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Digitized by the Internet Archive
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http://www.archive.org/details/reboisementinfrOObrow
WORKS ON FOREST SCIENCE BY DR. BROWN.
T. — Hydrology of South Africa ; or, details of the former Ilydrographic con-
dition of the Cape of Good Hope, and of causes of its present aridity ^
with suggestions of appropriate remedies for this aridity.
In which the desiccation of South Africa, from pre-Adamic times to the
present day, is traced by indications supplied by geological formations,
by the pliysical geography or general contour of the country, and by
arborescent productions ia the interior, with results confirmatory of the
opinion that the appropriate remedies are irrigation, arboriculture, and
an improved forest economy : or the erection of dams to prevent the escape
of a portion of the rainfall to the sea, — the abandonment or restriction of
the burning of the herbage and bush in connection with pastoral and
agricultural operations, — the conservation and extension of existing forests,
— and the adoption of measures similar to the reboisem^ent and gazonnement
carried out in France, with a view to prevent the formation of torrents and
the destruction of property occasioned by them. — London : C. Kegan Paul
and Co. 1875.
II. — Water Supply of South Africa, and facilities for the storage of it.
In this volume are detailed meteorological observations on the humidity
of the air and the rainfall, on clouds, and winds, and thunder-storms ;
sources from which is derived the supply of moisture which is at present
available for agricultural operations in the Colony of the Cape of Good
Hope and regions beyond, embracing the atmosphere, the rainfall, rivers,
fountains, subterranean streams and reservoirs, and the sea ; and the
supply of water and facilities for the storage of it in each of the divisions
of the Colony, in Basutolaud, in the Orange River Free State, in Griqualand
West, in the Transvaal Territory, in Zululand,' at Natal, and in the
Transkei Territory. — Edinburgh : Oliver & Boyd. London : Simpkin,
Marshall, & Co. 1877.
III. — Forests and Moisture ; or, Effects of forests on humidity of climate.
In which are given details of phenomena of vegetation on which the
meteorological effects of forests affecting the humidity of climate depend, —
of the effects of forests on the humidity of the atmosphere, on the humidity
of the ground, on marshes, on the moisture of a wide expanse of country,
on the local rainfall, and on rivers, — and of the correspondence between
the distribution of the rainfall and of forests, — the measure of corres-
pondence between the distribution of the rainfall and that of forests, —
the distribution of the rainfall dependent on geographical position, deter-
mined by the contour of a country, — the distribution of forests affected
by the distribution of the rainfall, — and the local effects of forests on the
distribution of the rainfall within the forest district. — Edinburgh : Oliver
and Boyd. London: Simpkin, Marshall, & Co. 1877.
WORKS ON FOREST SCIENCE.
TV.— Pine Plantations on Sand- Wastes in France.
In which are detailed the appearances presented by the Landes of the
Gironde before and after culture, and the Landes of La Sologne ; the
legislation and literature of France in regard to the planting of the Landes
with trees; the characteristics of the sand-wastes; the natural history,
culture, and exploitation of the maritime pine and of the Scotch fir ; and
the diseases and injurious influences to which the maritime pine is subject. —
Edinburgh : Oliver and Boyd. London : Simpkin, Marshall, & Co. 1878.
The Schools of Forestry in Europe : a Plea for the creation of a School
of Forestry in Edinburgh. Edinburgh : Oliver and Boyd. 1877.
On Schools of Forestry. Reprinted from Transactions of the Scottish
Arboricultural Society. Edinburgh : M'Farlane and Erskine. 1877.
The School of Forestry in the Polytechnic School of Carlsruhe. The
School of Forestry in the Royal Wurtemburg Academy of Land and
Forest Economy. The School of Forestry in the Escurial of Spain.
The School of. Forestry at Evois in Finland. Opinions of Continental
Foresters and Professors of Forest Science on the location of a School
of Forestry. A British School of Forestry : Review of opinions relative
to its formation. Rural Primary Schools of Science, Agriculture, Forestry,
and Rural Economy. Glances at the Forests of Northern Europe — I,
Denmark; II, Norway; III, Sweden; IV. Finland ; V, Northern Russia.
Glances at the Forestry of France — I, Forest Reforms carried out under
Colbert, a translation ; II, Forest Budget for 1880, a resume. London :
J. & W. Rider. 1877, 1878, and 1879.
REBOISEMENT IN FRANCE:
OR.
RECORDS OF THE REPLANTING OF THE ALPS,
THE CEYENNES, AND THE PYRENEES WITH TREES,
HERBAGE AND BUSH,
WITH A VIEW TO ARRESTING AND PREVENTING
THE DESTRUCTIVE CONSEQUENCES AND EFFECTS OF TORRENTS.
COUPILED BT
JOHN CROUMBIE BROWN, LL.D.,
Formerly Government Botanist at the Cape of Good Hope, and Projeisor of
Botany in the. South African College, Capetown, Honorary Vice-
President of the African Institute of Paris, Fellow of the Royal
Geographical Society, Fellow of the Linnean Society, <&c.
SECOND ISSUE.
LONDON:
a KEGAN PAUL & CO., 1, PATERNOSTER SQUARE.
18 8 0.
PREFACE.
The following treatise owed its origin, and the first issue of it to a desire
' which I felt to show that it is quite practicable to prevent, or to moderate
inundations at the Cape of Good Hope, such as occasionally occur there,
destroying property of great value. For some years I held the appoint-
ment of Government Botanist in that Colony, and there saw something of
the appearance of these inundations, and the serious consequences following.
Of both I have given details in a volume, entitled " Hydrology of South
Africa ; or. Details of the former hydrographio condition of the Cape of
Good Hope, and of causes of its present aridity, with suggestions of
appropriate remedies for this aridity."* And in the preface to the former
issue of this treatise, I had occasion to state — '' I have before me details of
destructive effects of torrents which have occurred since I left the Colony
in the beginning of 1867. Towards the close of that year there occurred
one, the damage occasioned by which to roads and to house property
at Port Elizabeth alone was estimated at from ^25,000 to £30,000.
Within a year thereafter a similar destructive torrent occurred at Natal,
in regard to which it was stated that the damage done to public works alone
was estimated at £50,000, and the loss to private persons was estimated
variously from £50,000 to ^^00,000. In the following year, 1869, a torrent
in the Western Province occasioned the fall of a railway bridge, which issued
in loss of life and loss of property, and personal injuries, for one case alone of
which the railway proprietors were prosecuted for damages amounting to
£5000. In Beaufort West a deluge of rain washed down the dam, and the
next year the town was flooded by the waters of the Gamka ; and the next
year, 1871, Victoria West was visited with a similar disaster. Such are
the sums and the damages with which we have to deal in connection with
this question, as it affects the case ; and these are only the most remarkable
torrents of the several years referred to.
" Towards the close of last year, 1874, still more disastrous effects were
produced by torrential floods. According to the report given by one of the
Colonial newspapers, the damages done could not be estimated at much
less than £300,000. According to the report given by another, the
damage done to public works alone was estimated at £350,000, — eight
millions^ seven hundred and fifty thousand francs. And my attention was
called anew to the subject.
• London : C. Kegan Paul & Co.
iv PREFACE.
" Torrents have proved destructive on the continent of Europe by washing
away fertile soil, by undermining houses and fields, and whole villages and
towns, and causing their fall, by burying fields and vineyards and towns in
the debris thus produced, and swept away, and by producing extensive
inundations of lower lying level lands, drowning man and beast, and
burying, washing away, or otherwise destroying the labour of years, and I
would briefly advert to the remedial measures which have been adopted.
" One of the means employed to avert destruction when it was threatened,
was the erection on the river-bed of protecting walls, and' of advanced
structures, to determine the current, and of continuous slopes to regulate
its rapidity and force, and of combined and modified forms of all of these
appliances, which manifested great art and skill, ingenuity, and power. It
would be exaggeration to say they proved in every case an utter failure,
but this would only be an exaggeration of what was the fact, which was,
that in very many cases they failed to avert the evil, and in not a few cases
they were carried away before the torrent like chaff before the wind, while
the torrent seemed to laugh a loud and hollow laugh at the silliness of
man's device.
*'' To prevent the destruction of land by inundations, the more promising
measure of raising embankments based or founded on the dry land was
adopted, and the river was thus chained within its bed, with only liberty of
action within a limited space beyond. But what did the river do 1 It
silted up its bed, and thus raised itself, and attempted to overflow the
embankment. The danger was perceived in time, and the embankments
were raised to a higher elevation. The river quietly repeated the silting
up of its bed, which was met by a repeated addition to the embankment.
This was done again and again. It was a continuous struggle between
dead matter and living mind, carried on for years — for generations, — both
refusing to give in. Meanwhile, as in the case of the River Po, not only
the embankments, but the silted-up bed of the river was elevated consider-
ably above the level of the country lying on one side and on the other, an
aqueduct of earth overtopping and threatening with destruction houses and
trees, and man and beast alike. Then it was a desperate and a deadly
struggle, which many saw it would have been well it had never been entered
on, while others looked on and said. It is evident that that is not the way
in which the evil is to be averted. Meanwhile the struggle was continued,
until a breach was at length effected in the embankment, and the river
poured forth its torrent, inundating the country far and wide.
" While this contest was going on, the study of torrents in the Alps
revealed the form of the bed of these to be a large somewhat semi-circular
funnel-shaped basin, from the rainfall in which the waters were collected, —
a channel more or less elongated, along which the waters flowed, — and a
fan-shaped bed of deposit corresponding to the delta of a river, the whole
being like to a river-bc^d reduced or contracted in length ; it showed, further,
that these torrents were to be met with in all stages of progress, from
incipient information, throughout various stages of activity, to final
extinction ; it showed that in forest-covered mountain regions there were
none ; that in denuded mountain ranges they were numerous, and some-
times very destructive ; that, where they were extinct, the forest had
extended itself till it covered the basin and lined the banks of the channel ;
that, where they were in a state of progressive extinction, the forests were
progressively extending themselves ; and that this extension of the forest
was apparently the cause or occasion of the extinction of the torrent.
PRRFAOB. V
" From what had tlius been observed the inference was drawn that by
artificial plantation the gradual extinction or the subjection of the torrent
to control might be cffocted, — and numerous facts whicli liad been long
known were recalled to give their testimony in confirmation of the correct-
ness of the inference drawn, llain falling on a metallic rOuf rushes off,
while the same rain falling on a thatched roof trickles down in drops ; from
the bared ground the rain runs off in streamlets long before it runs off in
a simjlar way from the grass-field or the thicket; and the more the
phenomena of percolation and drainage was studied, the more manifest did
it become that vegetation retarded the flow and prevented the rush of
water, retained it to moisten the soil, and extinguished the torrent,
requiring the river to take days and weeks to carry away what the torrent
carried away in hours, and thus securing something like a permanent flow
in what had become a dry channel, filled occasionally from bank to bank
with a destructive torrent, converting the lion into a lamb. And now
millions of francs are being spent on the work of planting trees, and herb-
age, and bush, with a view to preventing torrents and inundations destroying
the land."
When the first issue of this volume took place, the inundation which had
proved so destructive to Toulouse was engaging the attention of the
General Directory of Forests in France, who were satisfied that they had
the means of preventing the recurrence of such a catastrophe if they only
had the money necessary for carrying out the necessary reboisement and
gazonnement of the mountains ; and the works have been carried on with
more or less energy ever since.
Amongst other important and interesting models exhibited by the Forest
Administration at the Exposition Universelle of 1878, were models, and
charts, and drawings of works of reboisement of mountains ; and in the
Budget for 1880, provision has been made for the work being carried out
with still increasing energy. An application was made to the Chamber for
a credit of about four millions of francs, well nigh £164,000, a million of
francs or £4*1, Cf>7 above what had been asked for 1879, for the execution
of such works. In making this application the Administration stated that
after the disasters occasioned in 1875, by the overflowing of the Garonne
and the Herault, and their affluents, the Minister of Finance and the
Minister of Public Works gave assurance that measures would be concerted
between the departments over which they respectively presided, to be
taken with a view to prevent the recurrence of such calamities. They
stated that many surveys which were subsequently undertaken had been
completed, but in the absence of funds the works of reboisement had not
been begun. That, subsequently the Minister of Public Works had
solicited their co-operation to enable him to give a specification of works
actually called for in Savoie. That information supplied by the engineers
of roads and bridges showed that the four torrents of Saint Martin, the
Grillaz, the Pousset, and Saint Julien, all of them affluents of the Arc,
were causing every year great destruction, which it was of importance
should be arrested without delay. That according to information in
possession of the Administration, the execution of the works in Savoie alone
would absorb more than a million of francs.
The Budget Committee of the Chamber in reporting on the application,
submitted a detailed statement of what had. been done, and the results^
vi PREFACE.
giving tabulated statements as well as details, showing how effectually
rehoisement had arrested torrents, and showing further, that for the comple-
tion of the works in the Alps, in the Cevennes, and the plateau of Central
France, and in the Pyrenees, there would be required 148 millions of francs,
upwards of six millions sterling, and 72 millions more, upwards of three
millions sterling, for the purchase of land. And they unanimously recoui-
mended that a credit for the whole amount applied for should be granted.
" We are all," say they in the concluding sentence of their report, *' deeply
impressed with the thought — better far spend a million in rehoisement than
have to give such a sum to sufferers from inundations."
The credit applied for was unanimously granted by the Chamber, together
with a grant made sua sponte of 5000 francs to be employed in developing
roads, to facilitate the exploi,tation of communal forests, the effect of
which it was anticipated might be to raise the average value of 360,000
hectares, or 900,000 acres of forests, from five francs to fifty francs per
hectare. And in view of the importance of employing forest engineers of
superior attainments in the works of rehoisejtient in Savoie and in the basin
of the Garonne, 50,600 francs, about £2,110, in addition to the credit for
the material work was granted.
If such sums tell of the great expense at which these works are being
executed, they tell of the importance attached to the execution of them,
and of the perfect confidence which is felt in their immediate efiiciency,
and in their ultimately proving remunerative of the outlay.
I have retained the terms rehoisement and gazonnement, because I know of
no equivalent English terms by which they can be replaced. Both in
India and in America the former term at least has been adopted ; and I
believe it will soon be naturalised among the English speaking population
on both sides of the Atlantic.
JOHN C. BROWN.
Haddington, 10th Becemher, 1879.
REBOISEMENT IN FRANCE.
INTRODUCTION.
One of the striking features of the scenery of extensive districts in the
High Alps is that presented by numerous ravines, of greater or less depth
and extent, furrowing the mountains, created by mountain floods. These
are the Torrents of the High Alps. In the creation of these much valuable
land, and in some cases houses and fields, have been undermined, precipi-
tated into the water-course, and washed away ; and land not less valuable
has been devastated by being covered with the detritus. The most
efficacious means of preventing the formation of torrential floods have been
found to be what are designated rehoisement and gazonnement, — the former
being the replanting with woods lands in the districts formerly covered with
forests which have been denuded of these, the latter the creating of a dense
turf of herbage and bush upon adjacent ground.
Evils similar in kind but differing in degree are not unknown in several
newly-settled lands. The success with which these remedial operations
have been carried out in France may commend them as appropriate
appliances to remedy these evils ; and the magnitude of the evil which is
being combated and remedied in France may be considered as calculated to
speak encouragement to those who are called to meet only Ifisser forms of
the evil. Under this impression I would here cite details which have been
given of the form and magnitude which the evil had assumed, and in which
it has been attacked with success.
The first I shall cite relates to the Devoluy. Of this valley Surell
writes, — " The Devoluy forms to the west of the department of the High
Alps an elongated valley, divided into two parts by a little col and ch'cum-
scribed by elevated mountain chains. It is entered by five passages, which
are gorges or cols which the horrors of the locality make impracticable for
passage during a part of the winter. The mountains are bare, — eaten up I
by the flocks and by the sun ; they are without shade and without verdure.
The bases of the mountains are almost deserts, having been ruined by the
deposit of material dejected from ravines. ' The aspect of this miserable
country is oppressive to the soul : one would say of it, It is smitten with
death. The pale and uniform colour of the soil, the silence which weighs
on the fields, the hideous spectacle of these mountains flayed by the waters
8 INTRODUCTION,
and falling into disintegration, and everything about them, announces %
miserably ruined, decrepitated land, which does not appear even to struggle
against, or resist, or resent its destruction. The unchanging serenity of the
sky, which anywhere else would be a trait of beauty, adds here to the
melancholy sadness of the country. I shall go over step by step the errors
of man which have brought about this state of things.
" Eveiything concurs to show that in ancient times this country was
wooded. There are dug up from its peat bogs buried trunks of trees —
monuments of ancient vegetation. In the frame-work of old houses are
seen pieces of enormous timber such as is not now to be found in the
district. Many localites completely bare still bear, even to-day, the name
of wood. One of these valleys (that of Agneres) is called, in old deeds,
Comba-nigra, on account of its thick forests. By these evidences, and
many others, are confirmed the traditions of the district, which are, on this
point, unanimous.
" There, as in all the High Alps, the destruction of the forests began on
the flanks of the mountains, and thence descended little by little towards
the depths of the valleys, and ascended to the highest accessible
peaks. Then came the late Revolution which caused to fall the remainder
of the woods which had escaped the first devastation. This last destruction
was accomplished under the eyes of some of the present population, and all
the old men remember what the forest was in a former day."
He adds in a note : — " And many have told me that they have lost
flocks of sheep straying in the forests of Mount Auroux, which covered the
flanks of the mountain from La Cluse to Agneres. These flanks are to-day
as bare as my hand."
" And," he resumes, " there, after the destruction of the forests, have come
also the grubbing up of roots and the pasturing of flocks. They grubbed up
the grounds nearest to the dwelling-places. They let the flocks go freely every-
where, wherever it was inconvenient or impossible to transport the ploughs.
This proceeding, begun centuries ago, accelerated by the Revolution, has
produced its inevitable fruits, and the inhabitants sufier sorely to-day from
the improvidence of their fathers.
" The first evil to be noticed is the extreme rarity of woods. The
communes are burdened with the purchase, at great expense, of the
possession of distant forests. It requires in certain localities, as for
instance at Saint Etienne, thirteen hours of fatiguing work to convey, on the
back of a mule, a load of wood across the fearful precipices, and this without
reckoning the time occupied in felling and cutting. Other communes, for
example La Cluse and Saint Disdier, have preserved woods which, with the
greatest economy, might suflice to meet their wants, but they are not more
happy ; and this fact makes it apparent that the forests have a function to
fulfil here other than simply that of satisfying the daily wants of the
inhabitants. For, first the clearances, then the plough and the flocks, have
so dissipated the vegetable soil that there now remains no more of it than a
thin bed formed by the disintegration of the rock which underlies it, and
which now protrudes through it on all hands. Such is the mobility of this
ground that it is vsashed away by the slightest showers and leaves an
arid bottom in the place of cultivated fields. Every storm gives rise to a
new torrent."
In confirmation of this it is stated by Marsh in his treatise on The Earth
as Modijied hy Hvmnn A ction, — " No attentive observer can frequent the
INTRODUCTION. 9
southern flank of the Piednionteso Alps oi- the French province of Dauphiuy
for half-a-dozen of years without witnessing with his own eyes the forma-
tion and increase of torrents. I can bear personal testimony to the conver-
sion of more than one grassy slope into the bed of a furious torrent by the
baring of the hills above of their woods."
And Surell goes on to say, — '' There can be shown here torrents, which
have not been in existence for three years, which have destroyed the finest
parts of the valleys. Whole villages have been almost carried away by
ravines formed in a few hom'S ; and the greater part of the torrents have
not as yet received a name. Often the wild waters, flowing in broad
sheets over the surf\ice of the ground, without bed, without ravine, without
torrent, have sufficed to soak and ruin whole districts which have been
abandoned for ever.
^' One may see also dispersed here and there on the browns of many hills
(revers), traces of old fields and of old estates, the bounds of w^hich are still
marked out by thick dry stone-walls, but which no man has been near for
a long time. Such are to be seen on the rising grounds of Agn^res, and on
the col of the Noyer. One can with difficulty imagine anything more dis-
tressing and more significant than the sight of these ruins ; they have
written on the brows of hills (revers) of the Devoluy the future destiny
of all the French Alps. And here again come into view proofs which do
not admit of any doubt in regard to the destructive influence of flocks.
Some communes, dreading the future, have enclosed some quarters, as the
mountain of Chaumette, quartier de Maniboux, quartier de Lierravesse,
quartier de Auroux, near Saint Etienne. Immediately vegetation had again
gained possession of the soil, the herbage, bushes, and shrubs have spread
with wonderful rapidity, and formed what are called blanches in the country.
Whole forests have sprung up on the soil of the forests which were destroyed
at the Revolution, but which the inhabitants, now inspired with a better
feeling, have subjected to a regular course of forest management. Finally,
on the same mountain brows (revers) enclosed portions assume, by the end of
two years, appearances different from that of those given up to the sheep.
The latter are bare and cut into ravines ; the former are covered with vege-
tation, the soil is consolidated, and the ravines, carpeted with tufted plants,
look like cicatrices occasioned by w^ounds, which are under the benignant
influence of a topical application. In the two quarters — the exposure, the
slopes, the soil are the same ; the mere fact of putting them en reserve has
determined the diff'erence. What can be objected to such facts? Are they
not conclusive ? Do they not give the clue to the system to be followed
to put at last a stop to these calamities always increasing ?
" To resume, we see here always the same efl'ects resulting from the
same causes. Let us follow them a little further and we find them become
still more saddening.
'' The country is being depopulated day by day. Ruined in their cultiva-
tion of the ground the inhabitants emigrate to a great distance from this
desolated land, and, contrary to the general custom of mountaineers, many
never return. There mpy be seen on all hands cabins deserted or in ruins,
and already in some localities there are more fields than labourers.
" The precarious state of these fields discourages the population. They
abandon the plough and invest all their resources in flocks. But these
flocks expedite the ruin of the country, which would be destroyed by them
alone. Every year their number diminishes in consequence of want of
10 INTRODUCTION, ,
pastiu'e-grounds. The number of sheep which was 53,000 twenty years
ago are now only 36,000. One comnnme, Saint Etienne, which supported
25,000 sheep fifteen years ago, supports no more than 11,000 now. Thus
the inhabitants, who sacrifice all their soil for the flocks, will not even leave
this last inheritance to their descendants.
" Thus may one see clearly whither tends this fatal chain of causes and
effects, which commences with the destruction of the forests and ends in
suffering and misery for the population, condemning man also to share the
i*uin of the soil which he devastated.
*' All these facts have been lately recounted by M. Morgue, the present
Prefect of the High Alps, in a memoir which treats specially of this
unhappy valley. ' The history of Devoluy,' says he, in closing his memoir,
' will be that of the High Alps before five centuries have passed if the
indifference of the Legislature go on, if the recklessness of the Administration
continue, and if nothing occur to aiTcst the cupidity of the communes.' We
may place side by side with these words those of a former Prefect of the
Low Alps, M. Dugied, in a memoir on the subject. ' Such,' says he, ' are
the causes of the sad condition of the department. Oiie may affirm with
certainty that, if a remedy he not speedily applied, eir. long the pojmlation in
the upper portion tvill go on diminishing, and that with a rapidity which can
only be accounted for by that which went on before. I do not know if I
deceive myself, but I believe it is possible to remedy the evil ; and I believe,
moreover, that it is high time to set about this. Wait a quarter of a
century and perhaps it will be too late, because the best grounds which
exist on the mountains furrowed by the storms may then have been carried
away by the floods.' "
In accordance with the forebodings of Surell were the following forebod-
ings of M. Jonsse de Fontaniere, Inspector of Forests, embodied in a memoir,
Sur la degradation des forets dans les arrondisements d^Embrun et de Brianc^on,
" From all that has been said the conclusion may be drawn that the
department of the High Alps is the one, in all France, in which the
cultivators of the land are most menaced in their fortunes, and that they
will be compelled, and that sooner than they dream of, to abandon the
places which were inhabited by their forefathers ; and this solely in con-
sequence of the destruction of the soil, which, after having supported so
many generations, is giving place, little by little, to sterile rocks.
"It is the destruction of forests which will be the principal cause of the
calamity. The torrents, becoming more and more devastators of the
country, in consequence of the destruction of these, will bury inider their
deposits extensive grounds which will be lost for ever to agriculture. The
hills, denuded of their vegetable soils, will no longer admit of the infiltra-
tion of water. Then sources of streams and rivulets will be exhausted,
and the drought of the summers not being modei-ated by their irrigation,
all vegetation will be desti-oyed.
" The destructive elements thus give birth one to another, and it is only
necessary to notice what is going on to-day to foretell Avhat will infiillibly
come to pass some ages hence — when the forests shall at last have entirely
disappeared — fuel and water, the two first necessaries of life, will then fail
from these desolated countries.
''The cupidity of the inhabitants, and the tenacity with which they hold
to old usages, admit of no hope that any moi-al conviction in regard to their
future will so impress them as to lead them to submit willingly to a tem-
INTHOPUCTION. I |
porary sacrifice. It is ft)r the Administration, more enlightened than they
(»n the state of things and on tlio consocincnccs whicli are coming, to
meet the evil by legislation appropriate to the requirements of the
comitry."
Varied is the tone in which like forewarning was given by diflerent far-
seeing men, who gave their attention to the subject, about the time iu
which these forebodings were published.
To cue unacquainted with the facts of the case such forebodings of evil
may appear extravagant. To one knowing something of these facts they
appear legitimate and true ; and to one who has seen the region in some of
its aspects they seem to be not unreasonable.
But the truth is not always truth-like, and to remove any lingering
incredulity 1 may state that the torrents of the High Alps are equalled and
even exceeded by torrents seen elsewhere. The traveller, Antoine d'Abadie,
who was almost frozen to death in climbing the AVosho, — a moimtain of
Abyssinia, r)060 metres, upwards of 16,000 feet, above the level of the sea,
gives the following picture of what he witnessed : — " Sometimes w^e would
l)e going on in all security under a serene sky, when a native, hearing a
strange noise at a distance, which quickly increased, would cry out with all
his might, The torrent ! and with all haste clamber up upon the nearest
height. Thirty seconds would not have elapsed when the bottom of the
valley totally disappeared under a sheet of water, which swept away with
it trees, blocks of rock, and even wild beasts. These torrents, formed in a
moment, exhaust themselves in the course of the same day, and leave no
trace of their passage but debris of all sorts and pools of muddy water
retained here and there in the clefts and hollows,"
M. d'Abadie relates that one day he anived at a spot just a little too late
to see in all its grandeur one of these sudden inundations. He found only
a native, looking with a dumfoundered air on the wet ground. '' Good
morning," said the traveller. ''What has happened to you ? Where are
your arms'? Can a man like you stand there without lance or buckler?"
" Good morning," answered the African, " and health be yours ! The
ton-ent has carried off my lance, my buckler, my camel, j^nd all my
possession ; my wife, and my children. Wretched me ! Wretched me ! "
Such are the torrents of Abyssinia.
The brothers Schlangenweit, writing of the energy of the torrents of the
Himalayas, state it as their belief that they will cut gorges throuoh that
lofty chain wide enough to admit the passage of cm-rents of warm wind
from the south, and thereby modify the climate of the countries lying to
the north of the mountains.
Morell, iu his tickntijic Guide to Switzerland, mentions that about an hour
from Thusis, on the Spluegen road, " opens the awful chasm of the Nolla,
which a hundred years ago poured its peaceful waters through smilino-
meadows protected by the wooded slopes of the mountains. But the woods
were cut down, and with them departed the rich pastures — the pride of
that valley — now covered with piles of rock and rubbish swept down from
the mountains." And he goes on to say, — " The result is the more to be
lamented as it was entirely compassed by the improvidence of man in
thinning the forest."
Marsh, citing a pamphlet published at Brescia in 1851, entitled Delia
Inondazioni del Mella nella notte dd 1^ al 15 Ayosto iSoO, says, — " The
12 INTRODUCTION.
recent changes in the character of the Mella — a river anciently so remark-
able for the gentleness of its currents that it was specially noticed by
Catullus as flowing molle finmene — deserves more than a passing remark.
This river rises in the mountain chain east of Lake Iseo, and traversing the
district of Brescia, empties into the Oglio after a course of about seventy
miles. The iron-works in the upper valley of the Mella had long created a
considerable demand for wood, but their operations were not so extensive as
to occasion any veiy sudden or general destruction of the forests, and the
only evil experienced from the clearings was the gradual diminution of the
volume of the river. Within the last thirty years the superior qualities of
the arms manufactured at Brescia has greatly enlarged the sale of them,
and very naturally stimulated the activity of l3oth the forges and of the
colliers who supply them, and the hill-sides have been rapidly striped of
their timber. Up to 1850 no destructive inundation of the Mella had been
recorded. Buildings in great numbers had been erected upon its margin,
and its valley was conspicuous for its rui-al beauty and for its fertility.
But when the denudation of the mountains had reached a certain point,
avenging natui'e began the work of retribution. In the spring and summer
of 1850 several new torrents were suddenly formed in the upper tributaiy
valleys, and on the 1-ith and 15th of August in that year a fall of rain, not
heavier than had been often experienced, produced a flood which not only
inundated much ground never before ovei-flowed, but destroyed a great
number of bridges, dams, factories, and other valuable structures, and what
was a far more serious evil, swept off" from the rocks an incredible extent
of soil, and converted one of the most beautiful valleys of the Italian Alps
into a ravine almost as bare and barren as the savagest gorge of Southern
France. The pecuniary damage was estimated at many millions of francs ;
and the violence of the catastrophe was deemed so extraordinary, even in a
country subject to similar visitations, that the sympathy excited for the
sufi'erers produced in five months voluntary contributions for their relief
to the amount of nearly 200,000 dollars, or £40,000."
The rendering of Job xiv. 18-19 in the Vulgate is, —
" Mons cadens definit, et saxum trans fertur de loco sua ; lapides excavant aquae et
alluvione paidlatim terra consumiture."
" The mountain crumbling down comes to an end ; and the rock is removed from
its place ; the waters undermine the stones ; and by inundation
little by little the land is laid waste."
This is accurately descriptive of the action of the torrent, and this the author
of the pamphlet has prefixed as a motto to his narrative. By Mr Marsh it is
stated, — " The recent date of the change in the character of the Mella is
contested, and it is possible that though the extent of the revolution is not
exaggerated, the rapidity with which it has taken place may have been."
From such independent testimony in regard to similar phenomena presenting
themselves elsewhere, it may be seen that there is nothing incredible in the
published reports of the state to which the High Alps had been brought
before the operation of reboisement was commenced with a view to
arrest the evil.
It is with a view of promoting the adoption of a similar remedy for cor-
responding evils manifesting themselves in other lands that this compilation
has been made. Anticipating that the aridity and limited average rainfall
INTRODUCTION. 1.1
on some lands, on which the remedy would not be inappropriate, may be
considered a satisfactory reason for delay, 1 may state that I admit without
hesitation that to produce such torrential flows as has been seen in the
Alps the quantity of rain falling there must be very great ; but I must
add that the effect of the rainfall on water-courses depends more on its dis-
tribution over time .and space than on its average annual amount, and that
orages, or storms of rain, constitute one of the peculiar meteorological
phenomena of the High Alps. M. L. Marchand, Garde General des Forets,
says on this subject, — " When the torrential rains of the Alps are made a
subject of study it is soon seen that they are all of them occasioned by a
particular wind called the fc^h?i. These winds are generally violent, and
present almost always the character of orages, or storms of rams ; it follows
that great quantities of rain are poured down upon the soil ; and to this
may be attributed disasters sometimes coming upon spots which seemed to
be placed in the best possible situation and circumstances to bear the most
persistent rains.
" The fa^hi is a wind which blows from the south, often with extraordinary
force ; it is peculiar to the Alps, and is felt throughout their whole extent.
Having climbed over Italy where it is no other than the siroco, the
following are its chief characteristics : — It comes from the south, but its
direction is modified at evei-y step, either by mountain chains or by valleys.
Its origin is still a subject of discussion : according to some it originates in
the Sahara, according to others it originates in the Gulf of Mexico. . It
gives to the sky a strangely-marked, peculiar, heavy, whitish aspect ; and
the rain falls on the second or third day following its appearance.
" The wind arrives on the Mediterranean coast loaded with vapour ; it
there encounters that immense calcareous simi-circular wall of the Maritime
Alps, and it scales their higher slopes ; but in consequence of their covering
of forests, and the great heat concentrated by them, in doing so it only
attains a higher temperature. It is rarely the case that the moisture is
condensed or precipitated on these countries which it rapidly traverses ; but
it cools by degrees as it mounts the Maritime Alps, and on reaching the
upper basin of the Var and its afiluents it deposits an enormous quantity
of water ; then it continues to advance northwards to French Comte, before
reaching which latitude it has lost much of its force,
" If a glance be cast over a map of the Southern Alps, it maybe observed
that from Mount Viso there part off great chains running perceptibly from
east to west ; the fcehn comes by the valleys of the basin of the Var, or of
the upper sources of the Durance, it strikes upon the first chain parting
from the col of the Pas-de-la-Cavale, or of the Grandes-Communes, taking
a deviation to the north of Digne. It is against this chain that the first
great storms of rain dash themselves. The clouds in passing over these
mountains seek the cols or lower parts, and they an*ive in the valley of the
Ubaye by the openings of Grange-Commune, of Enchastrayes, of the Col
d'Allos, of the Lawerq, of the Bas, and in fine, by the great passage of the
mountains of the Seyne.
" The fcehn forces a passage for itself into the valley of the Durance ; goes
up this throughout its whole length ; it makes its way also by some cols of the
chains which separate this valley from that of the Ubaye, and more
especially by those which are opposite Embrun.
" If now the forest chart of the country spoken of and the chart of the
fcehn be compared, it will be seen that the mountains of Seyne have been
" '14 INTRODUCTION.
cleared of woods, and that the whole southern upper slope of the valley of
the Ubaye is devoid of forests ; in a word, that all the parts which bear
the direct attacks of thefcehi — those which arrest it — force it to ascend
them, and to poiu' upon them masses of water, are all of them almost
entirely cleared of woods. Here we have no longer, as is the case above
Menton, a tropical sun to warm the soil ; the wind has cooled down as it
rose higher from the sea, and is obliged with fatal effect to precipitate in the
form of rain the moisture it has borne thither ; and at that place where the
forests are an absolute necessity, and where the most considerable quantities
of water fall, there it is that they have completely disappeared.
" This summary is incomplete, but it may suffice to render intelligible the
general course of the orages, or storms of rain in the Alps, and the intensity
of these on certain parts, which are generally those at which the fcehn is
compelled to rise considerably or to change its direction. The celebrated
torrent of Riou-Bordoux, near Barcelonette, in face of the opening at Alios,
is exactly so situated. The portion of the Alps situated below the department
of the Isere almost completely relieves the foehn of its humidity, and this
is the classic region of the orages.
" Th.Qfcehn does not confine itself to the production of torrential rains ; it
is not less terrible in its action on the snow, and on the glaciers. As has
been stated it blows sluggishly and warm for one, two, or three days before
the rain appears ; if at this time the ground be covered with snow this is
not slow to melt rapidly, and absorbing a great quantity of water it becomes
like a sponge ; then supervenes the rain which expedites the process and
brings on a kind of debdde, or breaking up, and the water arrives in great
quantities in the valleys. If the rain do not supervene the action of the
fcehn may suffice to cause all the snow to melt and to produce great conse-
quent disasters. Tn 1856 the inundations of the valley of Barcelonette had
no other cause of production : the maximum of the flood was attained under
a magnificent sky, and all the water came from the melting of the snow
which covered the mountain. In Switzerland the terrible inundations of
1868 had in general a double origin — with warm continuous rains were com-
bined the melting of the glaciers. It is always in the spring, or with the first
snows of October, that the latter torrents are to be dreaded if the mountains be
not covered with glaciers ; where this is the case the danger is constant.
" The/ce/m sometimes produces general rains over the whole of the country
over which it blows, but sometimes only local orages, or storms of rain.
This can easily be accounted for when it is considered that the contour of
the Alps admits of one cun-ent of air passing up a valley to be in its cause
and in its effects quite independent of a current passing up a neighbouring
valley, though they have had a common origin, — and that a difference in the
coolin<j- of the currents of air may occasion a precipitation of rain in one valley,
while the neighbouring valleys, being warmer, are enjoying a cloudless sky."
Thus can the immense quantities of water poured down by these ton-ents
be traced to their source, and tluis can the innnensity of the quantity of
water producing these devastations be accounted for. The in(]uiry
brings into view the fact that it is the temporary deluges of rain, and not
the mean average ainiual rainfVill, which occasion the torrential floods of the
Alps. And there are countries in which the mean average annual rainfall
may be very small, when an oraxje^ equalling or exceeding any in the Alps,
occurring once in a decade^ may prove not less destructive than any torrent
in that torrent-ravaged region.
PART I.
RESUME OF SUEELL'S STUDY OF THE TORRENTS OF TUE HIGH ALPS-
Of numerous treatises on subjects connected with the natural histoiy, and
the arrest or control of torrents in France, that by M. Surell appears to
have been that which has done most to give the direction to remedial
operations w^hich has been pursued thus far with the happiest results.
There were winters before him who anticipated him in some of his sugges-
tions, and there are writers of the present day w^ho have suggested more
advanced operations ; but that the work of Surell to which I have referred
had the effect I have indicated seems to be proclaimed by all. This work,
entitled Etude sur les Torrents ties Haf.tes-Alpes, was printed by order of the ' ^Z
Minister of Public Works, and published in Paris in 1841. The author had /
been engaged in engineering work on the High Alps, and his first intention
was to prepare a few notices of matters connected with engineering for
insertion in the Annales des Pouts et Chaussees ; but becoming interested in
the subject, and being encouraged by the Prefect of the district, he was led
to make a study of water-courses and eveiy thing connected with them.
In the sequel I adhere not closely the order in which the several subjects
noticed are discussed by him ; but to some extent I follow that order, while
the division adopted is my own.
Section I. — The Phenomena of Torrents in the High Alps.
M. Surell, to give precision to his treatise which relates to toiTents alone,
classifies the water-courses of the High Alps as — ruisseauXj or mountain
streams ; torrents ; rivieres torrentials, or torrential rivers ; and rivers : and
states what he reckons the distinguishing characteristics of these. He refers
also to glacier streams, and to what are know^n as torrents blmics, to point out
wherein they differ from what are known as toiTcnts.
In what are called torrents hlaacs the agency of water is scarcely perceived ;
it is in operation, but it occupies a very subordinate position ; in toiTents it
is the one commanding power, acting with apparently resistless force.
From the glaciers there proceed currents of water, and by them are
formed deposits of stones and rubbish, known as moraines, w^hich might be
mistaken for beds of deposit formed by torrents ; but these have character-
istics all their own by which they may be easily destinguished from those. u
The ruisseaux, or mountain streams, arc formed of a body of water, small <
in comparison with the torrents of which he treats, and may form cascades
but not torrents, though they may become feeders of these.
He describes the rivers of the High Alps, of which he enumerates four, as
flowing in wide valleys enclosed by elevated ranges of mountains or of hills,
16 RESUME OF SURELL's STUDY OF
and as forming larger bodies of water which, when swollen, continue so for
a time more or less protracted ; the slope of their fall is constant throughout
long stretches, and does not exceed 15 millimeters per metre, or a fall of
15 in a thousand. They are in many places characterised by a water-
course in a level bed of very great breadth, a small portion of which only
is taken up by such a water-course, and this is liable to be forsaken and
left dry, while the waters flow in another channel which they have formed
for themselves, to be again changed for another, and that again after a time
for another ; by which constant changes there is frequently occasioned a
great waste of land, and this, if cultivated, must be cultivated at the risk of
the whole being swept away — crop and soil together.
Elsewhere he mentions that traces of the former existence of ancient
lakes are frequent in these mountains, and that it is the constant rule for
a water-course, whatever may be the class to which it belongs, when it
enters one of these basins, to change its bed when traversing it ; but while
this happens once and again, perchance, with others of the different kinds of
Alpine water-courses which he has enumerated, it occurs so constantly as a
general feature of all the rivers, repeating itself unceasingly throughout the
whole of their course, while in the other forms of water-course its occur-
rence is only occasional and as it were accidental, that he considers this one of
the permanent and specific characteristics of the rivers.
Torrenti, on the contrary, is a name given to what may be called a dry
water-course, along which a tiny stream may be generally seen to flow,
but which from time to time is filled with a rushing, roaring, resistless
flood. They generally traverse very short valleys, which cut up the moun-
tains into buttress-like projections. Their fall throughout the greater part
of their course exceeds six centimetres per m^tre, and it is never less than
two centimetres per metre, or two in the hundred. Changes in the slope
of their fall succeed one another very closely ; and there is given as a charac-
teristic of them that they constantly, if they have not previously done so
to a great extent, undermine the sides of their course at one place, and
sweep away the debris and deposit it at another, and subsequently change
their course above the place at which the deposit has been made, — giving
occasion for the same process being again repeated at some other spot. By
the rapid fall, the rapid succession of changes in the degrees of this, and
their destructive eff'ects, they are distinguished from rivers, and also from
torrential rivers, in the technical classification of water-courses adopted.
Of torrential rivers, rivieres torrentiales, in the High Alps, Surell
enumerates five, but he intimates that there are many more. They are
affluents to the principal rivers. The valleys in which they flow are less
extensive and more compressed, and they cut up the mountain range into
spurs and lesser chains. Variations in the slope of their fall succeed each
other more closely than do those of the rivers. They do not change their
courses as do these, or they do so but little. Their fall is greater, but it does
not exceed six centimetres per metre, or six in the hundred. They have
not the characteristics or specific characters assigned to rivers ; neither do
they present the characteristics or specific characters assigned to torrents ;
they present characteristics of both with characteristics peculiar to them-
selves ; and they are classed apart that the field may be clear for the study
of what are known specifically as torrents.
