf.

According to Price (1954) the area lies in the drowned karst
subsector of the Gulf coast. Vernon (1951) stated that Crystal
River, which discharges into Crystal Bay, is almost entirely spring
fed. Dawson (loc. cit.) observed springs as far downstream in
Crystal River as the Salt River branch. He theorized that the total
daily flow was probably greater than the mean flow of 120 million

1 Contribution No. 51 from the Fla. St. Bd. Cons. Mar. Lab., Bayboro Hrbr.,
St. Petersburg, Fla.

MARINE PLANTS OF CRYSTAL BAY, FLORIDA 329

gallons per day recorded at Homosassa Springs by Ferguson et al.
(1947). This discharge evidently is mainly responsible for the
estuarine condition of the bay. Visher (1954) reported that the area
expects 80-90 storm days per year. The first trip to the area was
made immediately following two to three days of thundershower
activity. Because very low salinities were recorded in the Bay, I
concluded that storm activity probably aided in salinity reduction.

Dawson (op. cit.) noted that the waters of Crystal Bay and ad-
jacent backswamps exhibited minimal salinity variation (weekly
variation averaged 3.0 0/00). This stabilization is possibly aided
by the Crystal Reefs, a series of oyster bars in Crystal Bay which
lie in a north-south direction and extend west of the Crystal River
mouth approximately three and one-half miles.

Bottom composition of the bay between the oyster bars consists
alternately of hard sand, muddy sand, oyster shell, and in some
places a three inch deposit of soft mud over hard sand. According
to field observations these softer muddy sand areas occur in deeper
locations between the oyster bars, approximately in depths of
three and one-half to five feet of water. The hard sand bottoms
seem to occur in depths up to three feet.

Hydrographic data collected are included in Table I. Abbrevi-
ations use are: F—flood tide, E—ebb tide, S—sand, M—mud, Sh—
shell, MuS—muddy sand.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Six stations were so selected in Crystal Bay as to provide the
most effective plant sampling. The arrangement also revealed
any salinity gradient in the bay south of the river mouth.

A box type collecting dredge was hauled behind the boat at
each station for a period of ten minutes.

A stoppered leaded water bottle was used to collect bottom
water samples for salinity determinations. A hydrometer type salin-
ometer was used in these determinations.

A centigrade thermometer was used in field water temperature
observations.

On the third trip a 30 cm. white Secchi disc was used to measure
light penetration in the water.

JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

330

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331

MARINE PLANTS OF CRYSTAL BAY, FLORIDA

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832. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY’ OF SCIENCES

PLANT List

In the following list the station abbreviations are: the first num-
ber is the trip number, and the second number is the station num:

ber.

Station locations are given in Fig. l.

Scale in Miles

\ “a e |

Dotteh Mar Kings In Cry sta| Bay are
the Crys in| Raeis —oyster bars.

MyXOPHYCEAE

Calothrix confervicola (Roth)C.Ag. 3-3, 3-4, 3-5; sparse on Halophila engel-
mannii at 3, abundant on Syringodium at 4 & 5.

Calothrix pilosa Harv. 3-4; abundant on Syringodium.

Hydrocoleum lyngbyaceum Kutz. ex. Gom. 3-3, 3-4, 3-5; abundant on
Syringodium at 3 & 4 but on Laurencia intricata at Sh

MARINE PLANTS OF CRYSTAL BAY, FLORIDA 333

Lyngbya mittsii Phillips. 3-4, 3-5; very abundant on Syringodium at 4,
sparse on Laurencia intricata at 5.

Microcoleus chthonoplastes (Fl. Dan.) Thur. 3-1, 3-5; rare at 1, but com-
mon at 5; entangled in algae and on shell.

CHLOROPHYCEAE

Caulerpa paspaloides (Bory)Grev. var. typica Weber. 1-1, 1-2, 1-5, 2-1, 2-6,
3-2; common to abundant on muddy sand _ bottoin.

Caulerpa prolifera (F¢rsskal) Lamx. 1-1, 1-2, 1-5, 2-1, 2-3, 2-6, 3-1, 3-2;
abundant on muddy sand and sand bottom but at 3-1 was very abundant
on oyster shells.

Chaetomorpha brachygona Harv. 3-1; rare; unattached.

Cladophora gracilis (Griff.)Kutz. 3-5; common; entangled in Laurencia

intricata.

Enteromorpha crinita (Roth)J.Ag. Trip 1; very abundant in fresh water
of Crystal River; unattached.

Penicillus capitatus Lamarck. 2-3; common; on muddy sand.

Phaeophila dendroides (Crouan)Batters. Trip 1; sparse on Ceramium.

PHAEOPHYCEAE

Ectocarpus elachistaeformis Heydrich. 3-2; very abundant on Sargassum.

Ectocarpus sp. 3-5; sparse; entangled in Laurencia intricata.

Eudesme zosterae (J.Ag.)Kylin. 1-4; sparse; unattached.

Myriotrichia subcorymbosus (Holden in Collins)Blomquist. 3-3, 3-4, 3-5;
abundant to very abundant on Syringodium and Halophila; these are
very large robust plants; with gametangia.

Rosenvingea intricata (J.Ag.)Bgrgs. At most stations on first trip, 3-1, 3-3,
3-4, 3-5, 3-6; abundant and unattached on first trip, sparse on rock
at 3-1, abundant on Halophila at 3-3, very abundant on shell at 3-4,
and sparse on Syringodium at 3-5 and 3-6; with gametangia on third
trip.

Rosenvingea sanctate-crucis Borgs. 1-5; rare; unattached.

Nangassum spteropleuron Grum, 1-1, I-2, 1-3, 1-4 1-5, 2-1, 9-9 2-3 9-4.
3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6; very abundant on shells at 1-1, 1-2, 1-5,
2b 2-2, 2-3, 2-4 3-1, 38-2; 3-3, and sparse on shell! at 1-3, 1-4, 3-4,
3-5, and 3-6; seemed to be more abundant on the second trip than
the first and was more abundant on the third trip than on the second.

Sphacelaria furcigera Kutz. 3-2; abundant on old Diplanthera leaf; with
propagulae.

RHODOPHYCEAE

Acrochaetium flexuosum Vick. First trip, 3-2, 3-3, 3-5; very abundant on
Caulerpa paspaloides on first trip, abundant at 3-2 on Sargassum, com-
mon on Halophila at 3-3, and abundant on Laurencia intricata at 3-5;
with monospores on first trip.

Acrochaetium seriatum Bgrgs. 3-4; common on Syringodium; a few mono-
spores.

Acrochaetium sp. First trip; very abundant; epiphyte.

334

JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Centroceras clavulatum (C.Ag.)Mont. 3-3, 3-4; common on Halophila at
3-3, sparse on Syringodium at 3-4.

Ceramium elegans (Ducluzeau)C.Ag. First trip; epiphyte; rarely found.

Ceramium subtile J.Ag. 3-2, 3-3, 3-5; very abundant on algae at 3-2,
abundant on Sargassum and Syringodium at 3-3, and common on
Syringodium at 3-5.

Ceramium tenuissimum (Lyngbye)J.Ag. 3-1, 3-4, 3-5; abundant on algae
at 3-1, common on Syringodium at 3-4, and on Lawurencia intricata
at 3-5.

Champia parvula (C.Ag.)Hary. 1-3, 2-3, 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5; unattached at
3-5 but sparse on Syringodium and Thalassia at 1-3 and 2-3, com-
monly found attached at 3-2, very abundant on Sargassum at 3-3, rare
on Syringodium at 3-4.

Chondria dasyphylla (Wood.)C.Ag. 1-3; sparse on Syringodium.

Chondria littoralis Harv. 3-2, 3-3, 3-4; abundant at 3-2, very abundant
at 3-3, and common at 3-4; all on Sargassum.

Dasya pedicellata (C.Ag.)C.Ag. 1-4, 3-3; sparse on shells; tetrasporic on
both trips.

Digenia simplex (Wulf.)C.Ag. 1-8, 1-4, 2-3, 2-4, 2-6, 8-8, 8-5, 3-6; com-
monly found on shells at 1-3, 1-4, 3-3, 3-5, and 3-6 but abundant on
shells at 2-3 and 2-4.

Erythrotrichia carnea (Dillw.)J.Ag. 3-5; sparse; on Laurencia intricata.

Fosliella lejolisii (Rosanoff)Howe. 1-3, 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5; abundant
on all plants except Dasya and Polysiphonia at 1-3, 3-2, 3-3, and 3-5
but sparse at 3-1 and 3-4; cystocarpic at 3-3.

Gracilaria foliifera (Fgrsskal)Bgrgs. 3-3; sparse; on oyster shell.

Gracilaria verrucosa (Huds.)Papenf. 1-1, 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 2-1, 2-2, 2-4,
2-5, 2-6, 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6: on the first two tips thesspecies
was extremely abundant and unattached but was sparse and on oyster
shells on the third trip.

Griffithsia globulifera Hary. 3-5; rare; on Digenia.

Hildenbrandtia prototypus Nardo. 3-5; common; on oyster shell.

Laurencia intricata Lamx. 3-5; sparse; attached.

Laurencia papillosa (F¢rsskal)Grev. 3-1, 3-5; entangled in algae at 3-1,
sparse on osyster shell at 3-5.

Laurencia poitei (Lamx.)Howe. 1-4, 2-4, 2-6; abundant; unattached.

Polysiphonia echinata Harv. 1-3, 1-4, 1-5; very abundant; unattached;
tetrasporic.

Polysiphonia macrocarpa Harv. 3-5; sparse; entangled in Laurencia intricata.

Polysiphonia ramentacea Harv. 1-4, 2-4, 2-6, 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-6; sparse
at 1-4, 2-4, 3-1, 3-4, 3-5, and 3-6 but abundant at 3-2 and 3-3; un-
attached at 1-4 and 2-4, on algae at 3-1 and 3-2, on Sargassum and
Syringodium at 3-3, on oyster shells at 3-4, 3-5, and 3-6.

Spyridia filamentosa (Wulf.)Hary. 2-3, 2-5, 2-6, 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-6; sparse
and unattached at 2-3 and 2-6, sparse on algae and Syringodium at
D5), Sail, C2, BB, Bd, eel SG.

Wurdemannia miniata (Drap.)Feldmann & Hamel. 2-3; rare; unattached.

MARINE PLANTS OF CRYSTAL BAY, FLORIDA 335

SEAGRASSES

Diplanthera wrightii Aschers. 2-2, 2-3, 3-5, 3-6; abundant at 2-2 and 2-3
but sparse at 3-5 and 8-6; on muddy sand; variation in abundance
probably seasonal.

Halophila engelmannii Aschers. 1-4, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 3-3; sparse at 2-4 and
3-3, common at 1-4, and abundant at 2-3; on muddy sand.

Ruppia maritima L. 1-1, 1-8, 1-4, 1-5, 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4; sparse at 1-3,
common at 1-1, 1-4, 2-1, and 2-3, abundant at 1-5, 2-2, and 2-4; on
muddy sand; flowering at 1-5.

Syringodium filiforme Kutz. 1-8, 1-4, 1-5, 2-3, 2-5, 2-6, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6;
sparse at 2-6, 3-3, and 3-5, common at 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, and 2-5, abundant
at 2-3 and 3-4; on muddy sand.

Thalassia testudinum Konig. 1-3, 1-4, 2-3, 3-3; sparse; on muddy sand;
much leaf kill, short leaves on third trip.

DISCUSSION

Salinities were much lower during the first visit than on the
remaining two trips. The thundershower activity probably ac-
counted for this. Water salinities in the bay increased progressively
south of the river mouth to Mangrove Point, and decreased pro-
gressively north of this Point toward marker No. 2; however, salini-
ties at stations No. 5 and No. 6 were higher on all trips than at
station No. lI.

Water temperatures in April 1958 were cold (17.0-18.0°C,).
This was the winter of record low temperatures. However, in
February 1959 water temperatures were relatively warm for that
time of year (22.7-23.3°C.). The winter of 1958-1959 was a mild
one.

According to field observations neither existing salinities nor
water temperatures seemed to exclude growth of marine algae.
The algae found there were not brackish water species, and were
characteristic of the Caribbean tropical zone flora. An interesting
problem in marine algal physiology is present in Crystal Bay.

According to local residents “kelp-grass” is a characteristic fea-
ture of the persistent flora. This was noted to be Sargassum ptero-
pleuron. I found vast amounts attached to oyster shell in Crystal
Bay during all three trips. It appeared that the enormous amounts
of oyster shells in the bay directly influenced the abundance and
distribution of this species.

Other components of the dominant macroscopic flora were:
Caulerpa prolifera, Caulerpa paspaloides typica, Gracilaria verru-

336 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

cosa, Rosenvingea intricata on the first trip, Polysiphonia echinata
on the first trip, and Polysiphonia ramentacea on the third trip.
The most conspicuous of the epiphytic flora were: Fosliella lejolisii
and Acrochaetium flexuosum on trips No. 1 and No. 3; and Myrio-
trichum subcorymbosus, Ceramium tenuissimum, Chondria littoralis
and Ceramium subtile on trip No. 3.

Caulerpa prolifera was abundant on muddy sand bottom but
was found in great abundance on oyster shells on trip No. 3. Caul-
erpa paspaloides seemed to be restricted to muddy sand bottoms.
Unattached Gracilaria verrucosa was extremely abundant on the
first two trips, but was sparsely found on shells during the third
visit. Unattached Rosenvingea intricata was extremely abundant
on the first trip while abundance varied from sparse to very abun-
dant during the third visit. Polysiphonia echinata was extremely
abundant but unattached on the first trip. Polysiphonia ramentacea
was found on all three trips, but was only abundant on trip No. 3.
The species was attached to algae, Syringodium, and oyster shells.

Sargassum seemed to increase from the first trip in April to the
second trip in June 1958. The overall biomass of algae, however,
seemed to be reduced on the second trip, possibly owing to the
disappearance of Polysiphonia echinata and Rosenvingea intricata.
Biomass seemed to be further reduced during the third visit, prob-
ably owing to the disappearance of the enormous masses of un-
attached Gracilaria verrucosa previously found. Almost all species
found on the third visit were attached to the bottom or were found
as epiphytes. The bay is exposed to severe northwesterly cold
fronts with accompanying winds in winter which cause turbulent
water. It is surmised that unattached algae in shallow water would
be moved by this turbulent water.

Forty-six taxa of algae were found in all on the three trips. Five
taxa were blue-greens, seven were green algae, eight taxa were
brown algae, and 26 taxa were red algae. In addition five species
of seagrasses were collected. Of the 46 algal taxa found 25 were
epiphytes. Twenty taxa were found on the first trip, 11 were found
on trip No. 2, and 35 taxa were collected on trip No. 3. Only seven
taxa were found on all three trips. Of the 35 taxa reported for trip
No. 3, 23 taxa were reported only on that trip.

The help of General Agent H. V. Gibson, and Conservation
Agents E. R. O’Berry and M. Oliver is gratefully acknowledged.

MARINE PLANTS OF CRYSTAL BAY, FLORIDA 337

SUMMARY

Three collections were made in Crystal Bay on the Florida
west coast in April 1958, June 1958, and in February 1959. The
salinity characteristics of the water were estuarine, despite the
exposure to the Gulf of Mexico. This was probably a result of
dilution from the spring fed Crystal River.

A great amount of marine algae was found in the bay on muddy
sand bottom between oyster bars and on oyster shells. Forty-six
taxa of algae were reported of which 25 were epiphytic forms. Five
species of seagrasses were collected.

LITERATURE CITED
DAWSON, C. E.

1955. A study of the oyster biology and hydrography at Crystal River,
Florida. Inst. Mar. Sci. 4(1): 279-302.

FERGUSON, G. E., C. W. LINGHAM, S. Kk. LOVE, and R. O. VERNON

1947. Springs of Florida. Fla. Geol. Surv. Geol. Bull., 31: 1-196, figs. 1-37,

1 map.
PRICE WA.
1954. Shorelines and coasts of the Gulf of Mexico. U. S. Fish. Bull., 89:
48-49,

VERNON, R. O.
1951. Geology of Citrus and Levy Counties, Florida. Fla. Geol. Surv.
Geol. Bull., 33: 1-256, figs. 1-40, 2 maps.
VISHER, S. S.

1954. Climatic atlas of the United States. 403 pp. Harv. Univ. Press,
Cambridge, Mass.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., (1960) 23(4), 1961.

NEWS AND NOTES

Edited by
J. E. HurcHMan

Florida Southern College

Lakeland: On Saturday, November 5, 1960, the Board of Directors of
FFFS met in their fall semiannual meeting at Florida Southern College for
the main purpose of reviewing plans for the 1961 Florida State Science Fair —
and 1961 Florida State Science Talent Search meetings which are to be held
simultaneously on Florida Southern College campus during April 6, 7, and 8,
1961.

The Board of Directors of the Florida Foundation of Future Scientists
are as follows: Dr. L. E. Dequine, Jr., Chairman, Chemstrand Corp., Pensacola;
Dr. Luther A. Arnold, Executive Secretary, Dept. of Secondary Education,
University of Florida, Gainesville; Dr. Ned E. Bingham, Treasurer, Dept. of
Secondary Education, University of Florida, Gainesville; Dr. Lauretta E. Fox,
past Chairman, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville; Her-
bert S. Zim, Tavernier; Dale Jacobus, Radar Engineering Co., Melbourne;
James Kirkpatrick, Vice-President, Byron-Harliss and Associates, Inc., Tampa;
Dr. A. W. Ziegler, Dept. of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Talla-
hassee; William Beggs, Science Coordinator, Pinellas County, P. O. Box 719,
Clearwater; Dr. Alfred Mills, Professor of Chemistry, University of Miami,
Coral Gables; and Clyde Shaffer, Tampa Morning Tribune, Tampa.

Professor R. S. Kiser, Biology Department, Florida Southern College, Op-
erations Director, 1961 State Science Fair, reported on the plans of the 32
sub-committee plans for the Science Fair. All plans are well underway. He
explained that there are to be 300 Science Fair exhibits this year, 100 of which
are to be in the Gilbert Gymnasium and 200 in the Ordway Arts Building.
During the lunch hour intermission, the Board inspected these exhibit halls.

Dr. G. M. Hebbard, House of Paints, Lakeland, Finance Sub-Committee
Chairman, reported that local subscriptions for the Science Fair and Talent
Search are well in hand.

Miss Evelyn Hughes, Winter Haven High School, Tours and Entertain-
ment Sub-Committee Chairman, reported excellent plans for tours, a Friday
night dance at the Lakeland Civic Center, group movies on the campus, and
group singing to occupy the Fair and Talent Search participants during other-
wise unoccupied time.

Dr. L. J. Polskin, M. D., Lakeland, Sub-Committee Chairman on Fair
Exhibit Catagories, led the discussion which finally settled on the nine cata-
gories for this year’s Science Fair.

Dr. O. C. Bryan, Director Soil Science Foundation, Lakeland, Sub-Com-
mittee Chairman on Fair Judges, reported that satisfactory progress on organ-
izing the judges was being made.

Earl D. Smith, Chemistry Department, Florida Southern College, Opera-
tions Director, State Science Talent Seach, reported on the plans for the State
Talent Search. They provide for 28 Talent Search contestants as heretofore.

NEWS AND NOTES 339

As usual, the Florida colleges will be invited to send college representatives to
serve as Talent Search evaluators.

In this year’s plans for the Talent Search, there are to be five innovations.
The Science Talent Search evaluators are to be given alternate one-hour rest
periods from judging. The papers will be given in one-hour sessions of alter-
nate Physical Sciences and Life Sciences. A sustained effort to obtain a high
attendance by the 300 student Science Fair exhibitors and the 24 other Science
Talent Search student contestants at the Science Talent Search presentations
will be made. Early Saturday morning an eminently qualified panel of
Science training advisers is to be held in the Annie Pfeiffer College Chapel,
at which the 28 Science Talent Search participants and 300 Science Fair ex-
hibitors are to be given a chance to direct questions about their future science
training to the panel. Two of the panelists are to be from the colleges and
two are to be from the local industries. At this meeting, any Florida State
Talent Search winners who presented their papers in Washington in the Na-
tional Talent Search Contest will be presented. The final Fair and Talent
Search Awards Ceremony has been moved forward to 10:15 a.m. Saturday
morning in the college chapel. The entire program is scheduled to end at
2 p.m. Saturday.

= ~~ NOTE OF EXPLANATION

The Science Clubs of America, Washington, D. C., conducts the National
Science Talent Search in Washington during the Christmas holidays as a means
of selecting the Westinghouse Science Scholarship winners. The Science Clubs
of America offers to the Florida Academy of Sciences the records of all of the
Florida participants in the National Science Talent Search. The Florida
Academy of Sciences gladly accepts this offer and has made arrangements
with the Florida Foundation of Future Scientists to stage the Florida State
Talent Search for the Academy, usually simultaneously with its Florida State
Science Fair. The Foundation finances both enterprises.

Lakeland: Dr. B. P. Reinsch, Department of Mathematics, Florida South-
ern College is this first semester giving an evening class in “Introduction to
Modern Algebra” with 3 semester hours credit. He is running it parallel to
(but not duplicating) the Continental Classroom Course being given over Tele-
vision. Most of the 32 students are Junior and Senior High School Teachers.
Only about one third of them have access to a Television broadcast. The stu-
dents feel this arrangement to be much better than the customary television
course plan.

Lakeland: Mrs. Mildred Ibberson gave considerable impetus to the Social
Science Project at FSC when she presented a beautiful plaque for the, “I Think
This Awards.” This program involving studies in Psychology of Religion is
similar to Northwestern University’s “I Think This’ program, now in its eighth
year. Each student wrote essays on three tonics related to the course. Facts,
documentation, and creative perspectives weigh heavily in the judging. The
names of the two students ranking highest are inscribed on the plaque while
the two next highest received honorable mention.

340. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Orange Park: Twenty-four students and two faculty members from Flor-
ida Southern College, Lakeland, visited their cousins at Yerkes Laboratories of
Primate Biology. This is the largest Great Apes study and research project
in the world. It is now managed by Emory University. It has a long and
interesting history. In 1900 Dr. Robert Yerkes, then at Yale, decided that he
wanted to make special studies in psychobiology, using chimpanzees as sub-
jects. He gathered a small colony together in New Hampshire, where he
worked until 1930. Then he moved his laboratory and the chimps to Orange
Park. There are now 70 chimps, 8 gibbons and 14 Rhesus monkeys, together
with a small number of cats who are used in hearing tests.

There are six psychologists, all Ph.D.s, on the staff at present. They are
interested, primarily, in behavioral studies. They have one involving the
effects of isolation on infant chimps, one in visual acuity, one in hearing, etc.
Then there are many scientists, universities and government agencies who are
doing collaborative studies in such areas as nutrition, hematology, biochemistry,
etc. One of the most pertinent for our time is a group of females subjected
to radiation at Oak Ridge. These were thereby made sterile for about two
years, but have since produced infants who appear to be normal. A new
project, about to be launched, is a comparative study of the viscera of chimpan-
zees, using the Sheldon system for the measurement of human morphology
as a frame of reference. The oldest chimp at the colony is age 40, which is
ripe for that animal. Under ordinary circumstances in their native habitat,
the chimps are killed off or die of infections, etc., before this age. There has
been no pneumonia and no TB in the colony. Feeding is more scientifically
managed and the diet better balanced than most of us humans are able to
achieve.

The students who made the trip were from the departments of Biology,
Anthropology, Scientific German and Psychology. The faculty sponsors who
accompanied the students were Dr. Juliana Jordan of the German Dept. and
Prof. Roland Elderkin of Anthropology. The staff of the laboratory gave some
talks on various aspects of the program; the group was taken on a tour of the
colony and ended the day with a question and answer period. Two books by
Robert M. Yerkes are still in print: Chimpanzees; a Laboratory Colony, Yale,
1943; and Great Apes, Yale, 1929. The present Director of the Laboratories,
Dr. Arthur J. Riopelle, says that he uses a few college students to assist him
in the summer. Anyone interested in such a summer job should write directly
to Dr. Riopelle at Orange Park, Florida.

Daytona Beach: Dr. Albert F. Dolloff reports they have four FAS mem-
bers on the faculty. The science building was the first to be constructed on
the campus and has been in use a little over a year. A library and administra-
tion building have just been completed. Governor Collins was invited as a
speaker at the dedication ceremony. Classes met in hotel rooms for most of
the first two years.

Tallahassee: The State Science Supervisor, Dr. Robert D. Binger, is at-
tempting to develop a file of names of persons in a retired status, who might be
willing to engage in a special project for the improvement of science education.

NEWS AND NOTES 341

They are not interested in anyone who has an “ax to grind” in respect to
professional educators and the field of education. They are anxious, however,
to locate persons who are sincerely interested in applying themselves to the
task of providing an adequate and defensible science curriculum as well as
facilities and equipment for our youth, people who want to see our youth
taught by well trained teachers who are competent in both scientific knowledge
and teaching skills. If you know of persons who are looking for something
to break the monotony of fishing, etc., please furnish the following informa-
tion on each person you wish to recommend and send it to the Department
of Education.

Please furnish information as accurately as possible. In the event you
are not certain, please do not provide the information. Name, Current Ad-
dress, Reason for Recommendation, are the only items absolutely necessary.
The individual will be contacted for further information if not supplied herein.
If possible, include Name of referred individual, Sex, Current Address, Field
for which trained, Field in which major contributions were made, Noted for
Research, Writing, Teaching, Administration or Personnel Work, or Other
(Please explain), and Signature of Syonsor.

Jacksonville: Professor Wilbur L. Baker attended an NSF Institute in
Chemistry at Emory this past summer. Dr. James B. Fleek attended an NSF
Institute in Engineering Education at Kansas State College.

Palatka: My. A. B. Williams has been promoted to the position of Presi-
dent of the Collier-Blocker Junior College. He formerly served in Florida
Normal and Industrial Memorial College at St. Augustine.

Pensacola: We have heard from the Head of the Chemistry Department
of Pensacola Junior College, R. A. Head, that PJC has nine members of FAS.
Mr. William Bennett is currently working on his doctoral dissertation, an Eco-
logical Study of the Florida Sand Scrub in Relation to Its Occurrence near
the Present Shoreline and on Relic Shorelines of Pleistocene Origin. Dr. N. E.
Bingham and Dr. E. S. Ford are supervising this research at the University of
Florida. Three of the members are anticipating attendance at the State Science
Fair in Lakeland next spring.

Tampa: Dr. E. O. Cook attended the Solid-State Physics Conference
held at Carleton College, Northfield, Minnesota, from June 19 through July 1.
He also participated as one of a group of five individuals representing five
different schools, in the first Physics Workshop at the National level, the
approved site of which was the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. The pri-
mary purpose of the Workshop was related to advances in teaching and dem-
onstration aids, in laboratory equipment, and in new approaches to some of
the more difficult areas of teaching under-graduate physics. The group has
produced, in collaboration with the R.P.I. facilities, some fifty reports on a
gamut of projects. It is expected that a composite report running to some 250
pages will be ready sometime in December. The results will be made avail-
able nationally. The Workshop studies were supported by a $29,900 grant
from the National Science Foundation.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS

Costs.—Authors will be expected to assume the cost of en-
gravings.

APPROXIMATE COSTS FOR ENGRAVINGS

Zinc Etching Half-tone
PAM AGe. ee $5.25 $4.80
i) SOPNGKe) neo 50 5.75
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Manuscripr Form.—(1) Typewrite material, using one side of
paper only; (2) double space all material and leave liberal margins;
(3) use 8% x 11 inch paper of standard weight; (4) do not submit
carbon copies; (5) place tables on separate pages; (6) footnotes
should be avoided whenever possible; (7) titles should be short;
(8) method of citation and bibliographic style must conform to
JourNnaL style—see Vol. 16, No. 1 and later issues; (9) a factual
summary is recommended for longer papers.

ILLusTRATIONS.—Photographs should be glossy prints of good
contrast. All drawings should be made with India ink; plan line-
work and lettering for at least % reduction. Do not mark on the
back of any photographs. Do not use typewritten legends on the
face of drawings. Legends for charts, drawings, photographs, etc.,
snould be provided on separate sheets.

REepRINTsS.—Reprints should be ordered when galley proof is
returned. An order blank for this purpose accompanies the galley
proof. The Journat does not furnish any free reprints to the
author. Payment for reprints will be made by the author directly
to the printer.

The Quarterly Journal of
The Florida Academy of Sciences

A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research

J. C. Dickinson, Jr., Editor

VOLUME 24

Published by
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Gainesville, Florida
1961

Twenty-fifth Anniversary
1936-1961

DATES OF PUBLICATION

Number 1—May 29, 1961
Number 2—July 27, 1961
Number 3—November 7, 1961
Number 4—January 3, 1962

NuMBER |
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 24
Exploited Fish Populations of the St. Johns River, Florida.

By Harold L. Moody. 23... 2) eee 1
Fall and Winter Foods of Florida White-tailed Deer.
By Richard if, Harlow. ee 19

Some Live Oak Forests of Northeastern Florida. By Albert

M: Laessle and Carl D. Monk > 39
An Exceptional Pattern Variant of the Coral Snake, Micrurus

fulvius (Linnaeus). By Anne Meachem and Charles W.

Mayers 22500) ee 56
Observations on the Behavior of the Spotted Skunk in Florida.

By Arthur J..Manaro:.2..2-320 0 59
The Impact of Florida’s Population Influx: Some Sociological

Implications: “By Lf: Stanton Dieiich = a 64
News and Notes. Edited by J. E. Hutchnan 19

NUMBER 2

Notes on Marine Algae of Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico.

By Luis R. Almodovar and Hugo L. Blomquist___________- 81
The Absorption of Radioisotopes by Certain Microorganisms.

By George B. Morgan ______- Dio) ae 94

Sexual Dimorphism in Lysiosquilla scabricauda (Lamarck) a
Stomatopod Crustacean. By Raymond B. Manning. 101

Remarks on “defensive” Behavior in the Hognose Snake Het-
erodon simus (Linnaeus). By Charles W. Myers and
LGR OUD Bh, ANAT cg SN SEO) an a ce 108

Additional Records of Marine Fishes from Alligator Harbor,
Mlondawand) Viemmity. By Ralph W. Yerger.. Tia

Meadow Vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) from the Quaternary
Gimlonida by Andrew A. Arata ale,

The Submarine Spring off Crescent Beach, Florida.
DM KGm TO Oks ie se Oe 122

Seasonal Aspect of the Marine Algal Flora of St. Lucie Inlet
and Adjacent Indian River, Florida. By Ronald C. Phillips 135

News and Notes. Edited by J. E. Hutchman____----------- 148

NUMBER 3

The Productivity of Snorter Dwarf-Carrier and Non-Carrier
Hereford Cattle. By J. C. Dollahon, M. Koger, J. F. Hent-
Pe SMImandwAnG. Warnick. 3) 153

Observations on a Device for Measuring Metabolic Gaseous
Exchange with Electrolytic Oygen Production. By R. G.
nlenOmieamnad INO. Philips 03 fa 162

Birds from the Pliocene of Juntura, Oregon.
MMICHCC MD TOMKOno wi. liek Ne 169

A Comparison of Jupiterss Radio Sources with its Visible
Markimes, By Alex G. Smith and T. D. Carr 185

Inquilinic Protozoa from Freshwater Gastropods. I. Tricho-
dina helisoduria N. Sp. from Helisoma duryi Say, in
Florida. By Eugene C. Bovee____. ces a ee aie oe 197

Inquilinic Protozoa from Freshwater Gastropods. II. Callimas-
tix jolepsi N. Sp., from the Intestine of the Pulmonate
Freshwater Snail, Helisoma duryi Say, in Florida.
PMC Cn Cr DOVE Cas ui iinmst Wala Le se Ni a 208

The Barnacle and Decapod Fauna from the Nearshore Area of
Panama City, Mlorida. By Neil C. Hulings 215

News andyNotes, Edited by JE. Hutchman 228

NUMBER 4

The Evolution of the Academy of Science.
By E. Ruffin Jones, Jr.

Effect of Age, Breed and Diet on the Glycogen of the Heart,
Liver and Muscle of Cattle. By R. L. Shirley, A. C. War-
nick, A. Z. Palmer, G. K. Davis; F. M. Peacock and W. G.
Kirk :

Folding or Warping Resulting from Solution with Associated
Joints and Organic Zones in Clayey Sands at Edgar, Flor-
ida, By E.G; Pirkleand W. HH. Yoho ==

In Aqua Sanitas. By (Gordon M: Far
Past Officers—Florida Academy of Science. === a=
Charter Members 2-2 6) 2 ee ee

Florida Academy of Sciences 1960-61—Council—Editor—
Sectional Chairmen—Committees Chairmen—Committees

Membership, Florida Academy of Sciences, October 6, 1961__
News and Notes. Edited by J. E. Hutchnan SS

239

247
267
276
278

281
284

TWENTY. FIFTH ANNIVERSARY
1936 - 1961

Quarterly Journal

of the

Florida Academy

of Sciences

March. 1961 No. I

Contents ~

- Manaro—Observations on the Behavior of the
I 59

Dietrich—The Impact of Florida’s Population Influx:
seme sociiorical Implications. = = 64.

IE EE ee 75

VoL. 24 Marcu, 1961 No. 1

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research
Editor—J. C. Dickinson, Jr.

Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences

Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla.

Subscription price, Five Dollars a year
Mailed May 29, 1961

Paar OuUuARTEREY JOURNAL OF THE
PeeOribA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Worn 4 Marcu, 1961 No. 1

EXPLOITED
FISH POPULATIONS
OF THE ST. JOHNS RIVER, FLORIDA !

Haroitp L. Moopy
Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission

Knowledge of proportionate quantities of fish species present
within an exploited river population, extent of exploitation by man,
and relationships of fluctuations in abundance to environmental
factors is of value to the angler and to fishery management. In-
formation of this nature is presented for the St. Johns River, Flor-
ida, through analysis of voluminous records of supervised netting
operations and a census of sportfishermen and their catch. The
data studied were obtained during the course of seining efforts,
earlier reported (Dequine, 1951, 1953) which were directed in part
towards increasing largemouth bass populations by mass removal
of other fishes.?

The St. Johns River has been briefly described (Moody 1960).
The wide shallow expanses of its waters are ideally suited to ex-
ploitation by nets. Seining was conducted in the following regions:
the lower St. Johns River, between the mouth and Lake George;
in Lake George, the widest part; in Lake Crescent, tributary to the
river near its mid-section; and in Lakes Monroe, Jessup and Harney.
Previously published (Moody, 1954) results of operations in the
latter three lakes are used for comparisons.

In seining operations, a net varying in length from 300 to 2,000
yards; and deeper than the water depth in which it was used, was
laid out in a small arc of a circle. The ends of the net were then
slowly towed toward each other by launches, often for several

1'The present study has been made possible in part by funds provided by
Federal Aid in Fisheries Restoration, through the Dingell-Johnson Act, Florida
Project F-11-R.

* Dequine, John F,

Hh HSONIAN Ly f
Be TUTION UN 6 )

2 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY’ OF SCIENCES

hours, until they formed a circle. The circle was then reduced in
size until it consisted of only the pocket of the seine, from which
the trapped fishes were removed. Thus, a much larger seine area
was covered than the net would have provided had it been laid out
in a complete circle.

Frequently a number of hauls were made in a section of the
river during the course of a single day. They were randomly dis-
tributed. This study presents an analysis of 544 net hauls which
were made in the lower river during May 1948 through July 1950;
of 3913 in Lake George during two time periods: 2,290 during July
1948 through August 1951, and 1,623 in July 1952 through February
1963; 18 in Lake Crescent in August 1950, and 349 during July 1952
through February 1963; and 35 seine hauls were made in the three
lakes of the upper river during July through October of 1951.
Average lengths of nets used in the four respective areas were 603,
1600, 1540 and 744 yards. Size of mesh (stretched measure) varied
from 4 to 5 inches on the ends of the seine and from 2% to 3%4 inches
in the pocket.

A fishery biologist or technician assigned to each rig submitted
a written report detailing water depth, bottom characteristics, lo-
cation, and amount of catch for each seine haul. Total weights of
fishes were usually ascertained by the dip-net weight and count
method reported by Dequine (op. cit.) and Moody (1954). Measure-
ments of random samples of fishes of various species were made
to the nearest half-inch. Individual and collective weights were
ascertained to the nearest tenth of a pound. Water quality tests,
frequently made at seining sites during operations, were also re-
ported. They included determinations of dissolved oxygen, free
carbon dioxide content, and pH values.

During the inclusive years 1948 to 1951 only catfishes, gizzard
shad and nominally marine species were removed from nets op-
erated by commercial crews under state supervision. During 1952-
1953 all fishes except largemouth bass and chain pickerel were re-
moved from the supervised nets operated in Lake George and
Crescent.

Angler's catch data were gathered in 1948 through mid-1951 by
means of visits to sport camps at and adjacent to Lake George.
Late in 1952 a statistically sound system of sampling numbers of
anglers and their catches while they were fishing was devised.
Methodology employed was used later and reported in the Lake

Hist weOrULATIONS ‘OF THE ST. JOHNS RIVER, FLORIDA 3

Panasoffkee study (Moody, 1957a). Areas sampled were Lake
George, the St. Johns River from Lake George northward to the
mouth of Dunns Creek, (which drains Lake Crescent), Dunns Creek,
and Lake Crescent. The creel and fishing pressure census was be-
gun in December 1952 and continued through June 1953; it was
then discontinued until 1956 when data was collected from Lake
George and the adjoining region of the northern St. Johns River.

Records of daily maximum and minimum water temperatures
in Lake Monroe were obtained through the courtesy of Mr. W.
Scott Burns, then manager of the Sanford plant of the Florida
Power and Light Company. Daily water level readings in the St.
Johns River near Deland were extracted from records made avail-
able by the Florida Geological Survey and the U. S. Corps of Army
Engineers. I express my appreciation to these groups for their
friendly cooperation.

ANALYSIS METHODS

More than 6,000 reports from individual seine hauls made in
areas of the St. Johns River were examined and screened. Hauls
considered ‘lost’ because of adverse weather conditions or failure
of equipment were excluded. Whenever doubt existed concerning
the validity of the report on a given haul, that report was not in-
cluded. Information from 4859 individually validated seine hauls
and from daily creel census reports was transferred, through a sys-
tem of coding, onto several hundred thousand IBM cards. A card
was made for each species of fish taken in each haul. Included
on each punched card was the record of number and weight of fish
captured, the date, location and description of the areas seined, and
length and mesh size of the net used. Maximum and minimum
water temperatures in Lake Monroe, and the water level read-
ing from the St. Johns River near Deland on the date the catch
was made, were also recorded. Additional information included
was individual water depth and water quality determinations as-
certained in situ.

After key-punching from original records and verification of
the individual species information from each net haul, the numeri-
cal data were totaled by machine methods. Weight, and where
possible, the number of each species of fish caught from each of the
regions sampled were summarized. Weights and numbers were
totaled by month, by mile-square subdivisions of the river, by sim-

4 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ilar net lengths, similar mesh sizes, pH values, dissolved oxygen,
free carbon dioxide, bottom characteristics and water depths. These
totals were then reduced to average catch per haul per month, and
per mile-square subdivision. Length-frequency and length-weight
data were tabulated from original records of net catches and from
unpublished reports.”

Identifications of marine species was made by William M.
McLane, sometimes on the day of capture, and many of the records
listed here are also included in his (1955) unpublished dissertation.
The common names used are those approved by the American Fish-
eries Society (Bailey, 1930). Statistical methods included correla-
tion coefficients, t-tests for significance, standard errors and regres-
sion formulae.

AMOUNT, SIGNIFICANCE AND COMPOSITION OF Net CaTcH

More than 10 million pounds of fishes were captured during
the period of intensive supervised seining. Amount of catch was
dependent on net length, season of year, and to a lesser extent on
mesh size. No definite relationship could be determined between
catch and water quality characteristics at the sites of netting al-
though presence of high amounts of free carbon dioxide (10-20
ppm), lowered pH values, and depletion of dissolved oxygen (1-2
ppm) were sometimes associated with large catches (30,000 or
more pounds) of fishes.

It was impossible to estimate the number of pounds of seinable
fishes present per acre of water sampled. Averages of areas esti-
mated to have been covered by the nets ranged from 30 to 100
acres. Actual measurements were not made. Average pounds
caught per net haul per acre were estimated on the basis of areas
which nets of the given average lengths could have provided, had
they been laid out in perfect circles. They were as follows: for
the lower river, 146; for Lake George, 57; for Lake Crescent, 36;
and for the lakes of the upper river 119 pounds. Obviously, the
actual catches per acre of net-enclosed water were much smaller
than the above. The above estimates are presented here only for
comparison. The relatively large catch from the region of the
lower river was probably partly due to the local practice of baiting

* Barry O. Freeman, Melvin T. Huish and Delbert Taber compiled data
and submitted departmental reports on the American shad, bluegill and large-
mouth bass, respectively, which have been drawn from in the analysis.

FIsH POPULATIONS OF THE ST. JOHNS RIVER, FLORIDA 5

for catfishes in winter months. The high poundage obtained from
the upper river was influenced by both baiting and by concentra-
tion in the areas seined of large numbers of spawning bluegill and
redear sunfishes. The estimate for Lake George appears to be the
one most representative of its region. Net hauls were made in
Lake George through all seasons of several years and in every part
of its area of nearly 74 square miles.

A total weight of more than six million pounds of fishes was
removed from Lake George during seining operations. The aver-
age monthly catch of species removed during the second, and in-
tensive period of fish removal was approximately ten pounds per
surface acre. Monthly fluctuations in abundance occurred but they
could not be attributed to fish removal.

Large numbers of fishes undoubtedly escaped. However, direct
observations confirmed that lead-lines of nets usually remained on
the bottom, and cork-lines at the surface of the water throughout
operations. The major avenue of escape, other than through broken
meshes, must therefore have been around the ends and over the
top of the seines. Striped mullet, for instance, were frequently ob-
served to jump over nets in larger quantities than were caught.

Comparisons of species composition of the haul seine catches in
Lake George showed that proportions by weight of the principal
fishes remained nearly constant throughout the months of sampling.
This attribute was previously mentioned of the netting in Lake
Okeechobee as well as in the St. Johns River (Moody, 1957b). It
was also evident in the Lake Panasoffkee study (Moody, 1957a).

Confidence limits at 95 percent for means of average pounds
taken per haul from 74 one-mile-square sub-areas sampled in Lake
George were calculated for all species of fish caught. Mean pounds
and 95 percent confidence limits for the following fishes are: for
gizzard shad: 666 +164; for black crappie: 401 + 41; white catfish
335 + 70; channel catfish: 306 + 47; bluegill: 260 + 23; largemouth
bass: 154 = 16; redear: 146 + 18; brown bullhead: 52.9 + 9.7; blue-
back herring: 26.9 + 3.3; American shad: 26.5 + 3.2; hickory shad:
2eon-=24 5 lomenose gar: 19.1 = 3.6: striped mullet: 16.8 = 6.1;
redbreast sunfish: 7.9 + 1.5; Florida gar: 7.4 + 1.6; red drum: 4.9 +
1.4; striped bass: 3.4 + 1.1; southern flounder: 3.1 pounds + .5
pound. It is believed that escape of these forms from the nets was
proportional to their abundance in Lake George. They consti-
tuted more than 95 percent by weight of all the fishes caught.

FREQUENCY

6 7 8 9

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LENGTH: INCHES LENGTH: INCHES
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INCHES LENGTH: INCHES

Length-frequencies of certain fishes obtained at random from nets
operated in Lake George, expressed in total lengths and as per-
centages of numbers measured.

isk

B
C.
D

Length-frequency of 1124 gizzard shad measured during No-
vember 1950 through February 1951.

Length-frequency of 4106 black crappie measured during July
1952 through February 19538.

Length-frequency of 5964 white catfish measured during Jan-
uary through December 1949.

Length-frequency of 7181 channel catfish measured during
January through December 1949.

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LENGTH: INCHES LENGTH: INCHES

Figure 2. Empirical length-weight relationship of largemouth bass, and
length-frequencies of various species of fish, expressed in total
lengths and as percentages of number measured at random from
nets operated in Lake George.

A. lLength-frequency of 9853 bluegill measured during January
through November 1950.

B. Length-weight relationship of 3817 largemouth bass measured
and weighed during October 1952 through February 1953.

C. Length-frequency of 4286 largemouth bass measured during
October 1952 through February 1953.

Length-frequency of 2127 redear sunfish measured during
April 1949 through May 1950.

8 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Other freshwater fishes found were bowfin, spotted sunfish,
stumpknocker, chain pickerel, yellow bullhead, lake chubsucker
and golden shiner. The catch of the latter species and of marine-
type fishes not listed above are believed not to have been in propor-
tion to their abundance in Lake George.

Upper limits of net mesh selectivity for gizzard shad in Lake
George were to approximately 7 * (Figure 1:A); for black crappie: 9
(Figure 1:B); white catfish: 9 (Figure 1:C); channel catfish: 10 (Fig-
ure 1:D); bluegill: 5.5 (Figure 2:A); and largemouth bass: 13.5
(Figure 2:C). A one-pound bass measured approximately 13, a
two pound bass 16.5, and a ten-pound bass approximately 25 in
total length (Figure 2:B). Length-frequency analysis indicated
that the greatest numbers of gizzard shad were taken in the 6.5
to 10.0 size groups. Other species with sizes most frequently caught
were: black crappie, 9.0 to 13.0; white catfish 8.5 to 14.5; channel
catfish 8.5 to 17.0; bluegill, 5.0 to 8.5; largemouth bass, 12.0 to 22.5;
redear, 6.0 to 10.5; and brown bullhead, 11.5 to 16.0, total length
(Figures 1:A, B, C, D, and 3:A). The male American shad, with an
average total length of approximately 16.5, was usually smaller
than the female which had an average measurement of approxi-
mately 18.5 (Figure 3:B).

Estuarine, anadromous and catadromous fishes represented 3.9
percent by weight of the total Lake George fish catch, and included
at least 26 species. Proportions by weight within the catch of these
species were as follows: yellowfin shad 71; American shad, 9;
striped mullet 8; hickory shad, 4; stingrays (2 species), 3; blueback
herring, 2.5; Atlantic croaker, 1.6; red drum, 0.3; striped bass, 0.2;
southern flounder, 0.1; tarpon, 0.1 and American eel, 0.1 percent.
Species, each of which represented less than 0.1 percent by weight
of the saltwater fishes, were ladyfish; pinfish; needlefish; snook;
black drum; spotted seatrout; spotfin mojarra; sheepshead; gray
snapper; spot; sea lamprey; shortnose sturgeon; crevalle jack; and
silver perch. One species, the pigfish, was not recorded from Lake
George, but was found in the lower section of the St. Johns River.

Approximately 2.0 percent by weight of the total catch from
the lower region of the river consisted of estuarine, anadromous
and catadromous fishes. The number of net hauls made here is
believed to have been insufficient to adequately represent avail-
able populations.

° All measurements in inches.

Pipe LOrUUeATIONS OF THE ST. JOHNS RIVER, FLORIDA’ 9

In Lake Crescent marine-type fishes constituted 4.2 percent of
the weight of the total catch. Proportionate quantities by weight
of saltwater species caught from this region were, American shad,
41; stingrays, 39; striped mullet, 5; hickory shad, 5; striped bass, 5;
Atlantic croaker 1; yellowfin shad 1; red drum 1; southern flounder
1; blueback herring 0.6; and tarpon 0.1 percent. The percentage
by weight of anadromous, catadromous and estuarine fishes in
the total catch from Lake Crescent was nearly the same as from
Lake George. The probable reason that larger quantities of Amer-
ican shad, stingrays, and striped bass were found in Lake Crescent
than in Lake George is that no hauls were made in Lake Crescent
during the spring of the year.

Percent-occurrences of marine-type forms captured in net hauls
from Lake George were as follows: American shad, 36; striped mul-
let, 35; stingrays, 31; hickory shad, 15; Atlantic croaker, 13; yellow-
fin shad, 8; blueback herring, 5; red drum, 5; striped bass, 5; south-
ern flounder, 4; American eel, 1; tarpon, 1; ladyfish, 0.6; snook, 0.2;
spotted seatrout 0.1; and spot 0.1 percent. Each of the other species
recorded was caught in less than 0.1 percent of the number of hauls
made in Lake George.

Estuarine, anadromous and catadromous fishes occurred more
frequently in catches from the lower St. Johns River than from
Lake George. In number of species and frequency of occurrence
the catch of the above species from Lake Crescent was similar to
that obtained from Lake George. However striped mullet, sting-
rays and Atlantic croaker were the only saltwater forms taken from
the lakes of the upper river.

RELATIONS OF WATER DEPTHS, TEMPERATURES AND LEVELS TO THE
Net CatcH FROM LAKE GEORGE

Comparisons of net samples of fishes taken from shallow waters
near shore areas with those from deeper central portions of Lake
George indicated as expected that all species were not distributed
uniformly throughout the lake. Gizzard shad, black crappie, and
hickory shad were recorded from large percentages of hauls and
were taken in greater average weights from deeper water. Species
which occurred more frequently in catches from littoral areas in-
cluded channel catfish, white catfish, brown bullhead, striped mul-
let, American shad, redbreast sunfish, Florida gar, blueback herring,

10 JOURNAL OF .THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

striped bass, red drum, and southern flounder. The following spe-
cies were netted with relative uniformity throughout the lake:
largemouth bass, bluegill, redear, and longnose gar (Table 1).

TABLE 1

HAUL SEINE CATCH OF FISHES, EXPRESSED AS PERCENT
OCCURRENCE AND AVERAGE POUNDS TAKEN PER
HAUL, FROM SHALLOWER SHORE AND DEEPER
CENTRAL AREAS OF LAKE GEORGE

Percent Occurrence | Average Pounds

Water depths, from: O24iiect ))|) Alli fect||0=4 tect y | RASiieeee
Ci7z7ang shad) es 94.8 96.1 604.3 (Tas:
Black crappie —....-.- 94.6 97.0 338.4 441.5
Elickony sshads me 13.6 IG) 2.6 4.9
Channel catfish __ 95.3 93.9 332.6 249.8
WViiniteGathsla amen 94.0 91.7 370.1 321.0
Brown bullhead Mol 62.8 43.6 81.4
Striped mullet SGT 30.5 8.5 . 4.6
American shad ____.- 35.8 29.2 9.3 5.8
Redbreast sunfish __- 32.9 9.8 2.9 0.9
Monica: scare paeeeeen 8.1 5.0 0.7 0.3
Blueback herring —_ 6.3 De 3.2 0.3
Striped | pass) ase bal. 3.5 0.2 0.2
Remain a ee 45 3.5 0.2 0.0
Southern flounder _ 3.5 1.3 0.1 0.1
Largemouth bass _- 99.7 99.0 168.3 163.7
Bluegill’ S20 eS 99.2 97.9 261.9 274.5
Redeant:.. Sus sts 22 95.4 94.0 140.1 Ws 7
Longnose gar _______. 17.3 17.4 3.2 4.6
Number of hauls __ 2639 1270

Water level and water temperature fluctuations in the St. Johns
River showed seasonal periodicities. Low water at approximately
sea-level occurred in central regions of the river between the months
of March and June, and high water approached six feet above
sea-level from October to December. During the period of study
a slight but regular decline in water level was apparent (Figure
3:C). Average monthly water temperatures in central regions of

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12 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the St. Johns River varied seasonally between highs to more than
90° from June through August and lows to approximately 56°F
from November through February (Figure 3:D). No significant
correlation was found between water level and water temperature
fluctuations.

A positive correlation was found between monthly averages of
daily water levels and of total pounds of all fishes captured per
haul in Lake George (Figure 3:C). The correlation coefficient of
044 with 41 df. is significant at the .99 level. A negative correla-
tion between monthly averages of catch and water temperatures
was found for bluegill (Figure 3:D); r, -.490 with 41 d.f. is signifi-
cant at the .99 level. The inverse relationship of net catches of
black crappie from Lake George, during years from 1948 through
early 1951, to temperature on an average monthly basis has been
discussed (Huish, 1954). Seasonal aspects of the dynamics of popu-
lation fluctuations, due to recruitment by growth into net selec-
tivity, movements, and other factors are emphasized by this time-
sequence grouping.

To indicate with greater simplicity the effects of changing water
levels and temperatures on catch, the data were tested as average
catch per haul from each of the 74 one-mile-square sub-divisions of
Lake George through the time period of netting. Average pounds
of individual species taken from each of the sub-regional replications
were analyzed for correlations with averages of corresponding daily
maximum and minimum water temperatures and of daily water
levels.

Figure 3. Random length-frequency measurements of brown bullhead ob-
tained in nets from Lake Geurge, and of American shad from the
lower St. Johns River; and relationships of average pounds of cer-
tain fishes caught monthly in semes from Lake George, to monthly
averages of water levels and of temperatures in adjacent regions of
the St. Johns River.

A. Length-frequency of 483 brown bullhead masured during Jan-
uary through December 194%.

B. Length-frequencies of 1243 male and 837 female American
shad measured during November 1949 through March 1950.

C. Relationship of average pounds caught monthly per haul of
all species of fish (broken line) to average monthly water levels
in feet (solid line). (For mean sea-level elevations approxi-
mately one foot should be added to points on water level
curve).

D. Relationship of average pounds of bluegill caught monthly per
haul (broken line) to average monthly water temperatures

(solid line).

FISH POPULATIONS OF THE ST. JOHNS RIVER, FLORIDA 13

Average pounds of gizzard shad, black crappie and hickory
shad, species found more frequently and in greater quantities in
deeper waters of Lake George, showed negative correlations with
average water levels at .99, .95 and .99 levels of significance, respec-
tively. Negative correlations between average pounds of the two
latter species and average water temperatures were found at .99
and .99 levels of significance (Table 2).

TABLE 2

CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS, DEGREES OF FREEDOM AND
LEVELS OF SIGNIFICANCE FOR RELATIONSHIPS OF AVER-
AGE POUNDS OF FISHES NETTED FROM ONE-MILE-
SQUARE SUBDIVISIONS OF LAKE GEORGE TO AV-
ERAGE WATER TEMPERATURES AND AVERAGE
WATER LEVELS IN CENTRAL REGIONS OF
THE ST. JOHNS RIVER

Relationships of catch to:

Water temperatures Water levels
signifi- signifi-
cance cance

Species df r level df r level
Gizzard shad — — — Ca —.463 99
Black crappie 71 —.739 .99 71 —.254 95
Hickory shad 61 —.447 99 62 —.447 99
Channel catfish Wl .896 99 Wl 2492, 95
Brown bullhead 71 == 1719) 99 Wa 264 95
American shad 67 —,239 95 an — —
Florida gar AQ .836 99 — — —
Striped bass 32 ASL 99 34 = 4 99
Southern flounder — = = 45 O04 95
Largemouth bass — — — 71 O01 99
Bluegill elt —.44] 99 wel 668 .99

Among fishes which occurred more frequently in shallower
waters, catches of channel catfish and Florida gar exhibited direct
correlations, and brown bullhead, American shad, and striped bass,
inverse correlations with water temperatures. Levels of signifi-
cance for these relationships were respectively: .99, .99, .99, .95
and .99. Catches of channel catfish and brown bullhead were
found to be correlated positively, and striped bass and southern

14 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

flounder inversely, with water levels, at respective significance levels

Ol -da,.-Joy 209 and 9a) (Nalble 2).

Largemouth bass and bluegill, species found with relative uni-
formity throughout both deep and shallow waters of Lake George,
showed correlations of replications of average pounds per haul with
corresponding replicate average water levels at the .99 level of
significance. The relationship to water level was inverse for large-
mouth bass and direct for bluegill. A negative correlation was
found between average catch of bluegill and average water temper-
ature at the .99 level of significance (Table 2).

ANGLERS CATCH AND SPORT-FISHING PRESSURE

Information on sportfishermen’s catch was collected during 1950
and 1951 from sport camps on the St. Johns River at and adjacent
to Lake George. Interviews of 2,148 anglers were conducted during
263 days of creel checks. Results indicated that more than 90 per-
cent of these fishermen had fished for bass. However, many patrons
of the sport camps were out-of-state visitors to the area, and the
poll of their activities is not believed to have been representative
of the actual distribution of fishing effort in the St. Johns River.

In 1952 the planned, statistically valid creel and pressure census
by boat of anglers while they were fishing was put into operation.
The first period began in December, after seining has been under
way, and ended in June 1953, only four months after netting opera-
tions had terminated. The second period of creel and pressure cen-
sus came three years later (in 1956) but was conducted only during
the months of May and June. Both periods of census covered the
same general areas of the river fished by anglers interviewed during
the census of 1950-51. Data derived by this method provided a
more adequate cross-section of fisherman activity than the earlier
material. Approximately 60 percent of the 1,895 anglers inter-
viewed were found to have fished for bass during the 77 days in
which the census was conducted. Five percent of the fishermen
had fished for black crappie, and 35 percent for bream (sunfishes
other than crappie and largemouth bass). No relationship could be
established between sportfishing success and seining or removal of

fishes.

Average monthly catch per man-hour of effort for bass, for
bream, and for crappie fluctuated between .2 and .7, between .9

Pir POPULATIONS (Ob THE ST: JOHNS RIVER, FLORIDA 15

and 2.9, and between 0 and 1.6 fish, respectively, during the time
of creel census by boat. The average number of fish caught per
man-hour of effort during the planned census period were .3 bass,
2.0 bream and .8 crappie.

Sportfishing pressure, estimated on the basis of average number
of parties observed daily, was much lighter in the wide lake areas
than in the narrow sections of the river. The average number of
parties observed daily per month was 23 in Lake George (46,500
acres) and 11 in Lake Crescent (17,500 acres). However in the
300-acre area of the St. Johns River immediately north of Lake
George, an average of 31 parties, and in the 1,260-acre area in-
cluding Dunns Creek and its mouth, 18 fishing parties were ob-
served daily per month. These averages are from results of totals
of 27 and 34 days of pressure census conducted in Lake George
and in the St. Johns River, respectively, and of ten days each in
Lake Crescent and in Dunns Creek.

Estimates of average numbers of all species of fish caught per
acre by sportfishermen were made by projecting creel and pressure
census data to total areas of the four regions of the river. From
Lake George, an average of .2; from Lake Crescent, .5; from the
river area studied north of Lake George, 2.0; and from Dunns
Creek, an average of 1.5 fish were estimated to have been caught
per acre per month. The average weight of sportfishes estimated
to have been caught per acre per month from these respective
regions were .2, .3, 1.4 and 1.5 pounds.

SUMMARY

Records of more than 10 million pounds of fishes captured in
large haul seines operated in the St. Johns River from mid-1948
through early 1953 were summarized by machine methods and
analyzed. Data from nearly nine million pounds of fishes taken in
approximately 4,000 net hauls made in Lake George yielded infor-
mation regarding 44 available species. A total weight of more than
six million pounds of all fishes except largemouth bass and chain
pickerel was removed from Lake George by commercial crews who
operated the nets. This amounted to an average monthly harvest
of less than five pounds per acre. Netting and removal had no
perceptible effect on the catch through the period of operations.

16 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Percentages by weight of freshwater fishes in the total catch
from Lake George were as follows: gizzard shad, 28; black crappie,
16; white catfish, 13; channel catfish, 13; bluegill, 11; largemouth
bass, 7; redear sunfish, 6; brown bullhead, 1.6; longnose gar, .2;
and redbreast sunfish, .1 percent. Other freshwater forms caught
were Florida gar, bowfin, spotted sunfish, stumpknocker, chain pick-
erel, yellow bullhead, lake chubsucker and golden shiner. Each
of the latter species was represented by less than .1 percent of the
total weight of the catch from Lake George. Gizzard shad were
far less abundant in the catch from narrow portions of the river
than from wide lake areas.

Twenty-six estuarine, anadromous and catadromous species were
taken in nets from the St. Johns River. They represented approxi-
mately four percent by weight of the catch. In order of decreasing
percent-occurrence, the most common were, American shad, striped
mullet, stingrays, hickory shad, Atlantic croaker, yellowfin shad,
blueback herring, red drum, striped bass, southern flounder and
American eel. Fishes which appeared less frequently included
tarpon, ladyfish, needlefish, snook, spotted seatrout, spot, pinfish,
spotfin mojarra, sheepshead, gray snapper, pigfish, sea-lamprey,
shortnose sturgeon, crevalle jack and silver perch.

Average pounds caught and percent occurrence in Lake George
of gizzard shad, black crappie and hickory shad were significantly
greater in deeper central than in shallow shore areas. Fishes found
with greater frequency in shallower waters included channel cat-
fish, white catfish, brown bullhead, striped mullet, American shad,
redbreast sunfish, Florida gar, blueback herring, striped bass, red
drum, and southern flounder. Largemouth bass, bluegill, redear,
and longnose gar occurred with greater uniformity throughout
the lake.

Average pounds captured daily per haul throughout the period
of netting from 74 one-mile-square replicate subdivisions of Lake
George were related to averages of corresponding daily water levels
and of temperatures obtained from nearby regions in the St. Johns
River. No correlation was found between water levels and water
temperatures; however, there were definite correlations between
each of these factors and catches of several species of fish. Average
pounds of gizzard shad, black crappie, hickory shad, largemouth
bass, southern flounder and striped bass were found to be inversely
correlated with average water levels, whereas catches of channel

Oi TenOrUENTIONS: OF THE ST. JOHNS RIVER; FLORIDA 17

catfish, brown bullhead and bluegill, were directly correlated.
Significant inverse correlations were found between catch and
temperature for black crappie, hickory shad, brown bullhead, Amer-
ican shad, bluegill, and striped bass. Average pounds of channel
catfish and Florida gar showed direct correlations with average
water temperatures.

Angling pressure and catch were sampled in Lakes George,
Crescent, and adjoining regions of the St. Johns River system by
a statistically valid boat census during certain months of 1952-
1953, and in 1956. Sportfishing pressure was found to be low. An
average of less than one pound of sportfishes was estimated to have
been caught per acre per month.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

John Dequine, Barry Freeman and William McLane supervised
collection of data, which was shared by more than 100 past and
present employees of the Fisheries Division of the Florida Game
and Fresh Water Fish Commission. I wish to acknowledge with
gratitude, assistance of Melvin Huish, William McLane, Robert
Hyde and W. Scott Overton in analysis and interpretation of re-
sults. The patience of Mrs. Jean Barkuloo who drew the figures,
and of Mrs. Sandra Swarts who prepared the typescript deserves
particular mention.

LITERATURE CITED

BAILEY, REEVE M., ERNEST A. LACHNER, C. C. LINDSEY, C. RICHARD
ROBBINS, PHIL M. ROEDEL, W. B. SCOTT, LOREN P. WOODS

1960. A list of common and scientific names of fishes from the United States
and Canada. 2nd Ed., Am. Fish. Soc., Spec. Pub. No. 2: 102 pp.

DEQUINE, JOHN F.

1951. Fisheries investigations of the St. Johns River and Lake Okeechobee.
1948-1950 with recommendations for management. 48 pp. (mimeo-
graphed report to the Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission).

1953. Preliminary progress report on Florida’s controlled seining program.
April 1, 1952 through February 28, 1953. 31 pp. (mimeographed
report).

EUOISH, MELVIN T.

1954. Life history of the black crappie of Lake George, Florida. Trans.
Am. Fish. Soc. Vol. 83 (1953): 176-193.

18 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

McLANE, WILLIAM M.

1955. The fishes of the St. Johns River, Florida. Ph.D. dissertation. Uni-
versity of Florida. 362 pp. (typewritten MS.)

MOODY, HAROLD L.

1954. Adult fish populations by haul seine in seven Florida lakes. Quart.
Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 17 (8): 147-167.

1957a. A fisheries study of Lake Panasoffkee, Florida. Quart. Journ- Fla.
Acad. Sci., 20 (1): 22-88.

1957b. An evaluation of fish population studies by Florida haul seine. Proc.
llth Ann. Conf. S.E. Assn. Game and Fish Commissioners. 89-91.

1960. Recaptures of adult largemouth bass from the St. Johns River, Flor-
ida. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 89(3): 295-300.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(1), 1961

FALL AND WINTER FOODS OF FLORIDA
WHITE-TAILED DEER 1!

RicHarp F. Haritow 2
Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission

The determination of quantity, availability, and palatability*
of natural food supplies is a basic deer management problem. Be-
fore palatability and preference of deer foods can be established a
knowledge of what food items they ingest is imperative.

Determination of what foods Florida deer (Odocoileus virgini-
anus Boddaert) select has been obtained: 1) statewide by an analy-
sis of 423 one-quart rumen samples of deer stomachs, principally
from legally killed bucks, 2) from the Ocala Wildlife Management
Area by an analysis of 17 deer stomachs, and 3) from the Everglades
Wildlife Management Area by analysis of 49 one-quart rumen
samples of deer stomachs. The statewide samples were collected
during the hunting season months of November to January 1953-59,
on the Everglades Wildlife Management Area during the fall and
winter periods 1955-58, and on the Ocala Wildlife Management
Area from September through February 1952-53. (See Table 1.)
Stomach contents were preserved, until analysis, by placing them
in an 8 percent solution of formalin. Prior to analysis the samples
were washed in a %4 inch mesh sieve to remove debris and particles
too small for identification. The stomach contents were then sep-
arated into their component food particles and occular estimates
made of the percentages present.

To determine adequacy of sample size the following formula
(Grieb, 1958) was applied:

(t.05)* (s)?

(.10.x)?

1 A contribution from Pittman-Robertson Projects, Florida W-41-R, 32-R,
and 39-R.

2 I wish to acknowledge the advice of Mr. E. B. Chamberlain, Jr., Federal
Aid Coordinator, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, in the
preparation of this manuscript; Mr. Erdman West, Mycologist and Botanist,
Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, and Dr. A. M. Laessle,
Biology Department, University of Florida, for their assistance in the identifi-
cation of food items.

* Here defined as the degree of succulence and nutritive value.

20 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Where N equals the number of observations or measurements
needed.

t.05 is the tabular value of observations or measurements made
in the preliminary examination.

s equals the standard deviation of preliminary data.

.10 is the value selected, probability value.

x is the mean of the sample data.

This formula indicated that statewide, 338 samples were needed
for the data to fall within 10 percent of the true mean. The 423
samples analysed falls well within the limits fixed by the formula.

NORTH FLORIDA

FLORIDA’S WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Blackwater

Eglin

Roy S. Gaskin

Apalachee

Leon-Wakulla

Liberty

Aucilla 8 Gibson Pasture
Osceola I
Lake Butler LAV ---—
Camp Blanding t Vr
Guano River Se ee — nr one
Steinhatchee ez
13 Gulf Hammock SOUTH FLORIDA es

14 Citrus ies pasars
15 Sumter - Citrus (Expired)
16 Croom

17 Richloam

18 Ocala

19 Tomoka

20 Farmton

21 Avon Park

22 Okeechobee

23 Fisheating Creek

24 JW. Corbett

25 Everglades

26 C.M.Webb

27 Lee

28 Devils Garden

29 Collier

DV=zEGVONDGKWN~

SAINT LUCIE

MAP 1

FALL AND WINTER FOODS OF WHITE-TAILED DEER 21

TABLE 1

REGIONS OF THE STATE*, COUNTIES AND SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT
AREAS WHERE THE DEER STOMACHS AND STOMACH
SAMPLES WERE COLLECTED.

Wildlife
Region Management Area Counties Stomachs
North Camp Blanding Clay 23
Florida Lake Butler Union, Baker, Columbia 10
Steinhatchee Dixie, Lafayette 31
Blackwater Santa Rosa, Okaloosa 9
Eelin Santa Rosa, Okaloosa, Walton ¢
Osceola Columbia, Baker 35
Aucilla Wakulla, Jefferson, Taylor 30
Gaskin Gulf, Bay, Calhoun 18
Liberty Liberty 13
Leon-Wakulla Leon, Wakulla 6
Gibson’s Pasture Taylor 20
otal 202
Central Citrus Citrus, Hernando 45
Florida Croom Hernando 22,
Tomoka Volusia 64
Farmton Volusia oT
Gulf Hammock Levy 15
Richloam Hernando, Pasco, Sumter 14
Sumter-Citrus Sumter, Citrus 3
Volusia Refuge Volusia 6
Marion Marion 1
Ocala Marion, Lake 7
Total 224
South Corbett Palm Beach 8
Florida Collier Collier 8
Avon Park Polk, Highlands D)
Okeechobee Okeechobee 1
Everglades Broward 49
Motalan Gs
Combined Total 489

*As defined by Harper (1914, 1921, 1927).

22, JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Principal types of vegetation affecting the food habits of Florida
deer (broadly defined) include flatwoods, pine-oak uplands, swamps,
hammocks, fresh water marshes, prairies, and sand pine scrub
oak ridges. Although one or two types may be predominant in an
area, others are usually present, resulting in a mixture of types.
The degree of interspersion of various plant communities is de-
pendent mainly on changes in ground elevation and associated soil
characteristics. As slight a difference in elevation as a few inches
often results in a marked change in the plant life encountered.*

®* Detailed descriptions of the principal vegetation types listed in this study
may be found in reports by Harper (1914, ’21 and ’27), Laessle (1942), Kurz
(1942), Loveless (1959), and Harlow (1959).

NORTH FLORIDA

Flatwoods

CENTRAL FLORIDA
Paes Pine-oak uplands

Swamps, also (mixtures,
tidal marsh, mangrove
swamp and coastal beach)

+ MAROCE Inca are
i es |

XXXXX XK

XX XXXXX| Hammocks

SOUTH FLORIDA

Fresh water marsh land

AAA
AAA Prairie

SooOoo oo) Sand pine-scrub oak

MAP 2

FALL AND WINTER FOODS OF WHITE-TAILED DEER 23

Important factors influencing the quantity and species of plants
consumed by deer are the ecological stage of the vegetation type,
the palatability of the available vegetation, and the competition
for food supplies by other animals of similar food habits. In Flor-
ida, cattle and hogs are the main competitors with deer for food
and living space.

TABLE 2

ITEMS FOUND IN 423 DEER STOMACH SAMPLES COLLECTED
DURING NOV., DEC., AND JAN., 1953-59.

% of No.

Total Times % Freq.

Food Item * Part Eaten Volume Taken Occurred
Basidiomycetes Entire 9.2 328 ies
Serenoa repens Berries 8.9 73 17.3
Quercus nigra Acorns 8.6 69 16.3
Trilisa odoratissima Basal Leaves 6.9 196 46.3
Ilex glabra Lvs., Twigs, Berries 6.7 142 33.6
Quercus stellata Acorns DO Al 9.7
Cliftonia monophylla Lvs., Twigs BHD 80 18.9
Smilax laurifolia Lvs., Vine, Berries 55) 201 Ariel
Itea virginica Lvs., Twigs 4,2 127 30.0
Quercus laevis Acorns 3.6 39 9.2
Quercus laurifolia Acorns 3.5 45 10.6
Quercus virginiana Acorns 3.1 44 10.4
Ilex coriacea Lvs., Twigs De) 50 11.8
Sabal Palmetto Berries Delt Al 9.7
Kalmiella hirsuta Lvs., Twigs ILA 46 10.8
Vaccinium Mpyrsinites Lys., Twigs Is) 2 17.0
Quercus spp. Leaves 1.4 106 22.6
Quercus cinerea Acorns 1.4 31 7.3
Osmunda regalis Leaves 1.2 25 2.9
Ilex Cassine Lvs., Twigs 1 47 Mel
Rhus Copalinum Fruiting Heads 1.1 20 4.7
Quercus laurifolia Leaves 67 19 4.4
Magnolia virginiana Lvs., Twigs .66 26 6.1
Gelsemium sempervirons Lys., Vine .63 24 5.6
Nyssa spp. Berries 65 14 3.3
Quercus myrtifolia Acorns 61 14 3.3
Taxodium spp. Lvs., Twigs 50 62 14.6
Gramineae (Broadbladed) Blades, Stems 49 159 oD
Legume spp. Stems, Lvs. 48 54 10.4
Juncus effusus Stems 48 5 1,2
Ilex myrtifolia Lvs., Twigs, Berries AT 23 3.7

24 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TABLE 2 (continued)

% of No.

Total Times % Freq.
Food Item * Part Eaten Volume Taken Occurred
Rubus spp. Lvs., Twigs 43 59 115
Acer rubrum Leaves 40 20 3.3
Pinus spp. Needles 85 146 34.5
Opuntia sp. Fruit 35 a 94
Elephantopus spp. Basal Leaves 33 9 2.1
Quercus prinus Acorns 2 6 1.4
Unidentified
herbaceous leaves Leaves 34 85 20.0
Quercus spp. Acorns 30 4 94
Viburnum spp. Lvs., Twigs .28 14 3.8
Castalia lekophylla Leaves 28 1 23
Diospyrus virginiana Fruit .26 18 4,2
Carphephorous corymbosus Stem, leaves I) 3 .70
Vitis spp. Leaves, vine 24 22. 52
Quercus Chapmanii Acorns, leaves 24 4 . 94
Rosa _ palustris Leaves, twigs 23 8 .70
Gordonia lasianthus Leaves Ap) 8 .70
Persea spp. Leaves A) dhl 2.6
Centella repanda Stem, Leaves .20 49 eles
Hypericum spp. Stem, Leaves 19 13 3.0
Cephalanthus occidentalis Leaves, Twigs 19 8 1.8
Unidentified Twigs —_—__—_ 19 15) 3.5
Cyrilla racemiflora Leaves, Twigs 18 11 2.6
Morus sp. Leaves alls) 3 .70
Myrica cerifera Fruit, Twigs, lS ik 12.0
Mitchella repens Leaves, Vine 14 17 4.0
Aronia arbutifolia Leaves 14 20 3.3
Carpinus caroliniana Leaves a2, DAML 49
Gratiola sp. Stem, Leaves IL, ) .70
Erigeron sp. Stem, Leaves ate 8 1.8
Osmunda cinnamomea Leaves pill 18 4,2
Helianthus radula Stem, Leaves lel 8 1.8
Annona glabra Fruit Jul I 23

* Following species occurred from .10 percent of total volume to trace (num-
ber in parenthesis indicates number of times items were found in stomach sam-
ples collected): Prunus spp. (3), Sabal Etonia (2), Wood chips (1), Rhus rudicans
(13), Quercus nigra (10), Unidentified Vine (1), Monotropa Brittonii (6),
Berchemia scandens (5), Zanthoxylum fagara (1), Ilex spp. (10) Ilex ambigua
(5), Woodwardia sp. (4), Ostrya virginiana (12), Lyonia lucida (15), Xyris spp.
(12), Ulmus floridana (7), Baccharis halimifolia (15), Compositae (19), Eugenia
axillaris (1), Citrus sp. (2), Zea mays (2), Quercus virginiana (11), Belchnum

FALL AND WINTER FOODS OF WHITE-TAILED DEER 25

Analysis of the 423 stomach samples collected statewide showed
that twenty-one different food items made up 83.7 percent of the
total volume of foods consumed. One hundred ninety-three dif-
ferent food items were identified.

The 17 major ® fall-early winter north Florida deer foods, ar-
ranged in descending order of quantity consumed are: Quercus
spp. (acorns), Basidiomycetes, Serenoa repens (berries), Cliftonia
monophylla, Smilax spp., Kalmiella hirsuta, Itea virginica, Ilex
coriacea, Quercus spp. (leaves), Magnolia virginiana, Gelsimium sem-
pervirons, Nyssa pp. (fruits), Legume spp., Ilex myrtifolia, Rubus
spp., Acer rubrum, and Viburnum spp.

The 17 major fall-early winter central Florida deer foods (ex-
clusive of the Ocala Wildlife Management Area), arranged in de-
scending order of quantity consumed, are: Quercus spp. (acorns),
Basidiomycetes, Serenoa repens (berries), Trilisa odoratissima, Ilex

serrulatum (1), Cornus stricta (3), Vaccinium spp. (33), Ceanothus microphyllus
(4), Juniperus silicicola (23), Ilex vomitoria (6), Liquidambar stryaciflua (3),
Aster reticula (2), Houstonia sp. (2), Vernonia sp. (1), Fern sp. (8), Desmotham-
nus lucidus (6), Viola sp. (6), Alternanthera philoxeroides (1), Ascyrum tetrapet-
ulum (9), Ulmus alata (3), Salix longipes (3), Hydrocotyle sp. (3), Cinnamomum
camphora (1), Richardia scabra (1), Diodia teres (2), Thysanella sp. (5), Lechea
sp. (2), Laciniaria sp. (1), Berlandiera subacaulis (1), Dendropogon usneoides
(45), Tragia linearifolia (1), Mesadenia sp. (1), Crataegus sp. (1), Xolisma fer-
ruginea (6), Phoradendron sp. (2), Cirsium sp. (2), Centhrus sp. (1), Sambucus
Simpsonii (1), Chrysobalanus icaco (1), Stillingia aquatica (1), Proserpinaca
pectinata (1), Phlebodium aureum (1), Jussiaea sp. (1), Ramalina (1), Rhexia
sp. (2), Persicaria sp. (2), Lichen (2), Crinum americanum (2), Ceratoila eri-
coides (3), Crocanthemum corymbosum (1), Ceratophyllum sp. (1), Heterotheca
subaxillaris (8), Euonymus americanus (3), Solanum aculeatissimum (1), Serio-
carpus bifoliatus (1), Geobalanus oblongifolius (1), Calliacarpa americana (1),
Cassytha filiaformes (1), Convolvulus sp. (1), Conradine puberula (1), Asimina
sp. (1), Alnus rugosa (1), Myriophyllum sp. (1), Rynchospora sp. (1), Scutellaria
arenicola (1), Ceanothus intermedia (1), Cracca spp. (2), Lespedeza spp. (5),
Martiusia spp. (1), Secula spp. (8), Galactia spp. (5), Petalostemon sp. (1), Pilos-
taxis sp. (1), Meibomia sp. (5), Sagotia triflora (1), Desmodium sp. (1), Rhyncho-
sia erecta (1), Virburnum rufidulum (2), Viburnum semi-tomentosum (1), Vi-
burnum obovatum (4), Polycodium floridanum (8), Gaylussacia dumosa (22),
Batodendron arboreum (2), Taxodium ascendens (27), Taxodium distichum (28),
Pinus clausa (1), Pinus palustris (5), Pinus elliotti (20), Nyssa ursine (2), Nyssa
sylvatica biflora (13), Panicum spp. (26), Aristida spp. (1), Persea Borbonia (5),
Persea palustris (3), Smilax Walteri (1), Smilax auriculata (1), Muscadinia sp.
(1), Vitis sp. (1), Coleoptera (1), Hyla (1), Rootstock (2), Bark (3), Orthoptera
(1), Flowering Head (2), Elateridae (2), Root ending (1), Ericaceae (1), Cypera-
ceae (1), Labiatae (2), Prunus serotina (2), Prunus americana (1), Ilex decidua
Curtissii (1).

° Major foods for North and Central Florida in Table 2 are those occurring
14 or more times and attaining at least 0.28 percent of total volume. In South
Florida major foods may be those occurring only once or amounting to 0.01
percent of total volume.

26 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

glabra, Smilax spp., Itea virginica, Vaccinium Myrsinites, Quercus
spp. (leaves), Osmunda spp., Ilex Cassine, Rhus Copalinum, Mag-
nolia virginiana, Gelsimium sempervirons, Nyssa spp. (fruits), Tax-
odium spp., and Legume spp.

The 14 major fall-early winter south Florida deer foods (ex-
cluding the Everglades), arranged in descending order of quantity
consumed, are: Serenoa repens (berries), Trilisa odoratissima, Ilex
glabra, Smilax spp., Vaccinium Myrsinites, Osmunda spp., Ilex Cas-
sine, Taxodium spp., Juncus effusus, Persea Borbonia, Centella
repanda, Castalia lekophylla, Baccaharis halimifolia, and Salix lon-

gipes.

MISCELLANEOUS

MUSHROOMS
9.2

HERBACEOUS
MATERIAL
11.36

WOODY
PLANTS
37.63

Figure 1. Comparative Percentages of Food Items® Found in 423 Deer
Stomach Samples taken during November, December and January,

1953-59.
MAST SPECIES Quercus laevis Nyssa spp.
(40.79) Quercus laurifolia Quercus myrtifolia
Quercus virginiana Opuntia sp.
Serenoa repens Sabal Palmetto Quercus prinus
Quercus nigra Quercus cinerea Diospyrus virginiana
Quercus stellata Rhus Copalinum Annona glabra

° Species occurring in Table 2 in trace quantities were not included in the
above lists.

FALL AND WINTER FOODS OF WHITE-TAILED DEER 27

Sabal Etonia Cyrilla racemiflora Legume spp.
Citrus spp. Morus sp. Elephantopus spp.
Zea mays Myrica cerifera Aster sp.
Mitchella repens Houstonia sp.
WOODY PLANTS Aronia arbutifolia Vernonia sp.
(37.63) Carpinus caroliniana Castalia lekophylla
eels bea Rhus radicans Unidentified herbs
Clift onan BR A TT Quercus nigra Carphephorous
ae ee eee Berchemia scandens corymbosus
Thee <i nae Ostrya virginiana Centella repanda
‘ese en Lyonia lucida Gratiola sp.
Kalmiella hirsuta Ulmus floridana Viola sp.
Vaccininanin Coen Baccaharis halimifolia Alternanthera
Cee y Eugenia axillaris philoxeroides
lie (C sae Quercus virginiana Hydrocotyl sp.
O iercertonls Cornus stricta Erigeron sp.
Meco ouro ta Ceanothus microphyllus © Osmunda cinnamomea
aa NALy este Juniperus silicicola Helianthus radula
. ae Boer Ilex vomitoria Wosdyends sp.

; Liquidambar stryaciflua ompositae
ian SPD 3 Ascyrum tetrapetulum Richardia scabra
Rue s aca Ulmus alata Thysanella sp.

MG ee eee Salix longipes Lechea sp.
Viburnum spp. ene MUSHROOMS AND
Mus oe. ‘ MISCELLANEOUS
Gordonia lasianthus oe nara 11.36 ITEMS (10.22)
Persea Borbonia (11.36) Gramineae
Hypericum spp. Trilisa odoratissima Pinus spp.
Cephalanthus Osmunda regalis Monotropa Brittonii
occidentalis Xyris spp. Basidiomycetes

Basidiomycetes and Trilisa odoratissima were the only two
foods to show up among the first ten preferred plants over the six
year study. Serenoa repens, Ilex glabra, Itea virginica, and Smilax
laurifolia were among the first ten preferred foods during five of
the six years deer stomach samples were collected and examined.
Some species of Quercus (acorns) were present in the first ten
preferred foods each year.

The largest fresh water marsh in Florida is the Everglades.
Quantitative data on foods consumed by Everglades deer is pre-
sented in Table 4. Loveless (op. cit.) presents a detailed study of
the food habits of Everglades deer in his bulletin “The Everglades
Deer Herd, Life History and Management’.

Forty-one species were identified in the stomach samples ex-
amined. It will be noted from Table 5 that seven plants consti-
tuted 81.8 percent by volume of the stomach samples. Similar to
deer in the other habitat types, Everglades deer eat a wide variety
of plants but a relatively few key plants compose the bulk of the
diet.

JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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FALL AND WINTER FOODS OF WHITE-TAILED DEER 29

TABLE 4

STOMACH CONTENTS OF 49 EVERGLADES DEER FROM THE
FALL AND WINTER PERIODS, 1955-58.

Yo Ox Aor) % Frequency
Food Item* Volume Occurrence
Nymphaea odorata Ait. 28.7 LOD
Osmunda regalis 15:2 67.3
Crinum americanum OZ 65.3
Salix amphibia 10.9 69.4
Hymenocallis tridentata 40 26.5
Ludwigia natans 3.7 16.3
Jussiaea peruviana L. Gal 28.6
Smilax sp. 2.3 20.4
Sambucus Simpsonii 3.6 36.7
Myrica cerifera L. 2.0 8.1
Rudwigia alata*** Mracer = 12)
Nymphoides aquaticum 1.4 1O:2
Baccaharis glomeruliflora 2.0 22.4
Utricularia sp. 1) 28.5
Panicum sp. 10 26.5
Cyperus haspan Trace 10) 2
Gerardia purpureum Trace Sal.
Unidentified material as —

*Following species occurred as traces: Apios americana Medis., Aster sp.,
Bacopa sp., Bidens bevis (L.) B.S.P., Dryopteris sp., Eleocharis sp., Hyperi-
cum virginicum L., Ipomea sp., Lachnanthes sp., Melothria pendula, Mikania
scandens, Nephrolepis exaltata, Oxypolis sp., Polyporus sp., Proserpinaca pal-
ustris, Psidium Guava, Pueraria Thunbergiana, Rhynchospora sp., Rivina hu-
milis, Sagittaria lancifolia, Vicia acutifolia, Vigna luteola (Jacq.) Benth, and
Woodwardia virginica Smith.

**Trace; less than 0.5 percent by volume or 8.0 percent frequency of oc-
currence.

***Utilized extensively when available.

Note that in deer stomachs examined from the Everglades, her-
baceous material totalled more than twice the amount of all other
types of food combined and that over 70 percent of the herbs con-
sumed were hydrophytic.

The Ocala National Forest (central Florida) is the largest single
sand pine-scrub oak unit in the State comprising approximately
441,925 acres. According to Strode (1954), 68.0 percent of the
Ocala Wildlife Management Area is composed of sand pine-scrub
oak habitat. Because of the unique vegetative characteristic of the

30 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

\ ae
GRASS 8 SEDGES

HERBACEOUS
MATERIAL
674

WOODY
PLANTS
26.9

SG ShIE
MISCELLANEOUS

Figure 2. Comparative Percentages of Food Items Found in 49 Deer Stomachs
taken During the Fall and Winter Periods, 1955-58 From the
Everglades.

HERBACEOUS MATERIAL (67.4) Aster carolinianus

Hydrophytic Forbs (52.2)
Nymphaea odorata
Crinum americanum
Hymenocallis tridentata
Ludwigia alata
Nymphoides aquaticum
Utricularia sp.
Gerardia purpureum
Bacopa caroliniana
Eleocharis sp.
Lachnanthes trictoria
Oxypolis filiformes
Proserpinaca palustris
Sagittaria lancifolia

WOODY PLANTS (26.9)

(Trees, Shrubs and Vines)
Salix amphibia

Sambucus Simpsonii
Jussiaea peruviana
Baccharis glomeruliflera
Myrica cerifera

Ipomea sagittata
Melothria pendula
Mikania scandenus
Vicia acutifolia
Psidium Guajava

MESOPHYTIC FORBS (15.2)

Including Ferns
Osmunda regalis
Bidens bevis
Hypericum virginicum
Nephrolepsis exalata
Pueraria Thunbergiana
Rivina humulis

GRASSES AND SEDGES (2.0)
Mariscus jamaicenusis

Cyperus haspan

Panicum sp.

Rynchospora sp.
MISCELLANEOUS (38.7)

Unidentified Material
Polyporus hydnoides

FALL AND WINTER FOODS OF WHITE-TAILED DEER 31

TABLE 5

FOOD ITEMS FOUND IN SEVENTEEN DEER STOMACHS COLLECTED

ON THE OCALA WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA

FROM SEPTEMBER TO FEBRUARY 1952-53.

Jo of No.
Total Times % Freq.

Food Item * Part Eaten Volume Taken Occur.
Sabal Etonia Fruits 31.10 0 41.1
Basidiomycetes Entire BMS) 18 76.4
Quercus spp. Acorns 19.60 13 76.4
Quercus spp. and Sabal sp. Acorns and

Palmetto Berries 6.45 1 5.8
Quercus myrtifolia Acorns HOS 4 23.5
Quercus Chapmanii Acorns 4.46 12} O35)
Galactia sp. Stems, Lys. 1.50 1 5.8
Vaccinium Myrsinites Lys., Twigs 1.34 12 AOS
Leaves Se 0.85 10 58.8
Neopieris mariana Lys., Twigs 0.72 1 5.8
Quercus virginiana Acorns 0.60 il 5.8
Phorodendron flavescens Leaves 0.53 8 AG
Gramineae Stems, Blades 0.38 14 82.3
Lyonia lucida Lvs., Stems 0.29 8 17.6
Geobalanus oblongifolius Lvs., Twigs 0.28 2 Lae
Pinus clausa Needles 0.28 11 64.6
Legume sp. Lvs., Stems Q:2i1 IL 5.8
Smilax laurifolia Lvs., Vine 0.16 8 EG
Ilex Cassine Leaves 0.16 I 5.8
Quercus nigra Leaves OMS iL 5.8
Stylisma angustifolia Lvs., Stem 0.15 2 le
Pityothamnus pigmaeus Lvs., Stem 0.13 2) ne
Quercus laevis Leaves 0.07 3 MAE
Twigs 0.07 6 35.3
Coleoptera ——_—— 0.07 1 Bio)
Nyssa sylvatica Fruit 0.10 i 5.8
Gaylussacia dumosa Lvs., Twigs 0.06 I 5.8
Ceratiola ericoides Lvs., Twigs 0105 3 eG
Chrysopsis graminifolia Lvs., Stems 0.04 11 5.8

Total 100.00

* Following species occurred as traces: Ascyrum linifoluim, Bark, Batoden-
dron arboreum, Chamaecrista brachiata, Cracca ambigua, Dendropogon usne-
oides, Erythrina herbacea, Galactia Elliottii, Galactia regularis, Ilex glabra,
Larvae, Lichen, Ludwigia suffruticosa, Martinusia mariana, Mayaca fluviatilis,
Pinus palustris, Quercus geminata, Ramalina sp., Rhynchosia simplicifolia,

32 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

“Big Scrub” and the large deer herd present, a separate food habits
study was conducted. Table 5 presents quantitative data on the
food items found in the seventeen deer stomachs analysed.

TABLE 6

DEER FOODS MOST HEAVILY UTILIZED IN THE SEVEN MAJOR
TYPES OF VEGETATION AS DETERMINED BY ANALYSIS
OF THE CONTENTS OF 489 DEER STOMACHS.

Major Types of Vegetation

Food Item Where Foods are Found *
Part Eaten F P-OU S HH P SESSOmm NI

Quercus spp. Acorns Ty YONG RONG eee X

Quercus spp. Leaves et Xe ON Xx

Basidiomycetes Entire > aD: X X

Serenoa repens Berries X XxX

Sabal Etonia Berries X

Sabal Palmetto Berries X

Trilisa odoratissima Leaves X

Ilex Glabra Lvs, Twigs, Brs X Xo SX

Ilex coriacea Lvs, Twigs, Brs X Keo

Ilex Cassine Lvs, Twigs Xi a Xx

Ilex myrtifolia Lvs, Twigs, Brs XX

Itea virginica Lvs, Twigs Da DA.

Smilax spp. Lvs) Vines (Bis pak Nee Gee Xx X

Cliftonia monophylla Lvs, Twigs XC eX

Kalmiella hirsuta Lys, Twigs aX

Vaccinium Myrsinites Lvs, Twigs OS Xx

Osmunda Regalis Fronds eX xX

Rhus Copalinum Fruiting Hds x eX!

Megnolia virginiana Lvs, Twigs XG

Gelsimium sempervirons Lys, Vine x

Rhynchosia tomentosa, Flower buds, Vines, Myrica cerifera, Charcoal, Erigeron
vernus, Garberia fruiticosa, Larvae, Meibomia sp., Tamala humilis, Xolisma
ferruginea.

Note that eight species make up 94.65 percent by volume of the 59 food
items occurring in the seventeen deer stomachs. The eight species occurring in
greatest quantity are Sabal Etonia (Fruits), Basidiomycetes, Quercus spp.
(acorns), Mast species (oak acorns and palmetto berries), Quercus myrtifolia
(acorns) and Quercus Chapmanii (acorns).

FALL AND WINTER FOODS OF WHITE-TAILED DEER 35

TABLE 6 (continued)

Nyssa spp. Fruits Xx
Taxodium spp. Lvs, Twigs X
Gramineae (broadbladed) Stems, Blades X X XH aX
Legume spp. Lvs, Stems NEP OX
Juncus effusus Stems X X X
Rubus spp. Lvs., Twigs X XG OX
Acer rubrum Leaves DS wl DS
Pinus spp. Needles XG POX Xx
Viburnum spp. Lvs, Twigs EO.
Diospyrus virginiana Fruits x x
Vitis spp. Leaves x x
Centella repanda Stem, Lvs X San.
Nymphaea odorata Leaves X X X
Crinum americanum Leaves Xx XxX Xx
Salix spp. Lvs, Twigs X x x
Hymenocallis tridentata Leaves X
Ludwigia natans Leaves X X
Jussiaea peruviana Leaves xe OX xX
No. of Major

Species Present ILS) LI AL Bh oe 8 )

*F (flatwoods), P-OU (pine-oak uplands), S (swamps), H (hammocks), P
(prairies), SP-SO (sandpine-scrub oak), FWM (fresh water marshes).

Although some of the plant species are found in more vegetation types
than indicated in Table 6, they are found most commonly in the types as listed.

Hammock habitat’ contained the greatest number of heavily
utilized deer food plants with swamps second, flatwoods third, fol-
lowed in order by pine-oak upland, freshwater marshes, sand pine-
scrub oak ridges, and prairies. Utilization as defined in Table 6
is based on both the quantity of the plant species consumed and
in the frequency of occurrance. A few of the plant species listed
in Table 6 were low in total volume taken and high in the number
of occurrances.

In connection with deer stomach analysis studies, extensive
browse investigations have been undertaken by Loveless (op. cit.)
and Harlow (op. cit.). A number of plants, it was noted, occurring

“Laessle (op. cit.) defines hammocks as “woods dominated by hardwood
evergreen trees occurring on a_variety of soils ranging from well-drained to
nearly saturated but never flooded”

MISCELLANEOUS /.73
HERBACEOUS /203

MUSHROOMS

Figure 3. Comparative Percentages of Food Items* Found in Seventeen
Deer Stomachs Collected from the Ocala Wildlife Management
Area During September through February 1952-53.

MAST (67.36)

Sabal Etonia
Quercus spp.
Quercus myrtifolia
Quercus Chapmanii
Quercus virginiana
Nyssa sylvatica

MUSHROOMS (25.15)
WOODY PLANTS (4.73)

Vaccinium Myrsinites
Neopieris mariana
Phorodendron flavescens
Lyonia lucida
Geobalanus oblongifolius
Smilax laurifolia

Ilex Cassine

Quercus nigra
Quercus laevis
Twigs

Gaylussacia dumosa
Ceratiola ericoides

HERBACEOUS FLOWERING
PLANTS (2.03)

Galactia

Legume sp.

Stylisma angustifolia
Pityothamnus pigmaeus
Chrysopsis graminifolia

MISCELLANEOUS (0.78)

Gramineae
Pinus clausa
Coleoptera

Note the importance of Sabal Etonia and Quercus spp. in the diet of deer

dwelling in the Ocala National Forest.

Acorns and palmetto berries consti-

tuted 67.26 percent of the deer stomach contents examined.

* Species occurring in Table 5 in trace quantities are not included in the

above lists.

FALL AND WINTER FOODS OF WHITE-TAILED DEER 35

TABLE 7

HEAVILY BROWSED PLANTS, FOUND OCCURRING IN LIGHT TO
TRACE QUANTITIES IN DEER STOMACHS, LISTED BY THE
HABITAT TYPES IN WHICH THEY MOST COMMONLY OCCUR.

Major Types of Vegetation in Which Foods
are Found

P-OU S H P SP-SO FWM

eg}

Food Item

Baccaharis spp. X Xx Xx xX
Trilisa paniculata X
Eupatorium mikanioides X

Myrica cerifera X

Vitis spp.

Gaylussacia sp.
Viburnum rufidulum
Polycodium floridanum
Juniperus silicicola

rr x |

Viburnum obovatum
Ampelopsis arborea
Berchemia scandens

Carpinus caroliniana
Cretaegus Marshalli
Acer floridanum

xX
X
XxX
Cornus stricta X
X
Ox
x

Sambucus Simpsonii
Batodendron arboreum
Cephalanthus occidentalis
Ficus aurea

Nyssa sp.

Aronia arbutifolia Xx
Ilex vomitoria

Osmanthus americanus

AKAM | MK
vita

Aw | AM

Cyrilla racemiflora
Rivina humilis X
Dicliptera assurgens X
Convolvulvus aculeatus xX

Total Number mh 0 8 23 0 iL 1

Note that hammocks contain the greatest number of heavily utilized plants.

36 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

in light to trace quantities in deer stomachs revealed heavy brows-
ing when observed growing in their respective habitats. Table 7
lists these woody plants according to the major vegetation type in
which they are found.

SUMMARY

Determination of what foods deer select has been obtained
by analysis of 423 one quart rumen samples of deer stomachs col-
lected statewide, 49 one quart rumen samples of deer stomachs
collected from the Everglades Wildlife Management Area and
seventeen complete stomachs from the Ocala Wildlife Manage-
ment Area.

Stomachs and stomach samples were collected during the fall
and winter months from 1953-59.

An analysis of the 423 one quart rumen samples of deer stomachs
collected statewide showed that mast (acorns and palmetto ber-
ries) totalled 40.79 percent by volume, woody plants 37.63 percent,
herbaceaus material 11.36 percent, mushroom 9.2 percent and
grasses, etc. 1.02 percent. Twenty-one plant species amounted to
83.7 percent of the total volume of the 193 food items found
present.

An analysis of 49 one quart rumen samples of deer collected
from the Everglades Wildlife Management Area showed that her-
baceous material totalled 67.4 percent by volume, woody plants
26.9 percent and grasses, sedges and miscellaneous 5.7 percent by
volume. Of the 41 plant species identified in the stomach samples
examined seven plants constituted 81.8 percent by volume.

The seventeen complete stomachs collected and analysed from
the Ocala Wildlife Management Area showed that mast (acorns
and palmetto berries) totalled 67.26 percent by volume, mushrooms
25.15 percent, wood plants 4.73 percent, and herbaceous and mis-
cellaneous material 2.03 percent by volume. Eight plant species
made up 94.65 percent by volume of the 59 food items occurring in
the seventeen deer stomachs examined.

Comparing the number of most heavily utilized plants in the
seven major types of vegetation, based on both stomach analysis
and browse investigations, hammocks contained the greatest num-
ber (45), swamps second (29), followed in order by flatwoods (26),
freshwater marshes (16), pine-oak uplands (11), sandpine-scrub oak
(9), and prairies (7).

FALL AND WINTER FOODS OF WHITE-TAILED DEER 37

Statewide Florida deer feed on a wide variety of plant species,
but comparatively few plants compose the bulk of the diet.

Where oaks and palmettos are present in deer habitat, the oak
acorns and palmetto berries constitute a major portion of the deer’s
cet:

In flatwoods and pine-oak uplands habitats mushrooms are an
important deer food.

In Everglades deer range (fresh water marshes) forbes, mainly
hydrophytic, were utilized in greatest quantity with woody plants
second.

LITERATURE CITED

CHAMBERLAIN, E. B., JR.

1954. Management area research. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish
Comm. Annual Progress Report for Investigations Project W-41-R.

1956. Management area research. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish
Comm. Annual Progress Report for Investigations Project W-41-R.

1957. Management area research. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish
Comm. Annual Progress Report for Investigations Project W-41-R.

FERNALD, MERRITT L.
1950. Gray’s manual of botany, Eighth Edition. American Book Co., New
Vouk, ING WG

GRIEB, JACK R.
1958. Wildlife statistics. Colorado Game and Fish Dept. 96 pp.

HARLOW, RICHARD F.

1959. An evaluation of white-tailed deer habitat in Florida. Florida Game
and Fresh Water Fish Comm. Tech. Bul. No. 5; 64 pp.

1955. Preliminary report on a deer browse census based on 100% clipping
method. Proc. Southeastern Assoc. Game and Fish Comm., 47 pp.

HARPER, ROLAND M.

1914. Geography and vegetation of northern Florida. Fla. Geol. Survey
6th Ann. Rept. pp. 163-437, 49 figs., 1 map.

1921. Geography and vegetation of central Florida. Fla. Geol. Survey.
13th Ann. Rept. pp. 71-307, 40 figs., 2 graphs.

1927. Natural resources of southern Florida. Fla. Geol. Survey 18th Ann.
Rept. pp. 27-206, 50 figs., 2 maps, 4 graphs.
HENDERSON, J. R.

1939. Generalized vegetation of Florida. Fla. Agr. Expt. Sta., Gaines-
ville, Fla.

38 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

KURZ, HERMAN
1942. Florida dunes and scrub vegetation and geology. Geo. Bul. Fla.
Dept. of Conserv. No. 28, pp. 1-145.
LAESSLE, ALBERT M.
1942. The plant communities of the Welaka area. Univ. Fla. Publ. Biol.
Sci. Ser. 4 (1), pp. 1-143, 14 pls., 25 figs.
LOVELESS, CHARLES M.
1959. The Everglades deer herd, life history and management. Fla. Game
and Fresh Water Fish Comm. Tech. Bul. No. 6; 104 pp.
SMALL, JOHN K.
1933. Manual of southeastern flora. New York Pub. by author.
1938. Ferns of the Southeastern States, Lancaster, Pa., The Science Press
and Printing Company.
STRODE, DONALD D.

1959. Management area research. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish
Comm. Annual Progress Report for Investigations Project W-41-R.

1958. Management area research. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish
Comm. Annual Progress Report for Investigations Project W-41-R.

1954. The Ocala deer herd. Fla. Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm.
Game Publ. No. 1, 42 pp.

1953. Ocala deer investigations. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish
Comm. Annual Progress Report for Investigations Project W-32-R.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(1), 1961

SOME LIVE OAK FORESTS OF NORTHEASTERN FLORIDA

ALBERT M. LAESSLE AND Cart D. MONK
University of Florida

INTRODUCTION

The ecology of live oak (Quercus virginiana Mill.) in Florida
poses many interesting and perplexing problems. In northeastern
Florida live oak forests form a small but important and conspicuous
vegetation type. Such forests may be found inland as well as in
coastal regions. On the inland areas live oak stands may be en-
countered on sandhill sites, on better drained portions of the pine
flatwoods areas, as a seral stage following scrub, or fringing lakes,
streams, and sinkholes (Davis 1961). Live oak stands, under these
circumstances plus an occasional fire, coupled with the longevity
of the species, may persist for an extended period of time. This
leads to the problem of establishing the ecological position of live

oak in the successional and climax vegetation in northeastern
Florida.

The purposes of this study were two-fold: (1) to determine
whether the coastal live oak hammocks represent a salt spray
climax as in North Carolina, and (2) to determine the position of
live oak in succession in the inland sites, particularly the drier
portion of the pine flatwoods.

METHODS

The live oak hammocks considered in this study are located in
north central Florida between Gainesville, St. Augustine, and
Flagler Beach. All the hammocks investigated have been free
of fire for at least 15 years or more. Evidence of some selective
cutting of pine was observed in a few cases. Grazing in the inland
stands may have occurred within the past 20 years, though the
effects of this are not obvious.

During the summer of 1959 eight live oak hammocks, repre-
senting three general site classifications, were sampled. Four of
the eight stands occupied scrubby flatwood areas (slightly higher
and drier portions of the pine flatwoods). These four, when classi-
fied on the basis of the maturity of the live oak, are treated as fol-

A0) JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

lows: I incipient live oak hammock, | intermediate, and 2 mature.
One of the eight stands was an intermediate live oak hammock
located on a sandhill site. Of the three remaining, two are located
on old offshore bars and one on an old sand dune within one half
mile of the coast. These three latter hammocks are mature and
they are close enough to the ocean for the canopy to exhibit a pro-
nounced shearing effect of wind and salt spray.

All of the stands studied are significantly located in that they
are in areas where natural fire barriers exist in the form of bodies
of water or artificial barriers such as roads, cultivated land, and
protected parks and reserves.

Basal area for stems 1 inch dbh in seven stands was recorded
in 10 alternate 10 meter square quadrats. In seven stands this was
done by sampling 5 alternate quadrats in two parallel 100 meter
lines separated by at least 10 meters. Total shrub and herb cover
was estimated in one 16 meter square quadrat in a fixed corner of
the larger quadrat. The species within were listed in order of
abundance. The relative abundance of seedings and sprouts of
trees was recorded but not counted due to the high frequency of
sprout occurrence, especially in live oak. The eighth stand, a
coastal live oak hammock, was sampled by the transect method. A
transect 120 x 20 meters, perpendicular with the coast, was estab-
lished and each contiguous 10 x 20 meter segment was sampled
for basal area. A presence list was compiled for all stands.

RESULTS

SCRUBBY FLATWOODS SITE

(1) Incipient Live Oak Hammock

The incipient live oak hammock is located in the University of
Florida Conservation Reserve at Welaka. The area has been pro-
tected from fire for 20 years.

Live oak is clearly the dominant species in the incipient ham-
mock (Table 1). This stand has a discontinuous canopy of live
oak about 15-20 feet in height with an occasional large, towering
slash pine (Pinus ellottii Engelm.). Live oak averaged 2.9 inches
dbh with the larger specimens slightly over 7 inches. Slash pine
averaged 15.5 inches dbh.

Below the low live oak canopy and above the lower shrub
layer, but merging into both, staggerbush (Lyonia ferruginea Nutt.)

SOME LIVE OAK FORESTS OF NORTHEASTERN FLORIDA 41

and Chapman’s oak (Quercus chapmanii Sarg.) form a tangled
growth.

The shrub layer is dense (53% cover) and consists primarily
of saw palmetto (Serenoa repens (Bartr.) Small), fetterbush (Lyonia
lucida (Lam.) K. Koch), and smaller individuals of live oak, stag-
gerbush, and Chapman’s oak. Scattered through the shrub layer
are a few small laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia Michx.) seedlings
(< 1 ft. in height) and saplings (> 1 ft. in height and < 1 inch
dbh). The vine Galactia elliottii Nutt. is frequent.

The herb layer is sparse. The principal herbs are wiregrass
(Aristida stricta Michx.), Panicum patentifolium Nash, and Rhynch-
ospora dodecandra.

(2) Intermediate Live Oak Hammock

This hammock is located 1.5 miles southwest of San Mateo on
U. S. 17. The stand studied is between the highway and the St.
Johns River. Between the hammock and river there is a mesic
hammock. Scrubby flatwoods lie between the road and the inter-
mediate hammock.

The canopy in this hammock is about 40 feet in height and
more continuous than in the incipient hammock. Live oak is again
the dominant tree (Table 1) though there was a slight decrease in
trees per acre. The live oak averaged 3.8 inches with the larger
trees being over 18 inches dbh. The abundance of staggerbush
had decreased whereas Chapman’s oak remained the same. Myrtle
oak (Quercus myrtifolia Willd.) showed an increase in trees per
acre. This increase is probably associated with the choice of site
rather than with successional trends. :

One of the most noticeable differences between the incipient
and intermediate live oak hammocks is the increase in laurel oak
from a few seedlings and saplings in the former to 352 trees per
acre in the latter which averaged 1.6 inches dbh. The largest
laurel oak measured was 2.8 inches. The appearance of small in-
dividuals of hickory (Carya glabra (Mill.) Sweet), American holly
(Ilex opaca Ait.), and wild olive (Osmanthus americanus (L.) Gray)
suggests a successional trend. Scattered through this stand are
occasional large magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora L.) though only
seedlings and saplings of this species are encountered in the sam-
ple area.

JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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SOME LIVE OAK FORESTS OF NORTHEASTERN FLORIDA 48

The shrub layer is 5-6 feet in height and was dense (67% cover).
The important species present are the same as those in the younger
hammock. Laurel oak saplings are more important. Saplings of
wind olive, hickory, American holly, and magnolia are indicative
of trend toward climax species. The herb layer is practically
absent.

(3) Mature Live Oak Hammock

Two mature live oak hammocks were studied. One is 2.2 miles
southwest of Rochelle. This stand is protected from fire on the
west by a small stream and adjoining swamp, on the north by a
state highway, on the east by a sand road, and on the south by a
small rural settlement. The second stand is located in the Welaka
Reserve where it has been protected from fire and grazing for
20 years.1

The live oak in the mature hammocks form an almost continu-
ous canopy about 75 feet in height. The number of live oaks per
acre has decreased from around 500 in the two younger to 66 in
the mature hammock. The live oaks averaged 15.5 inches dbh
with the range being 4.5 to 32.5 inches dbh. Most of these had
huge crowns frequently formed from numerous branches which
originate from the main trunk about 8-10 feet from the ground or
from several trunks connected to a common root system. Most of
these trees had fire scars on the trunks near the ground.

American holly, a tree common in the climax mesic hammocks
in north central Florida, is the second most important tree. The
110 trees per acre for this species averaged 3.1 inches dbh with
the larger specimens being over 10 inches dbh. Frequently sev-
eral small trees of American holly originate from a common root
system. This undoubtedly resulted from past fire damage.

Laurel oak exhibits an increase in average diameter from 1.6
inches in the intermediate hammock to 3.0 inches in the mature
hammock. The larger laurel oaks are over 6 inches dbh.

The decrease in staggerbush and Chapman’s oak and the ap-
pearance of water oak (Quercus nigra L.) seems significant. The
appearance of cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto (Walt.) Lodd.) and
the other species listed for the mature hammock in Table 1 are
not considered a significant successional trend.

+A portion of this hammock was studied previously by Laessle (1942 and
1958a).

44 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The understory in the mature hammock is irregular in height
and discontinuous. The principal components are American holly
and laurel oak transgressives.

Reproduction of live oak is largely by root sprouts. Laurel
oak, magnolia, and redbay (Persea borbonia (L.) Spreng.) are rep-
resented by seedlings and saplings as well as by sprouts. It is note-
worthy that seedlings and saplings of live oak were not found.
Small sprouts of this species were seen but it appeared that they
would never form trees. The ability of live oaks to form thickets
from root sprouts has been reported by Laessle (1958a).

The shrub layer is variable in height as well as percent of cover.
The average cover is 50% though the two extremes occurred at
times in different quadrats. Sprouts and saplings of laurel oak,
magnolia, and myrtle oak are important tree species. Important
shrubs and vines are grape (mostly Vitis rotundifolia Michx.), yel-
low jessamine (Gelsemium sempervirens (L.) Ait.), cross vine (Big-
nonia capreolata 1.), saw palmetto, Vaccinium caesium Greene,
smilax (mostly Smilax laurifolia L. and S. bona-nox L.), and Galactia
elliottii Nutt.

The herb layer is poorly represented. Mitchella repens L. and
Elephantopus nudatus Gray are the more frequent components.

SANDHILL SITE

(1) Intermediate Live Oak Hammock

This stand is located 2.8 miles east of Welaka on the Pomona
road. It is nearly surrounded by orange groves.

Live oak forms a continuous canopy about 40 feet in height.
The live oaks averaged 6.4 inches dbh with the range being 3.3
to 9.7 inches. No seedlings and only an occasional sprout were
observed.

The remnants of the longleaf pine-turkey oak (sandhill) com-
munity are present in the form of fire charred and partially decayed
pine stumps and an occasional turkey oak.

The understory is about 15 feet in height and it was nearly con-
tinuous. The 744 laurel oaks are its only component (Table 1).
They are all below 2.5 inches dbh with the average being 1.3 inches.

The shrub layer in this site has only half as much cover (30%)
as in the intermediate hammock on the scrubby flatwoods area.
Laurel oak is the principal component.

SOME LIVE OAK FORESTS OF NORTHEASTERN FLORIDA 45

Other than a few turkey oak and longleaf pine stumps several
other plants present suggest that this was formerly a sandhill
community. These are (Asimina angustifolia A. Gray, A. obovata
(Willd.) Nash, Asclepias tuberosa L., Phoebanthus tenuifolia (T.
and G.) Blake, Tragia urens L., Tephrosia chrysophylla Pursh.,
Croton argyranthemus Michx., Carphephorus cormybosus (Nutt.)
T. and G., Psoralea canescens Michx., and Aristida spp.). Most of
these species are represented only by a few spindley specimens
that showed no indication of flowering or fruiting.

COASTAL SITE

(1) Mature Live Oak Hammock

The three coastal live oak hammocks are located along U. S.
highway AlA between St. Augustine and Flagler Beach. One is
located in Anastasia Island State Park. The other two are east
of AIA.

Each of the live oak hammocks investigated on the coastal site
is about a half a mile from the ocean, and they are the first forests
encountered behind the foredunes. Between the dunes and the
forests are low thickets or brackish marshes. The canopy in each
of the hammocks studied gradually sloped eastward until it merged
into the thicket behind the foredunes. The slope of the canopy
showed every characteristic of being the result of wind and salt
spray.

The relative abundance and basal area of the tree species in
these stands is shown in Table 1. Live oak was represented by 66
trees per acre which averaged 11.4 inches dbh. The size ranged
from 10.1 inches dbh to 35.6 inches dbh in one of the stands while
the others ranged from 4.2 to 17.3 and 6.1 to 25.2 inches dbh. Cab-
bage palm ranked second, though this species was encountered only
in the sample in the non-dune stands. |

Laurel oak is third in basal area. The 68 trees per acre aver-
age 5.8 inches dbh while the larger specimens are 13 inches dbh.
The fourth species is magnolia with an average 53 trees per acre,
and an average dbh of 4.9 inches though the largest individual was
17.2 inches. This specimen was within 20 meters of the low thicket
and its crown had been trained by wind and salt spray. Pignut
hickory is fifth with 4.5 percent basal area. The largest specimen

46 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

seen was 24.6 inches dbh and it too was within 20 meters of the low
thicket.

Redbay, though not contributing much basal area, is represented
by 47 trees per acre with the larger ones being slightly over 10
inches dbh.

The understory varies in height and continuity. Yaupon (Ilex
vomitoria Ait.), laurel oak, pignut hickory, magnolia, redbay, Amer-
ican holly, and wild olive are the principal components.

The cover of the shrub layer is 53 percent. Saw palmetto, yau-
pon, grape, and the sprouts and saplings of the tree species are the
main members.

Elephantopus nudatus Gray, Scleria triglomerata Michx., and
Panicum commutatum Schultes are the important herbs.

Most of the data obtained from the 120 x 20 meter transect,
which runs perpendicular to the coast but about a half a mile in-
land, are given in Figure 1. This transect was so placed that it
would extend from the “live oak-mesic hammock” eastward into the
low scrub forest. The canopy at the western end of the transect
is about 75 feet in height while the canopy at the eastern extreme
is about 20 feet in height. There is a gradual decrease in canopy
height from west to east. Total basal area also decreases from
west to east. This is related to a decrease in average dbh rather
than in trees per acre. The latter actually increases from west to
east. It should be pointed out that the only significant abrupt de-
crease in total basal area comes at the point where the scrub trees
(Chapman’s oak, myrtle oak, and staggerbush) begin to appear.

The basal area of species along this transect is clearly shown
in Figure 1. Many of the important tree species common in the
inland climax mesic hammocks (laurel oak, magnolia, redbay, pig-
nut hickory, and wild olive) are present throughout the transect
even though they are represented only by seedlings, saplings, or
sprouts in the scrub forest. Live oak, though present throughout,
is over 6 inches dbh only in the western end of the transect where
the other species mentioned above had larger trees as well as re-
productive classes there. Another important feature is the presence
of dead trees of Chapman’s oak west of where the live ones pres-
ently occur.

The distribution of some of the subordinate species is shown in
Figure 1. For the most part the occurrence of these species ap-

8 7To7al
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QITCLICANUS

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AWpetel/a reoerrs

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4wparorivur Jacundum
PrVurnuSs: caro/sir1aria
PARASCOlMWS SIMUALUS

__ __ _ Magnolia grandiflora

_. — .__ fe@evm equilarerale, _
Scleria x+19/o7eras/a
ZAMA W77OLOSa

See I As7777a partitlora.
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ee Su7lax pula
Laccinurn CaCSIU@
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PAI UTIF Daler77i4ol titre,
Cay/USSACA Trorzrdosa

Figure 1. Graph of the principal species according to basal area along
a 20 x 120 m. transect. Horizontal intervals 10 meters. The lower portion
of this figure indicates the range of herbaceous and small, woody species in

the same intervals of the transect. The broken lines designate non-contiguous
occurrence of the species in the 10 meter intervals.

48 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

pears to follow the development of the forest from the scrub forest
to the mesic hammock.

TABLE 2

FREQUENCY AND PRESENCE OF SPECIES WHICH OCCURRED IN
HALF OR MORE OF THE EIGHT STANDS STUDIED.

Frequency Presence Presence*
Species 70 Quadrats 8 Stands 17 Stands
TREES
Quercus virginiana 89 100 100
Quercus laurifolia 81 100 —
Magnolia grandiflora 30 62 —
Persea borbonia Dl 62 82
Ilex opaca 24 62 65
Sabal palmetto 18 62 SH
Osmanthus americanus 14 62 82
Quercus myrtifolia NT 50 —
Lyonia ferrugenia 26 50 —
Carya glabra 24 50 —
Diospyros virginiana a 50 —
SHRUBS AND VINES
Smilax spp. 67 100 100
Serenoa repens 48 100 —
Vitis spp. 67 87 100
Callicarpa americana 16 87 WL
Parthenocissus quinquefolia 23 62 65
HERBS
Panicum spp. AT 100 18-53
Elephantopus nudatus OI 50 a
Scleria triglomerata 14 50 —
EPIPHYTES
Tillandsia usneoides - 100 —
Polypodium polypodioides — 62 —

* The data from the 17 stands is taken from Bourdeau and Oosting (1959).

Floristic Composition: .

A total of 148 species was recorded in the eight stands. Of
these 28 were trees, 29 shrubs, 14 woody vines, 5 herbaceous vines,
65 herbs, and 7 epiphytes. Those that are present in four or more

SOME LIVE OAK FORESTS OF NORTHEASTERN FLORIDA 49

of the stands are listed in Table 2 with the frequency of their oc-
currence in the 70 10 x 10 meter quadrats.

The incipient and intermediate live oak hammocks on scrubby
flatwoods areas have 15 species that are commonly found in the
scrubby flatwoods or in the resulting young live oak hammocks.
As the hammock matures, they begin to disappear. Fifteen species
are restricted to the mature live oak hammock in scrubby flatwoods
areas. Eighteen species are found only in the intermediate live
oak hammocks on the sandhill site. Most of these are herbs that
are characteristic of the previous longleaf pine-turkey oak com-
munity. Eighteen species are restricted to the coastal live oak
hammocks.

Discussion

The ecology of live oak and live oak hammocks is too large a
subject to be covered with the small amount of ecological informa-
tion pertaining to this species and communities of which it often
forms an important part. The discussion which follows is not an
attempt to cover the ecology of live oak hammocks in detail.

Live oaks occur mainly in the coastal plain from Virginia through
Georgia, throughout Florida, along the Gulf of Mexico into Texas
and Oklahoma. Throughout this range the species is found on
dry to wet sandy soils (Fernald 1950). Most of the literature deal-
ing with live oak on the Atlantic coast reports studies of the mari-
time forests in North Carolina (Wells 1939, Wells and Shunk 1938,
Bourdeau and Oosting 1959). The role of live oak in these mari-
time forests was probably first stated by Wells (loc. cit.). He
noted the absence of the inland climax oak-hickory in the coastal
live oak stands and this lead him to consider live oak as a salt spray
climax, Does this mean that live oak forms a salt spray climax
along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, particularly in Florida?

To answer this question it will be necessary to describe briefly
the coastal vegetation in northeastern Florida. Immediately inland
from the Atlantic Ocean and windward of the foredunes exists an
area, which for all practical purposes, is void of vegetation. The
next zone inland is the foredune on which Uniola paniculata L. is
the most characteristic sand binder, which in turn commonly gives
way to a thicket type of vegetation on the back of the foredune.
Usually the thicket is composed of saw palmetto, live oak, myrtle
oak, redbay and Chapman’s oak (see Kurz 1942). This thicket in

50 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

many ways resembles the scrub vegetation, which in Florida is
associated with older shorelines (Laessle 1958b), extends inland
where it may gradually merge into typical scrub vegetation and
later into a live oak hammock or mesic hammock. The latter stages
of this trend are illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 2. Two clones of live oak, both many stemmed and exhibiting
the dense, dwarf form so characteristic of the species just back of the dunes
where fire has been frequent.

In the area between St. Augustine and Flagler Beach, Florida,
the thicket, scrub-like vegetation (Fig. 2) may extend from the rear
of the foredune, inland for approximately a half mile before it
merges into the forest. This thicket is not only under the influence
of salt spray but of frequent fire. It appears that the latter factor
is at least as important in prohibiting the development of the live
oak forest as is salt spray. During the present study, it was impos-
sible to ascertain how close to the ocean the live oak forest can
develop, however, it can be definitely stated that the forest can
develop closer than its present location.

A careful examination of Figure 1 will show that species in the
forest bordering the thicket, have begun to appear in the thicket
as small trees. This suggests that the forest is encroaching onto
the thicket vegetation. This leads to the following questions:

SOME LIVE OAK FORESTS OF NORTHEASTERN FLORIDA 51

(1) How close to the ocean can the forest exist, and (2) how is the
thicket converted to forest? The first question cannot be answered
now and only a partial explanation of the latter is evident.

It has been proposed by many authors including Wells (op. cit.)
that salt spray is important in vegetation zonation in coastal areas,
however, other factors may at times be of considerable importance.
In northeastern Florida fire appears to be one of these factors.
Every stand investigated showed obvious signs of fire. Also, local
inhabitants quickly point out that fires are frequent along the coast.
The apparent role of fire in the present expression of coastal vege-
tation depends partially upon its frequency and intensity. (The
low thicket type vegetation composed of saw palmetto, live oak,
myrtle oak, and Chapman’s oak, when burned frequently, has a
growth form expression quite similar to the fire pseudo-nanism
(Fig. 2) reported in pitch pine (Andresen 1959). This low tangled
mass of plants creates conditions which make it difficult for other
species to invade. Even if more mesic forest species do invade,
they are eliminated or kept in a dwarfed and subdominant condi-
tion by fire. As the frequency and intensity of fire decreases, the
dwarfed live oak begins to increase in height forming a canopy over
the other species and as a consequence the latter begin to become
less important. After the formation of the live oak canopy, an in-
tense fire may revert the area to thicket whereas less intense and
frequent fires tend to maintain the live oak forest. The less fre-
quent and intense fires which occur in the live oak forest are still
adequate to prohibit the establishment of mesic hammock species.
Whenever the live oak forest is unburned the mesic hammock
species tend to become established. After they have been estab-
lished, the fire susceptibility of the mesic hammock species de-
creases with age. After the mesic hammock has developed, fire
may kill the above ground portion, but the species are maintained
partially through root sprouts.

Sprout growth is clearly of two types. Both live oak and laurel
oak send out “rhizomes”?, often to distances 20 to 30 feet from the
main trunk. Sprouts from these rhizomes are frequently present
in mature stands but they appear to remain repressed indefinitely
under such circumstances. Frequent fires also prevent any single

* These sprouts are probably not from rhizomes in the strict sense but de-
velop from buds forming on roots as mentioned under Quercus alba forma
rependa (Michx.) Trel. in Fernald (1950).

52 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

sprout from a clone from attaining dominance (Laessle 1958a).
The other type of sprout growth which is exhibited by magnolia,
redbay, hickory, and wild olive, is from the region approximately
at the root crown or stem base. Young magnolias growing in dense
shade, and of spindley habit, not infrequently are bent to the ground
where they layer. The basal end of these layered trees sends up
another sprout so that many apparently separate trees may in
actuality be derived from a single seed.

In one of the stands studied along the coast, magnolia, laurel
oak, and pignut hickory (climax mesic hammock species) were close
enough to the ocean to exhibit the sheared crowns characteristic
of woody plants under the influence of salt spray (Fig. 3). This
is an indication that the inland mesic hammock climax species can
exist under the effects of salt spray. Kurz (1942) also recorded mag-
nolia as an important species in the coastal dunes.

Figure 3. A view of the mature live oak hammock on Silver Bluff dunes.
The landward trend of the live oak branches is evident just to the right of
center. Two magnolias, center, the larger of which shows toward its top a
similar effect of wind and salt spray. This hammock lies on the first dune
ridge in Section 28, T. 7 S., R. 30 E, of the St. Augustine Quadrangle.

Does this mean that the live oak in North Carolina does not
form a salt spray climax? This study cannot prove or disprove the
salt spray climax for the North Carolina maritime forest as pro-

SOME LIVE OAK FORESTS OF NORTHEASTERN FLORIDA 53

posed by Wells (op. cit.). It may be that the inland deciduous oak-
hickory climax of North Carolina cannot develop under the in-
fluence of salt spray. However, it is interesting to note that most
of the climax species of northeastern Florida occur in the warmer
coastal areas of North Carolina. It may be that such influence as
fire, availability of seeds, and the factor of time have not permitted
the broadleaved evergreen climax to reach its northern potential.

Certain soil and geological factors cannot be overlooked. The
dune hammock is almost certainly of Silver Bluff age or approxi-
mately 5,000 years old. Its relationship to the more modern dunes
on the east is similar to the situation discussed by MacNeill (1950),
in which he describes the situation on Amelia Island in northeastern
Florida as follows .. . “an inner ridge, built as a dune covered bar
during Silver Bluff time, and a high outer dune-covered bar built
by recent sea’. The outer bar with its dunes is Bird Island, less
than a half mile seaward from the dune hammock, but about three
quarters of a mile from the open ocean (see the St. Augustine
Quadrangle, U. S. Geol. Surv. 1943). The other two mature ham-
mocks are situated on bars of Silver Bluff age but they are under-
lain by coquina deposited as submarine bars during Pamlico time.
The underlying coquina no doubt contributes nutrients toward a
more rapid growth toward climax vegetation, which once estab-
lished, is quite resistant to regression back to live oak or scrub veg-
etation. The influence of the coquina, rich in calcium, is partially
shown through the distribution of certain species which occurred
along the transect. The calciphile yaupon did not occur in the
last 20 meters of the scrub portion of the transect and cabbage
palm did not occur in the last 50 meters of the transect, as the lat-
ter is particularly fire resistant, the soil pH is more important than
fire in influencing the distribution of this species. East of the cab-
bage palm zone plants requiring acid conditions make their appear-

~~ ance, Lyonia ferruginea Nutt. in the last 80 meters, Vaccinium

caesium Greene in the last 100 meters, V. myrsinites in the last 20
meters. The dwarf nature of the vegetation in the scrub region
of the transect may be determined mainly by two factors: (1) the
poorer nutrition of the acid soil causing its dwarf and denser nature
and the much higher occurrence of saw palmetto, the dead fronds
of which are highly flammable, enabling (2) fire to retard the vege-
tation more frequently and in a more drastic degree than in the
hammock portion of the transect. Since the climax mesic hammock

54 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

species can apparently develop under the influence of salt spray,
it appears that fundamentally the poverty of the soil and the oc-
currence of fire in the scrub zone are the primary factors in its
maintenance.

Most of the inland live oak hammocks covered in this study
were located on slightly higher portions of the pine flatwoods.
The sequence of live oak hammocks from incipient, intermediate,
to mature (Table 1) support the idea that drier portions of the flat-
woods, when protected from fire, may pass through a live oak type
of hammock before the climax mesic hammock develops. It is
not the intent of the authors to convey the idea that all drier por-
tions of the flatwoods pass through a live oak stage nor is it thei
intent to say that the mesic hammock terminates succession on all
such sites. However, the general sequence appears to be scrubby
flatwoods—live oak hammock—mesic hammock as interpreted by
Laessle (1942). The speed of successional change in this sequence
appears to be closely related to the severity and frequency of fire,
to the availability of seeds and to soil fertility. The composition
of the climax hammock will undoubtedly vary considerably due to
the influence of these factors.

SUMMARY

Wells (1939), working on Smith Island in North Carolina, re-
ferred to the live oak forest which fringes the coast as a salt spray
climax—the inference being that the inland climax forest could not
develop under the influence of salt spray along the coastal area.
He, plus several other workers have later submitted more support-
ing evidence of the salt spray climax along the North Carolina
coast.

In northeastern Florida live oak forests form a small but im-
portant and conspicuous vegetation type. Such forests may be
found on inland as well as coastal sites. On the inland areas, live
oak stands may be encountered on sandhill sites, on better drained
pine flatwoods areas, scrub sites, and fringing lakes, streams, and
sinkholes. Live oak, under these circumstances plus an occasional
fire, coupled with the longevity of the species, may persist for an
extended period of time. In the mature live oak stands studied,
which had been free of fire for a number of years, young individuals
of the climax mesic hammock species were abundant. It is evident

SOME LIVE OAK FORESTS OF NORTHEASTERN FLORIDA 55

that the live oak stands on the inland and coastal areas of north-
eastern Florida represent an extended subclimax maintained through
burning and longevity of the species. It is concluded that the
inland climax species can exist under the influence of salt spray,
and hence, the live oak forest is not a salt spray climax in Florida.

LITERATURE CITED
ANDRESEN, J. W.
1959. A study of pseudo-nanism in Pinus rigida Mill. Ecol. Monog. 29:
309-332.
BOURDEAU, P. F., AND H. J. OOSTING
1959. The maritime live oak forest in North Carolina. Ecol. 40: 148-152.

DAVIS, J. H.
1961. The Vegetation of Florida. Manuscript.

FERNALD, M. L.
1950. Gray's Manual of Botany. 8th ed. American Book Company.

KURZ, H.

1942. Florida dunes and scrub, vegetation and geology. Fla. Geol. Surv.
Bull. 23: 1-154.

LAESSLE, A. M.

1942. The plant communities of the Welaka Area. Biol. Sci. Series. Univ.
of Fla. Press, 4(1): 1-141.

1958a. A report on successional studies of selected plant communities on the
University of Florida Conservation Reserve, Welaka, Florida. Fla.
Neadem sci 2 (1) 102-1 12,

1958b. The origin and successional relationship of sandhill vegetation and
sand-pine scrub. Ecol. Monog. 28: 361-387.

MacNEILL, F. S.

1950. Pleistocene shore lines in Florida and Georgia. U. S. Geol. Surv.
Prof. Paper 221-F: 95-107.

WELLS, B. W.

1939. A new forest climax: the salt spray climax of Smith Island, North
Carolina. Torr. Bot. Club. Bull. 66: 629-634.

WELLS, B. W., AND I. V. SHUNK

1938. Salt spray: an important factor in coastal ecology. Torr. Bot. Club.
Bull. 65: 485-492.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(1), 1961

AN EXCEPTIONAL PATTERN VARIANT OF THE
CORAL SNAKE, MICRURUS FULVIUS (LINNAEUS)

ANNE MEACHEM AND CHARLES W. MYERS
University of Florida

An oddly patterned Coral Snake recently collected near Gaines-
ville, Florida is worthy of description. Micrurus fulvius almost in-
variably bears a pattern of black, red, and yellow rings that com-
pletely encircle the body (figs. 1-2). The present specimen (figs.
3-4) is unusual in having fewer black rings than usual, several of
which are reduced to dorsal blotches, and a corresponding enlarge-
ment of the red areas. Besides the six yellow-bordered black rings
that circle the body in a more or less normal manner, there are four
dorsal black blotches which tend (in varying degrees) to be encom-
passed by narrow rings of yellow. The most striking aspect of
this individual, consequently, is the extensive unmarked area of the
venter, which before preservation was a clear coral red color. The
red of the dorsum is the same basic color but is darkened by diffuse
black pigment; the absence of conspicuous black spotting on the
red is highly aberrant. The tail is normal in being encircled by
black and yellow.

The specimen is an adult male; after preservation it measures
812 mm. in total length (100 mm. tail length). Dorsal scale formula
15-15-15, ventrals 212, subcaudals in 42 pairs, supralabials 7-7, in-
fralabials 7-7, temporals 1 + 1. It is now catalogued number
14902 in the University of Florida Collections.

Others have told us of seeing Floridian Coral Snakes which also
bore occasional dorsal “saddles,” the total pattern being not so
radically altered as in the present case however. One is tempted
to speculate whether dorsal blotches in these variants might not
represent an ancestral condition, since it seems probable that
blotched patterns are more primitive than ringed ones in snakes.

Figures 1-2. Dorsal and ventral views of a normally patterned Coral
Snake. (UF 14901. North edge of Payne’s Prairie, approximately 4% miles
SSW Gainesville, Alachua County, Florida.) Robert McFarlane, Florida State
Museum.

Figures 38-4. Dorsal and ventral views of Coral Snake with a _ highly
aberrant pattern. (UF 14902. 4%4 miles WSW Gainesville, near Hogtown
Sink, Alachua County, Florida.) Robert McFarlane, Florida State Museum.

Ra HOLLEETIERS

Rye one.

Bere ned eeee .

Quart. Tourn. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(1), 1961

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BEHAVIOR OF THE
SPOTTED SKUNK IN FLORIDA

ARTHUR J. MANARO
University of Florida!

Relatively little is known concerning the general biology of the
spotted skunk, Spilogale putorius. Various aspects of the animal’s
lite history and behavior have been described by Howell (1920),
Johnson (1921), Mitchell (1923), Walter (1930) and Van Gelder
(1953). This paper is based on data gathered while live-trapping
the Florida spotted skunk, Spilogale putorius ambarvalis Bangs,
and observations on captive individuals during the period from 22
November 1956 to 6 April 1958. Individuals kept in captivity were
housed in laboratory cages and usually observed for periods of
from 7 to 60 days.

I am indebted to Dr. James N. Layne for suggestions and help-
ful criticism in the preparation of this manuscript.

Habitat and population Field observations and trapping were
carried on in a coastal scrub habitat 7 miles south of Daytona Beach,
Volusia County, Florida. This xeric plant association is character-
ized by a dense low growth of palmetto and shrubs growing on
loose, white sand. Other mammals recorded in this habitat in-
cluded the beach mouse (Peromyscus polionotus), armadillo (Dasy-
pus novemcinctus), opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), raccoon (Proc-
yon lotor) and domestic cats.

Several types of simple box traps were used with equal suc-
cess. The traps were baited with sardines and checked every two
hours from dusk to dawn. Animals that were captured were trans-
ferred to cages and descented surgically the following morning.
The area was trapped two nights each month with an average
trap success of five skunks per 100 trap-nights. In all, 38 skunks
(27 males, 11 females) were collected on a 1% acre plot from 1956
to 1958. Nine of these were juveniles captured in February and
March, 1958.

Activity—The spotted skunk is generally nocturnal and is
rarely encountered on nights with even a minimum of moonlight.
An example of the effect of moonlight on activity is afforded by

‘Present address: Headquarters and Headquarters Company
2nd Battle Group, 6th Infantry
APO 742
New York, New York

69 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

observations made on 4 April 1958. On this night, the moon,
which was full, did not set until 3:30 a.m. No skunks were trapped
prior to moon-set but 9 individuals were taken between 3:30 a.m.
and sunrise (6:10 a.m.).

General observations indicate that on nights apparently suit-
able for continuous activity, there are two peaks of activity, one
shortly after sunset and the other just prior to sunrise. Occasion-
ally, however, individuals probably roam throughout a moonless
night. James N. Layne has also observed a spotted skunk traveling
in a shady hammock in the late afternoon.

One adult female kept in captivity for a period of 44% months
ceased nocturnal activity after the first four nights and thereafter
was active during the day.

Captive skunks invariably slept with the head and forelegs
tucked beneath the abdomen, the crown of the head, shoulders,
hind feet, and tail being in contact with the floor of the cage.

Temperament.—In general the spotted skunk is secretive in its
habits. Although the number of animals taken from the study
area indicates that the population was quite sizable, a number of
local residents were questioned and none reported ever having seen
skunks in the vicinity. On one occasion a male was seen inside an
empty tin-can along the edge of the road entering the study area.
No dead specimens were found on the roads or highways in the
vicinity of Daytona Beach, which verifies Van Gelder’s (1958) ob-
servation that these animals stay close to the brush and are rarely
seen in the open.

Occasionally, however, curiosity seems to overcome the spotted
skunk’s inherent shyness and it will advance cautiously to investi-
gate a strange object, usually stamping its forefeet at each step
forward. On one occasion in the field, an adult male entered my
camp site and climbed onto a sleeping bag and investigated the
occupant.

An individual kept in my home for 4% months became quite
tame. It would allow itself to be gently stroked but never to be
picked up. The majority of captive skunks showed little inclination
to bite, although one female consistently and viciously snapped at
the slightest approach of a hand.

Locomotion.—Spotted skunks are excellent climbers and were
observed in the top-most fronds of palmettos or in the branches of
low trees. Seven captive individuals were housed in bird cages

BEHAVIOR OF THE SPOTTED SKUNK IN FLORIDA 61

equipped with several horizontal wooden bars. The animals were
quite agile, as has also been noted by Howell (1920), and spent a
great amount of time climbing about the bars and sides of the cage.
Crabb (1944) has reported that several spotted skunks observed by
him used their climbing ability as a means of escape. However,
my observations indicate that such activity may also be exploratory.

Dens.—According to Crabb (1944), the requirements for the loca-
tion of the den of the spotted skunk are complete darkness and
protection from extremes of weather and natural enemies. The
burrows of the gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) served as
home-sites of skunks on the study area. Single specimens were
taken at the entrances of occupied burrows except in two cases.
In both of the latter instances, two females were captured at the
entrance to the burrows. These were the only cases of apparent
“community dens observed.

Spotted skunks may shift their den site with some regularity,
the only restriction being that the new den be vacant. Evidence
for this is provided by the record of different animals trapped at
one den over a period of about a year. A male was initially trapped
at this den on 19 May 1957. Additional specimens were taken here
on 26 July, 14 October, 19 November, 14 December, and 4 April
1958.

All dens from which skunks were taken were located between
1 and 4 feet from the nearest cover, such as bushes or palmetto
clumps. One den situated in a rather open area with the nearest
cover about 11 feet away was trapped consistently throughout the
study without success. These data suggest that the proximity of
cover may be an important criterion in the selection of a den site.

Voice.—I have heard spotted skunks utter only two sounds.
One is a high-pitched screech similar to that of a blue-jay and the
other is a series of throaty grunts. The former was heard when-
ever two individuals were in close association, as when placed in
the same cage or in adjoining cages. The grunts were given by
one animal that had just been transferred from trap to cage. An-
other vocalization that has been reported for Spilogale is a sharp
bark (Johnson, 1921).

Food habits.—Captive spotted skunks consistently showed a
preference for live foods although they would readily accept vari-
ous substitutes. They devoured anything from table scraps to live
snakes, including such items as raw and cooked beef, milk-soaked

62 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

bread, lizards, insects and fruit. They particularly relished live
frogs although none were found in the Daytona Beach habitat.
All live food was killed by rapid and vicious bites in the head and
neck of the victim. It was only after the victim showed no further
signs of life that it was consumed. Van Gelder (1953) has de-
scribed the technique used by Spilogale in opening eggs.

Spotted skunks in captivity drank little water, usually not
more than one or two ounces daily.

Social behavior.—The housing of two or more individuals in
the same cage always resulted in conflict. On two occasions, two
males were placed in the same cage. Within two hours in both
instances, one of the males was found dead from bites and lacera-
tions around the head and snout, the victor showing no signs of
bodily injury. Several times, two females were placed in the same
cage. No deaths occurred but the animals constantly raced around
the cage keeping out of one anothers way. In none of the en-
counters described above was there a discharge of musk, although
the tails were always kept high over the back in the characteristic
discharge position.

Defensive behavior—Howell (1920) and Johnson (1921) de-
scribed the “handstand” of the spotted skunk, although little is
known about the details of this behavior. My observations indicate
that there is a fairly definite pattern of defensive behavior closely
associated with the distance between the skunk and the approaching
intruder. When a trapped animal is approached to within a dis-
tance of 8 to 15 feet, it begins a rapid series of handstands, each
lasting between 2 and 8 seconds. Reports of this distance vary
from 12 feet (Howell, 1920) to 8 feet (Johnson, 1921) and the dura-
tion of each handstand from 2 (Johnson, 1921) to 5 seconds (Walter,
1930). Throughout the duration of the handstand, the hindlegs
are spread laterally and the bristled tail is kept perpendicular to
the ground. The animal advances and retreats on its forelegs only
a few inches, apparently to maintain balance. When the observer
comes to within about 8 feet of a skunk, it immediately drops to all
fours and assumes a horseshoe-shaped stance with the anus and
head directed towards the person. Frequently, skunks stamp their
forefeet before, after, and in the case of one old male, during the
handstand. Johnson (1921) reported that each handstand was ac-
companied by a musk discharge directed over the head of the
skunk toward the intruder. I did not observe this action.

BEHAVIOR OF THE SPOTTED SKUNK IN FLORIDA 63

The detensive behavior pattern described above was displayed
by 87 of the 38 animals handled. The one exception was a male
that did not execute the handstand. However, this individual died
two days after capture, the cause of death apparently being a
severe infection of the right forelimb.

In captivity, the defense behavior ceased to be elicited by
humans after 4 or 5 days but was exhibited whenever the skunk
was approached by a dog, cat, horse, or even by a mammal skin
brought close to the cage. On one occasion a skunk was approached
by a man on hands and knees and the animal immediately exhibited
the defense reaction. The handstand behavior might be continued
for as long as 8 minutes after the intruder was removed from the
scene.

The discharge of the spotted skunk is not a “spray” but con-
sists of two or three drops of fluid which are expelled up to a
distance of 18 or 14 feet. At a distance of 5 feet, the discharge
rarely reaches a height of 4 feet in its trajectory. The odor is
that of a highly concentrated onion extract. Twice, I experienced
getting small quantities of the musk in my eyes. Both times, it
caused an intense burning sensation and left me totally blind for
almost 10 minutes.

LITERATURE CITED

CAHALANE, V. H.
1947. Mammals of North America. New York, Macmillan.

CRABB, W. D.
1944. Growth, development, and seasonal weights of spotted skunks, Jour.
Mamm., 25: 213-221.

HOWELL, A. H.
1920. The Florida spotted skunk as an acrobat. Jour. Mamm., 1:88.

JOHNSON, C. E.
1921. The “hand-stand” habit of the spotted skunk. Jour. Mamm., 2: 87-89.

MITCHELL, J. D.
1923. “Mexican polecat,” “Hydrophobia cat,” Spilogale indianola of southern
Texas. Jour. Mamm., 4: 49-51.

VAN GELDER, R. G.
1953. The egg-opening technique of a spotted skunk. Jour. Mamm., 34:

255-256.
1958. But they all smell like skunks. Animal Kingdom, 61: 153-157.
WALTER, A.

1930. The “hand-stand” and some other habits of the Oregon spotted skunk.
Jour. Mamm., 11: 227-229.

Quart. Tourn. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(1), 1961

THE IMPACT OF FLORIDA’S POPULATION INFLUX:
SOME SOCIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS }

T. STANTON DIETRICH
The Florida State University

Today one of the most widely and heatedly discussed topics
is the unprecedented growth of population throughout the world.
At the international level the problem of over-population, first ex-
pressed by Malthus at the end of the 18th century, is being argued
from various biased viewpoints. In the United States, on the other
hand, particularly at the community and state levels, population
growth is widely advertised as if it were a virtue that had no blem-
ishes. But regardless of whether the problem or virtuous aspect
of population growth is emphasized, the so-called “population ex-
plosion” has important social significance.

As the debate continues about what should and can be done to
control population growth throughout the world, long established
social and cultural values loom as the most serious deterrents to
an early or widely accepted solution. Population growth, especi-
ally when it is as rapid and severe as it is today, may drastically
alter century-old value systems, but not without creating conflict.

Quite frequently the most apparent conflict is between the
economic and the moral or religious values of a society. One may
well wonder, for instance, whether the current concern about over-
population in underdeveloped areas actually means we have “too
many people.’ Or does it reflect a wide-spread rise in the “level
of expectancies —what people in underdeveloped areas think they
need in terms of economic goods and services to achieve and main-
tain a standard of living comparable to other areas? The crucial
question seems to be whether a higher level of living can be
achieved without some effective control over population growth.
Whatever the answer may be, it is obvious that the problems of a
rapidly growing and changing population are essentially social in
nature.

In seeking to determine and evaluate the causal effects of pop-
ulation change on organized social systems, one of the most useful
analytical tools employed by the sociologist is the knowledge ob-
tained from demographic and ecological studies. On the one hand,

t Read at 24th Annual Meeting, 18 Feb., 1960.

THE IMPACT OF FLORIDA’S POPULATION INFLUX 65

demographic studies provide empirical information about changes
in the age, sex, and race composition while human ecology de-
scribes spatial patterns in the distribution and movement of popu-
lations. Since these data furnish valuable clues as to impending
social change, they are basic for establishing hypotheses concerning
behavior patterns and value systems in human society. Thus, to
the sociologist, population change has much more meaning than
a simple recitation of the number of people that have been added
to, or lost from, a population.

That Florida's population will exceed 5,000,000 this year and
may reach seven or eight million by 1970; that its expanding in-
dustry may add 90,000 more jobs and increase payrolls by a half
billion dollars; that per capita income will be close to $2,000; that
agricultural products are valued at close to a half billion dollars;
that highway construction of 175 million dollars will exceed by 50
million dollars the amount spent in 1959; or that public school en-
rollment in grades one through twelve will pass the one million
mark—all these are “interesting” facts reflecting the tremendous
influx of population in Florida during the past fifteen years.

We certainly do not wish to view these facts with undue alarm,
but we are concerned that, too frequently, such facts are compiled
and used solely for the typical advertisement brochure. For, despite
the obvious fact that Florida’s population has grown tremendously
(only California will have a greater numerical increase and prob-
ably no state will have a greater percentage increase), it is amazing
how little we know about how our population has changed in-
ternally.

From fairly reliable estimates, we know that in spite of a sev-
enty per cent increase in Florida’s population during the past ten
years, thirteen of our counties still are losing or gaining no popu-
lation and only sixteen have equalled or surpassed the growth of
the state. On the other hand we do not know, for example: how
many children under eighteen we have; how many older persons
over 64 years of age there are; how many new residents have moved
to Florida, nor how many have left; how many people have left
our farms, or what is the present population of our cities, individ-
ually and collectively; nor do we know to what extent our popula-
tion has changed with respect to its age, sex, and race composition.