While the distinctions thus drawn between torrents and other water-
courses is maintained in the treatise, it is stated that the diff'erent forms
TORRENTS OP THE HIGH ALPS. 17
may be considered as passing, by intermediate gradations, into one another,
and that the same body of water may in one part of its course appear in
one of these forms, and in another part of its course it may appear in another.
The torrents thus specified he classifies under three heads, those of each
category presenting characteristics by which tliey may be distinguished
from the others. Torrents of the first class take their departure from a
col in the mountains and flow through a valley. Those of the second class
flow from the mountain-top and follow the line of greatest declivity. Those
of the third class take their origin from the flank of the mountain at some
distance below the summit.
Of these also there are intermediate varieties, and varieties assimilating
them to some of the other forms of water-courses. The first class approxi-
mate in some of their features to those of torrential rivers ; in the second class
all the characteristics of the torrent are prominent, and to this type most
of the toiTents in the High Alps are conformed ; and the third class often
show ravines, with all the secondary characteristics of these.
The washing away of earth, and stones, and blocks of rock being one of
the constant effects of torrents in the High Alps, and the deposits of the
detritus presenting certain constant features whereby they may be distin-
guished at a glance, not only from the moixdnes of a glacier, but from the
shot-heap of a land-slip, and from all other earthen mounds whatever,
Surell has fixed upon the bed of deposit as the most characteristic indica-
tion of the previous- action of a torrent, and makes the study of these beds
of deposit, or lits de dejection , the point of departure in his study of
torrents.
Of these torrents, he says, in the introduction to his work, " The depart-
ment of the High Alps presents us with water-courses of a singular form.
There is given to them in the locality the name of torrents, but with the
teiTQ, as thus used there, there are associated peculiar characteristics which
do not manifest themselves in the torrents of other comitries.
" The sources of the toiTents are hid in the recesses of the mountains,
thence they descend to the valleys, on arriving in these they spread
themselves out over an immensely extended convex bed, the convexity of
which establishes a marked distinction between these torrents and most
other water-courses.
" In these the waters always flow in a hollow which encloses them in
such a way that a section of the ground in a direction perpendicular to
their course would give a curve concave towards heaven, the lower portion
of which was occupied by the w^aters. In the torrents, on the contrary,
when they reach the plain, a similar section would show a curve convex
towards heaven, and the waters confining themselves in their course on the
summit of this. With the water flowing in a slight depression on the
summit of a convex torrent bed, it may be imagined that there can be but
little stability in the current ; and such is the case. The most trifling rise
or swelling of the torrent throws the water out of the depression, and it is
scattered right and left, flowing away in streams w^hich, however, still
follow the line of the course of the bed.
" This instability renders the torrents very damaging, for they are ever
breaking bounds at new poiiits, and subjecting to their ravages immense
areas of ground. Beds of torrents are to be seen exceeding 3000 metres,
B
18 R^SUMf OF SURBLL's STUDY OF
or about two miles, in breadth. It never happens, indeed, that a torrent
covers at any one time the entire surface of this ; but in going now here,
now there, it threatens continually every part of it, and after some floods
every part may be found to bear traces of its passage. Such are the
torrents when they debouch into the valleys.
" When they are traced up into the mountain passes they are seen to
bury themselves in between steep cleft banks, which rise to the greatest
heights, and thus form deep gorges. These banks, constantly undermined
at the base, give way, and in their fall drag with them cultivated fields and
adjoining dwellings. When this water-course is traced up to the sources of
the torrents, the ground there is seen to be spread out like an amphitheatre.
It forms a sort of funnel, open to the sky, which receives waters from the
rains, from the snows, and from the thunder-storms, and precipitates them
rapidly into the gorge." By this gorge, as by the neck of a funnel, the water
is drawn off ond precipitated into the water-course opening upon the lit de
dejection, or bed of deposit.
In giving additional details of the principal peculiarities or characteristics
of torrents, he says elsewhere, " When one casts an eye over a map of the
High Alps hQ sees a country furrowed with innumerable water-courses,
which are spread over the ground in a kind uf confusion. It is an aspect
presented by all mountainous countries. Perhaps here the confusion is
more manifest because of the little regularity in the arrangement of the
mountain chains. These run in many different directions. They constantly
cross each other's lines, break into each other, and disturb the straight line
of the valleys. From these frequent intersections results a certain disorder
which has for a long time engaged the attention of geologists, but no satis-
factory explanation of the production of which has been produced. All the
larger water-courses flow into the Durance, the Buech, and the Drac,
whereby are formed three distinct basins marked out by these rivers." In
a note, it is mentioned that by one author, to whom I shall afterwards have
occasion to refer — M. de Ladoucette, author of a work entitled Historie^
Topog7-aphie, Antiquites, Usages, Dialects, des Hautes Alpes — there are reckoned
five distinct basins ; and by another, M. Hericart de Thury, there are
reckoned eight ; but the number might be increased indefinitely by
considering every valley a basin. The three basins spoken of receive, he
says, all the water-courses of the department with the exception of some
insignificant streams which flow to the west. And he goes on to say, " When
the three rivers named are followed beyond the boundary of the department
they all three are seen to discharge their waters into the llhone, the first
retaining its name to the confluence, the other two previously losing theirs.
And thus it appears that all the water-courses of the department of the
High Alps belong to the great basin of the Khone, one of the five great
basins of France. Each of the three basins is tniverscd by a great valley,
which rises by insensible degrees to the col, or neck, in tlie mountain, where
it originates. It receives secondary valleys, into which descend other
valleys smaller still, which may again, be seen subdivided in a similar
manner. These last being, like ramifications, indefinitely subdivided,
of which the secondary valleys are the branches, while the principal valley
forms the trunk.
" All of these valleys, whatever be their comparative magnitude, their
relative rank, or their position, are watered or drained by a stream which
indicates the thalweg or direction of the inclination of the valley ; and if we
TORRENTS OF THH HIGH ALPB. 1 9
look horizontally across the sweep of this thalweg we see in most cases a
curve, evidently continuoua, the inclination of which rises, — or, if the
expression be preferred, a curve the tangent of which, by degrees, approxi-
mates the vertical as we approach the neck.
" Ti)e curve is convex towards the centre of the earth, and it may be
remarked that the changes in the tangent are more rapid towards the neck
than towards the base. In other words, the radii of the curve diminish in
approaching the neck.
" This configuration," says he, *'is remarkable. Why should the bed of the
water-courses be disposed in the form of a continuous curve *? Why is this
curve convex ? Why does the curvature vary more rapidly above 1 The
answer is — All these peculiarities are combined in the exact curve which
best suits the flow of a liquid the volume of the current of which increases
with the length of the distance gone over. And he asks, — Does it not
seem that the forms which are so perfectly adapted to the laws regulating
the movement of water can be themselves but consequences of these laws 1
If it be supposed that the thalwegs have been brought into the state in
which they are now seen by the same general cause, whatever it may have
been, which created the mountains, why have they such regular forms,
while the outlines of the summits, which, according to the hypothesis, would
have been formed at the same time as they, show only capricious lines 1
By what chance, in an infinitude of possible forms, have they taken exactly
such an one as the waters would have themselves created had they not
found it already made 1 It is in these circumstances reasonable to conclade
that a regulated cause has operated in the formation of the thalwegs, whilst
the summits have been left to themselves ; and it is equally reasonable to
attribute this to the action of the waters as the cause.
"It is true that this supposition attributes to the waters a prodigious
power, very different from the efifects which they produce daily before our
eyes, and therefore it is necessary fully to understand the manner in which
they have been able to act in the formation of the curve of their bed, or in
other words that of the thalweg.
" When we trace attentively the course of the Durance it is seen that the
valley successively expands and contracts in such a way as to produce a
succession of basins separated by connecting straits. These basins are
elongated in the line of the river's com-se. The bottom of them is very
level, and exhibits a clear and well-defined junction with the base of the
enclosing mountain, giving to it an appearance suggestive of its having been
in some measure reduced to level by water."
According to a generally received opinion, such elliptical basins are the
basins, now filled up, of ancient lakes, and it may be that for a time the
place of the river was occupied by a succession of such lakes or sheets of
water appearing at dififerent successive levels, communicating with each
other by waterfalls or rapids, through which the waters then poured from
the lakes, successively passing, as it were, from mill-race to mill-race.
Little by little the beds or basins have been silted up, the rocks by which
they were separated have been hollowed down, and the waters have at length
come to flow in a united bed, and over continuous slopes. We have in our
own day an example of such action in the consecutive lakes in the north of
the United States, which seem destined to be lost one day in the River
St Lawrence, and numerous illustrations of the same thing may be seen in
Finland in all directions throughout the country.
20 E^UM^ OF fifURELL*S STUDY OF
There may be reckoned up on the Durance very distinct forms of five of
these ancient lakes, extending from the neck of Mont-Geneve, where its
source is, to the boundary of the department. Vestiges of the same
phenomenon are to be seen in the valleys of the Grand Buech, and of the
Petit Buech. They are to be seen, again, in the valley of the Drac, and in
that of the Romanche. In general, all the great valleys of the department
present similar traces. Some of these lakes existed within historical times,
and we may remark, in fine, that the same appearances have been observed
in a gTcat many other places, and on all sorts of rivers.
In this, then, we find a general mode of action, of which traces are
constantly reproduced in a certain kind of valleys, to which may be attri-
buted not only the formation of the valleys but also the formation of their
thalwegs, which two things are, he states, distinct and different.
There are, he remarks, valleys which seem to have been created solely by
the erosion effected by waters flowing at first in a simple depression in the
soil ■ other valleys seem to have originated in dislocations of the soil opening
clefts into which the waters have afterwards precipitated themselves. But
in valleys of both formations the action of the waters has invariably been
the same, and it has produced the same results. Thrown upon an irregular
surface of soil, they have followed at first the line of the greatest inclina-
tion ; then they have modified this. Whilst this was going on there has
been thus formed the most stable curve of the bed; under the double
influence of the friction of the waters tending to reduction to a minimum,
and the resistance offered by the soil tending to a maximum : this curve,
thus formed, is the thalweg.
Thus are brought together and harmonized a great many facts, the
explanation of all of which are embodied in one formula — vague it may be —
but unique, general, and of universal applicability.
If the valleys be studied in their topographical aspect several laws may
be discovered, covered by this regulated appearance, which seem to be
entirely the result of chance. Amongst these are two beautiful laws evolved
by Brisson, which may be verified here in most of the necks of the moun-
tains. I adduce only one illustration of each. The first is supplied by the
col of the Lauteret, situated between two water-courses, parallel and flowing
in opposite directions — La Romanche and La Giiisanne. The other is supplied
by the col of the Bayard, situated in the district where the Drac and the
Durance, after they have both flowed from east to west, separate, — the one
directing its course towards the north, the other towards the south. A high-
way which passes from the second basin into the first shows distinctly the
thalweg passing by the col from the one into the other.
By this notice of the action of water in flood we are prepared for entering
upon the more special study of torrents.
In the torrent, or what, in accordance with the English application of
that term, may be called the torrent-bed, there are noticeable these three
distinct parts, — the basin drained by the torrent or funnel-shaped hollow
from which the waters are collected, called the hassin de reception ; the
gorge and channel by which the waters arc carried ofl' from this funnel-
shaped basin, called the canal d'ecoidement ; and the deposit of detritus at
the lower extremity of this, called tiic lit de d/jection.
To this last great importance is attached, as by detritus borne down by
torrents many fruitful fields have been buried under a layer of debris under
TORRENTS OP THE niQH ALPS. 21
which they have been lost for ever ; in view of this next in importance is
reckoned the ravages comniittcd by the flood in undermining enclosing
banks, and thus bringing down tiolds and houses to be washed away and
added to the deposit of debris ; and M. Surell, after having traced the evil
to its source, returns to treat of the several parts of the torrent in what
would probably be considered by some of my readers an inverted order, —
treating first of this bed of deposit, next of the channel, next of the basin
drained, and next of the flood creating the torrent. I find it more
convenient for my purpose to reverse somewhat the order in which I bring
forward his view^s, following that which I have adopted in enumerating
these difterent parts of the torrent.
Looking at a bed of deposit, or lit de dejection^ such as is often seen in
the Alps, the question suggests itself, — Whence has come this detritus %
Deep as may be the channel of the torrent, the canal d^ecoulement, this alone
could not have supplied such a mass of material as is generally found con-
stituting a lit de dejection.
A study of the outline and soil of the bassin de 7^iception, or basin drained
by the torrent, with the information previously obtained, supplies the
information desired. This is generally more or less of a funnel-shaped
basin ; the angle of inclination formed by its sides may be acute, very acute,
or it may be obtuse, very obtuse, — but the resemblance to the sides of a
funnel is marked ; the curve may be more or less irregular, and the arc
may be more or less nearly complete, but there it is, more or less distinctly
perceptible. Here we have discovered what may have been both cause and
effect of what we have seen, — an effect of the rapid rush of water, a cause
of the increased fall, and of the increased flow, and increased velocity of
flow, and thus of the increased ravages and increased deposit and devasta-
tion occasioned by the torrent ; and here we have found what may have been
the quarry whence most of the material deposited at the outlet of the gorge
may have been obtained.
It is optional with any one to prosecute the enquiry thus suggested by
himself alone, or to do so with the help of others who have gone over the
ground before him. It is a matter to w^hich SureU has given careful considera-
tion. He has given as the result of his observations and thoughts that in
order to the formation of these deposits there must have been in operation
a great erosive force, acting on ground susceptible of erosion ; and seeing
these meet in the flow of the torrent of water, and in the character of the
soil over which it flows, he attributes all the phenomena to the meeting of
a copious rainfall and a friable soil, so situated that a rapid flow of the
water and a consequent erosion of soil must follow ; and I have cited in
detail his exposition of the whole contour of the region being attributable
to some such aqueous operation.
To follow him in his application to hassins de reception of the law thus
evolved, it may be desirable to bear in mind that he speaks of three distinct
forms of torrents, designated respectively torrents of the first, second, and
third classes. The distinction is based entirely upon the position which
their hassins de reception occupy in the mountains, — the first proceeding from
a col or neck in the mountain range, the second from the mountain brow, the
third from the mountain flank, — this diff'erence of position to a great extent
determining the differences seen in the aspect they present.
In torrents of the first kind, in which everything appears on the largest
22 RiisuM^ OF surell's studt op
scale, the basin embraces vast ridges of mountains, and the outline may
be traced on an ordinary map. Tlie gullet is prolonged towards the lower
part of the channel, forming a valley or rather a narrow gorge deeply
embanked by the flanks of the mountains, and the length of which is often
more than two leagues. It supplies, says Surell, the very best example I
could give of valleys opened up or created by the action of the waters alone.
In this gorge the hills are very abrupt, and minceo par les jyieds, cut away
at the base, and cut up by a great many ravines. They rise frequently
more than 100 metres, or 335 feet, above the bed. At different distances
they are cut into by secondary torrents, which are lost above in the rami-
fications of the contour of the mountains, and they each bring into the
gorge the waters collected from a part of the basin. These mountains
furnish to the torrents a large portion of the matter carried away and
deposited in the bed of dejection, and from their sides come the large blocks
which fall here and there into the bed of the torrent.
He mentions that in the hassins de reception, or basins drained by torrents,
of the first order, there are often seen on the sides of the mountains
enormous blocks of stone, which sometimes fall into the beds of the torrents
and are then carried far by the rush of waters. In some cases there may
be seen standing in a vertical position, ni the middle of a slope, what looks
like an artificial obelisk ; such are almost always capped by some such
large block, which one would almost say had been placed there by the hand
of man. It is to this block, says Surell, that the obelisk owes its formation.
Originally the block lay on the surface of the slope. In this position, when
there came a sudden heavy fall of rain, and the water was rushing away in
little streamlets on the face of the mountains, this stone presented a solid
and indestructible obstacle which divided a current turnmg it off to the
right and to the left. It may easily be conceived that in this manner it
would protect the portion of the slope immediately beneath it, on which it
rested ; this then would remain untouched and undisturbed, while the
ground around it was being dug into and carried away. At last it would
come to pass that the portion of the soil which had thus managed to keep
itself above the level of the parts washed away, forming at first a ridge or
a block of earth with a sharp angle, which became thinner and thinner by
the action of time and atmospheric disintegrating influences, took the
figure of a well-defined obelisk, standing out clearly from the slope.
These obelisks are known by the inhabitants of the country under the
designations demoiselles, or young ladies, and nonnes, or nuns. They may be
seen on the mountains of the torrent of the Graves, of that of Crevoux, of
Rabioux, of Grenoble, of that near BriauQon, etc., etc.
The throat or gullet widens upward at the spot where it joins the funnel,
and this sometimes takes the figure of a col denuded of its covering of
earth, which assumes the form of an amphitheatre before the embouchure
of the gullet. At other times the col forms what is called a pastoral
mountain — a name given to mountains appropriated to the flocks — furrowed
by innumerable currents, which there spread themselves out in the form of
the foot of a goose. The torrents of Rabioux and of Mauriand may be taken
as types of such, and so may the torrent of Bachelard, aV)utting on the col
d'AUos, in the Lower Alps. These vast depressions being situated in the
higher parts of the mountains, the water supply during the greater portion
of the year can only fall in the shape of snow. In this state it is not
dispersed, or is but little dispersed ; it is retained, it accumulates, and if
TORRENTS OP THE HIGH ALPS. 23
the warmth of spring supervene without a gradual preparation there is
poured forth iu the course of a few days the mass of water accumulated
during months. This may be considered one of the principal causes of tho
violence of certain floods.
He cites the torrents which proceed from the Col Izoard towards Arvieux,
to which reference has already been made, as presenting the most complete
and perfect type of the gullet of a bassiu de reception. There, as has loeeu
stated, more than sixty torrents, within less than 3000 metres, or two miles,
precipitate into the depth of the gorge the debris torn from the two flanks
of the mountain.
In the torrents of the second kind the basin, instead of being cut out on
the cols of the mountains, is formed by an indentation of their summits, and
is hollowed out in their revers. It is in this kind of basin that it is easiest
to trace the disposition to assume the funnel shape so characteristic of
these basins, as the eye can take into one glance the entire course of
the torrent, all the points of which are depicted before it. The torrent of
Merdinal, at Saint-Crepin, may be cited as a type.
Lastly, in the third kind the basin is reduced to a kind of large bog,
hollowed out by some ravine, and which in the country often bears the
name of combe, as for instance the Combes of Puy-Saniere, the torrent of
Combe-Barre, the ton-ent of Comboye.
It receives no affluents or feeders, and it collects little more, if any, than
the waters which fall in the same enclosure as the depression. It is always
due out in the flanks of the mountains and below their summit : but it tends
to grow, and it creeps up little by little towards the summit, which it
reaches at last. This process goes on with greater rapidity in grounds
subject to rapid disintegration, and thus is formed in the long run many
of the torrents of the second kind. And one can, in many cases, follow
the progress and the diff'erent phases of the formation of these, from their
nascent condition on to their complete development.
Below the basin of reception, and in continuation of the gullet, is a region
in which there is neither any more downfall of earth nor is there as yet any
deposit. This is designated the canal d'ecoulement. Of the three parts of
the torrent this is the least marked by characteristics, and almost always the
least extended. It is the longer the more gentle are the changes of inclina-
tion in its bed And this is the reason why it is generally pretty lengthened
in torrents of the first kind ; it becomes shorter in those of the second ; and
lastly, in those of the third, it reduces itself almost to a vanishing point.
The canal d'ecoulement is always contained between mountains well defined.
In fact, when there are no mountains the slope does not suffice to prevent
the torrent from spreading itself out; and in doing this it would lose
velocity and it would cease to be.
The canal d'ecoulement is the only part of the course in which the torrents
do little damage. Unhappily it is the least extensive. It is here bridges
should be located.
If we could artificially prolong this channel to its confluence with the
river, maintaining throughout its slope, its section, and its course, we would
stop the ravages. And this is the problem in the embankment of torrents.
The lits de dejections, or beds of deposit, at the mouth of the torrent next
demand attention. The aspect of many of these is suggestive at first sight
24 R^suMifi OF surell's study of
of a vast ruin, and several torrents have obtained their names from a per-
ception of this resemblance. Thus is it with the torrent cle la Ruiiie, at
Lantaret, the torrent de la Ruinasse, at Monestier, and the torrent de
Euiyiance, on the Lower Alps.
The deposit is a heap of pebbles and of blocks of stones, scattered over a
vast extent of ground — an arid region devoid of culture, of vegetation, and
even of vegetable soil — and it suggests to the mind the idea of some great
catastrophe having occurred. In sight of this enormous mass of debris, one
finds it difficult to perceive or admit that it can be the work of the paltry
thread of water — a mere streamlet — which is seen oozing through among
the rocks. Examined more carefully, it is seen that these heaps, which
seem scattered there in so much disorder, are disposed in accordance with
mathematical laws.
The general outline of elevation is that of a very much flattened hillock ;
the outline of shape is that of a half-expanded fan extending from the mouth
of the gorge and leaning on the mountain like a buttress. Projecting lines,
which mark on the surface of this cone the lines of greatest declination, are
arranged very regularly, following the gentle slopes, which bend inwards a
little towards the bottom, but maintain withal a perfect continuity, — all
taking their departure from the mouth of the gorge forming the apex of the
cone. Further on they diverge somewhat further horizontally, with an
outline so distinct that if made with a ruler it could scarcely have been
more so, and thus is completed the resemblance first suggested — that of an
expanded fan, the joint of which is represented by the mouth of the gorge,
and the scales of the fan by these rays, somewhat raised towards the middle,
as is the back of an ass, and presenting an appearance such as may be
supposed to have been produced by the natural slope of a semi-fluid or
viscous body flowing out of the mountain and escaping by the gorge.
The whole aspect of the mound is so peculiar that it reveals from a great
distance the existence of a torrent before any other indication has been seen
to awaken a suspicion that such may be there. It stretches often more
than three-quarters of a league in breadth, and its height above the level of
the valley may exceed 70 metres, or 230 feet. Nothing can better prove
the force of these torrents in action than those immense deposits formed
entirely of what has been ejected by them.
When one looks, says M. Surell, at the slope presented by these beds of
deposits at the water level, following with the eye the central ridge of the
cone-shaped group of these, he may perceive them to manifest the following
three laws, which may be seen regulating the deposit beds of all torrents
reproducing the same or similar effects everywhere with the greatest con-
stancy : — (1) The longitudinal profile forms a continuous curve convex
towards the centre of the earth, — that is to say, to express the fact in other
terms, that the slope becomes less, diminishing in proportion as it goes
down towards the river -, (2) The changes in the declivity of the fall are
more rapid towards the top than towards the bottom ; (3) The declivity of
the fall, or slope, varies with the nature of the deposits. It is never under
2 centimcitres per m6trc, nor above 8 centini6tres — 2 and 8 in tlic 100 ;
and it is constant for all the torrents of the same locality, and which have
their origin in the same mountain range.
It is then shown by the author that that curve is the natural result of the
action of the Hood ; and ho proceeds to discuss the causes and the con-
Bequcnces of the formation of these beds of debris deposited by them.
TORRENTS OF THE HIGH ALPS. 25
Two distinct causes concur in the forniiition of these deposits. First, tho
torrents proceediuLi; from a confined cliainiel in the mountain come into a
valley, in which, being all at once deprived of the side support of sustaining
banks, they diftuse themselves, losing velocity and depth. And then the
passing from the steep declivity of the mountain to the gentle declivity of the
plain proves a second and an additional cause of loss of velocity and of
depth. The two causes are distinct and altogether independent of each
other, and importance is attached to this circumstance. The tendency is
to form a continuous curve from the canal (Vecoidemcnt, corresponding to
the angle of stability. Where this has been done the first cause alone will
make additions to the bed. Where this limit of slope has not been created
deposits will be continued in virtue of the operation of the second cause.
From which it follows that some torrents may be confined by artificial
structures, but not others ; and that in the former case, other things being
equal, the efl'ects will be probable in proportion as the diminished slope may
be continuous with that from the gorge, as this continuity is a presump-
tive proof that the curve of the bed has been definitely taken to such an
extent that the dejected matters have reached the limit of their slope,
which is to them in the circumstances the angle of stability.
Detailed information is given in regard to the efi'ect of the current in
giving to the bed of dejection its peculiar form, with such variations as have
been noted, and in regard to the efi'ect of this upon the current.
There are next described the materials brought down by torrents — clay,
gravel, shingle, and blocks of stone. The laws regulating the deposit of
these are noticed ; and the injui'ies which are thus done are detailed.
Every thing connected with the phenomena of the hassiii de reception, the
canal d'icoulenient, and the lit de ddjection, having been discussed, attention
is given to the phenomena of the flood of water by which the damage and
devastation are occasioned. This he traces to two sources — first, the melting
of snow towards the beginning of June, and second, storms of rain occumng
towards the end of summer. Those occasioned by the latter are by far the
most awful, and by far the most injurious
In general, says he, the rain of such a storm gives rise to a much more
terrible swelling of the torrents than does the melting of the snow. Rains
are rare in these mountains ; but when they do fall they fall in tremendous
showers, like waterspouts. Their action is instantaneous and cannot be
foreseen. The snows never melt so suddenly and quickly as come the
deluges of rain, and they produce more prolonged but less sudden swellings
of the torrents. Besides this, they may be foreseen and anticipated, for
they come at known times. The torrent de V Ascension owes its name to
the regularity with which it flows about the time of Ascension day. And
the melting of the snows produces a general swelling of the toiTents and
rivers, which causes all to overflow at the same time. The swellings caused
by storms of rain are local ; one torrent becomes furious, w^hile another quite
near to it remains dry. The time of the melting of the snow is that for the
highest floods in all the water-courses in all the department ; and for all,
without exception, the time for low-water is towards the end of autumn.
The phenomena which accompany the swelling of tori'ents are very varied.
It may be said that each toiTent in its manner of flooding has something
which is peculiar to itself, and which is not found in any of the others.
It must be so, for all the torrents have not the same distributiou of elopes;
26 idsuM^ OP surell'8 study op
and the same thing may be observed in all rivers, each of which has a
character of its own.
Sometimes the swelling occurs gradually ; the waters rise ; clear at first,
they become more and more turbid, and then throwing their strength into
their velocity, rolling along stones which strike each other with a dull
sound, they end at last by overflowing their banks, and then begin the
ravages and additions to the deposit in the bed de cUjection.
At other times they come suddenly, and all at once is seen instead of
water the black lava-like flow of stones, the slow progression of which has
nothing like to the flow of liquid.
At other times, again, we find the torrent falls like thunder. It is
announced by a rumbling roar in the interior of the mountain range, and
at the same time a furious wind escapes from the gorge. These are the
precursory signs. In a few instants the torrent appears in the form of an
avalanche of water, rolling before it a heaped-up uiass of blocks of stones.
This enormous mass forms a moving barrier, and such is the violence of the
impulse that the stones may be seen leaping before the waters become
visible. Tiie hurricane which precedes the torrent is accompanied by eff'ects
still more surprising It makes stones fly in the midst of a whirlpool of
dust ; and there have been seen sometimes on the surface of a dry bed
blocks moving as if propelled by some supernatural force.
All these statements, incredible as they may appear, are attested by
a host of cases. I quote some of these, but I shall afterwards have occasion
again to call attention to the subject.
"In 1837 several carriers, and at the same time a Conductuer des Fonts
et ChausseeSj were stopped during a storm at the place where the torrent
La Couche crosses the highway. No. 94. The torrent was then dry. All
at once a whirlpool of dust descended along the river-bed, and before their
eyes some lumps of stone cleared the road at a bound.
" In 1821 the roadway of the bridge at Boscodon was swept away by a
blast of wind coming with fury from the gorge of the torrent. Immediately
the waters arrived, tearing along between the abutments of the dismantled
bridge. This event occurred within ten minutes after the Prefect of the
Department had passed, and under the eyes of a great number of country
people engaged in harvest work in the field above. The Prefect, question-
ing the fact, caused several of these people to appear before him, when he
questioned them, and held a kind of formal inquiry, which established all
the details which have been reported.
"At Guillestre, in 1836, there was a frightful overflow of the stream
Rif-Bel, which flows through the middle of the market-town. Several
persons were standing near a bridge, listening to the noise made in the
mountain, when an enormous stone was, without apparent cause,- thrown to
their feet, more than 4 metres, 13 feet, above the bed of the stream.
" The torrent of the Moulettes, which threatens the market-town of
Chorges, overflows every year, and it gives every time an opportunity of
verifying facts of the kind stated. In July 1838, a little rain having fallen
on the summits of the mountain, this drew some of the inhabitants on to
the embankment to see the torrent. Soon the blast of wind — the avant-
courier of what was coming — made the stones roll with such violence that
all these people, drawn thither by curiosity, drew back in haste. In a
moment the embankment which they had just quitted fell down as it were,
ao to speak, under their heels. It was a massive wall built of stone and
TORRENTS OF THE HIGH ALPS. 27
lime, 2 mkrcs or nearly 7 feet thiek, nnd 5 mttres or 17 feet in height. The
breach, extending 25 meti-es or cSo feet in length, fell with a crash which was
heard more than 3000 metres or 2 miles off. It raised a cloud of dust
through which was seen the lava-like stream making straight for the town."
Another ease, which shows how sudden these irruptions are, was this : —
" In 1837 the village des Grottes was encroached upon by a small torrent of
the third kind, which no one had ever feared. In an instant the cellars
and the tortuous streets of the village were inundated with mud and blocks
of stone. A great many cattle were smothered. With ditticulty many
people escaped with life, and a child perished in a stable."
The following additional facts, relative to the avalanche form taken by
the torrents, are given : — " At the bridge over the little torrent-stream of
Chaumateron, in June 1838, the road-labourer heard the precursory sound.
Aware of the danger he moved away. He had gone but a step or two when
he saw^ coming the torrent tumblmg over itself. It threw itself in one
mass over the bridge and broke it. The elevation of the roadway of the
bridge above the radier plate w^as 5 metres or 17 feet.
" The village of Saint-ChafFrey is traversed by a small torrent. The
bassiii de reception is hollowed out of a bed of gypsum. It flows over a steep
declivity at the foot of solid banks, but not very high. At every rise or
swelling of the torrent it comes tumbling over itself like a ball, 8 metres
or 25 feet in height, and a portion of the hemisphere appears above the
banks. It is formed of liquid thickened with gypsum, and brings in its
train a great current of water, which tears along with violence, but following
ordinary laws. With these examples (says he) I stop. They might be
multiplied indefinitely, for they are renewed every year."
My purpose in citing these details is, first, to make my readers acquainted
with the facts stated ; next, to give confidence in the man who could bravely
grapple with the question, — How shall such torrents be bridled and tamed 1
and beyond this, to give confidence in the application, to what may be con-
sidered as the torrents of a mill-lead in comparison with these, of measures
deemed, and proved by recorded results, to be sufficient to prevent so
much as the formation of torrents so irresistible in their might as these. To
this I have referred in the introduction, and I refer to it again. My fear,
as stated then, is that to many the statements will appear incredible, and
that thus the end and object I have in view will fail to be accomplished.
Statements of fact, far surpassing what may have come under the experience
or observation of a reader, may arouse suspicion in regard to much besides
what may be stated in connection with what thus startles, and may call forth
resistance to the truth advanced. The rise of such incredulity may perhaps
be prevented, if I shew^ that these statements are in accordance with what
has been stated by others of what has come under their observation else-
where. To those w^ho are conversant with the literature of the subject there
is nothing startling in such statements. Theories may be questioned, but
the facts are accepted.
I shall afterwards have occasion to cite at some length the statements
made by M. de Mardigny in a Memoire sur les Inovdations des Rivieres de
VArdeche ; here I cite only one. Of the tributaries of the Ardeche he tells
that they often hurl into the bed of that river "enormous blocks of rock, which
this river in its turn bears onw-ards and grinds down at high-water, so that
its current rolls only gravel at its confluence with the Rhone."
28 RiSsuME OF surell's study of
The expression " enormous blocks of rock " may seem vague ; I can be
more explicit. Coaz reports that at Renkenberg, on the right bank of the
Vorder Rhein, in the flood of 1868, a block of stone, computed to weigh
nearly 9000 cwt., was carried bodily forwards — not rolled — by a torrent a
distance of three quarters of a mile. Coaz, Die Hochwasser im 1868, p. 54,
cited by Marsh, by whom also is cited the following statement from Die
Oesterreicliischen Alpenldnder und ihre Forste, by Joseph Wessley, a work
published in Vienna in 1853 : — " The terrific roar, the thunder of the raging
torrents, proceeds principally from the stones which are rolled along in the
bed of the stream. This movement is attended with such powerful attri-
tion that, in the Southern Alps, the atmosphere of valleys where the lime-
stone contains bitumen has, at the time of floods, the marked bituminous
smell produced by rubbing pieces of such limestone together."
Occasionally it happens that after a temporaiy suspension of the flow, the
torrent of water, and mud, and stones, burst forth afresh. These explosive
gushes of mud and rock appear to be occasioned by the caving-in of large
masses of earth from the banks of the torrents, which dam up the stream,
and check its flow until it has acquired volume enough to burst the barrier,
and carry all before it. In 1827, such a sudden irruption of a torrent, after
the current had appeared to have ceased, swept off forty-two houses, and
drowned twenty-eight persons in the village of Goncelin, near Grenoble, and
buried with rubbish a great part of the remainder of the village.
From these statements it will be seen that similar phenomena have
occurred elsewhere ; and we may thus be prepared to follow Surell in hia
study of the phenomena reported by him.
" There are," says he, " in these irruptions an action like to that of the
avalanches. The inhabitants of the district designate them by this term ;
it is not a mere figure of speech ; there is in reality an identity of cause, as
there is a similitude in the effects. When a great mass of water suddenly
pours into the gullet of a hassin de reception^ resting on a very steep slope,
and confined in a deep gorge, this mass no longer flows in accordance with
the peaceful rules of hydrostatics. It rises behind to a great height, rolls
over on itself, and thus descends the gorge with tremendous rapidity — far
beyond that of the regular current of water which is flowing before it
towards the bottom. It must then overtake in succession all the points of
that current ; it absorbs all its waters, which it hurries along with itself,
and which it assimilates to its own mass. In this course its volume swells
in proportion to the distance traversed, and when it debouches in the valley
it arrives charged with the whole mass of water which was contained in the
bed of the torrent from its birth to its exit from the gorge. It is in reality
the whole mass of the torrent heaped up and concentrated simultaneously in
a single wave. This phenomenon is identically that of the avalanche, with
only this difference, that the water, fluid in the first case, is in the state of
snow in the second. By this explanation may be understood the short
duration of certain floods, — for instance, an hour after the catastrophe at the
bridge of Chaumateron, mentioned above, the bed was dry as it was before.
" Another fact, not less singular, is that of the hurricane which precedes
the torrent. Let us try also to explain this. All the examples of a hurri-
cane which I have been able to collect relate to those floods following
storms of rain during the close heats of summer. Let us suppose that in
one of those sultry days, so common at this season in this part of the Alps,
a thunder-shower, storm of rain, or water-spout falls on the bassin de reception ;
TORRENTS OF THE HIGH ALPS. 29
there is immediately poured a great mass of cold air over the whole extent of
this region. This, specifically heavier than the rest of the atmosphere, can
neither rise nor spread out, because it is imprisoned in a kind of funnel, which
constitutes always the form of the basin. It escapes then by the gorge,
following the line of greatest declivity, as every fluid must, and is precipitated
to the bottom of the medium of lesser density. The phenomena of this efflux
becomes in every respect similar to that of water.
" But there are causes which must prodigiously accelerate the velocity.
The column of water carries with it a great volume of air incorporated with
it, which it pours with violence into the gullet. At the same time it does
not cease to press with all its weight on the volume of air, which has been
engulfed in the gorge as in a closed channel. There is there, then, a double
action, the force of which is extreme ; one may form some idea of it by com-
paring it to that exercised by the tromhes cCeau, which serve as blast-engines
to the works established in the mountains. It is necessary to imagine the air
escaping by the gorge of the mountains as by the nozzle of the bellows of a
gigantic forge, and then there will be no wonder that it produces the effects
I have described, which are all the consequences of excessive rapidity."
This may require some explanation or illustration.
Marsh, citing Wanderungen durch Silicien und die Levant, by G. Parthey,
a work published in Berlin in 1834, gives the following singular instance of
unforeseen mischief, following from an interference with natural aiTange-
ments, which may be considered a natural illustration of the application of
force referred to by Surell in his allusion to the application to blast-
furnaces of what is called a tromhe d^eau : — " A land-owner at Malta
possessed a rocky plateau sloping gradually towards the sea, and terminating
in a precipice forty or fifty feet high, through natural openings in which the
sea water flowed into a large cave under the rock. The proprietor attempted to
establish salt-works on the surface, and cut shallow pools in the rock for the
evaporation of the water. In order to fill the salt-pans more readily he sank
a well doT\ii to the ocean beneath, through which he drew up water by a
windlass and buckets. The speculation proved a failure, because the water
filtered through the porous bottoms of the pans leaving little salt behind.
But this was a small evil compared with other destructive consequences
which followed. When the sea was driven into the cave by violent west or
north-west winds it shot 2ijet d^ecm through the well to the height of sixty
feet, the spray of which was scattered far and wide over the neighbouring
gardens, and blasted the crops. The well was now closed with stones, but
the next winter's storm hurled them out again, and spread the salt spray
over the grounds in the vicinity as before. Repeated attempts were made
to stop the orifice, but at the time of Parthey's visit the sea had thrice
burst through, and it was feared the evil was without remedy."
Something similar to this is the action referred to by Surell. The
analogy holds only in the compression of air by the pressure of water
following upon it quicker than it can escape, and the force developed by its
elasticity where space is found for its subsequent expansion.
M. Surell enters into several computations to determine the rapidity of
the flow of torrents, from which it appears that while the flow of the most
rapid rivers does not exceed 4 metres, or 13 feet, per second, both calcula-
tions and observations shew the flow of these torrents to be sometimes
about 14'21 m^res per second — nearly 15 metres, or 50 feet, — which is the
30 R^SUM^ OF SURELL's STUDY 0?
velocity of a strong wind. Applying this to a torrent through a canal 8
metres, or 27 feet in breadth, and 2 mHres, nearly 7 feet in depth, he
shews that it gives a flow of 228 '48 cubic metres per second, while the
Garonne gives only a flow, in the ordinary state of the river, of 150 cubic
metres, and the Seine of 130 cubic metres, per second ; and thus is the
brief duration of the flow of a torrent accounted for. The calculation is
founded on a formula given in D'Auhuitison Hydr end — (p. 133), in which,
representing the fall per metre by p, the section of the body of water
by s, the ;3^?^^w^e^re mouille, or circumference of the wheel, by c, the
velocity = 51 square p s -i- c.
It is founded on the observation that in such rapid currents the resistance
to the flow is proportional to the square of the velocity ; and extending the
computations to determine the size of blocks of stones which may be carried
down by such torrents, he shews that such a torrent as is supposed is capable
of moving a stone of the heaviest kind equivalent to a cube of 5-15 metres.
Bat referring to the circumstance that a torrent 2 metres, or 7 feet in
depth, could not act on such a block over the whole of its side, he shews
that this will give only aa equivalent of 2*74 cubic metres ; and then he states
that, in accordance with this, it is not rare to find blocks of 20 cubic metres
near slopes of 6 centimetres per metre ; and that in the last preceding irrup-
tion of the torrent of Chorges the waters left on the bed de dejection
a hundred blocks of 30 cubic metres, and some even which measured
upwards of 60 cubic metres.
Section II. — Natural History of Torrents in the High Alps.
The most striking and characteristic feature of torrents — understanding
by that term what in English would be called the bed of the torrent — is,
according to M. Surell, the deposit known technically as the lit de dejection,
though this can only be considered a product of the flow of water by which
that bed of the torrents is produced, for, if the waters had not carried off
the material deposited, then there could have been no deposit; and by this
are supplied indications of the comparative age or antiquity of many
torrents now extinct.
Often, says M. Surell, are we struck, in passing through the department,
with the appearance of a flattened mound, situated at the opening of a
gorge, presenting a fan-shaped surface with very regular slopes, — it is the
bed de dijection of an ancient torrent.
" Sometimes careful continued observation is requisite to the discernment
of the original form, concealed as this is by massive trees, by cultivated
fields, and often even by houses and towns. But when it is examined with
care, and looked at under ditferent aspects, the outline so characteristic of
beds de dejection comes out at last most clearly, and it becomes impossible
to mistake it. Along this mound flows a little streamlet which proceeds
from the gorge, and peacefully traverses the fields. It is this which has
ormed the ancient torrent, and in the depth of the mountain may be dis-
covered the old basin de recpption, recognisable also by its form.
" These extinct torrents, if such a phrase may be used, are more numerous
than one at first thought would expect. When once the key to be employed
in the search has been obtained, and attention is directed to them, great
numbers are discovered.
TORRENTS OF THE HIGH ALPS. 31
" The site of the market town of Savines may be adduced, amongst others,
as a very remarkable example of this kind of formation. The whole town,
along with a part of its fichls, stands on a bed of ejected deposit, the breadth
of which exceeds 1500 m6tres, upwards of a mile, covering fields once of
great fertility. The nature of this ground is no more doubtful than is its
origin. It has been excavated to its greatest depth in digging foundations
and in sinking several of the w^ells in the town ; and the drains of a highway
lately put in order have disembowelled it in all directions. Below that town
the Durance has cut out a channel and bed on some banks more than
70 feet in height, which forms a sort of natural cutting across the bed.