Without such current information about the demographic and
ecological aspects of our growing population, it is extremely diffi-

66 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

cult to derive sociological implications that will go beyond simple
aphoristic speculations. In view of the fact that changes in popula-
tion, as much as anything else, can determine the direction and
extent of social change and disorganization, the question might
well be asked at this time, “Can we afford to go through the next
decade without any more current and detailed information about
our population than we have had during the last decade?” Per-
haps this may be one of the more serious implications of our pop-
ulation influx.

Up to the present time, it seems Florida, like Topsy, has just
“growed and growed” without much concern felt or expressed for
the need of social planning. Now, however, Florida can no longer
expect a continuous, comfortable growth simply because of its
natural attractions of climate, water, and available land. Florida’s
own so-calld “population explosion” has raised many pertinent and
perplexing questions, the answers to which may determine whether
the “Fabulous Fifties” will become the “Shining Sixties” or the
“Shocking Sixties.”

The rapid population expansion Florida is experiencing implies
very strongly that our value system and mode of social living have
changed and will continue to change for some time. But to what
extent the general public is aware of these changes is another mat-
ter. Presumably the purpose of this symposium is to discuss not
only the benefits, but also to consider the more serious problems
that will derive from our phenomenal population growth.

If and when it is fully realized that population growth must
be anticipated, analysed, and acted upon, considerable differences
of opinion about what needs to be done and what should be done
will arise, as well as many and varied ideas about how we should
proceed. From a sociological point of view, these social values—
what people think or believe they want—are as important, if not
more so, than any compendium of statistical facts.

To a large extent, the significant values of a society are reflected
in its basic social institutions: its family behavior and the nature of
its economic, political, and educational systems. Traditionally,
these social institutions tend to resist social change. They repre-
sent rather fixed behavior patterns accumulated from a number of
previous generations. Therefore, the sentiments or values gen-
erated by social institutions are often adhered to mainly because
they represent “cultural ideals” that society is reluctant to admit

THE IMPACT OF FLORIDA’S POPULATION INFLUX 67

have changed or need to be changed. Thus, if objective evidence
indicates the emergence of new or different cultural patterns, such
evidence is shunned almost as if it were immoral even to suggest
the possibility that changes may be necessary in the prevailing in-
stitutional mode of living. One of the more difficult problems in
studying social change is to evaluate to what extent the agitation
for social change, and the resistance to it, represent conflict between
“ideal” and “real” beliefs.

While we do not propose to spell out in detail what changes are
needed in Florida's social system, the implications are unmistakable
that the people of Florida are faced with some knotty problems
concerning potential changes in their social institutions. Unfortu-
nately time does not permit a complete analysis of all the major
social institutions, so we will attempt to confine our discussion to
a brief summary of the implications the population influx in Florida
has for the institutions of education and government.

Before suggesting what these institutional implications are, it
might be well to indicate some of the more pronounced changes in
Florida's population during the 1950-1960 decade.

In the first place, we can expect a population close to 5,000,000—
an increase of more than 2,000,000 or an increase greater than the
total population of the state in 1940.

More than a million and a half new residents have been coming
to Florida at a rate of seventeen every hour during the past ten
years. And contrary to popular belief, only about twelve per cent
of these migrants are over sixty-four years of age; twenty-eight
per cent are under eighteen years of age, and only twenty-three
per cent are forty-five years of age or older.

In addition to these net in-migrants, 900,000 babies were born
to Florida residents—600,000 of them since 1954 (more than 100,000
annually for the past three years).

Although the crude death rate has remained fairly constant
(around 9.5), maternal mortality has continued its phenomenal
decline. It had dropped from 64 to 13 between 1940 and 1950,
and during the past decade it reached a new low of 6 (8 for the
Whites, 13 for the Nonwhites). Infant mortality which dropped
from 54 to 32 in the 1940-1950 decade, remains fairly high (32)
because of a slight rise among the Nonwhites (46 to 50).

While the number of persons 65 years of age and older will
pass the half million mark, they will represent only about 10 per

68 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

cent of our 1960 population. On the other hand, there will be
about 1,800,000 children under eighteen years old—almost a million
more than there were in 1950. In other words, 35 per cent of the
population will be under 18; 37 per cent will be between the ages
of 18 and 44; and 27 per cent will be 45 years of age or older.

Another fact of some importance is the sex ratio, or the number
of males per 100 females. Florida will continue to have a feminine
population, not only among the older people but for the group
21 years and older. Women of voting age will out-number men by
approximately 80 to 90 thousand, and among the 500,000 older
persons, the sex ratio will probably be below 90, or about 88 men
for every 100 women.

Finally, one other fact should be mentioned. Although there
are no accurate figures available, the dominance of the urban pop-
ulation can be inferred from the trend growth in the eight of the
larger counties (Broward, Dade, Duval, Escambia, Hillsborough,
Orange, Palm Beach, and Pinellas). These counties will account
for 70 per cent of the population gain since 1950, and they will
have almost two-thirds (64%) of the State’s population.

These relatively few facts have significant implications about
the impact population growth has had on Florida’s social structure.
Perhaps the most noticeable and dramatic impact has been on the
educational system.

In appraising the impact of population growth on the educa-
tional system, it must be recognized that Florida’s school system
has institutional characteristics which will be difficult, if not im-
possible, to change. Yet there can be little doubt that immediate
decisions must be made as to what, if any, modifications can and
should be made in view of the increasing number of school-age
children. Perhaps the implications for our administrative educa-
tionists and the dilemma they face may be better understood if we
review some of the characteristics of the public school, particularly
those developed under the Minimum Foundation Program since
1947.

Some of the implied changes in the present school system that
will have to be considered are suggested in the following questions:

If attendance continues to be limited to not more than 40 pupils,
will it be possible to obtain sufficient classrooms?

If compulsory attendance is required for all children six to six-
teen years of age, can we continue to limit the size of class to 40
pupils?

THE IMPACT OF FLORIDA’S POPULATION INFLUX 69

If a nine-month (180 day) school year is maintained, will it be
possible to avoid or eliminate double sessions?

If the present pupil-to-teacher ratio of 27 continues, will it be
possible to recruit an average of 2,000 to 2,500 qualified teachers
annually?

If the need for additional teachers continues to increase, can
present professional certification requirements be maintained?

If the present limitation on school tax millage remains in effect,
will it be possible to raise sufficient funds to meet increased financial
needs?

If an expanded school construction were undertaken, are there
enough desirable land sites available at reasonable prices?

If the burden of financing an adequate program of minimum
educational opportunities continues to increase, will it be possible
to avoid seeking and accepting financial assistance from the Fed-
eral government?

If school enrollment growth continues at its present rate, will
it be possible to maintain our “separate but equal” school facilities?

These are but a few of the questions concerning our present
school system that will need to be answered. The answers will
not come easily because we will be reluctant, perhaps even fear-
ful, of making changes in our basic system of education such as
was done in Washington, D. C. Thus, the dilemma faced by the
educationists is that, on the one hand, the Minimum Foundation
Program is in danger of failing to keep pace with trends in other
parts of the nation; while, on the other hand, in view of the de-
mands of our growing population for just the next five years, it may
not be possible for Florida to meet even the standards of the Min-
imum Foundation Program.

It will become more difficult to wage a “rear guard” action to
prevent overcrowding in our classrooms and to maintain a pupil-
teacher ratio of 27. Shortages in classroom facilities are increasing
at a far greater rate than our ability or means to construct new
classrooms or to recruit teachers. Furthermore, it is questionable
whether a turnover in teacher personnel can be avoided unless
current salary schedules are revised upward.

A publication recently issued by the State Department of Edu-
cation revealed a shortage of 4,800 classrooms, 2,400 of which were
needed for a growing enrollment that has averaged about 60,000
additional pupils for the past several years. There were seventeen

70 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

counties in which 110 schools were on double session, and there
were over 400 teachers with substandard (or temporary) certificates.

As we indicated earlier, the pupils who will be entering the
school system for the next six years are already here. Almost
600,000 have been born since 1954 and these will be implemented
by those who have migrated to Florida. Our estimates indicate
that about 70,000 children under five years of age and 350,000
between the ages of five and seventeen moved to Florida during
the past decade. Thus the problem of providing adequate class-
room space and facilities is critical.

On the basis of 40-pupil classrooms and current construction
cost estimates of $20,000 per classroom, there is an immediate need
for an expenditure of 96 million dollars. If projected to 1965 on
the same basis, Florida will need 12,000 additional classrooms at
a cost of more than a quarter of a billion dollars.

To maintain the pupil-teacher ratio of 27 that has prevailed
for the past ten years means that 14,000 more teachers will be
needed. If simply the present annual salary of $4,800 were paid
these teachers, this would require an additional expense of another
210 million dollars. From purely a dollar and cents point of view,
then, almost a half billion dollars are needed just to maintain
Florida’s school system at the level of its present standards. This
does not include corollary costs of administration, transportation,
books, etc.

Probably the most significant social implication from these
relatively few facts about our educational system is that some of
our values concerning public school education—its administration,
its facilities, its standards and operations—must be changed.

While the average citizen may be more sensitive to the eco-
nomic facts of life and become alarmed at the staggering burden
of these educational costs, there are other qualitative costs also
to be considered. Underpaid teachers in over-crowded classrooms
imply that the quality of public school instruction will suffer. If
our value system becomes solely, or even for the most part, oriented
to economic costs, then eventually the social costs of irresponsible
citizenship in an urban society must be paid in terms of juvenile
delinquency, crime, and an apathetic, unenlightened, and un-
educated electorate.

A rapidly growing population also will have its impact on the
political and governmental life and organization in Florida. Some

THE IMPACT OF FLORIDA’S POPULATION INFLUX 71

of the more significant characteristics of Florida’s population
growth that will bear directly upon the established political insti-
tutions include the tremendous influx of migrants from other parts
of the country, the growing number of older people, the imbalance
of the sex ratio in favor of the women, and the rise of metropolitan
and urban areas.

Among the areas of political life that will feel the greatest im-
pact will be those affected by the re-districting of congressional
districts, the unfinished task of reapportioning the state legislature,
the liberalizing influence of urban growth on the traditional rural
conservatism of Florida’s political leaders, the rising influence of
pressure groups, the character of local and county governments,
and the trend toward more centralization of political functions
within the state government.

The total expected increase of more than 2,000,000 people over
the 1950 census figure of 2,800,000 means that Florida will gain
additional membership in the House of Representatives. Accord-
ing to the latest estimate from the Bureau of the Census, Florida
probably will have four additional congressmen on the basis of
its 1960 population. These new congressmen will be elected to
the 88th Congress in 1962. The necessity to re-district the present
eight congressional districts into twelve implies that not only will
there be a power struggle as to what counties will be affected, but
the entire problem of re-apportioning the state legislature will be
re-opened.

Regardless of how the Legislature finally re-districts its con-
gressional areas, the addition of four new congressmen cannot help
but bring about a realignment of political influence. At the na-
tional level, Florida would have greater representation than any
state in the South with the exception of Texas. And, as we have
indicated, the addition of four new congressional districts cannot
avoid bringing up the question of re-apportioning the state Legis-
lature. With the actual census figures available for 1960, popula-
tion growth and re-distribution will undoubtedly have greater in-
fluence than they did when the question was debated in recent
sessions of the Legislature. In the meantime, Florida will have
elected a new governor and it appears likely, from present indica-
tions, that the larger and more urban counties will have greater
political influence than they have heretofore.

72 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Not only has the influx of about a million and a half migrants
increased the numerical size of Florida, it also has had the effect
of liberalizing the traditionally rural conservatism and reduced
considerably the political influence of what has been labeled the
“pork chop gang.” Although no complete data are available as to
the origin of those moving into Florida, tabulations of automobile
title changes indicate that the majority of migrants come from the
Middle East and Great Lakes states. These new residents bring
with them their political affiliations and philosophies, and the im-
plications, based upon national elections returns for Florida, is
that the one-party system in Florida may be seriously challenged
during the forthcoming decade.

As urbanization of Florida continues, political differences are
bound to increase. Already in seven of the eight larger counties,
sizeable Republican registrations have been noted and it can be
expected that this trend will continue. In addition, registered Re-
publicans will be joined by those registered as Democrats for the
purpose of voting in local primary elections but who are willing
to support Republican candidates at the State and Federal polls.
In effect, such voting behavior implies that with the concentration
and growth of population in urban areas the primary elections soon
may no longer be construed as “tantamount to election” which has
been so traditional throughout the South.

The influence of a growing urban population also will become
significant because of the accompanying industrial growth. It can
be expected, for example, that as industry expands the organization
of labor will accelerate, and an effective pressure group that up
to now has exerted little or no political influence will emerge in the
form of an organized labor bloc.

Along with organized labor groups, urban centers are attractive
to working women and older people. Both these groups have size-
able representation among the voting population. As a matter of
fact, more than one half of an anticipated voting population of
3,000,000 will be women, and among the 500,000 persons over 64
years of age, the women will out-number the men by approximately
265,000 to 235,000. The implication here is that these groups
through such organizations as the League of Women Voters and
“Golden Age Clubs” will become more important in elections and
civic affairs at all levels of government.

THE IMPACT OF FLORIDA’S POPULATION INFLUX 73

A final implication of the impact of population growth is the
effect it may have upon the governmental structure of Florida. This
influence will be felt with respect to “home rule” legislation and
the trend toward centralization of political organization. With the
increase in the number of cities having population of 50,000 or
more, there will be greater agitation for more home rule as the
Legislature finds itself devoting a larger portion of its time reading
and passing local legislation bills.

Along with the demands of cities for greater autonomy there
will also be more and more discussion and action about the re-
organization of city and county governments to make them more
efficient as operational units. The present Constitutional limita-
tions will likely become onerous “road blocks” in the way of im-
perative local developments and needed improvements. In the
faster growing areas it seems unavoidable that some forms of cen-
tralized governmental control will come into existence. We cer-
tainly can expect that the larger cities, and even some of the
smaller ones, will attempt to annex surrounding suburban develop-
ments that are mushrooming about our cities. But larger political
units of government will probably only emphasize the increasing
costs of governmental services that the citizenry has come to expect
and to demand. From recent cost-revenue studies it is becoming ap-
parent that the local governmental units will find it more and more
dificult to finance their services from local revenue sources. One
possibility, therefore, is that serious consideration will be given to
a county-manager type of government; another is the Metro form
of government now operating in Dade County.

However, despite these implied changes in local forms of gov-
ernment organization, the most significant implication is that the
State government can be expected to be asked to assume a greater
share of the operational costs of local government. In turn, this
may mean that Florida will weaken its stand against the accept-
ance of Federal funds for such programs as educational services,
housing developments, etc.

Unfortuntely, time does not permit a further analysis of other
institutional patterns in Florida that will feel the impact of popula-
tion growth. It is very probable that the additional employment
opportunities for married women and mothers, because of their
daytime absences from home, may be associated with family insta-
bility, juvenile delinquency, etc. Industrial development in Florida

74 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

may also create a situation in which it will be necessary to cope
with more and prolonged strikes as labor becomes more organized.

In the absence of some unforeseen military or economic up-
heaval, Florida communities during the coming decade will find
their recreational, religious, and economic life critically affected
by a continuous and rapid growth of population.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(1), 1961

NEWS AND NOTES

Edited by
J. E. HurcomMan
Florida Southern College

The Florida Junior Academy of Science: The Florida Junior Academy of
Science is sponsored by the Florida Senior Academy of Science and operates
under a constitution approved by the Senior Academy. Liaison between the
two is handled by the Junior Academy Coordinating Committee (made up of
Senior Academy members).

The Junior Academy consists of Chapters in Junior and Senior High
Schools. There are currently from 30-40 chapters with 400-500 members,
but it is expected that these will increase considerably over the next several
years.

Each chapter has its student officers and a Teacher-Sponsor. These chap-
ters carry out various functions, particularly that of serving as their school’s
science club. We are encouraging them to affiliate with the Future Scientists
of America.

At the State Level the Teacher-Sponsors elect, at the Annual Meeting,
one of their number as State Director-Elect for one year, after which he be-
comes State Director for one year. The Chapter at the school of the State
Director becomes the “Secretary-Chapter” and the Chapter which will be host
to the next annual meeting becomes the “President-Chapter”. This system was
adopted after several cases of individual student state officers failing to function.
So far we are quite pleased with it.

The state organization coordinates the membership drives ($.50 dues/
year), mails out four or five mailings a year to the membership, and primarily
organizes and runs the Junior Academy part of the Annual Meeting.

The principal feature of the Annual Meeting is the presentation of student
research papers. Papers are submitted by Junior Academy members through-
out the state, and these fall into one of the following categories:

I. Senior High School Laboratory or Field Research
II. Senior High School Library Research

II. Junior High School Research

The submitted reports first go to the screening judges who choose what
they consider the best five in each category. These papers are presented at
the Annual Meeting and on the basis of their presentation and written reports
the finalist judging teams choose the Ist, 2nd, and 3rd places in each category.

At the Annual Meeting there are various other activities including invited
speakers, field trips, a banquet, and a dance. Junior Academy members may
also attend many Senior Academy functions.

Pensacola: Pensacola Junior College welcomes Mr. Raymond R. Stark
to its Science Faculty. He will teach physics following the transfer of Mr.
Cranston Jordan to the Nuclear Technology Department. Pensacola Junior
College is the first junior college in the country to establish a nuclear installa-
tion which includes a reactor assembly.

76 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Winter Park: Dr. Donald W. Carroll of the Department of Chemistry
at Rollins College has been invited by the Conference Board of Associated
Research Councils, Committee on International Exchange of Persons, Wash-
ington, D. C., to accept a lectureship at the University of Kabul, Afghanistan
for one academic year.

Three students are currently working with Dr. John S. Ross, Associate
Professor of Physics, on the “Hyperfine structure and isotope shifts in Osmium
and Dysprosium.” This is being done under the Undergraduate Research
Participation Program of the National Science Foundation.

Rollins College Scientific Society and Science faculty heard an interesting
talk by Dr. Otto Eisenschiml on “How To Sell Chemistry.” Dr. Eisenschiml
visited the campus as ACS tour speaker.

Tallahassee: From Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University, Mr.
Carlon W. Pryor, currently on leave at the University of Kansas, has been
awarded a National Science Foundation Faculty Fellowship in the amount of
$6600 for twelve months beginning September, 1961.

Panama City: The first new building of Gulf Coast Junior College was
released for instructional purposes in time for classes to open in September.
This was the science-math facilities though other classes were added as their
schedule developed. The remainder of subject areas will move to the new
campus as three additional buildings are nearing completion—library, class-
rooms, and administration. Having undergone a shakedown in standard course
transfer to new quarters, they are busy preparing to launch into Terminal
Technology fields.

Coral Gables: Dr. Casimer T. Grabowski has joined the zoology faculty
at the University of Miami as an experimental embryologist. He is organizing
a graduate program of training in embryology. He replaces Dr. H. Duane
Heath who moved to a position in California.

An interdepartmental program in cell physiology on graduate level has
been introduced. Departments cooperating are Zoology, Physiology, and Bio-
chemistry. The program is supported by a training grant from the National
Institute of Health. One of the objectives is to develop an integrated view
of the cell as a functional, structural, and chemical entity. The basic course,
to be supplemented by advanced courses, in this program is two semesters in
duration with a total of 180 lecture hours. About 20 faculty people are in-
volved in conducting the lectures and laboratory sessions. The spectrum of
research interests represented by faculty is, physical chemistry, enzymology,
neurophysiology, photobiology, photosynthesis, hormonal functions, embryology,
nucleocytoplasmic relationships, and lipoprotein, nucleic acid and carbohydrate
metabolism and function. Physical facilities include a specially rebuilt lab-
oratory-lecture room and complete equipment. This type of integrated treat-
ment may well forshadow a trend towards a general integration of the basic
sciences in biological studies. This program is really going over big, with
students and faculty.

The National Science Foundation has just awarded three grants to the
Marine Laboratory as follows: Dr. Gilbert Voss—a three-year project on “Lar-
val Development of Tropical Decapod Crustaceans.’ Dr. Samuel P. Meyers—
a three-year study of “Ecology of Marine Yeasts.” Dr. Fritz Koczy—a one-

NEWS AND NOTES lal

year study of “The Geochemistry of Radioactive Elements in the Marine En-
vironment.”

The University of Miami will soon have a complete central library build-
ing. The first unit was completed by the beginning of the fall semester. The
rest of the building has been approved and construction is to start this spring.
This will fill a long existent need at U. of Miami.

St. Petersburg: On March 23, 24, Florida Presbyterian College will be
host to Dr. Robert M. Thrall, Professor of Mathematics at the University of
Michigan. Dr. Thrall, a Visiting Lecturer of the Mathematical Association of
America, will give public addresses at 8:00 P.M. each day.

The Science-Mathematics Devision of Florida Presbyterian College has
been chosen by the General Electric Foundation to receive a grant of $2500
for the academic year 1961-1962. This grant, to be used in the Physics pro-
gram otf the college, is one of twenty awards to liberal arts institutions through-
out the country.

Ecology of Inland Waters and Estuaries by George K. Reid, Professor of
Biology, has recently been published by Reinhold. Dr. Reid’s interest in
ecological studies has extended throughout his professional career.

The Tampa Bay Subsection of the Florida Section of the ACS met at
Florida Presbyterian College on January 19. Dr. Dexter Squibb of the host
institution was the speaker.

Washington: Dr. Norman Dennis Newell has been named recipient of
the Mary Clark Thompson Medal of the National Academy of Sciences. Dr.
Newell is Chairman and Curator of the Department of Fossil Invertebrates at
the American Museum of Natural History in New York and a professor of
geology at Columbia University. The award will be presented at the Acad-
emys annual meeting in Washington on April 24. The award was established
in 1919 by Mrs. Thompson to provide a substantial reward for distinguished
services to geology or paleontology.

Palatka: Collier-Blocker Junior College began operation August 29,
1960, in temporary quarters at Palatka, Florida. The initial curriculum is
General Education. The faculty of four is Mr. DeWitt Bell, M.S., Tuskegee
Institute—Science, Math, and Agriculture; Mr. Orion Copeland, B.S., Bethune-
Cookman College—National Science Foundation Scholarship for study in
Biological Science, 1958-59—Science and Math; Mr. Benjamin L. Mathis,
M.A., Northwestern University, Social Science, M.S. Northwestern University,
Guidance—Social Science and Guidance; Mrs. Cleo Higgins, Ph.M., University
of Wisconsin, Graduate Study, University of Wisconsin, University of Chicago,
and New York University—English and Student Personnel.

DeLand: Dr. A. M. Winchester, Head of the Biology Department at
Stetson University, has just completed a book in Genetics as a part of the
College Outline Series published by Barnes and Noble. It is expected to
appear on the book shelves in April. Also, he has received word of the com-
pleticn of an agreement of a publishing firm in Israel to publish his textbook
of Genetics in the Israeli language.

Jacksonville: Dr. R. Milford White of Jacksonville University has re-
ceived a $2500 grant from the Research Corporation for a research project
entitled “Tritium Labeling by Catalytic Exchange with Raney Nickel.” Dr.

78 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

White and Dr. Harold Barrett have been licensed by the Atomic Energy
Commission to use radioisotopes.

Bradenton: Manatee Junior College is the curriculum center in the
Kellogg Project to develop five new junior college nursing programs in Florida.
Manatee Junior College admitted its first nursing students this past fall. The
program is offered in cooperation with the Sarasota Memorial Hospital and the
Veterans Memorial Hospital in Bradenton.

St. Petersburg: According to Miss Mary Louise Stork, St. Petersburg
Junior College added several new members in its Department of Natural
Sciences: Mr. Joel Martin, M.A.E., U. of F.; Mr. Ronald Reed, M.S., U. of F.;
Mr. Joe Stratton, M.S., Toledo (Ohio) University. Degrees of Ed.D. were won
by Mr. Thomas Backus and Mr. Marvin Ivey. The following participated in
N.S.F. Conferences and Workshop: Mr. Joe Gould at Williams and. Mary,
Mr. Lawson Love at Michigan State, Miss Mary Louise Stork at University of
N. C., Mrs. Pauline V. Eck at Purdue, Indiana University and University of
Michigan. Working on advanced degrees, E.T.V. programming, and directing
Summer Science Camp are Mr. John Vassel, Mr. Edgar Evans, and Mr. A. S.
Chatfield, respectively. Mr. Arthur W. Gay is Chairman of the Department.
Another member is Miss Frances L. West, President, Florida Academy of
Sciences in 1945.

Lakeland: Washington News Releases abstracted in this Department are
kept on file in the FAS office at Florida Southern College. For further infor-
mation on current News Releases, contact Mr. James A. Seddon, National
Academy of Sciences, Washington 25, D. C.

MEMBERSHIPS IN FAS: There will probably be some changes in mem-
bership chairman on each campus. Let us know who your new membership
chairman is. How would you like to see a list of our colleges showing the
percent of science faculty who are members of FAS? In the meantime, now
is your chance to invite your faculty members—especially the new faculty, to
join. The completed application blank with check made out to the “Florida
Academy of Sciences,’ should go directly to Dr. Alex G. Smith, Treasurer,
University of Florida. Blanks may be secured from Dr. James B. Lackey,
Secretary, University of Florida. In what percentage rank will your school be?

Ocala: From Professor William J. McCawley we have a description of
their new science building at Central Florida Junior College. The $234,873
building should serve the college for some time. Nearly $25,000 worth of
equipment has gone into the building and another $15,000 worth secured from
the government under the National Defense Education Act is being added.
The auditorium, classrooms, and laboratories can adequately handle their
classes. The most important safety devices and well-equipped demonstration
table are provided. A unique feature is a locktight black board that permits
outlines and quizzes to be protected until the instructor is heady to uncover
them.

Construction of the library is scheduled to start later this year. In the
meantime, the new science building is serving several departments.

Tallahassee: Dr. Vernon Fox has furnished a program of the Southern
Conference on Corrections. It was sponsored by the School of Social Welfare
at Florida State University. The Conference is the sixth and apparently the

NEWS AND NOTES us

best to date. It is a forum by the practitioners, administrators, professionals,
and educators in the fields of juvenile and adult corrections, with special em-
phasis on the problems here in the South.

Tampa: Recently an illustrated lecture on Aerospace Activities at Cape
Canaveral was sponsored by the Math and Science Club of the University of
South Florida. Captain Robert A. Foster, a Titan project officer, gave the
talk. Over 300 people attended. The Math and Science Club are holding
meetings at which distinguished members of the faculty give short talks in
their field of interest. Recently President John S. Allen gave a talk on
Astronomy. This was an all university event.

From Dr. T. C. Helvey, we received a copy of the Charter and By-laws
of the Tampa Bay Area Council for Research in Aging. For the past 50 years
the Tampa Bay area has been promoted and accepted as a favorable economic,
climatic, and geographic region for retirement. The result has been to create
a high concentration of older people that has no parallel in the United States
and probably unequaled in the world. This unique opportunity for research
in gerontology and the problems of aging has been recognized by individuals,
groups and agencies in this area interested in education, health, welfare, and
the social, psychological and biological sciences. For the above reasons it is
deemed profitable to establish a formal organization of these individuals and
groups who have as their common interest research in gerontology and aging.

Jacksonville: Paul Driver, instructor in the Division of Natural Sciences
and Mathematics, reports that the Iota Beta Scientific Society, which he spon-
sors, has plans for many exploratory research projects. Mr. Driver recently
returned to the college after participating in a National Science Foundation
sponsored Academic Year Institute at Washington University. Willie Mc-
Cullough, a freshman, is president of the science group.

Joseph C. Paige, chairman of the Division of Natural Sciences and Math-
ematics, was appointed director of the newly organized Human Resources
Institute at the December meeting in St. Louis. A primary concern of the
organization is the identification and conservation of the talented and the aca-
demically gifted. Temporary mailing address is P. O. Box 902, Jacksonville,
Florida. Paige will remain in his position at the college. A former consultant
to the Physical Science Study Committee, Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
ogy, he taught at Lyndon Teachers College in Vermont prior to coming to
Edward Waters College. Paige is author of two science study guides.

Solomon J. Kendrick, zoology instructor, attended Indiana University last
summer. The Kendricks plan to study this summer at American University.
Mrs. Kendrick instructs freshman mathematics at the college. Mrs. Saramae
Richardson, veteran instructor of mathematics, is making a study of persons
taking remedial mathematics. She hopes to have her research project ready
for publication in the spring of 1962. Walter E. Harris, formerly principal
of Harris High School, Hastings, has joined the Edward Waters College faculty
as instructor in mathematics.

Lakeland: E. Guy Sellers has received word that he has been granted
a stipend to attend the N.S.F. Academic Year Institute for teachers of mathe-
matics and science at the University of Colorado 1961-62.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS

Contributions to the JouRNAL may be in any of the fields of
Sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributious from
non-members may be accepted by the Editor when the scope of
the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in
their opinion. Acceptance of papers will be determined by the
amount and character of new information and the form in which
it is presented. Articles must not duplicate, in any substantial way,
material that is published elsewhere. Manuscripts are examined
by members of the Editorial Board or other competent critics.

Costs.—Authors wiil be expected to assume the cost of en-
gravings.

APPROXIMATE COSTS FOR ENGRAVINGS

Zinc Etching Half-tone
VAD ACCT eet. 2a $5.25 $4.80
YMA CH ees aD 6.5 Seto
pace cl at 8.00 7.00

Manuscript FormM.—(1) Typewrite material, using one side of
paper only; (2) double space all material and leave liberal margins;
(3) use 8% x 11 inch paper of standard weight; (4) do not submit
carbon copies; (5) place tables on separate pages; (6) footnotes
should be avoided whenever possible; (7) titles should be short;
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JOURNAL style—see Vol. 16, No. 1 and later issues; (9) a factual]
summary is recommended for longer papers.

ILLustrations.—Photographs should be glossy prints of good
contrast. All drawings should be made with India ink; plan line-
work and lettering for at least % reduction. Do not mark on the
back of any photographs. Do not use typewritten legends on the
face of drawings. Legends for charts, drawings, photographs, etc.,
should be provided on separate sheets.

Proor.—-Galley proof should be corrected and returned prompt-
ly. The original manuscript should be returned with galley proof.
Changes in galley proof will be billed to the author. Unless
specially requested page proof will not be sent to the author.
Abstracts and orders for reprints should be sent to the editor along
with corrected galley proof.

Reprints.—Reprints should be ordered when galley proof is
returned. An order blank for this purpose accompanies the galley
proof. The Journat does not furnish any free reprints to the
author. Payment for reprints will be made by the author directly
to the printer.

a . of the
Florida Academy
of Seiences

June. 1I9Gl No. 2

Contents

eo the eu of Radioigotopes by
et, MieroOreaisms 94

ning—Sexual Dimorphism in Lysiosquilla scabricauda
(Lamarck) a eee Couistacean, 101

lye +—Remarks on “Defensive” Behavior in the Hognose

TY-FIFTH ANN IVERSARY, 1936-1961

VoL. 24 June, 1961 No. 2

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research
Editor—J. C. Dickinson, Jr.

Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences

Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla.

Subscription price, Five Dollars a year
Mailed July 27, 1961

i(*

THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF*SCIENCES

Vou. 24 June, 1961 No. 2

NOTES ON MARINE ALGAE OF CABO ROJO, PUERTO RICO !

Luis R. ALMODOvVAR? AND Huco L. BLoMeutist ?
University of Puerto Rico
and
Duke University

Cabo Rojo, the south-western most point of the island of Puerto
Rico, has been of scientific interest since the latter half of the nine-
teenth century. The terrain consists of an elevated, arid peninsula,
a little less than 2 miles long, and is surrounded by three bays:
Bahia Salinas on the west side, La Playuela on the south, and Bahia
Sucia on the east. To the west lies the southern extension of Mona
Passage, merging with the Caribbean Sea which lies to the south
and southwest. The highest point at the southern end of this pen-
insula is known as El Faro. To the north of this is a shallow lagoon
formed from Bahia Sucia by a sand bank. North of this, the low,
sandy terrain is occupied by two salt flats from which salt has been
gathered for centuries. The area composing the region of Cabo
Rojo is part of what Pico (1950), in his studies of the geographical
aspects of Puerto Rico, classified as belonging to the arid south-
western coastal hilly belt.

The shores surrounding Cabo Rojo on three sides consist of
sandy beaches, rocks, and precipitous cliffs of conglomerate or cross-
bedded calcareous sand-stones. The latter have been placed by
Mitchell (1922) in the San Juan formation in his report of the Ge-
ology of the Ponce District. Various observations on the physi-
ography of this area have been included by Lobeck (1922) in the
Scientific Survey of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. The sand

‘ A contribution from a study of the marine algae of Puerto Rico supported _
by the NSF Grant G-14020.

* Institute of Marine Biology, University of Puerto Rico.

* Department of Botany, Duke University.

{Vi ir

PING GT SRN
t | I Qa ter sald foe = A Tis 5%
HiNS CIT TON All? 5

82 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

banks above the barren beaches, as on the inland side of Bahia
Sucia, are inhabited by sea-grape (Coccolobis) and other shrubs
and small trees characteristic of such areas. Around the shallow
lagoon grow the mangroves, Rhizophora, Laguncularia, Avicennia,
and Conocarpus.

The bahias, mentioned above, are to a great extent shallow
with bottoms composed of about 80% fragments of Halimeda

° { 2miles.
2 Dt Le Oe
MONA
PASSAGE ri
BaWIA SuciA
Pla.Molino
Punta
ila CO
mg BaAwiA SALINAS
Lagoon
Faro
x
Playvela
CARIBBEAN SEA
\7°55'00"

C7 1Z730"

Figure 1. Map of Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico, showing areas from which
collections were taken.

NOTES ON MARINE ALGAE OF CABO ROJO, PUERTO RICO — 83

Opuntia. This is overgrown in many places below low-tide level
by extensive beds of Thalassia. The lagoon has a soft, black, mostly
barren bottom composed to a great extent of decomposed organic
material.

Most of the water around Cabo Rojo is clear and of normal
oceanic composition. Since there are no off-shore coral reefs in
this area, wave action is strong, especially on the rocks and cliffs
exposed to the open sea, but mostly less turbulent in the shallow

bahias.

This variety of physical features of the bottoms and _ shores,
offers corresponding variety of substrata for the attachment and
growth of marine algae. While certain forms are better adapted
for quieter situations, others thrives best in crevices, splash pools,
ledges, and rock surfaces beaten by the surf.

The earliest published report of the marine algae of Puerto
Rico is that of Hauck (1888) based on the collections of Paul Sin-
tenis made a few years before. In this report, 12 species were stated
to have been collected in the region of Cabo Rojo. Most of these
we have had the privilege of examining through the cooperation
of Dr. Josephine Th. Koster, Curator of the Rijksherbarium, Ley-
den, who kindly sent them on loan. A few of these, such as Spyridia
filamentosa, Caulerpa clavifera, and Halimeda Tuna, we have not
studied or relocated in this area. However, these, and all others
collected by Sintenis at Cabo Rojo are included and cited in this
report.

The late Marshall A. Howe, of the New York Botanical Garden,
made several trips to Puerto Rico for the purpose of collecting ma-
rine algae, but apparently he did not visit Cabo Rojo since it is
not mentioned in his reports submitted to the Director and pub-
lished in the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden.

We visited Cabo Rojo for part of a day in March 1958. Some
eighteen species were collected. Great diversity of species was
evident throughout this small peninsula with less than eight miles
of coast line. Further systematic collecting needed to be done in
order to obtain a more definite understanding of its benthic algal
fiora. It was with this in mind that a series of weekly collecting
trips were undertaken by the senior author during June-August
1959 and in Nov. 1960. Abundant material of filamentous red algae
was gathered by dredging up to 140 feet a few miles off El] Faro.

84 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

A total of 90 entities have been studied from this area, which
are distributed among the major groups of algae as follows: Chloro-
phyta represented by 19 genera and 31 species, Phaeophyta repre-
sented by 9 genera and 14 species, Rhodophyta by 30 genera and
42 species, and the Cyanophyta by 2 genera and 3 species. Of
these, 33 species are apparently first records for Puerto Rico.

Dredging was most successful due to the generous assistance
given to us by our old hands Messrs. Luis Padilla, Milton Perez,
Pedro, Daniel and Victor Rosado. Their help is most appreciated.

CATALOGUE OF SPECIES 2

Abbreviations used to designate the location of specimens con-
form to those proposed in the Index Herbariorum, Part 1, Ed. 4
(1959). Exceptions (not found in the Index) are indicated by an
asterisk. They are as follows: AD—Herbarium of University of
Adelaide; *D—Herbarium of Francis Drouet; DUKE—Herbarium
of Duke University; *I[P—Herbarium, Instituto de Investigaciones
Pesqueras, Espana; *IMB—Algal Herbarium, Institute of Marine
Biology, University of Puerto Rico; *[U—Herbarium of Isamu
Umezaki, L. Rijksherbarium; Leiden; NY—The New York Bo-
tanical Garden.

CHLOROPHYTA
ULVACEAE

Ulva Lactuca L. var. rigida (C. Ag.) Le Jolis. On rocks, in shallow water, La
Playuela, L. R. Almodovar 3652, 29 June 1959 (D, DUKE, IMB, NY).

Enteromorpha flexuosa (Wulfen) J. Agardh. Salinas de Cabo Rojo, Los Mor-

rillos, P. Sintenis 3. (As Enteromorpha intestinalis f. prolifera), 14 Feb.
1885 (L).

CLADOPHORACEAE

Chaetomorpha brachygona Harvey. Among Thalassia, in 8 feet of water, La
Playuela, L. R. Almodévar 3654, 29 June 1959 (IMB).

Chaetomorpha clavata (C. Ag.) Kutzing. On rocky wall, erect tufts, in strong
wave action, La Playuela, L. R. Almodévar 3646, 29 June 1959 (IMB,
NY).

Cladophora fascicularis (Mert.) Kutzing. On rocks in shallow water, La Play-
uela, L. R. Almodévar 3638, 29 June 1959 (D, DUKE, IMB, NY).

2 Names with an asterisk indicate that this is the first published record, so
far as known, from Puerto Rico.

NOTES ON MARINE ALGAE OF CABO ROJO, PUERTO RICO — 85

DASYCLADACEAE

“Batophora Oerstedii J. Agardh. Attached to shells, rocks, etc., in lagoon
near Bahia Sucia, H. L. Blomquist and L. R. Almodovar 3099, 3 Mar.
1958 (AD, D, DUKE, IIP, IMB, IU, NY).

Cymopolia barbata (L.) Lamouroux. Salinas de Cabo Rojo, P. Sintenis 8,
6 Feb. 1885 (L.); On rocks, in 4 ft. of water, Punta Aguila, L. R. Almodo-
var and D. Rosado 3628, 22 June 1959 (D, DUKE, IMB, NY).

Neomeris annulata Dickie. Salinas de Cabo Rojo, P. Sintenis 82 (As Neomeris
Eruca), 6 Feb. 1885, (L.).

CODIACEAE

Codium isthmocladum Vickers. Adrift, La Playuela, L. R. Almodovar 3611,
18 June 1959 (IMB); L. R. Almodovar 3656, 29 June 1959 (IMB).

*Avrainvillea nigricans Decaisne. In muddy sand, La Playuela, L. R. AI-
modovar 3651, 29 June 1959 (IMB); dredged in 30-35 meters of water,
off El Faro, in rocky bottom, L. R. Almodovar, L. Padilla, P. Rosado &
M. Pérez 3681, 3 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

Avrainvillea Rawsoni (Dick.) M. A. Howe. In muddy crevices of rocks, in
the surf, Punta Aguila, L. R. Almodévar & D. Rosado 3629, 22 June
1959 (DUKE, IMB, NY).

Halimeda discoidea Decaisne. Dredged, in 25-30 meters of water, off light-
house, L. R. Almodovar, L. Padilla, & P. Rosado 3676, 1 Sept. 1959
(IMB); dredged, in 30-35 meters of water, on rocky substrate, about 3-5
miles off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, P. Rosado, M. Pérez, & L. Padilla
3713, 9 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

Halimeda monile (Ell. & Sol.) Lamouroux. Cabo Rojo, P. Sintenis 38 (As
Halimeda Opuntia), Januar 1885 (L); sandy bottom, in surf, south shore,
Punta Aguila, L. R. Almodévar & D. Rosado 3616, 22 June 1959 (IMB);
in muddy sand, western shore, Playa Sucia, L. R. Almodovar 3661, 23
July 1959 (IMB); dredged in 30-35 meters of water, off E] Faro, in sandy-
rocky bottom, L. R. Almodovar, L. Padilla, P. Rosado & M. Pérez 3679,
3 Sept. 1959 (IMB); dredged, in 30-35 meters of water, on rocks, about
3-5 miles off Faro de Cabo Rojo, L. R. Almodévar, P. Rosado, M. Pérez,
& L. Padilla 3715, 3718, 9 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

Halimeda tridens (Ell. & Sol.) Lamouroux f. typica (Bart.) Collins. On sand,
betweeen rocks, Playa Sucia, Faro de Cabo Rojo, H. L. Blomquist &
L. R. Almodovar 3094, 3 March 1958 (DUKE, IMB).

Halimeda Opuntia Lamouroux. Salinas de Cabo Rojo, Punta Aguila, P. Sin-
tenis 7, 6 Feb. 1885 (L.).

Halimeda Tuna Lamouroux. Specimen not studied: Cabo Rojo, P. Sintenis,
6 Feb. 1885.

Penicillus capitatus Lamarck. Salinas de Cabo Rojo, Punta Aguila, P. Sintenis
1, 87, 6 Feb. 1885 (L); dredged in 30-35 meters of water, off El Faro,

86 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

in rocky-sandy bottom, L. R. Almodovar, L. Padilla, P. Rosado, & M.
Pérez 3680, 3 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

Penicillus Lamourouxii Decaisne. Dredged in 30-35 meters of water, off
El Faro, in rocky-sandy bottom, L. R. Almodovar, L. Padilla, P. Rosado,
& M. Pérez 3680, 3 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

*Udotea cyathiformis Decaisne. Dredged in 25-30 meters of water, off light-
house, L. R. Almodovar, L. Padilla, & P. Rosado 3678, 1 Sept. 1959
(IMB); dredged in 25-30 meters of water, in sand, off El Faro, L. R. AlL-
modovar, L. Padilla, P. Rosado, & M. Pérez 3682, 3 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

Udotea Flabellum (Ell. &. Sol.) M. A. Howe. In loose sand and dead corals,
Punta Aguila, L. R. Almodovar & D. Rosado 3626, 22 June 1959 (IMB);
in muddy sand, western shore, Playa Sucia, L. R. Almodovar 3662, 23
July 1959 (IMB).

VALONIACEAE

Valonia Aegagropila C. Agardh. On rocks and in loose sandy bottom, north
shore, Punta Aguila, L. R. Almodévar & D. Rosado 3615, 22 June 1959
(D, DUKE, IMB, NY).

Dictyosphaeria favulosa (Ag.) Decaisne. On rocks, shallow water, north shore,
Punta Aguila, L. R. Almodévar & D. Rosado 3617, 22 June 1959 (IMB);
on dead corals in shallow water, Playa Sucia, L. R. Almod6évar 3663, 23
July 1959 (IMB).

Cladophoropsis membranacea (C. Ag.) Bgrgesen. Salinas de Cabo Rojo, P.
Sintenis 9 (As Cladophora (Aegagrapila) membranacea Kutzing), 6 Feb.

1885 (L).

Anadyomene stellata (Wulf.) C. Agardh. Dredged in 25-30 meters of water,
off La Playuela, on rocks, L. R. Almodovar, P. Rosado, M. Pérez, & L.
Padilla 3733, 9 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

*Ernodesmis verticillata (Kutz.) Bgrgesen. Dredged in 30-35 meters of water,
on rocks, about 3-5 miles off Faro de Cabo Rojo, L. R. Almodovar, P.
Rosado, M. Pérez, & L. Padilla 3714, 9 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

Chamaedoris Peniculum (Sol.) Kuntze. Dredged in 25-30 meters of water,
off La Playuela, on rocks, L. R. Almodoévar, P. Rosado, M. Pérez, & L.
Padilla 3732, 9 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

CAULERPACEAE

Caulerpa crassifolia (C. Ag.) J. Agardh. f£. typica (Weber-van Bosse) Bgrgesen.
Dredged in 35-40 meters of water, on sand, off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar,
P. Rosado, & M. Pérez 3694, 3 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

Caulerpa prolifera (Forsk.) Lamouroux f. obovata J. Agardh. Dredged in
35-40 meters of water, in sand, off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, L. Padilla,
P. Rosado, & M. Pérez 3688, 3 September 1959 (IMB); dredged in 20-25
meters of water, among Thalassia, Playa Sucia, L. R. Almodovar, P.
Rosado, M. Pérez, & L. Padilla 3734, 9 September 1959 (IMB).

NOTES ON MARINE ALGAE OF CABO ROJO, PUERTO RICO — 87

Caulerpa prolifera (Forsk.) Lamouroux f. zosterifolia Bgrgesen. In sandy bot-
tom, among Thalassia, south shore, Punta Aguila, L. R. Almod6évar & D.
Rosado 3618, 22 June 1959 (D, DUKE, IMB, NY).

Caulerpa racemosa (Forsk.) J. Agardh. var. microphysa (Weber-van Bosse) J.
Feldman. Dredged in 25-30 meters of water, off lighthouse, L. R. Al-
modovar, L. Padilla, & P. Rosado 3675, 1 Sept. 1959 (IMB); dredged in
35-40 meters of water, on rocks, off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, P. Rosado,
L. Padilla, & M. Pérez 3697, 3 Sevt. 1959 (IMB).

Caulerpa taxifolia (Vahl) C. Agardh. In brackish stream, near salt mines,
H. L. Blomquist & L. R. Almodévar 3091, 3 March 1958 (AD, DUKE,
IMB, IU, NY); adrift La Playuela, L. R. Almodovar 3613, 18 June 1959
(DUKE, IMB, NY).

Caulerpa verticillata J. Agardh. Attached to mangrove roots, brackish stream,
near salt mines, El Faro, H. L. Blomquist & L. R. Almodo6var 3090,
3 March 1958 (DUKE, IMB, IU, NY).

Caulerpa clavifera (Turn.) Ag. Specimen not studied: Salinas de Cabo Rojo,
los Morillos, P. Sintenis. 14 Feb. 1885.

PHAEOPHYTA
CUTLERIACEAE

*Aglaozonia canariensis Sauvageau. On rocks, El Faro, H. L. Blomquist &
L. R. Almod6évar 3089, 3 March 1958 (IMB).

DICTYOTACEAE

*Dictyota cervicornis Kutzing. Dredged in 30 meters of water, off lighthouse,
L. R. Almodo6var, L. Padilla, & P. Rosado 3673, 1 Sept. 1959 (IMB);
dredged in 30-35 meters of water, on rocky substrate about 3-5 miles off E]
Faro, L. R. Almodovar, P. Rosado, M. Pérez, & L. Padilla 3721, 9 Sept.
1959 (IMB).

Dictyota dentata Lamouroux. Adrift, La Playuela, L. R. Almodovar 3605,
3610, 18 June 1959 (IMB); dredged in 30-35 meters of water, on rocky
substrate, about 3-5 miles off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, P. Rosado, M.
Pérez, & L. Padilla 3729, 9 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

Dictyota dichotoma (Huds.) Lamouroux. Dredged in 35-40 meters of water,
on rocks, off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, P. Rosado, M. Pérez, & L. Padilla
3698, 3 Sent. 1959 (IMB).

*Dictyota indica Sonder in Kutzing. On rocks, in 4 feet of water, strong surf,
Punta Aguila, L. R. Almodévar & D. Rosado 3622, 22 June 1959 (D,
DUKE, IMB, NY).

Dictyopteris Justii Lamouroux. Adrift, La Playuela, L. R. Almodovar & D.
Rosado 3602, 4 June 1959 (DUKE, IMB); adrift, between El Faro &
Playa Sucia, L. R. Almodovar 3606, 18 Tune 1959 (D, DUKE, IMB, NY);
L. R. Almod6évar 3655, 29 June 1959 (D, DUKE, IMB, NY).

88 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

*Dilophus guineensis (Kutz.) J. Agardh. On rocks, shallow water, Playa Sucia,
H. L. Blomquist & L. R. Almod6évar 3086, 3 March 1958 (DUKE, IMB,
IU, NY); on rocks in strong surf, 4 feet of water, Punta Aguila, L. R.
Almodovar & D. Rosado 3631, 22 June 1959 (D, DUKE, IMB, NY).

Padina Sanctae-Crucis Bgrgesen. On rocks, shallow water, near El Faro,
H. L. Blomquist & L. R. Almodoévar 3093, 3 March 1958 (AD, DUKE,

IMB, IU, NY); on rocks, Playa Sucia, L. R. Almodovar 3664, 23 July
1959 (IMB).

*Padina Vickersiae Hoyt. Adrift, La Playuela, L. R. Almodovar 3614, 18 June
1959 (IMB); on rocks, La Playuela, L. R. Almodovar 3657, 29 June 1959
(IMB). Specimen not studied: Salinas de Cabo Rojo, P. Sintenis, (As
Padina Commersoni Bory), 6 Februar 1885.

Zonaria zonalis (Lamour.) M. A. Howe. Adrift, La Playuela, L. R. Almodovar
8614a, 18 June 1959 (IMB).

*Spatoglossum Schroederi (Mert.) J. Agardh. Adrift, La Playuela, L. R. AI-
modovar 3598, 3601, 2 June 1959 (IMB); L. R. Almodovar 3607, 18 June
1959 (IMB).

SARGASSACEAE

Turbinaria turbinata (L.) Kuntze. On rocks, forming a belt, mouth, La Play-
uela, El Faro, H. L. Blomquist & L. R. Almodovar 3096, 3 March 1958
(IMB); on rocks; flat ledge, in strong wave action, eastern shore, La
Playuela, L. R. Almodévar & D. Rosado 3599, 2 June 1959 (IMB).

Sargassum Hystrix J. Agardh. var. buxifolium (Chauv.) J. Agardh. Dredged
in 25-30 meters of water, on rocks, off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, L.
Padilla, P. Rosado, & M. Pérez 3684, 3 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

*Sargassum lendigerum (L.) Kutzing. On rocks, Playa Sucia, Faro, H. L.
Blomquist & L. R. Almodévar 3095, 3 March 1958 (IMB).

RHODOPHYTA
HELMINTHOCLADIACEAE
*Liagora + in 30-3 f rock
iagora mucosa M. A. Howe. Dredged in 30-35 meters of water, on rocks,

about 3-5 miles off Faro, L. R. Almod6évar, P. Rosado, M. Pérez, & L.
Padilla 3728, 9 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

CHAETANGIACEAE

Galaxaura marginata (Ell. & Sol.) Lamouroux. On rocks, flattened thallus, La
Playuela, L. R. Almodévar 3603, 18 June 1959 (IMB); on rocks, La Play-
uela, L. R. Almodoévar 3635, 29 June 1959 (IMB).

GELIDIACEAE

Gelidiella acerosa (Forsk.) Feldmann & Hamel. Forming yellow clusters on
rocks, strong surf, Punta Aguila, L. R. Almodévar & D. Rosado 3619,
22, June 1959 (D, DUKE, IMB, NY).

NOTES ON MARINE ALGAE OF CABO ROJO, PUERTO RICO 89

CORALLINACEAE

*Amphiroa rigida Lamouroux var. Antillana Bgrgesen. On rocks in the surf,
Punta Aguila, L. R. Almodovar, & D. Rosado 3630, 22 June 1959 (IMB).

Corallina subulata Ellis & Solander. Dredged in 25-30 meters of water, on
D. simplex, off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, L. Padilla, P. Rosado, & M.
Pérez 3693, 3 September 1959 (IMB).

GRATELOUPIACEAE

*Halymenia Floresia (Clem.) C. Agardh. Adrift, La Playuela, L. R. Almodovar
3608, 18 June 1959 (IMB); L. R. Almodovar 3649, 29 June 1959 (IMB).

GRACILARIACEAE

*Gracilaria caudata J. Agardh. Salinas de Cabo Rojo, P. Sintenis 10 (As
Gracilaria confervoides (L.) Grev.), 6 Februar 1885 (L.); On rocks, in 6
feet of water, La Playuela, L. R. Almodoévar 3644, 29 June 1959 (D, DUKE,
IMB, NY); dredged in 35-40 meters of water, on rocks, off El Faro, L. R.
Almodovar, M. Pérez, L. Padilla, & P. Rosado 3700, 3 Sept. 1959 (IMB);
dredged in 30-35 meters of water, on rocks, about 3-5 miles off El Faro,
L. R. Almodoévar, P. Rosado, M. Pérez, & L. Padilla 3731, 9 Sept. 1959
(IMB).

Gracilaria ferox J. Agardh. On rocks, in 4 feet of water, north shore, Punta
Aguila, L. R. Almodévar & D. Rosado 3632, 22 June 1959 (D, DUKE,
IMB, NY); dredged in 35-40 meters of water, on rocks, off E] Faro, L. R.
Almodovar, L. Padilla, P. Rosado, & M. Pérez 3691, 3 Sept. 1959 (IMB);
dredged in 30-35 meters of water, on rocky substrate, about 3-5 miles off
El Faro, L. R. Almodoévar, P. Rosado, M. Pérez, & L. Padilla 3728, 9
Sept. 1959 (IMB).

Gracilaria mamillaris (Mont.) M. A. Howe. Adrift, La Playuela, L. R. Al-
modovar 3612, 18 June 1959 (IMB); on rocks, in over 8 feet of water,
L. R. Almodovar 3642, 29 June 1959 (IMB); in about 5 feet of water,
L. R. Almodoévar 3647, 29 June 1959 (DUKE, IMB, NY).

*Gracilariopsis Sjostedtia (Kylin) Dawson. On rocks, western shore, Playa
Sucia, L. R. Almodovar 3670, 23 July 1959 (IMB).

SOLIERACEAE

*Eucheuma echinocarpum Areschoug. Dredged in 30-35 meters of water, on
rocky substrate, about 3-5 miles off El] Faro, L. R. Almodovar, P. Rosado,
M. Pérez, & L. Padilla 3710, 9 September 1959 (IMB).

HYPNACEAE

Hypnea musciformis (Wulf.) Lamouroux. Among Thalassia, eastern shore, La
Playuela, L. R. Almodovar 3633, 29 June 1959 (D, DUKE, IMB, NY);
on rocks, western shore, Playa Sucia, L. R. Almodovar 3668, 23 July 1959
(DUKE, IMB); dredged in 35-40 meters of water, on rocks, off El Faro,

90 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY -OF SCIENCES

L. R. Almodovar, M. Pérez, L. Padilla, & P. Rosado 3699, 3 Sept. 1959
(IMB); dredged in 30-35 meters of water, on rocky substrate, about 3-5
miles off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, P. Rosado, M. Pérez, & L. Padilla
3724, 3725, 9 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

RHODYMENIACEAE

Coelothrix irregularis (Harv.) Bgrgesen. On rocks, appearing purple to bluish
color in the presence of sunlight, El Faro, H. L. Blomquist & L. R. Al-
modovar 3098, 3 March 1958 (IMB).

LOMENTARIACEAE

Champia parvula (Ag.) Harvey. Dredged in 30-35 meters of water, epiphytic
on various algae, off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, L. Padilla, P. Rosado
& M. Pérez 3686, 3 Sept. 1959 (IMB); dredged in 20-25 meters of water,
among Thalassia, off Bahia Salinas, L. R. Almodovar, P. Rosado, M.
Pérez, & L. Padilla 3708, 9 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

CERAMIACEAE

“Crouania attenuata (Bonnem.) J. Agardh. Dredged in 20-25 meters of water,
among Thalassia, off Bahia Salinas, L. R. Almodévar, M. Pérez, L. Padilla,
& P. Rosado 3704, 9 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

Ceramium nitens (Ag.) J. Agardh. In muddy sand, shallow water, among —
Porites, Punta Aguila, L. R. Almodovar & D. Rosado 3620, 22 June 1959
(D, DUKE, IMB, NY); on rocks, La Playuela, L. R. Almodévar, L. Padilla,
& P. Rosado 3672, 1 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

Centroceras clavulatum (Ag.) Montagne. On rocks, shallow water, Playa Sucia,
near El Faro, H. L. Blomquist & L. R. Almodovar 3083, 3 March 1958
(IMB); on rocks, in the surf, Punta Aguila, L. R. Almodévar & D. Rosado
3624, 22 June 1959 (D, DUKE, IMB, NY); on rocks, in 6 feet of water,
La Playuela, L. R. Almod6évar 3653, 29 June 1959 (DUKE, IMB, NY);
on Thalassia leaves, La Playuela, L. R. Almodovar 3655a, 29 June 1959
(DUKE, IMB, NY); dredged in 25-30 meters of water, entangled with
Halophila, off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, L. Padilla, P. Rosado, & M. Pérez
3692, 3 Sept. 1959 (IMB); dredged in 30-35 meters of water, on rocky
substrate, about 3-5 miles off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, P. Rosado, & L.
Padilla 3722, 9 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

Spyridia aculeata (Schimp.) Kutzing. On rocks, mouth of La Playuela, H. L.
Blomquist & L. R. Almodovar 3082, 3 March 1958 (AD, D, DUKE, IIP,
IMB, IU, NY); among Thalassia, La Playuela, L. R. Almod6évar 3658, 29
June 1959 (D, DUKE, IMB, NY).

Spyridia filamentosa (Wulf.) Harvey. Specimen not studied: Salinas de Cabo
Rojo, P. Sintenis, 6 Feb. 1885.

*Wrangelia bicuspidata Bgérgesen. Dredged in 30-35 meters of water, on
rocky bottom, about 3-5 miles off E] Faro, L. R. Almodovar, P. Rosado, M.
Pérez, & L. Padilla 3712, 9 September 1959 (IMB).

NOTES ON MARINE ALGAE OF CABO ROJO, PUERTO RICO 91

“Wrangelia penicillata C. Agardh. Dredged in 20-25 meters of water, among
Thalassia, off Bahia Salinas, L. R. Almod6évar, M. Pérez, L. Padilla, &
P. Rosado 3705, 9 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

Haloplegma Duperrayi Montagne. Adrift, La Playuela, L. R. Almod6var 3650,
29 June 1959 (IMB).

*Martensia pavonia (Ag.) J. Agardh. Dredged in 20 meters of water, on corals,
about 2 miles, south off El Faro, L. R. Almod6var & V. M. Rosado 3888a,
Nov. 1960 (IMB).

DASYACEAE

*Dasya mollis Harvey. Dredged in 20-25 meters of water, among Thalassia,
off Bahia Salinas, L. R. Almodovar, M. Pérez, P. Rosado & L. Padilla 3706,
9 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

*Heterosiphonia Wurdemanni (Bail.) Falkenberg. Dredged in 20-25 meters
of water, among Thalassia, off Bahia Salinas, L. R. Almod6var, P. Rosado,
M. Pérez, & L. Padilla 3703, 9 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

*“Dictyurus occidentalis J. Agardh. Washed ashore, La Playuela, L. R. Al-
modovar 3648, 29 June 1959 (IMB); dredged in 20-25 meters of water,
among Thalassia, off Bahia Salinas, L. R. Almod6évar, P. Rosado, M. Pérez,
& L. Padilla 3709, 9 September 1959 (IMB).

RHODOMELIACEAE

Bryothamnion Seaforthii (Turn.) Kutzing. Dredged in 30-35 meters of water,
on rocky bottom, about 3-5 miles off E] Faro, L. R. Almodovar, P. Rosado,
M. Pérez, & L. Padilla 3717, 9 Sevt. 1959 (IMB).

Bryothamnion triquetrum (Gmel.) M. A. Howe. On rocks, eastern shore, La
Playuela, L. R. Almodovar 3659, 29 June 1959 (IMB); dredged in 30-35
meters of water, on rocky bottom, about 3-5 miles off E] Faro, L. R. AIl-
modovar, P. Rosado, M. Pérez, & L. Padilla 3726, 9 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

Digenea simplex (Wulf.) C. Agardh. On rocks, in strong surf, southwestern
shore, Punta Aguila, L. R. Almodévar & D. Rosado 3621, 22 June 1959
(D, DUKE, IMB, NY); on rocks, in shallow water, Playa Sucia, L. R. Almo-
dévar 3669, 23 July 1959 (IMB); dredged in 35-40 meters of water, on
rocks, off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, L. Padilla, P. Rosado, & M. Pérez
3695, 3 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

*Lophocladia trichoclados (C. Ag.) Schmitz. Dredged in 30-35 meters of
water, on rocky substrate, about 3-5 miles off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar,
P. Rosado, M. Pérez, & L. Padilla 3719, 9 Sent. 1959 (IMB).

Bostrychia tenella (Vahl) J. Agardh. On rocky wall, reached by the spray,
El Faro, H. L. Blomquist & L. R. Almodovar 3085, 3 March 1958 (AD,
De DUKE Tie IMB. TU. NY,):

Vidalia obtusiloba (Mert.) J. Agardh. Dredged in 35-40 meters of water, on
rocks, off El Faro, L. R. Almod6évar, M. Pérez, L. Padilla, & P. Rosado
8701, 3 Sent. 1959 (IMB).

92 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY. OF SCIENCES

Chondria dasyphylla (Woodw.) C. Agardh. Dredged in 25-30 meters of water,
on rocks, off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, L. Padilla, P. Rosado, & M. Pérez
3683, 3 Sept. 1959 (IMB); dredged in 30-35 meters of water, on rocky
substrate, about 3-5 miles off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, P. Rosado, M.
Pérez, & L. Padilla 3720, 9 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

*Chondria littoralis Harvey. On rocks, La Playuela, L. R. Almodovar, 3639,
29 June 1959 (IMB); adrift, La Playuela, L. R. Almodovar 3634, 29 June
1959 (IMB); on bamboo float, Playa Sucia, L. R. Almodovar 3660, 23 July
1959 (IMB).

*Acanthophora muscoides (L.) Bory. Dredged in 35-40 meters of water, on
rocks, off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, L. Padilla, P. Rosado, & M. Pérez
3687, 3 Sept. 1959 (IMB).

Acanthophora spicifera (Vahl) Bgrgesen. Dredged in 35-40 meters of water,
on rocks, off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, L. Padilla, P. Rosado, & M. Pérez
3696, 3 Sept. 1959 (IMB); dredged in 30-35 meters of water, on rocks,
about 3-5 miles off El Faro, L. R. Almodévar, P. Rosado, M. Pérez, &
L. Padilla 3730, 9 Sept. 1959 (IMB). Specimen not studied: Salinas de
Cabo Rojo, P. Sintenis (As Acanthophora Thierii Lamouroux), 6 Feb.
1885.

Laurencia gemmifera Harvey. On bamboo float, Playa Sucia, L. R. Almo-
dovar 3665, 23 July 1959 (IMB).

*Laurencia intricata Lamouroux. Dredged, in 20-25 meters of water, off El
Faro, on rocks, L. R. Almod6évar, L. Padilla, & P. Rosado 3671, 1 Sept.
1959 (IMB).

*Laurencia microcladia Harvey. On rocks, above the water, reached by spray
from waves, La Playuela, L. R. Almodévar, & D. Rosado 3600, 2 June
1959 (IMB): on rocks above low tide mark, strong surf, Punta Aguila,
L. R. Almod6évar & D. Rosado 3628, 22 June 1959 (D, DUKE, IMB, NY).

Laurencia obtusa (Huds.) Lamouroux. On rocks in the surf, western shore,
La Playuela, L. R. Almodovar 3937, 29 June 1959 (IMB).

Laurencia papillosa (Forsk.) Greville. On rocks, strong durf, Punta Aguila,
L. R. Almodévar & D. Rosado 3625, 22 June 1959 (IMB).

Laurencia Poitei (Lamour.) M. A. Howe. Dredged in 25-30 meters of water
off El Faro, L. R. Almodovar, L. Padilla, & P. Rosado 3674, 1 Sept. 1959
(IMB); dredged in 35-40 meters of water, on rocks, Oe iene, Mba I.
Almodovar, P. Rosado, L. Padilla, & M. Pérez 3689, 3 Sept. 1959 (IMB);
dredged in 30-35 meters of water, on rocks, about 3-5 miles off El Faro,
L. R. Almodovar, P. Rosado, M. Pérez, & L. Padilla 3727, 9 Sept. 1959
(IMB).

CYANOPHYTA
NOSTOCACEAE

*Hormothamnion enteromorphoides Grunow. Attached to rocks, forming long
strands, H. L. Blomquist & L. R. Almodoévar 3100, 3 March 1958 (IMB);

NOTES ON MARINE ALGAE OF CABO ROJO, PUERTO RICO — 93

forming large blue-green mats over the substrate, in the surf, La Playuela,
L. R. Almodo6var 3640, 29 June 1959 (IMB).

OSCILLATORICEAE

*Hydrocoleum comoides (Harv.) Gomont. On rock pits, shallow water, H. L.
Blomquist & L. R. Almodovar 3087, 3 March 1958 (IMB).

“Hydrocoleum glutinosum Gomont. Orange-yellow bladder-like crusts over
rocks, exposed at low tide, Punta Aguila, L. R. Almodovar & D. Rosado
3627, 22. June 1959 (IMB).

LITERATURE CITED
HAUCK, F.
1888. Meeresalgen von Puerto Rico. Bot. Jahrb. Engler 9: 457-470.

HOWE, M. A.
1908. Report on a trip to Puerto Rico. Jour. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 5: 164-166.

1915. Report on a visit to Puerto Rico for collecting marine algae. Jour.
INGE ere Ot Gand, 71162 19-295,

LOBECK, A. K.
1922. The Physiography of Puerto Rico. Sc. Surv. P. R. & V. Is. 1(4): 301-
379.
IMUTINCIBUSILIL, (Chie
1922. Geology of the Ponce District, Puerto Rico. Sc. Surv. P. R. & V. Is.
1(3): 229-300.
PICO, RAFAEL
1950. The Geographic Regions of Puerto Rico. University of P. R. Press.

Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(2), 1961

THE ABSORPTION OF RADIOISOTOPES BY
CERTAIN MICROORGANISMS ?! 2

GrEorGE B. MorGAN
University of Florida

The safe disposal of radioactive wastes is one of the major
problems associated with the use of atomic energy. High level
wastes are generally produced in small volumes making it possible
to keep this material segregated from the environment. Before
high level wastes are buried or stored they are concentrated and
encased in some nonpermeable material. Although the disposal
of these high level radioactive wastes is expensive they offer no
threat to the general population.

Low level radioactive wastes, in contrast, are now being pro-
duced in large volumes and in the near future will amount to many
billions of gallons yearly. Because it is economically and physically
impossible to concentrate these wastes so that they can be dis-
posed of in a manner similar to that used for high level wastes,
the only alternative is to release them into the environment. When
radioactive elements are permitted to enter the air, soil and water
there is a tendency for plants and animals to utilize these chemi-
cals in their own metabolic processes. In many instances radio-
active isotopes are accumulated by microorganisms and enter into
the food chain. If a particular species of radioactive element is
involved in the metabolism of plants or animals, it may be con-
centrated many thousands of times over the concentration present
in the ambient media.

Measuring and predicting the uptake and accumulation of
radionuclides by microorganisms presents many problems. Results
obtained in the laboratory are not translatable to natural conditions
but can be used as a comparison among organisms. Unfortunately
laboratory methods involve the use of specific media for specific
organisms which is contradictory to conditions prevailing in nature.
This laboratory has found that a number of other conditions affect
the uptake of radionuclides and must remain constant to obtain
usable data. The conditions investigated are as follows:

*A contribution from Phelps Laboratory for Sanitary Engineering, Univ.
of Fla.

> This work was sponsored by the Atomic Energy Commission Contract
No. AT-(40-1)-2137, Dr. J. B. Lackey principal investigator.

ABSORPTION OF RADIOISOTOPES BY MICROORGANISMS 95

1. Temperature was found to greatly influence the rate of
radionuclide uptake by microorganisms. A temperature of
75 + 1°F was selected for all data present.

2. The size and shape of the vessel containing the culture
also affected the uptake. The ratio of glass surface to the
volume of medium as well as the type of glass influence
reactions involved. Wide mouth Pyrex flasks, 500 ml.,
were employed for all cultures.

3. Even culture conditions at different laboratories vary. For
example, a formula for a particular media may call for
spring water or sea water. Within the State of Florida
the total solids content of spring water varies from less
than 100 mg/1 to greater than 25,000 mg/1 and so-called
sea water from the West coast to the East coast may vary
almost as much. Sea water from two sources and spring
water from one source were used in my experiments but,
the comparison of data from different laboratories would
be greatly facilitated if the basic solvent of all media was
distilled water. Three media were adapted for this investi-
gation. Chlamydomonas, Platymonas and Nitzschia were
grown in Rices medium with sea water. Bacteria were
cultured in Zobell’s medium. Guillard’s medium prepared
with sea water was used for Rhodomonas and Guillard’s
medium prepared with spring water supported the growth
of Navicula. Ochromonas were grown in wheat medium.

4. The control of pH was found to be very difficult. It was
observed that at the end of 24 hours twenty replicate cul-
tures exhibited twenty different pH values with a spread
of 2.5 pH units. This shows the need for a strong buffer
system which is lacking in many culture media for proto-
zoa and algae.

5. Forty foot-candles of light was provided by Sylvania 48T12
cool white fluorescent lamps. It was found by experi-
mentation that light from 20 foot-candles to 80 foot-candles
did not appreciably affect the uptake of radioisotopes.

6. The age and concentration of cultures also strongly affected
the uptake rate of radioisotopes. The cultures employed
in this investigation were about 1 month old and were all
still in the active growth cycle.

96 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY -OF SCIENCES

The accumulation of radioisotopes was determined by first add-
ing a measured amount of a specific radionuclide to the culture.
After a given incubation time, usually 48 hours, the organisms were
filtered from the medium, dried at 103°F and weighed. The con-
centration of radioactivity in the microorganisms expressed in mi-
cromicrocuries per milligram, puc/mg, of dried organisms divided
by the original concentration of radioactivity in puc/mg of medium
was taken as the concentration factor. Results are presented in

Tables 1-7.
SLVACS esa

THE UPTAKE OF RADIOISOTOPES BY OCHROMONAS SE:

Initial Conc. Incubation

in Medium time Concentration

Radioisotope uuc/meg hours Factor Deviation

Cerium-141 ioe 48 LON VO a= 17096

Cesium-137 0.21 48 960 + 9.3%

O52) 48 1,120 + 84%

2.42, 48 1,130 Se NT AW

Cobalt-60 0.50 48 1,070 mae OV)

220 48 1,500 SATO e

Amltsy 48 1,160 ae IIG)S%

Copper-64 22; 48 3,040 se 16%

6.16 48 1,960 + 96.7%

26.6 48 1,840 se (8.0%

Tron-59 0.04 48 550) se (18) %

0.25 48 2,700 SENG %

0.55 48 4,480 ae 28%

Mixed Fission Os 48 16,800 SWAT Sue

Products 0.6 48 15,500 + 40.2%

Niobium-95 0.04 48 25,000 se LI1O%

0.5 48 34,900 ax 110)1%

Phosphorus-32 1L38) 48 10,500 at hOROve

(PO.) 4.0 48 4,900 a= WO) 11%

Ruthenium-103 0.25 48 4,000 ae Il2%

OLD7 48 6,500 as IIL %

Strontium-89 Ove) 48 3,060 SOR a

Uranium-238* 6.1 48 330 a= ALONG
(UOs)

Tungsten-185 23 48 20 + 42%

(WO;) 102 48 29 ae 30

182 48 20.6 ate T9096

383 48 9.1 a= IO) 3%

Yttrium-91 2.9 48 46,600 Se 29) 1%

Zinc-65 1.0 48 7,600 ae ILL2%

2.4 48 6,900 at! elk

*Natural uranium

ABSORPTION OF RADIOISOTOPES BY MICROORGANISMS 97

TABLE 2
tHE UPTAKE OF RADIOISOTOPES BY PLATYMONAS SP.

Initial Conc. Incubation

in Medium time Concentration
Radioisotope wuc/meg hours Factor Deviation
Cerium-141 4.8 48 5,100 = aWED Yo
Cesium-137 0.20 48 150 ae IY
0.40 48 EAN stale /a
1.0 48 50 ae DALI
5.0 48 36 stan OroWe
Iron-59 0.05 48 720 + 14.9%
0.20 48 1,030 sto alleove
0.60 48 950 se LG
Mixed Fission 0.20 48 11,000 ar AB
Products 0.45 48 13,300 + 38.4%
0.80 48 16,000 ae OBO
Phosphorus-32 2.0 48 6,300 a MLB
(PO:) 3.0 48 7,000 + 16.1%
4.0 48 13,600 + 49.2%
Promethium-147 6.0 48 4,500 + 6.8%
1.0 48 5,200 ue JIL PAYG
Praseodymium-142 1.8 48 3,800 + 16.8%
Strontium-89 0.40 48 457 ae PLY
0.79 48 652 + 26.9%
Yttrium-91 8} 48 13,500 a AB
Zinc-65 0.40 48 53,800 Se IDE
0.62 48 67,800 ate lveove
TABLE 3
THE UPTAKE OF RADIOISOTOPES BY NAVICULA CONFERVACEA
Incubation
Initial Conc. time Concentration
Radioisotopes in Medium hours Factor Deviation
Cesium-137 3.9 48 2,180 + 33.9%
Cobalt-60 1.0 48 Dl + 16.3%
Tron-59 LS 48 4,020 ae TG
Mixed Fission
Products 0.75 48 12,500 as DI (O%
Niobium-95 0.4 48 83,700 SQL
Promethium-147 3.2 48 2,160 ae DY
Ruthenium-103 Jade 48 7,900 ee Di AW
Strontium-89 0.20 48 1,380 ae) 2%
Yttrium-91 Oral 48 P30 + 64.4%
Zinc-65 0.50 48 23,600 a= 115.3%

98 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TABLE 4

THE UPTAKE OF RADIOISOTOPES BY CHLAMYDOMONAS SP.