It surmounts and overlooks the whole place, and towards the w^est, at the
extremity of the town, there flows the stream by which all tlie deposits
have been produced ; this is confined between high banks adorned with
meadows, and flo\\'s deep down in its own earlier alluvial deposits.
" It is thus open to the day on all sides, and may be studied with the
greatest ease. Everywhere it is composed of rolled stones, agglutinated by
a lime-like mud. This pudding-like matter is spread in regular beds
parallel to the cui'vature of the surface. It becomes harder and coarser as
we get further down, and ends in forming a very compact mass. As to the
characteristic form, it maybe distinguished from a distance, especially on the
east side. The town is built on the highest portion, and the fields lie scat-
tered around it. In the background rises the mountain, Le Morgon, in which
the basin of reception is covered or buried now under black forests of firs.
" It may be remarked that the extinction of this torrent, although of
a very old date — dating as it does from a time beyond the memory of man
— must nevertheless have occurred after the first establishment of human
habitations in this mountain range, for hearth-stones and lumps of charcoal
have been disinterred from great depths in the pudding-like mass. These
fragments show that men had been then in the locality while, anterior to
historical times, the torrent in full action was making this bed of deposit •
and the name of the stream seems to indicate that the stream must have
retained its violent character till times less remote from our own." In a
note it is stated it is called Branafet, which seems to be a corruption of
Bramafam, Howling Hunger, a name already mentioned as common to many
torrents; and it seems as if in losing its violence it had lost also the name
which spoke of it.
'* The details mentioned leave no doubt in regard either to the fact or to
the interpretation put upon it ; and they are applicable, not to a single
isolated case, but to an order of things which is quite general, the examples
of which are widespread, and would each of them furnish materials for
observations precisely similar. Names are given in a note of several, with
references to more. It must therefore be admitted as an established fact,
that the violence of ton-ents is not of interminable duration, but that it
may be arrested — be it by the accomplishment of a definite efifect, or be it
that the torrent has been brought under some influence by which it has
been stifled.
" The torrents which present these features are probably the most ancient.
To render this conjecture more probable, I proceed by a bound to the
opposite end of the scale. We find villages standing in the place where
torrents in full action dehovch from the mountains. Thus is it with Les
Crottes, and with the market-towni of Chorges. It is most probable that
these towns were built where they stand before the torrents by which they
32 RESUM^ OF SURELL's STUDY OP
are now threatened made their appearance ; for, on the one hand, these
towns are very ancient — Chorges, for instance, dates certainly from before
the commencement of the Christian era ; on the other hand, the two torrents
which now severally threaten these towns cannot have acted long with the
energy which they at present manifest. Their slope is abruptly broken at
the issue of the gorge ; their bed of dejection is not yet regularly formed,
and that of Chorges has risen 6 metres, or 20 feet, in the course of the last
fifteen years.
" If this process had been going on at the same rate for only a thousand
years the market-to^vn would have been buried long ago under a mountain
of deposit. That of Crottes, again, is a large ravine, which has only within
the last few years given occasion for disquietude. There are cases yet more
conclusive in regard to the comparatively recent formation of some torrents
which can be adduced. A church in the valley of D6voluy is threatened
by a torrent which flows directly towards the building, and is only kept in
check by an embankment constructed about twenty years ago ; and we
cannot suppose such an edifice, the construction of which seems to have
been attended to with all care, to have been erected in the very mouth of
the torrent ! The style of its ornamentation is that of the beginning of the
thirteenth century. We know well with what precautions Christian archi-
tects have surrounded their edifices, and we infer that this torrent did not
exist when this church was built in the thirteenth century, and if so there
have been torrents formed in historic times. And, without quitting this
same district of the Devoluy, we can cite examples of formations of a still
more recent time. In this district completely organized torrents have been
developed under the eyes of the population of the present day. Several
have not yet even received names, and they commit already fearful ravages.
" In travelling through other localities like observations may be made.
Recent torrents are ploughing out for themselves their courses on all hands.
Everywhere new cases are surging up, which prove the abundance and the
rapidity of these formations ; and one is soon brought to a stand in con-
sternation before this accumulation of facts, which present a bad omen for
the future of the country."
In a note it is added, — " Immediately in front of the esplanade of
Embrun is seen a mountain cut by a number of torrents of the third kind.
They grow, so to speak, under the very eyes of the town. One of them,
called Piolet (2:>etit lit), which was only a little ravine about thirty years
ago, when it received this name, has become a large and perfect torrent.
The mountain, which extends from Orci^res to the valley of Champol^on,
on the right bank of the Drac, is being ravaged by such a number of
torrents that it seems as if it must be swallowed up in a mass by the river.
These torrents are for the most part recent, and the old men of the country
have seen them born, and seen them dcvelope themselves to their present
magnitude."
" Thus docs it appear that torrents may be formed in our own day ; several
are of an age quite recent, and besides these, as if not to leave a single link
in the chain of ages awanting, there arc torrents existing which, judging by
their form, their appearance, and their effects, may be placed as inter-
mediate in age between the extinct toiTcnts, and the torrents still in full
activity. Tiiese are not yet confined within a stsible course in the middle
of the deposits ; but they overflow only a small part of their bed. The rest
is covered with cultivated spots, woods, and houses, and seems to have been
TORRENTS OF THE HIGH ALPS. .S.^
abandoned by the torrent from time immemorial. And toiTents in all
stages of the transition, which begins in the establishment of the extreme
limit of the slope, and ends in complete extinction, are met with. Stability
begins, generally, first to show itself towards the extremities of the bed, and
vegetation establishes itself there, advances, and ends in invading the whole
surface of the deposit." Names of several torrents, illustrating what is
said, are given.
These observed facts are followed up by M. Surell with reflections on the
age of the torrents themselves. Specifying and detailing the peculiar charac-
teristics of three recognised fonns of torrents, and generalizing the whole, he
concludes, — " The action of torrents may thus be divided into three periods,
coiTesponding to three different ages of growth and development and having
each an end to accomplish, and distinct efifects which they severally produce.
** The first period embraces the creation of the curve or general sweep of
the bed of the torrent.
" In the second period the curve or sweep is determined, created, fixed,
but the course or channel is not yet fixed ; and it is changed from time to
time as if by accident, but all in accordance with law.
" Finally, the third period is that of a stable regime. The course or
channel as well as the curve is permanent, or as permanent as manhood is
in comparison with childhood and youth.
*' But many things remain yet to be explained.
" Why do extinct torrents, when they are confined within banks of their
own deposits, plough up the very slopes over which they themselves
immediately before flowed without having strength to scoop out of it a bed
for themselves 1 The reason is a very simple one. In proportion as the
torrent was becoming extinct the waters became more and more limpid.
They took then on the same slopes a greater velocity than that which they
had when they came charged with alluvial matter, and they then could
scoop out where they had previously been depositing.
" By what cause, again, are new torrents produced 1 One cannot at all
see why waters which have respected a district during long ages should
begin to attack such district now, if all things continue as they were. Those
causes which operate to produce a new torrent ought to have formed it from
the first day of the creation of the mountains. How could the district of
itself change its form or nature 1
" It is evident that foreign influences must have interfered, which have
modified the primitive conditions. We are thus brought into contact with
a new order of facts which demand attention."
It is then stated that when we examine grounds, in the midst of which
are torrents of recent origin, we find them always devoid of trees and of
every kind of robust vegetation ; and when, in some other localities, we
look to revers, the sides of which have been recently deforested, we see
them to be cut by a great many ton'ents of the third class, which aparently
could only have been formed within a few years before ; and extended
observations bring under consideration a great many corresponding facts.
" There exist many revers formed by the detritus of the vertical rocks
which generally crown the summits of the mountains. In these mobile soils
vegetation takes root with power, and vigorous forests of larch and firs have
clothed the sides of the mountains. But the axe, little by little, has deci-
mated the trees ; the fellings, made without plan, have opened across the
forest large open spaces running with the slope of the revers, this arrange-
C
34 BBSUMB OP SURELL's STUDY OP
ment being that which renders exploitation most easy. Now, wherever the
woods have been cleared in this manner, at the place of each clearance the
vegetable soil has been carried away by the waters ; a furrow is formed
there, of little depth at first, but which digs away more and more, extends
itself upwards, enlarges itself, and soon constitutes a complete torrent. In
the intermediate stripes, where the trees have been spared, it is seen to be
altogether difi'erent. There — with the same soil, under the same exposure,
under the same slope, and this often very steep, — the ground has been held
firm, and the contour has been respected by the waters. In going over the
forest we often traverse thus a succession of zones, the differences of which
are striking. We may even catch sight of intermediate shades, which fill
up the contrast. We see nascent ravines in parts where the stumps thickly
standing bear testimony to a recent destruction of trees. We see completed
torrents in other parts, where the indications of the ground, and the inform-
ation given by the inhabitants, bear testimony to trees having been destroyed
in times more remote. We are thus well assured that we are not taking
the efifect for the cause, when we affirm that it is the destruction of trees in
the clearance which has formed the ravine, and not the ravine which has
formed the clearance."
As is the case with the gorges, so does it appear to be the case with the
hassins de recejjtion. There is no question in regard to the fact that the
eff'ect of such a conformation of the basin drained by a torrent, as has
been described, is to bring a large body of water, falling over a great extent
of surface, to concentre in the orifice of the gorge ; but the allegation of
Surell is that the form of the basin is itself the product of the long-continued
violent action of waters, collected first in a recess of the mountains, and
flowing over a soil of little compactness and cohesion ; and he accounts for
the absence elsewhere of certain characteristics of the torrents of the High
Alps by stating that, where the ground presents more resistance, and where
the climate is less rigorous, there may be formed only brooklets and moun-
tain streams. Similar torrents are not met with in the Vosges, in the
C^vennes, or in the Auvergne. In the Loz^re there are vallats which are
not without characteristic features of torrents of the third class, such as are
of frequent occurrence between Briangon and the Monestier, and along the
Guissanne ; but these, through their weakness, scarcely resemble true tor-
rents, though, compared with vallats, they are torrents of great energy.
The torrents of the Pyrenees, generally called Gaves in the district, are
very rapid water-courses in deep cuttings, often losing themselves in sub-
terraneous canals, but they should be classed with mountain streams or
torrential rivers. And no torrents are met with in the mountains of La
Corse, or in those of the Jura. But torrents similar to those of the High
Alps are found in a portion of the mountains of the department of the Is6re,
of the Dr6me, and of the Lower Alps, which belong to the same formation.
A chapter is devoted to the consideration of climatal or atmospheric
influence, and another to the eff'ects attributable to the character of the
geological formations of the locality.
In regard to climate, he shows that the elevation of the High Alps brings
them into the region of snow. When this accumulates all winter over an
extensive area, and under the powerful rays of spring melts in great quanti-
ties all at once, the process being often accelerated by the arrival of warm
TORRENTS OF THE HIGH ALPS. 35
southerly winds, so much so that somotimes in two days* time the breaking
up is finished and the whole of the snow has disappeared, this is one
powerful cause of disintegration more energetic there than elsewhere ; but
it is trifling compared with others, — in illustration of which he refers to the
clear blue sky of the High Alps, a district in which fogs, and mists, and
long-continued drizzling rains are unknown, though those are throughout a
great extent of France the normal characteristics of the atmosphere during
six months of the year. " Nothing," says he, " can equal the purity of the
air, the unchanging serenity of the heavens, there. But this dryness of the
air and this cloudless sky are dearly purchased, for the rains, if less frequent,
are the more tremendous."
M. Dugied, author of a Memoir e entitled Projet de hoisement des Basses
Alpes, to which I shall afterwards have occasion to refer more in detail,
says, in writing of this, — " It is thus that it comes to pass that the Alps
are sometimes months, sometimes years, without rain. Then all at once
the clouds gather as if from all points of the horizon, pile themselves up as
if pressed by opposing winds, and empty themselves in torrents which sweep
away everything in their course."
M. Surell says, — " It is an admited fact that the quantity of water which
falls annually in a mountainous country — other things being equal — is
greater than in the country of the plains. It is also an admitted fact that
the quantity is augmented as we approach the tropics. It follows that
there ought to fall here a quantity of rain equal at least to what falls in the
same time in Paris. But while the fall in Paris is distributed over a period
of six months, here the whole quantity is used up in some few rain-storms."
This makes all the difference ; and thus, to some extent, is the soil made
more mobile than it is elsewhere, and of this the following illustration is
given : —
" There is a transition point very remarkable where the climate changes
all at once from that of Provence to that of the north ; it is the col du
Lateral. In proportion as we rise towards this neck, in ascending the
valley of the Durance, and then that of the Guisanne, its affluent, we see
the serenity of the heaven disturbed, and rainy days become more and more
frequent. When the neck is passed, and we penetrate into the gorge of
Mallaval, dug out by the Romanche, in following this water-course into the
country called the Oysan, which is a portion of the department of Is^re,
there the change of climate is complete. The rains are extremely frequent,
and instead of falling in what seem like thunder-plumps they are prolonged,
and fall continuously as drizzling rain. The air is almost constantly moist,
and loaded with clouds. One sees the mists creeping over the sides of the
mountains, to catch upon the projecting rocks, and often to envelope the
valley completely. In a word, we have entered the climate of the north,
the same as prevails at Grenoble, and which differs in a striking manner
from that of Embrun, where fogs are a phenomenon almost unknown.
" From this difference in the climate follow corresponding differences in the
action of torrents. The mountains which enclose the valley of the Romanche
present in many parts the same kind of ground as do those of the basin
of Embrun; it is a flaky, black, calcareous earth, remarkable for its excessive
friability. But this same soil, which in the Embrunais is furrowed by a
multitude of formidable torrents, shows in the Oysans only a few torrents,
almost effaced, without energy, and in no repect to be compared with those.
In the latter country the mountains are seen clothed on the steepest slopes
36 R^ISUME OF SURELL's STUDY OF
and covered with vegetation over all their height ; and although they may
be stripped of trees, they are scarcely furrowed by a few thread-like streams.
In the Embininais, on the contraiy, where the forests have disappeared from
the sides of the mountain, these never fail to become the prey of the torrents.
" Such is the hygrometric action of the climate. There, where the soil is
constantly bathed in a humid atmosphere, the summits carpet themselves
with verdure, and the torrents have no more aliment. Here, where the
air is always dry, vegetation proceeds with more difficulty, and the storms
of rain sweep from the surface the soil to the extent to which vegetation has
fixed it there.
" Thus the moisture of the climate impedes the action of torrents in two
ways equally efifective ; first, it makes the rain storms more rare and less
violent ; secondly, it renders the soil more fixed by covering it with more
vigorous vegetation ; it diminishes thus as by one stroke two causes of erosion.
" If there still remain any doubt as to the active part played by the
climate in the production of torrents, I would cite a general observation
which has been made for a long time in these mountains : — When one
traverses the valleys running east and west, or the reverse, he sees that the
slopes on the north side are generally wooded, or carpeted with vegetation,
whilst those which look towards the south are denuded and arid. He sees,
at the same time, that the former are much less cut up with torrents than
the latter ; and the contrast is often such that he sees the one slope horribly
disfigured by toiTents over against another on which there exists not one,
as, for instance, in the valley of Orcieres, in the Vallonise.
" Now it is evident that such a difference in the whole character of two
slopes, which are almost always formed of the same banks of earth, cannot
be explained but by the influence of the exposure. And how does the
exposure act but by moderating in the slopes directed to the north the effects
of the noon-tide sun 1 They protect for a longer time the snow, retain
more humidity, are protected from the scorching winds of the south, enjoy
all the advantages of shade and coolness, &c. All these effects combine
and actually submit these slopes to climatal influences different from those
which act on the opposite slopes, although they may both be situated under
the same atmosphere."
Enumerating the geological formations of the High Alps, he shows that
the most abundant are comparatively recent formations, many of them so
friable that they crumble through exposure to the sun's rays, without the
super-added action of either frost or moisture ; that limestones presenting
all the appearance of great hardness, and selected on this account for
enrochements, were found to be reduced to earth in two years ; that others
were not only liable to be disintegrated, but, efflorescing with what seem
crystals of alum, lose at once their coherence and their chemical constitu-
tion. And the torrents are found to abound in the mountain chains of
unstable mineral composition ; they are more rare and less formidable in
mountains of more compact constituents ; and in mountains of primitive
rock they are altogether absent.
Nowhere are torrents more furious or mcTe numerous than in the valley
of Embrun, extending over the whole land from Gap and Tallard to the
village of St Crepin. Throughout the whole of this basin the base of the
mountain is of a slaty limestone, manifesting in a high degree the
character given above. It is in this formation that innumerable ravines
TORRENTS OP THE HIGH ALPS. 37
cut into the diy and bluish-tinted hills, which give to the mouutaiuH of
Embrun their peculiar aspect. These hills are crumbled to such an extent
that in trying to climb them one sinks often to the knees in the detritus.
And this valley is situated in what may be called the point of intersection
of the atmospheric and geological causes of the formation of torrents. To
the north we travel over similar formations, but under a different atmo-
sphere ; to the south we travel under a similar atmosphere but come upon
soil of a different character, — and in both directions the number of the
torrents is diminished, as are also their effects. Other illustrations of the
same fact are given.
Studying thus the natural history of torrents, he attributes their appear-
ance to the simultaneous operation of several causes in combination. There
appears to be (1) a geological cause — the nature of the soil ; (2) a topo-
graphical cause — the superficial aspect assumed by the country ; and (3) a
meteorological cause — the rainfall in the locality. And the question next
raised is — Is the second of these seen in the existence and form of the hassin
de reception, or basin drained by the torrent, to be considered a primary, or
only a secondary cause of the ton-ent ?
Surell maintains it is a secondary cause — itself a consequence, effect, or
product of that to which it ministers. Were it otherwise, he says, in order
to this being the caee, it would be necessary that the cause which created
these mountains should have moulded and shaped at one stroke these basins,
according to the characteristic figure which they present to-day ; it would be
necessary that this form, . shape, and outline should have preceded all the
action of the waters collected from them ; that these, from the first, should
have found all the ground so moulded and prepared for them ; and that
they should have produced, from the first day, all the phenomena which
they continue till to-day to present before us.
But it is impossible, says he, to admit such a supposition. The hassins
de reception are evidently the result of the violent and long-continued action
of the water collected at first in a simple recess of the ground, and flowing
over a soil deprived of coherence and consistency.
What proves this decidedly is the presence of the larger lits de dejection^
which have been formed entirely and exclusively at the expense of the
lower-lying lands, whence the torrents issue. Every day, moreover, we see
the hassins de reception increasing in magnitude. These effects follow on
with such rapidity that a limited number of years should have sufficed to
have produced enormous modifications in the original outline of the land.
We have then only to cany back, so to speak, into olden times the action
going on to-day under our eyes, supposing that present phenomena are the
continuation of an action begun some centuries ago, and the digging out of
the basin finds a ready explanation. And he refers to the facts already
cited, that there are torrents of quite recent formation ; that new ones are
being formed constantly ; and that these then aid in the formation of basins
in the midst of grounds in which there was nothing of the kind previously
existing.
He goes on to say, — " I know well that I may seem to have exaggerated
this action when there is considered the vast extent presented by the basins
of certain torrents, and the profound depths of their declivities forming
veritable valleys. But there should be taken into account, on the other
hand, and at the same time, the enormous cubical contents of the deposits
produced by them, which can have been obtained only from the erosion of
38 r£sum6 of surell's study of
such basins ; and at the same time it should be recollected that the cubical
measurement of these is still far from representing all the mass of material
which the torrent has drawn away from the mountain, since a portion of
this has been swept into the river, which has widely dispersed it far away.
By an effort of thought let us transport the mountain formed by ^this
deposit to the upper part of the torrent ; let us throw this into the hollow
constituting the basin ; let us add to this all that has been carried away by
the river, and we shall not be far from having filled up those deep excava-
tions which we hesitated just now to attribute to the digging away of the
waters. And we may come in this way to comprehend that there is no ex-
aggeration in alleging that the whole valley of the torrent, from its birth to
its junction with the thalweg^ is the work of the waters alone."
Of the correctness of this view there are numerous corroborative indica-
tions or proofs referred to ; and as the result of the whole of these observa-
tions the natural history of many of the torrents in the High Alps appears
to have been this : a deluge of rain such as is brought by the foehn, falling
on an exposed bare spot of greater or lesser extent on the col, or the summit,
or the flank of a mountain, has washed away soil and formed thus a hollow
basin with an outlet on its lower-edge, the water flowing off by this has
made a little runnel carrying away, along with the earth washed out of the
hollow, earth which impeded its progress ; and as more and more fell into
the runnel, through the undermining of its tiny banks, carrying this off also
and depositing the detritus, whenever a reduced inclination of the ground
reduced the velocity of the flow, and forming thus and there a tiny bed of
deposit. But the operation — the process thus begun — goes on widening
deepening, extending the basin drained, and the gorge or channel, and
adding to the deposit, increasing both its depth and extent, till they have
each of them attained the fearful aspect they now present.
But there have been similar torrents in the same region in former times
— which are now as innocuous as the extinct volcano — they too, to borrow
the term, have become extinct ; and the brushwood and trees growing on
the bed of deposit tell by their age that these torrents have been extinct
long. And while the lits de dejection are now covered with vegetation, and
in some cases with fields, and houses, and towns, the basin and the gorge
have also been covered with forests. May not this have been the cause of
the extinction ? The more closely and the more extensively the subject is
studied the more manifest does it appear that it must be so. Thus may it
have been in the olden time. In more modern times the destruction of
trees has preceded the formation of torrents ; and the spread of the forests
seems to have preceded the extinction of those of an older creation. This
is in accordance with everything that is known in regard to the action of
trees in promoting the infiltration, retention, and percolation of water
through the soil, and subsoil, on which they grow.
With the light thus obtained, we are enabled to trace back the natural
history of the existing torrents to the destruction of herbage and trees
formerly growing on the bare and exposed spots, from which these torrents
have originated, — a destruction of which in some cases historical records
direct us to the time in which it occurred ; while in other cases it has
occurred within the memory of the present inhabitants of the district.
The student of physical phenomena may meet occasionally with what
TORRENTS OP THE HIGH ALPS. 89
soems paradoxical fixcts, which do not appear to bo in accordance with the
law he thinks he has discovered. A modification of that law may, in some
instances, bo necessary to enable him to embrace by it all the facts of the
case; but there may be other instances in which a more comprehensive view
of the matter may show tliat tlic apparently paradoxical fact, so far from
vitiating, establishes the law. Thus is it here. It is mentioned by M.
Surell that there may be named a good many rivers which were navigable
formerly, but are no longer so on account of the condition of their lower
stream ; this may seem to be inconsistent with the general law which has
just been propounded, but the study of the phenomena presented by some
torrents supplies a solution of the paradox.
To cite a case in point, the j-eve7-s on the left bank of the Durance, from
Savines to the river Ubage, is formed, it has been stated, by a succession of
beds of dejection belonging to ancient torrents, which became extinct after
a time. The whole district was covesed with forests, but these have been
cleared away in a great measure, and the torrents resumed their ravages.
Many rivers have attained to the state of stability, in the same way that
many torrents have done so — by the spread of vegetation over the whole
area of the grounds, through the midst of which their waters flow. If this
vegetation were destroyed by any means, the soil being again left free, the
stability would be interrupted, and devagation would be recommenced by the
rivers, with effects similar to those connected with the devastations of the
torrents. So that the undesirable change which has taken place in the per-
manent flow of some rivers may be attributed to the denudation of their basin.
This explanation, he says, has been frequently given, but without power
to adduce direct proof of its correctness. But now the rekindling of extinct
torrents by deforesting operations supplies the desiderated demonstration of
an analogous fact. It may be considered, in some sorts, a special experi-
ment on a small scale under exaggerated conditions, to render the eftects
more striking and more quickly produced. And thus may we obtain, from
what has been termed the study of these toiTents, information which may
be turned to practical account in dealing with torrential floods in other
lands, and in other circumstances.
The peculiar characteristics of the toiTents of the High Alps, consequent
on the combination of atmospherical influences on the mineral composition
of the mountains, seems at first to place them apart from all other analogous
water-courses. But the study of these has revealed the homology which
subsists and seems to run through the whole of these, making it appear
that in the torrents of the High Alps we have only one excessive develop-
ment of what is common to all, — which, having arrested the attention of
Surell, has enabled him by this excessive development to study it without
difiiculty in all its details, and to sho'v in them what may be seen in a
degree less manifest, and it may be less developed, but not the less really
existent, in all mountain streams, and to show that rivers also are only
homologues of these.
Comparing rivers with torrents, he finds and shows that the law of
development of both is the same, marked by the same three stages, posses-
sing the same characterestics, attained in the same way, the most stable in
their course, having attained this stability after and by means of similar
devagations, or changes of channel. And he goes on to say, — " When we
consider the wide-stretching valleys in which flow the Rhine, the Nile, we
Mississippi, and the greater part of the large rivers which diversify the
40 RESUME OF SURELL'b KTUDY OF
surface of the globe ; when we observe that the bottom of these valleys is
flat, levelled by the waters, and entirely formed by their alluvial deposits ;
when, going back to the most ancient historic times, we see in Egypt, in
China, in India, &c., the first societies of men, descending little by little from
the heights, occupied in struggling against the inconstancy and the
tremendous overflowings of these rivers,- — may we not belie vs that all these
courses have had, during a long course of centuries, changes in their
channels such as those which the Durance exhibits now 1 But, gradually,
the field of these devagations has been confined, as is seen so distinctly in
the case of torrents, and like these they have ended in being confined within
their present banks. The Durance, on the contrary, is still existing in its
second stage — that of instability — which has succeeded to the first, charac-
terized by a succession of lakes, and to which in course of time a period of
stability will gradually succeed."
And inferring that the most stable rivers of to-day have passed through
an epoch of change, of course corresponding to the second period of torrents,
he goes on to say, — " In the study of these same rivers there have been
collected a multitude of observations which show that they have had in a
former age to open their thalweg, and to create their slopes the same as we
have said has been done by the Durance, and the same as we see being
done under our eyes by the torrents in the interior of the continents ; they
furrowed coutinents, they filled up basins, and the traces of these phenomena
are still very apparent. In approaching these as they cast there immense
deltas — ever enlarging deltas — on which sites for entire kingdoms have been
found, which deltas constitute true beds of dejection. Thus have these
rivers at a certain epoch of their existence acted as the torrents have done
in the first period of their history."
And he goes on to say, — " Resuming this discussion, I will undertake to
show in the action of torrents a faithful and miniature image of that which
passed or will pass in all rivers in general.
" In all I see three consecutive stages, succeeding each other in the same
order, and dividing their existence into three distinct periods — First, a
period of corrosion and elevation, which prepares the bottom of the thahveg
and puts throughout its course the slopes in equilibrium with the resistance
of the soil and the friction of the waters. It has for its end to determine
the longitudinal profile of the water-course.
" Second, a period of devagation, when the rivers seek that form and those
bendings of the course which correspond to the greatest stability (for the
rectilineal course is not the most stable, since it does not necessarily lead
the current over those points where the bank is most solid and least likely
to be changed). In this the action of the waters is confined to going hither
and thither on the same level without perceptibly carrying away or eleva-
ting the bottom ; it is the liquid mass which displaces itself rather than the
soil. The result of this stage is to fix the laying out of the line of the
course, or, if the expression be preferred, to determine the plan of it.
" Third, in fine, a period of permanence, when the waters may ovei-flow
their banks but ever return again to their place in an unchanging bed.
" The violence of torrents in the first period has been seen. There ought
to be the same in the first period of rivers ; and this analogy may sei-ve to
explain the formation of those alluvial deposits spread out in such a mass
in the greater part of extensive valleys. If it be true that the mountains
have been elevated successively in the midst of convulsions of which nothing
TOllRENTH OF THE HIGH ALPS. 41
can give us an idea, the waters have necessarily found in this chaos the
matter of these enormous alluvial deposits. The rivers were acting at that
time as our torrents do now — that is as these torrents do which have for
their basius of reception entire chains of mountains, and which precipitate
themselves across a soil newly disturbed and susceptible of being washed
away, quite otherwise than that of our Alpine hills. Many hypotheses have
been proposed to explain the origin of the Alpine pudding-like deposits.
Along the Durance banks of these are met with which rise to upwards of
100 metres, or 330 feet, above the actual level of the waters. But the
dejections of extinct toiTents are, relatively to the trifling streamlets which
now furrow^ them, deposits still more surprising, and of an appearance more
inexplicable ; we are, nevertheless, well assured that they are the work of
these streamlets in the first period of their action. Why then may it not
be the same in regard to the puddings being the work of rivers in a period
in every respect similar 1
" I point out these things in passing, not daring to stop to develope and
to follow out the views they suggest. This would take me too far aw^ay
from my subject. Everyone can understand that a mass of water rolling
over the soil must act in the same way and conform to the same laws,
whether it form a torrent or constitute a great river. Now, as we see formed
before our eyes the bed of torrents, we may infer that the bed ef rivers has
been created in the same manner. And this presumption is accordingly
confirmed by the study of such rivers as show traces of their action in bye-
gone times in the soil of the valley they have formed."
In more than one of the British Colonies, and in other newly settled
lands — using that phrase as applicable to the immigration and settlement
of more highly-civilized nations than the native tribes — and in lands which
have not been so colonized, are rivers in some of the earlier forms of
development referred to. Now, dry channels, or channels threaded by a
tiny stream, and now filled from bank to bank — a mighty rushing flood —
carrying all before it, undermining banks and washing away the debris, the
analogues of the torrents studied by M, Surell, having like them their hassin
de reception — one of immense extent — covering it may be thousands of
square miles, and embracing numerous secondary basins drained by afiluents,
a thunder-shower falling in any one of which may produce a torrential
flood, — having their canal d^ecoulement, their water-course through which the
waters roll their flood along towards the sea, and their lit de dejection, or bed
of deposit, though this it may be is in the ocean-bed near to, or remote from,
the shore, contributing in the former case to augment the bar which bars
the river's mouth. And it may be inferred that the application of like
remedies may produce like effects. What bridles the torrent like a young
lion in its fury may bridle the torrential river subject only occasionally to
fits of rage.
Section III. — Remedial Appliances to prevent the Destructive Consequemes
of Torrents.
The natural history of torrents is suggestive of a most efficient remedy,
but it is only of late years that it has been applied, and for its adoption we
are indebted greatly to the study of these torrents by Surell, though he was
42 r6sum^ of surell's study of
not the first to advocate its application, Until the natural history of these
torrents was studied and made known special applications were in use, but
a remedial cure seems not to have been attempted. What was tried was to
prevent inundations, and the washing away of lands, and the deposit of
detritus on fertile land. What is now being done is to extirpate the
occasion of these.
In the low-lying plains, at some distance from the mountains, it was the
destructive effects of inundations which commanded attention ; in the Alps
it was the ravages of torrents on the land which did this.
" The torrent which dashes a great body of water over very steep slopes
(says Surell) undermines and eats away with fury the base of the banks.
These fall in, and little by little pull down towards the bed the adjoining
property, which is finally engulfed by the waters. As the banks are
generally very deep their fall brings in its train effects the results of which
extend far from the spot. All the surrounding land is disturbed. Some
portions undermined subside, others slip, others break away, leaving deep
crevices. Along the two banks of the torrent may be seen large chinks or
rents running parallel to the bed. These subsidences, these rents, and this
disturbance spread from place to place, repeat themselves to incredible
distances, and end by including the whole sides of the mountain within the
range of the effects. There are many quarters which can be named which
the erosion of torrents have made so unstable that it has become impossible
to build upon them. On the left bank of the torrent Les Moulettes there
may be seen houses belonging to the village of Les Aiidrieux, which have
been rent at a distance of more than 800 metres from the bed. On the
highway. No. 91, opposite Les Ardoisieres, we have an example of a consi-
derable reve7's of a mountain eaten away by the Eomanche and tormented
by continual movements of the soil. The instability of the soil has com-
pelled many families to abandon cottages situated at a great distance from
the river. One could scarcely comprehend that that could be the cause of
movements so remote, if the analogy of facts and other evidences had not
proved it to be so in a manner the most irresistible."
Numerous cases are referred to in a note followed up with the remark, —
" I have thought it right to multiply citations, because the cause of these
movements has been often misapprehended, and notably so in the case last
mentioned. The inhabitants attribute it to some particular character of the
ground. Having under their eyes only the case of their own locality, they
are not aware that it is a phenomenon quite general and common to all
torrents."
He specifies movements of the soil in the mountain of Saint Sauveur,
over against Embrun, brought about by the torrent of Vach6res, and by a
great many other torrents of the third class, similar movements in the
district of Vabries, mined by the torrent Crevoux on the left bank, and in
the district of Villard Saint Andr6, by the same torrent on its right bank ;
it is stated that this ground had become more mobile subsequently to the
formation of a canal for irrigation ; accounts are given of similar movements
attributable to the torrent of Sainte-Marthe, near Calcyk'es, in connection
with which it is stated that there was there a mill apparently on the point
of being engulfed, and of movements attributable to the torrent Merdanel,
above Chadenas ; and it is stated that very violent movements have been
observed in the portions of the Diveset, of Lab^oux, of the Rabioux, of
TORRENTS OF THE HIGH ALP8. 43
Boscodon, of the Ruisscauioux (Lauterat), (fee, &c. And he goes on to say,
" There are whole villages built in hassius de receptions which are threat-
ened to be engulfed in this manner by tlie torrents. Every year the torrent
acquires more of the ground, and the village abandons to it several cottages.
These facts demonstrate the encroaching march of these water-courses.
Little threatening at first, they increase in size, they extend themselves,
and soon they reach the habitations built without mistrust at a great
distance from their banks. There was, before the thirteenth century, on
the borders of the Ralioux, near to Chateaureux, a monastery inhabited by
the Benedictines. At a later period the monks deserted it through fear of
its being engulfed, and now one sees the ruins suspended in the middle of the
river's bank.
" There are threatened with a similar fate the village of Lacluse, by the
Lab^oux (Devoluy) ; that of the Hi^res, by the Mauriand ; that of the
Arvieux, by the Moulettes ; the hamlet of the Marches, and the hamlet of
the Maisonnasses, by the torrent Rousensasse, on the right bank of the
Drac (Champsam)."
Having specified these as villages or hamlets exposed to a fate similar to
that of the Benedictine Monastery, whose history is given, he goes on to say,
— " Most frequently the undermining of the soil is done gradually, and this
action is the more slow and the more regular in proportion to the extent ot
the region. The great mass of ground deadens the movements, and
impresses them with a kind of continuity. But at other times also the soil
detaches itself suddenly, as if through the effects of a blow. It is thus that
in the valleys of the Devoluy, some years ago, a fragment of the mountain
Auroux, covered with cultivated fields, precipitated itself, in one block, into
the gorge of the torrent Lab^oux. The commotion occasioned by this
frightful fall was felt at a considerable distance in the village Lacluse, and
the inhabitants attributed it to an earthquake. The cause was no other
than erosion by the ton-ent; w^hich had sapped the base of the ground.
" This may demand some explanation.
''Many lands are formed of parallel banks, disposed in flat layers and
raised up on great inclinations. Often an interposed bed, more soluble or
less tenacious, is decomposed or disintegrated by infiltration. If it happens
at the same time that the under banks be attacked by the cuiTent at the
foot, an enormous weight of ground finds itself suspended over an abyss ;
the force of adhesion being weakened, it no longer suflfices to keep together
this mass and to attach it to the body of the mountain ; it is then detached
in a mass, and it slides over the surface of the decomposed bed as on an
inclined plain. One may indeed see similar land-slips frequently occurring
in the limestones of the lias formation, which decompose with the greatest
facility, and which often present a schistose stratification ; this kind of
gi'ound extensively prevails here. In other cases the grounds have been
formed of the debris of the upper parts of the mountains ; they compose a
rough mass without stratification, and most frequently without consistency,
covering the stratified nucleus of the mountain, and forming on its surface
beds of great thickness. It rarely happens that a hassin de reception does
not contain within its circuit a large strip of this quite recent formation, for
it is into the scooped out parts that the debris have had to roll and rest.
And one may easily see that the erosions which take place in such grounds,
when they attack the foundation of very high banks, must force the soil to
detach itself in great masses; and the fractures will take the form of
44 R^suM^ OF surell's study of
immense prisms, in accordance with laws similar to those regulating land-
shoots (pousee des terres). So that it is in the abundance of certain kinds of
grounds, and in the composition of the soil itself, that we find the secret of
the principal power of these torrents.
" And this is the evil to be met."
With these destructive effects of the torrents are conjoined the devastat-
ing effects of the deposit of debris covering up fertile soil with barren sand,
and gravel, and stones, — and, in some places, overwhelming not only
cultivated ground, but houses and property not less necessary for the
maintenance of the life of man, his wealth, and his comfort. M. Surell
brings under consideration the several defensive appliances which had been
employed in the bed of the torrent to prevent those destructive effects, and
describes the respective merits of these.
The first of these brought under consideration is a wall built along the
base of banks in danger of being undermined; and the impotency and
inefficiency of such a defence is exposed. The second consists of stone
erections or wears raised across the bed of the torrent, to create an artificial
fall diagonal to the torrent's course, diverting it away from the ground
which it is desired to protect ; such erections, it is stated, operate beneficially,
and do so in two different ways, — they retain the bed of the torrent, and
they diminish the velocity of the torrent for some distance above them.
The first action prevents the sweeping away of the ground, the second
deadens the violence of the current, thus not only preventing erosion, but
destroying the cause of erosion. And details of their structure, of the
extent of some, and of beneficial results which have followed the erection of
them, are given. References are also made to fascinages, structures of
fascines, or bundles of bushes, and to pallissades clayonnees, or stockades of
wicker work, which are successfully employed elsewhere — but not there.
In another chapter are discussed the defences employed in the valleys.
Amongst the mountains, as has been intimated, the evil against which
protection is sought is the erosion, and subsidence, and destruction of the
ground ; in the valleys the evils to be guarded against are those resulting
from the deposit of the debris of the mountain in places where it does harm.
Of the magnitude of these evils illustrations are given ; and the defences
employed are classified under two heads, — epis, blocks or piles, and longitu-
dinal dams. The effects of a single epi, and of a line of these placed
diagonally across a portion of the stream, are described, as are also the
structure and effect of dams, and the structure and effect of a third defence
consisting of a combination of the two. A chapter is then devoted to the
more full discussion of endiguements, the designation given to embank-
ments designed for the defence of one bank of a river, the designation
encaissement, or enclosing banks, being applied to structures designed for the
simultaneous defence or protection of both banks.
In regard to these effects, it is stated that, whenever in the bed of a
water-course a resisting obstacle to the flow of the water presents itself —
be it the projection of a rock, be it the bluff side of a mound or hillock, or
be it an artificial obstruction — two effects manifest themselves. (I) The
current is directed towards the obstacle and maintains this flow ; (2) The
current is thence reflected and directed against the opposite bank. The
hurtful consequence of this reaction is constant, and it is so serious that it
TORRENTS OF THE HIOH ALPS. 45
has called for special legislation ; and to this legislation on the subject a
chapter is devoted. The legislation refeiTed to is embodied in the Decret
die 4 Thennidor an XIII. relatif aux toirenU du department des Hautes
Alpes. It is given in full in an appendix to the work, with much additional
information in regard to the subject ; and in the text is given a succinct
account of the working of the law, with illustrations in justification of the
same. From this it appears that when a new bank of a certain extent is
ravaged by a torrent, the proprietors meet together and constitute a
syndicat, or court, a requisition is addressed to the prefect, he commissions
a civil engineer, officially connected with the department, intrusted with
the construction and conservation of roads and bridges — ingenieur des ponts
et chaussees, — to examine the ground, and, if it be necessary, to report the
works proper for the defence of the bank.
The work is executed in accordance with the adjudication ; the engineer
superintends the construction, and sanctions the delivery of it ; and the
expense is borne by those interested, shared according to a scheme of
division prepared by the syndic.
A translation of the decreet will be given in the sequel.
Attention is next given to the diflferent modes of constructing the
defences — (1) Levee en Ferre ; (2) Walls built with lime; (3) Drystone
walls ; (4) Chevalets ; (5) Coffres.
The first is employed by preference in longitudinal embankments ; the
three last mentioned are rarely employed but in the construction of 6pis ;
lime-built walls are employed in both forms of defence ; the chevalet is a
wooden erection of three pieces of timber stuck into the ground, apart
below, meeting above, and sustained by a fourth piece stuck into the
ground behind them, meeting them at the apex of the angle formed by
them ; cofifres are quadrangular structures of timber, the interior of which
is filled with stones ; the levee en perre is an embankment of earth faced
with stone.
A chapter is devoted to the consideration of a form of embankment called
Dique ^peronne or spurred embankments.
Another is devoted to the consideration of the encaissement or confining
of torrents, the outline to be given in the encaissement in section, the direc-
tion to be given to the axis of the course, and the declination to be given
to it. This is followed by a chapter devoted to the consideration of
different systems of defence which have been proposed ; and three chapters
which follow are occupied with the condition of roads swept by these
torrents, details of what measures are requisite to remedy existing evils,
and of measures to be adopted in erecting bridges over the torrents. These
constitute the third part or division of the work.
The ground being thus cleared, M. Surell proceeds, with a view to the
adoption of less objectionable and more appropriate remedial applications,
to bring under consideration the causes of the formation and of the violence
of the torrents, and with this the fourth part of the work is occupied.
In discussing the foreign influences which have modified the primitive
condition of the Alps, and produced definite effects on the formation or
extinction of torrents, he gives prominence to the influence of forests. In
successive chapters he discusses the influence of forests on the formation of
torrents, and the influence of forests on the extinction of torrents, the decay
46 R]fisuM]6 OF surell's study of
of forests, and the influences of forest clearings and pasturage, — following
the whole with a chapter devoted to illustrations and applications of the
warning to be derived from the case of Devoluy, which I have previously cited.
The whole tone and spirit of these chapters produces an impression that
the exposition of the view given is not only the result of a prosecution of
the study of the subject, but probably an exposition of what first gave to him
a clue to the discovery of all he subsequently discovered in regard to the
natural history of torrents, and the appropriate measures for extinguishing
them and preventing their ravages.
I have often pictured him to myself as one day plodding along, gradually
ascending a mountain valley, in the discharge of his professional duties, his
thoughts being at other times full of the subject of torrents and their
numerous phenomena, but on this occasion thinking on anything but these.
When, standing for a moment to rest and wipe away the sweat from his
brow, looking back he sees what he cannot but perceive is an old torrent
deposit — a veritable lit de dejection — though overgrown now with shrubs
and herbs, with here and there cottages, and cottage gardens, and cotter's
fields. There it is ! He feels he cannot be mistaken. Who would have
thought to see it there and see it thus 1 But there is the cone-like forma-
tion, the fan-like expansion spreading from the outlet of the gorge ! Here
is food for thought, and he goes on his way rejoicing. He comes upon a
lesser lit de dejection of recent formation ; how like and yet how difterent !
Here all is desolation; there all was clothed in living green, and the opening
beyond showed a young and vigorous growth of trees. But stop ! May not
this have had something to do with the extinction of the torrent, and that
more as cause than as effect ? This is something to be thought about — I
leave to others to follow out the train of thoughts thus begun. I find no
difficulty in doing so till I picture to myself Surell master of the whole
subject in all its details, and it is with these, his matured views, irrespective
of the way in which they have been attained, that we have here to do.
Writing on the influence of forests, or of the absence of forests, on the
formation of torrents, he says, — " When we examine the lands in the midst
of which are scattered the torrents of recent origin, we see them to be in
every case stripped of trees and of all kinds of arborescent vegetation. On
the other hand, when we look at mountain slopes which have been recently
stripped of woods, we see them to have been gnawed away by innumerable
torrents of the third class, which evidently can only have been formed in
later years.
" See then a very remarkable double fact : everywhere where there are
recent torrents there there are no more forests ; and wherever the soil has
been stripped of wood recent torrents have been formed ; so that the same
eyes which have seen the forests felled on the slope of a mountain have
there seen incontinently a multitude of torrents."
The names of numerous mountains and torrents, illustrative of both
allegations, are given.
*' The whole population of this country may be summoned to bear testi-
mony to these remarks. There is not a commune where one may not hear
from old men, that on such a hill-side, now naked and devoured by the
waters, they have seen formerly fine forests standing, without a single torrent.
" Observations which are reproduced so often, and with characteristics so
constant, can wo explain as simply the result of chance 1 Do they not force
TORRENTS OP THE HIGH ALPS. 47
US to admit that forests exercise a powerful influence on the production of
torrents, whether it be by standing on the soil they defend it against their
approach, or, obliterated by the hand of man they leave to them an open
field which they are not slow to devastate 1
" It is of importance to establish the fact of this influence by direct and
positive proofs. Here we are almost embarassed by the very amount of
evidence. It should be known that this influence manifests itself here in so
many varied circumstances, in such a variety of forms, and with such a
force of truth, that assuredly not one man throughout the whole country
would dare to dispute it. It is only necessary to spend one day traversing
these mountains to be struck with an infinity of facts fitted to produce
conviction in opposition to the most rooted prejudice to the contrary. All
of those who know the country can have, on this point, but one opinion.
All the observations on this matter which have been published are of
one accord, and the authors have had no other trouble than to verify the
public opinion, nor other merit than to express by the pen that which has
been for many ages in all mouths and in all minds."
In face of a belief so universal, so little disputed, and so indisputable,
one finds himself at a loss when he tries to reduce it to a kind of demon-
stration ; he knows not how to select one from so great a number of cases,
which corroborate one another, and the force or power of which lies in their
cumulation ; and he thus writes on the influence of forests on the extinction
of torrents : — " In examining the basins drained by great extinct torrents,
there are almost always found there forests, and often dense forests. There
maybe observed also, along wooded rev€7-s, a number of small torrents of the
third class, which appear as if stifled under the mass of vegetation, and are
completely extinct. Now this second observation, which can be verified by
a multitude of examples, supplies a demonstration of a fact of which the
first only permitted us to entertain a suspicion in a vague way : — it is, that
the forests are capable of bringing about the extinction of a torrent already
formed. Indeed, it is impossible to admit that the small torrents, dug for
the most part in mobile and friable ground, can have died of themselves, so
to speak, in their very birth, and through the efiect alone of that equili-
brium to which reference has already been made.
" Stability cannot establish itself so speedily on beds which are scarcely
formed, and in the midst of lands which offer still so much food for erosion
by the waters ; it is a work which demands time, and which is never entirely
consummated until the mountain has been gnawed away to the quick, and
to its last ridge.
'* Amongst the great number of extinct torrents, the basins of which are
wooded, there are some the forests of which have been subjected to the
commune regime, and have fallen in part under the axe of the inhabitants.
Very well, the result of this destruction of trees has been to rekindle the
violence of the torrents, which only slumbered. There have been seen thus
peaceful streams give place to furious torrents, which the fall of the wood
had re-awakened from their long sleep, and which vomited forth new masses
of dejection on beds of deposit, which had been cultivated without suspicion
from time immemorial. This is what has been remarked more especially
after the excessive destruction of woods which followed the first years of the
Revolution ; the devastations of many great toiTents only date from this
epoch. It is from this time that the torrent of Merdanel has advanced
towards the village of Saint Cr^pin, the inhabitants of which are to-day
48 R^BUMi OP SURELL*S STUDY OP
within a little of being ruined. The same observation has also been made
on the Lower Alps. We may cite as an example of what has been said
the whole of the revers which are situated on the left bank of the
Durance, from Sabines to the river Ubaye. It is formed exclusively by a
succession of beds of dejection belonging to ancient torrents, which had
been extinguished after having gnawed away a great portion of the mountain
of Morgon. The whole of this district was covered with forests, which have
been cut up with clearings, and which continue to be impoverished still
further every day. The torrents also have commenced their devastations,
and, if the destruction of woods be continued with the same recklessness,
this revers, fertile to-day, will speedily be ruined, as so many others have
been.
" This last fact completes all that need be said in regard to the influence
of forests. In seeing these show themselves almost everywhere on the body
of extinct torrents, one may suppose that these had first died, and that the
woods had then seized upon them when the extinction had been completed,
and when the soil of the neighbourhood, become stable, permitted vegetation
to develope itself in safety : the forest would then only have been one of the
effects of the extinction of these, instead of being the cause of it. But then
the destruction of the woods would only have restored things to their pri-
mitive state, and the torrent ought to have been able to continue extinct
after the taking away of the woods as it was before their appearance there
— and this is exactly what does not happen. It has sufficed to clear away
the woods to see the devastations immediately reappear. It must be then
the forests which, by their permanent appearance on the soil, hindered the
devastations, and it is the forests, in taking possession of the soil, which
have again caused them to cease — and the extinction of the torrents is so
completely their work that it begins, continues, and disappears with them,
the eff'ect ceasing immediately with the cause.
" One sees by this that the action of forests is not confined to preventing
the creation of new torrents, but that it is sufficiently energetic to destroy
torrents already formed. One sees also that the injurious result of the
removal of woods is not only to open everywhere the soil to new torrents,
but that it augments the violence of those which exist, and resuscitates
those which appear completely extinct. We may then sum up the influence
which forests exercise on torrents already formed in two facts, parallel to
those which sum up tbeir influence on lands where the torrents have not
yet appeared. (1.) The presence of a forest on a soil prevents the formation
of a torrent there. (2.) The destruction of forests leaves them subject to
become the prey of torrents. Nor is there in this any thing for which we
may find it difficult to account.
" When the trees fix themselves in the soil the roots consolidate this, inter-
lacing it with a thousand fibres ; their branches protect it, as would a buckler,
against the shock of the heavy rains ; and their trunks, and at the same
time the suckers, brambles, and that multitude of shrubs of all kinds which
grow at their base, oppose additional obstacles to the currents which would
tend to wash it away. The eff'ects of all this vegetation is thus to cover the
soil, in its nature mobile, with an envelope more solid and less liable to be
washed away. Besides, it divides the currents and disperses them over the
whole surface of the p.round, which keeps them from going off in a body in
the lines of the thalweg and meeting there, which would be the case if they
flowed freely over the smooth surface of a denuded ground. Finally, it
TORRENTS OF THE HIGH ALPS. 49
absorbs a portion of the waters which arc imbibed in the spongy humus, and
so far it diminishes the sum of the washing away forces.
" It follows fi'om this that a forest, in establishing itself on a mountain,
actually modihcs the surface of the ground, which alone is in contact with
atmospheric agents, and all the conditions find themselves then modified as
they would be if a primitive formation had been substituted for a formation
totally diftcrent. Whence it is not more astonishing to see the same soil
alternately cut up or free from torrents, according as it is despoiled or
clothed with forests, than it is astonishing to see torrents cease when we
come to primitive formations, or reappear suddenly on friable limestone.
" In accordance with this we find — first, the development of forests
brings about the extinction of ton-ents ; second, the destruction of forests
redoubles the violence of torrents, and may even cause them to reappear.
And nothing is more easy than to explain these new actions. It will be
remembered what are the causes which call forth and maintain the violence
of torrents : it is, on one hand, the friability of the soil ; and, on the other,
the sudden concentration of a great mass of water. Now, we know already
that the forests render the soil less liable to be washed away ; we know also
that they absorb and retain a portion of the rainfall, and prevent instan-
taneous concentration of the portion whieh they do not absorb. Conse-
quently they destroy both the one and the other cause. They prolong the
duration of the flow, and they render the floods at once more prolonged, less
sudden, and less destructive.
" It may be understood from this how forests, in invading the hassins de
reception, may have contributed powerfully to stifle certain torrents. Whilst
the waters were creating for themselves the most convenient slopes, the
forests wxre retaining the soil which was ready to go, was rendering it more
solid, was consequently diminishing the mass of earth w^ashed away, and
above all was opposing itself to the concentration of currents. They were
augmenting all the resisting, all the existing, obstacles, and were diminish-
ing all the motive powers ; and ihey were coming thus to hasten by a double
efficacy that epoch of stability in which the force of the waters would find
itself in equilibrium wath the resistance of the soil. There is one circum-
stance which ought to render their triumph still more speedy, — it is, that
the torrent, in proportion as it is enfeebled, abandons to them a soil more
and more stable and favourable to vegetation, in such a way that this
augments every day their forces in proportion as the torrent loses force.
In fact, if the expression may be allowed, it is reinforced by the effect.
" By this I do not mean to say that the ton*ents can never become extinct
of themselves. That w'ould be in contradiction to what I have said, and at
the same time to facts observed, for there are examples of torrents being
extinguished without the presence of forests, and solely through the erosion
of the mountains — as, for^instance, the torrent of Saint Joseph, near Mones-
tier. But I say that the forests expedite the accomplishment of this effect,
and that they can produce it where the other circumstances are not yet
producing it.
" Thus nature, in summoning forests to the mountains, places the remedy
side by side with the evil. She combats the active forces of the waters ; to
the invasions of the torrents she opposes the aggressive conquests of vegeta-
tion. On those mobile revers she spreads a solid layer whieh protects them
against external attack, somewhat in the manner that "a facing of stone
protects an earthen embankment. \t is worthy of remark, that the little
D
50 resum6 of surell's study of
cohesion of limestones, which is opposed to the fixing of grounds, which
renders them so mobile, and draws torrents thither, is precisely the quality
which renders them favourable to the development of vegetation. The
same cause which multiplies the torrents ought then to multiply also the
robust forests, and to cause productiveness to succeed in the long run to
barrenness, and stability to disorder. Not that, strictly speaking, there can
be in nature anything otherwise than orderly, for there is nothing which is
not subject to the rule of immutable laws, but in popular phrase the term
disorder has also its meaning.
" One is struck with the illustrations of the observation which has just
been made in going over certain forests in these mountains. One sees the
vegetation doubling its profusion and energy in grounds torn by ravines, and
crumbling on all hands, as if it were mustering its last efforts to retain a soil
escaping from it. To cite one example : in the forest of Boscodon may be
seen the vigour and tenacity of the vegetation contending against a friable
soil composed of schist, tufa, and gypsum. It is, in fact, the lands which
are the most mobile which are at the same time the most fertile, and the
hard rocks on which vegetation has no hold, brave also the effort put forth
by all the causes of destruction. The mountains, if they were abandoned
quite naked to external influences, would soon be levelled or cut up into
bits, and they would offer to man nothing but a heap of cleft rocks, unculti-
vated and uninhabited.
''It is vegetation which prevents this ruin ; and as there can be no
vegetation without water, it is on the mountains that nature has poured
out the water in the greatest profusion. We have already called attention
to the remark, that there falls more rain on the mountains than on the
plains. The mountains attract and retain the clouds [f\. Snows and glaciers
crown their summits as immense reservoirs, whence trickles out a perpetual
moisture, and whence flow innumerable streamlets which fertilize their sides,
and distribute fertility, from brow to brow, down to the very depth of the
valleys. Thus, the waters which are the most energetic means of destroying
the soil are at the same time the most active in its conservation. In
drawing on vegetation, they preserve the soil against their own attacks, and
the more they have of power to destroy, the more vegetation they cause to
spring up to preserve. It is in this way that nature imposes on all her
forces moderators which counterbalance them and keep them from acting
always in the same way ; and this must end in bringing everything to a
state of restored peace."
And dwelling on the thought of self-adjusting provision for the natural
extinction of torrents, he thus, in something like a burst of enthusiasm,
gives expression to his feelings in view of the thorough and efficient way in
which torrents had naturally become extinct, and the contrast thus pre-
sented to the puny endeavours of man to restrain their ravages : the natural
and the artificial ; Ood's way of doing it, and man's way of doing ; the work
of God and the work of man ; and the results : success, perfect and complete ;
and success, partial and imperfect !
" Let us go back for a moment," says he, " and compare these effects of
vegetation with those exercised by the dillerent systems of defence hitherto
devised. The result of defences like that of vegetiition is to arrest the
ravages of torrents ; and how powerless appear all embankments by the
Bide of those great and powerful means wliicli nature employs wlien man
TORRKNTS OF THE HIGH ALPS. 51
censes to oppose her, nnd when she patiently prosecutes her work through-
out a long series of ages ! All our paltry woiks are nothing but defences,
as their name indicates ; they do not diminish the destructive action of the
waters, they only keep it from spreading beyond a certain boundary. They
are passive masses opposed to active forces ; obstacles, inert and decaying,
opposed to living powers, which always attack, and which never decay.
Herein is seen all the superiority of nature, and the nothingness of the artifices
devised by man.
" I make not here a barren comparison. I wish to let it be seen that it
is better to bridle the torrents than to erect at great expense masonries and
earthworks, which will always be, whatever may be done, expensive palliatives,
better adapted to conceal the plague than to eradicate it. Why then does
not man ask assistance of those new powers, the energy and efficacy of which
are so clearlj^ revealed to him ? Why does he not command them to do
yet again, and that under the directions of his own genius, that which they
have already done in times long gone by on so many extinct torrents, and
that under the prompting of nature alone ? "
With the views thus expressed he proceeds to discuss more thoroughly the
measures to be adopted for opposing, counteracting, subduing, and taming tor-
rents. He argues that the continued application of such measures of defence
as have been referred to must necessarily fail ; and he alleges that prevention
— not cure — must be attempted. This, says he, resolves itself into two
distinct problems — (1) To prevent the formation of new torrents, and (2)
To arrest the ravages of torrents already formed.
But the remedy proposed by him, as applicable to both, is the same —
namely, the extension of vegetation. " All the facts which have been
adduced," says he, " carry with them the conclusion to which they lead,
and it would be superfluous to go back upon them. It is vegetation which
is the best means of defence to oppose to torrents." And starting with this
idea, the two problems resolve themselves into the discussion of the pro-
ceedings to be followed to throw the greatest possible mass of vegetation
either on to the lands threatened with torrents in the future, or on to lands
sun'ounding existing torrents.
" In doing this, art," says he, " should confine herself to imitating nature,
to mastering its forces, and skilfully to opposing one of these to another.
All that we are about to undertake nature has already done before us in
time past, and she does it over again to this very day under our eyes when-
ever we leave her free to work. We are assured, then, beforehand of success,
since all we have to do, to a certain extent, is to recommence experiments
already made, and the success of which has been complete. Whence also
it follows it is no longer a system of defence we have to seek, but a system
of extinction."
As a preliminary measure, he argues the reservation, by legislative enact-
ment, of certain portions of the soil ; and a limitation or restriction of the
number of the flocks and herds within what the reproductive vegetable
power of the district can sustain. He recommends that the land to be
defended against the ravages of the torrents should then be marked out by
tracing, on each bank of the torrent, a continuous line, following all the
windings of its course, from the highest point of its commencement to its
issue from the gorge. " The strip of land comprised between each of these
lines, and the summit of the mountains, would constititute (says he) what I
52 RESUME OF STJRELL's STUDY OF
would call a zone de defense, enclosed against flocks and herds. The zones
of the two banks, following the outline of the basin, would meet in the heights,
and would begird the torrent like a girdle. The breadth, varying with the
slope and with the consistency of the soil, would be about 40 metres, or 1 30
feet, below, but it would increase rapidly as the zone rose on the mountain
side, and it would end in embracing a space of 400 or 500 metres, or from a
quarter to a third of a mile.
*•' This outline would require to follow, not only the principal branch of the
torrent, but also the different secondary torrents which degorge into the first ;
following then the ravines which each of the secondary toiTeuts receives, and
going on thus, from branch to branch, it would go on to the birthplace of
the last threadlet of water. In this way the torrent would find itself begirt
thoughout the most minute of its ramifications. These zones of defence, in
penetrating the hassin de recei:)tion, will be enlarged ; while, on the other
hand, as the ramifications are in this part more multiplied and more approxi-
mated, it will come to pass that neighbouring zones will join and even over-
lap each other, and their outlines will be lost in a common region, which will
cover the whole of this part of the mountain, without leaving there a void
space. The zones of enclosure being thus determined, the first part of the
operation is finished. But this is in some respects only the outline of the
periphery of the work which is to be done.
" We have next to do with what may be the most active and prompt
means of drawing vegetation over the whole surface of this enclosure. For
this purpose it should be sown and planted with trees ; where it may be
impossible to raise trees at once, the growth of shrubs, bushes, and thorns
should be stimulated ; but on the height, where the zones include the whole
extent of the bassin de rhe2:)tion, it is a forest which must be created. The
best adapted kind of trees must be selected ; recourse must be had to all
modes of procedure, indeed, even to modes of procedure which have yet to
be discovered, and which go beyond experience. The work must be done
any way and every way ; and the end aimed at in these works ought to be to
cover the hassin de reception by a forest which will every day become more
dense, and which, extending itself step by step, will end in spreading even
into the most hidden depths of the mountain.
" If the vegetation thus developed over the zones of defence be protected
against flocks, if it be protected against the depredations of the inhabitants,
if it be tended, maintained, stimulated by all means possible, it will ulti-
mately envelope all the parts of the torrent by a very dense thicket, and
thereby will be realized two effects at once, both of them equally salutar3\
" First, this will arrest the waters which trickle down the surface of the
soil, and will keep them from entering the torrent ; or, if it do not prevent
them doing this, it will at least retard them, and we know that this result
is in every way a happy one. From the time this is done the torrent will
only receive the waters which fall vertically from the sky into its bed ; and
this will diminish its volume in the same proportion as the ])r()portion which
exists between the extent of the general basin of the mountains and that of
the stringently reduced opening presented by this bed. From a considera-
tion of the great difierence in extent of these two surfaces may l)o under-
stood how great should be the reduction of the body of waters thus effected.
And next, the ground of these zones can be no moi-e washed away by the
rains, and swept away by the torrent, and thereby will be diminished so far
the mass of deposited matter. It is ti-uc, it may indeed be swalloAvcd up little
TORRENTS OF THE HTOH ALPS. • 53
by little if the foot of the banks be uiulcvmined by the waters, but this
constitutes another point to be attended to, and one to which I shall attend
immediately, and on which, until 1 do so, I crave for a moment a suspension
of judgment.
" To return, 1 give in one word the effect of these arrangements. I may
say that the torrent will find itself placed in the same conditions as if it
issued from the bosom of a deep forest, which will surround it in all its
windings, and in which it will be as if it were drowned. Elsewhere I have
described the results to which such a condition of things gives birth. It
may be remembered as the forest struggling with the water ends in extin-
guishing the torrent, the same effects will reproduce themselves here, and
it is unnecessary to repeat them.
" By the same analogy it may be understood that the vegetation advancing
always, and gaining each day upon the ground, should descend on the banks
and carpet them almost to the bottom of the bed, as has happened in exten-
sive torrents ; but the giving of permanence to the banks is a result of too
great importance to be left thus to the caprices of the soil, and of the free
will of nature. We come thus to a third department of the work. It is one
in which it is especially necessary to redouble care and to multiply devices.
" To draw the vegetation over the banks they should be cut with small
canals of irrigation derived from the torrent. These will impregnate with
fertilizing humidity the land now rent and dry ; they will break also the
slope of the declivities, and serve to render them more stable, and soon they
will disappear under the tufts of various plants brought to light by the water.
" The formation of these canals being extended ultimately to the summit
of the bank, the water will thence penetrate the zones of enclosure and
fertilize their soil. It is in the retention of the water, and in the possibility
of opening everywhere and multiplying almost indefinitely provision for this,
that rests in reality the whole future of the work.
" In fine, I pass to the fourth phase of the work, which is also the last.
Whilst all these plantations retain the grounds through which the torrent
flows, the undermining may be prevented by the construction of artificial
barrages, or wears.
" We thus borrow from existing systems of defence that which is most
efficacious in them ; but in doing this how greatly have we ameliorated the
circumstances in which we set to work !
" Indeed, we shall find in the plantations, everywhere where it is thought
fit to establish these works, the best material for their construction. The
young trees will supply stakes, prunings and bushes will supply fticines.
We can then construct the barricades of facines, or the wicker palisades
recommended by Fabre. These works will cost little for manufacture, the
materials will cost absolutely nothing. They will be cheap ; and they do not
present the dangers which accompany walls of masonry. One can then multiply
them everyw^here without any inconvenience, and almost without expense.
" These barricades will be like the completement of the works of extinction ;
they will serve to defend certain banks till the vegetation has reclothed
them over all their extent, and till the ton-ent itself shall have lost the
greater part of its violence. They can be employed also to stop up the
secondary ravines, to intercept the little ramifications, to fill up small holes ;
in fine, to lead over the surface of the soil, and thus completely efface those
innumerable streamlets divided like the hair-like fibres of a root, "«^hich are
really and indeed the root of the evil.
54 RiSsuM^ OF surell's study op
" Behold the work completed !
*' 111 recapitulating what has been said it will be seen that it resolves
itself into four parts — fii'st, the tracing of zones of enclosure ; second, the
covering of these with trees ; third, the extension of vegetation over the
banks ; and fourth, the construction of barricades of facines, of brushwood,
or of wicker-work.
" One thing remains yet to be adverted to. I must speak for a moment of
the order in which the work should be advanced. This order, far from
being arbitrary, is an element of first importance, and a most essential
element of success. I have already so often, in the course of this work,
brought forward the necessity of attacking the torrents at their source that
I believe it to be unnecessar}^ to dwell upon it now. Thus, then, it is in the
highest parts that the works should be first undertaken, thence to be
extended to the parts of a lower level. Not only should a commencement
be made by planting the hassin de reception before giving attention to the
lower zones, but even in this basin the commencement should be made in
its highest ramifications. One should go above the last traces of the bed,
up to the abrupt slopes furrowed with ravines which the waters form and
deform with each storm of rain, — it is there that the first works should be
established ; one should afterwards — but only afterwards — carry them
lower, but making sure first that the parts left are quite consolidated."
A chapter is devoted to the discussion of the practicability of carrying
out such measures ; and another to the consideration of the legal difficulties
in the way of this being done.
In a resumd of the work proposed, he concludes his recapitulation, saying,
— " The definite result of the whole will be the creation of forests ; the
whole work may be summed up in one sentence : — Reclothe with woods the
more elevated parts of the mountains. If it be true, that forests exercise an
influence on the climate, the eff'ect of this extended mass of new woods will
be to render the showers of rain less heavy, the rain-storms more rare, and the
whole atmosphere more moist and more showery ; the climate will then, by
insensible degrees, be changed at the same time as the surface of the soil ;
and thus the two causes of torrents will be destroyed at one and the same
time, and a general result will have been obtained while seeking at first
only to remedy a particular evil."
But, he goes on to say, the work of reclothing the heights with wood will
not of itself render unnecessary the construction of dams and wears ; and
he proceeds to indicate the application of embankments, which would meet
the requirements of the case with which he had to do — the prevention of
ravages by torrents.
The question of expense is then discussed ; reasons are adduced to show
that the expenses should be borne by the State. And, in a recapitidation and
conclusion, the various measures proposed are reviewed and defended against
such objections as it was thought possible might be brought against them.
Such is an analysis of the Study of the torrents of the High Alps, to
which may be traced the commencement of the works of reholsement and
fjazonnement which arc now being carried on, on a gigantic scale, in the Alps,
the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees. But it is by no means the only work
advocating such measures ; and I proceed to sui)])ly information in regard
to other works, treating of the same subject, published before and after this
work of Surell's.
PART II.
LITERATURE RELATIVE TO ALPINH TORRENTS, AND REIIEDIAL MEA/iSURES
PROPOSED FOR ADOPTION TO PREVENT THE DISASTROUS
CONSEQUENCES FOLLOWING FROM THEM.
The subject treated so exhaustively by Surell has commanded the attention
of many besides him.
In 1797 was published an Essai sur la tJieorle des torrents et des rivieres,
by M. Fabre, an engineer referred to by M. Surell, who had made these his
study. The following are translations of some of his propositions relative
to them, and to appropriate remedies for them.
" \^i. Tlie destruction of the ivoods which cover our mountains is the
primary cause of tlie formation of torrents.
" The reason is apparent. These woods, be they timber forests or be
they high coppice, intercept by their foliage and by their branches a
considerable portion of the water falling in rains and in thunderstorms.
The remaining portion, which they could not retain, falls only drop by drop
at intervals sufficiently long to let them have time to filtrate into the
earth. On the other hand, the bed of vegetable earth, which goes on
increasing annually, imbibes a considerable quantity of these waters. In
fine, tufts of herbage and bush break and destroy at their origin the torrents
which might have been formed notwithstanding all these obstructions.
The woods being destroyed, the waters of a storm no longer meet with any-
thing in their fall to intercept them. They cannot, by reason of their
abundance, be absorbed by the ground as they fall. They flow over the
surface, and meeting no more tufts which might have broken and divided
their courses, they form ton*ents, as has been said.
" 145. T/ie clearings on the mountains are the second cause of the formation
of torrents.
*' We have shown that a torrent will be formed with so much the more
facility in proportion as the matters which compose the mountain shall
have less tenacity. Now the clearings, in rendering the earth friable and
mobile, have diminished this tenacity ; and thus they have favoured the
formation of torrents.
" One may see from this how ill-advised and inconsiderate was the law
given under the ancient regime, which authorised clearings, provided there
were constructed at intervals walls of support to keep the earth on the
slopes of mountains. It was not seen that in a great many countries the
people confined themselves to raising two or three crops on a clearing, and
that they then abandoned it. It was natural, this being the usage, that the
sustaining walls, coming to cost more than the crops would repay, would not
be constructed ; and this is just what has happened. But there has already
resulted from this, and there will result from it in the future, frightful
disasters, as we shall uow see.
56 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
"146. The first disaster 2^roduced by the two causes of ivhich ive Jmvejust
tpokefi is the ruin of our forests.
" If there had existed wise laws, and these had been carefully executed,
we should have had now building timber in such quantity as to permit of
exportation. We should also have had in abundance wood for carpentry
and fire-wood. It is felt that both of these things are essentially necessary
in a well organized state. But they fail us to such a degree that in a great
number of communes there is not even fire-wood. The evil has been long-
felt, and the necessity of remedying this is urgent.
" 147. The second disaster is the destruction in a great many places of the
bed of vegetable soil ivith which our mountains were covered.
" This bed would otherwise have produced abundant pasturage for the
sheep, but, carried away by the storms and torrents, there remains at
present on these mountains only a naked and dry rock. From this results
necessarily a diminution of the small number of cattle which France might
have been able to support if these pasturages had continued to exist.
" 148. The third disaster is the ruin of the domains ivhich lie upon
the rivers. •
" We have seen that the swellings of the torrents were stronger in
proportion as the mountains were less wooded and more impoverished.
These swellings are then greater now, through the operation of the two
causes mentioned above, than otherwise they would have been. They
ought, therefore, to cause, and they do really cause, much more havoc to
the domains along their course than they otherwise would have caused.
" On the other hand, we have seen that it might happen, as it has in
effect happened too often, that the torrents in issuing from their bed or
channel w^ou.ld cover adjacent domains situated at the foot of the mountains
with deposits, which absolutely alters their nature. Now, this never
happened until that by the operation of the two causes mentioned above
the torrents were formed.
" 149. The fourth disaster is the drainage, experienced in the navigation of
the rivers, by the divisions in the ivater-courses, which are the consequents of
great floods.
" 150. The fifth disaster consists in the strifes and contentioiis, bettveen the
2')roprietors on ojyposite banks of the river, to ivhich the divisions in these ivater-
courses give rise.
" 151. The sixth disaster residts from the dejwsits which they make at the
motdhs of the streams, which often intercept the navigation."
Each of these three statements is illustrated in detail.
"152. hi fine, the seventh disaster consists in the diminution of the sources
which feed the streams and the rivers in their ordinary state.
" We have seen that springs, the sources of streams, are formed from the
rains which filtrate through the earth and meet in the subterranean reser-
voirs, whence they escape by minute channels, and make their appearance
at the surface of the ground. Now, if the mountains be despoiled of their
bed of vegetable earth, and there remain only the bare rock, it is evident
that the water of the i-ains will no longer filtrate through the soil, but will
flow quite superficially ; thence it follows, that as the fountains diminish so
must the rivers which they feed ; and a time will come when even the
rivers which at present are navigable will cease to be so. Ti'ue, indeed, that
time is still distant, but sooner or later it will arrive if the cause which
producer this cflect be not destroyed."
TABRe's ES8AI. 57
With these views M. Fabre urged then the planting of trees, or the rehoise-
ment of the mountains, and the protection of these throughout their growth.
He thus states his opinion : — "Wo have said that the destruction of the woods
which wore covering the mountains, was the primary cause of the formation
of the torrents. To destroy the eftect, the cause must be exterminated.
Therefore, if there be still vegetable earth on the mountains, it will be well
to leave these to become clothed again with wood, by leaving them in
fallow, and with a view to the same end, it may be well to remove every-
thing which might damage the young trees. For this reason, most rigidly
should be carried into execution the laws relating to the prohibition of
goats, for it is known that the tooth of this animal is murderous to young
trees. It is not less essential to provide for the conservation of existing
woods, since these woods, which have kept the torrents hitherto from being
formed, are to us a sure guarantee that they will prevent the formation of
them in the future.
'' Clearings are the second cause of the formation of torrents. It is
necessary, then, that after having been too extensively tolerated by the
ancient laws, these should be restricted within prescribed limits. In con-
sequence, we consider, that in this respect, they should be conformed to the
following rules : — First, a clearing ought never, under any pretext whatever,
to be permitted on the slope of a mountain, which has less than three of a
base for one of vertical height, i.e. a slope of one in three.
" Second, the clearance might be permitted on one of less declivity, but
only under the restrictions we are about to state.
" Third, the clearance ought never to be authorised, but on the verge, or
in transverse horizontal strips, or on a level, or what is nearly such.
'' Fourth, in this case the strips of fallow should be separated from one
another by other strips, likewise horizontal or level, left imcultivated, on
which the wood should be permitted to grow.
" Fifth, these uncultivated strips should be made to take the place of the
sustaining walls, prescribed by the law previously spoken of. It appears
that they should not be less than five toises, or thirty feet, in breadth, to
enable them, in case of need, to destroy a toiTent which might be formed
on the strip of fallow above it.
" Sixth, the breadth of the strips of fallow should be only five toises, or
thirty feet, where the slope of the mountains may be one in three ; but it
appears that it may be increased with the diminution of the slope, until a
slope is arrived at, which leaves no cause of fear of the formation of torrents,
in which case the breadth may be unlimited.
" Seventh and lastly, the clearings should in no case be permitted
without the authorization of the respective municipal authorities, and after
the specification and plan, which shall have been previously made by a
public ofiicial of what is proposed in each commune.
" Every one must see that by some such regulation we may escape for the
future all the disasters produced by arbitrary clearings, almost always ill-
arranged, both as they affect the interests of the community and those of
the individual. Nature is only the more active when aided by human
industry, and so in cases in which it is wished to hasten on, on certain moun-
tain slopes, the increase of woods, it would often not be bad to sow acorns
and beech-nuts, or seed of any species of trees which may be presumed to
be proper to the localities. There is more than one country where they
are quite accustomed to do so.
B
68 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
" There are cases where there remains so little earth on the mountains
as to lead one to conclude that wood will there make but little increase ;
such gi'ounds may be laid with turf, and sown with seeds of plants which
may be deemed most proper for the localities. The superficial tissue
formed of turf will be an obstacle to the formation of torrents, and by this
means besides will be created useful pasturage.
" These are the means of preventing the formation of torrents on the
mountains. It remains for us to see those which must be employed to
destroy, when the thing is possible, the torrents already formed."
The views advanced by M. Fabre have never, so far as I know, been
subverted ; and by subsequent studies of the phenomena many of them
have been confirmed. But it has been objected that the subject was not
one which admitted of being discussed in such precise propositions as those
in which he invested his views — that some of his propositions were based on
deduction rather than founded on an induction of fact — and that, in the
absence of facts, adduced to establish or support his deductions, there was
an element of uncertainty thus introduced into his conclusions, which
prevented them being made the ground of extensive practical undertakings,
involving great expenditure, until they had subsequently been verified by
renewed observations of facts systematically conducted.
This circumstance makes the work more valuable to any one desirous of
studying the subject in all its aspects. It is a work to which Surell often
appeals, as a work the value of which was indisputable, and as the only work
going to the root of the matter in discussing a subject not exactly the same
but one nearly allied to that to which he was giving attention. And he
mentions that Fabre had himself announced, that no work on the subject
had previously been published, praying that the imperfections of his work
might be borne with in view of the novelty of the matter.
Surell speaks of Fabre as an engineer who had occupied himself with this
study, and he says of the work by him, that it contains a complete des-
cription of torrents, with just, and often ingenious, remarks on their action ;
but he states that he considered the form of aphorism in which his obser-
vations are couched a defect, exposing them to the objections I have cited.
He states further that it is clear, from many passages, that the torrents seen
by M. Fabre were not those of the High Alps, which were those which were
the subjects of his own study, though they were similar to them in many
respects ; and that his theory, when applied to them, was not always borne
out by the phenomena presented by them, or did not cover these : that it
was evidently based on the observation of torrents, which devastated the
South of Provence, and more especially the torrents of the Var, where he
was Ingenieur en chef.
But all of these considerations make his observations and conclusions the
more valuable to any, who may be studying the subject, with a view to the
discovery of remedial measures, appropriate to countries very differently
situated from the ravaged and devastated regions of France. We find in
Fabre and Surell, men of different casts of mind, belonging to different
generations, following their professional pursuits in districts far apart and
differently situated, propounding doctrine essentially and substantially the
same. With regard to the deficiency of observations as a foundation of M.
Fabre's counsels, such observations were greatly desiderated by him ; he
stated that no work on the subject had been published, and he craved that
LBORBULX AND h6rI0ART DE THURT. 59
the defects of his work should bo excused in view of the novelty of the
subject of which it treated.
In 1804 there were published Reserches sur la formation et V existence des
ruisseauXy des rivieres^ et torrents, by M. Lecreulx. The design of this publi-
cation was to refute the views advanced by Fabre ; but it has been alleged
that apparently the author did not know the kind of water-courses to which
Fabre in his work had a reference.
On this point M. Siu'ell writes, — "I scarcely know whether Lecreulx
meant positively to dispute the position that woods have an influence on
the production of torrents. In attacking Fabre on this point all that he
does is to bring to light his complete ignorance of the kind of mountains
and of the kind of water-courses which Fabre had specially before him.
Lecreulx had always before his mind the case of the Vosges, which comes
up in every page of his book. I know the Vosges well, and I can affirm
that these mountains no more resemble the High Alps than the German
patois, spread over several of the valleys, resembles the provingal dialect
which is here the general language of the country."
In 1806 appeared a PtomograpJiie des cours d^eaii du Dqjartement des
Hautes Alpes, by M. Hericart de Thury, in which are pencilled rapid
sketches of the geological characters of the beds of the water-courses of the
Department, and his work supplies data valued by students of the country,
seeking to discover the cause or occasion of the ravages which these water-
courses make, and a remedy for the evil. He reckons eight distinct basins
or river valleys in the High Alps. Surell reckons three, but this aftects not
the facts recorded : it resolves itself into a mere question of judgment in
regard to the best division to be made.
The views are in accordance alike with those advanced ten years before
by Fabre, and thirty years later by Surell. Of the vicinity of Embrun he
writes, — " In this magnificent basin Nature, has been quite prodigal of her
blessings. The inhabitants have enjoyed her favours with their eyes shut;
they have slept on in the midst of her beauties. Ungrateful for all, they
have inconsiderately carried the axe and the fire into these forests which
shade the steep mountains — the ignored source of their riches. Soon were
these emaciated peaks ravaged by waters, torrents swelled and precipitated
themselves with fury on the plains ; they have cut down, torn away, and
undermined the foundations of the mountains ; grounds of great extent have
been carried off" ; others have been entombed ; these have been covered with
rocks, those show nothing but stones and gravel. The ravages are still
going on ; no obstacle is opposed to their fury — soon in Crevoux, Boscodon,
Savines, and all the country around, the torrents will have utterly destroyed
all this fine basin, which but lately would have borne comparison with all
possessed by the richest countries — with the most fertile and the best
cultivated of them all."
The warning was sounded in vain. It was drowned in the roar of cannon
carrying into other lands devastation, and death, and mourning, and woe ;
but after the men of that generation had mostly died away, and another
generation had taken their place, the subject was again brought under
consideration.
In the Annales des Fonts et Ghaussees, for 1833, 2d Semestrey is a paper by
60 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
M, Montleuisant, entitled Note sur les Desechemenfs, les Endiguements, et les
Irrigations, which is not without its bearing on the subject in hand. And
about the same time a Memoir by M. Delborgue Cormant, Ingdnieur en chef
des Pouts et Chaussees, on embankments.
In 1834 appeared a second edition of a work previously published — His-
toire, Topographie, Antiquites, Usages, Dialects, des Hautes Aljoes — by J. C. F.
Ladoucette, who had been prefect of the department, and who had been
eulogised as the best prefect the High Alps ever had had. A statue of him
erected in Gap speaks of the high estimation in which his labours for the
good of the department were held. By him the number of basins, or river-
valleys, in the High Alps is reckoned five, while by M. Hericart de Thury
they had been reckoned eight, and by M. Surell they were afterwards, as
we have seen, reckoned to be three ; but, as has been stated, such enumera-
tions are mere matters of judgment in regard to what are entitled to be
considered separate basins, and to be entitled to this designation. This
work did not contribute much information in addition to what was
previously known on the particular aspect of the subject which connected it
with forest science.
It was otherwise with another work by one who had also held the office
of prefect, a memoir, entitled Projet de hoisement des Basses Alpes prhente a
S. E., le ministre secretaire dUtat de VInterieur,par J/» Dugied, ex-pr^fetde ce
departement. The following is a translation of a statement of his views : —
" More than half of the department of the Low Alps is covered with arid
and unproductive soils. These are increased by numerous torrents, which,
descending there into the fertile valleys, complete the ruin of the country.
*' Two causes have contributed more especially to bring about this sad
state of things, — the destruction of forests on the one hand, and on the other
the rage for clearing land by grubbing up the roots, and herbs, and bush.
It is high time to apply remedies, for later to remedy the evil will have be-
come impossible.
" To bring about a restoration of the department, three measures should
be adopted — (1) To prevent additional grubbing, and to restore to the
grubbed lands their primitive consistency ; (2) To plant the summits and
sides of mountains with trees ; (3) To enclose the torrents. We shall
remark on each of these three measures in succession.
" First Measure. — Grubbings may be prevented by enforcing the ordinance
of 1667, which pronounced a penalty of 3000 francs against all those who
should grub ground free of wood on declivities. And grubbed lands may
have their primitive consistency to some extent restored by compelling the
proprietors to convert them into artificial meadows, be it by the power of
the tribunals, or be it by administrative action. (The author cites an
experiment, from which it appears that sowing the grounds with sainfoin,
Hedysarum Onohrychis, had completely consolidated a land previously sub-
jected to extensive waste).