Incubation
Initial Conc. time Concentration
Radioisotopes in Medium hours Factor Deviation
Cerium-141 0.50 48 7,400 ae DAWA
Cesium-137 0.89 48 28.7 st a e%
Tron-59 [25 48 6,000 + 16.8%
Mixed Fission
Products 0.75 48 16,800 se Dileave
Promethium-147 0.60 48 12,600 a= AT.ova
Strontium-89 0.85 48 1,000 ee Lc
Zinc-65 AQ 48 20,000 a= JGuL Ye
RABIES
THE UPTAKE OF RADIOISOTORES BY NITZS@HIAWSE
Incubation
Initial Conc. time Concentration
Radioisotope in Medium hours Factor Deviation
Cerium-141 1.0 48 28,500 ae 1G )8%
Cesium-137 0.65 48 97 sta) eee
Iron-59 0.30 48 DDS + 26.9%
Mixed Fission
Products 0.55 48 11,500 se 27 B%
Promethium-147 0.6 48 2,420 ant wel
Strontium-89 0.85 48 650 Sa Olmave
Zine-65 Oi52, 48 42.000 ae loge
TABLE 6
THE UPTAKE OF RADIOISOTOPES BY RHODOMONAS SP.
Incubation
Initial Conc. time Concentration
Radioisotope in Medium hours Factor Deviation
Cesium-137 ALD) 45 36 es, 4%
Iron-59 0.30 48 7,500 + 36.7%
Mixed Fission
Products 0.85 48 1,700 ate Orava
Promethium-147 0.70 48 10,000 ==) 630.206
Strontium-89 2.0 48 100 + 14.6%
35.5%

Zinc-65 ea 48 oe at

ABSORPTION

THE UPTAKE OF RADIOISOTOPES BY

TABLE 7

OF RADIOISOTOPES BY MICROORGANISMS — 99

VARIOUS BACTERIA

Incu-
Initial bation Concen-
Conc.in time tration
Organism Radioisotope Medium hours Factor Deviation
Flavobacterium
Aquatile Cesium-137 0.23 24 26 ate (AGG
Sphaerotilus sp. Cesium-137 0.20 24 116 Stel Bo
Sphaerotilus sp. Copper-64 0.93 24 3,890 +46.5%
Zooglea ramigera Cesium-137 0.24 24 558 ete Do
Marine Bacteria’
TbAD Yttrium-9 1 Ons 24 886 +33.9%
Z-1 Promethium-147 0.55 D) 310 +25.9%
Les Strontium-89 1.40 Dy; 104 aa OL9%e
Z-8 Cesium-137 0.78 24 15 +49.1%
Z-9 Strontium-89 1.40 2 100 EIN 37%
Z-19 Copper-64 OH 9 990 +32.6%
Z-20 Zinc-65 0.94 24 290 steilAOve
Z=2)\ Promethium-147 0.60 24 147 at Oro
Z=2,) Cerium-141 0.64 24 280 ste love
aD), Cerium-141 0.94 2A 1,740 +61.2%

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Most of the trivalent rare earth elements are markedly concen-
trated by microorganisms. This group of elements is important
because of its relative abundance in fission products. It is ex-
tremely doubtful whether or not these elements are required for
metabolic processes. It is more likely that these radioisotopes are
absorbed and/or ingested after which the colloidal state is formed.
This would render the elimination of the element more difficult.

The uptake of strontium-89 is relatively low when compared to
the trivalent rare earth elements which indicates that the micro-
organisms tested have a low calcium requirement. A concentration
factor of about 20,000 for strontium was observed in several diatoms
that use calcium.

Zinc-75 was accumulated extensively by all of the organisms
except Rhodomonas and bacteria. Yttrium and iron isotopes were
markedly concentrated. Cesium, like strontium, was not concen-
trated to any great extent by the microorganisms tested.

100 - JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY “OF SCIENCES

The concentration factors given in Tables 1-7 are of value pri-
marily as a comparison between the microorganisms tested. These
factors are calculated on a dry weight basis for the organisms and
not on a wet weight basis because it was thought that these condi-
tions were more reproducible. The low accumulation of strontium
and cesium does not in any way lessen the hazardous nature of
these elements. Animals of the second trophic level not only feed
on phytoplankton but are also capable of concentrating these ele-
ments directly. This then does not eliminate the biologically haz-
ardous radioisotopes from the food chain. The marked uptake of
the rare earth elements indicates that following a nuclear detona-
tion or reactor accident a high degree of radioactive pollution of
fish and shellfish would be expected. This group of radioisotopes
decays at a fairly rapid rate which, along with the loss of radio-
activity by cell division, would decrease the critical concentration
of the rare earth elements in second and third trophic levels. Ad-
ditional research and data are needed before parameters can be
established for the levels of radioactivity in phytoplankton which
will indicate critical contamination to man’s food.

Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(2), 1961

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN LYSIOSQUILLA SCABRICAUDA
(LAMARCK) A STOMATOPOD CRUSTACEAN !

RAayMonp B. MANNING
University of Miami

INTRODUCTION

Sexual dimorphism in the stomatopoda has been reported by
several authors. Various species in at least four genera, Gonodac-
tylus, Lysiosquilla, Pseudosquilla, and Squilla, are known to show
sexual variation. Among the western Atlantic species of stomato-
pods, Squilla intermedia Bigelow exhibits the most evident sexual
differentiation (Bigelow, 1894). In this species, the margin of the
telson in the adult male is noticeably thickened. Bigelow (1941)
also showed differences in the sculpture of the telson and the lat-
eral abdominal carinae of male and female S. empusa Say.

In the genus Lysiosquilla, sexual dimorphism affects, among
other structures, the size of the raptorial claw and the number of
teeth on its dactylus. In L. glabriuscula (Lamarck), the size and
number of teeth on the raptorial dactylus of the female are reduced
(Bigelow, loc. cit.). Holthuis (1941) listed four secondary sexual
characteristics exhibited by large females of L. maculata (Fabricius),
the Pacific analogue of L. scabricauda. They are:

1. The propodus of the raptorial claw is three times longer
than broad, while in young females and males it is about four
times longer than broad.

2. Only the two proximal movable spines on the inner
border of the raptorial propodus are well developed in large
females. In young females and males the normal number of
four spines is present.

3. There are tufts of long hairs on the raptorial propodus
which are not present in males and young females.

4. The teeth of the raptorial claw are very much reduced
in large females.

Marked sexual dimorphism has not been reported for L. scabri-

* Contribution No. 320 from The Marine Laboratory, University of Miami,
Florida. Part of this work was carried out with the support of the National
Science Foundation under Grant No. G11235, and this paper constitutes a
technical report to that organization.

102 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

cauda. Miers (1880) reported no sexual differences. Bigelow (loc.
cit.) noted that the raptorial dactyli in females were a little smaller
than in males, and Lunz (1937) and Schmitt (1940) gave further
observations on the size of the female raptorial claw. Lunz also
stated that the telson of the female was more convex than that of
the male.

Recently I examined 13 large specimens of L. scabricauda from
south Florida, on which the sexual differences listed above as well
as others were observed. Differences were found not only in size
of the raptorial claw in each sex, but also in the spination of the
fifth and sixth abdominal somites, uropods, and telson, and in the
relative scabrousness of the telson. These differences are described
and systematic notes on the species are included.

I wish to express my thanks to Dr. Eugenie Clark, Director,
Cape Haze Marine Laboratory, Siesta Key, Sarasota, Florida, for
the loan of the stomatopod collections of that laboratory. Thanks
are also due Dr. Gilbert L. Voss, Curator of Marine Invertebrates
at The Marine Laboratory, University of Miami, for his comments
on the manuscript and his editorial advice. I also wish to thank
Walter R. Courtenay, Jr., The Marine Laboratory, for the accom-
panying photographs.

CHML refers to specimens in the Cape Haze Marine Laboratory
collection, and the remaining specimens are in the collections of
The Marine Laboratory (UMML).

MATERIAL EXAMINED

Males: UMML 82.1164 (158 mm.); Fort Pierce, north bridge,
grass flats; 7-18-56: UMML 32.1161 (275 mm.); Miami, Pier No. 1:
UMML 32.164 (210 mm.); Miami Beach, Biscayne Bay; 5-10-46:
UMML 32.1202 (210 mm.); Biscayne Bay, Dinner Key Yacht Basin;
5-19-59: UMML 32.1160 (210 mm.); Key West; 7-27-7-31: UMML
32.854 (245 mm.); Key West, 30 mi. NW; 3-22-51: UMML 32.1173
(235 mm.); Key West; 11-7-58: CHML (235 mm.); Lemon Bay;
Summer, 1953.

Females: UMML 32.1163 (127 mm.); Indian River (in push net);
10-15-57: UMML 32.1166 (192 mm.); Biscayne Bay, North Bay
Island; 10-5-48: UMML 82.1167 (220 mm.); Key West, near the
aquarium; 2-48: CHML (235 mm.); Placida, R.R. trestle; 12-3-57:
CHML (200 mm.); Gasparilla Sound; 5-11-55.

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN LYSIOSQUILLA SCABRICAUDA 103

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM

The raptorial claw in both sexes is well-developed, and is armed
with 8 to 12 strong teeth on the inner margin of the dactylus. In
the male, the raptorial claw, when folded, extends from a point an-
terior to the eyes to the posterolateral angles of the carapace. The
raptorial claw of the female, when folded, extends from a point
anterior to the eyes to the region of the cervical groove. The
relation of the length of the raptorial propodus to carapace length
(carapace length/propodus length) is expressed as the Propodal
Index (Table 1).

TABLE 1.

RELATION OF SIZE OF RAPTORIAL PROPODUS TO CARAPACE
LENGTH IN LYSIOSQUILLA SCABRICAUDA

Males Females
Total Length Propodal Total Length Propodal

in mm. Index in mm. Index
TD) Ome 235 0.90
245 0.60 220 0.96
235 0.59 200 1.05
235 0.68 192 0.77
210 0.73 ei, 0.72
210 0.62
210 0.74
158 0.70

It can be seen from this table that in adult males the raptorial
propodus is much larger than in females of a comparable size. In
young females and young males the size of the raptorial propodi
are virtually the same.

There was no reduction in size or caneber of teeth on the rap-
torial dactylus of any of the females examined.

Another sexual variation found in the raptorial claw is the pres-
ence of tufts of hair on the inner border of the propodus and on
the dorsal ridge of the carpus. These tufts are much more pro-
nounced in the female than in the male. Unlike L. maculata, all
four movable teeth are present on the inner margin of the propodus
or the female.

104, JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Figure 1. L. scabricauda, 6. Dorsal view of posterior portion of body, x 3

Figure 2. L. scabricauda, 2. Dorsal view of posterior portion of body, x 3

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN LYSIOSQUILLA SCABRICAUDA 105

Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the posterior portion of the body of a
male and female L. scabricauda in dorsal view.

The posterior border of the fifth abdominal somite is armed
with a few short, sharp spines. These spines in male specimens are
few in number and are interrupted along the median border of the
somite. In the female the spines are more numerous, better de-
veloped, and may extend across the median portion of the somite.

The surface of the sixth abdominal somite is rough and scabrous
in both sexes, but much rougher in the female. Both the anterior
and posterior margins of this somite are armed with rows of small,
sharp spinules. There are, on the anterior margin, two rows which
converge laterally. These spinules are larger, more numerous, and
placed closer together in the female.

Most of the dorsal surface of the telson in the male is rough
and scabrous; however, there may be two lateral areas that are
pitted rather than scabrous. In the female, the entire dorsal sur-
face of the telson, with the exception of the smooth median eleva-
tion, is covered with prominent granules. The telson is wider than
long in both sexes. The dorsal surface is convex, in the ventral
concave. The telson is much thickened and more convex dorsally
in the female, and, in the female, the posterior margin of the telson
is convex. In the male it is almost transverse.

There are no true denticles on the posterior margin of the tel-
son. There are usually four marginal spines and many fused mar-
ginal spinules on either side of the median line in the male. In the
female, the marginal spinules are not fused, and there may be 7 to
11 of these spinules mesial to the submedian spine. The lateral
spines of the female each have two or three spinules on their dor-
sal surface, and the marginal carinae are armed with a row of
small, but prominent, spines. The marginal carinae of the male
are smooth.

The spination of the uropod differs in each sex. On the basal
segment of the uropod of the female there is a pronounced row of
spinules which run parallel to the body. This row of spinules joins
another row which outlines the articulation of the endopod. These
rows of spinules are less prominent in the male. Also, in both sexes,
there is a patch of spinules on the dorsal surface of the penultimate
segment of the uropod. These spines number 6 to 8 in the female
and 1 to 4 in the male. The endopod of the female bears on its

106 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

dorsal surface a longitudinal carina armed with a series of short
spinules. These spinules are absent on male specimens.

Holthuis (1941) stated that the size range of 150-200 mm. was
the transition zone between females exhibiting secondary sexual
characteristics and young females and males. In L. scabricauda
the differences in scabrousness in the telson are noticeable in fe-
males 135 mm. long, although neither the reduction in length of
the raptorial claw nor the tufts of hair on the propodus are prom-
inent at that size. The tufts of hair on the propodus of females
are noticeable at 198 mm. It is probable that the transition zone
is the same in L. scabricauda as in L. maculata.

REMARKS

L. scabricauda has been reported from New England (larval
stage) to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean;
it has also been recorded from West Africa (Manning, 1959). The
occurrence of this species in Brazil was first reported by Dana
(1852) who described L. inornata from there. L. inornata, a syno-
nym of L. scabricauda, was selected as the type of the genus by
Fowler (1912). Dana's type of L. inornata is not extant, but a speci-
men collected by the U. S. Exploring Expedition to Brazil was found
in the collections of the U. S. National Museum. The specimen,
a male, USNM 2115, is here selected as the lectotype of L. inornata,
and thus becomes the type of the genus Lysiosquilla.

The spination and roughness of the telson of this male from
Brazil is better developed than in males of similar size from Florida.

As Schmitt (1940) and Holthuis (1941) pointed out, the L.
maculata reported by Stebbing (1902) from Antigua, B.W.I., and
the reference to the same species from the Florida Keys by Boone
(1930) are misidentifications; both specimens are referable to L.
scabricauda.

LITERATURE CITED

BIGELOW, ROBERT P.

1894. Report on the Crustacea of the Order Stomatopoda collected by the
steamer “Albatross” between 1885 and 1891, and on other specimens
in the U. S. National Museum. Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 17: 489-550.

1941. Notes on Squilla empusa Say. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 31: 399-403.

BOONE, LEE
1930. Crustacea, Stomatopoda and Brachyura.- Scientific results of the

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN LYSIOSQUILLA SCABRICAUDA 107

cruises of the yachts “Eagle” and “Ara”, 1921-1928, Wm. K. Vander-
bilt, commanding. Bull. Vanderbilt Mar. Mus., 2: 21-42.

DANA, J. D.
1852. U. S. Exploring Expedition during 1838-1842, under the command
of Charles Wilkes. Crustacea, Part I: 616-633.

FOWLER, HENRY W.
1912. The Crustacea of New Jersey. Ann. Rept. N. J. State Museum, 1911:
29-650, 150 pls.
FiO UTSs 1s. BB:

1941. Biological results of the Snellius Expedition. XII. The Stomatopoda
of the Snellius Expedition. Temminckia, 6: 241-294.

LUNZ, G. ROBERT, JR.
1937. Stomatopoda of the Bingham Oceanographic collection. Bull. Bing-

ham. Oceanogr. Coll., 5(5): 1-19.

MANNING, RAYMOND B.
1959. A checklist of the stomatopod crustaceans of the Florida-Gulf of

Mexico area. Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci., 22 (1): 14-24.

MIERS, E. J.
1880. On the Squillidae. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., 5 (5): 1-30, 108-127.

SCHMITT, WALDO L.

1940. The stomatopods of the west coast of America, based on collections
made by the Allan Hancock Expeditions, 1933-38. Allan Hancock
Pacif. Exped., 5 (4): 129-225.

STEBBING, THOMAS
1902. South African Crustacea, II. Mar. Invest. S. Afr. 2: 46.

Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(2), 1961

REMARKS ON “DEFENSIVE” BEHAVIOR IN THE HOGNOSE
SNAKE HETERODON SIMUS (LINNAEUS)

CHARLES W. Myers* AND ANDREW A. ARATA
University of Florida

Bluffing and death-feigning antics of Hognose Snakes are
well known, although most recorded observations pertain to Heter-
odon platyrhinos. At the time Edgren (1955) reviewed the natural
history of the genus Heterodon, there was no literature confirma-
tion for these traits in H. simus, often considered a rare species in
many parts of its range. Carr and Goin (1955) state that simus
is much less inclined to perform than platyrhinos. Schmidt and
Inger (1957) say that all three species of Heterodon will bluff and
feign death. The present observations, dealing primarily with
H. simus, indicate the nature of variation that occurs in this stylized
mode of behavior and stress the need for a more critical study.

Figure 1. Death-feigning of the Southern Hognose Snake, Heterodon simus.
Alachua County, Florida.

‘Present address: Cooperative Wildlife Research Laboratory, Southern
Illinois University, Carbondale.

“DEFENSIVE” BEHAVIOR IN THE HOGNOSE SNAKE 109

A 17 inch male H. simus taken near Gainesville, Alachua County,
Florida, opened its mouth widely, emitted loud hissing noises, and
flattened its neck when captured. When further annoyed it went
into a series of contortions, rolled onto its back, and became motion-
less. The tongue continued to be flicked about for awhile, but
within a minute it hung fully extended from the mouth, with only
a slight movement of the basal portion being noticeable. It is
characteristic for a ‘lifeless’ Hognose Snake that is placed on its
belly to roll over again, as though this were the only respectable
position for a dead serpent. The present individual, however,
would perform in this manner only during the early stages of its
act, before movement had ceased.

A second individual from Gainesville, a 16 inch female, did
not gape its mouth during the early bluffing stage, but did so as it
was going into the writhing of the death act. The death stage was
accompanied by defecation and extrusion of the cloaca. During
a typical act by this animal, after movement had ceased, the mouth
remained agape for five minutes, the tongue flicked after seven,
and the snake righted itself after eight minutes. Continued annoy-
ance would cause it to repeat the performance, but for shortened
periods of time. After being in captivity for several weeks, the
snake was less prone to feign but would readily hiss and spread.
When these actions did not dissuade the tormentor it would hide
its head under a coil. Finally after much aggravation it would
feign death. When not disturbed for a week it reacted with re-
newed vigor. This specimen persisted in remaining on its back
during the death act.

Several other simus seen by one of us refused to do anything
but hiss and hide their heads under their bodies when annoyed.
Robert H. Mount has told us of two Dixie County, Florida, speci-
mens that seemed to behave in a typical platyrhinos fashion.

More variation, individual and interspecific, exists in these in-
teresting behavioral traits than is generally realized. In the two
specimens of H. simus, whose actions are described above, there
were differences in whether the mouth was gaped during the early
bluffing stage, and whether they would turn on their backs after
being righted in the latter minutes of the death-feigning act. It
has already been mentioned (Carr and Goin, 1955) that simus may
not perform with the same frequency as platyrhinos. Two speci-
mens of the latter species, from Missouri and Illinois, gaped the

110 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY- OF SCIENCES

mouth widely while bluffing. This is characteristic of H. nasicus
but not of platyrhinos (Schmidt and Davis, 1941; Edgren, 1955).
The Illinois individual bit several people, an almost unheard of
occurrence for any member of the genus. There is much oppor-
tunity for comparative behavioral and physiological studies of
these snakes.

LITERATURE CITED

CARR, ARCHIE, and COLEMAN J. GOIN

1955. Guide to the reptiles, amphibians, and fresh-water fishes of Florida.
Univ. Florida Press, Gainesville. ix + 341 pp.

EDGREN, RICHARD A.
1955. The natural history of the Hog-nosed Snakes, genus Heterodon: a
review. Herpetologica 11 (pt. 2): 105-117.
SCHMIDT, KARL P., and D. DWIGHT DAVIS
1941. Field book of snakes of the United States and Canada. G. P. Put-
nam’s Sons, New York. xii + 365 pp.
SCHMIDT, KARL P., and ROBERT. F. INGER

1957. Living reptiles of the world. Doubleday & Co., Garden City, New
York, 28. pp:

Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(2), 1961

ADDITIONAL RECORDS OF MARINE FISHES FROM
ALLIGATOR HARBOR, FLORIDA, AND VICINITY

RavtpH W. YERGER
The Florida State University

The establishment of marine laboratories at many localities
along the coast from Florida to Texas has greatly accelerated the
study of fishes in the Gulf of Mexico during the last decade. Where-
as previous knowledge of distribution often depended on short
term studies or inadequate samples from widely scattered areas,
students of zoogeography now have available year-round collec-
tions from numerous stations separated from each other by rela-
tively short distances. On the west and north coasts of Florida,
investigations of the fish fauna have been made, or are continuing,
at Cape Haze, Tampa Bay, Cedar Key, Alligator Harbor, and Pan-
ama City. Publications resulting from these studies have been
cited in a recent comprehensive work on the fishes of the Tampa
Bay area (Springer and Woodburn, 1960).

This present list of fishes is a supplement to an earlier paper
on the fishes of Alligator Harbor (Joseph and Yerger, 1956). This
locality in Franklin County, Florida, is the site of the main labora-
tory of the Oceanographic Institute at Florida State University.
Several species previously recorded in outside waters have now
been taken inside the harbor. Others are new records for the
area, especially in the vicinity of Whistle “26” Buoy, located ap-
proximately ten miles south of the harbor.

All common names of fishes used conform with the approved
list published by the American Fisheries Society (1960).

Specimens with an FSU catalog number are in the Florida State
University Fish Collection. Other records are reports from compe-
tent field biologists. From a scientific point of view, it is little
less than tragic that the gourmet’s skillet frequently was given pri-
ority over the ichthyologist’s preserving jar. Acknowledgements
to other collectors are made under the appropriate species. All
measurements refer to standard length in millimeters.

112. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY~OF SCIENCES

ANNOTATED List
CLUPEIDAE—Herring Family

Alosa chrysochloris (Rafinesque). Skipjack herring.

A 131 mm. specimen (FSU 6354) was collected on May 14,
1960, in a recently dredged boat channel one-quarter mile west
of the FSU Marine Laboratory.

Dorosoma cepedianum (LeSueur). Gizzard shad.

The species has been seined from the harbor on several occa-
sions by R. W. Menzel. One 189 mm. specimen (FSU 2556) was
collected@Aprileay 19576

A small series of adults (FSU 6382) was taken from the same
boat channel as the skipjack herring on May 14, 1960. These speci-
mens varied from 215 to 239 mm.

EXOCOETIDAE—Flyingfish Family

Prognichthys gibbifrons (Valenciennes). Bluntnose flyingfish.

A 99 mm. juvenile (FSU 6554) was collected by R. W. Men-
zel on October 1, 1960, at St. Teresa, just;west of the mouth of
Alligator Harbor. This specimen was taken in a 50 foot minnow
seine from water less than 3 feet deep and only a few feet from
shore. Flyingfishes are occasionally observed in waters several
miles offshore, but this is the first record in shallow tidal waters
along this part of the Gulf Coast.

CENTROPOMIDAE—Snook Family

Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch). Snook.

R. W. Menzel reported the capture of a snook in a crab fyke 400
yards west of the Marine Laboratory. The date was not recorded.
This is the only species of snook known to occur in the northern
Gulf. While occasionally reported from the Panama City area in

Bay County, it is uncommon in the northern Gulf north of Levy
County (Marshall, 1958).

SERRANIDAE—Sea bass Family

Centropristes striatus melanus Ginsburg. Southern sea bass.

In an earlier paper (Joseph and Yerger, 1956), this species was
listed (as C. melanus) as occurring outside Alligator Harbor. It is
common over rocky bottoms in the vicinity of Whistle “26° Buoy.

MARINE FISHES FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR, FLORIDA — 113

Four young and juvenile specimens (FSU 2051), 7 to 60 mm.
long, were taken on a sand bar near the mouth of the harbor on
May 16, 1954. In all probability the young invade harbor waters
more commonly than the records indicate.

Serranellus subligarius (Cope). Belted sandfish.

Joseph Branham has collected a number of “reef” fish in aqua-
lung explorations of off-shore habitats. A 59 mm. specimen of
the belted sandfish (FSU 3279) was captured from a rocky ledge
two miles southeast of the Whistle “26” Buoy, on May 30, 1957.
This ledge consists of a limestone ridge about one foot high, with
scattered boulders, at a depth of about 45 feet.

The species is common around the jetties in St. Andrews Bay
at Panama City 100 miles west.

Mycteroperca microlepis (Goode and Bean). Gag.

The gag was previously listed as occurring outside harbor wa-
ters (Joseph and Yerger, 1956). A 227 mm. specimen (FSU 4921)
was collected in a crab pot at the end of the Marine Laboratory
pier by Keitz Haburay on August 2, 1958. While fairly common
offshore over rocky bottom, this species probably rarely enters the
harbor where the bottom consists largely of mud.

LOBOTIDAE— Tripletail Family
Lobotes surinamensis (Bloch). Tripletail.

Marvin Wass reported that a specimen was captured in a fyke
net at the sandbar 400 yards west of the Marine Laboratory on Oc-
tober 4, 1955. Richard Durant has observed specimens up to 20
inches in length floating on their sides in harbor waters during
September and October.

SCIAENIDAE—Drum Family
Equetus acuminatus (Bloch and Schneider). Cubbyu.

Two small specimens (FSU 3278), 20 and 65 mm., were collected
by Joseph Branham near the Whistle “26° Buoy on May 30, 1957,
in the same area as previously described for the belted sandfish.

POMACENTRIDAE—Damselfish Family
Eupomacentrus variabilis (Castelnau). Cocoa damselfish.

Two juveniles (FSU 6023), 17 and 21 mm. were collected at the
Whistle “26” Buoy by Joseph Branham on May 30, 1957, in associ-

114. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ation with the belted sandfish and cubbyu. These damselfish were
identified by Loren P. Woods of the Chicago Natural History Mu-

seum.

ISTIOPHORIDAE— Billfish -Family

Istiophorus albicans (Latreille). Atlantic sailfish

Sailfish are taken every summer by sport fishermen along the
northern Gulf Coast from Destin, Florida (Okaloosa County) west-
ward. But the capture of four sailfish in the Big Bend region be-
tween July 20 and August 2, 1959 is believed to be the first record
in this area. All were caught in Gulf waters approximately seven
miles southeast of Alligator Point. They ranged in size from three
to five feet.

SCORPAENIDAE—Scorpionfish and Rockfish Family

Scorpaena calcarata Goode and Bean. Smoothhead scorpionfish.

A 108 mm. specimen (FSU 4910), was taken on rod and reel by
R. B. Short, on October 11, 1958, while fishing in the vicinity of
Whistle “26” Buoy.

DACTYLOSCOPIDAE—Sand stargazer Family

Dactyloscopus tridigitatus Gill. Sand stargazer.

In January 1957, Ray Damian collected a 44 mm. specimen
(FSU 2560) of this strange fish just offshore from Alligator Penin-
sula, at a depth of 10 feet. Since this apparently was the first record
in the northern Gulf, the specimen was sent to James E. Bohlke at
the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia who confirmed
this identification.

STROMATEIDAE—Butterfish Family

Poronotus triacanthus (Peck). Butterfish.

Several lots (40 specimens) of butterfish (FSU 2418, 2184, 3226,
4538, 3245, 3212) have been taken in different years, from early
April to the middle of May. Seine and trawl collections from the
harbor and from Mud Cove, on the Gulf side of Alligator Peninsula,
have yielded juveniles varying from 44 to 67 mm. in size.

SPHYRAENIDAE—Barracuda Family

Sphyraena borealis DeKay. Northern sennet.
A 46 mm. young (FSU 4922) was collected in a 150 foot minnow

MARINE FISHES FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR, FLORIDA = 115

seine by R. W. Menzel on March 29, 1956, on the harbor beach
just west of the Marine Laboratory. This identification was veri-
fied by Donald De Sylva of the University of Delaware.

TETRAODONTIDAE—Puffer Family

Lagocephalus laevigatus (Linnaeus). Smooth puffer.

A newspaper article in the Tallahassee Democrat on June 22,
1958 carried this interesting description of a freak caught by a local
fisherman. “It was built on the lines of a whale, but no hole in the
head, a very small sucker-type mouth. It was vari-colored on the
sides with a black and white belly. The forepart of the belly was
rough and the fish was scaleless.”

The 310 mm. specimen (FSU 3714) was caught on a rod and
reel by D. L. Anderson of Tallahassee, on June 20, 1958, at the
mouth of Alligator Harbor. At about the same time, another speci-
men was taken about 15 miles northeast of Alligator Harbor near
the St. Marks Light. Apparently it is rarely encountered, for the
fishermen in the area are not familiar with it.

BATRACHOIDIDAE—Toadfish Family

Opsanus pardus (Goode and Bean). Leopard toadfish.

F. C. W. Olson collected a 164 mm. specimen (FSU 2548) in
the Gulf about 14 miles SSE of St. Marks Light, from a depth of
30 to 40 feet, on July 3, 1955. Many additional records are avail-
able from areas to the west, so that it may be assumed the species
is more common in offshore waters than collections would indicate.

Porichthys porosissimus (Cuvier). Atlantic midshipman.

A specimen (FSU 1387), 103 mm., was taken near the Whistle
“26” Buoy, on October 18, 1952 by H. J. Humm and W. J. Hargis,
Jr. Shrimp trawlers operating in waters adjoining Alligator Pen-
insula capture considerable numbers of this species, and recent un-
cataloged collections include many adults.

LITERATURE CITED
AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY

1960. A list of common and scientific names of fishes from the United States
and Canada. 2nd Ed. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. No. 2: 1-102.
JOSEPH, EDWIN B., and RALPH W. YERGER

1956. The fishes of Alligator Harbor, Florida, with notes on their natural
history. Fla. State Univ. Stud., No. 22: 111-156.

116 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

MARSHALL, ARTHUR R.
1958. A survey of the snook fishery of Florida, with studies of the biology
of the principal species, Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch). Fla. State
Bd Cons aliechs Sewn 22 l-one
SPRINGER, VICTOR G., and KENNETH D. WOODBURN

1960. An ecological study of the fishes of the Tampa Bay area. Fla. State
el, Come, lio, eyes Ger, INO, llsy se Iall@4!.

Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(2), 1961

MEADOW VOLE (MICROTUS PENNSYLVANICUS) FROM
THE QUATERNARY OF FLORIDA

ANDREW A. ARATA
University of Florida

The meadow vole, Microtus pennsylvanicus (Ord, 1815) is pres-
ently found as far south as Athens, Clarke County, Georgia (Odum,
1948). There is no record of its having occurred farther south
within historic time (Audubon and Bachman, 1846; Bangs, 1898).
The recent discovery, of fossil remains of this vole in Florida some
300 miles south of its present range is therefore of considerable
zoogeographic interest. Previously, M. pennsylvanicus has been
reported from deposits of Illinoian, Sangamon and Wisconsin age
in the great Plains as far south as northern Oklahoma (Hibbard
and Taylor, 1960; Stephens, 1960), more than 250 miles south of
the present southern limits of the species in that longitude.

The deposit in which the material was found is near Williston,
Levy County, Florida (SE %4, $26, T 12S, R 18E), in a water-filled
limestone collapse sinkhole locally known as The Devil’s Den.
The specimens were collected in a rich, stratified bone bed approxi-
mately 30 feet under water. Accurate dating is at present impos-
sible, but studies in progress of the deposit as a whole (by H. K.
Brooks, John M. Goggin, and Clayton E. Ray) suggest a late Pleisto-
cene or early Recent age.

The material upon which the identification is based consists of
an isolated right M®, UF 3918! (Figure 1A), and a partial left man-
dible containing M,; and M2, UF 3917 (Figure 1C). In addition
there are several isolated incisors which may belong to this species,
but are not sufficiently diagnostic to be separated from several
other small rodents that occur in the deposit. Identifications were
made by comparison with a series of 8 modern M. p. pennsylvanicus
from the vicinity of Athens, Georgia, the southern extremity of
the modern range of the species. I express my appreciation to Mr.
Clayton E. Ray, Florida State Museum, for permission to study the
fossils, to Dr. Frank Golley of the University of Georgia for making
available the comparative series, and to Miss Esther Coogle for
illustrating the tooth patterns.

*The abbreviations UF and UG refer to the University of Florida and
University of Georgia Collections.

A B
UF 3918 UG 140

UF 3917 UGI39

GOSS

Figure 1.

UF 3918 Microtus pennsylvanicus, fossil right M?
UG 140 M. pennsylvanicus, recent right M?*

UF 3917 M. pennsylvanicus, fossil left M: and Me
UG 1389 M. pennsylvanicus, recent left M: and M2

MEADOW VOLE FROM THE QUATERNARY OF FLORIDA — 119

The occlusal surface of the isolated M® has a length of 2.3 mm.
Measurements of the M? in the series of modern specimens are as
follows: range, 1.8 mm.-2.6 mm.; average, 2.3 mm. The M® of
many microtine rodents is one of the more variable teeth in the
check series (Howell, 1924; Goin, 1943). The occlusal pattern of
the fossil M® lies close to the center of the spectrum of variation
presented by the specimens examined. Following the anterior loop
there are 4 well defined alternating triangles, the first three of which
are closed, the fourth opening into the posterior loop. The posterior
loop possesses an anteriorly directed loop on the lingual side.

The occlusal length of the fossil Mi-M», is approximately 5.0
mm. (the anterior loop of M, is chipped along the anterior border
so that exact measurement is impossible). The comparative series
measured ranges from 4.3mm.-5.1 mm., averaging 4.7 mm. The
dentary is too fragmentary to warrant osteological description.

The occlusal pattern of the fossil M, consists of 6 completely
closed alternating triangles and a seventh confluent with the an-
terior loop. The length is approximately 3.1 mm. The length of
M, in the comparative series averages 3.1 mm., ranging from 2.9
mm.-3.4 mm. Bailey (1900) characterized M. pennsylvanicus as
possessing 5 alternating triangles and an anterior trefoil, however
specimens examined show that the appearance of both 5 and 6
triangles is common, and occasionally a specimen with but 4 tri-
angles and an anterior cinquefoil is encountered. Goin (op. cit.)
has previously dealt with the high degree of variation occurring
in the teeth of M. p. pennsylvanicus. Earlier, Howell (op. cit.),
referring to M. montanus yosemite, stated that: “It is in the an-
terior tripartite enamel space that this variation is well nigh in-
finite. Truly no two are alike, nor is there bilateral symmetery
between the two rami in this respect, for as often as not each
ramus must be assigned to a different group. [ it is attempted
to establish too many groups for the different types of variants,
however, a condition bordering on chaos results, with weakly de-
fined criteria for designation, .... His words should be care-
fully considered by workers dealing with this group of rodents.
Guilday and Bender (1960) comment similarly on this condition in
M. xanthognathus.

The occlusal pattern of the fossil M» consists of a posterior loop
and two large lingual and 2 smaller labial triangles, as is character-
istic for the species.

120 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

For comparative purposes two specimens (right M?, UG 140,
and left M; and Ms, UG 139) from the southern limits of the present
range of the species are illustrated (Figures 1B and 1D).

The fossil teeth may be distinguished from those of closely re-
lated microtine rodents by the following criteria. All 3 species
of Pitymys from North America (pinetorum, parvulus, and quasiater)
as well as Microtus (Pedomys) ochrogaster and ludovicianus have
a less complex Ms, with but 2 alternating triangles (many specimens
have none or only 1). The fossil has 3 alternating triangles on the
M?. The fossil has 6 alternating triangles on M,, whereas the men-
tioned species have 3 such triangles. Microtus xanthognathus and
chrotorrhinus have 4 or 5 alternating triangles on M,, fewer than
the fossil. More importantly, the M?® of the fossil has a single an-
teriorly directed loop, both species here considered have 2 such
loops (“arms” of Guilday and Bender, op. cit.). Microtus mexicanus
has an extra anterior trefoil on M, (Hall and Cockrum, 1953) which
is not present on the fossil.

Comparison with the numerous species of Microtus from western
North America and Europe was not attempted. The fossils agree
so closely with M. pennsylvanicus, and are sufficiently distinct from
the other microtines that might be present in the area, or with
which they might be confused, that further comparison was deemed
unnecessary.

In summary, scant, but conclusive, evidence, in the form of a
M? and a partial mandible with M,; and Ms, found in a sinkhole
in north central Florida demonstrates the presence of M. pennsyl-
vanicus during the Quaternary in Florida, some 300 miles south of
the present southern limit of the species.

LITERATURE CITED

AUDUBON, J. J., and JOHN BACHMAN
1846. The vivaparous quadrupeds of North America. Vol. 1, 389 pp.

BANGS, OUTRAM

1898. The land mammals of peninsular Florida and the coast region of
Georgia. Proc. Bost. Soc. Natl. Hist., Vol. 28 (7): 157-235.

BAILEY, VERNON

1900. Revision of American voles of the genus Microtus. North Amer.
Eauna, No, 7, 88) pp:

MEADOW VOLE FROM THE QUATERNARY OF FLORIDA 121

GOIN, OLIVE

1943. Individual variation in Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus. J.
Mamm., 24(2): 212-223.

GUILDAY, J. E., and M. S. BENDER

1960. Late Pleistocene records of the yellow-cheeked vole, Microtus xan-
thognathus (Leach). Annals Carnegie Mus., Vol. 35: 315-330.

HALL, EF. R., and E. L. COCKRUM

1953. A synopsis of North American microtine rodents. Univ. Kans. Publ.,
MitrseeeNatlookist.. 5(27): 3873-498.

HIBBARD, C. W., and D. W. TAYLOR

1960. Two late Pleistocene faunas from southwestern Kansas. Cont. Mus.
Paleo., Univ. Mich., Vol. XVI, No. 1: 1-228.

HOWELL, A. B.
1924. Individual and age variation in Microtus montanus yosemite. J. Agr.
Res., 28(10): 977-1015.

ODUM EAP:
1948. Microtus from the Piedmont of Georgia. J. Mamm. 29(1): 74.

STEPHENS, JOHN J.

1960. Stratigraphy and paleontology of a late Pleistocene basin, Harper
County, Oklahoma. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 71(11): 1675-1702.

Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(2), 1961

THE SUBMARINE SPRING OFF CRESCENT BEACH,
FLORIDA?

H. K. Brooks
University of Florida

INTRODUCTION

A conspicuous large “boil” in the Atlantic Ocean 2.5 miles east
of Crescent Beach, St. Johns County, is a spectacular phenomenon.
This spring has been known and talked about for several centuries
and, according to legend, mariners have used it for obtaining fresh
drinking water. Probes by sounding and sampling from the sur-
face have yielded inconclusive evidence as to the true nature of
this submarine spring. To penetrate the obscurant waters of the
Atlantic, an underwater study of the spring was undertaken in
1959-60 with the aid of diving gear. In this manner, the geology
and hydrology of the spring was studied by direct observation.

There are persistent rumors that several submarine springs
exist off the east coast cf Florida. Skippers of boats with long
experience in the coastal waters, however, know only of the Cres-
cent Beach Spring. If other springs occur, they are inconspicu-
ous. Many springs and seeps occur along the west coast of Florida
from Crystal River, Citrus County southward to beyond Tarpon
Springs, Pineilas County. These are confined to tidal waters or
are very near shore, i.e., the submarine spring 500 feet west of the
strand at Crystal Beach. The only offshore spring known on the
west coast of Florida is the “Mud Boil” 15 miles southwest of
Fort Myers Beach, Lee County. This spring located at about Lati-
tude 26° 13.4’ North, Longitude 82° 01.5 West is not indicated on
navigation charts and reference to it cannot be found in the litera-
ture. The rising water allegedly contains considerable amounts
of suspended sediment and the odor of hydrogen sulphide is prev-
alent in the vicinity. Charts indicate a depth of 40 feet in the
area of the spring. As the local fishing guides use this vicinity for
fishing, the sea floor, or at least the slopes of the spring, must be
rocky.

‘ Contribution from Marineland Research Laboratory, Department of Ge-
ology, University of Florida and Florida State Museum.

SUBMARINE SPRING OFF CRESCENT BEACH, FLORIDA = 123

It appears that the first recorded study of the Crescent Beach
Spring was made in 1875 by the U. S. Coast Survey as a part of
the program for the preparation of navigation charts. The “smooth
sheet” of the original survey is on record at the U. S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey in Washington, D. C. The detailed results of
the soundings and bottom samplings have remained unpublished.
A portion of the field map prepared under the direction of Lt. R. D.
Hitchcock, USN, has been redrawn (Fig. 1) and is presented here.

The spring was investigated by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey in 1923. Observations, samples and data obtained under
the direction of A. M. Sobieralski were the subject of a paper by
G. T. Rude (1925). Though misled by the inaccurate data of this
survey, he presented the first and only description of the surface
phenomena of the spring.

No subsequent survey has been recorded although many un-
successful attempts have been made to obtain representative sam-
ples of the spring water uncontaminated by the sea water. A gen-
eral account of the geology of the Floridan aquifer in St. Johns
County and the submarine spring was presented by Stringfield and
Cooper (1951). Their discussion of the artesian system from which
the spring discharges is excellent. However, they drew upon the
inaccurate data of the 1923 survey in their description of the spring.
They obtained no uncontaminated samples of the spring water and
no estimates of the discharge of the spring were made.

SURFACE OBSERVATIONS

- he Crescent Beach Spring is located at 29° 46.1’ North, 81°
12.5’ West and is indicated on the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey navigation chart number 1244. This is 2.5 miles east of Cres-
cent Beach, St. Johns County, Florida, where the sea floor is covered
by 58 to &6 feet of water. A depression is shown on the chart
with a depth of 121 feet.

The coastal water in the area of the spring is partially clear.
Tidal currents are present but drift currents are of greater signifi-
cance. On November 3, 1959, a brisk wind was blowing from the
northeast. The sea was choppy and a strong surface current was
flowing to the southwest. The wind was from the southeast on
June 16, 1960. In the morning the sea was calm with a moderate
surface drift toward the northwest. With accelerated winds later

124 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY -OF SCIENCES

in the day, the surface drift current increased. It is estimated that
the maximum drift currents observed on both occasions were in
the order of 2 knots.

From the bridge of the trawler, the surface slick could be seen
one-half to three-quarters of a mile away. Downwind, the odor
of hydrogen sulphide could be detected for a comparable distance.
A large slick trailed off down drift on the days the spring was
observed.

The water has a yellowish cast due to suspended sediment in
the rising water. This condition exists under conditions of both
calm and rough sea. The rising water forms a turbulent area 75
to 100 feet in diameter. “Boils” are intermittent, existing only
about two-thirds of the time when the surface drift is flowing mod-
erately strong. The pulsation is moderated with decreased drift.
The position of the rising water fluctuates considerably over an area
about 300 feet in diameter. The spring water and its overflow
varies in intensity but it is estimated the water must be rising at
a velocity of about one-half foot per second. Boats are rapidly
forced out of the “boil” and “overflow.” The position of the up-
welling water varies in relation to the deepest portion of the sea
fioor. With a moderate surface drift current running, the rising
water mass first appears at the surface only slightly down current
to as much as 100 to 150 feet from the center of the depressions as
determined by soundings.

All surface samples of water taken from the “boil” are only
slightly less saline than that of the surrounding sea water. Thus,
there is little likelihood that this spring has ever been used as a
source of drinking water.

The volume of water rising to the surface is tremendous. With
water rising two-thirds of the time at a velocity of one-half foot
per second over an area with a diameter of 75 feet, it can be esti-
mated that the discharge of the spring is about 1500 cubic feet
per second. This exceeds the discharge of the largest spring on
land. The maximum discharge of Silver Spring observed on June
22, 1945 (Ferguson, Lingham, Love and Vernon, 1947) was 1,170
c.f.s. However, estimates for the discharge of the Crescent Beach
Spring derived only from observations of the amount of water
rising to the surface of the sea is probably exaggerated many fold
through mixing with sea water.

SUBMARINE SPRING OFF CRESCENT BEACH, FLORIDA = 125

SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION

Underwater observations in the spring were hampered by strong
currents and poor visibility. For safety, a descent line was placed
in the deepest portion of the crater, the position of which was de-
termined by sounding and by fathometer traverses. The character
of the slopes and bottom of the spring were reasonably well ex-
plored by moving up and down the slopes and about the bottom of
the crater. The south and east slopes remained unexamined and
probably less than half the bottom was actually observed.

The large amount of suspended sediment in the rising water
effectively shut out all light below 90 feet. Observations on the
bottom thus were made by artificial light. At depths below 120
feet the water became clear. Near the points where fresh water
was being discharged from the bottom of the depression nothing
could be observed distinctly. The fresh water being discharged
rapidly mixes with sea water through diffusion and convection.
This caused refraction of the light such that only vague forms could
be seen in a turbulent translucent fog. By rising above or avoiding
these centers of diffusion, vision on the bottom was better.

The sea floor immediately adjacent to the spring is essentially
level and lies at about 53 to 56 feet below sea level. The bottom
is covered by loose tan sand with some shell. Local patches of
black muddy sand are present. The upper slopes of the depression
are gentle with a sand and muddy sand bottom very much like
that surrounding the depression. Slopes increase with depth as
does the bottom fauna in this upper zone. Mollusks and echinoids
dominate the bottom fauna. Outcrops of green, semiconsolidated,
silty clay are present at all positions observed between the depths
of 90 and 126 feet. The steepest slopes observed are in this zone
and amount to as much as 20°. The upper portion of this outcrop
zone bears a lavish fauna of sea anemones, sea urchins and mol-
lusks. Outcrops are riddled with the burrows of clams. Along the
bottom slopes, this fauna disappears. Nothing living was observed
on the bottom of the crater.

The bottom of the crater lies 126 feet below sea level. It is a
pitted plain with small craters up to 12 feet across. These conical
depressions extend downward as much as six feet. The maximum
depth recorded in diving was 132 feet. It is from the bottom of
these secondary craters that the spring water is discharged. No

126 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

passages downward into the aquifer were discovered and no out-
crops of limestone were seen. Enough of the bottom was explored
to be reasonably certain that all the spring water is being dis-
charged through the loose, coarse, granular to pebbly materials
irregularly distributed over the bottom.

Figure 1. Copy of a portion of the original bathymetric survey of the
spring. U.S. Coastal Survey, 1875.

The shape of the spring is well shown by the 1875 survey (Fig.
1). As far as could be determined from the depths and slopes ob-
served underwater, this survey is reasonably accurate. The size
of the crater as shown on the smooth sheet is probably about one-
half its actual size. As it is impossible to hold a boat in position
over the spring, such an error is to expected. The maximum re-
corded depths of 139 and 300 feet reported for this survey must
be errors. A rough estimate of the distance across the bottom
plain of the crater can be calculated from the fathometer record-
ings (Fig. 3). Note that all traverses across the crater record a
maximum depth of only 21 fathoms, but that this depth was re-

SUBMARINE SPRING OFF CRESCENT BEACH, FLORIDA = 127

corded momentarily. To get a recording of the true depth of a
21 fathom depression with a Bendix DR 11 fathometer, the area
on the bottom lying at or below this depth must have an area with
a diameter of at least 70 to 80 feet. This minimum size of the
bottom plain is based on the fact that the fathometer emits its sig-
nal in a cone that encompasses a 30° arc. The returning recorded
signal would have been bounced off the sides of the depression
instead of the bottom if the bottom of the crater were smaller
than this. A diagramatic profile across the spring is shown in
Fig. 4.

CHLORINITY OF THE WATER AND THE TRUE DISCHARGE OF THE SPRING

Three samples of water were taken on the bottom of the spring.
In making the analysis, Dr. J. M. Pearce first determined the alka-
linity and then tested for chloride content by the Mohr method.
The results are as follows:

Sample Alkalinity Chloride content in ppm
A 160 16560
B 176 7680
C 160 8720

Sample A, with a chlorinity only slightly less than that of the
coastal water (20,100 ppm), was taken in the clear water of the
bottom near the outer edge of a center of diffusion. This shows
the extent to which the fresh water is immediately intermixed with
sea water. Samples B and C have a chlorinity very near that of
an artesian well at Crescent Beach less than four miles away.
USGS Well Number 946-116-1 (Tarver, 1958, Table 1, page 30)
has a reported chloride content of 7,090 ppm as compared with
the samples of spring water with a content of 7,680 ppm and 8,720
ppm. These samples which were taken directly from two of the
underwater spring discharges must be representative samples of
the water from the artesian system.

The extent of diffusion and mixing of the spring water is dem-
onstrated by the analysis reported above. To obtain a sample
with a chlorinity of sample A, the spring water must be contam-
inated with 2 volumes of sea water. This amount of mixing oc-
curred adjacent to the point of discharge. By the time the water
reaches the surface it is mixed with many times this amount of
sea water.

128 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Figure 2. The submarine spring off Crescent Beach, Florida as reflected
on the surface of the sea. The “boil” is about 75 feet in diameter. The light
color of the water of the “boil” and overflow is due to suspended sediment.

DEPTH IN FATHOMS

Figure 3. Fathogram of four traverses across the crater of the submarine
spring, north to south, south to north, east to west, and west to east.
Depth is indicated in fathoms on the scale 0-25.

SUBMARINE SPRING OFF CRESCENT BEACH, FLORIDA — 129

Analyses of water samples taken from the surface of the spring
“boil” and from the adjacent coastal sea water were made by Dr.
Pearce. The results are as follows:

Sample Alkalinity Chloride content in ppm
Coastal water 120 20,100
Surface of “boil” 122 19,800

The chemical analyses of the undiluted spring water, the surface
water from the “boil,’ and the coastal sea water can be used as
an index of the amount of mixing between the spring water and
the sea water. Calculations based on the chloride content of these
samples show the surface water in the “boil” to have been diluted
by at least forty volumes of sea water. The spring water has a
higher calcium carbonate content than that of the surrounding
water. This is indicated by the higher alkalinity. Though the de-
creased alkalinity of the spring water rising to the surface suggests
that it has been diluted by about twenty-five volumes of sea water,
this is not a reliable index. The correct order of magnitude of in-
termixing of the spring water and sea water is indicated by the
analyses for chlorides. Thus the true discharge of the spring is
probably less than one-fortieth the volume of water seen rising
to the surface of the sea.

The amount of water being discharged from any one position
on the spring crater is not large. From the apparent surface dis-
charge of the spring and the calculated ratio of mixing as deter-
mined from the chemical analyses, the volume of water being dis-
charged through the materials at the bottom of the spring crater
is estimated at about forty cubic feet per second. The true dis-
charge is certainly between 10 c.f.s. and 300 c.f.s.

3 Gee 2ae gee) Aeon ney DEN

= fe Turbid Slightly \.%

‘ J.

\\\ Freshened Water )
SQ

19,800 ppm Cl

SEA LEVEL
S8)

———$—$
DRIFT CURRENT

20,100 ppm Cl SO). i fete

Cc.

DEPTH IN FEET

| ! J
pees
ee)
OUOr a

7,680 ppm Cl

Figure 4. Diagram of the submarine spring drawn northwest to south-
east across the crater showing size, slopes, and hydrographic conditions ob-
served on June 16, 1960.

130. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

A detectable increase in temperature was noticed on swimming
into the spring. The temperature of the sea was 71°F on No-
vember 3 and 72°F on June 16. Attempts were made on both oc-
casions to obtain thermometer readings on the temperature of
the water. Difficulty in seeing well enough to read the thermom-
eter was experienced on both occasions. The temperature of the
spring water may be as high as 80°F but it is more likely on the
order of 74° to 76°F.

The large boils on the surface of the sea are not due to a swift
current of water being jetted upward. Large masses of freshened
sea water apparently accumulate in the crater of the spring and
then rise upward in mass due to buoyancy of the water with less-
ened density. It is this rapidly rising water that keeps the crater
from being filled with sedimentary materials drifting along the sea
floor. On both days, the spring was entered from the down drift
side and sediment was not observed to be entering the upwelling
water.

THE ARTESIAN SYSTEM

The water of the Crescent Beach Spring is being discharged
from the Ocala limestone (Eocene). In the region of Putnam and
St. Johns Counties this aquifer is overlain by relatively impervious
beds. Thus with recharge occurring in the highlands of the central
axis of the peninsula, an artesian system exists. The stratigraphy
and hydrology of the Floridan aquifer as related to the submarine
spring are shown on the structural diagram presented in Figure 5.

z
= 3
©
s = :
“I M. — 300 FEET
S a ==
AS x Ae = OW FSET
ee tet) OG: 3°
°2\ WICOMICO TERRACE re = OOMREEN
= = Fs
> — SEA LEVEL

[SS Te = Se
ch EOE Oe) a | C — -200 FEET
Pere OORemUe

LEGEND See Ue EUS _, — = FLOW INARTESIAN SYSTEM
OCALA oF) HAW THORNE Zp) "CITRONELLE = CRATE ~~~ MAJOR
ware ‘ REEN CLAY [cca] SAND @ SHELL
Er inesrone FORMATION 2 6255:| FORMATION ¢ OEE ——~ UNCONFORMITIE®

EOCENE MIOCENE PLEISTOCENE? PLEISTOCENE? PLEISTOCENE

Figure 5. Structural diagram through Interlachen, Palatka, and Crescent
Beach. The stratigraphy and hydrology of the Floridan aquifer (Ocala lime-
stone) as related to the submarine spring are portrayed.

SUBMARINE SPRING OFF CRESCENT BEACH, FLORIDA = 181

The principle recharge area of the Floridan aquifer yielding
water to the coastal area of St. Johns County is the highland area
west of Interlachen and Grandin. Water enters the Ocala lime-
stone through the lakes and collapsed sink holes that are abundant
despite an over-burden of 100 to 200 feet of insoluble Neogene sedi-
ments. The superimposed Hawthorne formation (Miocene) con-
sisting of clays, phosphatic sands and calcareous beds, serves as the
principle confining stratum for the artesian system. However, in
the highlands these relatively impervious deposits are breached.
The surficial sediment in the eastern highlands is a coarse, con-
glomeratic sand with lenses of kaolinitic sand. These coarse clastics
have been referred to the Citronelle formation and are believed to
be Pliocene (Cooke, 1945, page 229) or early Pleistocene (Doering,
1960) in age.

The hydrostatic pressure in the aquifer is such that in the lower
areas to the east, wells drilled into the aquifer are frequently nat-
urally flowing. However, the only known natural discharge from
the artesian system in the coastal lowlands of Putnam and St.
Johns Counties, other than the Crescent Beach Spring, is the flow
of water from the springs on the St. Johns River south of Palatka.

The Hawthorne formation, which is the principle confining bed
of the artesian system, decreases in thickness to the south and east
mot. johns County. At Crescent Beach, it is probably less than
50 feet thick. The development of the offshore spring is related
to this thinning of the aquiclude. A plastic, silty, green clay with
an abundant foraminiferal fauna unconformably overlies the Haw-
thorne formation. This green clay occurs throughout most of St.
Johns County and is the formation observed outcropping on the
slopes of the submarine spring. In my opinion this deposit is
Pleistocene in age. Sands and shell marls of Pleistocene age
underlie the Wicomico and Pamlico marine terraces. The coquinas
of the Anastasia formation are equivalent to the Pamlico deposits
but are restricted to a narrow coastal belt.

A feature of the geology of Florida not given due regard is
the extent to which river valleys have scoured out their channels
during low stands of sea level. Evidence from wells drilled along
the St. Johns River indicate scour to at least 60 feet below present
sea level at Palatka. These straths subsequently have refilled with
marine or estuarine deposits on at least one occasion.

132 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The Ocala limestone in St. Johns County has a general regional
dip to the north and northeast. This dip is on the north flank of a
broad uplift oriented transverse to the axis of the peninsula. The
thinning of the Hawthorne formation is either due to lack of
deposition or to post depositional erosion on this structural arch.
The direction of dip in Putnam County is generally to the northeast.

A map of the piezometric surface which represents the approx-

imate height, in feet above mean sea level, to which water rises in
cased wells that penetrate the Ocala limestone in Flagler, Putnam,
and St. Johns Counties shows a high of over 90 feet above sea
level west of Interlachen with an eastward decrease in the hydro-
static pressure (Tarver, 1958, Fig. 7). At St. Augustine, pressure in
the Ocala limestone causes water to rise in cased wells to over 20
feet above sea level. A conspicuous depression of the piezometric
surface to less than 15 feet is present in the immediate vicinity of
Crescent Beach. The chloride content of the water from the ar-
tesian system increases rapidly in the direction of Crescent Beach
(Tarver, 1958, Fig. 11). The decrease in the level of the piezometric
surface and the increase in chlorinity of the artesian water must
be correlated to the presence of the offshore spring.

During the glacial stages of the Pleistocene, sea level was low-
ered considerably. Evidence indicates a regression of at least
270 feet during the last glacial stage, the Wisconsin (Flint, 1957,
page 261). It was at this time that the St. Johns River last scoured
out a strath and the Crescent Beach Spring, if it existed, was a ter-
restrial spring or a sink hole. With lower sea level, one would
expect greater movement of water within the artesian system in
the coastal and offshore areas. Therefore, it is surprising to find
that the greatest chlorinity presently exists in the Ocala limestone
where this formation is covered by least overburden. It is here
that the greatest flushing should have occurred. Could this oc-
currence of high chlorinity be due to incomplete flushing of the
greater amounts of marine water entering the aquifer at these po-
sitions during the last high stand of sea level (Pamlico) in the Pre-
Wisconsin interglacial (Stringfield and Cooper, 1951, page 71) or is
it due to ascent of connate water from below in these areas of de-
creased hydrostatic head? Encroachment of connate saline water
from below has been observed to occur artificially in areas where
the piezometric surface has been lowered due to excessive pump-

SUBMARINE SPRING OFF CRESCENT BEACH, FLORIDA — 1838

ing, i.e., from 200 ppm to 2,500 ppm chlorides in the irrigation wells
south of Hastings (Tarver, 1958, pages 26-29). The presence of
hydrogen sulphide in the artesian water at the Crescent Beach
Spring suggests lack of flushing of the original connate water.
Therefore, it is concluded that the spring water is rising from deep
within the artesian system due to the local decrease in hydrostatic
pressure.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The underwater study of the offshore spring and the collection
of samples here reported was made possible through the coopera-
tion of Marineland Research Laboratory. Mr. F. G. Wood, Cura-
tor, generously assigned a 40-foot trawler for the study on Novem-
ber 3, 1959, and again on June 16, 1960. The cooperation of Mr.
Wood and the crew of the Porpoise III, R. V. Capo, J. W. LeBlanc
and C. A. Buie, is gratefully acknowledged. Chemical analysis of
the water samples was done by Dr. J. M. Pearce, Department of
Chemistry, University of Florida. Mr. Warren Levy, geologist of
the U. S. Geological Survey, shared his knowledge of the ground-
water conditions in St. Johns County and provided pertinent well
logs. Four students from the University of Florida assisted with
the underwater geological investigation. Without the dependable
assistance under adverse diving conditions of Ronald Echols, James
Floyd, Jerry Holloway, and Larry Jones, this investigation would
not have been successful. Dr. Caspar Rappenecker of the Depart-
ment of Geology, University of Florida, and Dr. J. C. Dickinson,
Director of the Florida State Museum, assisted with helpful sug-
gestions in the preparation of this paper. Special equipment used
in this study was made available by funds provided by the Gradu-
ate School of the University of Florida and the Florida State
Museum.

LITERATURE CITED
COOKE, C. W.
1945. Geology of Florida. Florida State Geol. Survey Bull., 29: 339 pp.

DOERING, J. A.
1960. Quarternary surface formations of the southern part of the Atlantic
Coastal Plain. Jour. Geol., 68: 182-202.
FERGUSON, G. E., C. W. LINGHAM, S. K. LOVE and R. O. VERNON
1947. Springs of Florida. Florida State Geol. Survey Bull., 31: 196 pp.

134. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

PENT Rave
1957. Glacial and Pleistocene Geology. John Wiley and Sons, New York,
553 pp.
RUDE CAs
1925. St. Augustine and its oceanic spring. Bull. Geogr. Soc., Philadelphia,
SE SIO)
SUuRINEHIEIED, Vet and EH. oH. COORER
1951. Geologic and hydrologic features of an artesian submarine spring
east of Florida. Florida State Geol. Survey Rept. Invest., No. 7:
GE:
TARVER, G. R.

1958. Interim report on the ground-water resources of St. Johns County,
Florida. Florida State Geol. Survey Inf. Cir., No. 14: 86 pp.

Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(2), 1961

SEASONAL ASPECT OF THE MARINE ALGAL FLORA OF
Sf. LUCIE INLET AND ADJACENT INDIAN RIVER,
FLORIDA !

RONALD C. PHILLIPS
Florida State Board of Conservation Marine Laboratory ?

Few published accounts of seasonal aspects of marine algae
of the Florida lower east coast have appeared. Howe (1903) alluded
to such a phenomenon by stating that the drift flora at Jupiter
Inlet, approximately 30 miles south of St. Lucie Inlet, was most
abundant and varied in autumn, probably in September.

Howe (loc. cit.) included Key West in one autumn collecting
trip. Later (1909), in referring to a spring collecting trip to Key
West, he mentioned that the spring flora was similar to that in
autumn, except that the latter was more varied and abundant.

In connection with the present study four trips were made to the
St. Lucie area (Fig. 1), two in autumn and two in spring, to deter-
mine possible seasonal changes of the flora: (1) 28 September-1
October 1957, (2) 25-27 March 1958, (3) 14-15 October 19&8, and
(4) 11-12 March 1959.

Fresh water was being released through the St. Lucie River
from Lake Okeechobee during trips #1-#3. Amounts were: trip
#1-7000 cubic feet per second; trip #2-4000 c.f.s.; trip #3—aver-
age of 1867 c.f.s. No water was being released during trip #4.

Stephenson and Stephenson (1950) stated that the intertidal biota
of the Florida Keys was definitely tropical. Although St. Lucie
Inlet is a considerable distance north of the keys, it does lie south
of Cape Canaveral, at which point the same authors (1952) stated
that intertidal marine life became a warm temperate assemblage.
Pierson (1956) in a coastal climate study noted that the isotherm
of 64.4°F. mean temperature for the coldest month is used as the
line of demarcation by climatologists between subtropical and trop-
ical climates. He observed that this line on the Florida east coast
lies between Melbourne and Vero Beach, approximately 52 miles
north of St. Lucie Inlet. After studying seasonal occurrence of

* Contribution No. 55 from The Fla. State Board of Conservation Marine
Laboratory Maritime Base, Bayboro Harbor, St. Petersburg, Florida.

2 The studies received financial assistance from the Central and Southern
Florida Flood Control District, West Palm Beach.

136 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the marine algae, it is concluded that the region under considera-
tion in this paper is, aquatically speaking, in a subtropical zone.

Port Sewall a y

pS Hovseanee PS AIS
nl A WB See
oe ee as Vo
on ly

Salerno

"a Vex Ys:
DONA Vo) FE
OD \ eat

Figure 1. Map of area with station locations.

SEASONAL ASPECT OF THE MARINE ALGAL FLORA 137

DESCRIPTION OF THE HABITAT

Extensive hydrographic data from the area are contained in
Phillips and Ingle (1960).

Except for Intra-Coastal Waterway channels, which are ap-
proximately eight to 12 feet deep depending on the tide, Indian
River is shallow, depths of three to six feet recorded over large
areas. Many shallow flats were observed which supported growths
of seagrasses, mainly Diplanthera wrightii and Syringodium fili-
forme.

Strong tidal currents flow into the area through St. Lucie Inlet.
At station 1 a shelly sand substrate was observed devoid of plant
growth. At station 2 and north of Sailfish Pt. in the Indian River
the substrate was muddy sand which often supported dense growths
of seagrasses.

Water temperatures are given here as they were recorded on
the four trips. On trip 1 most temperatures ranged from 26.5°C.
to 29.5°C. At station 3 two extreme water temperatures were
observed, one being 36.0°C. and the other 42.0°C. Both extreme
readings were made during mid-afternoon and during low tide in
depths of one and one-half to two feet. On trip 2 water tempera-
tures ranged from 18.5°C. to 24.0°C. One extreme morning read-
ing of 13.5°C. was made at station 2. On trip 3 the temperature
range was 23.6°C. to 28.1°C. Temperatures ranged from 21.6°C.
to 23.0°C. on trip 4. Water temperatures on trip 3 were slightly
cooler than those on trip 1 because they were made later in Oc-
tober than during the year previous. In other work in Tampa Bay
I found that October was the month of water temperature decline
after summer maxima (Phillips, 1960). Water temperatures were
slightly warmer during trip 4 than during trip 2. This was a result
of the relatively mild winter of 1958-59. The winter of 1957-1958
was severe with record low air temperatures recorded.

PLANT List

Because no measures were taken to quantitatively measure
plants, any abundance data given here must of necessity be sub-
jective. For relative comparison these terms will be used for
abundance: extremely abundant, abundant, common, rare.

Station locations are found on Fig. 1.

188 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

MYXOPHYCEAE
Anabaena sp. Trip 1; entangled in algae; station 5.
Calothrix confervicola (Roth)C.Ag. Trip 4; rare; on Diplanthera; station 6.
Calothrix pilosa Harv. Trip 3; rare; on Cladophora repens; station 1.

Hydrocoleum lyngbyaceum Kutz. Trip 4; rare; on algae and Diplanthera;
stations 3. 6. 7-8.

Lyngbya confervoides C.Ag. Trips 1 and 3; extremely abundant on trip 3
and rare on trip 1; occasionally epiphytic but most often found en-
tangled in algae; stations 3, 8-9.

Lyngbya majuscula Harv. ‘Trips 1, 3-4; rare on trips 1 and 3, abundant on
trip 4; once found on Diplanthera but most often found entangled
in algae or on bottom; stations 3, 8-9.

Microcoleus chthonoplastes (F\.Dan.)Thur. Trips 1 and 38; rare; occasionally
seen on seagrass leaves but most often found entangled in algae or
on bottom; stations 1-3, 5-6, 8.

Plectonema terebrans B. & F. Trip 4; abundant; on algal encrustations; sta-
tion 8.

CHLOROPHYCEAE
Acetabularia farlowii Solms-Laubach. Trip 4; one floating specimen; station 5.

Boodleopsis pusilla (Collins)Taylor, Joly, and Bernatowicz. Trips 1 and 3;
rare; entangled in algae; stations 2-3.

Bryopsis pennata Lamx. var. secunda (Harv.)Collins and Hervey. Trip 4;
rare; unattached; station 6.

Caulerpa racemosa (Forsskal)J.Ag. var. occidentalis (J.Ag.)Bgrgs. Trip 2; com-

mon; on coquina rock; just north of St. Lucie Inlet on ocean side of
Hutchinson Island.

Chaetomorpha aerea (Dillw.)Kutz. Trip 1; common; on a shell; station 3.

Chaetomorpha brachygona Harv. Trips 1, 3, 4; rare; entangled in algae; sta-
tions 1-3, 5, 8:
Chaetomorpha linum (Mull.)Kutz. Trip 2; rare; unattached; station 5.

Cladophora crispula Vick. Trips 1, 3; rare on trip 1, extremely abundant on
trip 3; unattached on trip 1, on bottom on trip 3; stations 3, 6.

Cladophora fascicularis (Mert.)Kutz. Trips 1, 2, 3, 4; rare to extremely abund-
ant; unattached; stations 2, 6-10.

Cladophora fuliginosa Kutz. Trips 1, 2; rare to extremely abundant; unattached;
stations 3, 6-10.

Cladophora glaucescens (Griff.)Harv. Trips 1, 2, 3; rare to abundant; on
Diplanthera, Hypnea musciformis, on a shell, Syringodium; stations
IL, D, SS, 7S

SHASONAL ASPECT OF THE MARINE ALGAL FLORA 1389

Cladophora luteola Harv. ‘Trips 1, 3, 4; rare to common; on Diplanthera,
Gracilaria verrucosa, and entangled in algae; stations 2-4, 7, 9.

Cladophora repens (J.Ag.)Hary. Trip 3; rare; on Sargassum polyceratium;
station l.

Codium decorticatum (Woodward)Howe. Trip 4; floating; station 3.

Codium repens Crouan in Vickers. Trip 2; rare; on coquina rock; just north
of St. Lucie Inlet on ocean side of island.

Codium taylori Silva. Trip 2; common; on coquina rock; just north of St. Lucie
Inlet on ocean side of island.

Enteromorpha clathrata (Roth)J.Ag. Trip 2; abundant; on shells; station 7.

Enteromorpha flexuosa (Wulf.)J.Ag. Trip 2; rare to abundant; on shells; sta-
tions 2-4, 7-9, just north of St. Lucie Inlet on ocean side of island.

Enteromorpha plumosa Kutz. ‘Trip 1; rare; on Diplanthera and Vaucheria.

Enteromorpha prolifera (Mull.)J.Ag. Trips 1, 2, 4; rare to abundant; on Di-
planthera mostly; stations 1-4, 7-8.

Enteromorpha salina Kutz. Trips 3, 4; rare; on Diplanthera; station 3.
Enteromorpha sp. ‘Trip 3; rare to abundant; on Diplanthera; stations 1, 3-4.

Ernodesmus verticillata (Kutz.) Bergs. Trips 3, 4; rare; once found on Di-
planthera; stations 2, 5.

Halimeda discoidea Decaisne. Trip 2; common; on coquina rock; just north
of St. Lucie Inlet on ocean side of island.

Rhizoclonium kerneri Stockmayer. Trips 1, 3; rare to abundant; most often
found on Diplanthera and Syringodium; stations 1-4, 6-8, 10.

Udotea flabellum (E. & S.) Lamx. Trip 2; rare to abundant; on bottom; sta-
tions 3, 8, 10.

Ulothrix flacca (Dillw.) Thur. Trips 2, 3; rare; on Diplanthera; stations 3, 8.
Ulva lactuca L. Trips 8, 4; rare; on mangrove root; stations 4, 7.

Ulva lactuca L. var. latissima (L.) Decandolle. Trip 1; rare; unattached; sta-
tion 9.

Ulva lactuca L. var. rigida (C. Ag.) LeJolis. Trip 2; on coquina rock; just north
of St. Lucie Inlet on ocean side of island.

XANTHOPHYCEAE
Vaucheria sp. Trips 1, 2, 3, 4; rare to very abundant; on muddy bottoms;
stations 3-5.

PHAEOPHYCEAE

Dictyopteris delicatula Lamx. Trips 2, 4; rare to very abundant; attached;
stations 1, 2.

140 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Dictyota cervicornis Kutz. Trips 3, 4; rare; unattached; stations 6-8, 10.
Dictyota dentata Lamx. Trip 1; rare; unattached; station 1.

Dictyota dichotoma (Huds.)Lamx. Trip 1; rare; unattached; station 6.
Dictyota divaricata Lamx. Trips 1, 4; rare; unattached; stations 8, 10.
Dictyota sp. Trips 1, 3; rare; unattached; station 5.

Ectocarpus rhodochortonoides Bgrgs. Trip 1; rare; on Diplanthera; station 8.

Ectocarpus subcorymbosus Farlow emend. Holden. Trips 1, 2, 3, 4; rare to
abundant; most often found on Diplanthera and Syringodium; sta-
tions 2-8, 10.

Ectocarpus sp. Trips 1, 4; rare to extremely abundant; on algae and Syringo-
dium; stations 2, 5, 8.
Eudesme zosterae (J.Ag.)Kylin. Trip 4; common; on Thalassia; near station 4.

Giffordia mitchellae (Hary.)Hamel. Trips 2, 4; common to extremely abundant,
at times in large masses; most often found on leaves of Diplanthera
and Syringodium; stations 2-9.

Padina vickersiae Hoyt. Triv 1; rare; unattached; station 3.

Rosenvingea intricata (J.Ag.)Bgrgs. Trip 3; common to abundant; on Di-
planthera; stations 3, 5, 7.

Sargassum hystrix J.Ag. var. buxifolium (Chauvin)J.Ag. Trip 2; rare; on co-
quina rock; just north of St. Lucie Inlet on ocean side of Hutchinson

Island.
Sargassum natans (L.) Meyen. Trip 1; rare; unattached; station 8.
Sargassum polyceratium Mont. Trip 3; rare; unattached; station 1.

Spatoglossum schroederi (Mert.) Kutz. Trip 2; extremely abundant; unattached;
station 2.

Sphacelaria furcigera Kutz. Trips 2, 3, 4; rare to abundant on Diplanthera,
Syringodium, Sargassum polyceratium; stations 1, 7, 10.