" Second Measure. — It follows, from statistical estimates, which have been
prepared, that the area ofthc ground in the Low Alps, which wc may hope
to replant with trees with success, amounts to 150,000 hectares. It may
be accomplished by each year taking of this surfiicc from two to three
thousand hectares, say 1200 acres, which it niiglit be required of the pro-
prietors of the soil to replant. But here there presents itself more of a
difficulty. First, the great subdivision of the properties which will
multiply the cases of resistance, and the little revenue which the pro-
dugied's projet de boisement. 61
prietors of each will di'caw from the plantations during the earlier years of
their growth. And, secondly, it is the case that the gross expense of the
plantations, will not on all grounds be compensated by proportionate future
products.
" These difficulties are very serious, and they cannot bo overcome but by
one expedient, ilic intervention of the State. This may consist, 1st, in
premiums given to the planters ; 2nd, in the gratuitous distribution of seeds ;
and 3rd, in a remission of taxes in favour of the planters.
" A premium should be granted to every proprietor whose sowings have
been successful. The verification of this must be made by a commission,
and the success stated in a minute addressed by this commission to the
prefect. The value of the premium might be 20 francs per hectare, and it
should be paid by the State conjointly with the department, the State paying
three-fourths and the department one-fourth of the amount. Thus, on the
supposition of two thousand hectares being sown annually, the department
w^ould disburse each year in prizes 10,000 francs, and the public treasury
would disburse in the same w^ay 30,000. . . . The grounds on which I
propose that the department should not pay more than 10,000 francs a
year are, (1) that the department is far from being rich ; (2) that it will not
recover payment of the sums it furnishes, whilst the Government will
recover all its advances ; and (3) in a word, that without such advances on the
part of the Government, there is no reason to hope that the operation will ever
he carried out. No doubt the department will derive very great advantages
from the work ; but the sacrifices which it will make to contribute to the
success will not be the less real sacrifices." . . . M. Surell says,-; —
" This, which was a w^eighty reason at the time when M. Dugied wrote
these lines, has become, since the law of the 10th May, an absolute
necessity." M. Dugied goes on to say, " The second mode of intervention,
consisting in the gratuitous supply of seeds, should be wholly at the expense
of the State. Let us suppose that there are sown 2000 hectares annually,
and that they are divided, in regard to kinds of trees, in the following way :
600 hectares in acorns ; 600 in beech ; 800 in firs and pines — in all, 2000
hectares. The whole expense of the seeds, carriage included, should be
about 23,400 francs. The expense would rise to 35,100 francs if there
should be sown 3000 hectares per annum instead of 2000.
" The Administration, by delivering the seeds gratuitously, will have it
in its power to determine that the different kinds of trees have been distri-
buted with intelligence, and that each kind of soil has only received those
for the growth of which it is best fitted. Declivities too steep should be
sown with box trees and brooms.
" The sowing will also require to be protected against cattle and against
plunder. It wall be necessary to secure a very active and very strict
surveillance on the part of the forest officials, who may remain charged
with watching the future forests ; their number should be augmented, their
organization perfected, and at the same time their condition raised and their
circumstances improved.
" In conclusion, passing on to the third means proposed — the remission
of taxes. Each proprietor, after an examination and approval of his
sowings, at the end of five years might have a remission of taxes for the
period of ten years.
" Such are the sacrifices which impose themselves on the State to secure,
by degrees, the reboisement of the mountains.
62 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
" Third Measure. — This relates to the enclosing of the torrents by
embankments. This enclosing should not be commenced until the forests
shall have produced their effects — that is to say, in fifteen or twenty years
after the first plantings. The engineers of roads and bridges should prepare
the plans of the works to be executed. The expense should be borne by
the proprietors interested, and by the State, which should assume the
responsibility for half the outlay. The effect of the dykes should be at
once to protect the river lands and to acquire new lands." . .
The author calculates that the enclosing of the Durance between Sisteron
and the Pertuis des Mirabeau would cost at most from 4 to 5,000,000
francs ; and that the area of land acquired would be 10,000,000 square
toises or fathoms, which would be worth, at the end of three years, at least
10,000,000 francs. The capital in this undertaking would thus be doubled
at the end of three years.
In a second division of the work, M. Dugied endeavours to show benefits
resulting to the State from such undertakings, which might induce them to
enter into this expenditure, doing it in such a way that the first expenses
could not be in excess of the sums to be repaid.
" The mortgage of the sums expended by the State," he says, " will
resolve itself into an augmentation of the imposts to which should be
subjected waste lands converted into forests. Strictly, and according to
the rules adopted in the assessments of imposts, the augmentation should
be for the advantage of the Department, and should lighten the manorial
tax of the other proprietors. But it may be believed that the General
Council will consent to the addition which may be made to the manorial
contribution of the Department ; and it is on this augmentation, on the
assumption of this consent, that we can base our calculations.
" The contribution allotted to waste lands is upon an average twenty-two
centimes per hectare ; that on forests is seventy-two centimes. When, then,
a hectare of waste lands shall have been converted into forest, it will
produce an augmentation of contribution equivalent to fifty centimes.
It is this difference of fifty centimes which will constitute the funds for
repayment. It must be observed that the fifty centimes will not be
touched until ten years after the sowing, if the State have granted to the
sowers a remission of taxation during this period of time. It must also be
taken into account in the calculations that all the sowings will not be
successful, and that a portion of the seeds delivered gratuitously by the
Administration, and paid for by it, will have perished. It is supposed that
the loss of sowings may be about a fifth of the whole.
" From these data there can be formed tables which will give, year by
year, a statement of the expenses, or of the returns, of the Government ;
and it may be seen in this way that for a sowing of 20,000 hectares, the
expenses of the Government at the end of ten years will have amounted to
534,000 francs, but that at the end of eighty-six years it will have recovered
all these advances. Moreover, it will have acquired an annual bonus of
8000 francs, seeing that the contributions will continue to run on.
'' If one extends the calculations to 150,000 hectares (that is, to the whole
of the area to be re-wooded), and if we suppose that the sowings will extend
over fifty years, it will be found that the State will have recovered these
advances at the end of one hundred and ten years, and that it will enjoy
thenceforward an annual bonus of 60,000 francs. It follows from this that
DUGIED's PROJET DE B0I8EMENT. 63
it is for the interest of the State to give to these operations the greatest
extension possible.
" It is also necessary that the State should recover the advances which it
will have made for the construction of dykes. And it will find the means of
liquidating the amount sunk in the work, first, in the profit calculated
above, as resulting from the 50 centime augmentation of impost on the land
as wooded, and further, in the proprietorship of a certain portion of the
lands acquired. As it will have furnished the half of the expense to which
the acquisition owes its existence, it is just that it should obtain possession of
half of the lands acquired."
M. Surell says, — " Such is the system developed by M. Dugied in his
Memoir iSur' le Boisement des Basses Alpes. This work produced no fruit.
It did not for one moment stop the abuse. The Administration is not yet
aroused from its indifference ; and the devastation of the torrents, and the
miseries which this brings in its train, and the daily progressive ruin of
the country, go on still, as in the past, before unpitying eyes.
*' The efforts of M. Dugied have been but little appreciated ; and the
country, in favour of which he was the first to raise his voice, has not been
more just in regard to him than was the Administration of the Restoration
which deposed him from the prefecture of the Basses Alpes, which he had
not occupied more than a year, and where he would probably have rendered
eminent services to the country. His work has called forth ridiculing
criticisms. They have referred the execution of his project to the Princes
of the Arabian Night Entertainments. I must confess that the extravagancies
of the project of M. Dugied has entirely escaped me. I only see in it an
operation, sufficiently simple at bottom, which could not fail to develope, on
a vast scale, what is practised every day by private parties ; an operation,
the execution of which is evidently possible, and the expense of which has
nothing surprising in it when I compare it with those which the Administra-
tion entrusts every year to the engineer of the smallest arrondissement.
Certainly, it would read as a romance, much more extravagant than the
alleged imlingenesiqiie romance of M. Dugied, if one would turn over the
leaves, mastering the same, of the report of the 120,000,000 francs worth
of works executed every year, on all the bridges of France, under the
Direction des pouts et chaussees! This speaks of the sea imprisoned in harbours,
roads tunnelled through rocks, rivers confined by embankments or by
bridges, lighthouses erected on rocks in the midst of tempests, canals trans-
porting boats across the summit of mountains. I see in these works,
works more difficult, more costly, and more marvellous by far, than the
rehoisement of some nooks of mountains. And if any come to discuss in
the Chamber seriously, and like people who are ready to put hand to
the work, the enormous budget of a milliard and a half, which certain
economists tell us to be necessary for the establishment of a complete net-
work of railways, what will be thought of this other prodigy, which was
held to be only fabulous not mure than thirty years ago 1 When we shall
have multiplied by ten, or by a hundred, the figures given by M. Dugied,
we shall not yet have come to expenses like to those of a great number of
our public works, which are ten times — or, for that matter, a hundred times
• — less useful, and which do not frighten us, accustomed as we are, for a long
time, to open our purses for their execution.
" Will any one undertake seriously to deny the possibility of the rehoise-
ment proposed by M. Dugied 1 . . The proofs which have established
64 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
this possibility are too numerous, too palpable, for this. Everybody admits
that the Alps were wooded long ago j and this is itself a proof that woods
may yet be made to reappear there. The first forests which nature cast on
these mountains had to clothe a soil more naked, more sterile, more irregular,
than the actual soil of the present. And if vegetation has already triumphed
a first time in this struggle against destructive agents, why should she
succumb to-day 1 It will be said that she was assisted by time ! It is so.
But to-day she will be assisted by man, and that assistance, in my opinion,
avails more than that of some four centuries. There are here and there, in
the bed of the Durance, conquests over the waters made by the effort of
nature alone ; but long ages have scarcely sufficed to ensure vegetation there,
and some portions of it remain eternally sterile. When man undertakes
like conquests he finishes them in three years ; three years suffice for him
to make fields to flourish on the very place where the waters rolled pebbles
and barrens sands. This miracle is renewed every day, and under the eye
of all. Is not this a more marvellous triumph -than it would be that man
should succeed in reforesting lands which, for the most part, have been
covered with forests before.
" If I wished to criticise the work of M. Dugied," says he, " I would not
bring against him such objections. But whilst entirely approving the basis
and the end of the project, I would condemn some few details of execution.
M, Dugied has comprised, under the designation of torrents, the Durance, the
Verdon, the Cleone, which are rambling rivers, and on which the reboisement
of the mountains could only have a detoimih^ and secondary influence in
affecting the water-course. And in making the embankment of these
water-courses a corollary of the plantation of forests, he has coupled
together two distinct operations. From this it follows that his project is in
some respects too ample and exaggerated, and at the same time in some
measure defective. And this impression of vagueness is deepened when it
is seen that M. Dugied does not attach to forests any action on the torrents
other and beyond that effected by a climatal change. As this influence is
rather uncertain, and very difficult to be clearly demonstrated, one cannot
understand how the author came to build on it such great expectations,
and that he should make of reboisement a preliminary operation, without
which the embankment of rivers would not be undertaken with success.
" But there is a point in which his project seems to me defective in its very
foundation — it is this, he makes the execution of it to rest entirely on the
gooodwill of the proprietors. If the enterprise be really a thing of public
utility, as the author says it is — if it truly have the degree of importance
and necessity which he attributes to it — how docs he come to leave it at the
mercy of the first peasant — stupid or stubborn — who will refuse to take
part in it ? It showed little knowledge of the spirit of the inliabitants of
the country, to believe that a premium will suffice in every case to overcome
the natural apathy, and above all, the obstinacy of such, if once they
stubbornly determine not to give in to the undertaking. Now, this will
certainly occur oftcncr than once, if it do not bccomo even generally the
case. The twenty francs of premium per hectare, which M. Dugied tenders
to them, would not always appear to them a sufficient indemnity to com-
pensate the troulile which the sowings might entail, and the loss of their
pastures, of which M. Dugied says nothing, and of tlie numerous interferences
which will follow from the operation. These works, besides, will not
succeed but through the expenditure of sustained aud intelligent exertions,
DUOIED AND 8URELL, . 65
which the peasants will not make. Tlicy will aoun have invented a
thousand artifices to gain the premiums, without having done anything to
deserve them.
** it is thus indispensable that the State undertake the charge not only of
the expense, but also the execution of the works; and ex-appropriation or con-
fiscation will furnish them with a legal means to bring down all possible
resistances.
" It seems that M. Dugied has recoiled from urging this, most possibly be-
cause he was afraid of the expense; but 1 have shown that this will be some-
what reduced. Besides, does not the State acquire eveiy day for roads, and by
the same means, fields far more costly than the waste lands of these moun-
tains ? And in that case the possession of the soil brings to her nothing,
or at least procures for her only a change of advantages. Here it buys the
lands at a low price, it exploits them, it gives them value, and by that
means she increases her domain if she retains them in her own hands, or
the revenue from the taxes if she restores them to the inhabitants."
Of this work of M. Dngied, Surell says, — " It is the only memoir known
to me which treats specially of the means to be employed to counteract and
oppose the scourge of the torrents." And he adds, — ''What is proposed by
M. Dugied is conceived in a comprehensive spirit ; but the characteristic
peculiarities of the torrents are neither analysed nor described by him ; the
work is addressed to those to whom the torrents are already perfectly
known."
In 1841 appeared his own work, Mude sur les Torrents des Hautes Alpes^
of which a resumA has been given in Part I. of this compilation.
On my first perusal of this work, knowing as I did how much damage
was done by torrential floods at the Cape of Good Hope, my feeling was a
desire that I could make the substance of it my own, and give forth anew
the observations, and the reasonings, and conclusions of the author, for the
information of my former compatriots in that Colony, and of others in other
lands exposed to such torrential floods as there alternate with severe and
long-continued droughts. But this was impossible ; and, moreover, I have
often found excerpts from the work of an original thinker far more satis-
factory, and often far more suggestive, than any digest of it given by friend
or foe. Often, on reading some such digest, I have felt disposed to cry out,
Give me his own words, for no words can better tell what he says than the
words he has himself used in the collocation of them which he has given !
but to do this was also impossible ; and I have done what I consider most
likely to be satisfactory at once to M. Sm-ell and to students of the subject
of which he treats, at the Cape or in other lands, in which the English
language must be the medium of communication.
The work was published by order of the Administration des Fonts et
Chaussees. Public opinion was not then so advanced on the subject as to
prompt to action, and his services were put in requisition for the caiTying
out of the system of railways, which seemed to demand more immediate
attention. While rejoicing in his honours and usefulness as Ingenieur en
chef des Fonts et Chauss4es, and Directeur des Ohemins de fer du Midi, some
regret may be felt by those who are alive to the importance of reboisem9nt
as a means of stifling torrents that scope was not found for his energies in
originating and carrying out works such as he had advocated.
After the work was out of print, many solicitations were addressed to him
F
66 ^ Svl'XiSRATURE ON T0EBBNT6,
to issue a new edition. But from this he shrunk. The state of things
depicted by him had, to a great extent, ceased to be, his suggestions had
been carried into effect, and a new state of things had come into being.
But he was relieved of embarrassment by his comrade and friend,
M. Cezanne, agreeing to prepare a supplemental volume, and the two were
published conjointly, — the first volume, the itude of M. Surell, in 1870,
and the Supplement, by M. Cezanne, in 1872.
The subjects of M. Surell's study were chiefly these, — the phenomena of
torrents and eff'ects produced by them ; the causes of their occurrence ;
means of defence which had been employed to protect the land and its
inhabitants against their ravages ; and measures which were more likely to
prove efficient if they should be employed, which measures were plantations
of trees, and herbage, and bush, over the area drained by them, combined
with the erection, in subordination to this, of barrages, or wears, to control
and regulate the flow, where this may be practicable and desiral3le.
Previously to the publication of the original edition — but at what date I
know not — there had been published a Memoire sicr Vetat des forets dans
les Hautes Alpes, les causes de cet etat, ses restdtats et les moyens d!y
remedier, by M. Delafont. Of this M. Surell writes, — " All the causes of
the destruction and disappearance of forests are thoroughly and carefully
expounded in a memoir by M. Delafont, inspecteiir des eaux et forets — a
memoir full of well-intentioned and wise statements, which only calls forth
regret that it did not inspire the Adminstration with enlarged and bold
views, which alone would be commensurate with the evil j for great evils
call for great remedies."
" The sad results which I am about to point out," says M. Delafont, " are
deplorable on all hands. All men who have not been blinded by ignorance,
or whose heart has not been withered up by selfishness, give expression to
the thought that it is high time to stop the progress, ever increasing, of so
fearful a devastation. They lament over the evils without number
which are occasioned by the deforesting of the mountains, and seem to call
us to the protection of our forest wealth. These reflections, these pravers, I
have often myself heard uttered with an energy which is inspired by the
profound conviction of the existence of a great evil, and of the imperious
necessity which there is to stop its course. Let us listen to the cries of
distress of a population alarmed by the future before it."
And M. Surell refers to this, and other statements by M. Delafont cited
by him, as supplying evidence that he had himself in no way exaggerated
the evil in what he said in his Mude sur les Torrents.
While the work of M. Surell's was passing through the press, he received
a copy of a Memoii^e sur la degradation des forets dans les arrondissements
dEmhrun, et de Brian^on, which the inspector of forests, in these two
arrondissements, M. Jousse de Fontanierc, had shortly before addressed to
the Administration. Of this he says, — " This work — prepared by a man
most competent for the work, and devoted to his duties, who, after having
struggled for a long time against the innumerable difficulties of his service,
succumbing under the trial, took measures at last to demand aid — should
have had the effect of securing the attention of the State to the frightful
future to be anticipated in this department."
And be cites the following as a specimen of the out-spoken faithfulness of
MKMOIRE IIY .TOUSSE DE PONTANI^RE. 67
the author, — ** From all that has been said, it is concluded that the depart-
ment of the High Alps is the one of all France in which the cultivators are
most threatened in their fortune, and that they will be compelled, sooner
than is supposed, to abandon the places which were inhabited by their fore-
fathers, and this as a consequence of the destruction of the soil, which,
after having supported so many generations, has given place, little by little,
to sterile rocks.
" The destruction of the forests will be the principal cause of this
calamity. The disappearance of these from the mountains will give up the
soil to the action of the waters, which will sweep it away into the valleys ;
and then the torrents, becoming more and more devastating, will bury
under their alluvial deposits extensive grounds, which will be for ever with-
drawn from agriculture.
" The crusts, denuded of their vegetable soil, no longer permitting the
infiltration of the waters, these will flow away rapidly on the surface of the
ground. Then the springs will dry up ; and the drought of summer being
no longer moderated by their irrigations, all vegetation will be destroyed.
" The elements of destruction growing thus one out of another, we have
only to observe what passes to-day to predict what will infallibly come
about some ages hence. When the forests shall have entirely disappeared,
fuel and water, the two primary necessaries of life, will be awanting in
these desolated countries.
" The cupidity of the inhabitants of these mountains, the tenacity with
which they keep to old customs, do not permit a hope that a moral conviction
of this desolating future will strike their thoughts so strongly as to lead
them to make some temporary sacrifice ; it is, therefore, for the Administra-
tion, more enlightened in regard to the state of things, and to their con-
sequences, to meet the evil by laws most appropriate to the requirements
of the country."
Ladoucette, in his Histoire, Topographic, Antiquites, Usages, Dialectes des
ff antes Aljjes, already cited, says the peasant of D6voluy " often goes a
distance of five hours, over rocks and precipices, for a single [man's] load of
wood ;" and that " the Justice of Peace of that Canton had, in the course of
forty-three years, but once heard the voice of the nightingale." Now the
desert and the solitary plain begins there anew to flourish like a rose, and
the inhabitants to rejoice with joy and singing; and there is heard the shout
of children playing in the streets — a change brought about by rehoisement
and gazonnement, confirming the conclusion that the destruction of trees
and herbage had been the occasion of the desolation.
In regard to the valley of Embrun, where a corresponding improvement
has been brought about by similar means, Hericart de Thury, who has also
been already cited, wrote in 1806, — " In this magnificent valley nature had
been somewhat prodigal of its gifts. Its inhabitants have blindly revelled
in her favours, and fallen asleep in the midst of her profusion." And
Becquerel, in his work Des Climats, mentions also that it was once remark-
able for its fertility. What it became, through the ravages of toiTents,
after the destruction of its trees, Surell has shown.
M. Surell cites, as in accordance with his views in regard to the influence
of the climate on the formation and violence of torrents, the following
remarks by Lab^che, in his treatise on Geology. Writing of the geology of
the Alps, M. Lab^che says, — " A diff'erence in the climate ought to produce
({3 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
other visible changes, as well in the superincumbent rocks as in those that
were of an older formation. It is probable that the more a climate was
warm, and approached that of the tropics, the greater would be the evapor-
ation, and the quantity of rain ; greater also would be the intensity of
power of certain meteoric agents ; consequently, according to this hypothesis,
the different deposits ought to present indications of the influence of such
climates, more marked in proportion as the epoch in which they were formed
was more remote from the present. If rains, like to those of the tropics, have
fallen on high mountains such as the Alps — even supposing that many of them
had an elevation less than that of these — these rains w^ould produce effects
vei-y different from those which we see now in the same countries ; one may
see that these would form all at once torrents of which the actual inhabi-
tants of these mountains have no idea ; such volumes of water would sweep
away quantities of detritus far greater than those which the actual torrents
of the Alps carry away, the volume of which, however, is pretty considerable.
" Thus, though admitting the correctness of this hypothesis in this, it is
necessary always to take into account the differences produced on the sur-
face of the earth by the action of meteoric agents, the which is more power-
ful as the climate is more warm. One ought especially to give attention to
this, when from the observation of a series of the layers of the same district
it appears evident that the temperature, under the influence of which they
were formed, has gradually diminished. Let us examine now to what
degree vegetation can, in warm climates, counterbalance the power of dis-
integration, and transport which atmospheric agents possess. It appears
that, all other circumstances being equal, the more warm a climate is, the
more vigorous is the vegetation which it produces. The question then
comes to this : Does the vegetation protect the soil against the destructive
action of the atmosphere ? It is impossible to answer this otherwise than
in the affirmative. If we want proofs of this fact we shall find them in the
artifical mounds, or harrows, which are so common in many parts of England ;
they had been exposed in that climate to the action of the atmosphere for
about 2000 years; and yet they have not undergone, in their form, any
perceptible change, although they have, during at least a considerable
portion of that time, only been covered by a light layer of turf. If now it
is admitted that the vegetation protects, to some extent, the ground which
it covers, it follows that the stronger the vegetation is the more eflicacious
is the protection which it affords, and as a consequence the ground is always
defended from the destructive action of the atmosphere in proportion to the
need it has of such protection. Without this providential law of nature,
the softer rocks of tropical regions would be speedily carried away by the
waters, and the soil would no longer be able to sustain vegetables or
animals ; for, although in many tropical regions we meet with vast extents
of land which present the appearance of sterile deserts, but which one sees
suddenly start to life after two or three days' rain, and cover themselves, as
by enchantment, with a beautiful verdure, we should bear in mind that
the roots of the briskly vivacious plants from which moisture causes to
be produced so vigorous a vegetation — and even those of the annual plants
which have passed away, of which the seeds produce leaves so verdant —
interlace themselves in such a way in the soil that they oppose a consider-
able resistance to the destructive power of rain. In the Savannahs of
America it is frequently the case that there is little vegetation, and there
they experience considerable disintegration.
LAB^OHE AND MIOTIEI. CHEVALIER. 69
" I have by no means the intention to infer from what has been said
that the disintegration of soil is not generally greater nndor the tropics
than in temperate climates ; it has been my dosiie simply to establish that
in both cases the soil receives, from the vegetables which cover it, a pro-
tection proportionate to the destructive influence to which it is exposed.
Let us suppose that there should occur in England one of those rainy
seasons so common under the tropics. No doubt great extents of land
would be washed away, and the harrows^ of which we have already spoken,
would quickly disappear. If, on the contrary, there fell there only the
same quantity of rain which we have every year in the climate of England,
we would find scarcely any traces of vegetation in the low-grounds, for the
water produced by it would be insuflicient to sustain tropical plants, and
while it tended to disintegrate the soil, it would be so speedily evaporated that
its destructive action would be scarcely perceptible. The quantity of rain and
the vegetation are proportionate to one another; nevertheless, the disintegra-
tion of the soil increases with the quantity of rain, and the force of many
meteoric agents, in such a way that, other things being equal, the greater
the rainfall the greater is the destruction of the soil ; and consequently,
the warmer the climate, the more considerable is the disintegration of
the mountains.
" In tropical regions, parasitical and creeping plants are seen in all
directions, growing wherever it is at all possible to do so, and w^ith such
luxuriance as to render the forest almost impassable. The forms and the
leaves of trees, and of such plants, are admirably adapted to resist great
rains, and to protect the innumerable creatures which, in the rainy season,
come to seek a shelter under their foliage. The noise which the tropical
rains make in falling on these forests strikes strangers with astonishment ;
it is heard at distances which would be almost incredible to the inhabi-
tants of temperate regions ; and the rain, thus deadened and broken in its
fall, is speedily absorbed by the soil ; whereas, where it flows into hollows,
it produces torrents, which every one must confess are rather impetuous,
and cause great ravages."
M. Michel Chevalier, in his work entitled Des Interets Materiels de la
Fratice^ writes thus : — " Besides the works executed in the river-bed, there
are other measures which, according to men of experience, would exercise a
salutary influence on the navigability of natural water-courses, and which
concern even canals, as to feed these recourse must be had to rivers and to
the smallest streams. I wish to speak specially of the replanting of moun-
tains which have been so improvidently despoiled of their woods, and
abandoned in their nakedness by a culpable indolence, or even by a fatal one,
descending to niggardly interests, which the law does not recognize, but on
the contrary resents, have hindered the forests from reproduction by the effort
of nature alone. The rains and the snows, when they fall on the bald heights,
flow away or evaporate with the greatest rapidity ; in place of maintaining
brooks and rivers, on the rich levels, by which boatmen may profit, and on
which the proprietors of river-banks may felicitate themselves, they produce
there sudden floods, inundations which suspend navigation, devastate pro-
perties, covering them with gravel, and sometimes eating into them and
carrying them away ; then, after these floods, there follow soon low w^aters
which only stop at distant points and for a short time after some storm.
Through reckless deforesting our temperate countries are thus being assimi-
70 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS,
lated to southern regions, where there are nothing but torrents during the
spring and autumn, imperceptible threads of water in the midst of an ocean
of sand during the summer, and never smooth unmanageable rivers. The
business is now to restore the soil of France to the primitive forests.
Amongst the deforestings effected within the last fifty years there is much
which will be permanently profitable to the country. Deforesting is a conquest
of man over nature ; woods ought to disappear from the plains, and there to
give place to cultivation. But^ unhappily, we do not find in the valley
alone ground furrowed by the plough, or lands furnishing pasturage and
grass ; they have plucked up the trees of sterile cantons, where wood alone
should grow ; they have imprudently given up to the axe the sides and the
summits of our mountains ; then the regime of the profitless pastures,
freed from all surveillance, together with a vicious administration of public
and private forests, have hindered the reproduction of wood after the felling ;
and the carelessness of the agents of the State in the communes have shut
their eyes to the most destructive abuses. To-day the communes and the
State possess thousands — millions of hectares of nominal forests, where
there is just as much vegetation as there is in the steppes of Tartary, or in
the desert of Sahara. The sowing ordered by the laws, or by the regulations,
have been rendered illusory through the amount of the grants which were
allotted to them, and a mockery through the bad faith which has too often
presided over their execution. We are assured that oftener than once, and
that I may say at a time not very remote from the present, the lessees of the
fellings of the woods have sown sand instead of seed. About twenty years
ago the evil came to a head ; then the Administration established the Forest
School at Nancy, which furnished workmen capable and active, and men of
integrity. In 1837 the minister of finances proposed to stimulate the zeal
of subaltern agents by an improved treatment, which placed them above
misery, and protected them from temptation. All these improvements of
the officials are doubtless to be commended, but they will be productive of
little effect so long as there is not inserted in the budget a chapter in
support of replanting. With a million devoted every year to sow and plant
well-selected kinds of trees on the plots occupied by the forests, which would
appear always to rebel against cultivation, the State would create in
twenty or thirty years an immense eapital, spread over the vast brows
of the Pyrenees, of the Alps, and of the Vosges ; as well as on the shores
of the lands where they have applied, only on a Lilliputian scale, the
ingenious and economic process of the savant Bremontier. In time of peace
this would be an inexhaustable provision for twenty branches of industry,
and notably for that in iron, which will never be wrought cheaply in France
until wood shall be more abundant. In time of war this would be a
resource of more ready avail than that of new taxes."
In the Memolres de VAcademie des Sciences Morales et Politiques for 1843,
there appeared a Memoir a sur les Popidaiions des Ilantes Alj^es, by M.
lilanqui, an eminent political economist, from which the following passage
is cited and translated by the Hon. George P. Marsh, in his valuable work
entitled The Earth as Modified hy Human Action : — " I do not exaggerate,"
says Blanqui. " When I shall have finished my description and designated
localities by their names, there will rise, I am siu'c, more than one voice
from the spots themselves, to attest the rigorous exactness of this picture of
their wretchedness. I have never seen its equtil even in the Kabyle villages
|JLANQUI*8 MEMOIRE, 71
of the province of Constantino j for there you can travel on horseback, and
you find grass in the spring, whereas in more than fifty communes in the
Alps there is absolutely nothing,
" The clear, brilliant, Alpine sky of Embrun, of Gap, of Barcelonette, and
of Digne, which for months is without a cloud, produces droughts interrupted
only by diluvial rains like those of the tropics. The abuse of the right of
pasturage and the felling of the woods have stripped the soil of all its grass
and all its trees, and the scorching sun bakes it to the consistency of
porphyry. When moistened by the rain, as it has neither support nor
cohesion, it rolls down to the valleys, sometimes in floods resembling black,
yellow, or reddish lava, sometimes in streams of pebbles, and even huge
blocks of stone, which pour down with a frightful roar, and in their swift
course exhibit the most convulsive movements. If you overlook from an
eminence one of these landscapes furrowed with so many ravines, it presents
only images of desolation and of death. Vast deposits of flinty pebbles,
many feet in thickness, which have rolled down and spread far over the
plain, surround large trees, buiy even their tops, and rise above them,
leaving to the husbandman no longer a ray of hope. One can imagine no
sadder spectacle than the deep fissures in the flanks of the mountains, which
seem to have burst forth in eruption to cover the plains with their ruins.
These gorges, under the influence of the sun which cracks and shivers to
fragments the very rocks, and of the rain which sweeps them down, pene-
trate deeper and deeper into the heart of the mountain, while the beds of
the torrents issuing from them are sometimes raised several feet in a single
year, by the debris, so that that they reach the level of the bridges, which,
of course, are then carried off". The toiTent-beds are recognized at a great
distance, as they issue from the mountains, and they spread themselves
over the low grounds, in fan-shaped expansions, like a mantle of stone,
sometimes ten thousand feet wide, rising high at the centre, and curving
towards the circumference till their lower edges meet the plain.
" Such is their aspect in dry weather. But no tongue can give an
adequate description of their devastations in one of those sudden floods
which resemble, in almost none of their phenomena, the action of ordinary
river-water. They are now no longer overflowing brooks, but real seas,
tumbling down in cataracts, and rolling before them blocks of stone, which
are hurled forward by the shock of the waves like balls shot out by the
explosion of gunpowder. Sometimes ridges of pebbles are driven down
when the transporting torrent does not rise high enough to show itself, and
then the movement is accompanied with a roar louder than the crash of
thunder. A furious wind precedes the rushing water and announces its
approach. Then comes a violent eruption, followed by a flow of muddy
waves, and after a few hours all returns to the dreary silence which at
periods of rest marks these abodes of desolation.
"The elements of destruction are increasing in violence. The devastation
advances in geometrical progression as the higher slopes are bared of their
wood, and ' the ruin from above,' to use the words of a peasant, ' helps to
hasten the desolation below.'
" The Alps of Provence present a terrible aspect. In the more equable
climate of Northern France, one can form no conception of those parched
mountain gorges where not even a bush can be found to shelter a bird —
where, at most, the wanderer sees in summer here and there a withered
lavender — where all the springs are dried up — and where a dead silence,
72 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS,
hardly broken by even the hum of an insect, prevails. But if a storm bursts
forth, masses of water suddenly shoot from the mountain heights into the
shattered gulfs, waste without irrigating, deluge without refreshing the soil
they overflow in their swift descent, and leave it even more seared than it
was from want of moisture, Man at last retires from the fearful desert, and
I have, the present season, found not a living soul in districts where I
rememloer to have enjoyed hospitality thirty years ago."
A.nd in another connection it is said by Mr Marsh, — " It deserves to be
specially noticed that the district here referred to, though now among the
most hopelessly waste in France, was very productive even down to so late a
period as the commencement of the French Revolution. Arthur Young,
writing in 1789, says, — ' About Barcelonette, and in the highest parts of the
mountains, the hill-pastures feed a million of sheep, besides large herds of
other cattle ;' and he adds, — ' With such a soil and in such a climate, we
are not to suppose a country barren because it is mountainous. The
valleys I have visited are, in general, beautiful.' He ascribes the
same character to the provinces of Dauphiny, Provence, and Auvergne,
and, though he visited, with the eye of an attentive and practised observer,
many of the scenes since blasted with the wild desolation described by
Blanqui, the Durance and a part of the course of the Loire are the only
streams he mentions as inflicting serious injury by their floods. The
ravages of the torrents had, indeed, as we have seen, commenced earlier in
some other localities, but we are authorized to infer that they were, in
Young's time, too limited in range, and relatively too insignificant to require
notice in a general view of the provinces where they have now ruined so
large a proportion of the soil."
But the voice of warning fell on deaf ears. It was like a voice crying in
the wilderness — not the voice spoken of by the Hebrew seer, powerful as
was that which had said, — " Let there be light," and which like it brought
about its own accomplishment — but a voice crying in the wilderness, as
that expression is generally understood.
Inundations in 1840, and others occurring in 1846, caused some attention
to be given to the subject, and measures were about to be adopted, with a
view to prevent the continued occurrence of such catastrophes, when the
Revolution of 1848 took place, and forests were sacrificed right and left to
provide funds required to meet the national expenditure of the day. But
on the establishment of the empire the subject again commanded attention.
And within the last twenty years several works, in this department of the
literature of forest science, have followed each other in quick succession.
** In 1853, ten years after the date of Blanqui's memoir," says Marsh,
" M. de Bonville, prefect of the Lower Alps, addressed to the Government
a report in which the following passages occur : —
" ' It is certain that the productive mould of the Alps, swept ofi" by the
increasing violence of that curse in the mountains, the torrents, is daily
diminishing with fearful rapidity. All our Alps are wholly, or in large pro-
portion, bared of wood. Their soil, scorched by the sun of Provence, cut
up by the hoofs of the sheep, which, not finding on the surface the grass
they require for their sustenance, gnaw and scratch the ground in search of
roots to satisfy their hunger, is periodically washed and carried off by
melting snows and summer storms.
" ' i will not dwell on the effects of the torrents. For sixty years they
DB BONVILLE AND DBLGRAND. 7S
have been too often depicted to require to bo further diseusaed, but it is
important to show that their ravages are daily extending the range of
devastation. The bod of the Durance, whicli now in some places exceeds
a mile and a quarter in width, and, at ordinary times, has a current of
water less than eleven yards wide, shows something of the extent of the
damage. Where, ten years ago, there were still woods and cultivated
grounds to be seen, there is now but a vast torrent; there is not ono
of our mountains which has not at least one toiTcnt, and new ones are
daily forming.
" ' An indirect proof of the diminution of the soil is to be found in the
depopulation of the country. In 1852 I reported to the General Council
that, according to the census of that year, the population of the department
of the Lower Alps had fallen off no less than 5000 souls in the five years
betw^een 1846 and 1851.
" ' Unless prompt and energetic measures are taken, it is easy to fix the
epoch wdien the French Alps will be but a desert. The interval between
1851 and 1856 will show a further decrease of population. In 1862 the
ministry will announce a continued and progressive reduction in the number
of acres devoted to agriculture ; every year will aggravate the evil, and in
half a century France will count more ruins, and a department the less.*
" Time has verified the predictions of De Bonville. The later census
returns show a progresssive diminution in the population of the departments
of the Lower Alps, the Isere, Drome, Ariege, the Upper and the Lower
Pyrenees, Lozere, the Ardennes, Doubs, the Vosges, and, in short, in all the
provinces formerly remarkable for their forests. This diminution is not to
be ascribed to a passion for foreign emigration, as in Ireland, and in parts
of Germany and of Italy ; it is simply a transfer of population from one part
of the empire to another, — from soils which human folly has rendered unin-
habitable, by ruthlessly depriving them of their natural advantages and
securities, to provinces where the face of the earth was so formed by nature
as to need no such safeguards, and where, consequently, she preserves her
outlines in spite of the wasteful improvidence of man."
Mr Marsh adds in a foot note, — "Betw^een 1851 and 1856 the population
of Languedoc and Provence had increased by 101,000 souls. The augmenta-
tion, however, was wholly in the provinces of the plains, where all the
principal cities are found. In these provinces the increase was 204,000, while
in the mountain provinces there was a diminution of 103,000. The reduction
of the area of arable land is perhaps even more striking. In 1842 the
department of the Lower Alps possessed 99,000 hectares, or nearly 245,000
acres, of cultivated soil. In 1852 it had but 74,000 hectares. In other
words, in ten years 25,000 hectares, or 61,000 acres, had been washed
away, or rendered worthless for cultivation, by toiTcnts and the abuses
of pasturage. — Clave, Mudes, pp. 66, 67."
In the Annates des I^onts et Chaussees for 1854vis a paper by M. Belgrand,
entitled Be Vlnjluence des Forets sur Vdcoulment des eaiix 2)luvicdes, cited by
Ml' Marsh as containing notices of remarkable floods occurring in different
rivers in France. The Loire, above Rouen, has a basin of 2417 square
miles, and in some of its inundations it has delivered 9500 cubic yards per
second, which is 400 times its low-water discharge. And he gives a list of
eight floods of the Seine, occurring within the last two centuries, in which
it has delivered 3000 cubic yards per second, or 30 times its low-water
G
74 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
discharge. Such is the vastness of the body of water rapidly poured into
the rivers by torrents or storms of rain, by which torrents are occasioned.
In 1857 appeared Etudes sur les Inondations, leur causes et leur effets by
M. F. Valles, in which he makes several comments on the observations of
Belgrand, relative to the rainfall in 1852 at Vozelay, in the valley of the
Beuchat, and at Avallon, in the valley of the Greneti^re. And in the
Annates Forestieres, for the December of the same year, appeared a paper,
entitled Les Inondations et le livre de M. Valles, by A. F. D. Hericourt.
" The udometric measurement of Belgrand, discussed by Valles, consti-
tute," says Marsh, " the earliest, and in some respects the most remarkable,
series known to me of persevering and systematic observations bearing
directly and exclusively upon the influence of human action upon climate,
or, to speak more accurately, on precipitation and natural drainage. The
conclusions of Belgrand, however, and of Valles, who adopts them, have not
been generally accepted by the scientific world, and they seem to have been,
in part at least, refuted by the arguments of Hericourt, and the observations
of Cantegril, Jeandel, and Belland." These will be found quoted in Comptes
Rendus a lAcademie des /Sciences, 1861.
In 1856 appeared a pamphlet, published in Paris, entitled Moyens de
forcer les torrents des Montagnes de rendre une partie du sol quails ravagent,
hy M. Rozet, to which I shall afterwards have occasion to refer more in
detail. And in the course of this year — whether before or after the appear-
ance of M. Rozet's pamphlet I have not been able to ascertain — renewed
inundations supplied a befitting opportunity for the Emperor to call the
attention of the nation to the subject.
In the following year (1857) was published La Provence au point de vue
des Bois des Torrents, et des Inondations, par Charles de Ribbe.
Some of the facts, historical and statistical, embodied in this work are
embodied in a notice of Dauphiny and Provence, by Marsh, which will
afterwards be cited.
In a work by Maurice Champion, entitled Les Inondations en France
depuis le VIme Siecle jusquct nos jours, a work in six volumes, published in
Paris, 1858-1864, are narrated the ravages of many inundations which
have devastated extensive districts. And in an erudite and able work by
Alfred Maury, entitled Les Forets de la Gaule et de Vancient France,
published in Paris in 1857, is collected an immense amount of statistical
detail, on the extent, the distribution, and the destruction of the forests of
France. By help of these the student in this department of Forest
Science can carry back his studies to times that are past.
In 1858 appeared £tude sur les Phenomenes et la Legislation des Faux au
point de vue des Inondations, par A. Monestier Lavignot.
The same subject is discussed in a Rapport sur les Plantations de la
Solonge, by M. A. Broignard, de I'lnstitut, which appeared in Annates
Forestieres, Tom. X. ; and in a report to the Emperor by His Excellency,
M. Magne, the Minister of Finance, relative to the planting of mountain
ranges with trees, which appeared in the Moniteur of February 3, 1860.
This will afterwards be given in full.
In this year (1860) was published a Memoire sur les Inondations des
Bivicres de C'Ardeche, by M. de Mardigny; and in the year following (1861)
T.ADOUCETTE AND DELBERGUK-CORMANT. 75
appeared a pamphlet, publislied in Paris and Toulouse, entitled Etudes sur
le jRehoisement des Montagues, par Paul Tray.
During the years which followed much information w^as collected through
enquiries made by the Government, the substance of which was embodied
in documents issued in connection with the legislation which was now
employed to give effect to the suggestions which had been made, and the
results were to some extent embodied in that legislation; and a good deal more
was learned in connection with practical operations which were being carried
on, which was embodied in reports of operations and reports of conferences
held by appointment of the Administration by the officials and others
employed in the work, which were published by the Administration.
Translations of most of these documents will afterwards be given. But
it may be mentioned here that to meet public opinion it was deemed
expedient, as the work advanced, to give more attention to gazonnement
than was done in the commencement of the operations begun.
In the citations which have been made from works previously published,
one section only of the literature of Forest Science — that relating specially,
if not exclusively, to the influence of forests on torrents — has been laid
under contribution. In regard to that I may say, in a word, that the
French literature in this department of Forest Science is saturated with the
idea that vegetation is the natural protection of the ground from the
consequences of meteorological disturbances, occasioned by the destruction
of forests by which a meteorological equilibrium, favourable, to agricultural
operations, had been established, and which may be re-established by the
restoration of sylvan clothing to the mountains ; and the same idea
permeates much of the literature of France on subjects allied to that to
which I have referred.
But, while primary importance was attached to rehoisement and to gazonne-
ment, mechanical appliances, such as Surell sought to combine, when
necessary, with the extension of vegetation as a means of bridling, and
stifling, and controlling torrents, did not fail to command the attention of
those who were interested in the struggle, which w^as the more necessary
that there are destructive torrents produced by the melting of snow, and
the rapid melting of glaciers, or by debdcles, the breaking up of icy bamers
confining waters, in situations in which reboisemeiit and gazonnement are
impracticable, and therefore as a remedy inapplicable ; and there are other
torrents of w^hich the same thing, or something similar, may be alleged in
regard to these appliances.
There is given by M. de Ladoucette an exposition of a scheme of embank-
ment proposed by M. Delbergue-Cormant, Ingenieur en chef des Fonts et
Chaussies. The following is a translation of the memoir by M. Delbergue-
Cormant, cited by him : — " There are two kinds of torrents, principal and
secondary. The first are easily distinguished, — they always flow in the
principal valleys ; thus the Durance, the Guil, the Deux-Briich, the
Drac, &c., are principal torrents.
*' The second descend from the lateral mountains of the valley, and come
often at an angle more or less approaching 90°, to increase the principal
torrent, which occupies the depth of the valley ; it follows from this that
the tori'ents of Sarrazin, of Boscodon, are secondary torrents. The means
employed hitherto to control the principal torrents are to enclose them by
76 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
banks faced with stones. I have shown in another memoir that one may
obtain the same results more economically ; but wishing to occupy myself
at present only with secondary torrents, I confine myself to this.
" Before proposing means of preventing or of repairing the ravages
which the secondary torrents make, it is necessary to know these torrents,
and for this purpose to take them up at their birth, to examine them in
their course, and in following them in the increase of their bed of deposit
year by year to show the enormous extent of the damage which they may
have occasioned. It is certain that a secondary torrent does but little or
no evil so long as it is shut up between steep banks. It is when it leaves
the lateral mountains to enter into the valley that it begins its ravages.
Let us examine how this comes about.
" So long as the waters of a torrent are confined within steep banks they
roll on in a great body, drawing on with them not only gravel, but even
enormous rocks. Scarcely have they left the mountain, when, not being
sustained and kept together by the banks, they divide themselves into a
thousand little currents; and then, so far from drawing on rocks, they scarcely
roll gravel along, and as their force diminishes more and more they scarcely
bear along to the principal torrents some grains of sand. This explains
perfectly the form taken by the deposits formed by secondary torrents.
At the departure from the mountain this form is that of a portion of a cone,
the summit of which corresponds to the point where the torrent comes out
from the mountain. In effect, the waters, in quitting the mountain, have
still an acquired force which permits them to roll the rocks on to some dis-
tance ; in the second instance, this force being diminished, they deposit the
rocks and carry forward only stones ; in the third instance, their force being-
still further diminished, they abandon the stones and then carry on the gravel.
Thus, then, is formed a first deposit, which will be less and less considerable in
proportion to its distance from the mountain. In a second flood of the
torrents the waters get freely away, and the deposits of sand and of gravel
will increase less, always in this following a slope. In fine, the increase
may become so inconsiderable that the sides of the cone recede from the
mountain ; then the torrent divides itself into two currents, and soon there
comes to pass, at each of these two currents, what had occurred with the
principal currents. Thus the fertile lands of the valley may disappear
under the heaps of stone and of sand ; as these torrents are greatly multi-
plied, there will come a day that their deposits, spreading out till becoming
conjoined, a whole valley will become sterile, and will not be able longer to
support its inhabitants.
" We have seen that the secondary torrents do not deposit the gravel and
stones which they carried from the mountain ; but when their waters are
no longer confined by the banks — when they enter the valley — they spread
themselves over a great surface, and thus lose their force ; they cannot carry
further the stones and the gravel, and these they abandon at a greater or less
distance from the mountain. This indicates to us the course to be followed
in order to control these tori-ents at their embouchure, and to prevent them
covering the land with gravel.
" I would propose, then, in accordance with this principle : — First, to dig
a bed for the torrent in the deposit which has pcnetrutcd to the exit fi'om the
mountain; second, to give little brcadtli to this bed, but great depth, in
order that the waters may be there confined as they arc in tlie natural bed
which the torrent has dug for itself in the mountain, and that they may
MEMOIRE BY DELBERQUE-CORMANT. 77
continue to sweep on the stones and gravel ; third, to carry the gravel which
is dug out from tliesc cuttings to some distance from the edge, to fomi of
them two embankments parallel to the new bed ; fourth, to widen the entry
of the new bed at the end towards the mountain, in order to collect the
waters, and to strengthen by large stones these widened portions; fifth, to
plant the embaidvments with willows, and other trees which grow quickly ;
sixth, to take care to clear away the obstructions which may form them-
selves in the new bed after each eruption of the torrent.
" One may see that there is no need of any building to confine these
secondary torrents, and that the inhabitants of each village, with their
shovels, their pick-axes, and some wheel-barrows, may secure the territory
from the ravages. It is much to be desired, that being enlightened in regard
to their true interest, they should lose at last that indifference which keeps
them alike from preventing their ruin, and from repairing it.
" It may be observed that it is not necessary that the new bed be dug
throughout all its length in a single campaign. It suffices to begin at the
foot of the mountain, and to end off the open part in any year, by a more
gentle declivity than that of the deposit of the ravine, to give an outlet to
the waters. Thus the inhabitants would do wrong to excuse themselves by
an alleged impossibility of doing all the work at one time. Further,
neighbouring communities could mutually help one another.
" The advantages which the communes would derive from this work are
considerable ; for, not only would they not have to fear new invasions of the
torrent, but the sides of the torrent, not being now exposed to the waters,
might be usefully cultivated, by watering them with waters of the torrent
which might be derived from the upper portion of it."
The scheme proposed resolves itself (he says) simply into digging for the
torrent a straight canal through the centre of the deposit, and maintaining
this canal by constant clearings. According to M. Ladoucette, whatever may
be the precautions proposed by the author for strengthening the hills by
means of plantations and cuttings like to continuous dykes, they will never
present sufficient resistance to erosion ; still less will they hold out against the
undermining effects of the flood.
It is mentioned by M. Surell, that the clearing out of torrents is always a
difficult operation, on account of the great size of the stones, and the hardness
of the mud in which they are imbedded ; and that this work, which demands
great waste of muscle, and entails great expense, produces no durable
result. The smallest flood suffices to overturn all, and to throw the bed of
deposit into its previous disorder.
Something similar or analogous to the proposal of M. Cormant was carried
into execution by M. de Ladoucette, who caused a trench to be cut in a
straight line from the gorge of the Durance. He employed in this work the
prisoners confined in the central house of Embrun, to the number of five
hundred, and the work, prosecuted with energy, was completed in a month ;
but in the course of the next month there came a flood, and all was destroyed.
This scheme attributes all the ravages of torrents to the irregulanty of
their beds ; and proposes, as a simple and sufficient remedy, to give to them
a straiuht bed. Surell alleires that the scheme confounds cause and effect ;
and that torrents do not spread themselves hither and thither because they
have not a straight bed ; but they have not a straight bed because, con-
tinually depositing matter, they are forced to spread themselves hither
and thither.
78 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS,
M. Coi-mant might justly claim to be allowed to say, in defence of his
suggestion, that had the artificial bed been of a magnitude to contain the
whole flood, as was evidently requisite, the success might have been complete.
In 1856 appeared, as has been akeady mentioned, the pamphlet of M.
Rozet, entitled Moyens de forcer les Torrents des Montagues de rendre une
partie du sol quils ravagent, to which reference has already been made.
" He proposes," say Marsh, " to commence with the amphitheatres in which
mountain torrents so often rise, by covering their slopes and filling their
beds with loose blocks of rock, and by constructing at their outlets, and at
other narrow points in the channels of the torrents, permeable barriers of
the same material promiscuously heaped up, much according to the method
employed by the ancient Komans in their northern provinces for a similar
purpose. By this means, he supposes, the rapidity of the current would be
checked, and the quantity of transported pebbles and gravel — which, by
increasing the mechanical force of the water, greatly aggravate the damage
by floods — much diminished. When the stream has reached that part of
its course where it is bordered by soil capable of cultivation, and worth the
expense of protection, he proposes to place along one or both banks, according
to circumstances, a line of cubical blocks of stone or pillars of masonry
three or four feet high and wide, and at the distance of about eleven yards
from each other. The space between the two lines, or between a line and
the opposite high bank, would, of course, be determined by observation of
the width of the swift-water current at high floods. As an auxilliary
measure, small ditches and banks, or low walls of pebbles, should be con-
structed from the line of blocks across the grounds to be protected, nearly
at right angles to the current, but slightly inclining downwards, and at
convenient distances from each other. Rozet thinks the proper interval
would be 300 yards, and it is evident that, if he is right in his main
principle, hedges, rows of trees, or even common fences, would in many
cases answer as good a purpose as banks and trenches or low walls. The
blocks or pillars of stone would, he contends, check the lateral currents so
as to compel them to let fall all their pebbles and gravel in the main
channel — where they would be rolled along until ground down to sand or
silt — and the transverse obstructions would detain the water upon the soil
long enough to secure the deposit of its fertilizing slime. Numerous facts
are cited in support of the author's views, and I imagine there are few
residents of rural districts whose own observation will not furnish testimony
confirmatory of their soundness."
jje says, — "The plan of Rozet is recommended by its simplicity and
cheapness as well as its facility and rapidity of execution, and is looked
upon with favour by many persons very competent to judge in such
matters. It is, however, by no means capable of universal application,
though it would often doubtless prove highly useful in connection with the
measures now employed in south-eastern France."
And he adds, in a foot-note, — " The efl'ect of trees and other detached
obstructions in checking the flow of water is particularly noticed by Palissy
in his essay on Waters and Fountains, p. 173, edition of 1844. 'There be,'
says he, ' in divers parts of France, and specially at Nantes, wooden bridges,
whcru, to break the force of the waters and of the floating ice, which might
endamage the piers of the said bridges, they have driven upright timbers
into the bed of the rivers above the said piers, without the which they
ferUDES BT BCIPION OIIAS. 70
should abide but little. And in like wise, the trees which be planted along
the mountains do much deaden the violence of the waters that flow from
them.' Lombardini attaches great importance to the planting of rows of
trees transversely to the current on grounds subject to overflow. — Esame
degli Stiidi snl I'evere, § 53, and jlppendlce, §§ 33, 34."
In 1857 there appeared, in the Annates des Pouts et Chaussies and in tlic
Annales des Mines, Etudes snr les Torrents des Hautes Alpes, by M. Scipion
Gras, ingenieur des mines. Of this work the following analysis is given by
M. Cezanne, in his supplement to the work of Surell : — " After having
defined torrents the author divides their course into four parts — bassin de
reception, canal de reception, lit de dejection, and lit d^icoulement. M. Scipion
Gras distinguishes amongst torrents at the bed of deposit four classes,
according to the character of the basins drained by them. The study of
the laws in accordance with which solid bodies are swept away by floods
leads him to the conclusion that there are two distinct modes of operation
— transport en masse and transport jjartiel — the former eff'ected by floods of
great body and streng-th, the second by floods of a medium character.
These difi'erent operations produce contrary e Sheets upon the bed of deposit ;
the great floods, as they exhaust themselves, deposit over this a layer of
clay and gravel, over or thi'ough which the waters spread themselves in
thin sheets ; the lesser floods, on the contrary, dig down into the bed of
deposit and plough in it a channel for themselves, after having conveyed
thither the more comminuted materials referred to."
Upon which M. Cezanne remarks that M. Gras does not occupy himself
much with the basin drained by the torrent, the special subject of study by
him being torrents the basins of which are not susceptible of being planted ;
and impressed with the evils resulting from the dejection of detritus, he
seeks to modify the natural advance of the bed of gravel, and discusses the
two methods generally employed to eff'ect this, characterized respectively by
the emploj^ment of dykes and of barrages, or embankments and banners. He
expresses himself very decidedly in favour of barrages, and he thus sums up
his opinion on the point : — " In short, the first proceeding (Vendiguement),
as a means of suppressing a bed of deposit, is often impracticable, or at
least the success of it is dubious ; when it does succeed, it only carries the
mischief elsewhere. It is, then, one which is very defective, and which ought
to be abandoned.
" There remains the second course of proceedure ; we have demonstrated
its practicability, its applicability to all torrents, and its freedom from the
drawbacks attaching to the first. And here begins the most important part
of our task."
This quotation (says Cezanne) is characteristic of the method of procedure
of M. Gras, which is pre-eminently systematic ; he observes natural pheno-
nema with great accuracy and precision j he then proceeds to distinguish,
to classify, and finally to bring all his energy to bear upon a single and
exclusive system. " But," says M. Cezanne, *' the consideration of nature
inspires one with a dislike and opposition to all systematic formulas. It
may be well to run down embankments, and extol barriers ; but it is not
less the case that there are circumstances in which the practical man will see
at a glance that there embankments are better adapted to meet the case
than are barriers. And it is necessary^ in a study of this kind, to avoid all
80 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
special pleading in support of the absolute superiority of one system or of
another, and to confine remarks to showing clearly in what circumstancs
either of them should be preferred.
" M. Gras being so decidedly in favour of the exclusive use of barrages, or
barriers, in reference to the two different categories of floods established by
him, recommends, according as it may be desired to effect a complete or a
partial retention of gravel, the construction of submergible barriers in the
latter case, and insubmergible barriers in the former.
''The latter, insubmergible — so designated, although actually overflowed
by the torrent, and expected and intended to be so at times, and it may be
frequently — belong to a class of embankments which have been long in use.
Erected in some favourable position in the gorges, they are designed to effect
a deposit of gravel directed up the river. If the reservoir designed for this
deposit be very considerable, if the transport be slow, it may tell effectively
for some distance below for several years.
" Submergible barrages constitute, strictly speaking, the system which M.
Gras claims the credit of originating. This system is based on a very
delicate analysis of the effect of floods, which shows that high waters only
acquire their full force in a narrow channel in which they are confined. If
they be allowed or compelled to spread themselves out, their force is
diminished, and the larger materials which were being borne along by them
are deposited. To compel them to do this — to spread themselves out — it
is only necessary to raise, on a widening of the bed, a horizontal sill, which
cannot be washed away, worn down, or furrowed ; the waters, then, not
being able to concentrate themselves in any place at a lower depth than
that of the whole sill, spread themselves in a sheet over the sill, and a
deposit up the river follows as a consequence.
" After a great flood, such as may be of occcasional but comparatively rare
occurrence, floods of lesser magnitude, which are much more frequent, go
over this deposit anew, and do on a lesser scale what the greater flood has
done on a greater, excepting that such large blocks as could only be carried
along by a great flood will remain in the places above the barrier in which
they had been left. And the effect of the whole will be, that great floods
will be less disastrous, the work done by them being effected by a great
number of floods, the consequences of which are innocuous.
" It is not necessary that these barrages should be of great height, nor,
consequently, of great solidity ; it is enough that their upper surface sustain
the friction of the pebbles carried down by the flood, and that their base
can sustain the slight water-fall v/hich they occasion.
"From this it may be seen," says M. Cezanne, "that the system of oper-
ations proposed by M. Scipion Gras is the very opposite of the course
formerly followed, in so far as formerly, when a dam or barrier was to be
erected, a narrow depth in the bed of the current was selected, that the
structure being short there might be given to it, at little expense, the thick-
ness necessary to enable it to resist the violent action of the water. He
recommends to select expansions in the bed of the current, and even
proposes to erect, on the cones of dejection, works of tlie same kind, which
he calls barrages radiers. To secure the plain of Bourg d'Oisaiis, in the
basin of the former lake S(dnt Laurent, against ravages by the Romanche
and the Veiieon, whicli dcbouche each by a dilleront goi-ge, ho proposes the
erection of such barriers, spread out horizontally, the length of which should
be not less than 763 metres, or 2500 feet, upon which he supposes that the
AtUDEB nV BCIPION QRAS. 81
two toiTcnts, uniting thoir floods, will pour out tho mass of water in a
regular sheet, 32 centimetres, or 12 inches, in fall."
Of this locality it is mentioned elsewhere by M. Cezanne, that in 1157,
after a storm of rain, two torrents of the Oisans, which look directly across
from one bank to the other of the Romanche, the Vandaine and the Ii\fernay^
raised a barrier across tho principal valley ; a lake formed itself immediately
behind this dam, which was known under the name of the Lake Saint
Laurant, because the storm had burst on the day of St Laurant. This lake
stood for sixty-eight years, but in the night between the 14th and 15th
September 1219 the barrier gave way, the waters laid waste the lower parts
of the valley, and two towns, Vozille and Grenoble, w^ere almost entirely
destroyed. Since the thirteenth century onw^ards there has often been a
threatening of the formation again of this barrier, but in despite of this
there has sprung up, in the dried basin of the Lake Laurant, the Bourg
d'Oisans, which M. Gras proposed thus to protect.
M. Cezanne states in detail objections to which the measure was deemed
by him to be open ; and referring to two practical applications which had
been made of the system proposed by M. Gras — one on the Roise, near
Grenoble, the other on the Riou-Bourdoux, in the Lower Alps — he cites
observations made by Professor Culmann, who visited the former some three
years after the publication of the memoire, and reported of it thus : — " At the
time of our visit (October 1860), we found that a strong debacle had just
passed over a barrage, and that a great mass of rubbish had been stopped
behind the upper barrier. The little w^ooden bridge a little above it had
evidently had too weak a channel, and it was carried away, and the barrier
itself could not resist more. . .
" It is clear that the work had maintained its resistance until the deposit
above it had attained the top of its slope, and that so soon as blocks of even
small size began to roll over the inclined plane the links of the binding
chains, formed of iron bars "02 metre, or four-fifths of an inch, in thickness,
yielded to the shock and opened."
" Beyond this," says M. Cezanne, " M. Culmann criticises the mode of
constructing rather than the theories of these barriers, but he does not
appear to attribute to them other effect than to determine a deposit in the
same way as does every other kind of barrier."
M. Cezanne visited La Roise in 1869, and he says, — " In point of fact, the
bed of La Roise presents to a visitor the ordinary appearance of the bed of
a torrent. The repaired barriers are surmounted by deposits, and the old
state of things appears to be exactly reproduced at a higher level.
" According to M. Marechal, Ingdnieur des Pouts et Chaussees, the experi-
ment tried on the Riou-Bourdoux has not been more successful ; the banier
has perished through defective or vicious construction."
M. Cezanne states, in concluding, that notw^ithstanding failures, which
have followed a practical application of it, which have been made, in some
of which the failure was attributable to unsatisfactory workmanship,
engineers who have to do w^ith torrents, but who have not had much
personal experience in connection with torrential phenomena, will read with
much profit the memoir by M. Gras ; they will find a great many facts
carefully noted, and will learn how to make observations themselves. And
others who have w^ritten upon the subject go, I may mention, far beyond
this in their commendations of the measure proposed by M. Gras.
In regard to triage^ selection or successive deposit of materials of different
H
82 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS,
bulk or gravity, a subject underlying the proposal of M. Gras, M. C6zanne
wi'ites, — " The triage of the matters borne along is very strongly marked in
toiTents which tend to extinction, or only, if the case be so, to take a rigime
of greater constancy. It happens even that the lesser stones, &c., being
all borne along, there remain only the larger ; the bed is then furnished
with a self-created rockery, which energetically resists erosion, and as a
necessary consequence the torrent cannot deepen the channel in which it
flows. It is then necessary to give some assistance to the torrent, and the
larger blocks are removed and ranged along the bank. The water
re-collected between these rude embankments digs away anew. This
system is much used in Switzerland. The course to be followed is this :
replant with woods these parts of the basin in which this can be done ; and
when the torrent shows a tendency to cut a bed in the dejection, facilitate
the process by removing the self-formed rockwork of blocks denuded by
the triage."
In 1865 was published Memoire sur les barrages de rete7iue des graviers
dans les gorges des Torrents, by M. Philippi Breton, Ingenieur des ponts et
Chauss6es. Of this M. C6zanne says, — " This treatise may be justly charac-
terized a treatise on torrential geometry ; the author demonstrates in it,
with beautiful clearness and distinctness, the principal theories which relate
to the transport of gravel, — to the profile or outline of the bed of deposit, —
to the different kinds of cones thus formed, the troncature or section of
which, and the reproduction of which, are explained by beautiful sketches
taken from nature."
Of the design of the work, M.Breton writes, — ''Different questions connected
with the establishment of barrages, or barriers, for the retention of gravel, have
been raised and discussed. But, notwithstanding all that has been done, it
appears to me that ideas in regard to what results are to be expected from
these barrages are still vague, varied, and undetermined; there is still a great
want of decision in regard to selection of location, to the number of barrages
to be employed, to the best or most suitable means of constructing them,
and to the duration of their efficiency. After having reflected long on these
subjects, I have come to be of opinion that, to preserve a plain from invasion
by a torrent which debouches on it, it is necessary to establish, in the first
place, a single barrage, situated at the outlet of the gorge, or very near to
this ; then a second barrage at some metres [or yards], and not more, above
the first, when that one shall cease to be efficacious ; then a third at some
metres above the second, when this in its turn shall have completed the
service it can render ; and so on. Such is the subject of this memoir."
" From this it appears," says M. Cezanne, " that the proposal of M. Breton
is the very opposite of that of M. Scipion Gras, submitted eight years ago ;
he speaks not of barriers but slightly raised above the level of the bed, or
of silts stretching across expansions in that bed, but of solid massive walls,
carried up as high as possible by successive stages into the throat of a
gorge, and constructed, not of blocks bound to one another by chains, but
of hydraulic masonry of the strongest that can be obtained.
^^ Barrages in which wood is employed to meet the want of cohesion in
gravel, last (says he) but for a short time, — for the wood, buried half of its
bulk in the gravel, often dry and often wet, will quickly rot, as quickly as do
the Cabrettes, and more quickly than do the coffers known under the name
of arks (arches) in the mountains of Dauphiny and Provence, liarrages
MBMOIRE BY rniLTPPI nRETON. 83
constructed entirely of rockwork, and thoso constructed of dry stones, never
cost much less, :uid tlicy sometimes cost more, than tliosc Imilt with Roman
cement, and these have a great advantage over the others in their greater
cohesion. As soon as a breach occurs at any height in a barrage of rocks
or dry stones, the violent current, passing through the breach, begins at
once to enlarge it, and it soon eftects a great destruction. In the hydraulic
masonry any opening can only enlarge itself slowly, and the flood will have
exhausted itself before the destruction has become serious.
*' In saying what I have done I am only extending to bankers retaining
gravel the practical rule adopted in the department of Is6re for longitudinal
dykes. M. Picol, and the engineers under his orders, have often remarked
that a dry- stone dyke is rent from the bottom to tho top when a small
breach has been made in the foundation. Wishing to make these observa-
tions complete by comparison, they made the experiment of building with
stones set in good hydraulic mortar. The experiment was not long in
revealing — first, that the dykes so constructed did not cost much more than
did those built of dry stones, as they could build with smaller material, and
they did not require to give the same thickness to the wall ; and then,
what is of primary importance, that a wall built with good mortar can
sustain a considerable destruction at its base without being instantly rent
to the top, for the part above sustains itself in the condition of an arch or
vault ; and thus time is afforded for assistance."
After having discussed in detail the different questions which are
connected with barrages, M. Breton thus meets an objection which is often
brought up : — " I have frequently heard educated and intelligent men
object against the system of retaining gravel by barrages the danger of a
rupture in the works. When these works shall have amassed a great mass
of gravel behind them, if a rupture should occur, that entire mass, so
retained above its level, would, it is said, suddenly begin to move, and
would produce a frightful catastrophe below. And as a proof in support of
this fear they adduce the effects attributed to the sudden emptying of the
Lake St Laurent, w^iich, escaping from the plain of the Oisans, laid waste
the valleys of the Romanche, and of the Drac, as far as to Grenoble. They
might adduce, in like manner, the lamentable disasters produced in a single
night by the rupture of the reservoir at Sheffield ! But they forget that in
these two cases, as in all others which may be cited in which the rupture
of a reservoir has caused a sudden catastrophe at a lower level, the state-
ment refersjto a reservoir of water, and not to a reservoir of sand, and earth,
and gravel.
" It is thus that I have no dread of this objection, if the work be judged of
only by builders accustomed to see the movements of water, and of sand
and gravel, and know the difference between them ; never will an engineer
bring himself to believe that gravel will flow as does water."
Numerous cases illustrative of the effects of the rupture of a barrage are
then given. But M. Breton, while writing thus, is not unmindful of the
importance of the boiseriient or gazonnement of the basin drained by the
torrent. He admits distinctly that it is vegetation which has the power to
extinguish torrents ; he only proposes barrages as a temporary expedient
against torrents which cannot be prevented, as are sometimes those connec-
ted with glaciers, or as temporary appliances where, through the strength
of prejudice or legal difficulties, the forest treatment must be for a consider-
able time postponed.
84 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
In the same year, 1865, there was published in Lausanne, a Rapport au
Conseil Federal sur les Torrents des Alpes S^iisses, insp)ecih en 1858, 1859,
1860, and 1863, par M. le Professeur C^dmann. Of this work M. Cezanne
writes, — " Switzerland is a land privileged indeed ; the philosopher, the
artist, the humble foot-soldier — in a word, every one, whatever may be the
tendency of his mind, finds there numerous subjects of study. By hundreds
of thousands, tourists, from both worlds, annually visit this classic land of
noble landscapes, of natural science, and of freedom." He mentions in a
foot note, that he was informed, by the monks of the great Saint Bernard,
that they lodge upon an average 40,000 visitors annually, and sometimes
800 in a single day at the height of the season. And he goes on to say, —
" Looked at from the point of view of our study, Switzerland is seen to be a
protuberance, like a boss on a shield, which rises above the lofty plateaux
of Europe ; it is a reservoir, whence water is distributed ; it is also a laboratory,
whence issue many thousand torrents — working away, in combination with
the glaciers, to level down the rough and rugged back of our planet. All
of these waters, flowing from the eternal snows, precipitate themselves in
cascades to the depths of the valleys below ; they keep on, ever sowing anew
with their alluvial deposits the basins of a hundred score of lakes ; thence,
partially clarified, they escape towards the four points of the compass to
throw themselves into four seas, after having watered Germany by the
Danube and the Rhine, France by the Rhine, and Italy by the Po and the
Adige.
" The engineers of this country, brought up within the sound of the
torrents, and accustomed from infancy to the thousand caprices of the moun-
tain streams, quickly acquire a special experience in this matter. They are
little given to generalizations, to systematic theories, to geometrical
definitions; they give themselves more to the study of particulars, and seek
out for each case a special solution adapted to the local circumstances.
And such is the character of the work of M. Culmann.
" In 1856, the rainfall which devastated France did not spare Switzerland ;
the Federal Council bestirred itself and commissioned M. Culmann, one of
the most distinguished students of hydraulics, to go through the whole of the
cantons, and to report, in regard to each torrent, on the evil and the
remedy. And at the same time, to meet the public demand, which attributed
justly to the destruction of forests the ravages of the torrents, a commission
was organized and appointed to report at the same time in regard to the forests.
The two reports have been published in German and in French. They
agree on the conservation effected by forests. That of M. Culmann relates
more especially to those water-courses connected with which the mechanical
appliance of the engineer is required to come to the aid of reboisemenU
" The report of M. Culmaim passes in review many hundreds of torrents ;
it is a repertory of isolated facts, well observed, calmly stated, with simple
demonstrative sketches." .
With regard to boisement find gazonnement, he says, — " In Switzerland, as
elsewhere, the evils produced by torrents is not a necessary evil ; it takes
birth often from the waste and recklessness of the inhabitants. The
principal remedy, and the only one which is decisive and definite, is the
boisement or gazonnement, which stifles the evil at its source, prlnclpiis obsta.
The cantons which have given attention to their forests have been least
attacked; those which have devastated them— in particular the Italian
cantons — are threatened, as are the High Alps of France, with complete
RAPPORT OP M. OULMANN. 85
ruin.** And he gives a great many examples of cases in which, in conse-
quence of tlic giubbing up of a wooded place, a torrent, which till then had
been inoflensive, became all at once dangerous.
M. Culniann attaches greater importance to the initiative being taken by
the people, than to interventions by the Covcrnment ; and he cites facts in
support of his opinion. But he attaches, I may say, primary importance to
securing connected action by all interested ; of the advantages of which, and
the disadvantages arising out of the want of it, he gives facts in illustration.
Proceeding to the consideration of mechanical works of engineering, he
recommends — (1) The clearing of the w^ater-courses of all large blocks resting
there, in which he is supported by M. Cezanne ; (2) The erection, when and
W'here it may be expedient, of barrages and dykes or embankments.
'* In regard to such w^orks, the theory of M. Culmann," says M. Cezanne,
" may be stated thus : — Barrages are but a temporary expedient to be
employed w^hile aw^aiting reboisement ; it is necessary to construct them in a
series, commencing from below ; w^hen the first barrier is filled to the level
with gravel, then should be constructed a second behind it, and so on
continuously."
Barrages are the preferable structures to erect against torrents, dykes or
embankments against rivers. With these, as with barrages^ it is necessary
to proceed from below upw^ards.
Barrages constructed of faciues or of wood, &c., when but a temporary
effect is to be produced, are often preferable to those of stones or of masonry,
because they accommodate themselves to movements in the bed. Structures
of facines form a moveable enclosure, on which vegetation easily establishes
itself; barrages, constructed with hurdles, are very useful in ravines, and
even on sinking slopes ; but in general stone-works are preferable to those
constructed of wood ; these, however, are very serviceable in cantons in
which the population employ them. "All the barrages in torrents con-
structed hitherto in Switzerland," says he, "have proved beneficial; all
the people who have made use of them have showed themselves satisfied
with them."
Eiyis, or stakes, avail nothing against torrents, or against mountain rivers ;
they are available only against peaceful rivers, bearing along but little solid
matter suspended in- their waters, and this composed only of sand and
small gravel, and not of blocks, w^hich are able to attack the bank and
change the direction of the liquid stream. " The stockade of these," M.
Culmann says, " should form a continuous line ; for if some do not reach to
this, and others go beyond it, the current, thrown from one bank to the
other, may do greater damage than if there had been no works of enclosure.
The einSj or stakes, should be sufficiently close to the bank to prevent any loop
or expansion of w^ater being formed between them ; and the less the banks
the closer should they be. In mountain banks the space is so limited that
continuous dykes are less costly.
" In Bavaria, for example, the lower Danube is too small to allow^ of the
system of stockade being applied ; they are under the necessity of adding a
more or less extended wdng to the back of each spike — that is to say, to
construct immediately a portion of the future bank. They have also aban-
doned the system of spikes along the Rhine, where they were greatly
attached to it, and where they now construct continuous embankments of
facines. Stakes can no longer be employed along the Lech ; and since the
alteration of the coiu'se of the Liiith, they have become satisfied that parallel
86 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
dykes are much better suited for the enclosure of this small water-course.
And on all the lower channel of the Linth, they have little by little replaced
with these the stakes wherever these were not absolutely necessary."
M. Culmann then reports in detail in regard to the location and construction
of bridges; and on the phenomena and effects of glaciers, torrents, avalanches,
and landslips.
The former subject is of local importance ; and the information communi-
cated may be utilized, to some extent, by any employed in making surveys
for roads and bridges ; but in every case local circumstances have such an
effect in determining operations that it is deemed unnecessary to cite the
views advanced. With regard to glaciers, torrents, avalanches, and land-
slips, the case may seem to be similar. But avalanches, at least, are not
confined to Alpine regions ; and though woods may prevent the formation
of a landslip, they cannot arrest its progress when once in motion. There
is not a little in the graphic details of engineering operations given by
M. Culmann in this chapter of his work which commands attention and
illustrates the importance of the work.
" Torrents issuing from glaciers," says M. Cezanne, " are numerous iu
Switzerland ; they are subject to formidable cUhddes, or outbursts of water,
when the glacier in its movements of going and coming, after having
dammed up some secondary valley, gives free passage all at once to its
waters. To prevent such evils is for the engineer a formidable undertaking,
and a difficult problem. How contend against a glacier 1 What physical
force can he bring against the mass which is being unceasingly renewed by
the ever recurring winters, and which, making use of the hardest rocks, trans-
porting blocks of stupendous size by a movement almost imperceptible,
would annihilate the most irresistible work of man 1 Here are two cases
reported in which a simple idea sufficed to vanquish the inert Colossus :
" The glacier d'Aletsh, an affluent of the Rhine (Valais), dammed up a
small lateral valley, situated behind the Eggishchorn, and created thus the
lake of Meerjelen. ' This lake,' says M. Agassiz, in his Etudes 8ur les GlacierSy
' was formerly more extensive than it is now ; and when it happened that
the melting of the snow and ice became excessive, it would often happen
that the whole of this body of water would with violence eat away an outlet
under the glacier, and occasion the greatest destructive ravages in the
bottom of the valley. To obviate this they dug, in the direction of the
glacier of Viesch, an artificial channel to this lake, which could no longer
rise above the level of its orifice. The ice did not rest immediately on the
water ; there was, on the contrary, between the bottom of the glacier and
the surface of the water a space of some centimetres, perhaps an inch or
two, occasioned by the temperature of the lake being always during summer
higher than that of the glacier. By means of this space, enormous blocks
of ice often detach themselves and float on the surface of the lake, imitating
exactly the floating icebergs of northern regions.'
'' But the most characteristic example is that furnished by the glacier of
Gi6troz — the assault made against which is somewhat dramatic, and
exceedingly interesting :
*' At the bottom of tlie valley of Bagncs, one of the branches of the Drausc,
at sixteen kilometres, or about twelve miles from Chables, there rises
vertically a high wall of rocks, surmounted by the glacier of Gictroz. The
moving mass protrudes itself^ projects beyond the support, and falls at the
GUIDE JOANNE. H7
foot of the precipice ; the brol^en frap:ments congeal anew and form a cone-
shaped glacier, wliicli pushes before it its moraine. What ensues must be
given in the narrative of Guidn Joanne : — * In those years in which
avalanches are very frequent the lieat of summer does not suffice to melt a
quantity of ice equal to what the mountains cast down. The enormous
block which then forms a bridge on the Drause becomes always larger and
larger, and as the arch of this bridge, dug in summer by the torrent, closes
up in winter, it happened in 1597, and in our own times, in 1818, that
the early months of spring sufficed not for the Drause to open for itself a
passage, and a lake was formed behind the ice.
" 'When this became known (wrote M. Simond, some months after the
event), alarm spread at once, not only throughout the whole valley but in
Le Valais, and on so far as Italy. Travellers feared to take the route of
the Simplon ; it was felt that when this dyke should come to break up
there w^ould be there a sudden debacle which would sweep over the country
to a great distance. The preceding winter had been severe ; the ice had
even then cast a dam across the valley, but without stopping the water,
which had eaten out a passage for itself ; but a second severe winter had
produced such a fall of ice that the obstacle had become insurmountable
and impervious.
" ' The Government sent an engineer (M. Venetz) ; he found that the dyke
was 110 toises (nearly 700 feet) in length from the one mountain to the
other, 66 toises (or about 400 feet) in height, and 500 (or 3000 feet) in
thickness at its base. The lake was 1200 toises (or upwards of 7000 feet)
in length, and had already risen to half the height of the dyke, that is to
say, was from 30 to 40 toises (from 180 to 240 feet) in depth. The engineer
determined to cut a gallery or tunnel through the thickness of the ice,
beginning 54 feet above the actual level of the lake, to give time to complete
the work before that height should be reached by the accumulating waters,
which were rising at the rate of from 1 to 5 feet per day, according to the
temperature; and he began the work on the 11th of May at both ends of
the tunnel. Fifty men in relays, relieving one another alternately, wrought
there night and day at the peril of their lives, — one and another of the
avalanches which were falling every moment threatening to bury them alive
in the tunnel ; many were wounded by lumps of ice, or had their feet
frozen, and the ice was so hard that it frequently broke the pick-axes used.
In despite of all these difficulties the work advanced rapidly. On the 27th
of May a great piece of the dyke broke off from the bottom with a fearful
crash ; it was believed that the whole was about to break up, or to rise in
a mass, and the workmen fled ; but soon they courageously resumed their
work. Similar accidents occurred repeatedly ; some of the floating masses,
calculating from the distance at which they stood above water, must have
had a thickness of 70 feet submerged. On the 4th June the tunnel, 608
feet long, was cut from end to end ; but as it had an elevation of 20 feet or
more in the centre it was necessary to level it. The weather had been cold,
and the lake had not yet risen to the level of the mouth of the tunnel, so
they continued to lower this till the 13th, the day on which the flow
commenced, at ten o'clock at night. The lake still rose for some hours ;
but next day at five o'clock in the afternoon it had sunk 1 foot ; on the
morning of the 15th, 10 feet ; on the morning of the 16th, 30 feet ; at two
o'clock that day the length of the lake had shrunk 325 toises (nearly 2000
feet), for the tunnel, being continually eaten away, lowered itself as quickly
88 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS,
as the lake. The Drause flowed, filled from bank to bank, but without
overflowiDg, and a few days more would have sufficed to empty the immense
reservoir.
"' But detonations in the interior of the dyke annoimced that gla^ions,
blocks and pillars of ice, were detaching themselves from the mass, through
their low specific gravity, and were thus diminishing the thickness of the
dyke on the side towards the lake, while the current out of the tunnel was
eating away this dyke on the outer side, and was threatening a sudden
rupture ] the danger increasing^ the engineer despatched from time to time
expresses to warn the inhabitants to keep themselves on the out-look. The
water began to make way under the ice, sweeping along the stones and
earth at its base under the tunnel ; the crisis appeared inevitable and close
at hand. At half-past four o'clock in the afternoon a tremendous crash
announced the rupture of the ice-work ; the water of the lake shot along
with fury indescribable ; it formed a torrent 100 feet in height, which
traversed the first 6 leagues, or 18 miles, in forty minutes, although kept
back in many places by narrow gorges through which it had to pass,
carrying off in its course 130 chalets or cottages, a whole forest, and an
immense quantity of earth and of stones. Debouching over against Chables,
the chief place of the valley, the water was seen pushing before it a moving-
mountain of all kinds of debris of 300 feet in height, from which was rising
a thick black cloud like the smoke of a conflagration. An English
traveller, Mr P., of Lausanne, accompanied by a young artist, and a guide,
was returning from seeing the works, and going towards Chables ; happen-
ing by chance to turn round, he saw advancing with fearful rapidity the
moving column, the distant roar of which he had not heard through the
noise made by the Drause. He hastily warned his two companions and three
other travellers who had joined them ; all leapt from their mules, scrambled
up the mountain, and got safely beyond the sweep of the deluge, which
filled in an instant the whole gorge beneath them. But Mr P. was nowhere
to be seen; for some hours they believed him to be lost; but then they
learned that his mule, shying at an overturned tree which she saw on the
road, wheeling round, saw all at once an object far more dreadful close upon
her, and, darting off towards the mountain, had carried him far away from
the scene of danger.
" ' From Chables the debacle arrived at Martigny — 4 leagues, or 12 miles,
distant — in 50 minutes, carrying off, as it advanced, 35 houses, 8 mills, 95
barns, but only 9 people, and no cattle, the inhabitants having all been
warned to be on guard. The village of Bovcrnier was saved by a jutting
rock turning off the flow of the torrent ; and the people saw it pass like a
shot by the side of the village without touching it, although much higher
than their heads. The rocks and stones were dropped before it arrived at
Martigny, blasting with sterility extensive meadows and fertile fields.
« ' There it divided, but 800 of the houses of this town were carried away,
many others were damaged, and the streets were strewn with trees and
earthen debris ; 34 people only appear to have lost their lives there, the
inhabitants having betiikcn themselves to the mountains.
" ' Below Martigny the debacle, finding a great plain, spread itself out and
deposited a great deal of mud and wood, and tliat to such an extent as to
render healtiiful, as was hoped, a great marsh tliere. The Rhone received
it little by little, and at difierent parts of its course, without overflowing ;
it reached the lake of Geneva at eleven o'clock at night, and was lost in
RAPPORT OF M. CULMANN. 89
the grcfit extent of that hike, — havnig traversed a course of 18 leagues, or
upwards of 50 miles, tlirough Switzerland, in six hours and a-half, by a
movement gradually retarded.
" * All the bridges having been carried away, the inhabitants on the two
sides of the Drauso could have no communication for some days, or inform
one another of their respective losses, but by throwing across the river
notes attached to stones ; and the putrifying slime threatened them with
an epidemic. It is somewhat remarkable that an old man of ninety-two
saved himself by getting on a hillock supposed to have been formed by a
debacle in ancient times ; the new one followed him to the very summit, where
he maintained his footing by the aid of a tree which w\as not carried away.