Stypopodium zonale (Lamx.) Papenf. Trip 2; rare; unattached; station 2.

RHODOPHYCEAE

Acanthophora muscoides (L.) Bory. Trips 1, 2, 3, 4; rare; unattached, but
once found attached to worm tubes; stations 2-6, 10.

Acanthophora spicifera (Vahl) Bgrgs. Trips 1, 3; rare to abundant; unattached
but once found on Syringodium; stations 2-4, 6, 8.
Acrochaetium seriatum Bgrgs. Trips 1, 2, 3, 4; rare to extremely abundant;

most often found on Diplanthera and Syringodium; stations 1-4,
GS, 110),

Acrochaetium sp. Trips 1, 3; rare; most often found on Diplanthera and
Syringodium; stations 2, 8.

SEASONAL ASPECT OF THE MARINE ALGAL FLORA 141

Agardhiella tenera (J. Ag.) Schmitz. Trips 1, 2, 3, 4; rare; unattached, once
found on shells; stations 2-7, 10, just north of St. Lucie Inlet on
ocean side of island.

Botryocladia occidentalis (Bgrgs.) Kylin. Trips 1, 3; rare; unattached; stations
IL Sh OG

Bryocladia cuspidata (J. Ag.) DeToni. Trip 2; rare; unattached; station 2.

Bryothamnion seaforthii (Turn.) Kutz. Trips 1, 2, 3, 4; rare to extremely
abundant; unattached; stations 1-6, 8-10.

Bryothamnion triquetrum (Gmel.)Howe. ‘Trips 1, 3; rare; unattached; sta-
tions 3, 4.

Centroceras clavulatum (C.Ag.)Mont. Trips 2, 3, 4; rare; unattached; stations
3, 7, just north of St. Lucie Inlet on ocean side of island.

Ceramium byssoideum Harv. ‘Trip 4; rare; on Diplanthera; station 1.

Ceramium codii (Richards)Feldmann-Mazoyer. Trip 3; common; on Sargas-
sum polyceratium; station 1.

Ceramium strictum (Kutz.)Harv. Trip 4; rare; on Codium decorticatum;
station 3.

Ceramium tenuissimum (Lyngbye)J.Ag. Trips 1, 3, 4; rare to extremely
abundant; most often found on Diplanthera and Syringodium; sta-
tions 1-8.

Ceramium sp. Trip 1; rare; on Bryothamnion seaforthii; station 3.

Chondria dasyphylla (Wood.)C.Ag. Trip 2; common; on Udotea flabellum;
station 3.

Chondria floridana (Collins)Howe. Trip 1; abundant to extremely abundant;
unattached; stations 8, 10.

Chondria littoralis Harv. Trips 1, 4; rare; most often found unattached, once
found on worm tubes; stations 6, 8, 10.

Chondria sp. Trip 4; rare; unattached; station 5.
Corallina cubensis (Mont.)Kutz. Trips 3, 4; rare; unattached; stations 8, 9.

Crouania attenuata (Bonne.)J.Ag. Trip 3; rare; on Sargassum polyceratium;
station 1.

Erythrotrichia carnea (Dillw.)J.Ag. Trips 1, 2, 3, 4: rare to extremely abundant;
most often found on Diplanthera and Syringodium; stations 1-5,
7-8, 10.

Eucheuma isiforme (C. Ag.) J. Ag. Trip 2; unattached; station 2.

Fosliella lejolisii (Rosanoff) Howe. ‘Trips 1, 2, 4; rare to extremely abundant;
on Diplanthera and Syringodium; stations 1, 4, 6, 8, 10.

Gelidiella acerosa (Forsskal) Feldmann & Hamel. Trips 3, 4; common to

extremely abundant; found attached only once on worm tubes; sta-
ONS YOO

142 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Gelidium corneum (Huds.) Lamx. Trips 1, 2; rare; unattached; stations 2, 3.
Gelidium crinale (Turn.) Lamx. Trip 2; rare; on twigs; station 5.

Gelidium pusillum (Stackhouse) LeJolis. Trip 2; rare; on coquina rock; just
north of St. Lucie Inlet on ocean side of island.

Goniotrichum alsidii (Zanard.) Howe. Trips 2, 3, 4; rare to extremely abundant;
most often found on Diplanthera and Syringodium; stations 2-4, 5, 7.

Gracilaria blodgettii Hary. Trips 1, 2, 4; rare to extremely abundant; once
found on a shell, but most often found unattached; stations 1, 2,
D6), I,

Gracilaria bursa-pastoris (Gmel.) Silva. Trip 1; rare; unattached; stations
DB (8},

Gracilaria cervicornis (Turn.) J. Ag. Trip 1; rare; unattached; stations 3, 8.

Gracilaria debilis (Forsskal) Bgrgs. Trips 1, 2, 3; rare; unattached; stations
1-3, 6, 8.

Gracilaria crassissima Crouan ex. J. Ag. Trip 1; rare; unattached; station 6.

Gracilaria cylindrica Bgrgs. Trips 1, 2, 3, 4; rare to abundant; unattached;
Stations) l=a tos:

Gracilaria damaecornis J. Ag. Trip 1; rare; unattached; station 8.

Gracilaria foliifera (Forsskal) Bgrgs. Trips 1, 4; rare; unattached; stations
1-3, 6.

Gracilaria verrucosa (Huds.) Papenf. Trips 1, 2, 3, 4; rare to extremely abund-
ant; all unattached excevt once found on a shell; stations 1-10.

Gracilaria sp. Trips 1, 2; rare; both unattached and on shells; stations 3, 8.
Grateloupia filicina (Wulf.) C. Ag. Trip 3; rare; unattached; station 7.

Griffithsia globulifera Harv. Trip 3; rare; on Sargassum polyceratium; station 1.
Halymenia gelinaria Collins and Howe. Trip 3; rare; unattached; station 5.

Herposiphonia secunda (C. Ag.) Ambronn. Trip 3; abundant; on Sargassum
polyceratium; station 1.

Hypnea cervicornis J. Ag. Trip 1; rare to extremely abundant; unattached;
Sesion Ls, S, ], wey) IMO,

Hypnea cornuta (Lamx.) J. Ag. Trips 3, 4; rare to abundant; unattached;
Geos 8, BD, O

Hypnea musciformis (Wulf.) Lamx. Trips 1, 2, 8, 4; rare to extremely
abundant; unattached; stations 1-8, 10.

Hypnea spinella (C. Ag.) Kutz. Trip 1; rare; unattached; station 6.

Jania adhaerens Lamx. Trips 1, 2; rare; once found on Syringodium; stations
By, Oh

Jania capillacea Harv. Trip 4; rare; on shell; station 2.

SEASONAL ASPECT OF THE MARINE ALGAL FLORA = 143

Jania rubens (L.) Lamx. ‘Trip 2; rare; unattached; station 2.

Laurencia microcladia Kutz. ‘Trip 4; rare; unattached; station 8.

Laurencia papillosa (Forsskal) Grey. Trip 2; common; on coquina rock; just
north of St. Lucie Inlet on ocean side of island.

Laurencia poitei (Lamx.) Howe. Trips 1, 2, 3; rare; most often found un-
attached but occasionally found on Syringodium and on coquina
rock; stations 2, 4, 9, just north of St. Lucie Inlet on ocean side of
island.

Liagora ceranoides Lamx. Trip 1; rare; unattached; station 8.

Lomentaria baileyana (Harv.) Farlow. ‘Trips 3, 4; rare to extremely abundant;

most often found unattached but once found on shells; stations 5-7.

Lophosiphonia scopulorum (Harv.) Womersley. Trip 3; rare; on Diplanthera;
station 7.

Mesothamnion caribaeum Bgrgs. Trip 4; rare; on Jania capillacea; station 2.

Polysiphonia binneyi Harv. Trips 1, 2, 3, 4; rare to extremely abundant; most
often found on Diplanthera and Syringodium; stations 1-8, 10.

Polysiphonia havanensis Mont. Trip 3; extremely abundant; on Diplanthera;
stations 2-5, 7, 8, 10.

Polysiphonia howei Hollenberg. Trip 1; rare; on Diplanthera; station 8.

Polysiphonia sp. Trip 2; rare; on Diplanthera; stations 7, 8.

Spyridia filamentosa (Wulf.) Harv. Trips 2, 3, 4; rare to extremely abundant;
most often found unattached, only once found on Syringodium; sta-
tions 5-8, 10.

Wurdemannia miniata (Drap.) Feldmann & Hamel. Trip 1; rare to abundant;
unattached; stations 3, 9.

DISCUSSION

A total of 123 taxa of marine algae were found. Of this num-
ber eight were blue-green algae, 31 were green algae, one was a
yellow-green, 20 were brown algae, and 63 were red algae. Of
the total 49 taxa were epiphytes, of which 24 were red algae. Di-
planthera and Syringodium leaves and Sargassum were the most
important hosts of algal epiphytes.

Table I contains species composition for each trip. Twelve
taxa were recorded on all four trips. Forty-three taxa were found
only during autumn, and 35 taxa were found only during spring.
Thirty-three additional taxa were found during both seasons, but
not on all four collecting trips. Possibly collecting over many years
would reveal less seasonal variation. Many of the algae which were

144. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY -OF SCIENCES

found only on the spring trips (i.e., during cooler months) are found
widely dispersed throughout the Caribbean tropics.

TABLE I
SPECIES COMPOSITION ON EACH TRIP

Trip No. Blue-Green Green Brown Red = Yellow-Green Total
JL 4 13 fs) 34 il 61
2 0 15 a 7 1 50
3 4 14 6 Bl it 56
4 4. 10 ) il 1 oil
We DB Ge a 0 i 1 9 1 12

In comparing seasonal data from the Tampa Bay area with that
from the present study area, I would point out the great increase
in abundance of Enteromorpha in colder months. This applies
only to E. clathrata and E. flecuosa which were abundant on trip 2.
The winter of 1957-1958 (trip 2) was one of record cold, but the
winter of 1958-1959 (trip 4) was relatively mild. These species were
not found on the latter trip. In the Tampa Bay region a large
abundance of Enteromorpha is a characteristic feature of the win-
ter flora, and it probably was an indication of the severity of the
1957-1958 winter in the St. Lucie Inlet region.

Table II compiles the number of unattached and attached spe-
cies on every trip in each algal class. On both autumn trips the
number of unattached species was greater than the number of
attached forms. This was more conspicuous on the first visit.
High winds and turbulent water on the third trip possibly militated
against collecting a greater number of unattached forms. This
turbulent water would probably not greatly influence results on
the number of attached species, for most of the attached flora were
microscopic epiphytic plants on seagrass leaves. The number of
attached species recorded on both spring collections was greater
than unattached forms. This was more pronounced on trip 2.

The number of unattached species was greater on both autumn
trips than on both trips in spring. Except for trip 4 attached spe-
cies were more numerous in spring than in autumn. In all cases
red algae constituted the greatest number of unattached forms in
the total drift flora. In attached flora red algae were also most

SEASONAL ASPECT OF THE MARINE ALGAL FLORA 145

TABLE, II

COMPILATION OF ATTACHED AND UNATTACHED SPECIES

Trip 1 aime Trip 3 Trip 4
inate Att Onatte Atte -Umatt, Att. Unatt. Att

Blue-Green y 2, 0 0 8 1 I 3
Green 6 ra 3 a, 5) ) 5 5
Brown 6 3 Zp 5) 3 3 J 7
Red 25 fs) 15 2 19 12 7 10
Yellow-Green 0) 1 0 1 0 i 0 1
TOTAL 39 Ly) 20 30 30 26 BS 26

numerous, except during trip 2 when attached green algae were
equal in numbers to attached red algae.

In comparing the flora of the area as found on trip 1 and on
trip 3, it is seen that the number of unattached species was slightly
greater on trip | than on trip 3, but in terms of biomass the drift
flora was much greater on the first visit than during the visit in
autumn 1958. In both years red algae constituted the greatest
amount of unattached species. Attached flora of both autumnal
seasons was approximately equal both in species numbers and
in biomass.

In comparing the flora as found on both spring trips it is seen
that, numerically speaking, the attached flora was approximately
equal on both trips. This holds true also for the biomass of at-
tached algae. On trip 4 unattached species were slightly greater
in number than on trip 2 (spring 1958), but in biomass the algae
were much more abundant on trip 4 than on trip 2. Red algae con-
stituted the greatest percentage of unattached flora.

The first set of seasonal observations made (trip 1—autumn
1957; trip 2—spring 1958) revealed that quantity of drift or un-
attached algae was immense on the autumn trip and consisted of
various species of Gracilaria, two species of Hypnea, Cladophora
fascicularis, Bryothamnion seaforthii, Acanthophora spicifera, Chon-
dria floridana, and Sargassum natans. In spring unattached species
were reduced in number as well as abundance. In both these
seasons a comparable number of attached taxa were found, that
in spring being slightly greater. However, biomass of attached

146 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

algae was much greater in spring than in autumn. It should be
pointed out here that biomass observations were limited to visual
estimations.

During the second set of seasonal observations (trip 3—autumn
1958; trip 4—spring 1959) it was evident that climatic conditions
were more mild. Much drift material was found in autumn, con-
sisting of Gracilaria verrucosa, Acanthophora muscoides, Hypnea
cornuta, Gelidiella acerosa, Bryothamnion seaforthii, and Clado-
phora fascicularis. However, sizable amounts of unattached algae
were also found in spring, consisting of Hypnea musciformis, Graci-
laria blodgettii, and Gracilaria verrucosa. These are fewer in
number as compared with autumn 1958, but quantity was compar-
able. Red algal epiphytes were very abundant in spring 1959,
much more so than in autumn 1958.

An opportunity was afforded to make observations during
autumn and spring, 1957-1958, when fresh water discharges were
heavy, and again in 1958-1959 when discharges were either very
low or cut off. No deleterious effect was ever apparent on marine
algae in the Indian River from fresh-water discharges through St.
Lucie River. Water salinity was reduced at stations in the Indian
River, especially during heavy discharges, but was not sufficient
to adversely affect marine plants. An extreme reading was taken
at station 2. On trip 1 salinity was less than 1.0 0/oo at this sta-
tion, rose to 35.7 o/oo on trip 3, and was 27.7 o/oo on trip 4.
Water discharges were very low on trip 3, and were shut off on
trip 4. No adverse effects on marine plants were observed at
station 2.

In conclusion it seems that the autumn algal flora at and near
St. Lucie Inlet is abundant and varied, conspicuous in quantity of
unattached species. The spring flora displayed a reduction in
numbers of species, markedly so after severely cold winters, a
reduction in abundance of unattached species (this phenomenon is
less conspicuous during mild winters), but an increase in abundance
of attached forms, particularly in epiphytic algae. In the cold
winter and spring of 1957-1959 Enteromorpha flourished, but did
not do so in the relatively mild winter of 1958-1959. The group
displaying greatest reduction in species numbers in spring was
red algae. Again, this was more conspicuous after the cold win-
ter. After the mild winter amount of reduction in species num-

SHASONAL ASPECT OF THE MARINE ALGAL FLORA 147

bers was slight, and abundance was as great when considering
epiphytic red algae and unattached macroscopic algae.

LITERATURE CITED

HOWE, M. A.
1908. Report on a trip to Florida. Journ. New York Bot. Gard., 4: 44-49,
figs. 2-5.

1909. Report on an expedition to Jamaica, Cuba, and the Florida Keys.
Journ. New York Bot. Gard., 10: 115-118.

PEMEEIPS.) K., Cc:
1960. Observations on the ecology and distribution of the Florida sea-
gnassesuu lay) St. Bd. Conserv. Mar, Lab. Prot. Pap: Ser. No:. 2.

PHIELIPS, R. C., and R. M. INGLE

1960. Report on the marine plants, bottom types, and hydrography of the
St. Lucie estuary and adjacent Indian River, Florida. Spec. Sci.
Rept. No. 4, Fla. St. Bd. Conserv. Mar. Lab., 75 pp., figs. 6.

PIERSON, W. H.
1956. The coastal climates of lower Peninsula Florida. Quart. Journ. Fla.
Acad. Sci., 19(1): 45-51.

STEPHENSON, T. A., and A. STEPHENSON

1950. Life between tide marks in North America. I. The Florida Keys.
Journ. Ecol., 38(2): 354-402, figs. 10, pls. 9-15.

1952. Life between tide marks in North America. II. Northern Florida
and the Carolinas. Journ. Ecol., 40(1): 1-49, figs. 9, pls. 6.

Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(2), 1961

NEWS AND NOTES

Edited by
J. E. HurcHMan
Florida Southern College

Palm Beach: The Collegiate Section of FAS at Palm Beach Junior Col-
lege assisted the Regional Secondary School Science Fair on their campus, March
24-25. Additional activities sponsored by the chapter annually include a field
trip to Everglades National Park; to the Orchid Show in Miami; to Venice
Beach for shells; to Bone Valley; a field trip to Myakka State Park. The chap-
ter is also associated with a local astronomy club in their programs. Richard
Gross, local chapter President and Vice-President of the State organization,
has an active group on campus as well as off.

DeLand: We received word from Dean William Hugh McEniry, Jr.,
that Dr. Elmer C. Prichard, Professor of Biology, became Head of the De-
partment of Biology at Stetson University on June 1, 1961. Dr. A. M. Win-
chester, who has held this post for many years, has taken a leave of absence
from the University for this next year.

Gainesville: Mrs. Louise V. Ash, State Director of the Florida Junior
Academy of Sciences, has her hands full with the expansion of the Junior Acad-
emy program to utilize the $19,326 grant. Dr. Luther A. Arnold, University
of Florida, was named Executive Director of the grant, and Mrs. Ash as As-
sociate Director. Plans are underway to organize new chapters, reactivate
former ones, and to improve existing ones. Each high school is provided with
information on the organization and other materials helpful in setting up new
chapters of the Junior Academy. Mrs. Ash will have a lot of traveling to do
throughout the state.

Your Town, Florida: If your school has not appeared in the News and
Notes section, it is because we have received no word directly from your
Academy representative. There will be many news items in the fall and
winter months that should find their way into this department while they are
still news. Help me get these facts so I can tell the rest of our membership!

Cocoa: Brevard Junior College announced the following faculty appoint-
ments, effective March 22. Dr. Mary Cathryne Park, Chairman of the Di-
vision of Social Sciences; Dr. Howard L. Bateson, Chairman of the Division
of English, Literature, and Languages; and Mr. Marm Harris, Chairman of
the Division of Sciences. The enrollment is increasing rapidly.

Coral Gables: Chyung Myung Kim writes from the University of Miami
Medical School: “I wish I had taken more chemistry.” This is not news, but
it may be worth bringing to the attention of a lot of our collegiate members.

Washington: The National Academy of Sciences has reported successful
completion of several drilling tests in the ocean floor and measurement of deep
sea currents. Complete reports may be obtained from the Public Information
Office, Washington 25, D. C. In many cases these reports are on file in the

NEWS AND NOTES 149

school libraries. The National Academy has a much more rounded balance
among the sciences than our state organization. Astronomy is receiving more
attention. Dr. Detlev W. Bronk, President of the Academy, announced the
award of the James Craig Watson Medal to Otto Hermann Leopold Heck-
mann for his note-worthy contributions to astronomy, for his many activities
including his work in cataloging the proper motion of 180,000 stars. Dr.
Bronk also announced the election of Dr. J. A. Stratton, President of Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology, to the position of Vice-President of the Na-
tional Academy. Others elected for shorter terms are Dr. G. B. Kistiakowsky,
Harvard University, and Dr. Kenneth B. Raper, University of Wisconsin. Elec-
tion to membershin of the Academy is considered to be one of the highest
honors which can be accorded to an American scientist. This last spring 35
new members were added to the list of those who had distinguished themselves
in their achievements in original research. These include:

Daniel Israel Arnon—Univ. of California

William Oliver Baker—Princeton Univ.

Seymour Benzer—Purdue Univ.; Brooklyn College

Harry Alfred Borthwick—Stanford Univ.

Robert Harza Burris—Univ. of Wisconsin

Shiing-Shen Chern—Uniy. of California; Univ. of Hamburg, Germany
Preston Ercelle Cloud, Jr.—Yale Univ.

Julius Hiram Comroe, Jr.—U. of Calif.; U. of Pa.; & Cardiovascular Res.
Inst.

Donald James Cram—Univ. of California; Harvard Univ.

James Franklin Crow—Univ. of Wisconsin; Univ. of Texas

Lawrence Stamper Darken—Yale Univ.

Carl Djerassi—Stanford Univ.; Univ. of Wisconsin

William Von Eggers Doering—Yale Univ.; Harvard Univ.

Renato Dulbecco—Calif. Institute of Technology; Univ. of Torino

Alfred Irving Hallowell—Univ. of Pennsylvania

Bernard Leonard Horecker—New York Univ.; Univ. of Chicago

Rollin Douglas Hotchkiss—The Rockefeller Institute; Yale Univ.

Libbie Henrietta Hyman—Uniy. of Chicago

Mark Gordon Inghram—Univ. of Chicago

Veen Nunn Lipscomb, Jr.—Harvard Univ.; Calif. Institute of Tech-
nology

Herman Francis Mark—Polymer Res. Inst.; Polytech. Ins. of Brooklyn;
U. of Vienna

Hans Neurath—Univ. of Washington; Univ. of Vienna

George Emil Palade—The Rockefeller Institute; Univ. of Bucharest
Robert Vivian Pound—Harvard Univ.; Univ. of Buffalo

Lorrin Andrews Riggs—Brown Univ.; Clark Univ.

Richard Brooke Roberts—Carnegie Inst. of Washington; Princeton Univ.
Per Fredrik Scholander—Scripps Inst. of Oceanography; Univ. of Oslo
Charles Donald Shane—Univ. of California

Donald Clayton Spencer—Princeton Univ.; Univ. of Cambridge

Henry Melson Stommel—Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution; Yale
Univ.

150 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY-OF SCIENCES

Leo Szilard—Univ. of Chicago; Univ. of Berlin

John Wilder Tukey—Princeton Univ.

Frederick Theodore Wall—Univ. of Illinois; Univ. of Minnesota
Alvin Martin Weinberg—Univ. of Chicago

John Harry Williams—Univ. of Minnesota; Univ. of California

Of similar importance as an outstanding honor is that granted to four dis-
tinguished scientists from Australia, France, West Germany, and Switzerland
as foreign associates of the Academy. They were announced as doctors:

Keith Edward Bullen, University of Sydney, Australia

Boris Ephrussi, Professor of Genetics at the Sorbonne

Werner Karl Heisenberg, Max Planck Institute, Munich, Germany
Vladimir Prelog, Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland

6
i

ih
A

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS

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gravings.

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Manuscript FormM.—(1) Typewrite material, using one side of
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io, / 2
ia

] peer terly Journal

of the

Florida Aeademy

of Sclences

Contents

. q Dollahon—The Productivity of Snorter Dwarf-Carrier and

a eee ier Viemciotd Cate 153
_ Bartlett—Observations on a Device for Measuring Metabolic

Gaseous Exchange with Electrolytic Oxygen Production. 162

Brodkorb—Birds from the Pliocene of Juntura, Oregon —___. 169

' Smith—A Comparison of Jupiter's Radio Sources with its

See avinte ee e 185
_ Bovee—Inquilinic Protozoa from Freshwater Gastropods.

I. Trichodina Helisoduria N. Sp. from Helisoma Duryi
mie 197

Bovee—Inquilinic Protozoa from Freshwater Gastropods.

Ii. Callimastix Jolepsi N. Sp., from the Intestine of the

_ Pulmonate Freshwater Snail, Helisoma Duryi Say,
A A cane ee 208

Hilings—The Barnacle and eaiaks Fauna from the

WENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY, 1936-1961

September. 1961 No. 3

VoL. 24 SEPTEMBER, 1961 No. 3

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research
Editor—J. C. Dickinson, Jr.

Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences

Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla.

Subscription price, Five Dollars a year
Mailed November 7, 1961

fnew OUARTERLY JOURNAL’ OF THE
BEORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 24 SEPTEMBER, 196] No. 3

THE PRODUCTIVITY OF SNORTER DWARF-CARRIER AND
NON-CARRIER HEREFORD CATTLE!

J. GC. Dottanon?, M. Kocenr, J. F. HENTGEs, JR. AND A. C. WaRNICK
Florida Agricultural Experiment Station®?, Gainesville

For a number of years investigations have been conducted on
the mode of inheritance and the genetic relationships of the vari-
ous types of dwarfism. To aid in clarifying the economic loss as-
sociated with cattle classified as carriers of the dwarf gene on pedi-
gree analysis and to provide additional genetic information, an in-
vestigation was undertaken on the productivity of non-carrier and
of carriers of the gene for dwarfism described by Johnson et al.
(1950).

Data presented by Lush and Hazel (1952) and Pahnish et al.
(1955) indicated that the snorter type of dwarfism is inherited as a
simple recessive trait. Gregory (1955) suggested that different
forms of dwarfism appeared to be conditioned by the same recessive
gene and further phenotypic differentiation might be conditioned
by specific genes that acted as modifiers. Gregory (1956) reported
that he had produced snorter and comprest type offspring by mat-
ing snorter and longheaded type dwarfs. Lush (1930) suggested
that the comprest trait is inherited as an incompletely dominant
trait. Studies by Woodward et al. (1942) and Stonaker (1954) con-
curred with Lush. Chambers et al. (1954) and Burris e¢ al. (1956)
presented data which indicated that comprest type animals could
be heterozygous for the snorter dwarf gene.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Observations on two groups of Hereford females, classified as
carriers and non-carriers of the snorter dwarf gene, were made

1 Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, Journal Series, No. 1102.

* Present address: Wisconsin State College, River Falls, Wisconsin.

® Department of Animal Science. In cooperation with Southern Regional
Beef Cattle Breeding Project (S-10). Work supported in part by funds allo-
cated by U.S.D.A. for research on dwarfism.

ITLICTAITA AS y
VIEIHOUNIAN AID

t 1 f We | ¢) ;
INSTITUTION JU

154 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

over a three-year period. The females assigned to each group were
classified on pedigree analysis and history of dwarf production.
During the first two years of the study the groups were combined
and handled as one unit. Both groups were bred to the same sire
and were subjected to identical environmental conditions. In the
third year of the study, the females involved were divided into their
respective groups and placed in adjacent pastures during the 90-
day breeding season. The carrier-group was bred to the same sire
that had been used during the two previous years. The non-car-
rier group was bred to a sire classified as dwarf-free on pedigree
analysis. At the end of the breeding season the groups were com-
bined and handled as one unit during the remainder of the year.

Prenatal survival rate, calving percentage, birth-wean ratio and
growth to weaning for the two groups were compared. The pre-
natal survival rate was determined by rectal palpation of the uterus
of females in each group. The breeding season began March 1
and ended May 31 each year and approximately 60 days after the
end of the breeding season, the examination for pregnancy was
made. Calving percentages were determined by dividing the
total number of cows exposed into the number of cows which
calved in each group. The birth-wean ratio was determined by
dividing the number of calves born into the number of calves
weaned.

Each calf was weighed at birth. Weaning weights were stand-
ardized to a constant age of 205 days and adjusted for age of dam
and sex of calf. The methods used for standardization of weaning
weights and the adjustment factors for age of dam and sex were
those reported from Florida by Clum et al. (1956). The conforma-
tion scores and market grades were the average of three inde-
pendent scores and grades which had been assigned to the animal
by three members of a grading committee. Birth weights, weaning
weights adjusted for sex and age of dam, conformation scores and
market grades of the offspring produced in the two groups were
compared statistically by an analysis of variance technique.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The “dwarf-carrier group’ consisted of 22 cows of which nine
were known to be dwarf producers at the beginning of this study.
The remaining 13 were daughters of known carrier parents. Of
these 13, five produced snorter and two produced longheaded

SNORTER DWARF-CARRIER AND NON-CARRIER CATTLE 155

dwarfs during the study. Six produced only normal offspring;
therefore, their genotype was still unknown at the end of the study.

The non-carrier group consisted of 17 females which were
assumed to be dwarf-free. This assumption was based on pedigree
analysis and the history of the animals. Since this group had been
mated repeatedly to known dwarf-carrier bulls and had produced
no dwarfs, it was assumed that if the snorter gene were present it
was at a low frequency.

The reproductive performance and weaning characteristics of
the offspring produced during a three-year period are shown in
iablesm and 2.

A comparison of weaning weights, birth weights, type scores
and slaughter grades based on calves surviving to weaning revealed
no significant difference between the groups. When all the calves
born in both groups were considered, the birth weights of the off-
spring from the carrier group were significantly lighter (P — 0.05)
than those produced in the non-carrier group. In this study the
loss resulting from a high frequency of the dwarf gene was due
to a reduced birth-wean ratio . Over the three-year period, the
birth-wean ratio in the carrier group was 84% as compared to 97%
in the non-carrier group (Table 2). The low birth-wean ratio in
the carrier group was due to the number of calves which died at
or near birth and the dwarfs produced which did not survive
weaning.

From a total of 56 fertile matings in the “carrier” group of
which 41 were between known carriers of the snorter trait, five
snorter dwarfs, two longheaded dwarfs, two calves which died at
birth, two aborted fetuses and 45 normal appearing offspring were
produced. However, a number of the offspring were very com-
pact and were classified definitely as “comprest”. The exact num-
ber of “comprest” individuals produced was not determined, since
in a number of cases there was an area of considerable overlap
which made classification very difficult. It is very interesting that
only five snorter dwarfs were produced in 41 matings where both
parents were known dwarf-carriers. The chi-square value obtained
from comparing these results with an expected Mendelian ratio of
3:1 approached but was short of significance. Thus, these results
are not at variance with those reported by Lush and Hazel (1952)
and Pahnish, Stanley and Safley (1955) which showed that heter-
ozygous < heterozygous matings produced normal and dwarf

JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

156

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SNORTER DWARF-CARRIER AND NON-CARRIER CATTLE = 157

offspring very near to the 3:1 ratio expected on the assumption that
dwarfism was a simple monofactorial recessive.

The sire of the two longheaded dwarfs was a known carrier of
the snorter gene. Their dams had no record of having produced
either type of dwarf but were known to be daughters of a bull who
had sired snorter dwarfs. It is interesting to note that post-mortem
examination showed these longheaded dwarfs to possess hydro-
cephalus and aberrant lumbar vertebra similar to snorter dwarfs.
Gregory (1955) concluded that four different forms of dwarfism
appeared to be conditioned by the same recessive gene and further
phenotypic differentiation might have been conditioned by specific
genes that acted as modifiers. The snorter and longheaded type
dwarfs were included in the four forms.

In the non-carrier group 42 fertile matings were made. All the
offspring, except one, were born alive and survived to weaning.
One calf produced in the non-carrier group was stillborn. The
birth-wean ratio for the non-carrier group was 97%. All calves
produced in the non-carrier herd were phenotypically normal.

It is noteworthy that comprest type animals, snorter dwarfs
and longheaded dwarfs were all produced in a Hereford herd
known to contain the snorter dwarf gene at a high frequency. Com-
prest, or partial dwarfs, were produced by known carriers of the
snorter gene that were phenotypically normal and non-comprest
in appearance. Of the two females which produced longheaded
dwarfs, one had produced an extreme comprest type offspring
when mated with a snorter dwarf-carrier male.

Since one bull sired normal calves, two types of dwarfs and
comprest progeny, it would appear that possibly a series of alleles
may be responsible for the snorter, longheaded and comprest
phenotypes observed in this study. A second but remote possi-
bility would be that recessive genes for the three abnormal pheno-
types were present at three separate loci and that the bull was
heterozygous for all three types.

A third possibility would be that both the comprest and the
longheaded type dwarfs were snorter type dwarfs of atypical phen-
otype. If this were the case, then the comprest and the longheaded
dwarf should breed as snorters. Sufficient data have not been col-
lected to determine if this is the case. Gregory (1956) reported
that the mating of longheaded and snorter type dwarfs produced
comprest and snorter type offspring. Chambers, Whatley and

JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

158

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SNORTER DWARF-CARRIER AND NON-CARRIER CATTLE 159

Stephens (1954) and Burris and Priode (1956) presented data which
indicated that comprest type animals did not breed as homozygous
snorter dwarfs, but as heterozygous carriers.

TABLE 3

ANALYSES OF VARIANCE OF SLAUGHTER GRADES AND
TYPE SCORES OBTAINED FROM THE OFFSPRING
OF DWARF-CARRIER AND NON-CARRIER COWS

Slaughter Type Weaning
Source df Grade Score Weight
Genotype 1 0.539 0.0025 218.4
Year 2 0.056 2,.0800* 1,431.5
Genotype x year 2D 0.201 0.1407 39.2
Error 76 0.164 0.1336 220:5

* Highly significant (P — 0.01 or less)

The most logical genetic explanation of the comprest type cattle
observed in this study is that they resulted from the presence of
the snorter dwarf gene in the heterozygous condition. Since all
snorter dwarf-carriers are not of a comprest phenotype, it would
be necessary to assume either variable penetrance or the presence
of a modifying gene or genes, which act in conjunction with the

TABLE 4

ANALYSES OF VARIANCE OF BIRTH WEIGHT DATA OF CALVES
PRODUCED BY DWARF-CARRIER AND NON-CARRIER COWS
OVER A FOUR-YEAR PERIOD

Live Calves of

All Calves Normal Phenotype
Source df Mean Square df Mean Square
Genotype 1 29.95* i 10.15
Year 8 5.06 8 1.87
Genotype x year 3 7.06 3 9.63
Error 116 6.48 107 5.51

* Significant (P = 0.05 or less)

160 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

snorter gene to produce the comprest phenotype. In a report
by Lush (1930) on the Duck-legged cattle of Texas, which were
later generally accepted as having been comprest cattle, the mode
of inheritance was described as being incompletely dominant.
Later studies by Woodward, Clark and Cummings (1942) and
Stonaker (1954) concurred with Lush. The findings of these authors
differ with the results of our study where phenotypically normal
carrier parents produced comprest offspring. Possibly two different
comprest phenotypes exist: 1. Those resulting from a gene unre-
lated to the snorter dwarf and 2. a certain percentage of animals
heterozygous for the snorter dwarf gene which are comprest in
phenotype.
SUMMARY

Observations on calving rate, birth-wean ratio in number of
calves and growth of calves to weaning were made over a three-
year period on 14 known dwarf-carrier and eight suspected dwarf-
carrier cows referred to as “carriers” and 17 assumed non-carrier
Hereford cows.

There was a reduced wean-birth ratio in the “carrier” group
as compared to non-carriers. When birth weight, weaning weight,
type score and slaughter grade of calves from the two groups were
compared, the only significant difference was in birth weights.
When dwarfs and abnormal calves were excluded, this difference
was not apparent.

Comprest animals, snorter dwarfs and longheaded type dwarfs
were produced in a Hereford herd known to contain the snorter
dwarf gene at a high frequency. Comprest, or partial dwarfs, were
produced from the matings of known carriers of the snorter dwarf
trait that were normal or non-comprest in appearance. It is sug-
gested that the longheaded dwarfs produced in this study were
atypical snorter dwarfs.

The most logical genetic explanation of the comprest type cattle
is that they resulted from the presence of the snorter dwarf gene
in the heterozygous condition. Since all snorter dwarf-carriers are
not of a comprest phenotype, either variable penetrance of the
snorter gene or the presence of modifying genes which act in con-
junction with the snorter gene are assumed responsible for the
comprest phenotype.

SNORTER DWARF-CARRIER AND NON-CARRIER CATTLE 161

LITERATURE CITED

BURRIS, M. J., and B. M. PRIODE
1956. Crossbred dwarfs in beef cattle. J. Heredity 47: 245.

CHAMBERS, D., J. A. WHATLEY, and D. F. STEPHENS

1954. The inheritance of dwarfism in a comprest Hereford herd. J. Animal
Sci. 18: 956.

CEU HV:

1956. Genetic and phenotypic performance of Angus, Brahman, Devon
and crossbred cattle at the Everglades Station. Master of Science
in Agriculture Thesis. University of Florida.

GREGORY, P. W.
1955. The genetic relationships of phenotypically different bovine dwarfs.
J. Animal Sci. 14: 1182.

GREGORY, P. W.
1956. Phenotypic forms and genetic relationships of the bovine dwarf com-

plex. J. Animal Sci. 15: 1207.
JOHNSON, L. E., G. S. HARSHFIELD, and W. McCONE
1950. Dwarfism, an heredity defect in beef cattle. J. Heredity 41: 177.

ILAISBE, Wo 1D
1930. “Duck-legged” cattle on Texas ranches. J. Heredity 21: 85.

MU Staejene wan: dy. No HAZEL
1952. Inheritance of dwarfism. The Amer. Hereford J. 42(21): 32.

PAHINISH, ©. F., E. B. STANLEY, an C. E. SAFLEY
1955. The breeding history of an experimental herd of dwarf beef cattle.
J. Animal Sei. 14: 1025.
STONAKER, H. H.
1954. Dwarfism in beef cattle. West. Sect. Proc. Amer. Soc. Animal Prod.
5: 239.
WOODWARD, R. R., R. J. CLARK, and J. N. CUMMINGS

1942. Studies on large and small type Hereford cattle. Montana Agr.
Exp. Sta. Bul. 401.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(3), 1961

OBSERVATIONS ON A DEVICE FOR MEASURING
METABOLIC GASEOUS EXCHANGE WITH
BKLECTROLYTIC OXYGEN PRODUCTION

lke (Ge SeyNeaneraTR, Rk.
NE RenEEenes

U. S. Naval School of Aviation Medicine, U. S. Naval Aviation
Medical Center, Pensacola, Florida

INTRODUCTION

The present studies were begun when our interests were two-
fold: 1) to devise an easily constructed apparatus which would per-
mit a high degree of proficiency and accuracy in measurement of
metabolic gaseous exchange of small mammals, and 2) to study
experimentally the feasibility of a self-regulating means of supply-
ing oxygen for animal consumption by the electrolytic degradation
of water. Our first attempts were relatively successful in both di-
rections. The completion of these earlier studies was delayed by
an interest in further developing the electrolytic supply of oxygen
for animal and human use. We report briefly a description of the
apparatus and some observations on its use.1

APPARATUS
DESCRIPTION

An electrolytic cell with drying tubes fitted with ground-glass
joints comprises the electrolysis unit (Fig. 1). The weight of the
entire electrolysis unit filled with electrolyte and moisture absorber
(calcium chloride) is approximately seventy grams. The anode is
shorter than the cathode and both are of platinum. The electro-
lysis unit is connected to the animal chamber through a ground-
glass joint and by soft rubber tubing, the latter for convenience in
lowering the animal chamber into the water bath. The animal
chamber is fashioned from a 71/60 ground-glass joint with a volume
of approximately 300 milliliters. A small laboratory transformer
furnishes a suitable source of direct current. Current requirement
is small when supplying oxygen for a mouse.

1Some of the work reported was done at the University of Maryland,
College Park, Maryland.

MEASURING METABOLIC GASEOUS EXCHANGE 163

SOFT
RUBBER
TUBING

| THERMOMETER

a Ns in —_ ~~ —-- =

ATHODE ANODE ANIMAL

_ CHAMBER

DRYING DRYING
ARM B ARM C
ELECTROLYTIC HARDWARE-CLOTH
CELL
se CRUMPLED

FILTER

ELECTROLYSIS UNIT PAPER

FIGURE |

APPARATUS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF METABOLIC
GASEOUS EXCHANGE OF SMALL MAMMALS

OPERATION

As the animal consumes oxygen, and carbon dioxide is absorbed
by a standard alkaline solution, pressure within the animal chamber
falls and the electrolyte solution is forced up into contact with the
anode by atmospheric pressure. The resultant production of oxygen
replaces that used by the animal; when the pressure has been re-
turned to atmospheric levels, the electrolyte solution is forced
down below the anode, and oxygen production ceases. Actually,
in practice there is an apparently steady production of oxygen,
and the electrolytic solution is thus kept at a fairly uniform level
on the anode.

Both oxygen and hydrogen leaving the electrolysis unit pass
through drying tubes which are U-shaped to minimize channeling.
Thus, the only loss of weight of the electrolysis unit during a test
is the loss of water as oxygen and hydrogen. Of this loss, 16/18ths
represent oxygen consumed by the animal.

164. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

A number of electrolytes were tested. Most were found unsuit-
able for reasons that will not be discussed since there is now a very
large literature in this field (see Nelson, et al.). For our purpose
IN NaOH was found to be a satisfactory electrolyte solution.

The carbon dioxide is absorbed by 0.2N KOH which is placed
in the well beneath the animal. Since there is no mechanical mix-
ing of the chamber air, free diffusion of the gases between the
animal and the alkali have to be assured, while contamination of
the alkali with urine and feces must be avoided. To accomplish
this the animal is placed on a hardware cloth floor beneath which
there is arranged a waxed, screen-wire cone. Feces cannot pass
through the screen, and the surface tension of the urine prevents it
from passing through the waxed screen. The urine thus flows to
the base of the screen cone where it is absorbed by a small wad of
filter paper. At the completion of a test the excess alkali is titrated
with a standard acid to measure the carbon dioxide bound by the
alkali. The standard alkali solution is prepared by titration against
a standard acid. Thus, the amount of alkali combined with CO.
is determined by two titrations with standard acid. This avoids
error due to the presence of K,CO3; which contaminates even CP
KOH. An alkali which forms an insoluble precipitate with carbon
dioxide is unsuitable since the precipitate may form a film on the
surface, impeding further absorption of carbon dioxide.

Since diffusion and the small air movements caused by the
animal movements are the only means of COs movement to the
alkali, there is a small amount of CO, buildup. In the apparatus
described this does not excede one per cent. The results can be
corrected for this CO, not accounted for by titration but if it is
ignored, only a very small error is incurred.

A few precautions such as avoiding prolonged exposure of the
standard alkali to air, closing the animal chamber before connecting
it to the electrolysis unit to avoid forcing electrolyte solution into
the drying arms, avoiding temperature change during the test, etc.,
which experience readily points out, must be observed in the use
of the apparatus.

PROCEDURE
DATA COLLECTION

Oxygen Consumption. For simplicity, the entire electrolysis
unit (electrolytic cell and drying arms) is weighed as a unit immedi-

MEASURING METABOLIC GASEOUS EXCHANGE 165

ately before and after the test. Oxygen consumption by the animal
is assumed to be represented by 16/18ths of the loss in weight.
If we assume that all common sources of error such as finger
prints, etc., are avoided, the method is accurate to about one part
in 200 when 150 ml. of oxygen have been consumed and the unit
is weighed to the nearest milligram. The drying arms are stoppered
except during the test at which time the outward flow of hydrogen
and oxygen prevents most, if not all, atmospheric moisture absorp-
tion by the calcium chloride.

Carbon Dioxide Production. At the beginning of a test, with
a mouse as the experimental animal, 50 ml. of 0.2N KOH are pi-
petted into the well. At the completion of the test, the K2,COs;
is reacted with an excess of neutral BaCl, to give KCl] and BaCOs, a
soluble neutral salt and an insoluble carbonate, neither of which
takes part in the subsequent titration of the remaining KOH with
a standard acid, 0.1N H:SO,. Carbon dioxide production is cal-
culated from the milliequivalents of KOH bound in K,CO3. Phenol-
phthalein is used as the indicator. The titration is accurate to
approximately one part in 2000, using 0.IN H.SO, and reading
the burette to 0.05 ml. if the animal produces 100 ml. of carbon
dioxide. When KOH and K,COs are titrated against an acid with
phenolphthalein as an indicator, the end point is not precise because
as the solution approaches neutrality, K,CO; takes on a hydrogen
to become KHCO;. If the carbonate is precipitated with BaCls,
this difficulty is avoided.

Measurement of Instantaneous Oxygen Consumption. It has
been demonstrated in the laboratory that by connecting a suitable
voltmeter in the electrical circuit to the electrodes of the electro-
lysis cell, it may be possible to measure the instantaneous oxygen
consumption of an animal in the chamber. In anticipation of the
use of such a method, much work remains to be done on the cali-
bration, electrical values, and sources of error in the apparatus.

POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERROR

Temperature change is not a critical factor in the procedure.
However, if it is not the same at the end of the test as at the be-
ginning, the oxygen volume must be corrected for this change. To
do this the volume of the system and the exact temperature change
must be known. Even the simple precaution of submerging the

166 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

animal chamber in an unregulated water bath at room temperature
usually keeps the temperature nearly constant so that this source of
error can be ignored.

Although theoretically there is no carbon dioxide tension above
a 0.2N solution of KOH, there will be some gaseous carbon dioxide
tension in a system such as the one described here where molecular
movement is by diffusion only. In our chamber carbon dioxide con-
centration is approximately 1%, and since the volume is small, this
source of error is not important in a test of one hour or more. How-
ever, an initial determination of the carbon dioxide tension permits
an approximate but adequate estimation of the error in all succeed-
ing tests with similar animals. Thus, a correction factor is easily
established. Both oxygen and carbon dioxide volumes must be
corrected. Since the correction factor is added to both oxygen and
carbon dioxide volumes, the respiratory exchange ratio (R) is
changed very little, and not at all when it is unity. Oxygen con-
sumption is not markedly affected; for example, a one-hour test for
oxygen consumption with a mouse is in error approximately 3%
if the correction factor is ignored.

STANDARDIZATION OF APPARATUS

Customary techniques were found to be unsuitable for the
standardization of the present apparatus. The smallest alcohol or
acetone lamp which can be kept burning has an oxygen consump-
tion far above the oxygen generating capacity of the electrolytic
cell and, further, the heat generated in a 300 ml. chamber causes
such expansion of the gases as to inactivate completely the electro-
lysis unit, which is in essence a water manometer, by preventing
contact of the anolyte with anode.

The reliability of the technique is dependent upon the accuracy
of the two independent measurements, weighing and titration. The
former is accurate to at least 1 part in 100 (1%) and the latter to
at least 1 part in 1,000 (0.1%).

As an approximate standardization, both R and oxygen con-
sumption were determined on fasting and nonfasting mice. Typical
results are shown in Table I. The values are in the ranges ex-
pected and agree reasonably with the data in Ditmer and Grebe
(1958).

MEASURING METABOLIC GASEOUS EXCHANGE 167

Although our apparatus is designed for mice, hamsters, and
small rats, the instrument can be made suitable for any animal by
changing the size of the components.

TABLE I

METABOLIC RATES AND R VALUES OF MICE
UNDER VARIOUS NUTRITIVE CONDITIONS

Nutritive Oxygen
Condition R Consumption
ml/gm/hr

nonfasting {oa 3.66

4 79 3.46

4 516 3.47

¥ 94 3.43

€ 76 3.41

a 76 3.45
fasting nie, 3.18

i 713 3.24

y 13 4.16

‘ .69 3.49

iv oS 3.46

it 512 3.53

% UP 3.47

i, 0 3.78
long fast .66 3.28

cn 66 3.47

x 64 4.28

SUMMARY

Observations are made on an apparatus and method for the
measurement of oxygen consumption and respiratory exchange
ratio (R) of small laboratory mammals. Oxygen consumption is
measured from the loss in weight of an electrolysis unit and the
CO, production from the amount of standard alkali used to bind
the CO, produced by the animal.

168 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

LITERATURE CITED

NELSON, R. D., W. SULLIVAN, R. TUBBS, D. BUCHANAN, “and
A. BB. CARRE
1958. Electrical generation of oxygen (literature survey), WADC Technical
Report, 57-739. Wright Air Development Center, Wright-Patterson
Air Force Base, Ohio.

DIGIMERE DS. sand Rev GREBE
1958. Handbook of respiration. The Committee on the Handbook of Bio-
logical Data, Division of Biology and Agriculture, The National
Academy of Sciences, The National Research Council, ASTIA NO.
AD-155823.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24 (3), 1961

BIRDS FROM THE PLIOCENE OF JUNTURA, OREGON

PreRcE BRODKORB
University of Florida

During the summers of 1954-1957 Dr. J. Arnold Shotwell made
extensive collections of fossils in Pliocene beds at Juntura, Oregon.
The avian material that he obtained forms the basis of the present
paper, which Dr. Shotwell has kindly allowed to be released in
advance of the other reports. Most of the bird remains from Jun-
tura come from the lower Pliocene, but a few, from locality 2360,
are thought to represent the middle Pliocene.

The avifauna indicates that the climate may have been milder
than at present. This is suggested by the presence of a stork, fla-
mingo, and Old World vulture. Furthermore, three species, a
cormorant, teal, and coot, are smaller than their living representa-
tives, and this also might be construed as a reflection of a warmer
climate, through operation of Bergmannss rule.

Previous Work

Tertiary birds are known from only four other localities in
Oregon. The record begins with an auk from the upper Eocene
Arago group at Sunset Bay in Coos County (A. H. Miller, 1931).
From Willow Creek in Malheur County, Shufeldt (1915) described
four species of water birds of the John Day formation, usually
assigned to the lower Miocene. In the same paper Shufeldt named
a pheasant from Paulina Creek in Crook County, from the “middle
John Day,” which Dr. Shotwell thinks probably represents the upper
Miocene Mascall formation. Three species of birds have been
determined from the middle Pliocene at McKay Reservoir in Uma-
tilla County (Brodkorb, 1958).

In the Pleistocene of Oregon two avian localities are known,
both originally attributed to the Pliocene but now assigned a late
Pleistocene age because of the preponderance of living species.
The avifauna of Fossil Lake in Lake County includes no less than
70 identified species, only 18 of which are extinct. The birds of
Fossil Lake were described by Cope (1878, 1889a, 1889b), Shufeldt
(189la, 1891b, 1892, 1913a, 1913b), Loye Miller (1911), and How-
ard (1946).

170 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The second Pleistocene locality is at Dry Creek in southern
Malheur County. The two species of birds determined (L. Miller,
1944) do not bear out its former assignment to the Pliocene, as one
species is still living, and the other is known only from the late
Pleistocene.

A Recent midden dating 8000 years b.p. is located at Five Mile
Rapids in Wasco County. The large collection of bird bones was
studied by Loye Miller (1957), who reported 16 species, one of
which is extinct.

Acknowledgments. Dr. Hildegarde Howard loaned compara-
tive material of Neophrontops from the Los Angeles County Mu-
seum. The photographs of the tarsometatarsus in Fig. 5 are by
J. Hill Hamon. The other photographs are by Robert D. Weigel.

AVIFAUNA OF JUNTURA
Order PELECANIFORMES Sharpe

Family PHALACROCORACIDAE Bonaparte

Genus Phalacrocorax Brisson

Tarsometatarsus with intercotylar knob smooth; anterior gorge
deep, with proximal foramina leading to hypotarsus; medial face
of inner hypotarsal ridge flat; proximal part of inner shaft ridge
crossed by a wide, oblique furrow; no anterior furrow from in-
ternal cotyla.

Phalacrocorax leptopus, new species
Fig. |

Holotype. Proximal portion of left tarsometatarsus, University
of Oregon Museum of Natural History, no. F-7994. From middle
Pliocene at University of Oregon locality 2360, Juntura, Malheur
County, Oregon. Collected by J. Arnold Shotwell and Donald E.
Russell, summer 1955.

Diagnosis. Resembles Phalacrocorax littoralis (Milne-Edwards.
1863), from the Aquitanian of France, in size and deepness of an-
terior gorge, but differs in having bone more slender; tubercles for
tibialis anticus less pronounced; internal hypotarsal ridge longer.

Differs from Phalacrocorax miocaenus (Milne-Edwards, 1867),
from the Aquitanian of France, in having anterior gorge deeper;
hypotarsal ridge longer; intercotylar knob more pointed and more
elevated; size greater.

BIRDS FROM THE PLIOCENE OF JUNTURA, OREGON 171

Smaller than other fossil cormorants. Narrowest width of shaft,
Salma,

Fig. 1. Phalacrocorax leptopus, n. sp. Holotype tarsometatar-
sus (actual length, 26 mm.) and referred coracoid (actual length,
33 mm.).

Referred material. The material listed below comes from locali-
ties in the lower Pliocene. In the absence of elements comparable
to the type, it is referred because of general agreement in size.

Right metatarsal two, no. F-11287, from locality 2337. Agrees
with the cormorants in having facet short posteriorly, instead of
extending along whole palmar length of neck as in the Anhingidae.
Smaller than the second metatarsal of Phalacrocorax wetmorei

172 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Brodkorb (1955), from the lower Pliocene of Florida, larger than
that of P. miocaenus.

Proximal portion of right scapula, no. F-6583, from locality
2343. Smaller than the scapula of P. wetmorei, larger than that of
P. miocaenus. Length of glenoid facet, 8.3 mm.

Basal portion of left coracoid, no. F-6155, from locality 2343.
Smaller than in P. wetmorei, larger than in P. miocaenus and P.
littoralis. Internal distal angle less produced than in other cormo-
rants seen. Intermuscular line located as in P. wetmorei, more
mediad than in the Miocene forms.

Etymology. From Greek, leptos, slender, and pous, foot.

Order CICONIIFORMES Garrod
Family Criconmpar Selys
Ciconiidae, genus indet.

Referred material. Trochlea of left second metatarsal, no.
F-7995, from locality 2360, middle Pliocene. |

This fragment agrees with the storks and differs from the fla-
mingos in having the metatarsal elongate; excavation of medial
side rounded instead of lengthened; posterior face depressed prox-
imad to articular surface; no shelf running down postero-medial
edge of bone from facet for digit one. It comes from a stork some-
what larger than Recent Mycteria americana and Ibis leucocephala
and is much smaller than the metatarsal of Recent Jabiru mycteria.
As no North American stork is known this early, it undoubtedly
represents an undescribed species but is left unnamed in the ab-
sence of more adequate material.

Order PHOENICOPTERIFORMES Sharpe
Family PALAELODIDAE Wetmore

Stejneger (1885) set up a family for the Tertiary, straight-billed,
flamingo-like birds under the name Palaelodontidae. This spelling
was used through misunderstanding of the etymology of the gen-
eric name Palaelodus Milne-Edwards, which was derived, not from
Greek odous, genitive odontos, tooth, but from Greek palaios, an-
cient, and elodes, inhabitant of marshes, as reference to Milne-
Edwards (1863) shows. Howard (1955) employed the term Paloe-

BIRDS FROM THE PLIOCENE OF JUNTURA, OREGON _ 173

lodidae, but the original orthography of the genus Palaelodus is
with the ligated digraph ae not oe, so the family name must be
emended to Palaelodidae.

Milne-Edwards included three species in his original (1863)
treatment of Palaelodus, without designating a generic type. As
type of the genus I select Palaelodus ambiguus Milne-Edwards,
the first described and commonest species.

Genus Megapaloelodus A. H. Miller

Proximal portion of tarsometatarsus resembles that of Palaelodus
in having hypotarsus complex, but differs as follows: intercotylar
knob high; cotylae shallow; tubercles for tibialis anticus higher on
shaft; hypotarsus wider but more restricted plantad; groove plantar
to first hypotarsal canal wider; second flexor channel a groove,
not a tube.

Megapaloelodus opsigonus, new species
igh e2

Holotype. Proximal portion of left tarsometatarsus, University
of Oregon Museum of Natural History, no. F-5459. From lower
Pliocene at University of Oregon locality 2334, Juntura, Malheur
County, Oregon. Collected by J. Arnold Shotwell and party, sum-
mer 1954.

Fig. 2. Megapaloelodus opsigonus, n. sp. Holotype tarsometa-
tarsus (actual width, 19.6 mm.).

Diagnosis. Very much smaller than Megapaloelodus connec-
tens A. H. Miller (1944), which is 23 per cent larger than the largest
species of Palaelodus. Proximal width, 19.6; width of hypotarsus,

174 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

10.1 mm. As the two species are known from opposite ends of the
tarsometatarsus, further comparison is not yet possible.

Differs from Palaelodus in generic characters as well as in size.
Much smaller than P. goliath Milne-Edwards and P. steinheimensis
Fraas. Slightly smaller than P. crassipes Milne-Edwards. Much
larger than P. ambiguus Milne-Edwards, P. gracilipes Milne-Ed-
wards, and P. minutus Milne-Edwards.

Etymology. Greek, opsigonos, born in a later age, in reference
to the extension of the geologic range of the family. Palaelodus
occurs in Europe from the lower to upper Miocene. Megapaloelo-
dus connectens was described from the lower Miocene of South
Dakota and has been reported from the upper Miocene of Cali-
tormia (Ly Miller, 1952):

Order ANSERIFORMES Garrod
Family ANATipAE Vigors

Subfamily ANSERINAE Swainson

Eremochen, new genus

Type of genus. Eremochen russelli, new species.

Diagnosis. Humerus with head deeper than in other genera of
geese, more produced proximally, and rising at a sharper angle, 35
degrees (38-55 degrees in other genera); external tuberosity located
more distad, nearly on line with internal tuberosity (far in advance
of internal tuberosity in other genera); shaft line straight, directed
toward external edge of head (as in Anabernicula), not curved to-
ward capital groove, with excavated area on anconal surface below
head thus correspondingly wider than in living genera, but not
extending as far proximad; deltoid crest gently curved (as in Anser,
Chen, and Philacte; nearly straight in Anabernicula; abruptly bent
in middle in Branta and Chloéphaga); bicipital crest produced (as
in Branta, compressed in other genera); edge of capital groove
curved in descending from head (as in living Nearctic genera, form-
ing nearly a right angle in Chloéphaga and Anabernicula); location
of latissimus dorsi posterioris as in Chen (more proximal in other
genera).

Etymology. From Greek eremos, desert, and chen, feminine,
goose. The specific name is for Donald E. Russell, who wrote a
master’s thesis on the locality.

BIRDS FROM THE PLIOCENE OF JUNTURA, OREGON 175

Eremochen russelli, new species

Fig. 3

Holotype. Proximal portion of left humerus, University of
Oregon Museum of Natural History, nos. F-5424 and F-5414 (two
joining pieces cataloged separately). From lower Pliocene at Uni-
versity of Oregon locality 2335, Juntura, Malheur County, Oregon.

Collected by J. Arnold Shotwell and Donald E. Russell, summer
iGo:

Fig. 8. Eremochen russelli, n. g. and sp. Holotype humerus

(actual length, 76 mm.) and referred carpometacarpus (actual
height, 24.4 mm.).

Diagnosis. In addition to its generic characters, size separates
this species from all fossil geese of which the humerus has been de-

scribed. Proximal width, 35.3; depth of head, 12.0; length of del-
toid crest, 46.6 mm.

176 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Larger than the Pliocene forms Anabernicula minuscula (Wet-
more, 1924), Branta esmeralda Burt (1929), Branta howardae L.
Miller (1930), and Chen pressa Wetmore (1933). Larger also than
the Pleistocene species Branta hypsibata Cope (1878) and Branta
propinqua Shufeldt (1892).

Smaller than the Miocene species Presbychen abavus Wetmore
(1930) and Paranyroca magna A. H. Miller and Compton (1939).
Smaller also than the Pleistocene Branta dickeyi L. Miller (1924).
Slightly smaller than living Branta canadensis canadensis (Lin-
naeus).

Referred material. Proximal portion of right scapula, no. F-
5872, from locality 2338 (lower Pliocene). Resembles Chloéphaga
in having coracoidal condyle non-pneumatic, but condyle flattened.
Width through neck, 8.6 mm.

Proximal portion of right carpometacarpus, no. F-10477, from
locality 2337 (lower Pliocene). Metacarpal one high as in Chloé-
phaga; pisiform process thicker, with its tip less recurved and less
adpressed to shaft; internal ligamental fossa more deeply excavated
at base of pisiform process than in other geese. Greatest width
through trochleae, 9.2; height through metacarpal one, 24.4 mm.

Right tibiotarsus, no. F-5496, from locality 2344 (lower Pliocene).
This bone is of the right size for the present species, but lacking
both ends, it shows no diagnostic features to separate it from
Branta.

Subfamily ANATINAE Vigors

Genus Querquedula Stephens

Carpometacarpus with pollical facet lacking pronounced inter-
nal overhang, with only a shallow groove between it and pisiform
process; base of metacarpal two without prominent scar distal to
pollical facet; anterior carpal fossa deeply excavated for radiale.

Querquedula pullulans, new species
Fig. 4

Holotype. Proximal portion of left carpometacarpus, University
of Oregon Museum of Natural History, no. F-6289. From lower
Pliocene at University of Oregon locality 2337, Juntura, Malheur
County, Oregon. Collected by J. Arnold Shotwell and party, sum-
mer 1954.

BIRDS FROM THE PLIOCENE OF JUNTURA, OREGON | 177

Diagnosis. Similar to living Querquedula discors (Linnaeus)
and Q. cyanoptera (Vieillot) but trochleae compressed; anterior car-
pal facet narrowly oblique, instead of rounded; metacarpal one
lower, relatively as well as absolutely; size smaller. Proximal
width, 3.6; proximal width of metacarpal two, 3.3; height through
metacarpal one, 8.3 mm.

Fig. 4. Querquedula pullulans, n. sp. Holotype
carpometacarpus (actual length, 16 mm.).

The lower Miocene Querquedula integra A. H. Miller (1944),
described from a coracoid, is said to be identical in size with modern
QO. cyanoptera.

Etymology. Latin, pullulans, sprouting or budding, in allusion
to the small size.

Subfamily MERGINAE Bonaparte

Ocyplonessa, new genus

Type of genus. Ocyplonessa shotwelli, new species.
Diagnosis. Near living Histrionicus Lesson, Clangula Leach,
and Bucephala Baird, but tarsometatarsus slender; anterior surface

178 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of shaft, near base of inner trochlea, depressed and without area
of marked swelling, ungrooved along boundary of fusion of meta-
carpals two and three. Inner trochlea with wing compressed;
distal notch shallow, with its lateral border, when projected, pass-
ing mediad to middle trochlea. Middle trochlea compressed; its
flattened plantar surface short and blending gently into neck of
trochlea. Outer trochlea compressed, with wing short.

Etymology. From Greek okyploos, fast sailing, and nessa, fem-
inine, duck. The specific name is dedicated to the collector.

Ocyplonessa shotwelli, new species
Fig. 5

Holotype. Distal portion of left tarsometatarsus, University of
Oregon Museum of Natural History, nos. F-10485 and F-11291
(two joining pieces cataloged separately). From lower Pliocene at
University of Oregon locality 2337, Juntura, Malheur County, Ore-
gon. Collected by J. Arnold Shotwell and party, summer 1957.

Diagnosis. Near living Histrionicus histrionicus (Linnaeus) in
size, but trochleae more compressed and differing structurally as
described above. Width through trochleae, approximately 8.0;
depth of inner trochlea, 4.9; width of inner trochlea, 2.4; width of
middle trochlea, 3.3; width of outer trochlea, 2.2; width of shaft,
3.1 mm.

Referred material. Proximal end of left tarsometatarsus, no.
F-11288, from the type locality. This specimen may be from the
same individual as the type, as it agrees in color, but the two pieces
do not fit together. Shaft narrow (as in Histrionicus and Clangula);
area distal to outer hypotarsal groove deeply excavated (resembling
Bucephala); attachment for external ligament at level of posterior
opening of outer proximal foramen (as in Histrionicus and Buce-
phala, attachment higher than foramen in Clangula), but attachment
pronounced (as in Clangula); lateral margin of anterior gorge
steeply excavated (as in Clangula and Bucephala, rounded in His-
trionicus); inner extensor groove obsolete (prominent in other
genera).

Complete left carpometacarpus, no. F-5422, from locality 2335
(lower Pliocene). Proximal end with anterior carpal fossa extend-
ing deeply across trochleae; base of metacarpal one much com-
pressed, with groove at either side very deep proximally; pollical

BIRDS FROM THE PLIOCENE OF JUNTURA, OREGON = 179

facet with pronounced internal overhang; side of internal trochlea
with depressions deep, as in Clangula; posterior carpal fossa deeper
than in other genera. Distal end with distal fornix short; tuberosity
of metacarpal two long; metacarpal three strongly curved before
facet for digit three; facets for digits two and three distant. Length,
40.8; height through process of metacarpal one, 9.1; width through
trochleae, 4.1; width of shaft, 3.8; distal fornix, 3.8; distance be-
tween facets for digits two and three, 3.0 mm.

Fig. 5. Ocyplonessa shotwelli, n. g. and sp. Holotype tarso-
metatarsus (actual length, 23 mm.) and referred carpometacarpus
(actual length, 40.8 mm.).

180 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Remarks. The distal end of a carpometacarpus from the Hager-
man lake beds, which I referred to Bucephala sp. (Brodkorb,
1958b), agrees with Bucephala and differs from Ocyplonessa as
outlined above. Its comparable measurements are: distal fornix,
3.8; distance between facets for digits two and three, 2.4 mm.

Order FALCONIFORMES Seebohm
Family ACcrIPITRIDAE Swainson
Subfamily GyPAETINAE Bonaparte
The subfamily name Gypaétinae has exactly one hundred years’
priority over Aegypiinae Peters (1931).
Genus Neophrontops L. Miller

Coracoid with sternal margin nearly straight; sternal facet nar-
rowly encroaching onto anterior face, where interrupted in middle
for about one-fourth distance medial to intermuscular line; scar
of coraco-brachialis at angle of 25 degrees to lower margin of bone;
shaft nearly perpendicular to sternal margin.

Neophrontops dakotensis Compton
Fig. 6

Fig. 6. Neophrontops dakotensis Compton. Referred coracoid
(actual height, 20 mm.).

Referred material. Sternal portion of right coracoid, lacking
hyposternal process, no. F-7996, from locality 2360 (middle Pliocene).
Differs from coracoid of Neophrontops americanus L. Miller (1916),

BIRDS FROM THE PLIOCENE OF JUNTURA, OREGON 181

from the Pleistocene of California, in having anterior intermuscular
line bent laterally before reaching sternal facet; internal distal
angle long and more pointed; posterior sternal facet tapering grad-
ually through its whole width, with pronounced lip along medial
portion of upper border; impression of sternocoracoideus and base
of hyposternal process much larger and higher; size smaller. Width
of sternal end, to anterior intermuscular line, 19.1; width of sternal
facet, 16.5; depth of sternal facet, 6.3; width of shaft at upper end
of coracobrachial scar, 8.3 mm.

Neophrontops dakotensis was described on a fragmentary hu-
merus from the lower Pliocene of South Dakota (Compton, 1935).
The Juntura fossil is referred to this species on the basis of simi-
larity of size and horizon.

Neophrontops vetustus Wetmore (1943), from the middle Mio-
cene of Nebraska, was likewise described on a fragmentary hu-
merus, but smaller than that of N. dakotensis.

Order GRUIFORMES Firbringer
Family RALLIAE Vigors
Genus Fulica Linnaeus

External condyle of tibiotarsus with a foramen in groove for
peroneus profundus; internal ligamental prominence protruding in
anterior aspect; a flat shelf leading from distal opening of tibial
bridge to internal ligamental prominence.

Fulica infelix, new species

Oreh, 7

Holotype. Distal portion of left tibiotarsus, University of Ore-
gon Museum of Natural History, no. F-5758. From lower Pliocene
at University of Oregon locality 2341, Juntura, Malheur County,
Oregon. Collected by J. Arnold Shotwell and party, summer 1954.

Diagnosis. Similar to living Fulica americana Gmelin and Ple-
istocene Fulica minor Shufeldt (1892), with size near the minima of
those two species. Differs in having tibiotarsus with upper border
of supratendinal bridge transverse rather than oblique; internal
ligamental prominence pointed rather than ridge-like, and over-
hung at its upper end by internal condyle; side of external condyle
and groove for peroneus profundus more shallowly excavated; in-

182 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY- OF SCIENCES

ternal condyle relatively large, and external condyle relatively
small, resulting in a lower ratio. Width through condyles, 7.6;
least width of shaft, 3.5; depth of internal condyle, 8.4; depth of
external condyle, 7.4 mm. Ratio of external to internal condyle,
88.1 per cent.

Etymology. Latin, infelix, unhappy, as in Malheur County.

Fig. 7. Fulica infelix, n. sp. Holo-
type tibiotarsus (actual length, 20 mm.).

LITERATURE CITED

BRODKORB, PIERCE
1955. The avifauna of the Bone Valley formation. Florida Geol. Surv.,
Report Invest., 14: 1-57, pl. 1-11.

BIRDS FROM THE PLIOCENE OF JUNTURA, OREGON _ 183

1958a. Birds from the middle Pliocene of McKay, Oregon. Condor, 60:
DoQaZoo we. I, 3

1958b. Fossil birds from Idaho. Wilson Bull., 70: 237-242, fig. 1.
BURT, WILLIAM HENRY

1929. A new goose (Branta) from the lower Pliocene of Nevada. Univ.
Calif. Publ., Bull. Dept. Geol. Sci., 18: 221-224, pl. 20.
COMPTON, L. V.
1935. Two avian fossils from the lower Pliocene of South Dakota. Am.
Jioumesoci ser. ©, SO: 343-348 fio. = 1.
COPE, E. D.

1878. Descriptions of new extinct Vertebrata from the upper Tertiary and
Dakota formations. Bull. U. S. Geol. Geogr. Surv. Terr., 4: 379-396.

1889a. The vertebrate fauna of the Equus beds. Am. Nat., 23: 160-165.
1889b. Silver Lake of Oregon and its region. Am. Nat., 23: 970-982, pl.
AQ=4— text-fg. 1.
HOWARD, HILDEGARDE

1946. A review of the Pleistocene birds of Fossil Lake, Oregon. Carnegie
inctwaviashe Publ.) opis T412195, pl. 1-2.

1955. A new wading bird from the Eocene of Patagonia. Am. Mus. Novit.,
WilOIe25) ne. 1-8.
MILLER, ALDEN H.
1931. An auklet from the Eocene of Oregon. Univ. Calif. Publ., Bull.
Dept, Geol: Scei., 20: 23-26, fic. I.
1944. An avifauna from the lower Miocene of South Dakota. Univ. Calif.
Publ., Bull. Dept. Geol. Sci., 27: 85-100, figs. 1-8.
MILLER, ALDEN H., and LAWRENCE V. COMPTON
1939. Two fossil birds from the lower Miocene of South Dakota. Condor,
Al: 153-156, fis. 34.
MILLER, LOYE

1911. Additions to the avifauna of the Pleistocene deposits at Fossil Lake,
Oregon. Univ. Calif. Publ., Bull. Dept. Geol., 6: 79-87, figs. 1-3.

1916. Two vulturid raptors from the Pleistocene of Rancho La Brea. Univ.
Calif. Publ., Bull. Dept. Geol., 9: 105-109, figs. 1-8.

1924. Branta dickeyi from the McKittrick Pleistocene. Condor, 26:178-

180.

1930. A fossil goose from the Ricardo Pliocene. Condor, 32: 208-209,
fig. 74.

1944. Some Pliocene birds from Oregon and Idaho. Condor, 46: 25-32,
fig. 6.

1952. The avifauna of the Barstow Miocene of California. Condor, 54:
9296-301, figs. 1-2.

184. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

1957. Bird remains from an Oregon Indian midden. Condor, 59: 59-63.

MILNE-EDWARDS, ALPHONSE

1863. Sur la distribution géologique des oiseaux fossiles et description de
quelques espéces nouvelles. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 56:
IOUS 22

1867-1868. Recherches anatomiques et paléontologiques pour servir a lhis-
toire des oiseaux fossiles de la France. Victor Masson et fils, Paris.
Vol. 1, 474 pp., atlas, pl. 1-96.

PEERS) JAMES IEE

1931. Check-list of birds of the world. Harvard University Press, Cam-
bridge. Vol. 1, 345 pp.

SHUBE TDi Re WWE

189la. On a collection of fossil birds from the Equus beds of Oregon. Am.
Nat., 25: 359-362.

1891b. Fossil birds from the Equus beds of Oregon. Am. Nat., 25: 818-821.

1892. A study of the fossil avifauna of the Equus beds of the Oregon
desert. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 9: 389-425, pl. 15-17.

1913a. Contributions to avian paleontology. I. The status of extinct Melea-
gridae. II. Studies of the fossil birds of the Oregon desert. Auk,
30: 29-39, pl. 3.

1913b. Review of the fossil fauna of the desert region of Oregon, with a
description of additional material collected there. Bull. Am. Mus.
INele eligi. Se SEIU fall, Oa2'8\.

1915. Fossil birds in the Marsh collection of Yale University. Trans. Conn.
Acad), “Arts Scie. 19: JenON pls sieis:

STEJNEGER, L.

1885. Birds. In Kingsley, John Sterling. The standard natural history.
S. E. Casino and Company, Boston. Vol. 4, 558 pp., figs. 1-278,
joll, 2X0),

WETMORE, ALEXANDER

1924. Fossil birds from southeastern Arizona. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 64,

eri, Ge ISICy ies, I)

1930. Fossil bird remains from the Temblor formation near Bakersfield,
California. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., ser. 4, 19: 85-98, figs. 1-7.

19338. Pliocene bird remains from Idaho. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 87,
MOM? Oslo wees les:

1943. Two more fossil hawks from the Miocene of Nebraska. Condor, 45:
229-231, figs. 62-63.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(3), 1961

A COMPARISON OF JUPITER’S RADIO SOURCES
WITH ITS VISIBLE MARKINGS !

ALEX. G. SmiTH AND T. D. Carr
University of Florida
and
Maipu Radioastronomical Observatory of the University of Chile

INTRODUCTION

Early in the year 1955 the young American radio astronomers
B. F. Burke and K. L. Franklin (1955) discovered that the planet
Jupiter was emitting occasional outbursts of radio energy. This
was an exciting event in the astronomical world, since it marked
the first time that radio waves from a planet had been recognized.
As soen as the news reached Australia, C. A. Shain (1956) began a
search of an extensive series of radio records which had been made
for another purpose in 1950 and 1951. Not only did Shain find
unmistakable Jupiter signals on 61 of these records, but he was also
able to show immediately that the signals had been received almost
exclusively when one particular face of Jupiter was turned toward
the earth as the giant planet rotated on its axis. This evidence
that the radiation came from a localized region of Jupiter's surface
led at once to speculations that the radio source might be associated
with some visible feature of the planet's disc, and it set in motion
a search for the proper identification which has continued through-
out the intervening six years.

THE VISIBLE MARKINGS

The problem is greatly complicated by the fact that Jupiter is
perpetually shrouded in dense clouds, so that the markings which
we see are merely the tops of these clouds. Although Jupiter is
eleven times the diameter of the earth, it spins on its axis in less
than ten hours, and this rapid rotation causes the clouds to stream
in belts parallel to the equator, giving the planet the character-
istic banded appearance which it displays in Figs. 1 and 2. As
might be expected of cloud formations, individual irregularities or
markings are generally quite ephemeral, lasting a few days, or

1 This work was supported by the National Science Foundation, the Office
of Naval Research, and the Army Research Office—Durham.

186 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

at most months, and thereby discouraging comparison with the
radio signals, which by now are known to have persisted for over
a decade. The four photographs of Fig. 1, all taken with the same
telescope within a two-year period, are characteristic of the rela-
tively great changes which occur in the visual aspect of the planet.
Surprisingly, however, a few long-enduring features have been
recorded, and it is upon these, of course, that attention has been
focussed.

Fig. 1. Four photographs of Jupiter taken in 1920, 1921, and 1922
with the 100-inch telescope of the Mt. Wilson Observatory. Notice the gross
changes which occur in the cloudy “surface” of the planet. Because the astro-
nomical telescope inverts the images, the south pole of Jupiter is at the top of
the photographs.

The most noteworthy of these quasi-permanent markings is the
famous “Great Red Spot”, which is conspicuous as a dark oval in

A COMPARISON OF JUPITER’S RADIO SOURCES 187

Fig. 2. The Red Spot has been traced back with certainty to draw-
ings of Jupiter made as early as 1831, and it is probably identical
with a feature drawn by Hooke in 1664. Thus it has a history of
at least 130 years, and possibly as much as three centuries, a re-
markable life-time for an atmospheric phenomenon (Peek, 1958).
The physical nature of the Red Spot is as yet unknown. Most stu-
dents of the planet have regarded it as a body floating in the dense
atmosphere, and this view is encouraged by the fact that it fre-
quently fades partially or completely from sight, as if it had tem-

Fig. 2. Photograph of Jupiter taken in 1952 with the 200-inch tele-
scope of the Mt. Palomar Observatory. The Great Red Spot appears as the
large, dark oval near the left edge of the disc. Just above the Red Spot, vir-
tually in contact with it, is the long-enduring white spot FA. The small black
spot above FA, just at the top edge of the disc, is the shadow of Ganymede,
Jupiter’s largest satellite. Ganymede itself appears above the upper right edge
of the planet. Jupiter is 89,000 miles in diameter, Ganymede about 3100.

188 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

porarily sunk beneath the topmost clouds. In the upper left-hand
photograph of Fig. 1, the light oval “bay” just above the center
of the planet marks the position of the Red Spot during one of
these periods of disappearance.

In 1801 a conspicuous dark streak parallel to the equator ap-
peared at the latitude of the Red Spot. Known as the “South Trop-
ical Disturbance’, it persisted for four decades, finally fading from
sight in late 1939. During this period its length grew irregularly
from a minimum of 30° of longitude, until it stretched nearly two-
thirds of the way around the planet. Curiously, the Disturbance
rotated faster than the Red Spot, so that every few years it over-
took the latter and passed around it. A total of nine such “con-
junctions’ were observed before the Disturbance disappeared.
Later we will refer to an apparent reincarnation of the Disturb-
ance which occurred in 1955.

The final example of long-enduring features is a group of three
large white spots in the belt just south of the Red Spot. One of
these spots may be seen nearly in contact with the Red Spot in
Fig. 2. The formation of these objects began in 1939 (the year the
South Tropical Disturbance vanished), and they have been ob-
served continuously up until the present time. The three spots are
known simply by the letter designations FA, BC, and DE assigned
to them by the American observer E. J. Reese.

LONGITUDE SYSTEMS

In comparing a visual marking with the radio outbursts, it is
essential to consider the rate of rotation of the marking as well
as its present position. This is a point which has frequently been
overlooked, and one whose importance will shortly be demon-
strated. It is customary to keep track of both position and rotation
rate through reference to a system of longitudes imagined afhxed
to the “surface” of Jupiter. At first glance it may not seem quite
feasible to ascribe a longitude system to a body completely hidden
by clouds, but this after all requires little more imagination than
visualizing meridians inscribed upon the trackless oceans of the
earth. In establishing such a system, one merely postulates that
0° of longitude is at the center of the disc at some given instant,
and that the system thereafter continues to rotate forever at con-
stant speed (Fig. 3). During each succeeding rotation of the planet

A COMPARISON OF JUPITER'S RADIO SOURCES 189

the longitude of the “central meridian’—that is, the line bisecting
the visible disc—increases steadily from 0° to 360°, and by simple
calculation one may determine its longitude at any desired moment.
Thus, by noting the time at which any marking crosses the central
meridian, the longitude of that marking may be established.

JUPITER

O 2 a Distance not to scale =

Fig. 3. Establishment of a longitude system for Jupiter. The ob-
server is looking down on the north pole of the planet, at the instant 0° of
longitude crosses the central meridian. The central meridian remains fixed
with respect to the earth, while the longitude system continues to rotate uni-
formly in the direction of the large arrow. After %4 of a rotation (about 2%
hours) 90° of longitude will be on the central meridian, and so on.

A study of Fig. 3 will show that if a marking rotates more rap-
idly than the longitude system, its longitude will continually de-
crease, while if it rotates more slowly its longitude will increase.
The “drift” of the feature with respect to the longitude system is
thus a measure of its rate of rotation. For keeping track of mark-
ings it is a convenience to minimize this drift, i.e., to define a longi-
tude system which rotates as nearly as possible at the rate of the
features of interest. Since the clouds within about 10° of the
equator rotate considerably faster than those at higher latitudes,
optical astronomers long ago defined separate longitude systems
for the two regions. System I rotates in 9"50"30°.003 and is used
for equatorial markings. System II, rotating in 9°55"40°.632, is
used for the rest of the planet. The American Ephemeris and
Nautical Almanac (published annually by the U. S. Government
Printing Office) contains tables from which the longitude of the
central meridian can readily be determined for either system at
any given time.

190° JOURNAL OF THE BLORIDA’ ACADEMY [OF SCIENCES

Fig. 4 is a plot of the longitude of the Great Red Spot in System
II coordinates for the past quarter-century. The long-term drift
of the Spot indicates that in general it has rotated more slowly
than System II. However, the “wiggles” in the drift curve show
that the motion of the Spot has been far from uniform, and at times
(e.g. in 1935-1938, 1941-1942, and 1953-1954) it has even reversed
its drift and rotated faster than System II. It would, however,
perhaps be more surprising if the motion of such an atmospheric
phenomenon exhibited perfect regularity.

I960

1955

1950

YEAR

1945

1940

1935
120° I60° 200° 240° 280° 320° 360°

LONGITUDE,SYSTEM IL

Fig. 4. Motion of the Red Spot in System II coordinates since 1935.
Data for this figure have been collected from the Jupiter reports of the Journal

of the Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers, and from Peek (1958),
Reese (1958 and 1960), and Squyres (1957).

A COMPARISON OF JUPITER'S RADIO SOURCES LOM

On the average, the Red Spot has been drifting at a rate of
only about 8° per year with respect to System II, indicating that the
mean period of the Spot is within one second of that of the co-
ordinate system. The situation is very different for the long-endur-
ing white spots, whose drift curves are shown in Fig. 5. The pe-
riods of these markings are some 30 seconds shorter than that of
System II, and the drift is so rapid that the spots “lap” the longi-
tude system in little more than a year’s time. It is evident from
the curvature of the lines that these spots also exhibit changes in
their periods of rotation.

YEAR

0° Ig0° 360° 180° 360° — 180° 360° 180° 360° ~—‘180° 36Q° Ig0° 360°
o° o° o° o° 0
LONGITUDE, SYSTEM IL

Fig. 5. Motion of the long-enduring white spots FA, BC, and DE
in System II coordinates. The data are from the same sources as in Figure 4.
Because of the rapid drift of these features, the longitude system has been
iterated (repeated) six times in order better to show the long-term trends.

THE Rapio SOURCES

Observations of the radio signals made in recent years generally
suggest that in addition to the main radio source discovered by
Shain, there are at least two secondary sources at other longitudes
(Smith, 1961; Carr et al, 1961). The reader should be very clear
that the presence of these sources is inferred entirely from the
times at which radiation is received—no existing radio telescope
has sufficient resolving power to make a point-by-point analysis of
the disc of Jupiter, which subtends an angle of less than one minute
of arc as seen from the earth. If, over a period of months, one

192 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

plots the number of times that radiation was received when various
longitudes were on the central meridian of the planet, a histogram
such as Fig. 6 results. The peaks in the histogram are, then, in-
terpreted as indicating the presence of radio sources at the longi-
tudes of those peaks. This method of detecting the sources gives
no indication of their latitudes.

Oh he OT te oe OO seen 360°

Main source

Secondary
source

Tertiary
source

RELATIVE NO. OF OUTBURSTS

LONGITUDE, SYSTEM IL

Fig. 6. Histogram of the number of times 22 megacycle per second
radiation was received from Jupiter when various longitudes of the planet were
turned toward the earth. For convenience in analysis, the planet has been
divided into 5° longitude zones. The data are from the 1960 observations of
the University of Florida Radio Observatory.

Unlike the optical cloud features, the radio sources seem to
maintain an absolutely constant rate of rotation year after year.
Most observers have agreed that this probably means that these
sources are somehow connected with the solid surface of the planet
beneath the dense atmosphere, and that the radio rotation period
is therefore the period of the invisible ball of the planet itself. The
latest determination of the radio period by this observatory (Carr
et al, 1961) has given a value of 9°55"29°.35. Since this figure
agrees within 0.02 second with a value arrived at by an independent
analysis of the radio data by Yale University Observatory (Douglas,
1960), it is believed to be reliable. The difference of some 11 sec-
onds between the radio period and that of System II means that
the radio sources drift almost exactly 100° per year with respect
to System II. As a matter of convenience we have defined a new
longitude system, System III, which rotates at the same rate as
the radio sources (Carr et al, 1958).

A COMPARISON OF JUPITER’S RADIO SOURCES 193

COMPARISON OF THE RADIO AND VISUAL FEATURES

Fig. 7 is a combined plot, on which are shown the drift curves
of the radio sources, the Red Spot, and the long-enduring white
spots. To reduce confusion, the radio sources are represented only
by the drift line of the main source; the other sources would appear
as lines precisely parallel to that of the main source. Similarly, the

YEAR

120° igo?
LONGITUDE, SYSTEM IL

Fig. 7. Drift curves in System II coordinates of the main radio source,
the Red Spot and the long-enduring white spot DE. Shown also are the brief
appearance of a new South Tropical Disturbance nearly coinciding with the
secondary radio source, and a short portion of the drift curve of the spot BC.
The optical data are from the sources of Figure 4, while the radio data are
from Carr et al (1961). The various identifications mentioned in the text are
indicated by the names of the observers concerned.

194 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

three white spots are represented by the drift curve of DE only.
Two facts are immediately obvious. First, all of these features
show quite different rates of rotation. Second, because of the
different rates of rotation, temporary coincidences or conjunctions
in longitude between various features are inevitable. In fact, con-
sidering the several radio sources and the several visual features,
such conjunctions must be relatively frequent. It may be seen
from Fig. 7, for example, that each radio source will pass the Red
Spot once every 3% years. Likewise, each of the three white spots
will pass each radio source every two years.

These accidental coincidences have from time to time led ob-
servers to believe that there might be an association between the
radio signals and one or more of the optical markings. In the first
such instance, Shain (1956) pointed out that during his observa-
tions in late 1951 the main radio source lay very close to the spot
DE (see Fig. 7), and he was encouraged to suggest rather strongly
that the spot was probably the source of the radiation. In late
1955 and early 1956, about a year after their first recognition of
the radio signals, Franklin and Burke (1958) made a series of radio
observations during a period when the main radio source happened
to be in conjunction with the Red Spot. Both Franklin and Burke
and the optical observer Brookes (1956) speculated that the famous
Spot might be the source of the radio energy. (The former were,
however, inclined to suspect already that a difference in rotation
rates might be fatal to this identification.) Brookes further pointed
out that the spot BC was also passing the Red Spot at about the
came time, and he suggested that an interaction between the two
objects could be the cause of the outbursts of radiation (a short
portion of the drift curve of BC has been added to Fig. 7 to show
this conjunction). Very recently the visual observer Chapman
(1961) called our attention to the fact that at the 1960 opposition of
Jupiter (June 20) the main radio source coincided with DE, as
indicated on Fig. 7, while one of the secondary radio sources was
within a few degrees of the center of FA. Unfortunately, because
of the differences in rotation periods, all of these identifications
have been purely temporary, and there is little to suggest that
they represent anything more than predictable coincidences.

What is desired, of course, is an identification of the radio sig-
nals with a visual feature showing the same rotation period. Such
an identification would be permanent and convincing. For a time

A COMPARISON OF JUPITER'S RADIO SOURCES 195

in 1956 and 1957 it appeared that such a relationship had been
established. In late 1955 a conspicuous visual marking appeared
at the same latitude as the noted South Tropical Disturbance
which, as previously mentioned, had vanished in 1939. The new
disturbance showed many of the characteristics of the old one,
including a highly similar rotation period, so that a number of
students of the planet were inclined to believe that they were wit-
nessing a reappearance of the original feature. Of even greater
interest was the fact that the new disturbance coincided almost
exactly in longitude and rate of rotation with the second most in-
tense radio source, as may be seen from the drift lines plotted in
Mcwwedinespresent authors (Carr et al, 1958), and later Kraus
(1959), suggested that the sought-after identification might be at
hand. Unfortunately, the new disturbance disappeared around the
middle of 1957, and has not since been recovered, while the radio
sources continue to perform as before.

SUMMARY

Thus far, the search for an optical counterpart of the radio
sources has been a history of false starts and disappointments.
Certainly, the few well-known semi-permanent visual features
seem by now to have been excluded. If an identification ever is
established, it may well be with relatively inconspicuous and tran-
sient optical features which show a tendency to recur with the
proper periodicity. The noted observer and student of Jupiter,
E. J. Reese, has, for example, called attention to a remarkable series
of eruptions of spots in the so-called South Equatorial Belt (Peek,
1958; Reese, 1958). If one assumes a longitude system rotating
with a period of 9°55"42°.66, all of these eruptions then have begun
at the same longitude. Reese suggested that this period might be
that of the solid ball of the planet, and that the eruptions could be
occurring over the site of an active volcano. While the period
indicated in this case conflicts with the radio data, it is conceivable
that similar phenomena of the desired periodicity may yet be dis-
covered. Or, as some of the radio data now hint, the radio out-
bursts may be phenomena of the outer atmosphere of Jupiter,
linked to the surface only through the planet's magnetic field (Smith,
1961). In this event there may be no associated optical effects and
the long search described here will have been in vain.

196 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY-OF SCIENCES

LITERATURE CITED
BROOKES, R. G.

1956. Jupiter in 1955-56; Special Report on Radio Radiation. Journ. Assoc.
Lunar and Planetary Observers, 10: 13-17.
BURKE, B. F., and K. L. FRANKLIN
1955. Observations of a Variable Radio Source Associated with the Planet
Jupiter. Journ. Geophysical Research, 60: 213-217.
CARR, &. Dy, ALEX. €. SMITE! Hy BOLEHAGENS NES erand
Ne Ee CHAE LE RTON
1961. Recent Decameter-Wavelength Observations of Jupiter, Saturn, and
Venus. Astrophysical Journ., 134: 105-125.
CARRE tf) D> ALEX. GCG SMITH, Re PEPPER and (G3 Hes BAO
1958. 18-Megacycle Observations of Jupiter in 1957. Astrophysical Journ.,
127: 274-288.
CHAPMAN, CLARK

1961. Private communication.

DOUGEAS, J. N:
1960. Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University.

FRANKLIN, kK. L., and B. F. BURKE

1958. Radio Observations of the Planet Jupiter. Journ. Geophysical Re-
search, 63: 807-824.

TIRVANWUISSS I> 1D):

1959. Radio Observations of Jupiter. Proceedings of the IRE, 47: 82.
PEEK Be Me

1958. The Planet Jupiter. Macmillan Co., New York, 283 pp.

REESE, E. J.

1958. Private communication.
1960. Private communication.

SHAIN, G. A:
1956. 18.3 Mc/s Radiation from Jupiter. Australian Journ. Physics, 9:
GIES:

SMITH, ALEX. G.
1961. The Radio Spectrum of Jupiter. Science, 134: 587-595.

SQUYRES, H. P.

1957. Private communications.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(3), 1961

*INQUILINIC PROTOZOA FROM FRESHWATER GASTRO-
PODS. I. TRICHODINA HELISODURIA N. SP. FROM
HELISOMA DURYI SAY, IN FLORIDA

EUGENE C. BOVEE
University of Florida

Since Ehrenberg (1838) recorded Trichodina pediculus Ehr.
from Hydra spp., over 70 descriptions of ciliates assigned to the
genus have appeared. Recently the morphology and systematics
of the genus, its subgenera and species have been reviewed by Lom
(1958), and by Uzmann & Stickney (1954).

Fishes, freshwater or marine, are hosts for most species, 53
trichodinid species being so associated. Amphibians are hosts to
12 spp.; molluscs to 10 spp.; echinoderms to 5 spp.; and one species
each has been found in or on Hydra, turbellarian worms, an echiu-
roid, and a sponge (Lom, loc. cit.; Uzmann & Stickney, loc. cit.).

Only three species of Trichodina from gastropods have been
described, those being T. patellae from France (Cuenot, 1893),
T. tegula from marine turban-shells, (Tegula spp.) along the Pacific
Coast of California (Hirschfield, 1949), and T. sphaeronuclea from
the snail, Schistophallus orientalis, in Poland (Kazubski, 1958).
Four different trichodinids from fresh water snails in California
were reported and named by Richards (1949), who failed, how-
ever, to describe them other than in his unpublished thesis (1948).
Penn (1958) has recently reported trichodinids from freshwater
snails in Iowa, but has not described them.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In November 1959, several snails, Helisoma duryi Say, were
taken from the Grove Hall Pond on the campus of the University
of Florida in Gainesville. Each had a number of trichodinids in
the pulmonary sac. Other snails of the same species taken from
nearby ponds on the campus (within a %4 mile radius) did not have
them; nor did apulmonate freshwater snails from the same and
other ponds.

I examined the living trichodinids with bright-field, and vari-
able phase-contrast interferometric microscopy at 100X to 1000X;

* This study is adjunct to those supported by NIH Grant E-1158, through
the Biology Department, University of Florida.

198 _ JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

and made measurement at dark-phase contrast setting at 400X
by means of a calibrated ocular micrometer. A research micro-
scope lamp (set at Kohler adjustment, and equipped with heat
absorbent glass, “daylight” blue, ground-glass, and sodium-green
glass filters, used singly or in combinations) provided the light.

Twenty-eight organisms from five separate snails were observed
in detail while alive; measurements being taken of them. Others
were seen but not measured. Four of the 28, in a single group
pipetted from the pulmonary sac of a single snail, were fixed in
formalin and observed before and after staining. Seven others,
in another such group, were anesthetized slowly by .02% NiSO,
solution, so that ciliary placement and numbers were observed
in live specimens. The formalin-fixed and anesthetized organisms
were also stained with chloroform-extracted methylgreen to extend
observations made by interferometric microscopy on the dimen-
sions and positions of nuclei.

OBSERVATIONS

Criteria for specific identification employed by Diller (1928),
Fauré-Fremiet (1943), and Dogel (1940), as elaborated by Lom
(1958), were used to distinguish the species of the trichodinids.

These criteria when applied to the organisms showed them to
be of a new species assignable to the genus Trichodina, subgenus
Trichodina Ehrenberg 1830. Although it closely resembles the or-
ganism called T. helisomarum by Richards in his unpublished
thesis (1948) there are significant differences. It also somewhat
resembles the Trichodina sp., which Diller (1928) found on tad-
poles; and the T. urinicola f. bohemica Lom (1958), from newts.

Body shape: The general form is that of a bell, or cloche hat,
when contracted in the free-swimming stage (Fig. 1); or more
broadly bell, or hat-shaped (Figs. 2, 4) if it has only recently re-
leased its posterior disc from a holdfast attachment. The body
is much flatter when adhering to a substrate.

Size: When flattened against the substrate, the posterior disc
of this trichodinid is from 59 to 76 » in diameter. The majority of
those measured were between 68 and 73 » when the disc was
fully flattened and adherent, with a mean of 70 » and an average
of 69.5 uw. The top of the mound of the body mass is 20 to 24 p
above the level of adhesion (Fig. 1). In contracted swimming

Senay fo)
ce Aes eae coli esr ze ae Oy a

Mh ‘
Bip
fbr Md
AG 5 7) l
ae AY

TW, Dae
“yyy, My

Lf
by

a oe
Misia

y
We
“i 7

Fig. 1. Trichodina helisoduria n. sp. viewed laterally, looking towards the
cytopharyngeal vestibule. The meganucleus (ME), micronucleus (MI), and con-
tractile vacuole (CV) with its excretory duct are shown in the vicinity of the
vestibule as internal structures. A cut-away at the lower right of the figure
shows the border of the striated membrane (BSM), the inner velar fold (IVF),
the main velar membrane (MVM), and the accessory velar fold (AVF), the
fine cilia (C2), and the slightly overlapping membranelles (C,).

Fig. 2. Another lateral view turned 90° to the viewer’s right from the
previous figure, showing the projecting lip of the cytopharyngeal vestibule.

Fig. 3. The basal adhesive disc, shown flattened and without cilia, de-
picting the central, clear, circular portion, surrounded by the striated mem-
brane with its denticles, radial pins and fine peripheral striations (which mark
the positions of the C:. cilia), and the borders of the inner and main folds of
the velar membrane.

Fig. 4. Another lateral view of the organism showing the flattened con-
dition just after the release of the adhesive disc from its attachment to the
substrate.

Fig. 5. Enlargement of a single denticle from the adhesive disc; y = the

length of the ray; s = the diameter of the base of the centrum; x = the length
of the blade; d = the length of the centrum.

200 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

form, the body is 38 to 45 » high from the edge of the velar border
to the adoral surface; less when not contracted, with the diameter
across the edges of the velar membrane measuring 45 to 51 u
(Fig. 3). Body diameter just above the adhesive disc is 38 to 42 uy.

Adhesive disc: This organelle consists, when flattened, of (1)
a circular central pellicular part 11 to 13 » in diameter, surrounded
by (2) a striated membane 1 to 18 » diameter (with radial pins 11
to 13 » long and border membrane, 2 » in width). This membrane
supports (3) a denticulate ring 25 to 28 » in diameter at the centra
of the denticles. Peripheral to the border membrane is (4) a velum,
composed of an inner fold 1.5 to 2 » in width, a main velar fold 7
to 8 » wide, and an external accessory fold, which is scarcely more
than a ridge (Fig. 3).

The radial pins of the membrane are about 1 » in diameter,
and are sometimes in pairs, separated by pellicular furrows; but
more often are equal in diameter and in length and are unpaired
and separated by furrows. There are from 5 to 8 radial pins per
denticle, usually 6. The striations of the border membrane are
much more numerous, 22 to 25 per denticle, and finer, about 0.4 u
in diameter, barely discernible without staining.

The denticles number. from 21 to 32, the majority of organisms
having 27 of them. The ray of the denticle! is 6 to 9 » long (Fig.
5), very nearly straight, tapering, with a very slight groove along
its length, about 1.2 » wide at the base adjacent to the centrum,
tapering to a slender, slightly rounded tip. The centrum of the
denticle is a hollow cone, 2.5 to 3 » in diameter at the base of the
cone,? tapering to a pointed tip, with a slight external shoulder
about 3.2 » below the tip of the cone. Its conical, central cavity is
about 1.4 » in diameter at the base, penetrating 4.8 to 5.2 » into
the centrum, regularly tapering. The blade of the denticle has
an x-length of 6.4 to 7.2 yw, and is broadly sickle-shaped, with a
slightly thickened ridge parallelling the posterior curve of the
sickle) (Hig) 5). "Length of the denticle® 1s 8:6) to 10:29

Ciliary distribution: The least conspicuous of the ciliary struc-
tures are the delicate cilia which project from between the inner
velar fold and the edge of the finely striated basal membrane
(Fig. 1), being the “C;” cilia of Lom (1958). There are several

1 y-portion in Lom (1958).
> s-breadth.
* The d-length.

PROTOZOA FROM FRESHWATER GASTROPODS 201

hundred in the circlet. They can be seen clearly by phase-micro-
scopy, and measure 0.3 » in diameter at the base, tapering to barely
resolvable at the tips, being about 4.5 » long.

The most conspicuous of the ciliary structures are the mem-
branelles in a circlet extended from the fundus between the velum
and its inner accessory fold and projecting beyond the velum for
half, or more, of their lengths. These are composed of six cilia
(sometimes five) in a zig-zag row (or perhaps two offset adjacent
rows) slightly diagonal to that theoretical radius of the posterior
disc which passes through each. Each of these five or six cilia has
a separate basal granule. They are adhered for slightly more than
half their lengths from the bases, the tips being free. In diameter
these cilia are each about 1.2 » at the base, tapering to less than
0.5 » at the tip. They vary in length in any one membranelle, 15.5
to 21 » (Figs. 1, 2, 4).

No marginal cilia anterior to the velum were found, except in
one individual which had a few very delicate ones as seen from one
side in optical section, anesthetized with NiSO,, and under phase-
microscopy. If regularly present in the species they are so deli-
cate as to scarcely discernible.

The cilia of the adoral zone are in two rows of spirally-arranged,
heavy, perhaps compound cilia (cirri, or short membranelles) wind-
ing counterclockwise along the outer wall of an adoral, spiral
groove when observed from above the mouth, ultimately entering
the cytopharynx. The two rows, which are offset to one another,
complete a 360° turn and a little more before they diverge from
one another. The outer row or haplocinetie, continues along a
slightly extended lip of the cytostome, making nearly 320° of turn
before it spirals along the back wall of and into the cytopharyngeal
vestibule. Within that it completes the circle, and completes an-
other 360° spiral before ending near the cytostome proper. The
inner row, or polycinetie, upon divergence from the outer row de-
scends steeply into the cytopharyngeal vestibule, completing 1%
turns, becoming out of phase 180° with the haplocinetie but end-
ing near the end of that row close to the cytostome. The cilia in
the haplocinetie are slightly larger in diameter (1.5 ») than those
of the polycinetie. Cilia in each row measure about 6 p» to 8
long. ae

Nuclei: There is one C-shaped meganucleus (macronucleus)
just above and almost congruent with the inner circle of the centra

202. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of the denticles. Its outer diameter is 23 to 25 y; its inner diameter
16 to 17 ». In length, extended, it would measure 52 to 55 p, be-
ing normally bent into about 6/7 of a circle. The left end of the
meganucleus [as seen from the oral pole] lies in the plane of its
circle; but the right end is curved adorally out of the plane of the
circle, passing just adoral of the cytostome. In cross section the
meganucleus is very nearly cylindrical, about 5 ,» in diameter.
It is less in stained organisms by about 0.75 p (Fig. 1).

The micronucleus is a dense sphere, 1.8 to 2.1 » diameter, lying
just within the circumference of the circle described by the inner
border of the meganucleus; and being 5° to 7° of the circle beyond
the left end of the meganucleus; and located just beneath the
vestibular lip of the cytopharynx (Fig. 1). It lies in approximately
the same plane as the circle of the meganucleus.

Contractile vacuole: This organelle is spherical, vesicle-fed,
lying within and just adoral to the arc formed by the right end of
the meganucleus. It measures 5-6 » diameter at beginning of sys-
tole; and empties to the cytopharynx by way of a short, permanent
duct about 2 » long and 1.5 » diameter.

Food vacuoles: There are usually several of these present,
clustered around the outer border of the meganucleus, measuring
2.5 to 4.5 » diameter, containing food in various stages of disinte-
gration. The nature of the food was not determined.

Cytoplasm: The general ground substance of the cytoplasm
appears colorless to grayish, and finely granular. No zoochlorellae
are present. The course of fibrils in the plasm was not clearly de-
termined, although this could be seen is fixed and stained speci-
mens.

Host specificity: Not clearly determined; but the organism was
not found except in the one locale, and then only in the pulmonary
sac of Helisoma duryi.

Trichodina helisoduria n. sp.

Diagnosis: Inquilinic in pulmonary sac of the freshwater snail,
Helisoma duryi. Bell to hat-shaped. Diameter of body above
adhesive basal disc 38-42 ». Height of body 38 to 45 » from edge
of velar border of swimming form to adoral crown. Flattened
basal disc 59 to 76 » diameter, average 69.5 ». Basal disc has cen-
tral area 11-13 «» diameter; striated membrane 16-18 » diameter;

PROTOZOA FROM FRESHWATER GASTROPODS 203

border membrane 2 » wide; supports denticulate ring 25-28 p» di-
ameter across the denticular centra. Peripheral velum has inner
fold, main velar fold, and external accessory ridge. Radial pins
number 5-8, usually 6, per denticle, about 1 » diameter, separated
by furrows; measure 11-13 » long. Border membrane finely stri-
ated. Denticles 21-32 in number, usually 27; denticular length
§.6-10.2 »; ray-length, 6-9 »; centrum, 2.5 to 3 » diameter; blade
length 6.4 to 7.2 », ray slightly grooved; blade slightly ridged near
posterior curve. Slender delicate ring of cilia from edge of basal
membrane, 150 to 200 in number, approximately one per radial
pin, 1 » diameter, 4-5 » long. Circlet of heavy membranelles be-
tween inner and major velar folds, 55-65 in number (about 2 per
denticular length), 5-6 cilia per membranelle (1.5 » diameter;
17-20 » long) fused near bases. Two rows; adoral cilia; each 1.5 p
diameter at base, 6-8 » long, over 200 per row, in a spiral of about
405°-410° before entry of either into cytostome. Inner (polycinetie)
row circles 180° out of phase with outer (haplocinetie) row in cyto-
pharynx. Meganucleus 52-55 » long, 5 » diameter, bent into 6/7
circle, which is about 20 » diameter, left end bent slightly adorally.
Micronucleus dense, about 2 » diameter just within circle of mega-
nucleus and 5° to 7° beyond left end of meganucleus. Contractile
vacuole single, vesicle fed, empties into cytopharynx.

DISCUSSION

In view of the recent papers by Uzmann & Stickney (1954) and
by Lom (1958) in the Journal of Protozoology no detailed discus-
sion of the genera and subgenera, species and forms within species,
and the characters thereof is warranted here.

Reference is made to those excellent works; and to earlier works
of Diller (1928), Dogel (1940), Faurét-Fremiet and his co-workers,
Mugard and Thaureux (1924, 1943, 1946) and to other references
cited by Uzmann and Stickney (loc. cit.) and by Lom (loc. cit.).

Table I shows a comparison of the characteristics of T. heliso-
duria n. sp. and those of other species which it resembles [T. urini-
cola f. bohemica, and T. helisomarum] and of others from which
it is quite distinct [T. myicola and T. xenopodis]. It is plainly sim-
ilar to T. helisomarum; less so to T. urinicola £. bohemica; definitely
distinct from T. xenopodis; and still more distinct from T. myjicola.

The similarity to Richard’s (1948) T. helisomarum is marked,
but there are distinct differences. Richard’s organism is larger,

204 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

and from a different species of snail (Helisoma tenue). The con-
cave margin cited by Richards for T. helisomarum is not present
in T. helisoduria n. sp. The number of denticles in the ring is
greater in T. helisomarum, and the diameter of the denticulate ring
larger; but the blade of the denticle is shorter in T. helisomarum
than in T. helisoduria n. sp. The latter has the fewer radial pins
per denticle.

Furthermore, Richards says in his thesis that he found T. heliso-
marum only in Helisoma tenue; and he was unable to cross infect
other species of snails or other animals (i.e. Planaria, Hydra) with
T. helisomarum. In another, unidentified species of Helisoma he
found no trichodinids. Short time of survival outside the host is
not a factor preventing transfer for T. helisomarum, since it lives
as long as 14 days free in a hanging drop (Richards, 1948). It
may be that it cannot enter or is repelled by, or itself rejects
other hosts.

T. heliosoduria n. sp. seems to exhibit a marked host-specificity,
also, having been found only in a single species of snail, and in a
population of that species from a single pond from an area where
that species and other species of snails are abundant in many ponds
of similar character.

It seems reasonable that T. helisoduria n. sp. is not the same
as T. helisomarum, even though closely related morphologically,
and found in a host snail of the same genus. I believe the evolu-
tionary processes leading to specific differences in the snails may
well have resulted in specific differences in these two Trichodina
spp., both morphologically and in host-specificity.

SUMMARY

1. An inquilinic peritrichous ciliate of the genus Trichodina is
reported from the pulmonary sac of the freshwater snail, Helisoma
duryi Say, in Florida.

2. It is compared morphologically to other Trichodina spp.,
and is shown to be similar to Trichodina helisomarum reported by
Richards (1949), but not described by him in published literature,
and similar also to Trichodina sp. (Diller, 1928) from tadpoles, and
Trichodina urinicola f. bohemica from newts (Lom, 1958); but
different from other Trichodina spp.

3. It is described and depicted, and differentiated as a distinct
organism, Trichodina helisoduria n. sp.

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206 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

LITERATURE CITED
CUNO Rte:
1893. Infusoires commensaux des Ligiés, Patelles et Arénicoles. Rev. Biol.
Nord France, 4: 81-89.
IDIVILIBRS Wye 18
1928. Fission and endomixis in Trichodina from tadpoles. J. Morph., 46:
Denes ole
DOCEE WaPAr
1940. On the classification of the genus Trichodina. Trudy Len. Obsh.
liestiestvoispitatielei, 68: 8-31.
FANTHAM, H. B.
1924. Some parasitic protozoa found in South Africa. II. S. Africa J. Sci.,
21: 485-444.
FAURE-FREMIET, E.
1943. Etude biométrique de quelques Trichodines. Bull. Soc. Zool. France, °
68: 158-169.
FAURE-FREMIET, E., and H. MUGARD
1946. Une trichodine parasite endovésicale chez Rana esculenta. Bull.
Soc. Zool. France, 71: 36-38.
FAURE-FREMIET, E., and J. THAUREUX
1944. Proteins de structure et cytosquelette des Urceolaires. Bull. Biol.
France et Belg., 78: 143-156.
IS JORSCISURUSILIDE 18

1949. The morphology of Urceolaria karyolobia, sp. nov., Trichodina tegula
sp. nov., and Scyphidia ubiquita sp. nov., three new ciliates from
southern California limpets and turbans. J. Morph., 85: 1-28.

KAZUBSKI, S. L.

1958. A contribution to the systematics and morphology of endoparasitic
(Peritricha: Urceolaridae) in Schistophallus orientalis Cless. (Pulmo-
nata: Zonitidae) in Poland. Acad. Polonaise Sci. Ser. Sci. Biol.,
6: 109-112.

LOM, J.

1958. A contribution to the systematics and morphology of endoparasitic
trichodinids from amphibians, with a proposal of uniform specific
characteristics. J. Protozool., 5: 251-263.

PENN, J. H.

1958. Studies on ciliates from molluscs of Iowa. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci., 65:
519-534.

PROTOZOA FROM FRESHWATER GASTROPODS

i)
=)
|

RICHARDS, C. S.

1948(49). Descriptions and host relations of four species of Trichodina from
freshwater mollusks. Unpublished Dissertation, Stanford University
(abstract in Diss. Absts. Stanford U. 24: 94-95).

UZMANN, J. R., and A. P. STICKNEY

1954. Trichodina myicola n. sp., a peritrichous ciliate from the marine
bivalve, Mya arenaria L. J. Protozool., 1: 149-155.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(3), 1961

“INQUILINIC PROTOZOA FROM FRESHWATER GASTRO-
PODS. Il. ‘CALLIMASTIX JOLEPSI N, SP. ERONMEDELE
INTESTINE OF THE PULMONATE FRESH-
WATER SNAIL, HELISOMA DURYI
SAY, IN FLORIDA

EUGENE C. BOVEE
University of Florida

The genus Callimastix was originated by Weissenberg (1912)
for a parasitic, polymastigote protozoan which he found in the
hemolymph of the copepod crustacean, Cyclops strenuus. He be-
lieved the genus to be related to Lophomonas; and he named it
Callimastix cyclopis. Recently, Vavra (1960) has reported the
same species from related copepods, Mesocyclops leuckartii and
Megacyclops viridis. It has not otherwise been reported from other
invertebrates. Other species, from the intestinal tracts of herbiv-
orous mammals, have been reported as: (1) Callimastix frontalis
from ruminants (Braune, 1913), from ruminants in South America
(da Fonseca, 1915), from cattle (Becker and Talbott, 1927), and
from the Indian goat (Das-Gupta, 1935); and (2) Callimastix equi,
from the horse (Hsiung, 1929, 1930). The latter species is consid-
ered by some to be identical with C. frontalis (Grassé, 1953), and
distinct by others (Kudo, 1954; Hall, 1953).

Da Fonseca (1915) set up the family Callimastigidae for the
genus. The family is recognized by Hall (loc. cit). and Kudo (loc.
cit.) as resident in the polymastigote order of zooflagellates. It
is also recognized by Reichenow (1952), but only as appendant to
the family Hypermastigidae in the polymastigote order. The family
is also mentioned by Grassé (loc. cit), but he does not recognize it,
and he does not place the genus in any recognized affinity with any
other family or order of zooflagellates.

During November of 1959, my attention was directed to a poly-
mastigote flagellate from the intestine of a specimen of the fresh-
water, pulmonate snail, Helisoma duryi Say. I identified it as a
species of Callimastix. Further study of numerous specimens of
the protozoan from other individual snails of the indicated species

* This study is adjunct to those supported by NIH Research Grant E-1158,
through the Biology Department, University of Florida.

PROTOZOA FROM FRESHWATER GASTROPODS 209

showed that it differs morphologically, as well as in the host which
supports it, from C. cyclopis, C. frontalis, and C. equi. I propose
that it be called Callimastix jolepsi n. sp., hereinafter described.1

MATERIALS AND METHODS

About fifty snails of the species Helisoma duryi were collected
during late November, and in December 1959, and in January 1960,
from a shallow surface pond (Grove Hall Pond) on the campus of
the University of Florida at Gainesville, Florida. The snails were
kept in a laboratory at about 20° to 22° C, in a loosely covered
quart glass jar which contained water from the pond, green and
blue-green algae, a variety of vegetable detritus, and an association
of planktonic algae, protozoa and microcrustacea.

The intestinal contents of each snail was expelled into a sep-
arate small dish containing 10 to 20 cc of an invertebrate saline
(Neff, 1957). Aliquots (0.5 ml) were pipetted, each to a clean micro-
scope slide, and covered with a coverslip. The area thus prepared
was scanned for the presence of callimastigid protozoa. Five
snails were found to be infected, one very heavily so.

Microscopic observations were made on living organisms, and
of organisms fixed in formalin, but not stained. Both bright-field
and variable-phase-contrast interferometric microscopy were used
at 100X to 1000X magnifications. A standard research-type micro-
scope lamp, set for Kohler illumination, provided light. Filters
employed were “daylight” blue, sodium-green, ground-glass, and
heat-absorbent glass, singly and in combinations.

Measurements were made at 400X under interferometric, dark-
phase-contrast illumination, with sodium-green filter, by means of
a calibrated ocular micrometer.

About 150 organisms were examined, 125 of them critically.

OBSERVATIONS

Size and Shape: Most of the individual protozoans were be-
tween 15 and 18 » long, a few as short as 11 p», and one was 20 p»
long. The broad diameter varied from 12 to 16 »; and the nar-

' The specific name for this protozoan is proposed in grateful acknowledge-
ment to Mrs. Josephine Leps Patterson who brought this organism to my at-
tention during her studies on some protozoan associates of aquatic inverte-
brates for a senior biology major research problem.

Fig. 1. Lateral view of the organism’s right aspect, showing the cup-
shaped depression and apical cilia at the upper right. The nucleus is the
large spherical object in the center of the body. Crystals, amorphous bodies,
globules and granules are shown as inclusions. Striations of the pellicle are
shown in dotted lines.

Fig. 2. An apical view of a living organism showing the position of the
flagella just before being snapped forward over the cup-shaped depression
in the rhythmic beat of the flagella.

Fig. 3. A postero-lateral view of the organism.

Fig. 4. An antero-lateral view of the organism looking towards the cup-
shaped depression.

Inclusions other than the nucleus are omitted from Figs. 2, 3, and 4.

PROTOZOA FROM FRESHWATER GASTROPODS 21}

rower diameter from 10 to 13 ». The shape is egg-like from one
lateral view (Fig. 1), and broadly oval from the aspect 90° rotated
(Fig. 4). The contour viewed polarly is spherical to elliptical
(Fig. 2). At the flagellar pole there is a cup-shaped depression on
one broader surface, the apical rim of which bears the flagella
(Figs. 1-4).

Flagella: These organelles extend from separate kinetosomes
at the apical rim of the cup-shaped depression, appearing as a
tangled brush in fixed specimens, but beating in well-coordinated
unison in the living individual (Figs. 1-4). There were no fewer
than 7 and no more than 11 flagella on any of the specimens studied.
The majority of the organisms observed had 9 or 10 flagella. On
live specimens each flagellum measured 25 to 30 » long (the longer
ones on the larger organisms), were about 0.25 » in diameter at the
bases, with a distinct, slightly swollen kinetosome at the base of
each, tapering regularly to the tips which were barely resolvable.
The flagella of the fixed organisms were somewhat contracted
measuring 18 to 26 » long, and about 0.3 thick at the bases and
about 0.25 » at the tips.

Nucleus: This organelle is globular, with a distinct endosome
which is still more distinct in fixed specimens (Fig. 1). In the
living protozoan the nucleus is about 3 » diameter (+ 0.35 »); and
the endosome about 2 » diameter (+ 0.25 »). In fixed specimens
both nucleus and endosome are slightly smaller in diameter.

Contractile Vacuole: None is present.

Other Inclusions: Irregular granules, 1.2 to 2.7 » long, and
highly refractile, are abundant in the cytoplasm, except in the thin
zones beneath the cup-shaped depression. Other barely identi-
fiable, barely resolvable granules are also present; as well as small
refractile globules 0.2 » to 1.5 » diameter (Fig. 1). The cytoplasm
appeared to “glow” with the light refracted by these inclusions,
particularly under interferometric microscopy.

Outer Surface: There is a thin lightly-striated pellicle (Fig. 1)
which gives a rigidity to the body which resists pressure and de-
formation. The striations are quite distinct on some individuals,
and but barely noticeable on others, even absent or not resolvable
on some.

212 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

DISCUSSION

A recent, brief report on Callimastix cyclopis (Vavra, 1960), in-
dicates that it undergoes a cyclic pattern of development in its
hosts. It begins as a globular, unflagellated “larva” in the hemo-
lymph; then becomes flagellate (with no less than two flagella)
and escapes from the cephalothoracic cavity of the host. The form
with 9 flagella, originally reported by Weissenberg (1912), Vavra
(loc. cit.) says he rarely saw; but he did find individuals with 8, 4,
or 5 flagella, frequently.

Vavra (loc. cit.) also states that survival of the flagellates was
limited outside the host, in fresh water. They lived but a few
hours at low temperature (5° C), and died quickly at “room tem-
perature’. This would imply a possible host-dependent relation-
ship, requiring the protozoan to be ingested promptly by another
host individual, if the survival is to be continued.

Since the flagellated stage with many flagella (i. e. more than 9)
is not reported from any copepodian host; and species with more
than 9 flagella are reported only from the intestinal tracts of verte-
brate herbivores (and here from a molluscan herbivore), it seems
possible that the life cycle of the protozoan may involve two hosts,
with the copepod harboring larval forms, and another larger herb-
ivore, molluscan or vertebrate, harboring the more adult forms.
Such a conclusion requires further study, including infective ex-
periments involving transfer from one host to another potential
host, before it may be accepted.

Pending such studies and the results of them, the present rea-
sonable approach is to describe the organism from the snail as a
new species, since it differs morphologically from all other de-
scribed species of Callimastix, and is identified in association with
an invertebrate host not previously known to harbor any member
of the genus.

C. jolepsi n. sp. differs principally in shape, and in number of
flagella from other species of the genus. It is egg-shaped with the
narrow end bearing the flagella and the cup-shaped depression
(the latter is called a “clear zone” by other investigators and writers),
whereas C. cyclopis is spherical, and C. frontalis and C. equi have
the “clear zone” and the flagella at the broader end of their ovate
bodies. The number of flagella borne on the rim of the cup-shaped
depression by C. jolepsi n. sp. (7 to 11, usually 9 or 10) overlaps

PROTOZOA FROM FRESHWATER GASTROPODS 21:

ws)

the number borne by C. cyclopis (2 to 9), but is less than that of
C. frontalis (12) or of C. equi (12 to 15).

CALLIMASTIX JOLEPSI N. SP.

Diacnosism Ll to 20) » long, usually 15 to 18»; 12 to 16 pu
broad diameter; 10 to 13 » short diameter; egg-shaped in narrower
aspect; oval in broader aspect; one broad surface with polar, cup-
shaped depression, apical rim of which bears 7 to 11, usually 9 or
10, flagella; flagella 25 to 30 » long, of basal diameter 0.25 p, taper-
ing to barely resolvable tips; nucleus spherical, 3 » diameter with
distinct spherical endosome 2 » diameter; many irregular inclusions
1 to 3 » diameter, many refractile globules 0.2 to 1.5 » diameter;
other very tiny granules present; no contractile vacuole; pellicular
surface thin, lightly striated; inquilinic in the intestine of the fresh-
water pulmonate snail, Helisoma duryi Say, in Florida, at Gaines-
ville.

SUMMARY

1. A species of the protozoan Genus Callimastix is reported from
the intestinal tract of the snail, Helisoma duryi, in Florida.

2. It is compared to other species of the genus, and distinguished
from them morphologically.

3. It is designated a new species, named Callimastix jolepsi n. sp.,
and is described and depicted in detail. A diagnosis is given
for it.

4. The possibility of a life cycle for the protozoan, involving per-
haps more than one host in the cycle, is discussed.

5. Callimastix jolepsi n. sp. is the first species in the genus to be
recorded as inquilinic in the digestive tract of a mollusk.

LITERATURE CITED

BECKER, E. R., and M. TALBOTT
1927. The protozoan fauna of the rumen and reticulum of American cattle.
Iowa State Coll. J. Sci., 1: 845-365.

BRAUNE, R.
1913. Untersuchungen iiber die in Wiederkauermagen workommenden Pro-
tozoen. Arch. F. Protistenk., 32: 111-170.

214 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

DA FONSECA, O.

1915. Estudios sobre es Flagellados parasitos dos Mammiferos do Brasil.

Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, 8: 5-40.
DAS-GUPTA, M.

1935. Preliminary observations on the protozoan fauna of the Indian goat,

Capra hircus Linn. Arch. F. Protistenk., 85: 153-172.
GRASSE, P.-P.

1952. Zooflagelles de position systematique incertain., pp. 1015-1022. In
P.-P. Grassé, Traité de Zoologie, Tome I, Premier Fascicule, Phylo-
génie, Protozoaires: Généralités, Flagellés. Masson and Cie., Paris.

JeVANIGIE, JR 12,
1953. Protozoology. Prentice-Hall, New York. 682 pp.

STUNG iS:

1929. A survey of the protozoan fauna of the large intestine of the horse.
J. Parasit., 16: 99.

1930. A monograph on the protozoa of the large intestine of the horse.
Iowa State Coll. J. Sci., 4: 356-4238.
KUDO, R. R.
1954. Protozoology, 4th Edition. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois. 966 pp.
NEEER Ra I:
1957. Purification, axenic cultivation, and description of a soil ameeba,
Acanthamoeba sp. J. Protozool., 4: 176-182.
REICHENOW, E.
1952. Lehrbuch der Protozoenkunde, Sechste Auflage, Zweiter Teil, Fisch-
er, Jena, pp. 411-776.
VAVRA, J.
1960. A contribution to the knowledge of the parasitic flagellate Callimastix
cyclopis. J. Protozool., 7(suppl): 26-27.
WEISSENBERG, R.

1912. Callimastix cyclopis, n.g., n. sp., ein geisseltragendes Protozoon aus
dem Serum von Cyclops. Sitz. Ber. d. Ges. naturf. Freunde zu
Berlin., 5: 299-305.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(3), 1961

THE BARNACLE AND DECAPOD FAUNA FROM THE
NEARSHORE AREA OF PANAMA CITY, FLORIDA !

Nei C. HuLincs
Texas Christian University

INTRODUCTION

A survey of the nearshore benthonic fauna off Panama City,
Florida, was begun during the summer of 1957 and continued for
two years. The program was a segment of a hydrobiological sur-
vey of the St. Andrews Bay area aided by a contract between the
Office of Naval Research, Department of the Navy, and Florida
State University, NR 163-396.

SURVEY AREA

The survey area is located between a line SSE from Long
Beach and a line NE from Port St. Joe. The depth of collection
ranged from 30 to 100 feet. The results of the survey are based
primarily on qualitative information obtained by dredging opera-
tions.

The hydrography of the area off Panama City is particularly
interesting in that it approaches a normal marine environment es-
pecially regarding salinity and transparency. Tolbert and Austin
(1959) provide data for the area covering a three year period, April
1955 to April 1958. The surface seasonal temperature range for
the period was 56°F to 85°F. The maximum salinity range for
the same period was between 33 and 36 0/oo with salinities usually
between 34 and 35 0/oo. Vertical visibility ranged from 18 to 48
feet. The currents of the area, at a depth of 60 feet, are predom-
inately longshore (NE to SW) with average velocities ranging
from about 0.1 to 0.5 knots. The relative stability of the environ-
ment can be attributed to the absence of large rivers emptying into
the area. The primary source of dilution is St. Andrews Bay and
drainage from the Bay apparently has only a local effect. The sedi-
ments of the region surveyed consist of angular to subrounded and
well-sorted quartz sand.

1 Contribution No. 154, Oceanographic Institute, Florida St. Univ.

216 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

METHODS

In 1957 sampling was conducted along a transect perpendicular
to the shore, near Long Beach, to a depth of about 100 feet. Meth-
ods of sampling included dredging, trawling and aqua-lung diving.
Dredge and trawl hauls at regular intervals along the transect re-
vealed a paucity of living macro-benthonic species.

During the summer of 1958, through the cooperation of Mr.
J. D. Holmes of Holmes Fishing Co., several trips were made with
commercial fishermen to survey the invertebrate fauna associated
with a large scallop (Aequipecten gibbus (1.)) bed off Panama City,
Florida. The area was located between a line SSE from the old
pass from St. Andrews Bay and the Port St. Joe Bouy. The depth
range of the area fished was 60-90 feet. The bed was fished com-
mercially from the 1 March, 1958, to about the middle of August,
1958. Dredges, measuring 4 feet by 6 feet capable of holding
about 6 bushels, were used. Usually two dredges were towed
simultaneously. The location of this bed and the potential scallop
fishery on the west coast of Florida has been described by Bullis
and Ingle (1958).

During the summer of 1959, the same area was re-surveyed in
an attempt to obtain quantitative data on the invertebrate fauna.
Numerous dredge hauls and aqua-lung dives were made in the
area but there was a complete absence of live scallops. In fact
very few specimens of any living invertebrates were recovered or
observed.

A review of the previous decapod collections in the northeastern
Gulf of Mexico has been given by Wass (1955). The known geo-
graphic range of several species collected during the 1957-59 sur-
vey has been extended considerably. For each species, only the
nearest previous collection locality has been noted.

ANNOTATED LAIST
SCALPELLIDAE

Scalpellum arietinum Pilsbry. Pilsbry (1907)—Off Cedar Keys, Fla.

- LEPADIDAE
Lepas anatifera Linnaeus. Pilsbry (1907) and Henry (1954)—Gulf of Mexico.

Octolasmis miilleri (Coker). Pilsbry (1907), Pearse (1932a), Humes (1941) and
Henry (1954)—Gulf of Mexico.

Octolasmis hoeki Stebbing. Henry (1954)—Gulf of Mexico.

Ke)

FAUNA FROM NEARSHORE AREA OF PANAMA CITY 1

BALANIDAE

Balanus amphitrite niveus Darwin. Henry (1954)—Gulf of Mexico.
Balanus calidus Pilsbry. Pilsbry (1916) and Henry (1954)—Gulf of Mexico.

Balanus galeatus Linnaeus. Pilsbry (1916) and Henry (1954)—Gulf of Mexico.
Chelonobia patula (Ranzani). Pilsbry (1916) and Henry (1954)—Gulf of Mexico.

PENAEIDAE
Penaeus duorarum Burkenroad. Wass (1955)—Alligator Harbor, Fla.
Sicyonia brevirostris Stimpson. Wass (1955)—Off Alligator Harbor, Fla.

Solenocera atlantidis Burkenroad. Springer and Bullis (1956)—Off Pensacola,
Fla. :

Trachypeneus constrictus (Stimpson). Wass (1955)—Off Alligator Harbor, Fla.

ALPHEIDAE
Alpheus normanni Kingsley. Wass (1955)—Alligator Harbor, Fla.

Alpheus togatus Armstrong. Armstrong (1940)—Only from Santo Domingo
and Bermuda.

Synalpheus townsendi Coutiere. Wass (1955)—Alligator Harbor, Fla.

HIPPOLYTIDAE

Latreutes parvulus (Stimpson). Wass (1955)—Alligator Harbor, Fla.

PONTONIIDAE
Periclimenes americanus (Kingsley). Wass (1955)—Alligator Harbor, Fla. -
Pontonia margarita Smith. Holthius (1951)—Off Panama City and Cape San
Blas, Fla.
SCYLLARIDAE
Scyllarides nodifer (Stimpson). Springer and Bullis (1956)—Off Cedar Keys,
Fla.
CALLIANASSIDAE

Upogebia affinis (Say). Wass (1955)—Alligator Harbor, Fla.

PORCELLANIDAE

Porcellana sayana (Leach). Wass (1955)—Alligator Harbor, Fla.

PAGURIDAE

Calcinus tibicen (Herbst). Provenzano (1959)—“Bermuda, West Indian region
from south Florida to Brazil.”

Pagurus defensus (Benedict). Benedict (1892)—Gulf of Mexico.
Pagurus impressus (Benedict). Wass (1955)—Alligator Harbor, Fla.

218 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Pagurus miamensis Provenzano. Provenzano (1959)—“Known at present only
from Bahamas and Miami, Florida area.”

Pagurus stimpsoni (A. Milne-Edwards and Bouvier). Wass (1959)—Off Pan-
ama City, Fla.

Petrochirus diogenes (Linnaeus). Wass (1955)—Off Alligator Harbor, Fla.

Pylopagurus corallinus (Benedict). Springer and Bullis (1956)—Off Cedar
Keys, Fla.

Spiropagurus dispar Stimpson. Wass (1959)—Eastern Gulf of Mexico.

DROMIIDAE
Dromidia antillensis Stimpson. Rathbun (1937)—Cape San Blas, Fla.
Hypoconcha arcuata Stimpson. Wass (1955)—Alligator Harbor, Fla.
Hypoconcha sabulosa (Herbst). Rathbun (1937)—South of St. George Island,
Fla.
DORIPPIDAE
Ethusa mascarone americana A. Milne-Edwards. Rathbun (1937)—Off Cape
San Blas, Fla.
LEUCOSIDAE
Ebalia cariosa (Stimpson). Rathbun (1937)—Off Tampa, Fla.

Ebalia stimpsoni A. Milne-Edwards. Rathbun (1937)—Only from Tortugas,
Fla.

Persephona punctata aquilonaris Rathbun. Rathbun (1937)—Pensacola, -Fla.

CALAPPIDAE
Calappa flammea (Herbst). Rathbun (1937)—Off Pensacola, Fla.
Hepatus epheliticus (Linnaeus). Wass (1955)—Alligator Harbor, Fla.
Osachila semilevis Rathbun. Rathbun (1937)—Off Cape San Blas, Fla.

PORTUNIDAE
Arenaeus cribrarius (Lamarck). Wass (1955)—Off Alligator Harbor, Fla.
Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. Rathbun (1930)—St. Vincent Sound, Fla.

Ovalipes ocellatus guadulpensis (Saussure). Rathbun (1930)—Off Pensacola,
Fla.

Portunus depressifrons Stimpson. Wass (1955)—Off Alligator Harbor, Fla.
Portunus spinicarpus (Stimpson). Rathbun (1930)—Off Cape San Blas, Fla.

XANTHIDAE
Lobopilumnus agassizi (Stimpson). Rathbun (1930)—Off Cape San Blas, Fla.

Micropanope pusilla A. Milne-Edwards. Rathbun (1930)—Off Cape San Blas,
Fla.

FAUNA FROM NEARSHORE AREA OF PANAMA CITY 219

Micropanope xanthiformis A. Milne-Edwards. Rathbun (1930)—Tortugas, Fla.
Pilumnus sayi Rathbun. Rathbun (1930)—Off Carrabelle and Pensacola, Fla.

PINNOTHERIDAE

Dissodactylus crinitichelis Moreira. This form which occurs on the sand dollar
Encope micheline has been reported from Alligator Harbor by Wass
(1955).

Pinnotheres maculatus Say. Wass (1955) reported P. maculatus from several
clams in the Alligator Harbor region. It was very common in
Aequipecten gibbus.

MA JIDAE
Batrachonotus fragosus Stimpson. Rathbun (1925)—Off Cape San Blas, Fla.

Hemus cristulipes A. Milne-Edwards. Rathbun (1925)—Off Cape San Blas,
Fla.

Inachoides laevis Stimpson. Wass (1955)—Oft Alligator Harbor, Fla.
Libinia emarginata Leach. Rathbun (1925)—Off Carrabelle, Fla.
Metoparhaphis calcarata (Say). Wass (1955)—Off Alligator Harbor, Fla.
Mithrax pleuracanthus Stimpson. Rathbun (1925)—Off Carrabelle, Fla.
Podochela sidneyi Rathbun. Rathbun (1925)—Off Apalachicola, Fla.

Stenocionops furcata coelata (A. Milne-Edwards). Rathbun (1925)—Off Cape
San Blas, Fla.

Stenorhynchus seticornis (Herbst). Rathbun (1925)—Off Cape San Blas, Fla.

PARTHENOPIDAE
Heterocrypta granulata (Gibbes). Wass (1955)—Alligator Harbor, Fla.

Parthenope serrata (A. Milne-Edwards). Rathbun (1925)—-Off Cape San Blas,
Fla.

DISCUSSION

A total of 53 species and subspecies of decapods have been
reported from the nearshore area off Panama City, Florida. The
recovery of species during each collecting period was 12 species in
1957, 36 in 1958, and 5 in 1959. The following species were col-
lected only in 1957: Arenaeus cribrarius, Calcinus tibicen, Mith-
rax pleuracanthus and Portunus depressifrons. The remaining spe-
cies collected in 1957, which included Alpheus normanni, Callinec-
tes sapidus, Ovalipes ocellatus guadulpensis, Penaeus duorarum,
Petrochirus diogenes, Podochela sidneyi, Portunus spinicarpus and
Sicyonia brevirostris were also collected in 1958 and 1959. The

220 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

species collected only in 1959 were Hemus cristulipes, Metopar-
haphis calcarata, Periclimenes americanus, Spiropagurus dispar,
Synalpheus townsendi and Upogebia affinis.

The few species of decapods collected in 1957 and 1959 is in
line with the paucity of other living macrobenthonic invertebrates.
The greatest number of species of decapods and other inverte-
brates as well as individuals was encountered in 1958 when the
live scallops, Aequipecten gibbus, were in abundance. Live scal-
lops were not found in 1957 nor in 1959. The relationship be-
tween the decapods and other invertebrates and the scallops is
obscure. It appears that the scallops, decapods and other inverte-
brates represent a rather well defined community. Bullis and Ingle
(1958) suggested a shift in population center of the scallops. Mi-
gration of the bay scallop, Aequipecten irradians concentricus (Say),
has been verified by Sastry (1959). So it appears that when the
scallops migrate, the other elements of the community follow.

The known northern range of 8 species has been extended
considerably. Included in the group are Alpheus togatus, Calcinus
tibicen, Pagurus miamensis, Ebalia stimpsoni and Micropanope
xanthiformis. The northernmost range of the aforementioned spe-
cies except A. togatus was reported as either Tortugas or the
Miami region. A. togatus was previously reported from Santo Do-
mingo and Bermuda by Armstrong (1940). The known range of
Ebalia cariosa has been extended from Tampa while that of Scyl-
larides nodifer and Pylopagurus corallinus has been extended from
Cedar Keys.

Three new species (personal communications from Dr. Chase
and Dr. Wass) were collected. They are representatives of the
genera Munida, Pinnaxodes and Pylopagurus. The most unex-
pected was a species of Munida, typically a deep water genus.

A total of eight species of barnacles were collected from the
survey area. Octolasmis hoeki occurred in great abundance on the
sub-branchial region of Calappa flammea. This is the only deca-
pod on which O. hoeki was found.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Grateful thanks are extended to Dr. Marvin Wass of the Vir-
ginia Fisheries Laboratory, Dr. Fenner Chase of the United States
National Museum and Dr. L. B. Holthuis of the Leiden Museum

FAUNA FROM NEARSHORE AREA OF PANAMA CITY 221

of Natural History for aid in identification of the decapods re-
ported in this paper. Thanks are also extended to Dr. Dora P.
Henry of the Department of Oceanography, University of Wash-
ington, for identification of the barnacles. I also acknowledge the
assistance of Mr. J. D. Holmes of Panama City, Florida, for his co-
operation during the field work of the survey.

LITERATURE CITED
ARMSTRONG, J. D.

1940. New species of Caridea from the Bermudas. Amer. Mus. Novitates,
No. 1096.

BENEDICT, J. E.

1892. Preliminary description of 37 new species of hermit crabs of the
genus Eupagurus in the United States National Museum. Proc. of
U.S. Nat. Museum. 15 (887): 1-26.

BULLIS, H. B., and R. M. INGLE

1958. A new fishery for scallops in Western Florida. Proc. Gulf and
Caribbean Fisheries Institute. 11th Annual Session: 75-79.

HENRY, D. P.
1954. Cirripedia: The barnacles of the Gulf of Mexico. Fishery Bull. 89.

HOLTHIUS, L. B.

1951. The subfamilies Euryrhynchinae and Pontoniinae. A general re-
vision of the Palaemonidae (Crustacea Decapoda Natantia) of the
Americas. II. Occ. Pap. Allan Hancock Found. Publ. 12.

HUMES, A. G.

1941. Notes on Octolasmis miilleri (Coker), a barnacle commensal on crabs.
Trans. Amer. Micro. Soc. 60: 101-104.

PEARSE, A. S.

1932. Observations on the parasites and commensals found associated with
crustaceans and fishes at Dry Tortugas, Florida. Pap. Tortugas Lab.
Carnegie Inst. 28: 103-115.

PILSBRY, H. A.

1907. The barnacles (Cirripedia) contained in the collections of the U.S.
National Museum. Bull. U.S. Nat. Museum 60.

PILSBRY, H. A.

1916. The sessile barnacles (Cirripedia) contained in the collections of the
U.S. National Museum, including a monograph of the American
species. Bull. U.S. Nat. Museum 93.

222 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

PROVENZANO, A. J., JR.
1959. The shallow-water hermit crabs of Florida. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf
and Caribbean. 9(4): 349-420.
RATHBUN, M. J.
1925. The spider crabs of America. Bull. U.S. Nat. Museum 129.

RATHBUN, M. J.
1930. The cancroid crabs of America of the families Euryalidae, Portuni-
dae, Atelecyclidae, Cancridae, and Xanthidae. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mu-
seum 152.
RATHBUN, M. J.
1937. The oxystomatous and allied crabs of America. Bull. U.S. Nat.
Museum 166.
SASTRY, A. N.

1959. Some observations on the ecology of the bay scallop, Aequipecten
irradians concentricus (Say), at Alligator Harbor, Florida. Abstract of
paper presented at the 1959 Nat'l. Shellfisheries Assoc. Convention.

SHA MON EIR, So, moavel Jal IR, IBWILILIS, |pR,

1956. Collections by the Oregon in the Gulf of Mexico. List of crustaceans,
mollusks and fishes identified from collections made by the explora-
tory fishing vessel Oregon in the Gulf of Mexico and adjacent seas,
1950 through 1955. Special Sci. Rept. Fisheries No. 196.

NOLBERD, WW. H.. andaG) By AUSiIN

1959. On the nearshore marine environment of the Gulf of Mexico at Pan-
ama City, Florida. Technical Paper No. TP161. U.S. Navy Mine
Defense Lab., Panama City, Florida.
WASS, M. L.
1955. The decapod crustaceans of Alligator Harbor and adjacent inshore
areas of northwestern Florida. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 18(8): 129-176.
WASS, M. L.

1959. Pagurid crabs of western North Atlantic south of Cape Hatteras.
Unpb. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Florida.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24 (8), 1961

NEWS AND NOTES

Edited by
J. E. HurcHMan
Florida Southern College

DeLand: Dr. A. M. Winchester, Head of the Biology Department at Stet-
son University has accepted appointment as Visiting Professor of Biology at the
University of South Carolina. He will be on leave of absence from his position
at Stetson.

Winter Park: The men who enter Rollins College in the fall of ’62 will
begin their college life in a “Learning Building,” an innovation in residence
halls. Ground was broken in September for this new freshmen hall which will
house 196 men. Not only is the building planned as a home for the freshmen,
it will also offer them an environment of intellectual challenge.

The 21 upper classmen counselors who will live with the freshmen will be
selected on a highly competitive basis. They will then be trained for the posi-
tion so that their services will not only be beneficial to the freshmen but an
educational process for themselves.

Jacksonville: Dr. James B. Fleek attended an NSF Institute at Montana
State College.

Panama City: The Gulf Coast Junior College has begun its new school
year with two additions to its Math and Science Division. They are Bill Hast-
ings in Physics and Fred Merriam in Biology and Physical Science.

Gulf Coast which started the State’s first course in Engineering Science
last year reports a 20 percent increase in enrollment over last year’s mark.

Orlando: Mr. Paul E. Rutenkroger, Instructor of Mathematics, received
an NSF Grant for 11 weeks’ study at the University of Alabama. Mr. Charles
J. Biggers, Instructor of Biology received an NSF Grant for 8 weeks at the
Florida State University.

During the spring semester the Biology Department offered for the first
time a course in Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy. A field trip was taken by
the class to Marineland Studios where they were given a guided tour of the
research laboratories. The Mathematics Department again sponsored its annual
tournament for students who excelled in mathematics in the local high school.

Gainesville: This department pays tribute to Dr. J. E. Hawkins, Professor
of Chemistry at the University of Florida, who died July 22. This is a great
loss to the educational community.

A news letter produced by Dean Robert B. Mautz, Office of Academic Af-
fairs at the University of Florida, contains a compilation of many items of value
to anyone interested in education on the junior college level. It is impossible
to abstract it in any useful form here. Copies can be obtained by writing to
his office.

Pensacola: We have word from the Pensacola Junior College that Mrs.
Anna Johnson attended a summer session at the University of North Carolina
and that Mr. William Bennett received a Doctor’s Degree in June from the
University of Florida.

224 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Lakeland: Earl D. Smith, Chemistry Professor of Florida Southern Col-
lege, attended the NSF Sponsored Infrared Spectroscopy and Gas Chromo-
tography Institute at Nashville with Vanderbilt and Fisk universities cooperat-
ing. Another FSC Chemistry Professor, Austin H. Beebe, had a fellowship
from NSF for an eight weeks’ course on Radioactive Isotope Technology at
the Engineering School at the University of Michigan.

Dr. Hornell Hart completed the writing of a textbook, Introductory So-
ciology—The Laboratory Approach.

Dr. Charles T. Thrift, Jr., President, Florida Southern College, announced
the addition of 14 new members to the faculty. Dr. Herbert S. Chase has been
named Vice-President in charge of development. Norman B. Thomson, previ-
ous Director of Planning at Oglethorpe University has joined the Business Ad-
ministration Department. He formerly taught at the University of Florida,
Temple University, and Pennsylvania State University. Dr. Roy A. Nelson is
a new member of the Physics Department.

Lt. Col. Robert H. Newberry has returned from a 35-month tour with
NATO, chiefly in Greece, to head our ROTC, relieving Col. Robert Levitt for
reassignment in Germany. Capt. Welborn L. Matthews has also joined the
ROTC staff.

Miss Dorothy B. Eubanks taught at FSC during the first summer session
and later studied at the University of Hawaii for six weeks.

Tampa: Dr. Juliana Jordan informed us that on September 19 the Ger-
man TV Show sponsored by Florida Southern College opened for the third
year on WEDU, Channel 3, Tampa—this year under the title “SAG’S AUF
DEUTSCH” (Say It In German). This program will again feature German
conversation combined with cultural news from Germany, Austria, and Switzer-
land. It will include music, poetry, literature, art, and general information on
the German-speaking countries. Guests from these countries will be inter-
viewed. Dr. Jordan will again be the teacher. This summer she spent some
time at NBC in New York studying some of the problems they have encount-
ered. Dr. Jordan is an active member of the Florida Academy.

Lakeland: Dr. B. P. Reinsch, Head of the Mathematics Department of
Florida Southern College, enjoyed a five-week trip to Aruba in the Nether-
lands Antilles with Mrs. Reinsch. The Reinsch’s son Herbert is chemical en-
gineer with the Standard Oil of New Jersey. This is the largest Western Hem-
isphere refinery—over 400,000 barrels of crude oil per day. Mr. Scott K. Gib-
son participated in a six weeks’ NSF Sponsored Summer Institute at Georgia
Tech on math and physics. Mr. E. Guy Sellers, Jr., left last summer for Denver
where he will participate in an NSF Institute for teachers of mathematics at
the University of Colorado. The appointment runs for the academic year and
continues through next summer.

St. Petersburg: New members of the Mathematics-Science Division at
Florida Presbyterian College in the 1961-2 session are listed as follows: Dr.
Dudley South, Professor of Mathematics, from the University of Florida; Dr.
Paul J. Haigh, Assistant Professor of Physics, just completed graduate work at
the University of Florida. He was formerly on the faculty of Carson-Newman
College; Dr. Philip Ferguson, Assistant Professor of Chemistry, from Western
Carolina College.

NEWS NOTES 225

Dr. George Reid, Protessor of Biology, has begun work on an NSF support-
ed study of the ecology of lakes in Central Florida. He will be assisted in the
two-year project by Dr. Dexter Squibb, Assistant Professor of Chemistry.

Honolulu: A world-famed international gathering of scientists returned
this summer to its birthplace in Hawaii for the first time in 40 years. More
than 1200 men of science from 40 countries attended the tenth Pacific Science
Congress at the University of Hawaii. The purpose of the gathering was to
hear reports on current scientific research related to the life and environment
of the Pacific area. Brief summaries of these reports will appear in following
issues.

St. Petersburg: We are saddened to learn of the death of Professor Mary
Louise Stork who has been active in the St. Petersburg Junior College and in
FAS affairs.

Lakeland: Dr. Margaret L. Gilbert, Chairman, Natural Sciences Division,
attended the A. I. B. S. meetings at Purdue University before going on to Van-
couver Festival.

Dr. Durward Long had a busy summer. He was institutional representa-
tive to Summer ROTC Camp at Ft. Benning, Ga.; attended Southern States
Faculty Conference at Lake Junaluska, N. C.; participated in Southeastern
States School of Alcohol Studies; and taught first workshop course at FSC on
alcohol-narcotic education while directing the FSC branch at McCoy Air Field.

Your Campus: Is your campus represented in News and Notes? Weve
interested in what happens on your campus. So are many of your other friends.
We can’t tell them unless you tell us. We had very little news from other col-
leges this time so we had to use more from our local campus.

Tallahassee: The Fish and Wildlife Service has been making a study of
the Florida coastal waters in the interests of oyster culture. Do you know that
oyster and clam farming in Florida can well become the biggest business dollar-
wise in the State?

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uarterly Journal |

of the

Deeember. 1961 No. 4

Contents

VoL. 24 DECEMBER, 1961 No. 4

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research
Editor—J. C. Dickinson, Jr.

Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences

Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla.