" ' M. Escher estimated at eight hundred millions of cubic feet the mass of
water which had accumulated at the time it began to flow out by the
tunnel. This mass had been reduced to five hundred and thirty millions
in the course of the three days following, and the level of the lake was
lowered by 45 feet. If the tunnel had not been made the lake would have
risen 50 feet higher, and the mass of water would have attained a measure-
ment of seventeen hundred and fifty millions of cubic feet when it began to
flow over the dyke, instead of the five hundred and thirty millions to which
it had been reduced when it began to pass across the tunnel, and would
have spread its ravages over the whole of the lower Valais.' "
M. Culmann goes on to say, — " When, in the course of the winter of
1821-22, the dyke of ice threatened to form again, and had already covered
about 400 metres, or upw^ards of 1300 feet, of the bed of the Drause,
M. Venetz undertook to destroy this mass of ice, the face of which
measured 22,300 square metres.
" He succeeded completely in doing this by the help of w^ooden aqueducts,
leading on to the glacier streamlets of water from the mountain Alia, heated
in some measure by passing over the rock ; by these means were made great
gashes, w^hich detached blocks of 800 and 1000 cubic feet in measurement.
In falling down, these broke in pieces, w^hich were carried away by the Drause.
"After having destroyed the cone of the glacier, from 1822 to 1824, M.
Venetz undertook precautionary works to prevent the blocks of ice precipi-
tating themselves anew to the depth of the valley. He constructed simple
barriers across the valley over against the glacier. The summits of these
are perfectly straight and horizontal ; they produce thus so great a lateral
extension of the surface of the water, that the ice-work cannot make a vault
across it. The blocks of ice fall, then, always into the waters, remain con-
stantly in contact with this, and melt away by degrees. Thus the stream
can never be covered up, and the blocks of ice cannot precipitate themselves
further. From the time that the cone overhangs, by 2 or 3 metres, 7 or 10
feet, the stream which has dug away its base, the portion in front detaches
itself, and is borne away. These sometimes fall beyond the stream, and
form a small glacier at the side of the moraine, on the left bank. And these
masses maintain their ground sometimes for a pretty long time, but they
can never cover up completely the stream.
" From that time onward — that is to say, from 1826 — these barrages
have sufficed to prevent the ice-work from covering up the Drause, and thus
damming up the valley.
" In acknowledging the great merit of these w^orks, we may express the
w^ish that the engineers of this canton could be enabled always to avail them-
selves of the means necessary to maintain such useful structures, so as to
I
90 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
erect similar ones in other valleys — amongst others, in those of Saas and
of the Massa."
These extracts, from the report of M. Culmann, will suffice to show how
interesting this report is for engineers who have to do with torrents.
As yet comparatively little had been done to carry out i^eboisement and
gazonnement in France. M. Culmann visited the High Alps, having had his
attention directed to several of the works published in regard to the torrents
of that region, and the remedies proposed by Fabre and Surell, and advo-
cated by others. And he thus reports on what he saw, — " Our expectations
were disappointed. One torrent alone had been subdued, and that not one
of the most formidable of them ; it was not in the basin of the Durance, so
cut up with ravines, but in the comparatively peaceful one of the Is^re. In
what is, properly speaking, the domain of the torrents, they have made
an experiment in reboisement by a plantation of pines, of some thirty or forty
acres in extent, in the hassin de reception of the formidable torrent of Chorges.
" These, and some few others, on the smaller mountain banks, are the
only practical results which all the studies of the engineers have produced
since the close of the last century. . . In no country is the Administra-
tion des Fonts et Chauss6es so centralized and so well organized as in France ;
but in whatever direction we look we are saddened by the painful impression
that a state of things far superior, previously existing, has been brought to
nought. It may be asked, perhaps — Why then devote so much time to it %
And what has the condition of a foreign land to do with Switzerland ?
" We were convinced that our general description of torrents could not be
closed more advantageously than in showing how a country has, little by
little, been brought to a state of ruins, when its population did nothing to
maintain it — did nothing but consume the products of the soil, and sought
not by any natural or artificial process to repair their losses, or to preserve
its power of production.
" Let this state of things be considered by us while it is not yet too late ;
and let no one reply, — We shall never sink so low as that ; if the country be
more and more neglected — if its condition be allowed to go on becoming
worse for an indefinite length of time — it will end, as will also its population,
in differing so little from what we have just described that their conditions
will be identical."
M. Cezanne remarks on this, — "It is humiliating to meet with such a testi-
mony in an official document, published in two languages, by a foreign Govern-
ment, and spread over the whole of Europe. It is a canton of our own
France which has thus been pointed out to all as an example of the evils
to which inertness of administration may lead. It is in vain that eloquent
appeals have been made since the commencement of the century ; nothing
has been done, and the ruins of the valley of the Beouse, in Devoluy,
described by Surell, are still there to supply a subject for heart-rending
pictures."
If these severe observations be now no longer true — if anything has been
done — thanks to the law of 28th July 1860 on the reboisement of the moun-
tains, and above all to that of the 8th June 18G4 on gazovvnricnt. The last,
I may state, was passed in the year following the com})lcti()n of M. Culmann's
tours of inspection; and translations of the text of both laws, with documents
connected with them, will be given in a subsequent Part of this compilation.
I found in a paper which appeared in Revise des Eaiix et Forcts, for
UEVUE DE8 EAUX ET FOHETH. 91
April 1866, the following striking illustration of the effect of woods on
torrents : — " The State possesses, in the department of Vancluse (says
the forest conservator, Labuissiere), a forest of more than 30U0 hectares,
situated on the portion of the mountain Luberon nearest to the valley of
the Durance. This region is very much cut up, and traversed in all direc-
tions by very narrow and deeply embanked ravines in the midst of masses
more or less dense of Aleppo pines and green oaks.
''These ravines are almost the only outlets for the transport of wood, in
consequence of the difficulties which would be encountered, and the expense
which would be incurred, in making more practicable ones on the rapid
declivities, strewn with enormous masses of rock. There exists one so
situated, called the Ravine de Saint-Phalez. The direction is from north
to south, in the midst of a mass of Aleppo pines iu a state of growth more
or less compact.
" Its length, and for four kilomHres, or from the road from Cavaillon to
Pertuis, to the domain of Saint-Phalez, of an area of about 50 hectares,
forms the ha^sin de reception of the torrent.
" This land is well cultivated ; there are no declivities too steep for
cultivation ; it comprises vineyards, meadows, and arable land ; the soil is
argillaceous.
" The ravine of Saint-Phalez receives many affluents, the most important
of which is that of the Combe-d'Yeuse, which joins it near the summit,
where are some hundred metres of the cultivated grounds of which I have
spoken.
" The ravine de la Combe d'Yeuse is of much less considerable length
than that of Saint-Phalez j it is scarcely two kilometres. It is strongly em-
banked, surmounted by steep declivities, covered with green oaks of eight
or ten years' growth, and with Aleppo pines of different ages. Its hassin de
reception^ of about 250 hectares, or 113 acres, comprises the whole slope,
precipitately inclined, with a general south-west aspect j it is closed at the
top by a deep bed of rock cut into peaks of the most imposing aspect.
" The geological formation is absolutely the same, as are all the other
conditions, at all the points which I have examined. In no part is to be
seen either spring or appearance of humidity ; no water is seen excepting
at the time of the storms or great rains, and this water soon passes away,
with the differences which will afterw^ards be mentioned. At all other
times these ravines are of a desolating aridity.
" In the night of the 2d and 3d of September 1864 there fell a rather
abundant rain over all this portion of the mountain. In the morning the
argillaceous grounds of Saint-Phalez w^ere saturated, of which evidence was
found by anyone attempting to cross them. The ravine of Saint-Phalez, the
receptacle of the surplus water, had flowed but slightly , that of the Combe-
d'Yeuse remained dry.
" The day of the 4th September was very warm ; a water-spout borne
along by a south-west wind struck on the Luberon. Its passage did not
last more than forty minutes ; but scarcely had it come when the torrent
of Saint-Phalez became awful. Its maximum deliverance was about two
cubic metres. It did not flow more than fifty minutes, but with an average
delivery of half a cubic metre ; it had then passed in all 15,000 cubic
metres of water. Its height had been 0-04 m. ; each square metre had
received 40 litres, and the 50 hectares of Saint-Phalez 20,000 cubic metres.
The ground had only retained 5000, which is sufliciently explained by their
92 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
argillaceous character and their state of saturation the night before. While
the torrent of Saint-Phalez flowed, filled from bank to bank, seizing and
carrying off rocks which had been employed to form a road which was
believed to be safe against all contingencies, that of the Combe-d'Yeusc and
all those traversing wooded lands remained dry, or gave only an insignifi-
cant quantity of water.
*' On the slope opposite to that of which I have been speaking, in the valley
of the Peyne, a carriage-road newly formed did not experience the least
injury throughout the whole of the portion of it passing through the forest
of the domain ; but at its issue, on the lands of the Libaude and of the
Koquette, it had been, so to say, destroyed. A cart loaded with faggots was
upset and smashed by the w^aters, which flowed from all the cultivated
slopes, and tore along, with the noise of thunder, at the bottom of the ravine.
" My good fortune secured to me another subject of study on the same
ground.
" On the 25th October following I went to the sale of the fellings of the
Tarascon, where there fell an abundant rain. The next day (the 26th) the
weather was clouded. I set off* for the Luberon in the hope of arriving
there at the same time as would a storm of rain, which I saw approaching.
I arrived first ; the ravine of Saint-Phalez was still moist, from the passage
in small quantity of the waters of the night before ; they had served, as
appetired, to saturate the lands of the domain, as had previously happened
on the 7th [3rd ?] September.
" I had scarcely gone over two kilometres in the ravine when the water
began to rush with great violence ; ten minutes later it precipitated itself
in its ordinary canal cVecoulement, completing the work of destruction begun
in the month of September. The lands of Saint-Phalez had then absorbed
but little or none of the water that day.
" The storm was not of long duration — an hour at most. The time was
unfavourable for collecting on the ground exact measurements, but I reckon
that the torrent delivered, at its maximum, somewhat less water, perhaps,
than on the 4th of September. The flood, however, was more frightful ; it
swept away rocks with so much the greater ease that nothing had been
repaired since the first storm, which had left the stones dug out, and
without bond of cohesion among themselves.
" To gain the forester's house, Avhicli was on the slope of the left bank, it
was necessary to make a long circuit — to go round the domain of Saint-
Phalez, and to cross the grounds belonging to it, in which one sank to the
depth of 0*30 metres, or 12 inches. Before arriving at my home I had
still before me the ravine of the Combe-d'Yeuse, and I feared I should be
stopped there by a new obstacle. I was agreeably surprised to find it dry.
An hour after the storm the ravine of Saint-Phalez had ceased to flow.
" It rained throughout the whole of the 28th without there being anything
to remark similar to what had happened on the preceding days. The
only effect of this was that, on the evening of the 30th, near the forester's
house, and at 200 or 300 metres from tlie ravine of Saint-Phalez, there was
seen coming down, in that of Yeuse, a small fillet of clear water ; its volume
increased perceptibly during three days, to diminish in like manner during
the two which followed ; its passage broke down a little of the foot-path
which goes along the valley, but caused only a damage easily repaired.
This foot-path did not present the same solidity of structure as tliat of
the Combe dc Saint-Phalez, built on enormous blocks of rock which had
REVDB DBS EAUX ET POUETS. 03
stood for several yCcars, and which had allowed of passage with a w^aggon some
days botbre its destruction by the storm in September. If the Combe-
d'Yeusc had yielded as much water as that of Phalez, and if these two
masses of water had come at the same time, tlie damage caused in the plain
wouUl have been considerable, and the Durance, which received these waters,
would have been so much the larger.
" Thus we have two torrents very near and under the same conditions —
except that the basin drained by the one comprises /50 hectars of culti-
vated lands, that of the other 250 hectares of woodlands. The first receives,
and allows to flow away, the waters of the greater part of a storm in a few
hours at most, causing thereby considerable damage ; the second, which
had received a greater quantity of rain, stores it — keeps it for two days —
evidently retaining a portion of it, and takes three or four days to yield up
the surplus, which it does in the form of a limpid and inoffensive stream.
" The day on which I took the notes w^hich I have copied in part I did
not think they would ever be of use to me ; what I had seen taught me
nothing new ; my old convictions had been simply confirmed, and I
remained anew persuaded that it w^as imprudent to deny what the inhabi-
tants of the country — better observers and more clear-sighted, when acting
for their own interests or their own property, than is generally supposed —
have long affirmed, supporting their allegations on abstract theories. What
I had just seen in the Combe-d'Yeuse, however, had roused my curiosity.
I wished to know if it had been remarked before, and that invariably.
With this view I held a kind of inquest ; I interrogated an old warden and
woodman, and wood-merchants of the country.
" I will tell in a few words what I learned from them.
" Before 1(S40 the fellings of the Luberon were sold with powder to bud
the Aleppo pine ; the prescribed period of exploitation was ten years.
"From 1823 to 1833 the whole of the Combe-d'Yeuse was exploited.
The grow^th w^as composed principally of green oaks ; the Aleppo pine was
only found in clumps, often very sparse of trees, scattered over the W'hole
surface.
" In 1829, the year of the building of the forester's house, the Combe-
d'Yeuse yielded such a great quantity of water that enormous trunks of
pine lying in the ravine, or on the slopes, were carried away by the torrent.
The mason who built the house has confirmed to me the correctness of this
last statement, telling me that the day after the storm the purchasers ran
over the plain below the road from Cavillon to Pertuis to seek out their
timber, scattered about and half-buried in the ground. It is probable that
at that day the basins of reception of Saint-Phalez and of Yeuse being in
pretty much the same conditions, the waters arrived at the same time in
the canal cCecoulcment. It is easy to conceive what damage they occasioned
to the rich cultivated lands on the banks of the Durance.
" From 1829 to 1810 the Combe-d'Yeuse only twice yielded a little water.
" At this time the woods were on an average of twelve years' growth ; the
green oak-lopped and well-exploited had sprouted again with vigour, and
were covering the soil, to which they already gave protection. It must not
be forgotten that it was in 1840 that there occurred the great inundation of
the Rhone, which drove the sheep from the Crau-d' Aries ; and the forest of
Luberon afforded them shelter, which saved them from certain death.
" Some time before there had been made a barrage — barrier, or wear — at
the outlet of the Combe-d'Yeuse where the passage is straitest ; it stopped
94 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS,
a considerable quantity of water, estimated at 24,000 cubic metres by M.
Couniaud, land surveyor; the warders bathed in it, and it was of such a depth
that they could swim in it. Unhappily, this water could not be retained,
in consequence of so many fissures in the rock and the rapid percolation
through the soil ; and they broke down this harrage, which had been built
with such great hopes, to facilitate the bringing out the timber of the last
exploitation in 1856.
"In 1843 there was still water in the Combe-d'Yeuse ; there was no more
seen until 1856, but from this time onward the water flowed almost every
year only in small quantities. But the year 1862 must be excepted ;
although much less rain fell than in 1864, it delivered much more water
into the ravine ; but this it did without causing damage worth speaking of.
" The comparison of all these dates seems to me to supply valuable instruc-
tion. If the woods be young the ravine flows every year, often causing
thereby considerable damage. As their age augments it flows at intervals
more and more remote, and ends in being almost completely extinguished.
" These conclusions will not astonish foresters who have been accustomed
to the exploitations of copse wood. For, slight as may be the slope of the
ground with a light soil, the annual fellings are cut into ravines by a single
storm, whilst nothing like this is to be seen in the felling at its side, which
has grown for 20 or 25 years, according as the one or other of these rota-
tions of the fellings has been adopted."
In 1849 there appeared a pamphlet by A. Marschand, entitled Ueher die
Entwaldung der Gebirge, which was published at Bern; and in 1872 was
published, at Arbois, Les Torrents des Alpes et le PaUwage, j^^ar M. L.
Marschand, Garde Genercd des Forets, Ancien eleve de VEcole Forestiere.
The preparation of this treatise was undertaken at the suggestion of M.
Fare, Directeur general de V Administration des Forets. It embodies the
results of observations made during a residence of seven years in the valley
of Barcelonette, and during a tour of observation in the Austrian Alps, and
observations made in Switzerland, whither M. Marschand had been commis-
sioned to go to complete his study of the subject.
The attention of M. Marschand was given, primarily and chiefly, to
torrrents and the means to be employed to arrest and counteract them \
attention was also given to pasturing of flocks and herds on the mountains
as the original cause or occasion of the destruction of forests, which destruc-
tion of forests had been followed by the appearance of the torrents in tho
regions in which they are so numerous. Every facility was given to him
by the forest authorities, officials, and subordinate employhy in the prosecu-
tion of his studies ; and he states that by them were furnished many of the
documents and ideas embodied in his treatise.
M. Marschand appears to have been led to conclude that the effects pro-
duced by trees, observed by Surell and others, was, primarily and principally,
if not exclusively, produced by their roots ; and by these modifying the
hydroscopicity, capillarity, and permeability, of the soil and subsoil ; and
that this they did oven when this ground was rock. And from this stand-
point he deals with the subject.
Surell and others had given an exposition of what may be called the
mechanical effects of the roots of trees in preventing the formation of
torrents ; he, while accepting this, was led to conclude that there was more
iu thia than had been evolved.
LES TORRENTS DES ALPEB, RY MAR8CIIAND. 96
After glancing at the natural history of mountains ; at their primary
condition ; and at modifications of this cflected by aqueous influence, including
disintegration by frost ; at the arrest of these by vegetation, and the resump-
tion of the operation of these, whicli occurred consequently on the clearing
away of forests, Sic, he says, — " There is an action but little observed, but
one which goes on with very great activity, in the decomposition of rock —
it is that eflccted by roots. This influence has been studied by Julius Sacks,
and reported in his Maimcl de Physiologie vigHale.
" In twelve days the roots of the 2^^i'C(seolus multiflorus [the scarlet kidney-
bean] has produced, on polished wdiite marble, great markings, a demi-
millini(^tre in depth, like the traces of an engraver's tool ; experiments made
with other plants, and on other kinds of rock, give similar results. Of
these twelve days, six were taken by the root in reaching the marble, and
in the remaining six days these markings were made. It may be inferred
that the presence of forests, which develope a great many roots, deeply
penetrating the ground, will have for its effect considerably to increase the
riches of the soil, by expediting the decomposition and disintegration of the
rock. If we think of the results obtained in a few days by the experiment
in question, we may form some idea of the influence of forests acting
throughout hundreds of years ; and we may be prepared to admit that the
rocky subsoil of the forests, although protected against extreme atmos-
pheric influences, may be disintegrated, at least as rapidly as if it had
been exposed to the direct influence of the atmosphere, through the influence
of the roots of trees. It is to this operation w^e may attribute the gently
rounded forms of calcareous rocks covered by the soil of forests."
Citing next experiments by Thurmann, in which cubes of difl'erent
minerals, thoroughly dried, weighing each 100 grammes, w^ere immersed in
water for five minutes, he states that these gave the following results : —
Liassic triassic, compact Jurassic, liassic triassic and oolithic limestones,
granite, serpentine, basalt, dolerites, trachytes, &c., gave a mean absorption
of 0'50 gramme of water. Similar minerals, including gneiss and com-
pact marl schist, somewhat disintegrated and changed, gave a mean absorp-
tion of 1*50 grammes; limestone still further decomposed, ferruginous
oolites of Mt. Jura, liassic schists and grits from the Vosges, and eruptive
rocks perceptibly changed, a mean absorption of 4 grammes ; variegated
grits, green coloured grits, calcareous chalks, gravelly clay, and sands,
7 grammes j and clays, Oxford marls, kaolin, an absorption of from 10 to 30
grammes.
These observations he considered indicative of the absorption of water
being proportional to the state of subdivision of the material composing the
rock ; and the eSect he resolved into their hydroscopicity and their capil-
larity— the former, the power of each molecule of the rock to retain around
it a layer of moisture difficult to withdraw — the latter, the property pos-
sessed by many molecules of earth, to retain, in interstices by which they
are separated, small globules of water.
Apart from these, he treats of the permeability of soils as something quite
distinct, and existing in very difl'erent proportions — as, for example, in
oolitic limestones, which absorb and retain very little water, but which are
very permeable by water, through abounding cracks and chinks, and vertical
fissures, by which they are subdivided, in consequence of which water
falling upon the surface of them does not remain there, but disappears in
mnumerable fissures. To such chinks the name lesines has been given.
96 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
Thus is it with extensive plateaux on the Jura chain of mountains — and
thus is it with those of the Karst, near the Adriatic. In such places there
are no fountains, and there are no torrents ; but after denudation by the
destruction of forests, the fertile layers of soil do not the less disappear,
being swept away with the waters into the lesines. He cites, in proof, the
Karst, which was formerly wooded, but it is to-day only bare limestone, cut
up by crevasses. And referring to a progressive impoverishment of certain
parts of the Jura, he states it is attributable to the same cause.
In general, rocks which are highly hydroscopic are not very permeable, for
the molecules, once moistened, cohere and present the appearance of a com-
pact mass impermeable to water, as may be seen in clay.
On a permeable soil or subsoil, trees create and maintain on the surface
a layer of humus of considerable hydroscopic and capillary properties, retain-
ing water, and modifying the general permeability. While, on an imperme-
able rock, the roots would break up this and increase the permeability.
The principle which he seeks to establish is, that forests have the effect of
modulating the properties of rocks, giving to them what they have not ; and
he alleges it is in this way, more especially, that their action is salutary in
the control of waters on the mountains. Of this view of the subject he
o;ives the followino; illustration : — '' When the rain falls on a denuded brow
of a hill, composed of argillaceous earth, the water moistens the surface —
this absorbs a great quantity of it, through its hydroscopicity and capillarity
— but when once this surface is moistened, the transmission of water goes on,
only very slowly from particle to particle, for the permeability is almost
nothing, in consequence of the minute subdivision of the molecules which
are brought into the closest contact ; that which is absorbed remains on the
surface and dilutes the superficial layer, which is soon thus transformed
into a thin clay devoid of cohesion. A layer more or less deep will then
detach itself from the surface of the mass, and will flow to the bottom as
mud more or less fluid, according as the rain may have been more or less
violent. By a very gentle rain, a superficial layer is moistened ; but the
water falling slowly may be able to penetrate it completely, in virtue of its
hydroscopicity and capillarity. In this case there will be only a superficial
flow, for the greater portion of the water will penetrate the soil.
" 13ut suppose that this same argillaceous land, or other unstable ground,
were wooded, the trees in spreading the fall of the rain over an expanded
surface, that of their foliage, would moderate the rain-fall, and would at the
same time augment the absorbent power of the soil, as well as its permeability,
and as a consequence augment the quantity of water retained superficially.
The mobility of the surface thus softened would, undoubtedly, be increased,
but the roots imprisoning it would retain the softened ground to such a
degree that no amount of water falling upon them from the heavens
alone could cause it to slip away. Wherever landslips occur on wooded
grounds they can be otherwise accounted for.
" If, in conclusion," says he, "we examine a forest situated on a land
permeuWlc en masse^ as are the plateaux of Jurassic limestone, the first effect
of tlic forest would be to cover the soil with a thick layer of Innnus and of
moss, which combine in a very high degree hydroscopicity and ca])illarity.
The quantity of water retained thus in the u])per layer of the soil will be
much greater than it would have been had ihei-o been no forest there, for
on the rocks referred to the dcKtruction of woods is almost immediately
followed by a denudation of these rocks of soil.
LES TORRENTS DBS ALPES; BY MARSOIIAND. 97
" It follows from this that on these lands the forest arrests the descent
of tlic waters to the bottom of the valleys, for it is only very slowly that
water retained by hydroscopicity and capillarity quits the substances which
they penetrate. Moreover, as the greatest storms of rain never do saturate
completely the layer of humus on wooded soils, it is impossible to form
toiTcnts on these."
In successive chapters M. Marschand treats of soils, and the hydrological
influences to which they arc subjected, of atmospheric influences, transport by
waters, decomposition by roots, of the condition of disintegrated rocks ; the
hydroscopicity, capillarity, and permeability of difi'crent soils thus produced ;
the influence of vegetation in gazonnemeiit, buissouement, and forests ; the
hoisemcnt of the Alps ; the meteorology of the Alps ; Alpine toiTcnts, limpid
and muddy ; the extinction of torrents — general principles of procedure,
preparatory works ; barrages, or barriers of stone, and of wood, and barrages
vivants ; dayonnages, or wears of hurdle, and estimate of cost ; saiicissons, or
complementary works ; ^96^r(fs continus, iiuirs en travers, i-igoles en clayon-
iiage ; works on the mountains of the torrents, dayonnages, or hurdle
barriers, of different forms, with estimate of the cost ; landslips, assain-
issement ; reboisement in the Alps, preparation of the soil, sowings, plantings,
selection of plants, selections of kinds of trees employed.
In the second part of the work he discusses at length the subject of
pasturages, treating in successive chapters of the pastm-age of cows on the
Swiss Alps, and the eff'ect produced on the ground not always injurious,
but impoverishing ; the pasturage of goats on the Alps, and the devastations
committed by them ; the pasturage of sheep on the French Alps ; the
pasturage of sheep on the Swiss Alps ; the devastations occasioned by
sheep, and comparison between the advantages connected with the rearing
of cattle and the rearing of sheep.
He states that the eff'ect of gazonnement is to augment the hydroscopicity
and capillarity of the surface of the soil, but that this is not sufficient to
secure the absorption of all the water that falls upon it in a storm of rain,
and he cites facts in support of the allegation. The same good effects, he
states, are produced to a greater extent by buissonnement, or the planting
of bushes, while a layer of humus of great hydroscopicity, produced by the
decay of their leaves, co-operates in the production of these good effects ;
but he cites evidence that even gazonnement and buissonnement combined
have failed to prevent erosion and the formation of torrents.
But forests produce in a surpassing degree each and all of the effects
referred to, as produced in a minor degree by meadows and bush. (1) They
form by their detritus a very hydroscopic layer, and in consequence
augment the quantity of water retained ; (2) They augment the expansion
of surface on which the water falls ; and (3) They augment the capillarity
and permeability of the subsoil.
" I have," says he, '' in treating of the permeability of the soil, explained
the influence of forests on this. In retaining for some time the water at
the surface they augment considerably the quantity which is absorbed,
particle by particle, by hydroscopicity and capillarity, for this absorption is
slow ; and thus, in a word, the forest tempers the action of rain dashed
downwards in a storm, and leads the water gently on to the soil, as if it
had fallen in a gentle shower; and further, it augments, in fine, the
permeability of the soil, by keeping the surface unhardened and in some
sort always open to receive the water which comes slowly from the heavens.
K
06 LITERATURE OX TORRENTS.
" I make no mention of the influence of forests in regard to evaporation
— in regard to the direct absorption of water — and in regard to the
humidity of the atmosphere, &c. I take up one point of view alone of the
ton-ential management of waters in the high mountains, and these relate to
this only indirectly.
" If a storm of rain beat upon a forest the whole of the water which falls
is temporarily retained, all penetrates more or less deeply the soil without
flowing on the surface ; and, it may be objected, if the subsoil is imperme-
able the result will be the same. But the objection is without foundation.
I shall suppose, what is frequently the case, that there is impermeable
rock underlying the humus : all the water should arrive at this bed of rock
and flow down, but the hydroscopicity and capillarity of this Immtts — of the
ground — of the foliage — of the branches of the trees — in a word, of the
material of which the forest is composed — will arrest the water to such a
degree and measure as to regulate temporarily the delivery.
'' In support of what has just been said," says he, " I shall cite an obser-
vation made quite recently in the canton of Appenzel, in Switzerland. The
torrent of Weissenbach formerly appeared in a swollen state at Weissenbach
about three hours subsequent to the bursting of the storm on the mountain ;
but since the woods have been destroyed — and this has only been done to a
partial extent, and those destroyed have been replaced with a fine gazonne-
ment — the floods appear at Weissenbach within an hour after the storm.
In this we have a very striking illustration of the influence of forests,
and of the gazonnement which has taken their place. And whoever has
resided in the mountains will understand that a delay of two hours in the
appearance of the flood, and in its protraction (which augments by four
hours the period of flow), may sufiice to prevent the most serious disasters ;
for there everybody knows that the great danger from Alpine torrents arises
from the suddenness, amounting almost to instantaneousness, of their flood.
" I have glanced rapidly at the action of forests, in view simply of their
eff"ect on the water which falls on their surface ; but their function is by no
means limited to this, for they serve also to arrest the waters which come
from the pastures above them. They constitute in some measure a kind of
immense and powerful barrage, or barrier, placed between the summit and
the bed of the valleys.
" In support of this allegation, I shall cite personal observations which
seem to me conclusive. Never have I seen, during the most violent storms
of rain, superficial flowings of water in the forests situated under pastures,
though such flowings may have existed in the meadows at a greater eleva-
tion than the forests ; all the waters which these supplied were literally
absorbed and retained by the forest soil. I except, intentionally, well-
marked ravines, which coming from above traverse forests, for the question
here is only of dopes somewkat uniform, or hut slighily undulated ; it is
evident that the soil of the forest will not absorb the water of a stream which
traverses it encased in a bed.
" I take, for example, a valley which rises to a summit line somewhat
elevated. The end situated at a great height is formed entirely of pasture
lands which stretch out cipially on the summits of the brows of the moun-
tains; at a lower level beneath these are the forests. The waters which
fall into the cistern formed by the head of the valley rapidly acciuiiulate,
and give birth to a torrent which traverses the forest. On the contrary,
that which falls on the pasture landa above the brows do not commonly reach
LBS TORRENTS DES ALPES, BY MAR8CUAND. 99
the depth of the ravine : descending to the forest zone uniformly extended
over the soil, they arc there absorbed.
*' In a word, the zone of the forest absorbs generally the water flowing
from the zone of pasture lands which correspond to it. In support of these
observations, I appeal to all who, in the Alps, have observed storms of rain
in the forest. 1 except water accumulated in ravines or depressions, which
are in another condition.
" But the beneficent action of the forests does not limit itself to this ; the
flow in the ravine may also, if it be not completely absorbed, be by them
rendered less injurious if it should come to spread itself over a cone de dejec-
tion in a forest otherwise covered with wood. I have observed, in connection
with this, numerous muddy floods in ravines which, spreading themselves
out in the middle of a forest, come out thence very limpid, depositing in it
their slime, and leaving in it also almost the whole of the water.
" The great forest of the Ofen, in the Orisons, has supplied me with many
instances of this. The soil, composed of the dolomite limestone of the
triassic period, is somewhat unstable ; in the middle of the pasture lands
which surmount the forest there are formed every year numerous torrents,
which to an enormous extent carry off the small pebbles, which are charac-
teristic of the dolomite. All these torrents arriving in the forest, then expand
and diffuse themselves, and very rarely do they penetrate to the bottom of
the valleys. In the upper portion uf the Munster-Tlial, I have seen on the
right-hand side an enormous ravine, the muddy torrents of which are
arrested by the forest. And the waters of the Munster, so well enclosed at
this point, are a proof of the beneficial action of the forests. In fine, from
the moment that the forests begin to retain the mud they retain also
temporarily the greater portion of the water in which this was suspended,
which are arrested by the enormous absorbent powers they possess."
Facts in accordance with some of these latter statements have been
observed and recorded by others.
M. Marschand makes the following remarks on The Tnflxience of Vegetation
on the Floiv of Water : —
" Gazonnement. — Many people suppose that on the steep parts of the Alps
a goodi gazonnement would be enough to keep up the soil and j^ut an end to tor-
rents. Experience has shown me ihdit gazonnement alone is nearly always power-
less to moderate sufficiently the action of water flowing over steep declivities,
" I have been surprised at storms w^hen passing through meadows fit for
being mowed, situated at 2200 metres altitude — that is to say, above the
forest region. After some minutes, if the storm was pretty violent, the
water ran off the turf, collecting in the depressions of the ground, and
forming small clear torrents. On the 17th August 1869, in particular, I
observed in the upper basin of the Tinee, in the Maritime Alps, a storm of
wind and hail which hardly lasted half-an-hour, but which gave rise in the
meadows to a number of these little torrents, the junction of which would
produce a very considerable rise in the Tinee.
" A storm observed at the same point in October 1868 threw immense
masses of water into the same river in spite of the perfect gazonnement of
its upper basin ; the same storm caused great havoc in the upper basin of
the valley of Abri6s, among the pastures on the hill of Grange-Commune.
Two of my friends had great difficulty in crossing the meadows situated
near the summit, so large were the torrents which had suddenly formed.
100 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
"All the places mentioned are covered with very good turf, and the
soil is formed of grey schist.
"The canton of Tessino is destitute of wood in most parts, but, as
compensation, it possesses magnificent pastures which, in spite of the maddest
mode of depasturing, preserve (thanks to the wonderful soil) their thick and
perennial mantle of verdure. The inundations there are terrible, although
at the lower end of the torrents are to be found lakes which retain the
alluvial soil and moderate the rapidity of the rise in the rivers ; the effect
produced by these lakes is very great but insufficient ; in 1868 the level of
Lake Majeur rose 7 metres at Locarno, and in the public square the water
rose to the first storey of the houses.
'' It would be interesting and useful to ascertain the quantity of water
which, falling with the rapidity of a thunder shower, would be sufficient to
saturate a turfed surface, but the quantity is very small, and depends on
the steepness of the descent. This phenomenon is easily explained. Alpine
turf, beat down by cattle, is formed of small plants growing close together,
the interlaced roots forming a sort of felt. When rain comes it makes the
rootlets swell, which, pressed together, imprison the soil and form a scarcely
permeable covering, through which the water gradually passes only by means
of capillarity and hydroscopicity. If the rain is slow and continuous these
two properties are enough to permit all the water to pass through. If, on
the contrary, it is violent, the water runs over the surface without being-
absorbed.
" But, supposing the surface to be horizontal, the effect just described is
also produced ; the excess of fallen rain, however, lies on the herbage to be
gradually absorbed, for the quantity of rain retained by the herbage is in
inverse proportion to the slope of the ground, and varies continually.
''Turf, from the special point of view which we occupy, is chiefly useful
in consolidating the soil ; this end is partially attained, in so far as any
surface whatever, when turfed, will always resist the direct action of the
rain, but as a whole it is not : the excess of the water absorbed unites,
forms little streamlets, and, according as the inequalities of the ground on
which they recur are steep or narrow, the turf is attacked by the running-
water, the soil is laid bare at some one point, and in a few minutes there is
the beginning of a ravine, which will always grow larger after every new
storm if a remedy be not promptly applied.
" To return to the subject, I would say that turf increases the capil-
larity and hydroscopicity of the surface of the ground, but these two pro-
perties are unable to absorb spontaneously all the rain which falls during
storms, and the excess runs down the surface if the ground be steep, or
lies on the top if it be flat.
'' These observations lead me to conclude that all flat surfaces may be
turfed without inconvenience ; and that the turf on steep declivities will
moderate very slightly the rising of the floods.
" There is plenty of opportunity for making experiments on this point.
Places for making observations should be chosen on the same kind of soil,
the Huifaccs of which have been examined, and where there is no water but from
the sky. Jt can be easily done in the mountains. So soon as there are signs
of a storm those employed sliould repair to sucli spots, there to measure the
quantity of rain with a pluviomctre ; and to measure, by means of barrages
with rectangular sections, the quantity of water issuing from the basin
where it is received ; and also to note the duration and nature of the storm,
SUITE DR l'i^.TUDE, ETC., BY c/:ZANNE. 101
whether it be accompanied by snow or by rain, <kc. These observations are so
simple that the guards who hve on tlie mountains will be able to make them.
" What I have mentioned will, I trust, make it very plain that on the
Alps gazonnement alone is not enough ; this opinion is no longer disputed in
Tessiuo, where, as I have already said, the herbage is exceedingly good ;
observations on the rise of torrents in the ravines which descend from the
pastures of our own Alps give the same results.
" Le BuissoNNEMENT. — I liavc oftcu spokcu of huissonnement, or planting
with shrubs, as being enough to put an end to Alpine torrents ; this opinioti
I now believe to be erroneous. Shrubs may undeniably be of great use—
they may be able to cope with purely local accidents, but in no circum-
stances can they be substituted for a zone of forest. I think I have explained
before that Alpine forests create on the surface a bed of humus possessing
great hydroscopicity. Shrubs do not supply similar results — it is in this
they are inferior. They consolidate the earth well enough, but with rare
exceptions there is not found under them the thick mobile layer which
carpets large forests, and thus the soil receives atmospheric influences too
directly. In conclusion, I may cite in support of my opinions the mountains of
Tessino, which surround Bellinzona ; which are well turfed, and covered
with beautiful shrubs, but amongst which are found ravines and erosions.
'' Looked at in regai'd to the regulation of the water flow, there is not
much difference to be remarked between places which are turfed and those
which are covered with bushes ; whilst in the upper part of the valley of
Tessino, towards Airolo, there is proved to be an enormous difference
between the rise of torrents in the wooded valleys and in those which are
not wooded.
"Les Forets. — Forests are on a grand scale what meadows and shrubberies
are on a small one ; their effects are — (1) The formation by their detritus of
a highly hydroscopical bed, and in cQj|sequence of this augmenting the quan-
tity of water retained by the soil ; (2)The augmentation of the surface of
the dispersion of the water j (3) The augmentation of the permeability
and capillarity of the subsoil."
In 1872 appeared the Supplement by M. Ernest Cezanne, IngSnieur des
Fonts et Chauss(^es, Representant des Hautes Alpes a VAssemUee Nationale,
to the work of M. Surell, published conjointly with a second edition of the
work, and containing a review of treatises which had been published, and of
works which had been executed, in the interval which had elapsed subse-
quently to the original publication of that work.
In this work, while holding that dehoisement, or clearing away of forests,
is not always and everywhere to be condemned, but is in many circumstances
necessary for agriculture and the promotion of civilization, and that the
general 7'ehoisement of the Alps would be the ruin of the couutiy, M. Cezanne
states that the great service rendered by Surell was the disengaging and
treating apart from the general question of forest science the special pro-
blem, of local importance, relative to the effect of forests on water-courses,
which, being carefully defined, was thus prepared for treatment according
to scientific method.
In an introductory chapter he gives a condensed history of deboisemenf,
or the destruction of woods in France. In a second chapter he gives a
careful discussion of the question, — Has the deboisement of France modified
the mean annual temperature of the country either one way or the other,
102 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
as is maintained by opposing parties, which discussion he concludes with
the statement that he deems it would be wise, in existing circumstances, to
hold by these words with which Gay-Lussac replied to Arago, before the
Commission of Enquiiy of 1836 : — "According to my opinion there has not
yet been obtained any positive proofs that woods have by themselves an
actual influence on the climate of a great country, or of a special locality,
or that they have an influence different from that of vegetation of every
kind. The questions involved are so complicated, when we face them under
the climatic point of view, that the solution of them is very difficult, if
we may not say impossible."
The third chapter is devoted to the consideration of the effects of forests
on the rainfall. In this he alleges that in so far as this is effected by
mountains it is less the local elevation than the local inclination of a place
by which the effect is produced, and that the effect of this is different
according as the pluvial cloud may be ascending or may have commenced
its descent ; and this, he contends, is an important element to be employed
in the correction of pluviometrical observations. He considers that the
effect of forests on the quantity of rainfall must be infinitesimally small,
and that numerous corrections, some of which he specifies, must be made
upon pluviometrical observations before they can be made available for a
satisfactory solution of the question raised.
In succeeding chapters are discussed evaporation, infiltration, ruisselle-
went, or the source and flow of water in water-courses, with the action of
forests on each of these, and the result of such actions, which he sums up
thus : — " This action depends on circumstances peculiar to each water-
course, and even to each affluent. This action is proportionally more
certain and more energetic according as the water-course is more torrential.
" But what it is impossible to deny, and is beyond all dispute, is the
influence which forests exercise in conserving the soil of the mountains
against being washed away. In doing this, and preventing the formation
of ravines, forests modulate the flow of the waters. And this supplies the
only certain criterion we have of the utility of forests in this connection."
The chapter which follows reports what was done in the ten years
following the passing of the law of 1860, including the passing of the law
in regard to gazonnement, with details of the circumstances which led to
this; which chapter he concludes with the remark — " After such testimony
one cannot feel free to doubt that the operation is good, seeing that it
satisfies everybody — the Administration, men of science, and the people."
In another chapter he reports the work done, and results obtained in
connection with the artificial extinction of torrents.
Then follows an analysis of a memoir by M. Guiny, sub-inspector of the
exploitations of the mountains thus redeemed, which appeared in the Revue
des eaux et foret^, for 1865, with remarks of liis own in support of the
proposal to substitute cows for sheep, and more especially for the immi-
grant sheep from Provence, the pasturing of which is destructive and
unrem uncrating.
This is followed up by similar analyses, with remarks of Mudas but les
torrents des Ilautes Alpes, jxir M. ^ciq/ton Gras, and of Memoire snr les
harrarjes de retenue des graviers dans les gorges des torrents, par M. Pliilippe
Breton, and of Rapport au counseil federal snr les torrents des Alpes ^Snisses,
inspectes en lSf)S, ISfj'J, 1800, et 1803, par M. le Rrofesseur (Julmann —
works relating chiefly to torrents to which ga?.(>nmmmt and hoiscment
SUIT15 DE l'^TUDPI, BY cfizANNB. 103
arc inapplicable as means of extinction, as is the case with many which
derive their floods from glaciers, — and wliich treat of the absolute and the
relative advantages of dykes or embankments, of harraf/rs or wears, and of
artificial channels for drawing off the excess of waters, — while the last of
them supplies not a little detailed information in regard to Swiss torrents
similar to what has been cited in regard to torrents in the French Alps.