Subscription price, Five Dollars a year
Mailed January 3, 1962

ime e@OWARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE
PAORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 24 DECEMBER, 1961 No. 4

THE EVOLUTION OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE!

I. RurFin JONES, JR.
University of Florida

Recently I was quite surprised at a viewpoint expressed by sey-
eral of my colleagues when I invited them to join the Florida Acad-
emy of Sciences. They not only refused but went on to state their
belief that Academies of Science had outlived their usefulness and
were now actually detrimental to science. They explained that in
earlier days when transportation was slow and uncertain and money
scarce, it was often difficult, if not impossible, for scientists to at-
tend national meetings except when such meetings were held near
their own institutions. The Academy of Science developed, there-
fore, as the meeting place where scientists exchanged ideas and kept
up with recent developments. However, with modern transporta-
tion and communications, anyone who really wants to do so can
attend national meetings and so the need for local academies no
longer exists. Yet, today, many professional scientists use their
participation in their academies of science as an excuse for not
attending national meetings.

This criticism of academies sounds plausible and cannot be
dismissed lightly. Let us look briefly at the history of our own
Academy. From its founding in 1936 until the last five years or
so, the Florida Academy of Sciences was composed almost entirely
of professional research scientists. In fact, while such people as
high school science teachers and interested laymen were not actu-
ally excluded, they were certainly not encouraged to seek mem-
bership. The programs of the annual meetings consisted almost
entirely of reports on research, and the journal published only re-
search papers. Yet even in those days I don't believe that many
people considered participation in the Academy an adequate sub-

1 Presidential address delivered at the 24th annual meeting of the Florida
Academy of Sciences, Lakeland, Fla., February 1959.

230 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

stitute for attendance at national meetings. But Florida was a long
way from the large metropolitan centers where most of the national
meetings were held, there wasn’t much money and we had to do
the best we could. The Academy was a tremendous asset in help-
ing to meet the problem of providing stimulation as well as infor-
mation on recent developments. Now times have changed, and the
Academy must change with them. If it does not, it will certainly
merit the criticism of being outmoded and useless. How has the
role of the Academy changed, what are we here in Florida doing
about it, and what are we not doing that we might be doing?
Article II of the Charter of the Florida Academy of Sciences is
headed PURPOSES and it states: “The purposes of the Academy
shall be to promote research, to stimulate interest in the sciences, to
further the diffusion of scientific knowledge, to unify the scientific
interests of the state and to issue an annual scientific publication.”
This would serve as an adequate statement of purpose for almost
any Academy of Science, and certainly no one would argue that
these are not worthwhile objectives. The question then is whether
the Academy of Sciences is an effective agency for accomplishing
these objectives. First, consider the matter of promoting research,
because it is perhaps in this area that the Academies most need to
make a thorough reappraisal of their traditional role. It is prob-
ably true that a larger percentage of the scientists of the state at-
tend national meetings today than did so in the early days of the
Academy, and they naturally save their better papers for presen-
tation before the larger and more cosmopolitan audience of the
national meeting. The advantages of presenting a major paper
before a national audience are so well known that we need not
concern ourselves with them here. Nevertheless, a preview or a
review of such a paper might profitably be presented before an
Academy meeting. There is little likelihood that most of the au-
thor’s colleagues in the Academy will hear the paper twice, since
many are unable to attend the national meetings and those who
do have to choose from so many concurrent programs, committee
meetings and other obligations that it is possible to hear only a
small fraction of the papers which are presented. Further, most
students, whether graduate or undergraduate, probably do not at-
tend the national meetings. The Academy meeting will, therefore,
be their only opportunity to hear this important report, and such a
report might influence some student to decide on a career in science

THE EVOLUTION OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 231

and perhaps, even to study under the scientist involved. Today
the programs of most national societies are so crowded that mem-
bers are allotted a maximum of fifteen minutes or so to present
papers of their own or to introduce their graduate students for the
presentation of papers. Here again, the Academy of Science can
serve an important role as a training ground and can produce a real
stimulus for the graduate student. He can gain experience in the
presentation of papers before a section of the Academy and may
benefit from having questions, suggestions and criticisms from the
senior scientists who are in attendance. Each year while I was a
graduate student I presented a paper at the meeting of my state
academy. I can well remember how valuable this experience was
to me, and how much I profitted from the suggestions and criticisms
of the senior scientists who were present. It seems to me that all
of us who are now professional scientists owe it to the oncoming
generation of future scientists to provide them with this same kind
of opportunity, to encourage them to take advantage of it, and to
make a point of attending Academy meetings ourselves so that we
may give these students a real forum in which to try their wings
and to gain experience.

Perhaps the most important way of stimulating interest in sci-
ence is through the diffusion of scientific knowledge. Here again
the annual meetings of the Academy may play an important role,
not only through a program of research papers, but also by the
scheduling of symposia and review papers which cover broad
topics. There are so many new developments in science today
that no one has time to keep up with the tremendous volume of
literature. Symposia and review papers would help to broaden
not only the research scientists who haven't time to read literature
outside of their own research fields but also the teachers in high
schools, junior colleges and even many four year colleges who do
not have access to the literature. Discussions of this type should
also enable science teachers at all levels to improve the quality of
their teaching. Finally, symposia and review papers which are
well presented could have a tremendous influence in attracting
young people to scientific careers and in stimulating amateurs and
laymen generally to provide vocal as well as financial support for
science.

Undoubtedly the most important addition to the program of
Academies of Science in recent years has been the work with young

232 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

people. Nearly all of the academies in the country now make a
major effort in this field (and incidentally, this is also true in Russia
and some of the European countries). The youth program attract-
ing the largest number of participants at the present time is the
Science Fair, which is held in most states. It is usually, although
not always, sponsored by a state or municipal academy of science.
When interest in Science Fairs first began to develop in Florida
several years ago, the Council of the Academy felt that the Florida
Academy had neither the manpower nor the money to sponsor this
project. Shortly afterward, a group of interested people, mostly
laymen and many of them businessmen, organized the Florida
Foundation for Future Scientists, and undertook the sponsorship
of the Florida State Science Fair. The University of Florida do-
nated the services of a director by assigning a faculty member to
this work as part of his job. There are now many hundreds of
students who enter projects in local, regional and state fairs. The
Florida Foundation for Future Scientists has had little or no trouble
in raising all of the money needed to finance the program quite
adequately and this is in line with the experience in other states.
At the national meetings of the Academy Conference, without ex-
ception so far as I can recall, every academy which has reported
making a real effort to raise money from businessmen, industrial
organizations or the general public for the support of its program,
whether it be Science Fair, Journal, Junior Academy or what not,
has raised far more than it anticipated. It is easy to sell a program
in science to these laymen, but somebody has got to go out and
make the effort.

The State Science Talent Search for high school seniors is
rapidly developing into a rather large program also. Since it is
limited to seniors, is open only to participants in the National West-
inghouse Science Talent Search, and requires all participants to
take a rather exacting examination in science as well as submitting
a research paper, it cannot be expected to attract as many partici-
pants as the Science Fairs. Under the national rules the academy
of science is the only organization which may sponsor a state science
talent search. The prizes for the national winners are in the form
of extremely liberal scholarships. Those who stand high in the
state contests are also virtually certain to receive offers of scholar-
ships, not only from colleges and universities within the state, but
frequently from out of state institutions as well. We are one of the

THE EVOLUTION OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 233

many state academies which sponsors a state science talent search.
The Florida Foundation for Future Scientists co-sponsors this with
us and in fact, it is they who have provided most of the financial
support for the Florida Science Talent Search, although the Acad-
emy has provided a small sum annually. Our State Science Talent
Search has developed rapidly, but if we are to realize its full poten-
tial we must take more interest in it and put more effort into it than
we have in these first few years of its operation. Our sponsorship
of it has been largely in name only and had it not been for the
efforts of the Florida Foundation for Future Scientists I’m afraid
that the Florida State Science Talent Search would either never
have gotten under way or would have been a dismal failure.

The Junior Academy for high school students is another com-
paratively new field of academy activity, which has now developed
in many states. While junior academies, like senior academies,
vary somewhat from state to state, in general they have local, re-
gional and state meetings, with frequent programs at the local and
occasional programs at other levels throughout the year. These
academies do not require that the student work up a project or un-
dergo an examination. Rather they emphasize discussions, talks
on science, moving pictures and demonstrations. In fact, the Junior
Academy often serves as a means of getting a science club organ-
ized or of helping to develop a program for an existing club in a
school. A further youth activity which has recently been started
in some states is the Visiting Scientist Program, whereby outstand-
ing scientists go to the high schools to give talks to students and
teachers and to hold conferences, discussions, or even one-day work-
shops. The scientists donate their time but all of the expenses are
paid by the state academy. The necessary money is usually ob-
tained by means of a grant from the National Science Foundation,
but in some instances is raised within the state itself.

I am aware of only one program which is sponsored by acad-
emies of science for students at the college level and this is the
Collegiate Academy, with its membership limited to undergraduate
college students. There are usually chapters on campuses of many
of the colleges and universities of the state and the annual meeting
is held in conjunction with that of the senior academy. Members
not only present papers at the sessions of their local chapters and
at the state meetings, but are also encouraged to attend the ses-

234 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

sions of the senior academy, and some outstanding papers may be
presented before the senior academy.

The Collegiate Academy and the four types of programs for
high school students are all designed to interest young people in
science. But many academies have also instituted programs to as-
sist in providing better training for these potential future scientists.
The Visiting Scientist workshop program, which was previously
mentioned, is really a double-barrelled proposition, for it not only
seeks to interest the students but also to help the teachers by bring-
ing them valuable information on recent developments in science.
In addition, many, in fact I suspect most, academies of science have
sections on science teaching. The programs of such sections, in-
stead of dealing with reports on scientific research, are concerned
with ideas, techniques and methods for improving science teach-
ing. A teaching section constitutes a forum where teachers at all
levels may discuss the problems which they have encountered or
may pass on to colleagues anything which they have found to be of
particular value in helping them to communicate ideas to their
students. If the junior academy meets concurrently with the senior
academy, a Science Teaching section provides an incentive to high
school teachers to come to the meetings and to bring some of the
junior members with them. Many academies have in addition insti-
tuted a program for honoring outstanding science teaching at any
and all levels. There is little opportunity for science teachers in
the high schools, in the junior colleges and in many four-year col-
leges to carry on extensive research programs and they are not
likely, therefore, to receive recognition for their research. Many of
these individuals are, however, dedicated teachers whose influence
in recruiting and developing the next generation of scientists may
be as great as, or even greater than, that of the scientist who is hon-
ored for his research. Not only do such outstanding teachers de-
serve some recognition for their contributions to science, but an
expression of appreciation for a job well done might have a tre-
mendous psychological effect in stimulating them to even greater
effort. For these reasons a number of academies of science have
now inaugurated some kind of a program for honoring outstanding
science teachers.

But while honoring outstanding science teachers, we should not
overlook the science teacher who is completely lost because of in-
adequate preparation. Many of us in the science departments of

THE EVOLUTION OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 235

the institutions of higher learning have criticized state departments
of education for certifying such teachers; but are we not partly to
blame for this situation? The professional educators offer programs
in education which have been endorsed by their large education
associations and they exert pressure to get these programs approved.
Most state academies of science have made no effort to work out
programs of teacher training which would require adequate prepa-
ration in science; or to exert any pressure to bring about the adop-
tion of such programs. A few state academies do now have com-
mittees working on this problem and the Florida Academy might
well become active in this field.

We have discussed the role of the Academy in stimulating in-
terest in science and helping to improve the training of future sci-
entists and of science teachers, but the Academy of Science also
has an important role to play in presenting the ideas of the scientist
to the general public and to state and local governments. In many
instances through advice to governmental agencies or through edu-
cating the public the Academy may be able to bring about desirable
reforms or to prevent harmful and ill-considered actions. Consider
the problems which must be faced in connection with our popula-
tion explosion here in Florida. Many of you heard the discussion
of these problems at our symposium last night. How much scien-
tific planning is being done to meet these problems? Many of them
cannot be solved except by carefully planned action taken now
before it is too late. For example, there is no way to restore natural
areas once they have been destroyed, and unless some of these areas
are set aside and preserved promptly, they will soon all be gone.
While the Academy of Science can and should play an important
role in informing the public on these matters and in bringing pres-
sure to bear where necessary, think how much stronger the voice of
science would be if many of the other scientific organizations of
the state were to join with the Academy in a common program to
accomplish these ends.

This brings us to another of the objectives listed in our charter;
namely, to unity the scientific interests of the state. This I believe,
is a commonly ignored but a most important objective. There are
at present a large number of scientific organizations in most states,
including chemical societies, medical societies, dental societies, en-
gineering societies, conservation societies, mathematics societies,
psychological societies, and so ad infinitum. If there were some

236 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

common meeting ground or some central science organization, even
though it might be a rather loose knit affair, what tremendous pow-
er it could bring to bear and what weight its suggestions and rec-
ommendations would carry. True, the members might well have
trouble agreeing on a common plan of action, but unanimity is sel-
dom attained in any large group in our democratic society, and
yet things are accomplished.

The last purpose listed in our charter, the issuing of an annual
scientific publication, is still a very important activity for those
academies which have sufficient size and money to accomplish it.
In fact, many academies issue in addition to an annual scientific
publication, news letters and popular articles, which are widely
distributed in a continuing effort to stimulate interest and to diffuse
scientific knowledge.

So far I have discussed Academy activities in general terms.
What are we in the Florida Academy of Science doing and what
should we be doing? At our annual meetings we are including
symposia and review papers and would welcome more review pa-
pers. As already indicated, we do not sponsor the Science Fair,
nor do we have a Visiting Scientist program, but we do sponsor a
State Science Talent Search, a Junior Academy of Science and a
Collegiate Academy of Science, and all of these are doing well,
although we could certainly do a great deal more for them. The
Academy as an organization has not taken part in the development
of teacher training programs, so far as I know. We have, however,
just organized a science teaching section which is meeting for the
first time here at Lakeland. This section is off to a good start with
an excellent program and a number of interested teachers attend-
ing. It is organized on exactly the same basis as all other sections
of the Academy and I think we should emphasize that every mem-
ber of the Florida Academy is a member of the Academy as a whole,
and not mere of one particular section. The primary purpose of the
sections is to permit the grouping of papers according to broad sub-
ject matter areas so that those interested in a particular field may
meet together. Thus any member of the Academy who is inter-
ested in discussing problems of teaching may now attend the teach-
ing section as well as any other section or program of the Academy.
As the first step toward developing a program for honoring out-
standing science teachers, a committee has recently been appointed
to investigate ways and means of doing this and the Council hopes

THE EVOLUTION OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 237

to initiate such a program in the near future. We have not yet taken
any stand on the certification of science teachers, but I hope that
we may soon make ourselves heard in this area. The reputation
of our Quarterly Journal speaks for itself, so I shall not comment
on the success of our annual scientific publication. I would, how-
ever, like to say a few words on the matter of unifying the scien-
tific interests of the state. At the meeting of the Council in Lake-
land this past fall, your president was authorized to consult with
other scientific organizations in the state with reference to working
out some sort of plan for cooperating together or for arranging joint
activities. I regret to report that the pressure of other duties has
prevented me from making much progress on this. However, |
did attend the meeting of the Board of the Florida Foundation for
Future Scientists in Melbourne several months ago and brought
up this idea there. It received the enthusiastic endorsement of
that board, and their president was authorized to appoint repre-
sentatives of the Florida Foundation to a joint committee to serve
with representatives of the Florida Academy to explore this matter
further. You may ask, what we can hope to accomplish by bring-
ing together such diverse groups. It seems to me that if a number
of organizations representing thousands of scientists could get to-
gether and form what we might call a federation of science, for
lack of a better term, it could speak with far more authority for
science in this state than could any one of its members alone. It
could, for example, exert far more influence to gain support for a
sound program of teacher training for science teachers; and a sound
program of science instruction in our school system, with adequate
equipment, adequate instruction and adequate salaries for the
instructors at all levels from the elementary school up to and in-
cluding the state universities. Or, again consider the science pro-
grams for the young people of our state.. At the present time sev-
eral other organizations besides the Florida Academy take some
part in the various science programs for the high school students
in Florida, but many others do not participate. If all of the scien-
tific organizations of the state cooperated in such programs as the
Science Fairs and Talent Search, Junior and Collegiate Academies,
and Visiting Scientist Program, these programs could be tremen-
dously broadened and strengthened and more young people could
be interested in science. Virtually all of the scientific organiza-
tions of the state have much the same general objectives as those

238 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

listed in our charter, except that they seek to do for their own par-
ticular areas of science what the Florida Academy seeks to do for
science as a whole. It should be obvious, however, that the better
these objectives are accomplished for science as a whole, the more
the individual branches of science will profit and conversely, any
advance in a particular area of science benefits science as a whole.
We can accomplish so much more working together toward these
common objectives than working separately. The Florida Academy
of Sciences as the one statewide organization which is concerned
with all of science must take the lead in unifying the scientific in-
terests of the state and in working out a cooperative program.

Some years ago, when my daughter was about six years old, her
grandmother gave her a child's sewing machine. It was a very
small thing, but it actually sewed when the little wheel was turned
by hand. Naturally it fascinated my daughter and she began to
sew all kinds of doll clothes. One day she came to her mother and
said, “Mother, you know that sewing machine Grandmother gave
me is a miracle sewing machine—you don’t even have to plug it in.”
Are sewing machines outmoded? Modern sewing machines don't
look much like those of fifty years ago. They don't operate much
like the early models either, and today we may have to plug them
in to make them work, but the sewing machine is still a very useful
and important thing. And so with Academies of Science. They
may have changed in appearance, in organization and in activities,
since the days of the founding fathers, but if they adapt to changing
conditions, if they evolve with the times, they can still be among
the most important of all agencies in promoting the advancement
of science. The Florida Academy has made tremendous strides in
the past few years. Let us all work together to make it a growing
force for the continued advancement of science in Florida.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(4) 1961

EFFECT OF AGE, BREED AND DIET ON THE GLYCOGEN
OF THE HEART, LIVER AND MUSCLE OF CATTLE? ?

R. L. Survey, A. C. Warnick, A. Z. Parmer, G. K. Davis,
F. M. Peacock anp W. G. Kirk
University of Florida

INTRODUCTION

The effects of many physiological and dietary factors on glyco-
gen concentration in tissues are not known. Hall, Latschar and
Mackintosh (1944) observed that dark-cutting beef muscle was char-
acterized by practically no glycogen and low lactic acid content.
Wolf (1957) found that liver protein concentration varied directly
with percent dietary protein, while glycogen exhibited an inverse
variation. Stadie, Haugaard and Perlmutter (1947) showed that
glycogen synthesis in rat heart slices was related to the glucose
concentration and Buzard et al. (1956) reported a rapid decrease
in glycogen on standing, with rat heart slices. Montgomery (1957)
in a study of glycogen methods pointed out the importance of
“glycogen” being recognized as being non-specific alkali-soluble
polysaccharides. In the present study the effect of (a) age on 16
cows and their 16 calves, (b) age on 28 steers ranging from 7 to 15
months, (c) crossbreeding on 28 eighteen-month-old crossbreed
Brahman and British-bred heifers, and (d) four different levels of
dietary protein and molasses fed for 7 months to 20 twenty-six-
month-old heifers equally divided among the 4 dietary groups on
the glycogen content of the heart, liver and muscle has been de-
termined.

MeETHOopS

Gambassi and Maggi (1956) reported that no difference had
been found in glycogenolysis between the two ventricles of rats,
and in preliminary tests no differences were found in glycogen con-
centration in the different ventricles of cattle of this study. A pre-
liminary study was also made of the effect of various periods of
letting the heart, muscle and liver of rats, swine and cattle stand

1 Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series, No. 1293.
> The writers wish to thank Fay Warner, J. W. Carpenter, E. Bedrak and

R. H. Alsmeyer for indispensable aid in this study. The investigation was
partially financed by Public Health Grant-in-aid (H-1318).

240 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

before beginning the analysis. The results of this study are shown
in Figure I. The earliest time considered practical to obtain sam-
ples was 10 minutes after swine and cattle were sacrificed by jugular
bleeding. All the longer periods, both at room temperature and
after freezing at -8° C., gave markedly lower values. For this rea-
son, all cattle samples in the present study were obtained within
10 minutes of slaughter and the analysis started immediately. Sam-
ples of the left ventricle of the heart, gracilis muscle and liver were
taken from the cattle and placed in ice-cold KOH for glycogen
analysis according to Good, et al. (1933).

Sixteen Brahman-Shorthorn crossbreed cows 36 to 48 months
of age and their 16 calves were divided (5, 5, 6) into three dietary
protein groups and fed 0.9, 1.3 and 3.0 lb. cottonseed meal (41%
protein) and 42, 56 and 70 lb. Pangola grass silage per day, re-
spectively. These rations were fed for about 3 months before and
3 months after calving. Following this period of concentrate feed-
ing the cattle were placed on a mixed grass-clover pasture without
supplement, beginning in June for about 4 months before being
slaughtered. Samples were obtained as above for glycogen analysis.
Dietary treatments had no effect and data are reported only for the
effect of age on these animals.

A group of 28 Brahman-Shorthorn crossbreed steers of ages
ranging from 7 to 15 months which had been on fair pasture with
varying protein and energy supplementation were slaughtered and
samples taken for glycogen analysis. These steers were equally
divided into age groups of 7, 9, 12 and 15 months, respectively. As
dietary treatments had no effect on the glycogen content, only the
data on the ages and crossbreeding are presented.

Twenty Hereford heifers at 26 months of age were divided
equally into 4 dietary groups and fed 1.41, 1.14, 0.90 and 0.77 lb.
of crude protein from cottonseed meal, molasses and Pangola hay;
and 3.5, 4.5, 5.3 and 5.8 lb. cane molasses per day, respectively.
These rations contained 100, 77, 56 and 46% of the digestible pro-
tein recommended by the National Research Council. The cows
were slaughtered after 7 months on the rations and samples of tis-
sues were obtained for glycogen analysis.

Statistical analysis of variance of the data was made novendkne
to Snedecor (1956).

GLYCOGEN OF HEART, LIVER AND MUSCLE OF CATTLE 241

RESULTS

In Figure 2, the data are presented graphically for the glycogen
in the heart, muscle and liver of cattle ranging from 7 to 48 months
of age. The glycogen showed a decrease (P < 0.05) in the hearts
of the steers as age increased from 7 to 15 months. No difference
was observed between the hearts of the 4 year old cows and their
7-month-old calves. In the muscle and liver the 16 cows had more
(P < 0.05) glycogen than their 16 calves. The liver generally con-
tained 1.5 to 2 times as much glycogen as the muscle in correspond-
ing animals. The steers that varied in age from 7 to 15 months
also had an increase (P < 0.05) in glycogen content of their muscle
and liver as age increased. This was just opposite from the change
in concentration in the heart with age of these steers.

In Figure 3, the data are plotted graphically for the glycogen
concentration found in the heart, muscle and liver of the 18-month-
old heifers of various ratios of Brahman:British breeding ratios of
6:2, 5:3, 4:4 and 1:7 and purebreed Shorthorn heifers of the same
age.

The effect of various levels of dietary protein and molasses on
the glycogen content of the heart, muscle and liver of 33-month-old
heifers are shown in Figure 4. These data demonstrate no effect of
diet on the heart and muscle, but as the dietary protein decreased
and the molasses increased the glycogen in the liver doubled in
concentration.

Discussion

The decrease in glycogen in the hearts of the 7 to 15 month old
steers with increase in age, during which time the skeletal muscle
and liver increased in concentration, demonstates that the heart is
quite different in its capacity to store and metabolize glycogen (see
Figure 2). The capacity to utilize glycogen after the animal is
sacrificed by bleeding is greatest in the heart, intermediate in the
muscle and least in the liver (see Figure 1). This demonstrates that
glycogen is a readily available source of energy for the heart in
cattle. Lactic acid determinations were made concurrently on a
number of samples when determining the rate of glycogen break-
down shown in Figure 1. In general the lactic acid percentage
would increase about half as much as the percentage of glycogen
would decrease in corresponding samples. Buzard et al. (1956)
observed during in situ glycolysis of rat heart equivalent amounts

242 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TISSUES STOOD AT ROOM t° AFTER
SACRIFICE M=MINUTES.

SAMPLES FROZEN AT-8°C ; M=MINUTES
H=HOURS AFTER SACRIFICE.

MG. GLYCOGEN / GM. WET WT.

T SWINE CATTLE] RAT SWINE CATTLE| RAT SWINE CATTLE
IVER SKELETAL MUSCLE HEART X 10

Figure 1. Effect of time and temperature on glycogen concentration
of the heart, liver and muscle of rats, swine and cattle.

NO. ANIMALS G@wvnr ww ié G2 uv RT 1G Gey vv 7 IG
if
> EJ cows AND THEIR CALVES
E] steers
p25 |
Ww
=>
- 20
=
©)
Ee
Bit
WW
oO
ro)
>
oy
ru)
55
© ce
= All
0 = nok
AGE. MO. n Y 12 15 48 Seu Rte Troha 7 7.9 12 Nstale
HEART MUSCLE * LIVER*

(STEERS. ONLY) *

Figure 2. Effect of age on (1) cows and their calves and (2) steers on
the glycogen content of the heart, muscle and liver. The single asterisk de-
notes variation at the 0.05 level of significance.

GLYCOGEN OF HEART, LIVER AND MUSCLE OF CATTLE 243

of lactic acid formed. Lactic acid has long been established as a
readily available source of energy for the heart.

It is not known why the 4-year-old cows did not follow the pat-
tern of decreasing in glycogen concentration in the heart with age
as occurred with the 7 to 15 month old steers. It may be that by
the time the cows were this mature their hearts had a decrease in
need or rate of utilization of glycogen, and thereby older hearts
eventually increase in glycogen concentration.

The failure of crossbreeding of Brahman and British breeds,
which have such different origins, to influence glycogen concentra-
tion in the heart, skeletal muscle and liver points to the conclusion
that glycogen metabolism is a basic process of animal life.

The lack of effect of ration on glycogen concentration in the
4-year-old cows and their calves may have been caused by the vari-
ous ration groups being in the same pasture during the 4 months
before being slaughtered. This may have allowed time for any
affect produced during the winter on the different levels of supple-
mentation to be lost; even though the condition of the cows and
the grades of the calves were higher at the time of sacrifice in those
that had the most protein and forage supplementation during the
winter months. In case of the 20 heifers that were fed decreasing
levels of protein and increasing levels of molasses for 7 months
before being sacrificed (Figure 4) it was demonstrated that the heart
is not a storage depot for glycogen as essentially identical values
were found for all animals. Glycogen was found to be quite high
in the muscle but no dietary effect was demonstrated. However,
the liver had approximately twice as much glycogen present in the
low protein-high molasses as in the high protein-low molasses die-
tary group.

Wolf (1957) observed with rats that as the dietary protein was
decreased, the glycogen in the liver increased, which is in line with
the data found here. However, we believe that the increasing
amounts of sugar from the molasses that were present in the lower
protein diets is a more likely explanation for the great increase in
glycogen in the liver. The observation by Stadie et al. (1947) that
glucose increased glycogen synthesis in slices of rat heart suggests
the increased level of dietary molasses as the cause of the high gly-
cogen concentration in the liver.

While the muscle contained 2 to 3 times as much glycogen as
the heart it was not demonstrated to reflect increased storage of

NO. ANIMALS

HEART

25 MUSCLE
LIVER

MG. GLYCOGEN / GM. WET WT

Figure 3. Effect of crossbreeding of Brahman and British beef cattle
on the glycogen content of the heart, muscle and liver.

Ls)
16)

a)
(eo)

‘i 6. CLYCOGEN I GM. WET WT.
on

O
PROTEIN Lil 0.87 0.69 0.59 l. 0.87 069 O59 1.11 0.87 0.69 059
LB/DAY
MOLASSES BB) Gis) “She YS) ei) GEG) ee} Ys) Bb) Ge) BS} BS}
LB/DAY
me ANI I MUSCLE Le Vea

Figure 4. Effect of different levels of dietary protein and molasses on
the glycogen content of the heart, muscle and liver of cattle.

GLYCOGEN OF HEART, LIVER AND MUSCLE OF CATTLE 245

glycogen as did the liver for the diets were decreased in protein
and increased in molasses. Marks and Feigelsen (1957) concluded
that in liver the pentose pathway contributes to formation of gly-
cogen glucose, while glycogen of the skeletal muscle appears to be
derived mostly from glucose by direct incorporation of the intact
administered 6-carbon unit.

SUMMARY

Cows, approximately 48 months old were shown to have greater
(P < 0.05) glycogen in their gracilis muscle and liver, but an equiv-
alent amount in their heart ventricle as their 7 month old calves.

Steers ranging from 7 to 15 months of age had a decrease
(P < 0.05) in the glycogen content of their heart tissue and an in-
crease (P < 0.05) in the muscle and liver as age increased.

Eighteen-month-old heifers with Brahman:British crossbreeding
ratios of 6:2, 5:3, 4:4 and 1:7 and purebred Shorthorn steers of the
same age had equivalent amounts of glycogen in their heart, muscle
and liver tissue.

Hereford heifers 33 months of age that had been fed 4 different
levels of dietary protein (1.41, 1.14, 0.90 and 0.77 lb.) and cane mo-
lasses (8.5, 4.5, 5.3 and 5.8 Ib.) per day for 7 months, respectively,
doubled the glycogen concentration in the liver as the protein was
decreased and molasses increased; but the glycogen in the heart
and muscle was not affected.

LITERATURE CITED

BUZARDs |) A PD. NYTCH, F. KOPKO, and M. F. PAUL
1956. Anaerobic loss of endogenous glycogen in rat heart slices. Proc. Soc.
Exptl. Biol. Med., 93: 156-158.
GAMBASSI, G., and V. MAGGI
1956. Glycogen of the right and left ventricles and spontaneous elycogen-
olysis in vitro. Boll. soc. ital. sper. 32: 1536-1539.
GOOD, C. A., H. KRAMER, and M. SOMOGYI
1933. The determination of glycogen. J. Biol. Chem., 100: 485-491.

EMG EE LATSCHAR, and D.-L. MACKINTOSH

1944. Quality of beef. IV. Characteristics of dark-cutting beef. Kansas
Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bull., No. 58: 55-78.

246 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

MARKS, P. A., and P. FEIGELSON

1957. Pathways of glycogen formation in liver and skeletal muscle in fed
and fasted rats. J. Clin. Invest. 36: 1279-1284.

MONTGOMERY, REX

1957. Determination of glycogen. Arch. Biochem. and Biophy., 67: 378-
386.

SNEDECOR., G. W.
1956. Statistical Methods. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. 534
pp.

STADIE, W. C., NIELS HAUGAARD, and M. PERLMUTTER
1947. The synthesis of glycogen by rat heart slices. J. Biol. Chem., 171:
419-429,

WOLF, R. C.

1957. Influence of dietary protein and cortisone acetate on adrenalectomized
rats. Am. J. Physiol., 190: 129-182.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(4) 1961

FOLDING OR WARPING RESULTING FROM SOLUTION
WITH ASSOCIATED JOINTS AND ORGANIC ZONES
IN CLAYEY SANDS AT EDGAR, FLORIDA

E. C. PirkLE anp W. H. Youo
University of Florida

ABSTRACT

Gentle folding or warping in clayey sands of the Citronelle
formation is clearly evident in fresh exposures resulting from recent
mining operations at a pit of the Edgar Plastic Kaolin Company in
Putnam County, Florida. This folding is not due to compressive
forces nor to any other type of tectonic activity normally associated
with folding but rather has resulted from slumpage as underlying
carbonate rock was removed by solution. Such draping of sedi-
ments with the attendant development of joints and small faults, as
illustrated at the Edgar pit, is a phenomenon which carries regional
significance.

Dark zones containing a relatively high content of finely-divided
organic matter are present throughout the new exposures. Although
from a cursory examination the organic substances in the dark
zones appear to have been trapped at the time the Citronelle sed-
idments were deposited, a closer study reveals that much of the
organic material is epigenetic in origin. Such occurrences serve to
emphasize the necessity for demonstrating the syngenetic or epige-
netic origin of organic matter incorporated in sediments prior to
utilizing the organic materials in such problems as those relating
to environments of deposition or to age.

A method for determining the direction and amount of greatest
dip of cross-bedding in these sediments is described, and the nomen-
clature used by local clay and sand operators in naming and classi-
fying the materials is explained.

SEDIMENTS PRESENT IN AREA OF EDGAR Pir

From 3 to 27 feet of loose, brown to light straw-yellow surface
sands blanket the region around Edgar in Putnam County, Florida.
These loose sands overlie from 28 to 60 feet of slightly micaceous,
kaolin-bearing sands that contain lenses and stringers of small
gravel. For many years the kaolin-bearing sands were considered

248 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

as a part of the Citronelle formation of Pliocene or early Pleistocene
age, but now some question exists as to their origin and correct
stratigraphic position (Bishop, 1956; Puri and Vernon, 1959). In
numerous areas the upper part of these kaolinitic sands has weath-
ered to some shade of red or yellow; the lower part of the sedi-
ments, locally referred to as the kaolin zone, normally is white.
In the area immediately adjacent to the pit here described, no red
zone is present. A treatment of the characteristics of these kaolinitic
sediments in peninsular Florida, with a discussion concerning the
origin of the kaolin, has been given elsewhere (Bell, 1924; Pirkle,
1960).

The Citronelle sediments unconformably overlie the Hawthorne
formation of Miocene age. Most Hawthorne sediments are quite
variable in composition, consisting of various combinations of car-
bonate, quartz sand, clays and phosphate particles. There are oc-
casional lenses of nearly pure sand or clay. Even within the lim-
ited mining area near the town of Edgar, the upper surface of the
Hawthorne formation varies from blue clay to impure limestones
to local concentrations of phosphate particles embedded in a matrix
of sand and clay.

The Hawthorne beds overlie unconformably the Ocala limestone
of Eocene age. This limestone is very pure, white to cream, granu-
lar to pasty, permeable and highly fossiliferous. The Ocala lime-
stone has been raised recently by Puri to the Ocala group and di-
vided into the Inglis, Williston and Crystal River formations (Puri,
1953; Vernon and Puri, 1956).

SECTION AT Pir AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SEDIMENTS

Location, Sediments and Textural Characteristics: The pit of
the Edgar Plastic Kaolin Company is located in the NE % of the
SW % of Section 25, Township 10 South, Range 23 East, or approxi-
mately 3 miles southwest of Interlachen in Putnam County, Florida.
The following section of Citronelle sediments exposed above the
lake level at this pit was measured during April, 1961.

Loose surface sands were originally present over the site of the
pit but these, together with swampy organic sediments, were largely
removed in preparation for mining activities. A channel sample
of the loose surface sands was collected along the northern bank
of the pit about 450 feet from the site of the measured section.

CLAYEY SANDS AT EDGAR, FLORIDA 249

Along this bank the loose sands are undisturbed and range in thick-
ness from a few feet to more than 15 feet. The thickness was meas-
ured as 10 feet 5 inches where the channel sample was taken. On
plate I these sediments are referred to as Unit 10.

SECTION AT CLAY PIT NEAR SAND PLANT #1 OF THE
EDGAR PLASTIC KAOLIN COMPANY

UNIT DESCRIPTION THICKNESS
9. Clayey sand. Fine to medium, white.

Mice SMOlMMEG GING es eS i ee Hetty), 10
8. Clayeyesand. Kine to-coarse, light tan LOvine
ie Clayey sand. Fine to very coarse, noticeable granules,

light tan.

Ocemismasmawsimall ensue oie es Dera ey 4 in
6. Clayevesand. (Kine to medium, light tan 2207 4 in.
5. Sand, clayey. Sand fine to coarse, brown.

Containsrorganic contamination 20 2 ee thes) lesa:
4, Clayey sand. Fine to coarse, white.

Occasional stringers and lenses of small gravel,
too thin to sample separately.
A few discoid quartzite pebbles up to 1 inch in diameter.

ncinygmenoss bedded suiwe i Ave itera ilulentiae
oy Clayey sand. Fine to coarse, white.

PPOUMMRCKOSS CCCI uw a rel Was a ne ea ines labo
2) Clayey sand. Fine to coarse, white.

@ccunsmasnagsmalilens (uc) SAN ee eee ee 4 in.
ik Clayey sand. Fine to coarse, white.

A few discoid quartzite pebbles up to *4 in. in diameter _. 2 ft., 7 in.

MOM ket le vic pmsuali nevis Ieper MN ose ea NOR Ete on Osim

Histograms (plates I and II) were constructed to illustrate lith-
ologic characteristics of the sediments. In collecting materials for
the screen analyses, channel samples were carefully taken across
the entire face of each sedimentation unit described in the meas-
ured section. In addition to the channel samples, spot samples were
collected at selected sites on the pit face to furnish data for specific
problems relating to textural variability. In the initial mechanical
analyses materials passing the 325 mesh screen were not subdivided.
However, analyses run by the Edgar Plastic Kaolin Company show
that most of the sediments corresponding to the < 1/16 mm size-
grade on the histograms is kaolinitic clay, only a small percentage
of that fraction being of silt size.

Unit 10
Md — 038—

PERCENTAGE

0
16 8 4 2 1 129 14 Sis

DIAMETER*IN MM
6017 Taal T
t— Unit 9
50} Md — 0.23 +
we t—Q3s = 0.34 Te
9 4oFQ, - 012-4 +
< | | |
Z 30
U
3 20
10
0 .
16 8 4 2 1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 «1/16
DIAMETER IN MM. :
60 T T T 7

aa aa

PERCENTAGE

16 8 4 2 1 1/2 «1/4 1/8

116 <1/16

DIAMETER IN MM
T

PERCENTAGE
w
oO

0
16 8 4 2 1 72 «1/4 3911/8
DIAMETER IN MM.

116° <1/16

Plate I.

PERCENTAGE

JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA

PERCENTAGE PERCENTAGE

PERCENTAGE

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

PLATE |

Histograms of channel samples collected at Edgar pit.

14 1/8 1/16 <1/16

M M.

4 2 1 1/2

1116 <1/16

4 2 1 72 1/4 1/8

DIAMETER IN MM.

—- 019

ne ee
DIAMETER IN MM.

1/16 <1/16

Unit 10

represents loose surface sands similar to those removed from above the face
where the section was measured. This unit could be considered as the upper-

most unit of the measured section.
on the measured section.

Units 9 through 3 are labeled respectively

CLAYEY SANDS AT EDGAR, FLORIDA 251

PLATE II

o ©
< <
be -
Z4 Zz
u v
4 a
A is
0
16 8 4 2 1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 <1/16 16 8 Annee. 1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 <1/16
60 DIAMETER IN MM. DIAMETER IN MM
50
5 w
3 40 y
i
2 of :
es uw
2 ee :
ws
(| oe a
0. eon ; 0. -
16 8 4 2 1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 <1/16 16 8 4 2. 1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 <1/16
60 DIAMETER IN M M. DIAMETER IN MM.
50
@ 0
ye 40 zs
(~ -
Z 30 z
Vv re)
2520 ce
a a
10
ot 0
16 2 1 1/2 «1/4 1/8 1/16 <1/16 16 8 4 2 1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 <1/16
AMETER 1 % DIAMETER IN MM.
° ©
< <
— —
Zz Zz
U v
a 4
a a
1 1/2 «1/4 1/8 16 8 4 2 1 2 «1/4 1/8 1/16 <1/16
DIAMETER IN MM DIAMETER IN MM.

Plate II. Histograms of channel samples and spot samples from Edgar pit.
Units 2 and 1 are channel samples labeled respectively on the measured sec-
tion. Samples A through F represent spot samples. Samples B, C and E
are from an organic zone; samples A and D are from sediments enclosing the
organic zone. Sample F was selected to illustrate textural variability of a
lens, 30 feet long and 32 inches thick, of clayey and fine gravelly sand. This
lens occurs near the surface approximately 35 feet southwest of the measured
section.

252 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Cross-bedding: Two readings on cross-bedding were made in
unit 4 of the measured section. One reading was taken near the
middle of the unit. There the direction of greatest dip was deter-
mined to be S 73° W. The other reading, taken closer to the base
of the unit, was S 78° W. These readings are not representative
of the average direction of greatest dip of cross-bedding at the
Edgar pit. Numerous determinations indicate that two dominant
directions exist, one toward the southwest and another, more prom-
inent, toward the southeast. When all measurements are consid-
ered the average direction of greatest dip of cross laminations is
found to be S 24° E.

Taking reliable readings on cross laminations in these sediments
requires care. The cross-bedding often is shown only by thin string-
ers of sand or gravel. Clearing off the top of these stringers to take
readings is not practical. To make accurate measurements in such
soft sediments, a small V-shaped channel or groove is cut across
stringers of the cross-bedded unit. This procedure is similar to
removing a wedge-shaped slice from a layer cake. Then a single
stringer can be selected and traced along the face of the exposure
to the V-shaped channel, down one side of the channel, out the
other side and then along the face of the exposure leading away
from the V-shaped groove. A non-magnetic piece of metal shaped
more or less like a trowel is then inserted, sharp point first, into the
V-shaped groove so as to make contact with the stringer of sand or
gravel at all points within the groove and along the face of the
exposure bordering the groove. With a little practice a channel of
correct size and shape can be cut so as to make the insertion of the
metal trowel a very easy and accurate operation. The inserted
trowel thus represents a plane of the stringer. A dip direction in-
dicator as described by Pryor (1958, 230) is then placed on the
trowel and oriented until the spirit level is centered. A brunton
compass is used to determine the direction of a line drawn at right
angles to the spirit level. This reading represents the direction of
greatest dip of the cross lamination. A devil level (a small device
in which a floating pointer indicates the dip in either degrees or
percent of grade) is placed along the line, and the amount of the
greatest dip is read directly from the devil level.

Naming of Sediments: During the past the method of naming
or classifying these sediments has varied considerably with different
authors, thus giving local clay and sand operators different impres-

CLAYEY SANDS AT EDGAR, FLORIDA 253

sions as to the nature of the materials. Frequently a company min-
ing these sands and clayey sands finds it desirable to run thorough
mechanical analyses including a particle size distribution of the fine
fraction. Such determinations are required in some studies involv-
ing problems of settling and flocculation of fine particles. When
complete mechanical analyses are available, the following terminol-
ogy, utilizing size divisions of Wentworth (1922), is used locally in
describing the various combinations of sediments. ~The material
is referred to as gravel (> 4 mm), fine gravel (< 4, >2 mm), sand
Ca 16 min), silt (< 1/16, > 1/256 mm), or clay (< 1/256
mm) according to which of these components constitutes more than
50 percent by weight of the bed or sample. Any material that
makes up between 10 and 50 percent of the total bed is represented
by the correct adjective form, and in naming the material this ad-
jective precedes the term corresponding to the dominant compon-
ent. The adjective forms are gravelly, fine gravelly, sandy, silty,
and clayey. If a type of sediment constitutes more than 5 percent
of the bed but less than 10 percent, the appropriate adjective is
placed after the name referring to the dominant type of sediment
and separated by a comma. If no component makes up as much
as 50 percent of the sediments, the material is referred to as a mix-
ture of the dominant constituents.

As an illustration of this system, the name “clayey sand, grav-
elly,” would indicate that sand made up more than 50 percent of
the material, clay more than 10 percent but less than 50 percent,
and pebbles more than 5 percent but less than 10 percent with no
other component constituting as much as 5 percent of the total sam-
ple. For producers of sand, gravel and clay such nomenclature
lends itself readily to an understanding of various economic aspects
of the deposits in addition to illustrating relative distributions of
important constituents.

FOLDING IN CLAYEY SANDS

An examination of the complete face of the Edgar pit shows a
slight asymmetrical arch. The limb with the greatest dip is shown
in figure 1. It can be seen clearly that the clayey sands dip down-
ward toward the right. The crest of the fold occurs along the left
side of the picture. This folding and warping of insoluble beds
is the result of solution in underlying carbonate rock. The presence

254 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of solution features, such as sinkholes, in the area of the Edgar pit
indicates that solution has taken place beneath the folded clayey
sands. Detailed prospect drilling leaves little doubt regarding the
relationships between the folding and solution.

Figure 1. Pit of the Edgar Plastic Kaolin Company, Edgar, Florida. The
beds of clayey sand are distinctly tilted downward toward the right. Dark
colored organic zones are clearly visible. Numerous joints cut the face.
Toward the right-hand side of the photograph the joints and small faults cut
the clayey sands into wedges. The height of the face above lake level is ap-
proximately 13 feet.

Solution folding such as occurs at the Edgar pit is not merely a
local phenomenon. Pirkle and Brooks (1959, 310) pointed out that
in numerous areas of north-central peninsular Florida openings
exist between insoluble clastic rocks and underlying limestone. It
was pointed out that such openings, due to solution, were often
closed by sudden collapse, but that at times subsidence of the in-
soluble rocks takes place more or less contemporaneously with the
solution. Such settling would require draping of the overlying
clastic rocks to fit the new surface below. The resulting warping
and folding, with the development of joints and small faults, as
seen in figure 1, should be expected to be quite common geological
features.

There is growing evidence to support the widespread occurrence
of solution folding. W. A. White in a paper delivered in March,
1960, at Lexington, Kentucky, discussed major folding due to solu-
tion in the western highland rim of Tennessee. An abstract of that
report has been published by the Geological Society of America
(1960, 2029). E. W. Bishop (1960, 126) indicated the possibility
that monoclinal folding in Polk County, Florida, could be explained
by collapse resulting from solution at depth. Arthur T. Allen and
E. C. Pirkle, while examining shales of the Valley and Ridge

CLAYEY SANDS AT EDGAR, FLORIDA 259

province of northwestern Georgia during the summer of 1961,
observed numerous small structures which appeared to have formed
from subsidence of shale in response to removal through solution
of interbedded limestone strata and lenses. In some areas, folding
and warping from solution may prove to be a major type of de-
formational feature. In other localities small structures resulting
from solution undoubtedly have been superimposed on larger struc-
tures that resulted from diastrophic movements.

Jornts ASSOCIATED WITH THE FOLDING

Photographs, figures 2, 3 and 4, show joints that have resulted
from subsidence of the clayey sands. The average strike of the
joints in the best-developed set (figure 4) is N 74° W. The strikes
of joints in another set, not as well developed but in places bearing
considerable root growth, average N 5° E. These directions were
derived from readings on 15 different joint faces.

In some instances there may have been sufficient movement
parallel to the partings to warrant designating the features as faults
(figure 3). The observed type of faulting can be simulated on a
mud table by elevating the middle of a mud cake. The resulting
shears would be similar to those developed if one dropped the sides
of the mud cake, and analogous to the phenomena in nature which
ensue from removing support through solution of underlying sol-
uble materials.

The wedges shown in figures 2 and 3 have developed on the
flank of the fold where the beds have greater dips. The joints
forming the faces of the wedges belong to the set which strikes
approximately N 74° W. However these joints may deviate as
much as 15 degrees from that direction and are not as nearly verti-
cal as the joints occurring near the crest. of the fold (figures 3 and
4). Where the wedges have dropped slightly, the dominant slump-
age always seems to have occurred along the joint surface forming
the side of the block away from the arch crest (the right-hand side
of the wedges shown in figures 2 and 3).

The fractures developed from subsidence serve as avenues
through the clayey sands, allowing ground water to penetrate more
easily to the underlying limestones. Such water may contain a
relatively high content of weak organic acids, especially if the area
is covered by swamps, thus increasing the rate of solution of the

256 JOURNAL OF THE BPLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Figure 2. View of the right-hand half of figure 1. The wedges resulting
from jointing and faulting are clearly visible. Dark zones contain organic mat-
ter. The fallen block of clayey sand resting in the water at the foot of the cut
near the center of the picture can be used in matching this part of the face
with its corresponding part in figure 1.

Figure 3. Close-up view showing details of a wedge of clayey sand.
This block, in left-hand part of picture, can be located in figure 2 by the hole
at the bottom point of the wedge. Note that the block has dropped slightly.

CLAYEY SANDS AT EDGAR, FLORIDA 257

underlying carbonate rock. As solution in the limestone increases,
more and more avenues in the form of joints and sinkholes develop
in the overlying clastic sediments, resulting in more and more water
movement into the limestone. Thus the degradation of such areas
is progressively accelerated.

Joints and small faults resulting from solution constitute a defi-
nite type of deformational feature to be considered in many areas.
In addition to these solution joints there are numerous other pos-
sible types of joints, including original joints that result from drying
of sediments, joints that result from compaction of materials, and
those that are formed from tectonic movements. As illustrated at
the Edgar site, joints resulting from solution may show a definite ori-
entation and pattern related to the areas where the solution has oc-
curred, but when mapped throughout a region, solution joints likely
will show a more irregular distribution and more irregular regional
patterns than joints of other origins.

ORGANIC ZONES

Several dark zones containing finely-divided organic matter are
present in the face of the pit (figure 1). From a casual examination
it would appear that the organic matter was trapped at the time the
sediments were deposited. Even though some of the organic ma-
terials may be syngenetic, close inspection reveals a number of de-
tails that collectively suggest major infiltration of organic matter
into the sediments, the organic substances having moved downward
along joints and then laterally in down-dip directions along more
permeable zones.

Relationships of Swampy Areas, Organic Zones and Fractures:
There is evidence that a lake once existed in the immediate vicinity
of the pit described in this report. Swamps are known to have coy-
ered parts of the area, in some places perhaps representing a stage
in the natural destruction of the lake. Loose sands resulting from
the weathering and erosion of neighboring Citronelle sediments
probably were transported into the old lake and swamps, playing
a part in their destruction. Along the north wall of the pit from one
to two feet of sediments with a high organic content are present be-
tween the loose surface sands and the underlying clayey sands.
These organic materials, probably representing lake and swamp
deposits, extended over part of the area now cut by the face of the

258 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Figure 4. Joints that strike approximately N 74° W are easily visible.
These joints appear as straight lines cutting through the face almost vertically.
In the area where the beds are almost horizontal (left of the photograph), the
joints are essentially vertical. As the beds begin to dip downward (just to the
left of the center of the picture), the joints increasingly deviate from the verti-
cal, dipping toward the right or in the direction of the dip of the beds. At
the right-hand side of the picture where the dip of the beds becomes more pro-
nounced, the sediments are cut into wedges (well illustrated in figures 2 and 3).

Figure 5. Root growth along joints at the Edgar pit. Close inspection
reveals several joints present in the area between the two prominent root-coy-
ered joint surfaces.

CLAYEY SANDS AT EDGAR, FLORIDA 259

pit and served as a source for some of the organic materials that
have migrated downward into the underlying clayey sands. Like-
wise, more recent swamps have also covered part of the area and
served as a source of organic matter.

Figure 6. Close-up view of the right-hand part of figure 5 showing the
nature of root growth along joints. Organic material (dark colored) has been
transported down the joint by ground water, or has resulted from the decompo-
sition of roots along the joint.

Throughout all of the areas mined by the Edgar Plastic Kaolin
Company, only in the area of this pit face were thick swampy sedi-
ments present. This is also the only site in which organic zones
have been encountered in the clayey sands. Thus a correlation
exists between the lakes and swamps with their thick mat of organic
matter and the occurrences of organic materials in the underlying
clayey sands.

260 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

In addition, this is the only area encountered during mining in
which numerous joints and small faults occur. These fractures have
served as avenues for the movement of organic materials from lakes
and swamps into the clayey sands. These partings are also sites for
extensive development of roots which on decay constitute an addi-
tional source of organic matter (figures 5 and 6). In short, a source
of organic substances and avenues for the infiltration of the organic
matter into the clayey sands can be shown.

Infiltration of Organic Matter into Sediments: The fact that
organic matter can penetrate some sediments is evident. Figure 7
shows sand which has been partly “soaked” with organic matter.
This type of occurrence cannot be explained by considering the
organic materials as syngenetic with the sands. Likewise, the pres-
ence of organic substances only in down-dip directions from joints

Figure 7. Sands containing organic matter. The content of organic ma-
terials grades out gradually toward the left as can be seen in the vicinity of
the shovel marks. Exposure is approximately 2 feet high. Because of unde-
sirable properties imparted to clay and sand by organic matter, areas of high
organic content such as described in this report are considered as waste and
are by-passed in mining operations.

CLAYEY SANDS AT EDGAR, FLORIDA 261

furnishes additional evidence that organic material has migrated
into the sediments. Several dipping lenses of coarse sediments with
high organic contents were traced up dip to points where the lenses
crossed joints containing abundant root growth. Except for imme-
diate fringe areas adjacent to the joints, no organic material was
found in these lenses in up-dip directions from the fractures. Thus
the movement of organic materials into sediments at the Edgar site
can be demonstrated.

Migration of Organic Matter within Sediments: The migration
of organic matter within sediments at the pit is clearly evidenced
by the movement of organic materials within favored parts of lenses
and beds. Near the center of figure 8 organic matter can be seen
in parts of a cross-bedded unit. The organic materials cut indis-

Figure 8. Organic matter (dark) occupying a favored portion of a cross-
bedded unit is visible in the central part of this exposure. A short distance
from the right-hand end of the organic zone, close examination shows that or-
ganic matter has migrated from this unit downward into underlying sedi-
ments.

262 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

criminately across laminae of foreset-type beds. Critical observa-
tions show that near the right-hand side of the unit organic sub-
stances have migrated downward into an entirely different cross-
bedded unit, in which the cross laminations dip in a nearly oppo-
site direction.

Conditions shown in figure 9 furnish additional evidence of mi-
gration of organic substances within sediments. A dark zone is
present near the middle part of the pit face. This dark zone repre-
sents a permeable lens into which organic matter has penetrated
from joints. At the right-hand end of the dark zone, where the lens
is pinching out, organic material has moved from the lens down-
ward along foreset-type beds of an underlying cross-bedded unit.
Such occurrences as shown in figures 8 and 9 confirm migration of
organic materials within the beds.

Relationship of Permeability to Clay Content: In order to ob-
tain some idea as to why certain beds or zones are more favorable
than others as hosts for migration of organic matter, a series of spot
samples was carefully selected for analyses. One of the most pro-
nounced organic zones visible in the pit face was chosen for test-
ing, a zone extending for more than 50 feet along the face and cut
by several joints. Four samples were selected along a vertical
line. Sample A was collected from the sediments immediately over-
lying the organic zone. The next lower sample, B, was taken from
the upper part of the organic zone; another, C, was collected from
the lower part of the organic zone, and the fourth sample, D, from
the sediments immediately underlying the organic zone. A fifth
sample, E, was taken from a part of the organic zone into which,
because of increased distance from the supplying joints, organic
materials had not yet penetrated. Histograms of these materials
are given in plate II. An examination of these histograms shows
that the stratum into which the organic matter penetrated is low
in clay content. Sample E, collected from the part of the organic
zone not as yet reached by the organic matter, contained only 0.33
percent clay. In contrast, the sample collected from the stratum
immediately above the organic zone contained more than 14 percent
clay, and that from below the organic zone more than 17 percent
clay. A decrease in clay content favors an increase in permeability.
Those sediments with low clay content have greater permeability
and are the ones into which organic matter has penetrated.

CLAYEY SANDS AT EDGAR, FLORIDA 263

Correlations of Median Grain Size, Clay Content and Organic
Zones: Organic matter at the Edgar pit usually occurs in lenses of
coarse sediments (see B, C and E in plate II). This association can
be explained in relationship to median grain size and clay content.
The analyses of hundreds of samples of Citronelle sediments show
that as the “average” grain size of the sediments increases, the clay
content generally decreases. Because of a low clay content the
coarse zones have a greater degree of permeability, thus explaining
why the coarse sediments have been favored zones for the infiltra-
tion of organic matter.

Figure 9. Inspection of the pronounced organic zone (black) about the
middle of the face reveals that organic matter has migrated downward. into
adjacent strata. The dark vertical stains were developed by rain wash.

It is interesting and pertinent to compare median grain size,
clay content and organic matter in these sediments. Normally, as
the sediments become finer (reflected by decreasing median grain
sizes), clay content increases. To the contrary, organic matter is
more abundant in the coarser sediments (reflected by relatively large
median grain sizes). The relationships of the clay content to me-
dian grain size suggest that the clay was laid down as sedimentary
clay while the Citronelle sediments were accumulating. This con-

264 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

clusion is supported by field observations (Pirkle, 1960). In con-
trast, the relationships between organic content and median grain
size indicate that the organic matter is not syngenetic with the
enclosing sediments. This conclusion is supported by field obser-
vations presented in this report. Had finely-divided organic matter
been laid down with the enclosing materials, the organic substances
should be more abundant in fine sediments, not in the coarse ma-
terials. Collectively, the occurrences and relationships at the Edgar
pit suggest that major infiltration of organic matter into Citronelle
sediments has taken place to form organic zones.

CONCLUSIONS

Solution at depth in carbonate rock at the Edgar site has re-
sulted in draping of overlying insoluble beds with attendant de-
velopment of gentle folding or warping, joints, and small faults.
Organic matter has moved from the surface down the fractures
and has penetrated into favorable strata, forming organic zones.
The area serves to emphasize that folding and warping from solu-
tion must receive consideration in the study of structures in areas
where soluble carbonate rocks are present. Likewise, the epige-
netic origin of the organic zones at the Edgar site warns against
conclusions based on the presence of finely-divided organic matter
hastily assumed to be syngenetic.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The features described in this report were investigated concur-
rently with larger studies concerning heavy mineral suites and
characteristics of various sedimentary materials and formations of
peninsular Florida. This work has been made possible by funds
furnished by the Graduate School of the University of Florida and
the University of Florida Engineering and Industrial Experiment
Station.

Allen Edgar and George Davis of the Edgar Plastic Kaolin
Company have been most courteous. In addition to helpful sug-
gestions, these men made available full facilities of their company.
W. O. Babb of the Gainesville Equipment Company helped in
making various measurements of the pit face and furnished a cable-
tool drilling rig and operators for deep drilling to test materials that
lie beneath the Citronelle sediments. William D. Reves of the

CLAYEY SANDS AT EDGAR, FLORIDA 265

Florida Geological Survey and Ernest W. Bishop of the Water
Resources Department of the State of Florida were helpful through
stimulating discussions. During the past several years the writers
have had many discussions concerning Florida geology with H. K.
Brooks, R. A. Edwards, Caspar Rappenecker and other members
of the Geology Department of the University of Florida. Such
discussions have lasting benefits.

Harold L. Knowles of the C-2 Department of the University of
Florida made helpful suggestions and furnished laboratory space
and equipment. Without his help and counsel this work could
not have been undertaken or completed. John R. Dunkle, in ad-
dition to drafting the histograms, aided in organizing the data in
presentable form. Photographs were made by Weston McDonell
and R. J. Sneeringer of the Photographic Service of the University
of Florida. The authors are indebted to Allen Edgar, T. Walter
Herbert and William D. Reves for reviewing the report. These
men made valuable suggestions and contributed to a clearer presen-
tation. To the many organizations and individuals who have aided
in this work, the writers express their deep gratitude. However,
only the authors should be held responsible for the concepts and
conclusions herein presented.

LITERATURE CITED
BELL, OLIN G.

1924. A preliminary report on the clays of Florida (exclusive of Fuller’s
earth). Florida State Geol. Survey, 15th Annual Rept.: p. 53-266.

BISHOP, ERNEST W.

1956. Geology and ground water resources of Highlands County, Florida.
Florida State Geol. Survey Rept. of Inv., 15: 115 pp.

BISHOP, ERNEST W., E. C. PIRKLE and H. K. BROOKS.

1960. Descriptive road logs in late Cenozoic stratigraphy and sedimenta-
tion of central Florida. Southeastern Geological Society, 9th Field
Trip Guide Book. Tallahassee, Florida: 114-181.

PIRKLE, E.C. and H. K. BROOKS.

1959. Origin and hydrology of Orange Lake, Santa Fe Lake, and Levy
Prairie lakes of north-central peninsular Florida. Jour. of Geol.,
v. 67, no. 38: 302-317.

PRK EC.

1960. Kaolinitic sediments in peninsular Florida and origin of the kaolin.
Economic Geol., v. 55, no. 7: 1882-1405.

266 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

PRYOR, WAYNE
1958. Dip direction indicator. Jour. of Sed. Petrology, v. 28, no. 2: 230.
PURI, HARBANS S.

1953. Zonation of the Ocala Group in peninsular Florida. Jour. of Sed.
Petrology, v. 23, no. 2: 180.

PURI, HARBANS S. and ROBERT O. VERNON.

1959. Summary of the geology of Florida and a guidebook to the classic
exposures. Florida State Geol. Survey Special Pub. 5: 255 pp.

VERNON, ROBERT O. and HARBANS S. PURI.

1956. A summary of the geology of panhandle Florida and a guidebook to
surface exposures. Florida State Geol. Survey G.S.A. Field Trip:
83 pp.

WENTWORTH, C. K.

1922. A scale of grade and class terms for clastic sediments. Jour. of Geol.,
v. 80: 377-392.

WHITE, WILLIAM A.

1960. Major folds by solution in the western highland rim of Tennessee
(Abstract). Geol. Soc. of America Bull., v. 71, no. 12: 2029.

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(4) 1961

IN AQUA SANITAS !

Gorpon M. Farm
Harvard University

In offering my congratulations to the Florida Academy of Sci-
ences on its Silver Anniversary, I do so with the knowledge that
the Academy, as exemplified by the program of this meeting, is not
secluded in an ivory tower but that it is a vital member of the Flor-
ida community. This is as it should be. For when the Academy
(using this term in its broadest sense) loses touch with the com-
munity, it has taken the road to self-destruction. Germany under
the Nazi regime offers an unhappy example. To some extent a
similar danger exists when the Sciences lose touch with the Humani-
ties in “two cultures.” Both must be advanced in step if civilization
as we know it is to remain in balance—indeed, if it is to survive.

The title of my address, looked at by itself alone, seems preten-
tious. Why the Latin, why not the simple English “Water and
Health?” Why, furthermore, should I come to Gainesville to speak
about water? Isn't the University of Florida satisfied with having
collected one of the most important groups of water men that can
be found anywhere in the world? You will understand, therefore,
that I must approach my task of speaking about water with humble-
ness of mind and caution in statement.

To return to my topic, “In Water is Health,” the Greeks as well
as the Romans had words for this belief. They placed great value
on water in general. For they have said that it is “noble” or “pre-
cious. Thus, Pindar included in an ode that he wrote, probably
in the year 476 B.C., a proverb of the times that he expressed in
these words: Ariston men hudor—‘Best of all things is water;” and
he went on to say “for this golden substance, like a pillar of fire by
night, is the greatest of our possessions.” But the Greeks did little
to bring this golden substance to their cities. That they left to the
Romans who were a practical people, both politically- and engineer-
ing-minded in high degree. As builders of great cities, they made
community life possible by the water they carried to them in great
aqueducts. As an engineer, therefore, I prefer to honor the Romans
by stating my thesis in Latin. Incidentally, Lawrence Wright, au-

' Presented by invitation at the 25th Annual Meeting of the Florida Academy
of Sciences, Gainesville, Fla., February 1960.

268 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

thor of Clean and Decent (Viking Press, New York, 1960), suggests
that we may have too elevated an image of the Roman waterworks
because “the remaining (Roman) overhead aqueducts have made
such a dramatic impression on travelers that it is not generally real-
ized that the course of the Roman aqueducts was mainly under-
ground. About A.D. 52 the total length of the eight main aque-
ducts (of Rome) was about 220 miles, of which only about 30 miles
ran above ground. Nevertheless, to most of us, the images of
Roman water supplies will be the lofty structures of Segovia, the
Pont du Gard, and the miles of elevated channels that traverse the
“Agro Romana’ and the deserts of North Africa and the Middle
Fast.

That the Romans must have observed the health-bringing prop-
erties of the clean waters they collected, receives some support from
their differentiation of the purposes assigned to the various aque-
ducts supplying, for example, Rome. It is because of the Roman
imprint on water supply, therefore, that I have chosen a Latin rather
than a Greek title for my address on water. The fact that “in aqua
sanitas’ appears to be complementary to the more widely known
“in vino veritas’ should not excite the audience unduly. I am nei-
ther an undercover agent of the W.C.T.U. nor a salesman for bot-
tled water.

That water could bring disease to a community as well as health
has been suspected by observant minds in all ages. However, it
was left to two English physicians of the nineteenth century to con-
clude from circumstantial evidence that water could be the carrier
of both cholera and typhoid fever. I refer, of course, to Drs. John
Snow and William Budd and their respective epidemiological studies
“On the Mode of Communication of Cholera” and “Typhoid Fever,
Its Nature, Mode of Spreading, and Prevention.” Their stories are
known too well to require my reciting them here. Personally, how-
ever, I can never have enough of them. Indeed, when in London,
I usually make a sentimental and not unrefreshing journey to the
pub on Broad Street (not far from Liberty’s) near which once stood
the Broad Street pump, the source of cholera in Dr. Snow’s day.
This pub has been named “The John Snow” at the suggestion. of
Sir Allen Daley, one-time Medical Officer of Health of the London
County Council.

However, it is not of that age that I would speak, except in pass-
ing, because we have pressing problems of our own to solve and

IN AQUA SANITAS 269

do not seem to be going about them very effectively. Before I tell
of them, let me bemoan the tendency of present-day communities
to make so little of their possession of precious supplies of water.
Had they lived, for example, through the dozen years of bitter dis-
cussion and lack of water in adequate quantity and quality that
characterized the development of the Cochituate water supply for
Boston or, worse yet, through the half-century of political and finan-
cial knavery through which New York City struggled before clear
and clean Croton water was delivered to it, our present-day com-
munities, too, would honor “our sister water’ as New York did in
the great celebration of 1842 and Boston in 1848.

In Boston, Loammi Baldwin, foremost engineer of his day, had
recommended in 1834 that the city acquire Farm Pond and Long
Pond (later renamed Cochituate) as the source of a gravity supply
for Boston. Construction, however, was delayed until 1846 because
of a division in preference for different sources of supply. During
this period of uncertainty, a barrage of pamphlets descended upon
the town. Even Harvard’s Professor of Obstetrics and Medicine,
Walter Channing, who was serving as Dean of the Medical School,
joined in the debate. In his “Plan for Pure Water,” he presented
three arguments in favor of the Cochituate supply, the third being
“That an abundant supply of pure and fresh water directly promotes
health and longevity, and as surely tends to diminish or prevent
pauperism.”

About the great water celebration we have the following account
in H. J. Bradlee’s “History of the Introduction of Pure Water into
the City of Boston”:

“The weather was propitious and at the break of day, a salute
of one hundred guns, accompanied by the ringing of bells, opened
the ceremonies. At an early hour the streets were filled with people,
attracted by the decorations, mottos and devices, by which the
principal avenues through which the procession was to pass, were
embellished. These were very numerous, well arranged and in
good taste, and some of them extremely beautiful.

“The SERVICES on the COMMON were brief, on account of
the lateness of the hour at which the procession reached the spot;
they were as follows:

“FIRST, Hymn by George Russell Esq., which was sung by the
Handel and Haydn Society and the audience.

270 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

“SECOND, Prayer, by Rev. Daniel Sharp, D.D.

“THIRD, Ode by James Russell Lowell, Esq., which was sung
by the School children” (from which the following is quoted):

“My name is Water: I have sped

Through strange, dark ways, untried before,
By pure desire of friendship led,
Cochituate’s ambassador;

He sends four royal gifts by me

Long life, health, peace, and purity.”

“FOURTH, ADDRESS by the HON. NATHAN HALE, one of
the WATER COMMISSIONERS.

“FIFTH, ADDRESS by the HON. JOSIAH QUINCY, JR.,
MAYOR OF BOSTON.

“At the conclusion of the Mayor’s Address, he asked the Assem-
bly if it were their pleasure that the water should now be intro-
duced. An immense number of voices responded, “Aye!” Where-
upon the gate was gradually opened, and the water began to rise
in a strong column, six inches in diameter, increasing rapidly in
height until it reached an elevation of eighty feet.

“After a moment of silence, shouts rent the air, the bells began
to ring, cannons were fired, and rockets streamed across the sky.
The scene was one of intense excitement, which it is impossible to
describe, but which no one can forget. In the evening, there was
a grand display of fireworks, and all the public buildings and many
of the private houses were brilliantly illuminated.”

Unfortunately, in America many of the cities that grew up along
the roads and waterways that led to the expanding West could not
or would not seek safe supplies from sparsely inhabited upland
sources as Boston and New York eventually did and have continued
to do ever since. As a result, the second half of the 19th century is
marked in the U. S. by a rising tide of enteric disease, proof of Rene
Dubos’ argument (The Mirage of Health, New York, 1959) that
every civilization creates its own kind of pestilence. Towards the
turn of the century, for example, the death rate from typhoid fever
hovered around 120 per 100,000 population in Pittsburgh, Pennsyl-
vania, implying that if one lived out the biblical span of life in Pitts-
burgh, one was almost certain to have been a victim of this enteric
infection at some time.

IN AQUA SANITAS 271

In America, it was the introduction of engineers, chemists, and
biologists into the reorganized State Board of Health of the Com-
monwealth of Massachusetts and the creation of the Lawrence
Experiment Station for studies of “the preservation of the purity
of inland waters” that heralded the opening of the campaign for
clean water and the eventual conquest of water-borne epidemics.

By 1930, the enteric infections carried by water had been almost
eliminated, thanks to modern methods of water treatment and the
beginnings of water-pollution control. Then came “the great leap
forward” in population and in science and industry of the mid-
century. As I have said in another place (Proceedings: The Na-
tional Conference on Water Pollution, Washington, D.C., Decem-
ber, 1960), “Faster than seemed believable, the industrial revolu-
tion of our age intensified the competition for water and, at the
same time, its degradation by ever-growing and ever-varying pol-
lutants ranging from thermal factors through inorganic substances
to organics of such construction that they cannot be metabolized
by the scavenging hosts of microorganisms. . . . once again, there-
fore, we are confronted by great change; change that demands
of us the concurrent creation in adequate numbers of specialists
and leaders and the stimulation of research that through analysis,
synthesis, and reduction to practice will develop the technologies
of water pollution control that are promising of success today.”

Senator Kerrs Select Committee on Natural Water Resources
estimates the average daily stream flow of the United States at
1.1 x 10" gallons per day or 6000 gallons per day per capita of the
present population. By the year 2000, however, the population
may well have increased threefold. Eighty-one percent of the
stream flow, it is estimated, will then be withdrawn daily from our
streams and 23 percent will be consumed (not returned to the
streams). Envisioned at the same time is a tenfold increase in the
recreational use of water and the addition of 7 million acres of land
under irrigation.

If I may quote again from one of my earlier writings (Fifth An-
nual Municipal and Industrial Waste Conference, Chapel Hill,
April, 1958), “there coincides (as suggested also in the Kerr report)
with the rising demand for water for municipal, industrial, and
irrigation purposes a lively interest in aquatic recreation. This
cannot be measured in volumes of water. It is a matter of situation,
of landscape, and of configuration. America, already on wheels

272 ~ JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

and thereby in communication with the great outdoors, has become
water-minded. Inboard and outboard motor sales and the sale of
pleasure craft have risen steadily. Aluminum and magnesium boats
are loaded on car roofs and heavier craft are towed about on trail-
ers. Mahomed is coming to stream and mountain. Frogmen don
their flippers and aqua-lungs and busy themselves in reversing
thousands of years of evolution that have brought man from the
primeval ooze to his present estate. Spinning reels convert even
the most inept fisherman into an Izaak Walton, and mechanical
lures vie with pedigreed bait from bait farms for a day’s catch.
Bathing beaches swarm with humanity, and man becomes more
and more amphibious in his recreational pusuits.” This, too, is a
contribution of water to health.

Let us, however, turn more specifically to matters of water qual-
ity control. There we shall find new and mounting challenges in
our own times. There, as we shall see, new products of our develop-
ing chemical industries, the evolution of nuclear energy, and the
threat of newly recognized enteric viruses are making us aware
of the need for new methods of water quality measurement and
control.

The procedures of analysis presently included in “Standard
Methods for the Analysis of Water’ give little, if any, information
on malodorous, bad-tasting, and possibly toxic waste substances
that are finding their way into our water courses, both surface and
underground, from factories that synthesize new organic substances
in ever greater number and of ever greater complexity. In addition,
substances such as the synthetic detergents, new insecticides, herbi-
cides, and piscicides, and increasing quantities of synthesized ferti-
lizers are entering water supplies in rising degree. Their concentra-
tion and effects on water quality need to be determined if we are
to be certain that the waters introduced into communities are to
remain hygienically safe, esthetically acceptable, and economically
useful. Toxicity screening incidentally requires the passage of
about 5000 gallons of water through activated carbon followed by
chloroform extraction. Usually less than 50 parts per billion of
organics are found in normal waters but their concentration may be
as high as 3000 parts per billion in the presence of heavy industrial
pollution. How to assay the lifetime toxicity of dangerous com-
ponents is one of the challenges of the day. The control of odors
and tastes associated with some organics is no longer the relatively

IN AQUA SANITAS 273

simple problem that we have encountered with algal growths.
Nevertheless, what Shakespeare called “the green mantle of the
standing pool” (King Lear), is still of interest to us and will continue
to be so in spite of the more complex problems that we now face.

The failure of an apparently modern water purification plant to
protect a large community (New Delhi, India) against water-borne
infectious hepatitis has dramatized the possible role that enteric
viruses may play in our future. Aside from the apparently un-
usually hardy virus of hepatitis, thought is being given once again
to the possible effects on water supplies of the different strains of
poliomyelitis virus as well as other enteric viruses. Clarke and
Chang (Journal, American Water Works Association, 51, 1922, 1959)
have described 17 reported outbreaks of water-borne hepatitis, 6
of them in the U.S. and 2 outbreaks of poliomyelitis in North Amer-
ica that are conceivably traceable to polluted sources of water.
The fact that more than 100,000 virus units are sometimes carried
in the feces of individuals suffering from poliomyelitis is of grave
concern. Chang, Berg, Clarke, and Kabler (American Journal of
Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 9, 136, 1960), furthermore, have
isolated large numbers of free-living nematodes from U.S. water
systems and have called attention to the possibility of these other-
wise harmless worms ingesting pathogens and carrying them in
their own bodies through the barrier of chlorine before releasing
them back to the water supply.

Perhaps more frightening to me on the whole, however, is what
C. P. Snow (Dartmouth Convocation, September 1960, p. 13) has
called the “technological cynicism” that marks the pragmatic ap-
proach by some people towards the palatability of our water sup-
plies. Thus, an eminent member of my profession (C. F. Gurnham,
Principles of Industrial Waste Treatment, Wiley, New York, 1955,
p. 3) has stated that “Municipal water treatment processes are often
incapable of destroying tastes, odors, and colors introduced by in-
dustrial wastes; hence the public must learn to tolerate conditions
that are certainly unpleasant, though not necessarily harmful.” My
reply to him is that science, as Sir Charles Snow has said, is not
“ethically neutral”; and to this I would add neither should it be
“esthetically neutral.”

We hear much in these days about the need for the “extended
imagination.” - Might it not be well to hear more also about the
“extended conscience?’ This leads me to a brief consideration of

274 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

another esthetic problem that should be of concern to all of us and
particularly so in areas of the country in which the quality of water
in our lakes, streams, and estuaries, and along our seashores is of
great economic as well as esthetic and hygienic importance in situ.
In reference to salt-water bathing beaches, for example, we are
confronted with the following general conclusions of an eminent
British committee (Journal of Hygiene, 57, 1959, pp. 468 and 469)
after a 5-year study of forty popular beaches around the coasts of
England and Wales:

“(i) That bathing in sewage-polluted sea water carries only a
negligible risk to health, even on beaches that are aesthetically
very unsatisfactory.

“(ii) That the minimal risk attending such bathing is probably
associated with chance contact with intact aggregates of faecal
material that happen to come from infected persons.

“(iii) That the isolation of pathogenic organisms from sewage-
contaminated sea water is more important as evidence of an existing
hazard in populations from which the sewage is derived than as evi-
dence of a further risk of infection in bathers.

“(iv) That, since a serious risk of contracting disease through
bathing in sewage-polluted sea water is probably not incurred un-
less the water is so fouled as to be aesthetically revolting, public
health requirements would seem to be reasonably met by a general
policy of improving grossly insanitary bathing waters and of pre-
venting so far as possible the pollution of bathing beaches with
undisintegrated faecal matter during the bathing season.”

Although I agree personally with the scientific evaluation of the
situation described by my British colleagues, I cannot accept their
recommendations any more than I am willing to go along with St.
Francis of Assisi who spoke of “our Sister Water very serviceable
and humble and precious and clear” yet listed dirtiness among the
insignia of holiness. May I quote, too, the lines from one of Schill-
ers poems (The Artist):

“The dignity of man is given into your hands. Preserve it.
It falls with you and will rise with you (once more).”

The “extended conscience’ as a companion to the “extended
imagination” has its greatest impact, however, when we consider
the increasing radio-activity of our environment, including the dis-
charge of radioactive isotopes from research laboratories and hos-

IN AQUA SANITAS 275

pitals, of radioactive wastes from nuclear energy installations, and
of radioactive fallout traceable to the testing of nuclear weapons.
Even though the present damage from nuclear fallout and nuclear
power-generation is estimated to be but a fraction of the damage
that is being done by medical X-rays, the fact that ionizing radia-
tions in any quantity, no matter how small, are dangerous to us
and our offspring should cause us to ponder the problem much more
deeply than we have so far. In this connection, we may well take
to heart the words that Rabelais places in the mouth of Pantagruel:
“Science without conscience is naught but ruination of the soul.”

In this world of growing “insult”, we can take some comfort
from the fact that advances in the purification and treatment of
water have been numerous and varied. Indeed, they have become
so sophisticated that some engineers and scientists have become
convinced that there is no limit to the degree of pollution that
water sources can tolerate and yet remain reclaimable as drinking
water. However, we have suffered a rude shock in the experience
of Chanute, Kansas, where in a period of great drought the re-
cycled sewage of the community became the public water supply.
To be sure, this water was made safe for drinking, but it was so
bitter-tasting, salty, and frothy that it was shunned by the public.
In water supply as in other matters, the doctrine of “innocence
rather than repentance’ has much to be said for it. For myself,
I shall continue to advocate this doctrine for so long as there remain
unexploited clean sources of supply (principally sparsely inhabited
uplands). By that time, we may have learnt to make the sun evapo-
rate our waste waters and give them back to us in pristine purity.

To summarize, may I note that all of the new dangers to water
quality represent far more complex substances, both living and
dead, than we have had to identify, measure, or deal with before.
Instrumentation for analysis has thereby become more delicate and
more costly. At the same time, methods for the control of un-
wanted substances have become more challenging and more diffi-
cult. In addition, we find ourselves involved in value judgments
with which, in blissful ignorance, we did not have to deal in the
past. Because of this, we as scientists and technologists must draw
much more closely to ethic and esthetic considerations than we
have been willing to so far. Only then will we be in a position to
proclaim “in aqua sanitas.”

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 24(4) 1961

PAST OFFICERS—FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

VICE-
PRESIDENT PRESIDENT™ SECRETARY
1936—Deland
lel, Iwi R. C. William- J. H. Kusner
son
1937—Miami
Jal, Jal, Jalon — |jenane Ie jE Hi Kusner

1938—Winter Park
R. I. Allen Buckland 7) El Kusner

1939—Tallahassee

Baeeehvemschy lea VV eeIMie= J. H. Kusner
Gowan

1940—St. Petersburg
B. C. William- CC. P. Heilein J. H. Kusner
son
1941—Lakeland
jEeie Pearsons.) Erancess\\Veste a.) 4 bleakusmer

1942—Gainesville
Re He Bellamy ~ ‘€..G; Becknell” jo) Kusner

1943—Gainesville
Re By Campbell re lubbell See As stuns

1944—Winter Park

Nee Dy ren=s ie) 1S NOgers R. F. Bellamy

forth
1945—St. Augustine

Francis West A. J. Hanna he He Bellamy.

1946—Tampa

C. G. Becknell G. F. Weber T. R. Alexander T.

1947—Tallahassee

E. M. Miller George Saute T. R. Alexander T.

1945—Miami
G. F. Weber G. G. Parker C. S. Nielsen

1949—Stetson
J. E. Hawkins J. D. Corrington C. S. Nielsen

‘TREASURER

| SES Rearsom

j: ES Bearson

M. Miller

. Faust

. Faust
. Faust
. A. Stubbs

. F. Bellamy

F. Bellamy
R. Alexander
R. Alexander

S. Nielsen |

S. Nielsen

PAST OFFICERS—FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 277

PAST OFFICERS—FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

VICE-
PRESIDENT PRESIDENT* TREASURER SECRETARY

1950—Florida Southern
H. H. Sheldon A. M. Win- C. S. Nielsen C. S. Nielsen
chester

1952—-Gainesville
A. M. Win- C. S. Nielsen R. A. Edwards’ R. A. Edwards
chester
1953—Rollins
C. S. Nielsen S. deR. Diet- R. A. Edwards’ R. A. Edwards
trich

1954—Tallahassee
5S. deR. Diet- |. C. Moore R. A. Edwards R. A. Edwards
trich
1955—Miami
J. C. Moore H. K. Wallace R.A. Edwards’ R. A. Edwards

1956—Tampa
H. K. Wallace’ C. P. Tebeau R. A. Edwards’ R. A. Edwards

1957—Stetson
C. P. Tebeau Dan Thomas R. A. Edwards’ R. A. Edwards

1958—Jacksonville

Dan Thomas E. R. Jones Gunter Schwarz Alexander Smith
1959—Lakeland
E. Ruffin Jones Luella N. James B. Lackey Alexander Smith
Dambaugh

1960—(Meeting postponed until February, 1961)

1961—Gainesville
Luella N. Paul Vestal James B. Lackey Alexander Smith
Dambaugh

* President-Elect beginning 1952

Beardslee, H. C.
Zion, Jacob J.

Pearson, Hazel M.

*Buswell, W. M.
Clouse. |y te
*Fairchild, David
*Gifford, J. C.
=“ larnisone Re VW.

= ongenecker, VWaB:

*Meyer, Max. F.
*Miller, E. Morton
flzcarson ete.

*Phillips, Walter S.

CHARTER MEMBERS

“Rogers, lay Ee
WRisigoue, Ib IL,
“Genin, 12, 1Bt.
Shealy, A. LE.
“Sherman, H. B.
Specht, Robert D.
Stokes, W. E.
Wiser, iO. |).
“Tisdale, W. B.
“isso AwNe
*Wallace, Howard K.
Weatsomye|a i:
Weber, George F.

Conradi, Edward
Degraff, Mark H.
*Deviney, Ezda
Disher, D. R.
Doyle, S. R.
*Finner, Paul F.
*Graham, Viola
Grifing, Elizabeth
*Heinlein, C. P.
Keenan, Edward T.
*Bruce, Malcolm
CaniaeaeD:
Foster, Harriet

Floyd, B. F. Weil, Joseph Freeman, Ken-
Longstreet, West, Erdman neth A.
Rupert J. Williams, F. D. Hadley, A. H.

Allen, R. I. Williams, Osborne Kallman, I. E.
Campbell, Nelle *Baker, Harry Lee Martin, J. M.
Conn, John F. Boyd, M. F. Rolfs, C.
Faulkner, Donald Coulter, C. H. Rolfs, P. Hi:
Hodges, Q. E. Greene, E. Peck Abbott, O. D.
Smith, Cornelia *Gunter, Herman Arnold, Lillian FE.
Vance, Charles B. Hart, Gordon Atwood, R. S.
“BESS, Io 1a lire Lynn, Edith “Barnette, R. M.
Springer, Stuart Owen, B. Jay “Becker, R. B.
Kinser, B. M. Partridge) Saraln W. Bell Gane

St. John, Edward P. _— Pfluge, Margaret *Berger, Ei. W.
St. John, Robert P. *Ponton, G. M. Blackmon, G. H.
Mowry, Harold Raa Iida *Bless, A. A.
Neal, W. M. Raudenbushy i. |pe ) Biya Omer
*Newins, H. S. Smith, Richard M. “*Byers, C. F.
“lee, WW Se Itesdiore, lo lc Camp, J. P.
*Phipps, Cecil G. Westendick, Frank Carr, A. F., Jr.
= Pollard Gab: Barber, Lanas Carroll VVaeke
Reitz, J. Wayne “Bellanniyagie in Carver Vy aro

“Chandler, H. W.
*Christensen, B. V.

Ritchey, George E.
*Rogers, J. Speed

Boliek, M. Irene
*Connor, Ruth

* Original signer of charter

aValliamsons kh. G.
Willoughby, C. H.
Young, T. Roy, Jr.
Van Cleef, Alice
Wray, Floyd L.
Fifield, W. M.
Ruehl, George

*Buckland,

Charlotte B.
(Caso, 1s 7a
Dyrenforth, L. Y.
Farris, C. D.
George, C. R., Jr.
MacGowan,

W. Leroy
Mahorner, Sue A.
Parker, Horatio N.
Thomas, R. H.

Giovannoli, Leonard

Pierce, E. Lowe
Camp, A. F.
Heyward, Frank
Bly, R. S.
DeMelt, W. E.
Reinsch, B. P.
Cone, Ce, C.

Goff, Dorothy S.
Loucks, K. W.
Shippy, William B.
“Heinlein, J. H.
Larson, Olga
*Lewis, Leland J.
McKinnel, Isabel
Moore, Coyle E.
*Moore, F. Clifton

Parsons, Rhey Boyd
“Richards, Harold F.
Salley, Nathaniel M.
*Sandels, Margaret R.

CHARTER MEMBERS

Schornherst, Ruth
*Stewart, Alban
*Tilt, Jennie
*Tracy, Anna M.

Vermillion, Gertrude

*Waskom, Hugh L.
White, Sarah P.
Becknell, G. C.

Simpson, J. Clarence
Williams, Henry W.

Albee, Fred H.
Bacon, Milton E., Jr.
Erck, G. H.
Young, John W.
Barbour, R. B.
Scott, George G.
*Anderson, W. S.
| Davisy En Me
Cody, M. D.
Dauer, Manning J.
Davis, U. P.
*Dostal, B. F.
*Floyd, W. L.
*Foote, P. A.
French, R. B.
*Gaddum, L. W.
Gautier, T. N.
*Germond, H. H.
Goin, Coleman
*Hawkins, J. E.
Hawkins, S. O. |
*Hinckley, E. D.
Hobbs, H. H.
“Hubbell, T. H.
“Ve hull 18, 18l
*Hume, H. H.
*Treland, E. J.
*Johnson, R. S.
scillley725 Ifo 1D:

* Original signer of charter

Kirk, W. G.
*Knowles, H. L.
*Kusner, J. H.
“Leigh, 1. R.
*Leukel, W. A.

Mehrohof,

Norman R.

Walker, Marion

Gist, N. N.

Norris, Louise

Brown, S. H.
*Faust, Burton
“Marshall; |]. jj).

Mosier, Charles

Sadler, G. G.

Bahrt, G. M.

Fernald, H. T.

Kime, C. D.

Levy, Morton

ords Ese:

Miller, Ralph L.

Robinson, Ralph T.

Stevens, H. E.

Stubbs, Sidney A.

Braren, Herbert

Tanner, W. Lee
*Farge, W. G.

Mathews, E. L.

Kincaid, R. R.

~*Smith, Frank

Story, Helen F.
West, Frances L.
Gut, H. James
Armstrong, J. D.
“Osborn, Herbert
*Schor, Bernice C.
Spouse, [5 1h:
*Stiles, C. Wardell
Waddington, Guy

280 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

*Weinberg, “Swanson, D. C. EAN. I, IML
Edward F. *Van Leer, B. R. *Miller, E. Morton
Wise, Louis E. Browne, C. A. " Hodsdomtlaa Ae
Kelly, Howard A. oBlacke Agee *Bogg, Mark T.
Singleton, Gray = Sashotins Sumy. *Kurz, Herman

* Original signer of charter

FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
1960-61

CouNCIL

Paul A. Vestal, President, Rollins College

Alfred P. Mills, President-elect, University of Miami

James B. Lackey, Secretary, University of Florida

Alex G. Smith, Treasurer, University of Florida

James B. Layne, Councilor-at-large, University of Florida

George K. Reid, Councilor-at-large, Presbyterian University
Luther A. Arnold, Councilor-at-large, University of Florida
Martha M. Nez, Councilor-at-large, Pensacola Jr. College

J. C. Dickinson, Jr., Editor, Quarterly Journal, University of Florida

Clarence C. Clark, Local Chairman, Programs, University of South
Ela

SECTIONAL CHAIRMEN

Elmer G. Prichard, Chairman Biological Sciences, Stetson Univer-
sity

Margaret Gilbert, Chairman-elect, Biological Sciences, Florida
Southern

John S. Ross, Chairman Physical Sciences, Rollins College

Hans Plendl, Chairman-elect Physical Sciences, Florida State Uni-
versity

James R. Anderson, Chairman Social Sciences, University of Florida

William Randel, Chairman-elect Social Sciences, Florida State Univ.

Joseph F. Gennaro, Chairman, Medical Sciences, Dept. of Anatomy,
University of Florida

Emest Burkman, Chairman Science Teaching, Florida State Uni-
versity

Alfred P. Mills, Chairman-elect Science Teaching, University of
Miami

OTHERS

Alfred P. Mills, State Coordinator, Jr. Academy
R. S. Kiser, Sponsor Collegiate Academy, Florida Southern
Luella N. Dambaugh, Past-president, University of Miami

282 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

E. Ruffin Jones, Past-president, AAAS Conference Representative,
University of Florida
Dan A. Thomas, AAAS Representative, Rollins College

COMMITTEES CHAIRMEN ON COUNCIL

Luella N. Dambaugh, Chairman, Constitutiton and By-laws, Univ.
of Miami

Floyd S. Shuttleworth, Chairman, Finance, University of Miami

Dan A. Thomas, Chairman Honors, Rollins College

James B. Fleek, Chairman, State Coordinating, Jacksonville Uni-
versity

Alfred P. Mills, Chairman, State Talent Search, Steering, Miami

A. Kurt Weiss, Chairman Quarterly Journal, Miami

OTHER APPOINTMENTS

John S. Ross, Chairman, Auditing

George K. Reid, Chairman, Awards and Grants

Clyde T. Reed, Chairman, Necrology

J. E. Hutchman, Assistant Editor in Charge of News and Notes

James B. Layne, Assistant Editor and Coordinator for special 25th
anniversary issue

COMMITTEE ON QUARTERLY JOURNAL

A. Kurt Weiss John S. Ross

J. C. Dickinson James R. Anderson
J. E. Hutchman Ernest Burkman
Elmer G. Prichard James B. Layne

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

Paul A. Vestal Alex G. Smith
Alfred P. Mills Luella N. Dambaugh
James B. Lackey E. Ruffin Jones

LocaL ARRANGEMENTS COMMITTEE

Clarence C. Clark, Chairman, University of South Florida
Glen E. Woolfenden, University of South Florida

Jack E. Fernandez, University of South Florida

Edwin P. Martin, University of South Florida

CHARTER MEMBERS 283

NOMINATING COMMITTEE
Luella N. Dambaugh, Chairman

Dan A. Thomas Wilhelmina F. Dunning
E. Ruffin Jones Robert D. Binger

CONSERVATION COMMITTEE
O. E. Frye, Jr., Chairman
Luella N. Dambaugh George K. Reid

GRANTS COMMITTEE

E. Ruffin Jones, Chairman

Dan A. Thomas

Alfred P. Mills

Luther A. Arnold, Director ex officio

Paul A. Vestal, Pres, FAS ex officio

Important dates: Fall Council Meeting, Nov. 18th, 1961, U. of
South Fla.

Annual Meeting March 1-2-3, 1961, U. of South

Bila.

MEMBERSHIP, FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

Agens, Frederick F.
406 Mission Hills Avenue
Tampa 10, Florida P

Akerman, Robert H.
307 Sunset Avenue
Lakeland, Florida S

Akin, Benjamin
1019 N.W. 11th Court
Miami 36, Florida B

Albertson, Mary Susan
4354 Gun Club Road
West Palm Beach, Florida

Alexander, Taylor R.
University of Miami
Botany Department
Coral Gables, Florida B

Allabough, Edwin, Jr.
250 N.W. Cerritos
Palm Springs, California B

Allen, Francis R.
1536 Cristobal Drive
Tallahassee, Florida S

Allen, Howard Dale
1920 North B Street
Tampa 6, Florida P

Allen, Pres. John S.
University of South Florida
Temple Terrace

Tampa, Florida P

Allen, Mrs. Virginia F.
Route 2, Box 48
Gainesville, Florida T

Almodovar, Dr. Luis R.
Institute of Marine Biology
University of Puerto Rico
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico B

Anderson, James R.
Department of Geography
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Andrews, Mrs. Dorothy C.
Drawer 959 Brewster Hall
Bradenton, Florida S

* Charter Member

OCTOBER 6, 1961

Ard, William B., Jr.
Department of Physics
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Arean, Victor M., M.D.
Department of Pathology
College of Medicine
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida M

Argus, Miss Mary Frances

U.S. Public Health Service Hospital
210 State Street

New Orleans 18, Louisiana M

Armaghan, Veronica
6430 S.W. 42nd Terrace
Miami 43, Florida B

Arnold, Luther A.

143 Norman Hall
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Arnolds-Patron, Paul
Box 278

Florida Southern College
Lakeland, Florida S

Ash, Mrs. Louise V.
20 S.W. 38th Street
Gainesville, Florida T

Ashford, Theodore Askounes
University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida B

Baker, Howard
3005 Ginliano
Lake Worth, Florida B

Baker, Wilbus L.
Jacksonville University
Jacksonville 11, Florida P

Ballard, Stanley S.
Department of Physics
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Banks, Joseph E.
6811 Capilla Street
Coral Gables, Florida P

Barrett, Mary F.
70-B Fremont Street
Bloomfield, New Jersey B

MEMBERSHIP, FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 285

Bateman, Richard B.
1995 West Kentucky Avenue
Winter Park, Florida T

Baum, Werner A.
Department of Meterology
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida P

Beck, William M., Jr.
1621 River Bluff Road
Jacksonville 11, Florida B

Becknell, G. G.*
6900 Dixon Avenue
Tampa 4, Florida P

Beebe, Austin H.
P. O. Box 888
Lakeland, Florida P

Beery, John R.
School of Education
University of Miami
Miami, Florida S

Bellamy, R. E.*
2311 B Street
Bakersfield, California B

Beller, H. E.
743 Dupont Building
Miami 32, Florida M

Berry, Frederick H.

La Jolla, California B

Biggers, Charles J.
Biology Department
Orlando Junior College
Orlando, Florida B

Bingham, N. Eldred
330 P. K. Yonge
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Bissland, Howard R.
1720 Glencoe Road
Winter Park, Florida B

Blackwell, J. T., Jr.
1310% N. Barcelona
Pensacola, Florida B

Bolton, Dr. John W., M.D.
716 N. E. 76 Street
Miami, Florida M

Boss, Manley L.

Botany Department
University of Miami
Coral Gables, Florida B

Bovee, Eugene C.
Phelps Laboratory
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Boyd, Mark F.*
615 East 6th Avenue
Tallahassee, Florida B

Breder, C. M., Jr.

American Museum of Natural History
Central Park West 79 Street

New York 2, New York B

Breedlove, Forrest R.
503 Sunset Avenue
Arcadia, Florida M

Breen, Ruth S.*
Botany Department
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida B

Brey, Wallace S., Jr.
1114 N.W. 18th Avenue
Gainesville, Florida P

Brodkorb, Pierce
Department of Biology
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Brooks, H. K.
Department of Geology
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Brown, Colonel Harvey N.

Base Commander

Homestead Air Force Base,
Florida P

Brown, J. A.
29 Messer Street
Laconia, New Hampshire P

Brown, Relis B.

Department of Biological Sciences
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida B

Broyles, Arthur A.
Physics Department
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Bryan, A. H.
Jacksonville University
Jacksonville, Florida M

286 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Bucker, Charles A.
Rt. 3, Box 323
Palatka, Florida B

Buckland, Charlotte B.
2623 Herschel Street
Jacksonville, Florida B

Bullen, Mrs. Adelaide K.
Florida State Museum
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Bullen, Ripley P.
Florida State Museum
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Bunn, Mrs. Lucille
Florida Southern College
Lakeland, Florida S

Burgess, J. Edward
2740 French Avenue
Lakeland, Florida B

Burgess, William D.
Florida Christian College
Tampa, Florida B

Burkman, Ernest, Jr.
School of Education
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida S

Burris, Clinton E.
1542 Bartow Road
Lakeland, Florida S

Caldwell, David K.

Los Angeles County Museum
Exposition Park

Los Angeles 7, California B

Campbell, Doak S.
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida S

Campbell, James A.
Box 101
Chipley, Florida B

Cantrall, Irving
Museum of Zoology
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan B

Carmichael, Lynn P., M.D.
2295 Coral Way
Miami 45, Florida M

Carn Ay ae |
Department of Biology
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Carr, Joseph A., Jr.
3403 East Yukon
Tampa, Florida P

Carr, Mrs. Marjorie Harris
813 N.W. 22nd Street
Gainesville, Florida B

Cans DE
Department of Physics
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Carroll, Don W.

Box 50

Rollins College

Winter Park, Florida P

Carter, Claude F.
5970 S.W. 46th Street
Miami 43, Florida B

Carter, John V.
Apartado 5937 Charrillo
Panama, Republic of Panama

Carver, W. A.*

310 Newell Hall
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Chamelin, I. M.
1923 Elk Avenue
Sarasota, Florida B

Clark, Clarence C.
University of South Florida
Tampa 4, Florida P

Clayton, H. G.
117 S.W. 7th Street
Gainesville, Florida P

Clyatt, Laura Neil
607 South Ingraham Avenue
Lakeland, Florida S

Coleman, Jas. Travis
Boxes

Bethune-Cookman College
Daytona Beach, Florida B

Conard, Henry S.
Lake Hamilton, Florida P

Conger, Alan D.

Depts. Botany and Biology
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

MEMBERSHIP, FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Conn, John F.
Box 655
Deland, Florida P

Connor, Ruth*

Florida State University

Tallahassee, Florida

Cook, Thomas
5515 Ordeena Drive
Coral Gables, Florida

Cooke, Samuel H.

Roosevelt Junior College

1235 15th Street

West Palm Beach, Florida

Council, Mrs. Rosalind W.

P. O. Box 12
Brandon, Florida B

Cox, Miss Claire
P. O. Box 419
Perry Florida P

Cox, Merlin G.
619 White Street

Daytona Beach, Florida

Coy Earle:

5148 25th Avenue South

Gulfport 7, Florida

Coyne, Robert F.
20701 Leeward Lane

Miami 57, Florida S

Craig, Palmer
P. O. Box 866

Coral Gables 34, Florida

Craighead, Frank C.
Box 825
Homestead, Florida

Crawford, Mrs. Eleanor L.
6221 Shady Oak Drive
Jacksonville 11, Florida

Crist, Raymond E.

Department of Geography

University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida

Cross, Clark I.

Department of Geography

University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida

Cunhavw. Ji;

252 McCarty Hall
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida

Curry, Mrs. Patricia S.
1630 Rich Street
Tallahassee, Florida T

Dahlgard, Muriel

Cancer Research Laboratory
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Darlow, Ernest W.
Be OY Box 334
Chamblee, Georgia S

Daughdrill, Billy H.
Pensacola Junior College
Pensacola, Florida P

Davis, Harold E., M.D.
1700 N.W. 10th Avenue
Jackson Memorial Hospital
Miami 36, Florida M

Davis, John H., Jr.

324 Unit A, McCarthy Hall
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Day, Orvis E.
ReOy Box
Greenville, Florida B

Day, Richard L.
2518 S.W. 2nd Avenue
Gainesville, Florida S

Deland, Frank P., M.D.
1802 Cherokee Trail
Lakeland, Florida M

Della-Cioppa, T. E.
1029 Euclid Avenue
Lakeland, Florida S

Dambaugh, Dr. Luella N.
University of Miami
Coral Gables 46, Florida S

Denman, Sidney B.
Box 1364

Stetson University

Deland, Florida S

Dennison, R. A.

Department of Food Technology
and Nutrition

University of Florida

Gainesville, Florida B

Dequine, John F.
Southern Fish Culturists
Leesburg Branch Box 251
Leesburg, Florida B

287

288 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Derr, Vernon E. Dunham, C. Bryce

219 N. Lakeland Street 9500 S. W. 84th Avenue
Orlando, Florida P Miami 56, Florida S
Deutsch, Irvin Dunnam, F. E.
4295 North Atlantic Avenue Department of Physics
Cocoa Beach, Florida B University of Florida

Gainesville, Florida P

Deviney, Ezda Dunning, Wilhelmina F.

Julian

. University of Miami

North Carolina B Department of Microbiology

Dew Rober |e Coral Gables 46, Florida B

University of Tampa Dyrenforth, L. Y.*

Tampa, Florida P Se St. Johns Avenue

eso. hiilrenn 1. 6 Jacksonville, Florida M

308 Live Oak Road Edwards, Joshua L., M.D.

Temple Terrace Department of Pathology

Tampa 10, Florida S College of Medicine
University of Florida

Dickinsonee|s G25): Gainesville, Florida M

Florida State Museum

University of Florida Edwards, Richard A.

Gainesville, Florida B Department of Geology
University of Florida

Dickson, John D. Gainesville, Florida S

Tela Railroad Company

Research Department Eickenberg, Charles F.

La Lima, Honduras, Costa Rica B 1347 Sunset Avenue
Lakeland, Florida B
Dijkman, Marinus J.

6767 S.W. 112 Street Elliott, John E.

Miami 56, Florida B 108 W. 15th Apt. 501
Austin, Texas S

Dolloff, Albert F.

1162 Hillcrest Drive Elvidge, Frances G.

Daytona Beach, Florida B 11730 Gulf Boulevard
Tropic Terrace

Dowd, David L. St. Petersburg 6, Florida M

106 Peabody Hall

University of Florida Emme, E. Earle

Gainesville, Florida S 1724 Bartow Road

Lakeland, Florida S
Drach, Mildred A.

360 South Burnside Ave., Apt. 44 Erck, G. H.

Los Angeles 36, California S P. O. Box 448
Leesburg, Florida S

Drinkwater, Miss Geneva

Rollins College Espey, James A.

Winter Park, Florida S 2052 College Circle S
Jacksonville, Florida S

Dudley, Frank M.

Div. of Physical Sciences Evans, Elwyn
University of South Florida 601 Magnolia Avenue
Tampa, Elorida~ P Orlando, Florida M
Duncan, Mrs. Margaret Ewing, Upton C.
516 N. Vermont Avenue 362 Minorca Avenue

Lakeland, Florida T Coral Gables, Florida B

MEMBERSHIP, FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Fairfield, Almond C.
12220 N. Armenia Avenue
fampa 4, Florida P

Farber, Erich A.
1218 N.E. 5th Street
Gainesville, Florida P

Faulkner, John S.
Physics Department
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Feinstein, Anita

The Marine Laboratory
University of Miami

1 Rickenbacker Causeway
Miami 49, Florida P

Fernandez, Jack E.
University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida P

Field, Henry
3551 Main Highway
Coconut Grove 33, Florida

Field, Howard M.
910 Clearview Avenue
Lakeland, Florida B

Fisher, Granville C.

8518 South Moorings Way
Coconut Grove

Miami 33, Florida S

Fleek, James B.
518 Patricia Lane
Jacksonville Beach, Florida

Fly, Lillian
4060 Battersea Road
Coconut Grove, Florida B

Foote, Perry A.*
College of Pharmacy
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Foraker, Alvan G., M. D.
800 Miami Road
Jacksonville 7, Florida M

Ford, Ernest S.
Department of Botany
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Foster, I. G.
Division of Science

Florida Presbyterian College
Maritime Base, P. O. Box 387
St. Petersburg 31, Florida P

Fox, Lauretta

440 Leigh Hall
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida M

Fox, Sidney W.

Oceanographic Institute
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida B

French, Sidney J.
University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida P

Friedl, Berthold C.
4931 Riviera Drive
Coral Gables, Florida S

Friedl, Frank E.
University of South Florida
Tampa 4, Florida B

Froemke, Robert L.
School of Business
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida S

rye. Oe ir:

Game and Fresh Water Fish
Commission

Tallahassee, Florida B

Fugitt, A. F.
701 Finney Street
Lakeland, Florida S

Fuller, Dorothy L.
P. O. Box 418
Deland, Florida B

Fuller, Walter P.
1616 Central Avenue
St. Petersburg, Florida S

Gatham, C. A.
501 21st Avenue N
Lake Worth, Florida B

Gennaro, J. F., Jr.
Department of Anatomy
College of Medicine
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida M

George, T. S.

Electrical Engineering Department
University of Florida

Gainesville, Florida P

Gilbert, Margaret
Biology Department
Florida Southern College
Lakeland, Florida B

290 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Gilbert, Norman E.
Rollins College

Physics Department
Winter Park, Florida P

Gilcreas, F. W.

Department of Civil Engineering
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida C

Gilman, L. C.

Department of Zoology
University of Miami

Coral Gables 46, Florida B

Girard, Murray
5900 Devanshire Blvd.
Coral Gables, Florida B

Glenn, Earl R.
204 Westwood Drive
Key Biscayne
Miami 49, Florida P

Godfrey, R. K.
Department of Botany
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida B

Goethe, C. M.
3731 Tea Street
Sacramento 16, California B

Goggin, John M.
Department of Sociology
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida S

Goin, Coleman J.*
Biology Department
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Golightly, Jacob F.
Jacksonville University
Jacksonville 11, Florida P

Grace, H. T.

Elementary Education Department
Florida Southern College
Lakeland, Florida S

Graff, Miss Mary B.
Mandarin, Florida S

Gramling, L. G.
College of Pharmacy
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida M

Grant, Faye W.

N. Campus

University of Miami

Coral Gables 46, Florida B

Graybiel, Ashton M. C., U.S.N.
School of Aviation Med.

NAS

Pensacola, Florida M

Gressman, Leon W.
601 Langford Drive
Plant City, Florida S

Griffith, Miss Mildred
Botany Department
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Grobman, Arnold B.

Biol. Sci. Curriculum Study
University of Colorado
Boulder, Colorado B

Guild, William
Ves (05 JeXope ILI, OAS,
St. Petersburg, Florida B

Cuties
Box 700
Sanford, Florida

Haas, Mrs. Flora Anderson
RFD 2
Apopka, Florida B

Haines, W. E.
Rt. 1, U. S. 19 and Ulmerton
Clearwater, Florida B

Halpern, Morton M., M.D.
1333 South Miami Avenue
Miami, Florida M

Hammett, Evelyn
900 Maple Street
Cleveland, Mississippi S

Hamon, J. Hill
Department of Zoology
Indiana State College
Terre Haute, Indiana B

Hannah, Bernis O.
Building F, Room 5

Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory

Schnectady, New York P

Hansen, Keith L.
Biology Department
Stetson University
Deland, Florida B

MEMBERSHIP, FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 291

Harlow, Richard F.
905 Camhor Lane
Deland, Florida B

Harris, Herbert

Chemistry Department
Florida A & M University
Tallahassee, Florida P

Harper, Roland M.
Geological Survey
University of Alabama
University, Alabama B

Harrington, Robert W., Jr.
P. O. Box 308
Vero Beach, Florida B

Hart, Hornell

Box 275

Florida Southern College
Lakeland, Florida S

Head, Mr. R. A.
Pensacola Junior College
Pensacola, Florida P

Hellvege, Herbert
Rollins College
- Winter Park, Florida P

Henry, Laura M.
365 Hawthorne Avenue
Palo Alto, California B

Hentges, James F., Jr.
253 McCarty Hall
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Hoag, J. Barton
Physics Department
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Elobbs, Ht. H., Jr.”

Miller School of Biology
University Station
Charlottesville, Virginia B

Hood, S. C.
Pisgah Forest
North Carolina B

Hopkins, Robert H.
824 Park Hill Avenue
Lakeland, Florida P

Houser, James G.
The Martin Company
P. O. Box 5837
Orlando, Florida P

Houston, Alfred
Box 590
St. Augustine, Florida S

Howes, J. R.

Poultry Science Department
Auburn University

Auburn, Alabama _ B

Hrubecky, Henry F.
42) Engineering Building
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Hubbell’ i Hy
University of Michigan
Museum of Zoology
Ann Arbor, Michigan P

Hubbs, Carl L.
Scripps Institute of Oceanography
La Jolla, California B

Humphrey, Robert A.
430 East Kaley Avenue
Orlando, Florida B

Hunt, Burton P.
Department of Zoology
University of Miami

Coral Gables 46, Florida B

Hunt, Harry G.
8440 Concord Blvd. West
Jacksonville 8, Florida P

Hunter, George W., III
Department of Microbiology
College of Medicine
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Hussey, R. F.
Department of Biology
Science Hall
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Hutchman, J. E., Dr.
P. O. Box 386
Lakeland, Florida P

Hutton, Robert F.

Florida State Board of Conservation
Marine Laboratory

Maritime Base, Bayboro Harbor

St. Petersburg, Florida B

Ingle, Robert M.
Florida State Board of Conservation
Tallahassee, Florida B

292 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Iverson, Ray M.

Zoology Department
University of Miami

Coral Gables 46, Florida B

Jackson, Curtis R.

Georgia Coastal Plain Experiment

Station
University of Georgia
College of Agriculture
Tifton, Georgia B

ermnisse on ke

Roehr Products Co., Inc.
38 N. University Circle
Deland, Florida

Johnson, Albert Smith
Chipola Junior College
Marianna, Florida B

Johnson, Mrs. Anna L.
Pensacola Junior College
Pensacola, Florida P

Johnsont Cra beji.
1327 North Greenway Drive
Coral Gables, Florida T

Jones, E. Ruffin, Jr.
Department of Biology
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Jordon, Juliana
Florida Southern College
Lakeland, Florida S

Kaplan, Sherman R.
1680 Meridian Avenue
Miami Beach 39, Florida M

Keenan, Major Edward J.
Frostproof, Florida B

Kendall, Harry W.
Physics Department
University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida P

Khanna, F. C.
Department of Physics
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida M

Kidd, Kenneth P.

Room 325 Norman Hall
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida T

Kilby, John D.*
Department of Biology
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Killip, Ellsworth P.
4012 Fairwood Way
Carmichel, California B

Kinser, B. M.*
POs Boxclos
Eustis, Florida P

Kiser, R. S.

Florida Southern College
Biology Department
Lakeland, Florida B

Knauf, Col. George M.

Staff Surgeon, MTD

Air Force Missile Testing Center

Patrick Air Force Base, Florida
B&M

Knowles, Jack O.
2102 N.W. 25th Avenue
Miami, Florida M

Knowles, Robert P.
2101 N.W. 25th Avenue
Miami, Florida M

Koger, Marvin

Department of Animal Husbandry &
Nutrition

University of Florida

Gainesville, Florida B

Komarek, E. V.
R. R. 3
Thomasville, Georgia B

Kral, Robert

Biology Department
Virginia Polytech Institute
Blacksburg, Virginia B

Kronsbein, John
College of Engineering
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Kushner, A.
1345 N. Bayshore Drive
Miami, Florida M

Lackey, James B.
Box 36
Melrose, Florida B

MEMBERSHIP, FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Laessle, Albert M.
University of Florida
Biology Department
Gainesville, Florida B

Lafferty, D. L.
Department of Physics
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Lakela, Olga
University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida B

Lannutti, Joseph E.
Physics Department
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida P

Larson, Edward
Department of Zoology
University of Miami
Coral Gables, Florida M

Latina, Albert A.

811A Science Building
University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida B

Lawton, Alfred H.
16438 Redington Drive
St. Petersburg 8, Florida

Layne, James N.
Department of Biology
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Leavitt, Benjamin B.
Department of Biology
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Leigh, W. Henry
Department of Zoology
University of Miami
Coral Gables

University Branch 46, Florida

Leon, Roy Lewiston
7840 S. Kingston Avenue
Chicago 49, Illinois B

Leto, Frank P., Jr.
4713 Leila Avenue
Tampa 11, Florida T

Liebler, John B., M. D.
401 Coral Way
Coral Gables, Florida M

Link, Pierce

Box 48

Florida Southern College
Lakeland, Florida S

Lippincott, W. T.
Department of Chemistry
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Lorz, Albert

409 Newell Hall
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Lovejoy, Donald W.
Rollins College
Winter Park, Florida P

Lovell, Wm. V.
Rte 24 Box ls
Sanford, Florida P

Luce, Samuel W.
Route 1, Box 621
Lakeland, Florida S

Lutz, Nancy E.
Virginia T. B. Assoc.
21 Willway Road
Richmond, Virginia B

Lyle, W. R.
Re 1 Box 45
Bartow, Florida B

Ibsaatelns Sool
Box 417
Osprey, Florida B

McAliley, Charles C.
904 Columbia Drive
Bayshore Gardens
Bradenton, Florida P

McClure, J. S.
938 Bordeau Avenue W.
Jacksonville 11, Florida P

McConnel, Ben H., M. D.
907 Princeton Place
Lakeland, Florida M

McLean, Edward F.
720 McRorie Street
Lakeland, Florida S

McMullian, Mrs. Leila U.
Lakeside Motel
Grand Ridge, Florida T

293

294 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

MacGowan, Robert Mills, Alfred P.
Florida Southern College Department of Chemistry
Lakeland, Florida S University of Miami

k Coral Gables, Florida P
Mack, Thomas B.

Asst. Prof. of Horticulture Monk, Carl D.

Citrus Department Botany Department

Florida Southern College University of Florida
Lakeland, Florida B Gainesville, Florida B

Montgomery, Mr. Joseph G.
Manatee Junior College
Bayshore Gardens
Bradenton, Florida B

Manning, Raymond B.
Marine Laboratory

1 Rickenbacker Causeway
Virginia Key

Miami 49, Florida B Moody, Harold L.
py eres ae Experiment Station
1680 Meridian Beach Leesburg, Florida B

Miami Beach, Florida B
Moore, Joseph C.

Marshall, J. Stanley Department of Mammals
School of Education U. S. National Museum
Florida State University Washington 25, DiGaes

Tallahassee, Florida S$
Morgan, George B.

Martin, Edwin P. Phelps Laboratory
Biological Sciences University of Florida
University of South Florida Gainesville, Florida B

Tempe: oe lence se Morris, George Hornell
May, John B. 947% South Johnson

3561 Loquat Avenue Lakeland, Florida S

Miami 83, Florida P Morse, Leonard
1121 Price Street
Mayer, Robert A., M. D. Jacksonville 4, Florida S
211 N.E. 97th Street
Miami Shores 38, Florida M Morton, Richard K.
2827 Holly Point Drive
Meek, Gertrude P. Jacksonville 11, Florida S$
629 W. Jefferson Street
Tallahassee, Florida S Mullins, J. Thomas
Botany eee
University of Florida
Se ee Jr. Gainesville, Florida B

Palatka, Florida B Mann nsite

741 Lake Avenue

Menzel, R. W. Maitland, Florida P
Oceanographic Institute

Florida State University

Tallahassee, Florida B Se es oe

Miami, Florida S
Merrill, Mrs. Frank

1504 River Hills Circle Myrick, Mrs. Ida

Jacksonville, Florida P 1606 Myrick Road
Tallahassee, Florida P

Miles, E. P.

Department of Mathematics Nelson, Gid E., Jr.

Florida State University University of South Florida

Tallahassee, Florida P Tampa, Fiorida B

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Nez, Martha M.

Biology Department
Pensacola Junior College
Pensacola, Florida B

Noggle, G. Ray
Department of Botany
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Ober, Lewis D.
1235 N.E. 204th Street
No. Miami Beach 62, Florida B

Odom, Clifton T.
5333 Kingwood Drive
Orlando, Florida B

Ogden, J. Gordon, Jr.

Head, Department of Education
Florida Southern College
Lakeland, Florida P

Olle, Miss Esther
1310 Bryn Mawr
Chicago 40, Illinois B

Olson, F. C. W.
Rd. 2-147
Princeton, New Jersey B

Olson, James Allen
Department of Biochemistry

J Hillis Miller Health Center
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Owens, E. G.
Pensacola Junior College
Pensacola, Florida P

Padgett, Herbert R.
Jacksonville University
Jacksonville 11, Florida S

Pafft, George H.

Department of Anatomy
University of Miami

School of Medicine

Coral Gables 34, Florida M

Palmer, A. Z.

Department of Animal Husbandry &
Nutrition

University of Florida

Gainesville, Florida B

Park, Mary Cathryne
934 Woodland Boulevard
Deland, Florida S

295

Parker, Theodore R.
Box 8191
Coral Gables 46, Florida S

Parkin, Ivan W.
Jacksonville University
Jacksonville 11, Florida S

Parrish, Mrs. Frances J.
Route 4, Box 213
Pensacola, Florida P

Patman, Miss Jaqueline
University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida B

Patterson, Robert F.
233 East 43rd Street
Hialeah, Florida B

Pearsall, Leigh M.
Melrose, Florida S

Pearson, Jay F. W., Pres.*
University of Miami
Coral Gables, Florida B

Perry, Rachel
237 North Boulevard
Deland, Florida B

Phillips, R. C.

Marine Laboratory
Maritime Base

Bayboro Harbor

St. Petersburg, Florida B

Phipps, Cecil G.

Box 181 A

Tennessee Tech
Cookeville, Tennessee P

Piatt, Sara Coolidge
5380 Young Place
Lakeland, Florida S

Pierce, E. Lowe*
Department of Biology
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Pierson, Wm. H.
Geography Department
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida S

Pirkle, E. C.
611 N.W. 35th Street
Gainesville, Florida — P

296 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Plendl, Hans S.

Department of Physics
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida P

Plice, Max J.
324 River Street
Palatka, Florida B

Polskin, Louis J., M.D.
1401 S. Florida Avenue
Lakeland, Florida M

Pomeroy, Lawrence
Marine Biological Laboratory
Sapelo Island, Georgia B

Popp, Frank D.
Department of Chemistry
University of Miami
Coral Gables, Florida P

Popper, Annie
533 West Park Avenue
Tallahassee, Florida S

Powell, Robert D.
Department of Botany
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Pratt, Darrell

Department of Bacteriology
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Pratt, Robert W.
4327 St. Paul Place
Riverside, California B

Prichard, Elmer G.
605 N. Amelia
Deland, Florida B

Pritchard, W. R.

Department of Veterinary Science
University of Florida

Gainesville, Florida B

Provost, Maurice W.
Box 308
Vero Beach, Florida B

Puryear, R. W.

Florida Normal and Industrial
Memorial College

St. Augustine, Florida S

Rabkin, Samuel
511 Sylvan Drive
Winter Park, Florida B

Randall, John E.
Marine Laboratory
University of Miami
Miami 49, Florida B

Randel, William

Department of English
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida S

Rappenecker, Caspar
Department of Geology
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Ray, Francis E.

Cancer Research Laboratory
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Ray, James D., Jr.
University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida B

Reeves, W. Paschal, Jr.
Florida Southern College
Lakeland, Florida S

Reed, Clyde T.

University of Tampa
Biology Department
Tampa, Florida B

Reid, George K.

Biology Department

Florida Presbyterian College
Maritime Base

Py Os Boxcar

St. Petersburg, Florida B

Reinert, Grady W.

C/O Biological Sciences Department

Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida B & M

Reinsch, B. P.*
Florida Southern College
Lakeland, Florida P

Reitz, J. Wayne, President*
Office of the President
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida S

Reuter, Sister Mary Agnita
Barry College
Miami, Florida B

Reynolds, J. Paul

Department of Zoology
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida B

MEMBERSHIP, FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 297

Rich, Charles E.
4683 Cerney Road
Pensacola, Florida B & P

Richardson, Gilbert P.
90 Lake Hunter Drive
Lakeland, Florida S

Riemer, William J.
Florida State Museum
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Ring, Gordon C.

School of Medicine
University of Miami
Coral Gables, Florida M

Rivas, Luis Rene
Department of Zoology
University of Miami
Coral Gables, Florida B

Roberts, Leonidas H.
Benton 202

University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Robertson, William B., Jr.
RON Box 20
Everglades National Park
Homestead, Florida B

Robins, C. Richard

The Marine Laboratory

1 Rickenbacker Causeway
Virginia Key

Miami 49, Florida B

Rockwell, Leo L.
Florida Southern College
Lakeland, Florida S

Rogers, Ben F.
Jacksonville University
Jacksonville 11, Florida S

Rolfs, Clarissa

c/o Universidade Rural
Vicosa

Minas Gerais, Brasil B

Rosenbaum, Ira
18650 Belmont Drive
Miami 57, Florida P

Ross, John S.
Department of Physics
Rollins College

Winter Park, Florida P

Ruttledge, Mrs. M. E.
703 Ellerbe Way
Lakeland, Florida T

Sachs, K. Norman, Jr.
c/o Geology Department
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Sagawa, Yoneo

Botany Department
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Sanders, Murray, M. D.
Department of Microbiology
University of Miami

P. O. Box 1438

South Miami, Florida M

Saslow, Milton S.
4250 W. Flagler Street
Miami 44, Florida M

Saute, George

Department of Mathematics
Rollins College

Winter Park, Florida P

Sawyer, Earl M.
Department of Physics
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Scheer, Edward W., Jr.
62 Forbes Road
Milton 86, Massachusetts B

Schilling, William P.
Physics Department
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Schnell, Lorne A.
Meade Johnson and Company
Evansville, Indiana M

Schultz, Harry P.
Department of Chemistry
University of Miami
Coral Gables, Florida P

Schwartz, Guenter
Department of Physics
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida P

Scott, Bruce Von G.
13750 Ludlum Road
Miami 56, Florida P

298 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Seaman, Irvin, M. D. Smith, Earl D.
470 Biltmore Way 2309 Coventry Avenue
Coral Gables, Florida M Lakeland, Florida P
Senn, PH Smith, Frederick B.
302 Floyd Hall University of Florida
University of Florida Soils Department
Gainesville, Florida B Gainesville, Florida P
Sherman, H. B.* Smith, George F.
410 Howry Avenue 6124 S.W. 104th Street
Deland, Florida B Miami 43, Florida M
Shirley, Ray L. Smith, Marshall E.
Nutrition Laboratory 418 W. Platt Street
University of Florida Tampa 6, Florida M
Gainesville, Florida B ;

Smith, Nathan L.
Shor, Bernice C. 631 N.W. 34th Drive
Rollins College Gainesville, Florida P

Winter Park, Florida B
Smith, Mrs. Norma H.

Shuster, Dr. Carl N. Box 220
2035 26th Avenue North Florida A and M University
St. Petersburg 13, Florida P Tallahassee, Florida B

Shuttleworth, F. S. ae i Calon
Department of Botany puerta kr gaint
Marine Laboratories

University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida B

Coral Gables, Florida B
Snyder, Clifford Charles, M.D.

Sickels, Jackson P. 550 Brickell A
541 San Esteban Avenue Miami 32. eicndae M

Coral Gables 46, Florida P
Snyder, Mrs. Grace L.

Simons, Joseph H. Box 2373
1122 S.W. Eleventh Avenue Lakeland, Florida S
Gainesville, Florida P

Sokloff, Boris Th.

Singletary, Mary L. Florida Southern College
Box 254 Biology Department
Kissimmee, Florida B Lakeland, Florida B
Sisler, Harry H. Soule, Mr. Mortimer J., Jr.
Department of Chemistry 2247 N.W. 11th Avenue
University of Florida Gainesville, Florida B
Gainesville, Florida P

Spencer, Mrs. Marion
Slack, Francis 215 Fox Place
PaO es Box el435 Port Orange, Florida P

South Miami 43, Florida M
Springer, Stewart*

Sleight, Virgil G. 6 W. Howell Avenue
Department of Geology Alexandria, Virginia B
University of Miami
Coral Gables 34, Florida P Squibb, Dexter

Chemistry Department
Smith, Alex G. Florida Presbyterian College
Department of Physics Maritime Base
University of Florida IPs (Op ioe Skeiz/

Gainesville, Florida P St. Petersburg, Florida P

MEMBERSHIP, FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Stetson, Robert F.
Physics Department
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Stevens, Miss Marion
380 Park Street
Miami Springs, Florida B

Stevenson, Henry M.
Florida State University
Zoology Department
Tallahassee, Florida B

Stoddard, Herbert L., Sr.
Sherwood Plantation
Thomasville, Georgia B

Stork, M. L.

Biology Department

St. Petersburg Junior College
St. Petersburg, Florida B

Stoye, Frederick H.
604 Rosemont Street
La Jolla, California B

Strang. Carl J, Jr.
P. O. Box 564
Winter Haven, Florida B

Strawn, Miss Pat
1023 S.W. Ist Avenue
Gainesville, Florida B

Stubbs, Sidney A.
P. O. Box 1624
Houston, Texas

Swann, Maurice E.
3101 West 18th Street
Panama City, Florida P

Swansons D.C."
University of Florida
Physics Department
Gainesville, Florida P

Swindell, David E., Jr.
1004 Julia Street
Perry, Florida B

Tanner, W. Lee
Box 21
Pansoftkee, Florida

Taylor, Carlis

Box 3568

University Station
Gainesville, Florida P

Measavhie a:
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Mayaguez, Puerto Rico B

Tebeau, Carl P.
Chemistry Department
University of Miami
Coral Gables, Florida P

Tebeau, C. W.

University of Miami

307 Aledo Avenue

Coral Gables 46, Florida S

Templeton, Louise
503 West Hancock
Lakeland, Florida S$

Teller, Morton H.
Physics Department
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida P

Thomas, Dan A.
Department of Physics
Rollins College

Winter Park, Florida P

Thomas, Lowell P.

The Marine Laboratory
1 Rickenbacker Causeway
Virginia Key

Miami 49, Florida B

Thompson, B. D.
600 N.W. 36th Street
Gainesville, Florida B

Thompson, Claude E.
3321 Cesery Boulevard
Jacksonville 11, Florida S

Timberlake, Capt. Walter B., Jr.

Apartment 1
3110 Segovia Street
Coral Gables 34, Florida S

Tingwall, Jeannette
1317 W. Alicia Avenue
Tampa 4, Florida B

Tinker, Randall B.
College of Pharmacy
Leigh Hall

University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida M

Minnermn|s.
Morgan State College
Baltimore 18, Maryland P

299

300 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Tissot, A. N.*

University of Florida
Agricultural Experiment Station
Gainesville, Florida B

Todd, Elston H.
2215 Jacksonville Hwy.

Ocala, Florida T
Wallace, Harold D.
Totten, Henry R. Department of Animal Husbandry &
Department of Botany Nutrition
University of North Carolina University of Florida
Box 247 Gainesville, Florida B
Chapel Hill, North Carolina B

Wagner, J. R.
908% East Blount Street
Pensacola, Florida P

Waldorf, Gray W.
95 South Madison Drive
Pensacola, Florida B

Toulmin, Lymon O.
Geology Department
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida P

Townsend, R. Edward
2339 94th Avenue
Oakland, California P

iy ler ie He
232 Avenue B., N.E.
Winter Haven, Florida S

Valasky, Mrs. Mary
2400 Pierce Street
Hollywood, Florida P

Van Cleef, Alice
Glenwood, Florida P

Varney, Mr. Charles B.
Department of Geography
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida S

Vaughen, John V.
Stetson University
Deland, Florida P

Veeder, Lyman B.
731 Kingston Drive
Lakeland, Florida S

Vernon, Robert O.
Box 631
Tallahassee, Florida P

Vestal, Paul A.
Department of Botany
Rollins College

Winter Park, Florida B

Voss, Gilbert L.

Marine Laboratory
University of Miami
Coral Gables, Florida B

Wallace, H. K.*
Department of Biology
University of Florida B

Ware, Ethan Earl

Biology Department
Florida A and M University
Tallahassee, Florida B

Warnick, Alvin C.
McCarthy Hall 248
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Watkins, Marshall O.
1115 N.E. 8rd Street
Gainesville, Florida B

Watson, Jimmy
Box 142
Bristol, Florida P

Wavell, Bruce B.

Box 509

Rollins College

Winter Park, Florida P

Weber, George F.*

406 Horticulture Building
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

Weinstock, Henry
213 Magnolia Avenue
Tampa 6, Florida P

Weiss, A. K.

School of Medicine
University of Miami

Coral Gables 34, Florida M

Wellman, Wayne E.
967 S.W. 5th Street
Miami 36, Florida P & S

West, Erdman*

Agricultural Experiment Station
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida B

MEMBERSHIP, FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

West, Frances L.*
2001 Beach Drive South
St. Petersburg 5, Florida B

Westfall, Minter J., Jr.
Department of Biology
University of Florida

Gainesville, Florida B

Wheatley, Marshall A.
Florida Southern College
Lakeland, Florida P

White, Joseph J.

Box 253

Florida A and M University
Tallahassee, Florida

Weise, Gilbert Nelson
8601 Emerald Isle Circle North
Jacksonville 16, Florida P

Williams, Albert B.
1402 Ocean Street

Washington Manor
Palatka, Florida P

Williams, Carl

Department of Psychology
University of Miami

Coral Gables 46, Florida M

Williams, James H.
School of Social Welfare
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida S

Williams, Louise Ione
Lakeland High School
Lakeland, Florida B

Williams, Owen V.
Box 427, Route 1
Ft. Myers, Florida B

Williams, R. H.

Botany Department
University of Miami
Coral Gables, Florida B

Wilson, Albert E.
685 Valencia Court
Bartow, Florida P

Wilson, Druid

Room 404

U. S. National Museum
Washington 25, D. C. B

Wilson, Hazel S.
3113 Overhill Drive
Jacksonville 11, Florida P

Wilson, John L.
495 Savannah State College
Savannah, Georgia P

Wilson, L. T.
3118 Overhill Drive
Jacksonville 11, Florida P

Winchester, A. M.
Stetson University
Deland, Florida B

Wolfenbarger, D. O.
Sub.-Trop. Experiment Station
Route 2, Box 508

Homestead, Florida B

Wood, F. G., Jr.
Marine Studios
Marineland, Florida B

Woolfenden, Glen E.
Biological Sciences
University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida B

Wright, Mrs. Louise B.
Chapman High School
Apalachicola, Florida P

Yerger, Ralph W.

Department of Zoology
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida B

York, John B.
123 Manatee Avenue
Arcadia, Florida T

Young, Frank N.
Department of Biology
University of Indiana
Bloomington, Indiana B

Zinner, Doran D.
2017 Alhambra Circle
Coral Gables, Florida B

301

NEWS AND NOTES

Edited by
J. E. HutrcHmMan
Florida Southern College

Winter Park: Dr. John S. Ross, Associate Professor of Physics; Dr. Herbert
Hellwege, Associate Professor of Chemistry; Miss Bernice Shor, Associate Pro.
fessor of Biology; and Dr. Paul A. Vestal, Professor of Biology, attended a meet-
ing of pre-medical advisers at the University of Florida Mediacl School October
21. The role of physics in the study of medicine was the topic under consid-
eration.

Tallahassee: In September, 1962, the Department of Statistics at the Flor-
ida State University will expand its graduate program to study and research
leading to the Doctor of Philosophy degree in statistics. The curriculum will
be modified and expanded to include advanced work in statistical inference and
decision theory, stochastic processes, advanced probability, multivariate anal-
ysis, Operations research, special topics in biometry, theory of general linear
hypotheses, non-parametric statistics and sequential analysis.

A limited number of teaching and research assistantships are available.
Proposals for three-year graduate fellowships are pending and such fellowships
should be available for graduate students entering the new program in Septem-
ber. Interested students are invited to write to Dr. R. A. Bradley, Department
of Statistics, the Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, for further in-
formation.

Cocoa: Brevard Junior College, according to Dr. Mary Cathryne Park,
Chairman of the Division of the Social Sciences, is beginning the building of
a new science building. New members of the faculty include Paul Webb,
Emma Jean Walker, Walter Gilfilen, Betty Sargent, James Jones, Elizabeth
Shafer, and Chester Tillman in the social sciences; Jeff Speck, Robert Pooley,
LeRoy Estergard, O. R. Finch, and George Holley in the science and math;
Charles Schnerr, and E. W. Ljonquist in electronics. The fall enrollment was
about 1700 students and even more are expected in February.

Babson Park: Webber College has deeded approximately three acres of
land along the shores of Lake Caloosa to the Florida Audubon Society for an
Audubon nature center. Kenneth D. Morrison, Vice President of the Florida
Audubon Society, has indicated that the Society plans to construct a building
that will house exhibits and displays to acquaint residents and visitor with
the fascinating nature lore and needs of conservation in this section of the
State. The College is also adding a large multi-purpose building on campus.

Jacksonville: Dr. James B. Fleek furnished the following miscellaneous
items at the last minute. New faculty include Ted T. Allen, Instructor in
Biology, who is completing his work for his Ph.D. at the University of Florida,
and Norman C. Snyder, Assistant Professor of Sociology, who is completing
work for his Ph.D. at Emory University.

Research in progress— Dr. Milford White is investigating Tritium recoil
reactions under a grant from the Petroleum Research Fund of the American

NEWS AND NOTES 303

Chemical Society. Dr. Harold W. Barrett, working in Pyrimidine precursors
under a Petroleum Research Fund grant, is also studying intestinal absorption
of radio opaque dyes which contain iodine compounds, in cooperation with
Dr. Paul Mori of the Baptist Memorial Hospital. A grant for equipment for
the Millar-Wilson Research Laboratory was received from the Research Corpo-
ration. A grant from the Atomic Energy Commission has been used to pur-
chase instructional equipment for education in radioisotope technology.

The curriculum in general biology has been standardized, with all sections
having their examinations at the same time. Prof. Wilbur Baker, of the Chem-
istry Department, attended a Summer Institute in Chemistry at East Tennessee
State College, sponsored by the National Science Foundation.

St. Petersburg: Chairman I. G. Foster, of the Math-Science Division and
Professor of Physics, furnished the following news items: “The Mathematics-
Science Division of Florida Presbyterian College has been awarded a grant
of $30,000 by Research Corporation, a foundation. The grant extends over a
three-year period and is unrestricted within its general purpose of establishing
and strengthening a research program in Mathematics and the Natural Sciences.
A major aim of such a program will be to involve able students in research.”

Orlando: The Orlando Junior College was host to the American Chem-
ical Society, Orlando Subsection, on October 10. The four speakers talked on
new ways of teaching biology, physics, and chemistry.

Lakeland: Dr. Howard M. Field attended the Annual Meeting of the
Florida Entomological Society, and the American Entomological Society in
Miami November 27-30.

The Biology Department of FSC is engaged in ecological research project
for the Florida Audubon Society with the cooperation of the American Cyan-
amid Company.

Tallahassee: From Florida State University, we have the following items:

Dr. George Macesich, Associate Professor of Economics, has recently been
named Director of the Council on Economic Development of the State of
Florida.

Dr. Marshall R. Colberg, Professor of Economics, has been elected Presi-
dent of the Southern Economic Association for the current year. He has been
awarded a research grant of $17,135 by the Inter-University Committee for
Economic Research on the South in order to be on leave of absence from FSU
for 11 months, beginning February 1, 1962. He will write a book tentatively
entitled Human Capital and Labor in Southern Development.

Dr. William P. Dillingham, Professor of Economics, is presently in Spain
where he is lecturing in Spanish at the University of Madrid and the Univer-
sity of Barcelona, under a Fulbright Award.

St. Petersburg: The St. Petersburg Bible Institute has recently purchased
26 acres of land on 142 Avenue, North, in the Pinellas Grove Subdivision.
They expect to begin construction of an administration and classroom building
in the near future.

Palatka: From Collier-Blocker Junior College, we learn that new faculty
members this year include Mr. McKenzie Brockington in Social Science and
Mr. Sanford Cox in Physical Education.

304 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The first building of Collier-Blocker Junior College will be occupied in
January. Included are well-equipped biology and chem-physics laboratories.

Mr. Orion Copeland, science instructor, discussed “Fall Out and Radiation
Effects” in a recent radio address over WWPF.

Pensacola: Pensacola Junior College, according to E. C. Owens, Head
of the Science Division, plans to complete the science building to house physics,
biology, and chemistry. A planetarium will also be added.

Lakeland: The South-Eastern Bible College commenced the fall term
with students from 21 states and one foreign country. It represents a 7 per-
cent increase over last year’s total. The concentrated effort to improve library
facilities has brought the total number of volumes to approximately 11,000.

Bradenton: From J. G. Montgomery, Chairman of the Science Depart-
ment of Manatee Junior College, we have the following four items:

B. A. Greenbaum, Professor of Physics, comes to us from Newark College
of Engineering with which he had been associated for 15 years. Prior to
that, Professor Greenbaum was on the faculties of Brooklyn College and New
York University.

C. W. Moats, Professor of Physical Sciences, comes to us from Pennsyl-
vania after having recently completed an Academic Year Institute of the NSF
at the University of North Carolina in the physical sciences.

E. G. Powell, Professor of Biology and Chemistry, comes to us from
Howard County Junior College in Big Springs, Texas.

J. G. Montgomery, Department Chairman, attended the Summer Institute
of Marine Sciences for College Teachers of Biological Sciences at Duke Uni-
versitys Marine Laboratory in Beaufort, North Carolina.

Tallahassee: Associate Professor Harvye Lewis, from the Florida State
University, informs us that the Florida and Dixie sections of the Institute of
Food Technologists met in Tallahassee in October. Reports of research were
given by members of the departments of Food Technology at the University
of Florida and the University of Georgia and the Department of Food and
Nutrition, Florida State University. A feature of the meeting was an address
by Dr. Sidney Fox on The Outlook for the Chemical Synthesis of Food. Dr.
Fox, eminent protein chemist, is Head of the recently established Institute for
Space Biosciences at Florida State University.

Miss Jacqueline Dupont, predoctoral student in Food and Nutrition, has
received the Mead Johnson Award for Advanced Education in Dietetics. This
award, which carried a stipend of $1,000, is administered annually by the
American Dietetic Association.

Palatka: President B. R. Tilley of the St. Johns River Junior College has
advised us:

A physical science laboratory is being planned at St. Johns River Junior
College. Edward Starling is the faculty member planning this project with
the architect and other school personnel. It is anticipated that construction
of this project will be completed in time for this new laboratory to be used
during the fall semester, 1962. The College already has two well-equipped
laboratories, one for chemistry and one for the biological science.

The above physical science laboratory project will be a part of a building
expansion program at the College. New facilities will include an expansion

NEWS AND NOTES 305

of the library, more faculty offices, business education facilities, humanities
classrooms, and a maintenance building. All of these facilities are badly needed
because of an enrollment increase of more than 50 percent over last year.
More than 600 students are expected for the next school year.

Tallahassee: Dr. A. W. Ziegler, Biological Sciences at FSU, has scooped
the department with a wide selection of news items as follows:

DeLand: Dr. A. M. Winchester, Head of the Biology Department at
Stetson University, has accepted an appointment as Visiting Professor of Bi-
ology at the University of South Carolina. He will be on leave of absence
from his position at Stetson during the tenure of his appointment at South
Carolina.

Gainesville: Dr. J. Thomas Mullins, Assistant Professor of Botany at
the University of Florida, was awarded $25,200 by the National Institutes of
Health for a project “The Genetical Basis of Heterothallism in Dictyomorpha.”
Dictymorpha is an aquatic fungi that is a particularly favorable organism for
genetical studies and mutational analyses.

A $45,683 research grant was awarded to Dr. Warren S. Silver, Depart-
ment of Bacteriology and Dr. Robert D. Powell, Department of Botany at the
University of Florida, by the National Institutes of Health to aid a three-year
study of interrelationships between certain trees and the microbes living within
their roots. Two of the trees under study, Southern waxmyrtle and Australian
pine, are widely used in Florida for reforestation and soil erosion control.

The University of Florida and Florida State University have received two
grants from the National Science Foundation to be used to provide training
for in-service high school biology teachers during the 1961-62 school year.
Dr. Ray Noggle, Professor of Botany at the University of Florida will direct
the two centers at Jacksonville and Melbourne. The grant at Florida State
University will be directed by Dr. Stanley Marshall and Dr. Leland Shanor.
The centers sponsored by FSU will be at Miami, Bradenton, and Marianna.
Teachers will receive instruction in the new biology courses developed by
the AIBS. The in-service teachers will teach these new courses in their own
high school classes during this school year.

The Atomic Energy Commission announced a grant of $28,000 to Dr.
Alan Conger, Professor Radiation Biology (Botany-Zoology) at the University
of Florida. This grant is to be used in the Radiation Biology program that has
been in operation since 1958. Most of the money will be used to purchase a
new X-ray machine capable of producing about one-half million roentgens per
minute. This powerful and versatile machine will be used to irradiate biologi-
cal materials as part of Dr. Conger’s work on the biological after-effect and
long-lived free radicals in irradiated seeds.

The Atomic Energy Commission also awarded $12,500 to Dr. George
Fritz, Assistant Plant Physiologist, Department of Botany, Agricultural Exper-
iment Station, University of Florida, to support his studies on the metabolism
of molecular oxygen by plants.

Dr. Leland Shanor, Head of the Department of Biological Sciences at
Florida State University, was awarded an honorary Doctor of Science degree
by Illinois Wesleyan University at the 1961 June Commencement. Dr. Shanor
was also appointed as Chairman of the Mycologia Memoirs Committee of the

306 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Mycological Society of America by the Council of the Society at its meeting at
Purdue University.

Dr. Henry Stevenson, Department of Biological Sciences at Florida State
University, was awarded a three year research grant by the NIH for a study
on the “Abundance of Neotropical Birds in Florida”. Studies of migration
dates and pathways are also included in the proposal.

Dr. Lloyd Beidler, Professor of Physiology at Florida State University,
is acting as coordinator on “Century 21”, the U. S. Science exhibit for the
Worlds Fair to be held in Seattle in 1962.

Lakeland: Austin H. Beebe, Department of Chemistry at FSC, has re-
ported a series of radiation measurements made at the college during the latter
phases of the Russian tests. Some increase was noted over the normal back-
ground radiation for the area. However, none of the readings indicated a
significant or dangerous level of radiation intensity or dose rate in the area.
Readings as of the week of November 20 had decreased to nearly normal back-
ground values. All readings were taken with a Civil Defense type radiologicat
survey meter.

Tallahassee: Dr. Ralph A. Bradley, Head of the Department of Statistics
at FSU, was recently elected a Fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statis-
tics. Dr. S. K. Katti was recently notified of continuatiton of his research con-
tract in statistics with the School of Aviation Medicine, USAF. Support for
1961-62 is approximately $12,000. The research is investigations of dynamic
models for the biological consideration of contagious phenomena.

Tampa: Our News and Notes representative from the University of South
Florida, Dr. T. C. Helvey, is in the hospital. We wish him a speedy return to
health. In spite of his hospitalization, he arranged for Mr. John W. Egerton to
get the news to us.

A $2,400 grant has been awarded by the American Chemical Society for
research involving the chemical properties of substances at high temperatures.
Dr. Jesse S. Binford, Jr., is principal investigator.

The University also received a grant of $205,000 from the National Insti-
tute of Health. Dr. Theodore A. Ashford, Director of the Division of Natural
Sciences, expects this will assure the new physics building in which undergradu-
ate instructions in physics, mathematics, and astronomy will be centralized by
1964. The grant from the National Institute of Health specifies facilities for
research in health and health-related problems.

Another National Science Foundation grant, $17,200, to Dr. Frank E.
Friedl as Principal Investigator, provides for study on the growth and nutrition
of an Axenic Snail. Certain worm parasites which infect man and animals
utilize snails during an intermediate stage of development.

Tallahassee: Florida A. & M. University’s Dr. Margaret S. Collins will
continue the study of the Florida termite following her return from the Univer-
sity of Minnesota under a National Science Foundation grant. An article on
Isoptera by Dr. Collins appears in the 1961 edition of the Encyclopedia of the
Biological Sciences edited by Peter Gray.

Mr. Thomas Cotton, with a wide background of training and experience,
joined the Chemistry Department. Mr. William J. Bryant—a 1960 alumnus—
became a member of the Biology staff.

NEWS AND NOTES 307

Daytona Beach: Volusia County Community College reports that their
recently installed Language Laboratory adds a new dimension to the teaching
and learning of languages. The electronic center allows the teacher extensive
freedom in the programing and teaching, fosters greater creativity, and permits
more study among students in the individual booths. Student loans have
been made available under the National Defense Loan Program for students
to continue their education. Twelve students took advantage of the loan
program during the first semester.

Dr. J. T. Kelley, Director, Teacher Education, Certification and Accredi-
tation, was appointed recently by State Superintendent of Schools Thomas D.
Bailey to serve as Chairman of the Evaluation Committee, which will visit
VCCC soon. Juan Lopez, on leave to work on his doctorate at Fordham
University, has been granted a teaching fellowship from Frodham and _ will
be in charge of Foreign Languages at Power Memorial Academy while he
completes his doctoral dissertation.

Lakeland: Dr. E. E. Emme, a long-time member of the Florida Academy,
Professor of Psychology and Religion at FSC, had a busy summer. His sched-
ule included a trip to Hawaii, attendance at the Southern States Faculty Con-
ference at Lake Junaluska, and an investigation of recent researches at the APA
National Office and at several universities.

Word from the Assistant Editor: Thanks for the news items you have sup-
plied. Don’t wait until you see them in print before sending in additionals.
If convenient, jot them down on a postcard while they are fresh in your mind.
They do not need to be compiled and sent in on a formal letter. Neither do
- you have to be an official reporter. Just give us the facts and your name and
address. Mail the news items as indicated at the head of this section.

alin
Exi'yy)

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS

Costs.—Authors will be expected to assume the cost of en-
gravings.

APPROXIMATE COSTS FOR ENGRAVINGS

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Manuscript FormM.—(1) Typewrite material, using one side of
paper only; (2) double space all material and leave liberal margins;
(3) use 8% x 11 inch paper of standard weight; (4) do not submit
carbon copies; (5) place tables on separate pages; (6) footnotes
should be avoided whenever possible; (7) titles should be short;
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JOURNAL style—see Vol. 16, No. 1 and later issues; (9) a factual
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ILLusrraTions.—Photographs should be glossy prints of good
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