And in a concluding chapter the information obtained by induction
through the study of the torrents of the Alps is applied to geological pheno-
mena which find, or do not find, a satisfactory explanation in deductions
made from what has there been seen.
In this chapter he shews that extensive districts of the country, some of
them far away from the Alps, show indications of torrential and glacier
action, upon which, when this has once been seen, it is as impossible to look
without this being seen, as it is to look upon the remains of extinct torrents
in the Alps, referred to by M. Surell, without perceiving them to be such,
when once they have been seen to be so in the light of M. Surell's observations.
The expansion of the theory is so very great that some preparation of
mind may be desirable before taking up his views, and the more advanced
views of others upon the subject, whether this be done with a view to
accepting, or comparing and weighing, or rejecting them. This may be
pleasantly obtained by a cursory perusal of the following little fancy sketch,
embodied in a defence which he makes of graphic details of physical
geography, embodied in the memoir by M. Breton, analyzed in his work.
" M. Breton," says he, " almost apologizes for pausing to describe effects
so well-known in the mountains. But, apart from the circumstances that the
deliohtful character of his demonstrations secures for him the favourable
consideration of his readers, do not many pass by the most interesting
phenomena of nature without observing them 1 And is it not delightful
for a traveller when, enlightened by the instructions of a master, he knows
how to account to himself for all the peculiarities of those distracted
surfaces, and to decypher at a glance in these archives of stone the ancient
history of the mountain 1
" This steep declivity is a cone of crumbled down earth which descends
from that gap ; this one here, less inclined, has been produced by an aval-
anche ; that other presents the subdued slopes of a toiTcntial cone. This
small hill leaning its back on the mountain is an ancient cone which would
fill up the valley ; near to the gorge a village conceals itself, the vane of
the clock peers out from above massive domes of walnut trees, towards the
base the river has lately opened a troncature or section of the cone by a
rush upon it, and then she has thrown itself against the other side of the
valley ; a recent cone has engrafted herself on the older, a little in advance
of the exposed section ; not far from that a moraine, more ancient still,
almost buried in the cone, carries back the thoughts to the times long past,
when these fields, to-day so rich and animated, were like to the desolate
fiords of Greenland, and slept enshrouded in a mantle of ice."
All this seems natural and sound ; we feel that it is not a mantle of fiction,
but a mantle of fact which is being thrown over the scene, and we find pleasure
in the reproduction of what was in the olden time, and in time much older
than that to which that designation is generally given. But he (Cezanne)
takes us over extensive districts of France, and shows us the same kind of
things every where. Nor does he in doing so recede into the inaccessible,
where we cannot test the correctness and verisimilitude of what he says.
lOi LITERATURE ON TORRENTS,
" A journey of a few hours (says he) may enable any one, from the window
of a carriage, to verify the greater part of the observations made. From the
railway station of Hendaye, which is on the shore of the Ocean, may be seen
on adjacent rocks the covering of loess, and the torrential pebbles.
" In the cuttings towards Biaritz and Bayonne, the bank of gravel is well
marked, and from place to place very deep and extensive. From Peyre-
horade to Pan, the railway follows closely the foot of a terrace, the slope of
which often presents a remarkable regularity. It is the base of a cone cast
up on the tertiary deposit by the Gave de Lourdes. The town of Pau is
built on the edge of this terrace. From the Place Royale we look down
upon the valley of the Gave, some 30 metres, or 100 feet beneath ; opposite,
on the left bank of the river, the undulating knolls of Juran^on are remains
of the glacier deposits of the Gave d'Osscm ; on the right bank towards the
east, and on to the mountains stretches in dimishing perspective the valley,
divided in its primary plan by a small chain of low hills, crowned with villas
and small umbrella-like pines ; these are testimonies to the work of erosion
committed by the Gave when it opened up its channel and valley through
its own deposits. The horizon is bounded towards the northeast by a
straight line of regular inclination, which is the culminating ridge of the
cone of Lourdes.
" From Pau to Nay the plain is sown with rolled and water- worn pebbles.
From Nay to Saint-Pe the grounds show, from time to time, the unmoved
rocks covered with loess and glacier pebbles, and once and again terraces
cut up by the Gave in its own deposits. From Saint-P6 onwards appear
moraine blocks, which continue to appear until Lourdes is reached, and
the spaces between these moraines are filled with pebbles rolled by the
torrents. Lourdes is the highest point of the railway, corresponding at
once to the summit of an angle which formerly divided the glacier into two
branches, and to the summit of the glacier-deposited cone ; the latter is on
the hills which rise to the left of the railway station. The Bleout, with its
erratic boulders, rises on the right of the station, and partially encloses the
valley of Argeles.
" On leaving Lourdes the road descends towards Tarbes by a riverless
valley ; and between Lourdes and Ade there have been counted, in the rail-
way cuttings, seven separate and distinct moraines, partially buried under
the argillaceous loess and the torrential deposits.
" The line proceeds for some way between the two cones of the Gave and
of the Adour ; but thereafter the plain expands through the erosion effected
by two parallel water-courses. The Echez, pretty far to the right, is still
eating away a scrap of the cone of the Adour ; while on the left bank the
Mardaing is attacking the cone of the Gave, the fine regular ridge of which
may be seen after passing the station of Ossun.
" In approaching JuUian the railway passes through a cutting in descend-
ing a terrace cut up by the Echez in the dejection of this torrent, which
took its rise towards Ad6 from the eastern branch of the glacier. The
strength of this torrent, now no more, is still testified by tlic dimensions of
the blocks of stone which it has rolled down and spread over the plain.
" From Tarbes to Toumay the tunnels and cuttings are cut under the
loess of the Adour", and we traverse several open valleys following the crest
of the cone. The rails at 'J'ournay pass over the Arros, which Hows between
the glacier dejections of the Adour and those of the Neste, and rises, as the
cone of the Neste, by an inclination of '034 along the valley of the Lene.
SUITE DB L^^TUDE, ETC., BY ClSzANNE. 105
"At Capvem the railway debouches on the plateau of Lannemezan,
where the view extends over a plain of varied contour, which is bounded to
the south by the lofty amphitheatre of the Pyrenees, and which sinks away
towards the north and is lost in the horizon. We are then under the col
by which the losss was spread out, and a momentary glance may bo had of
the valley of the Neste, whence the glacier degorged.
" The culminating point is near the station of Lannemezan ; it is there,
near this summit, and in accordance with the torrential character of the
phenomena, that we see the largest sized pebbles of the kind seen in travel-
ling thither from Tarbes, some of them larger than a horse's head. And it
is necessary to re-descend so far as Montr^jeau to find in a moraine, brought
to light by a cutting, blocks of a size comparable to that of those found in
this culminating ridge.
" From Montrejeau to Toulouse, and more especially in the plain of Muret,
the plain is bounded towards the left by the regular formed ridge of the
cone of the Neste. The hills are cut in ten-aces, which become less im-
portant as they recede in distance from the cone. Montrejeau and Saint-
Gaudens are built on the edge of a slope of water-rolled blocks, some of the
last traces of which may be recognized at the gate of Toulouse.
" If, quitting the main line at Portet-Saint-Simon. we go up the valley of
the Ariege, we shall not be long in finding unequivocal evidence of tor-
rential action. In the environs of Pamiers the plain is completely covered
with blocks of stone, perfectly rounded, which the husbandmen have
collected into heaps all around the cultivated spots, seeing which one could
almost imagine himself on a recently grubbed cone of a recent torrent like
that of Embruu. These blocks are found of increasing size as we get
higher, and in the station of Foix may be seen, in the garden of the station-
master, most beautiful chips of glacier blocks, with streaks and other
indications of friction produced by glacial action. The terminal moraine
was in these barrages or dams, and the minute study of the environs
permits, if it do not suggest, the supposition that in the glacial period the
beautiful elliptical basin, at the bottom of which flows the Larget, which
at Foix falls into the Ariege, was repeatedly filled and emptied, forming an
important lake and formidable floods."
In a foot-note it is stated, — " The town of Foix and its picturesque
chateau are situated on what looks like the gate of a sluice closing the
strait gorge by which the Larget debouches ; but behind this gate the basin
opens up and ramifies on a large scale ; and this basin, closed by a barrier
near the extremity of the glacier, was in circumstances exceptionally
favourable to the production of a lake and of debacles, or breakings up,
emptying it in a great measure of its contents."
From the study of such and such like phenomena, M. Cezanne has been
led to conclude that there must have been a period when torrential action
has been much more stupendous and much more extensively diffused
than at present.
But ]\I. Cezanne alleges that there are indications, no less marked, of
glacial action in deposits underlying some of these torrential deposits. He
remarks that the theoiy of glacial action, considered as a chapter of
geology, presents this peculiarity — that all the phenomena embraced by it,
and all the circumstances in which they occur, may be observed in our own
time. There is no difference, excepting in the scale of magnitude of the
phenomena, which has been greatly reduced. l
106 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
The action of glaciers has been studied in the Alps ; results obtained
have been applied to the phenomena presented by and in connection with
the parallel roads in Glen Roy ; these have been satisfactorily shown to
have been produced by glacial action, exhibiting on a grand scale the same
phenomena as are to be seen in the valley of Bagnes, marking out what
must have been the banks of the ancient lake of Gietroz.
He quotes a paper by M. Ch. Martins, which appeared in the Revue cles
Deux Mondes for March 1867, in which it is said, — " Throughout almost the
entire length of the valley of Glen Roy — that is to say, for ten miles and
upwards — there may be traced on the opposite declivities three terraces or
parallel banks, perfectly horizontal and corresponding exactly on the two
sides of the valley. From a distance they are distinctly visible ; when
reached they are found to be a pebbly surface from 10 to 60 feet wide, the
slope of which is less steep than that of the mountain above and below.
The lowest of the terraces is 750 feet above the level of the sea, the second
about 210 feet higher, the third upwards of 80 feet above the level of the
second, — all terminating at the head of the valley on the col which separates
it from the valley beyond.
*' In 1840 Buckland and Agassiz visited Glen Roy, and perceived that
temporary barriers to the flow of water could alone account for the formation
of these level lines. Glaciers coming successively to close up the one or the
other issue of the valley, the stream which ran through it would form a
lake, which would flow by the col towards which the terrace inclined.
Agassiz recognized polished and striated rocks and the ancient moraines
which he had learned to distinguish in the Alps ; and subsequently Mr
Jamieson has given a chart and details confirming completely the view of
the illustrious Swiss naturalist.
'* Mr Jamieson cari'ies back the formation of these terraces to the close
of the second glacial period, when it was due to an oscillation of the glaciers
descending from Ben Nevis and the suiTounding mountains. These barriers
have barred up, one after another, the valley of Glen Roy and the neigh-
bouring valleys. The waters, stopped in their flow, have formed lakes at
diff'erent levels, determined in each case by the height of the col which
closed the extremity of the valley opposite to that barred up by the glacier.
The entireness of the terraces prove also that subsequent to the formation
of these Scotland has never been submerged."
And M. Cezanne goes on to say, — " If this theory be correct, it follows
that we may expect to find at the cUboiiche of each of the great valleys of
the Pyrenees and of the Alps masses of loess, deposited in accordance with
the characteristic forms of toiTcntial deposits ; and the dimensions and com-
position of which may be in accordance with the immense duration of the
glacial period, and so in accordance with the greatness of the phenomena
to which this has given rise.
" At the foot of the Pyrenees there exist such deposits ; if not most con-
siderable, they are at least most perspicuous. Let us ascend some height
such as the Fie dit, Midi of Bigorre, or the Cajy of the Col d'Aspin, the
ascent of which is very easy ; from this elevated point the observer, turning
to the north, can freely cast his eye from the west to the east, over a vast
plain which rounds itself oft' at the horizon, as docs the sea, and the bleak
fawn colour of which contrasts strongly with the green and sombre wall of
the Pyrenees.
" This general, cflcct is pretty well rendered by the chart of the £taL'
8UITR DE L'^TUDE, ETC., BY Cl5zANNE. 107
major, on which one may, besides, recognize the smallest undulations of
the ground, which to the observer are flattened by the aerial perspection.
According to the chart it is not a compact plain which stretches from the
foot of the mountain, it is a series of vertically rounded plateaux, or of
flattened cones, the summit of which is at the gorge of each important
valley.
" The two sheets of this chart, representing the districts of St Gauden's
and Tarbes, placed side by side, represent in a striking manner, to whoever
may have seen well-marked torrents, three vast cones of dejection which
dehouche from the valleys of the Gave, at Lourdes — of the Adour, at Bagn^rea
— and of the Neste, at Heches."
The cones thus represented are furrowed by numerous water-courses from
the mountains ; and they themselves to some extent intersect or cover one
another. Full details are given, with tabulated measurements, and
references to a coloured geological map of the district. And having
referred to difficulties w^hich had been experienced by others in attempting
to account for all the phenomena, he goes on to say, — " That these cones
have come out from the gorge's entrance, which are guarded by them, a
single glance at the map suffices to show ; and an examination of the places
themselves leaves no doubt upon the subject.
" The glacial origin of these vast deposits is not less certain. In each
valley it is possible to follow, from the moraines which remain intact on
the extremities of the cones, step by step, the progress of the rocky frag-
ments w^hich little by little lose their glacial characteristics, become rounded,
diminished in size, reduced to ordinary gravel, or even to clay or glacial mud.
In the valley of the Adour, for instance, facing the village Santa Marie, are
two conjoined gorges, descending, the one from Tourmalet, the other from
the Col d'Aspin. Between these two gorges, and overlooking the con-
fluence, is a terrace or bank, the slope of which, seen from below, recalls
by its irregularity a gigantic railway embankment. If we trace this
embankment, foUow^ing it along the road w^hich leads to Luchon, we soon
discover, on the slope above this, a wood w^hich imperfectly conceals a con-
fused mass of enormous blocks called the Moraine de Grip, recognized at once
as a moraine, such as may be seen near a glacier of the Alps. In this
picturesque spot the Adour has cleared for itself a passage among the
blocks, some of which, from their forms and size, may be compared to houses •
the Pic du Midi and the Pic d'Arhizon, each at the bottom of one of these
gorges, look down from their azure pyramid on this scene of disorder, where
their ruins lie confounded.
" On leaving this, on to Bagneres, there may be seen, on the two sides of
the valley of Campan, the traces of a glacier : it must have gnawed, on a
former time, at the vertical wall which rises on the right ; while on the left
a series of terraces mark the different levels of the moraines, and the
torrential alluvia deposited along the glacier.
" Even at Bagneres we are still in a country full of glacial ground : half-
rolled blocks, in size to be compared to a sheep or sack of corn, lie about
everywhere ; they encumber the bed of the Adour, form heaps along the
highways, and enter into the construction of the walls. Towards the sum-
mit of the cone — that is to say, on the hills of the right bank — they are
very numerous, and also quite as large as in the valley ; but on leaving this
point they diminish rapidly in size, following the same law of decrease iu
the clay of the hills as on the floor of the valley : twenty kilometres below
108 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS,
at Tarbes, they have scarcely the size of a man's head ; and towards Mont-
de-Marson we meet almost exclusively with clay covered over with the sand
of the Landes, borne thither probably by the wind.
" The clay itself presents alternating colours : it is yellow, ochre coloured,
or bluish ; and near Bagn^res we can in the trenches recognize some sort
of stone which would furnish some one or other of the colours. By digging
out blocks in all stages of disintegration, we may be said to see in actual
operation the manufacture of clay. At some places a cutting in the ground
presents the appearance of mosaic work, in which granitic pebbles, perfectly
recognizable in their rounded foims, but softened by time, may be cut like
butter, or rather like nougat [a cake made of almonds and honey], each of
them leaving still recognizable, in spite of its decomposition, the rock from
which it had been torn.
" The cone of the Gave supplies similar facts ; it is isolated on all sides ;
its head may be said to be in the air. The glacier which produced it
would meet at Lourdes, on coming out of the valley of Argeles with a small
mountain of schist, which would necessitate it to divide itself; the exterior
branch would direct itself towards where Tarbes now stands, extending as
far as to Ad6 ; the other branch would descend towards the position of Pau,
reaching as far as Saint-P6. Between the two branches would be turned off
the loess ; so the summit of the glacial cone would rest on the schistose
mountain in the angle formed by the two branches of the glacier. At the
time of the retreat of the glacier all the waters of the valley of the Argeles
were united towards the west in the Saint-Pe branch ; and the other branch,
that of Ade, is still a void valley without a river — the railway from Tarbes
to Lourdes has been constructed there ; but this valley, devoid of a single
considerable water-course, is full of torrential indications.
*' The valley of Argeles has been the subject of special study by MM. Ch.
Martins and Collomb, indefatigable explorers, who, after having dwelt on
the glaciers of the Alps in the Hotel mouvani des Neuchatelon, have sought,
from Spitzbergen to the Sahara, the traces and the causes of the glacial
period. These savants thus sum up their memoir, published in Bulletin of
the Societe geologique de France, 2 s6rie, t. xxv., p. 141, seances sur, 18th
November 1867, and Mdmoires de V Academic des Sciences de Montjjelier,
t. vii., p. 47 : — " To sum up these observations, we have ascertained in one
of the principal valleys of the Pyrenees — the valley of Argeles — the
existence of an old glacier of the extent of 53 kilometres, which shed its
terminal moraines on the sub-Pyrenean undulating plain, and extended to
within 15 kilometres of Tarbes, with an altitude there of 400 metres, about
1350 feet, — its point of departure being at a mean altitude of about 3000
metres, 4000 feet^ the mean slope of its surface being 1 of 0.039.
" This glacier, including its affluents and its higher tiiveSj — in a word, its
hydrographic basin — would cover an area of about 1*400 square kilometres,
or 140* hectares.
" The thickness of the glacier reached, at G6dres, 850 metres ; at Saint-
Sauveur, 800 metres ; at Pierrefite, 675 metres ; at Argel6s, 600 m6tres ;
at the Pic de Jer, near Lourdes, 412 metres.
" The summit of the Beout, a conical mountain which rises above Lourdes
in the middle of the valley to the height of 792, was covered by the glacier ;
and even from the railway station of Lourdes may be seen distinctly, in
profile against the blue sky, the erratic boulders, scattered over the ridge
of the mountain, at an elevation of 450 mHres, 1350 feet, above the Gave.
SUITE T)E LY.TUDE, ETO., BY CEZANNE. 109
'* In the cuttiug from wliicli has been obtained the material for the
embankment on wliicli isUinds iIk' railway station have been I'ound, witli
their characteristic fossils, bmestoncs conveyed undamaged from the Cirque
of Gavarnie, and, side by side with these, blocks torn from the granite
summits of Cautcrets. The scientific explorers cited have given with their
memoir a longitudinal profile of the glacier, and a chart of the terminal
moraine.
'' * In studying,' say they, ' the traces w'hich the glacier has left upon the
soil, we have seen that it comported itself as do all the glaciers known ; it
transported materials of great bulk, and at the same time minute debris,
which w'e find in the form of moraines exactly in the place which is assigned
to them by the accepted laws of the movement of translation of glaciers,
and taking in these an arrangement or disposition which excludes every
thought of other mode of natural transport.
" ' At the same time the glacier has polished and scratched the resisting
rocks with which it was in contact,' (and it should be admitted that with
the thickness given above [I am quoting M. Cezanne] that the rubbing and
friction of the glacier, with a pressure approaching to 1000 tons per square
metre, prolonged throughout some hundreds of ages, would sufi&ce to
account for the erosion of a valley many hundreds of metres in depth).
* Then, in the third place, the mud produced by the continual friction of the
ice against the rock, finally ejected by the waters produced by the melting
of the glacier, and by the glacial torrents, have contributed to form the
principal material of that loess w^hich covers the place far beyond the
perimetre of the ancient glacier.'
" One might, were it not necessary to avoid repetitions, give proof as
demonstrative in regard to the cone of the JS^este which forms the ^:>^a^mw
de Lannemezan. This plateau is a vast deposit of loess brought out from
the valleys of the Neste ; but a noteworthy circumstance is, the less
important of these tw^o valleys, that of the JVeste^ has supplied the
uppermost dejections ; its cone has partially covered up that of the
Garonne, and the great river has been turned out of its course by its
affluent. All the strange windings of the Garonne, and of Saint-Bertrand
de Comminges at Montrejeau, explain themselves at once on the spot
by the strongly characterised moraines which the Luchon railway has
exposed.
'■' Much less ramified are the other valleys of the Pyrenees — those, for
instance of the Nivelle, of the Nioi, and of the Joyeuse ; those of the Gaves,
of Maulean, of Aspe, and of Ossau — that more especially of the Ariege — des-
cending from less elevated summits, have had their glaciers and their
torrential debacles proportionate to the local circumstances,"
These are but specimens of numerous details given, most of them with
measurements and other indications of precision such as science demands,
of the district thus traversed, of the districts beyond, of the Alps, of the
basin of the Rhone and its affluents, with references to what is to be seen
in the basins of the Po, the Danube, and the Rhine, — producing an
impression that the whole of these districts, together with much of the
intermediate region, is covered with torrential deposits of a magnitude
and extent far surpassing those of any which the engineer of modern
times is called to treat — reminding one of the statement, "There were
giants in those days."
110 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
And ill view of the whole he (M. Cezanne) is led to conclude that this
which he is disposed to designate the torrential geological era must have
been immediately posterior to what is known as the glacial period. To
the consideration of the phenomena illustrative of this point, and of pheno-
mena occurring during the alleged era, is devoted the penultimate chapter
of the work.
More immediately connected with the subject of rehoisement is the
following resume given by him of the whole series of phenomena brought
imder review : —
" There may be given in a few words a r4sum6 of the whole series of
these phenomena.
" The mountains are the result of a series of upheavals following one
upon another in the same region. A final agitation gave to the different
chains of these the existing elevation ; it elevated the summit and opened
up deep fissures or divisions, which have become the valleys of the present
time. From the time this occurred the waters began to fashion the tludwegs,
following the line which best suited them ; wearing down outlets and filling
up basins. It is necessary to admit, or to assume, that the depth or thick-
ness of the alluvial deposits in the bottom of certain valleys — for instance,
those of the Isere in the Graisivaudan, or of the Rhine in Alsace, — is to be
reckoned by hundreds, and perhaps by thousands, of metres or yards ; for
even yet certain lakes existing in depressions of the Alps have their bottom
below the level of the sea.
" After a long series of ages the mountains assumed the leading features
which they now exhibit, when, the climate changing, great glaciers carried
on actively the work of erosion ; these have planed away escarpments,
and fashioned into something like horizontal lines the rocky belts of
the valleys.
" Debacles, or inundations, from the escape of the waters of pent-up lakes,
and deluges resulting from the tremendous rains of summers on the
extensive fields of ice, have carried away and deposited in the principal
valleys in certain favourable places, but more especially at the dehouchtires
of lateral gorges, the masses of loess which have formed cones in the higher
plains, and in which the water-courses have subsequently dug out the
secondary valleys.
" At a later period, after the melting away of those glaciers, the torrents
seized upon the bared mountains ; and without restraint they have dug out
their basins, and have again taken up the materials disintegrated by the
glaciers, and deposited these in the gigantic cones which give to certain
regions a physiognomy peculiarly their own.
" But after a time the forests, spreading by degrees, stifled the waters
under a mantle of verdure ; the torrents became extinct, — an era of peace
and of comparative quiet supervened in the mountains ; then the tribes of
men, who during the glacial period rambled over the low-lying phxins, in
company with the reindeer, the aurochs, and the bears, began to spread
themselves in the high-lying valleys. The most ancient settlements were
made at the gorges of the torrents, towards the sunnnit of the cone ; in
point of fact, there are to be found in the mountain valleys very few of
these <'orges in which we do not meet cither with an existing village or
with an ancient ruin.
" In this location, which was then one favourable to their pursuits, the
primaiy inhabitants could profit by the exceptional fertility of the cone of
LES TORRENTS, ETC., IW COSTA DE RAHTKI.ICA. Ill
deposits ; they had nothing to fear from the principal river, wliich flowed
througli the lower-lying lands, nor from the torrent, which was then extinct ;
they commanded the plain, and found themselves at the gate of the moun-
tains ; the adjacent gorge supplied them with water, the forest supi)lied
them with wood, the rock supplied them with stone, and their flocks spread
themselves over the verdant ridges around them.
" Little by little, a reckless use of the forests and of the pasturage
disturbed the equilibrium of the natural forces ; and now the old sore is
re-opened, and anew, by man's deed, the mountains are inoculated with the
leprosy of the torrents. The evil has gone on increasing during prolonged
ages of disorder and recklessness ; the position of the cultivated grounds,
and of the villages established at the lUbouche of the torrents, has now
become critical in the extreme ; and unless we go back, as we have done,
to the olden times, we are miable to account for men having taken up their
dwelling in the spots, of all others, wdiich at this day appear to be those
which are more immediately threatened.
" But at last an era of reparation begins ; and, thanks to the eminent
men who have in byegone years given their mind to the w^ork, the next
generation may hope to see the final decline of the modem renewed
Torrential Era."
In 1874 was published Les Torrents leur lois, leur causes, leureffets : Moyens
de les reprwuier et de les ictiliser : leur action geologique imiverselle, imr Michel
Costa de Bastelica, Conservateur des Eaiix et Forets.
This work treats of another aspect or of another department of the subject
than any discussed in the treatises already mentioned, which the author
designates, — Le pMnomene torrentiel, or la torrentialite ; and thus is opened
up another chapter of the natural history of torrents.
" The question raised by torrents," says M. Costa, in the introduction of
the work, " is a very complex one. Behind the technical questions embraced
by it, there are others which connect themselves with the forest economy,
and with the pastoral occupations and the agriculture of the inhabitants of
the mountains, and which involve serious difficulties of administration and
of legislation. To operate on the basin of torrents brings one in contact, and
sometimes into collision, with the requirements and the customs of the
population. The two spheres of thought are quite distinct. The technical
element of the question is admitted to be the more important of the two,
and it is made the basis of the system of operation. I shall, therefore, con-
fine myself exclusively to it. It will be easy to remove the difficulties of
another kind, which beset practical operations under the requirements of
the case, when it shall be demonstrated by science, and established by
experience, that it is possible to put a stop to the outburst of water-courses
by a combination of simple works, comparatively inexpensive, and wisely-
devised conservative measures.
'' With this view I desire to give synthetically the fundamental idea of
the new toiTential theoiy.
" It has struck me in all preceding discussions, in regard to hydrology in
general, that they relate almost exclusively to the debit, or quantity of water
passing or delivered; it is admitted that they take into account the materials
bonie along by the currents at the time of floods ; but on the whole the
supposed cause of inundation is always spoken of as the excess of the
delivery over what it is at other times. All the discussions which have
112 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
taken place, and in which the most eminent savants have taken part, have
been confined to that of causes which could act on the delivery ; and the
whole discussion has come back to that of the permeability or impermeability
of the soil. Even the eftect of forests has not been studied beyond what
the consideration of them from this point of view required. All of the
researches which have had for their aim to enable us to combat inundations,
have had no other object but an action to bear on this delivery. All who
have written on the subject have reasoned and made their calculations as
if, at the time of an excessive flood, nothing was occurring but an augment-
ation of the volume of the current, without any variation in the hydraulic
law by which it was regulated. I have no hesitation in saying I con-
sider this way of looking at the subject erroneous ; and it is at this
point that I take my departure from those who have preceded me — on a
new enquiry.
" From my point of view there is seen to be something more than simply
a variation in the delivery. At the time of a great flood, when a current —
be it great or small — bears along considerable solid masses, consisting of
earth and stones of all sorts and sizes, a peculiar phenomena of special
importance is evolved. This is a perturbation, more or less marked, in the
progress of the current, and in the laws by which it is regulated ; and this
it is which I call the torrential j^henomenon, or, if a word must be created
under which to speak of it, the tm^rentiality — an action of perturbation
which is the greater in proportion as the secondary causes by which
it is produced — namely, the solid matters borne along — are the more
considerable.
" From this point of view, the most furious torrents of the Alps are seen
to be only extreme cases of a general phenomenon, which is produced more
or less imperceptibly, or more or less distinctly marked, in all currents of
water which are not perfectly tranquil in their flow.
" The characteristic eff'ect of this perturbation is an instability in the
course of the stream.
" When a current of water does not bear along solid matter, whatever may
be the volume of water, the flow is eff'ected with great stability in accord-
ance with hydraulic laws. Sudden variation in the delivery, in raising or
lowering the level, produce variations in the rapidity of the flow ; from this
there is thus a certain consequent perturbation ; but the action of gravita-
tion, in its omnipotence, being constant, and this accommodating itself to
the resistances due only to friction, the stability of the stream tends
uninterruptedly to maintain itself. To a rise of level there being a corres-
ponding increase of rapidity of flow, it is rarely the case that such waters
rise higher than the banks.
" The perturbation produced by solid material borne along is, on the
other hand, very serious. If the substance of the current be very greatly
changed in consistence — for example, if for a limpid water, possessing all
its fluidity, there be substituted a viscous liquid — if, further, the torrent be
required to perform the mechanical work of conveying a certain quantity of
solid matters — the conditions are greatly modified. In the fu'st place we
have no longer simply pure water, but water subject to every degree of
variation in so far as fluidity is concerned ; and tlius the work of transport
imposed on the current developes resistances whicli are sul)ject to every
degree of variation. From this birth is given to an extreme instability in
the current, or in other phrase, to lorreiitiaiity.
TORRENTS, ETC., BY COSTA DE RARTELICA. 113
" Experience shows that this perturbation, produced by second causes,
exercises on watcr-com'SCH a mucli more powerful action than that proceeding
from simple variations in the quantity of water delivered.
" in the great torrents of the Alps, which bear along at the time of great
floods enormous masses of material, from the grain of sand to the largest
blocks of rock, and which, moreover, are extremely nuiddy, the pei'turbation
is such that the laws of hydraulics would appear at times to be entirely
reversed, and to produce eftects diametrically opposite to what are produced
in a normal condition. For example, — the bed, instead of being concave,
is convex ; the current, instead of following such depressions in the soil as
offer the most rapid declivity, tends to raise itself, and to follow the pro-
minent points in the ground. The surface of the water itself is convex; the
most extraordinary dynamical effects are produced ; and the water-course
— a prey to a veritable revolutionary state of things — becomes the picture
of the maddest instability.
" We have there, I repeat, an extreme case of the ton-ential phenomenon,
and one the study of which is pre-eminently adapted to reveal to us the
laws by which it is regulated ; for, though less remarkable, this pei'turbation
is nevertheless perceptible in the currents of ordinary streams which bear
away solid matter when in flood. This formidable phenomenon betrays
itself by certain indications. The surface of the stream tends to assume a
convex form ; it is furrowed with cuiTcnts which change their position with
great mobility and varying rapidity. The principal current, instead of
establishing itself in the deepest part of the bed, tends, on the contrary, to
follow^ the line of the highest parts of this, and to invade the banks of
gravel, if there be such there. In rebound from the normal state the
gi*eatest rapidity of flow is along by the banks, and this is one cause of the
erosion of these.
" It is evident that these are efiects which cannot be other than the
product of secondary distui'bing causes, since it is physically impossible that
variations in the quantity of water passing along could be the producing
cause of any such instability.
" A trained eye, morever, can judge at once, by the appearance alone of a
water-course, what is the degree of torrentiality to which it is subject.
" First, when the banks are, through a stretch of some length, covered
with verdure to the water edge — or when the willows allow with impunity
their branches to be borne along by the current — it is a certain sign of great
stability and tranquilityof flow. If, on the contrary, the banks are despoiled
of vegetation, and show traces of erosion — and further, if there are to be
seen here and there banks of gravel — this is symptomatic of the first stage
of ton-entiality.
" These indications become more and more pronounced, according to the
special regime of each water-course ; and when, as in the Durance, the tor-
rential phenomenon attains a great degree of intensity, the water may be
seen straggling over immense plains of pebbles, and dividing into many
branches, which change their position on the smallest increase of flood.
" The condition and appearance of the islands formed by these branches
present also a certain characterestic of greater or less stability in the regime
of a water-course. When these islands are covered with old trees, and
better still, if people have made up their mind to dwell on them, although
there be occasionally great floods, it is a sign of great stability. If, on the
contraiy, these deposits are devoid, or despoiled, of vegetation, or have not
M
114 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
even acquired that dull tint which prolonged exposure to the air gives to
them, it is indicative that the instability is very great.
** The existence, then, of a torrential perturbation, attributable to matters
borne along, is demonstrable. But more than this, this perturbation is
subject to laws as constant as those which regulate the flow of water. The
a priori proof of this is the form taken by deposits which are the products
of this action.
** Nothing is more irregular, to all appearance, than the floods of the great
torrents of the Alps. Those who have read the impressive descriptions of
them given by M. Surell, know that they look like chaos : blocks of stones
rolling along with powerful crashes, knocking one upon another, and a
current black as ink, bounding over all obstacles, and spreading itself with
extreme mobility over a widely extended surface without being able to fix
itself any where. One is ready to believe that this enormous bodj?^ of stones,
borne off by the waters, is about to be scattered abroad at hap-hazard, and
to form a confused mass, setting at defiance all rule ; on the contrary, it
is a curious fact of immense compass, that though the torrent, in pursuing
for ages its work of clearing away in the mountain, and of embanking in
the plain, may have multiplied indefinitely its floods and its transports of
material, the constant result of this continuous action — the one completed
result of all these elementary embankments — that which is designated the
lit de dejection — has assumed a geometrical form of the most perfect regul-
arity ! The determining of the geometrical law, by which the contour of
these deposits with its numerous distinct characteristics has been regulated,
presents considerable difiSculties. I shall afterwards state what is my opinion
on this point ; but, whatever that law may prove to be, there evidently is
some such law ; and it is enough, at this stage of the discussion, that this
has been established."
Alleging, then, that we may conclude with certainty that that work of
the torrent, in appearance so irregular, has been governed by laws, and
these the laws of torrentiality, he goes on to say, that it is desirable to
determine what these laws are, as they are likely to throw some light upon
the problem of inundations, and to indicate a rational solution of this, while
the solution of the problem is of no small interest to the science of terres-
trial physics, and even to that of universal cosmogony.
In accordance with what is stated by M. Costa in regard to the con-
vexity of the flood of the torrent, when charged with earthy matter, are
the observations of M. Surell in regard to the convexity of the lit de dejec-
tion, the last form taken by the suspended earthy material as the water
subsided, though this convexity may be otherwise accounted for. Some-
thing similar may be observed in a flow of treacle, or of tar, or of quick-
silver, or other molten metal ; but something similar may be seen also in
a very rapid flow of water comparatively pure.
By Marsh it is stated, in a foot-note appended to a passage in his treatise
on The Earth as Modified hy Human Action, — " Many physicists who have
investigated the laws of natural hydraulics maintain that, in consequence
of direct obstruction and frictional resistance to the flow of the water of
rivers along their banks, there is both an increased rapidity of current and
an elevation of the water in the middle of the channel, so that a river pre-
sents always a convex surface. Others have thought that the acknowledged
greater swiftness of the central current must produce a depression in that
TORRENTS, F)TC., RY COSTA OB UASTKIJCA. 115
part of the stream. The lumbermen affirm that, while rivers are rising,
the water is highest in the middle of tlie channel, and tends to throw float-
ing objects sliorewards ; while they are falling, it is lowest in the middle,
and floating objects incline towards the centre. Logs, they say, rolled into
the water during the rise, are very apt to lodge on the banks, while those
set afloat during the falling of the waters keep in the current, and are car-
ried without hindrance to their destination; and this law, which has been a
matter of familiar observation among woodmen for generations, is now
admitted as a scientific truth."
A phenomenon similar to that reported by the lumbermen of America
may be observed in the rising and falling of mercury in a barometer tube.
When rising, the surface of the mercury is convex ; when falling, it is con-
cave ; and so constantly is this the case, that directions have been given
to observe whether the surface be convex or concave, to determine, irres-
pective of the pointer, whether the mercury be rising or falling. The
explanation is to be sought for in the relative strength of the attraction of
cohesion keeping the particles of the fluid mass together, and the attraction
of adhesion attaching them to the surface of the confining body, together
with a third element, that of velocity of movement, which may be relatively
different in its eff'ect upon the two attractions named.
This explanation of how the phenomena reported are brought about,
taken in connection with phenomena which are cited by M. Costa, enables
us to see how it may come to pass that destructive efi'ects on the banks of
rivers are frequently produced by the floatage of timber. In many cases
the injurious eff'ects produced upon lands by the clearing aw^ay of forests
are increased by measures adopted in bringing the felled trees out of the
forest, and in sending the timber to its first destination. By Marsh, in
speaking of a common practice followed in America and elsewhere, it is said,
— " The lumbermen usually haul the timber to the banks of the river in the
winter, and when the spring floods swell the streams and break up the ice,
they roll the logs into the water, leaving them to float down to their desti-
nation. If the transporting stream is too small to furnish a sufficient
channel for this rude navigation, it is sometimes dammed up, and the timber
is collected in the pond thus formed above the dam. When the pond is full a
sluice is opened, or the dam is blown up or otherwise suddenly broken, and
the whole mass of timber above it is hurried dow^n with the rolling flood.
Both of these ways of proceeding expose the banks of the rivers employed
as channels of floatation to abrasion ; and in some of the American States
it has been found necessary to protect, by special legislation, the lands
through which they flow from the serious injury sometimes received through
the practice described."
And, in reference to the bringing of felled trees out of the forest, he says,
in an appendix, — " The methods of transporting timber employed by the
lumbermen in the Alps are often more destructive than the baring of the
soil. Forests frequently grow in Alpine glens, or other mountain localities,
inaccessible to wheeled vehicles or even to sleighs. In such cases the
timber is sent down by slides, which, if long used, become the beds of new
torrents, or it is conveyed to larger streams by the method of floatation
described.
" The Rajoj^ort au Conseil FMeral sur les Torrents, des Alpes Smsses ins2:>ectes
en 1858-63, published at Lausanne in 1865 [that commented on by M.
Cezanne] gives a great amount of information respecting this scourge and
116 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
its causes, among which the practice of floatation is particularly noticed.
The amount of damage done to the commune of Campo, on the Rovana, (a
tributary of the Maggia, in the canton of Tisino) in great part from the
effect of floatation, is most striking {Rapport I., pp. 7-13). The force of the
torrent Rovana has been augmented to such a degree by baring the soil,
and by suddenly opening the dams near its sources, that in the course of
four years it excavated below the village a new channel one hundred feet
deeper than its ancient bed, and of course undermined the left bank, which
was composed of comparatively loose materials, for a long distance.
Deprived of its original support, the steeply inclined soil of the commune to
the extent of twenty-five hundred acres, including the village of Campo,
began to slide downwards in a body. The movement still continues (1875).
Many of the houses have been carried off, some overthrown, and the walls
of most of the remainder dangerously cracked. Unless costly measures of
protection are soon adopted, the whole of this vast moving mass will be
washed by the Rovana into the Maggia, and by that river into Lake
Maggiore. So insecure is the soil considered at Campo, that as I was lately
told on the spot, meadow and pasture grounds, which if safe would be worth
100 dollars (<£20) per acre, cannot now be sold for 10 dollars (£2)."
In the first part of his work, M. Costa treats of the phenomena of
transport of solid materials by running water, and the laws regulating these
in different states of the current — from that of a tranquil flow and the
first movement of sand and stones through acceleration of the flow, through
various degrees of speed, to the deposit of these in consequence of a diminu-
tion of this — and having shown that these phenomena include two modes
of transport — one appropriately characterized as triage, or selection, bearing
onwards lighter or smaller material, while heavier or larger is left, or only
rolled along, or dropped, and another in which the whole appears to be
borne along en masse, water and stones and mud commingled, but keeping
their relative position while being borne onward — a section is devoted
to the discussion of the laws of viscosity, of which this is a form, and of
density, as this is effected by immersion in a fluid.
An opportunity will afterwards present itself for stating somewhat in
detail the phenomena he has observed in connection with the transport of
solid materials in both of the modes described.
Proceeding, in the second part of his work, to treat of the torrents, he
calls attention to two different typical forms of torrential floods — the
comparatively limpid floods of the Vosges and the Pyrenees, and the floods
of the High Alps, loaded with earth and stones, which they are sweeping
along ; and looking upon the former as virtually extinct torrents, to employ
the phrase introduced by Surell and now consecrated by use, he confines
his remarks to the latter class of torrents, and discusses in connection with
them what he considers the essential parts of these — the basin and the
deposit. These are treated of at length, and more especially so the
geometrical form of the deposit and the laws regulating its increase; also
certain remarkable incidental phenomena connected with torrents, and the
phenomena attending extinction of torrents.
One of the remakablc phenomena of wliich he treats is the bounding of
stones before the mountain wave, of which mention has been made.
In regard to this he writes, — " Some of the eficcts of torrents have
appeai-ed so extraordinary that, the law of torrcntiality not having been
TORl^ENTR, FTC, HY COSTA DE CA8TELICA. 117
ascortainod, tho imagination set to work to seek out fanciful explanations
of what was seen.
" Thus, for example, has it been with the generally alleged fact, that
at tho moment of flood largo stones set off* of themselves, rolling in advance
before the current had touched them, under impulse from a current of air
preceding the advancing head of waters.
"Eye-witnesses, and these grave men, have affirmed this fact to myself;
and M. SurcU has collected numerous testimonies of this phenomenon, and
has sought to account for it theoretically. In reality, the fact as reported
is absolutely impossible. Resistance increases as the square of the velocity.
Let a calculation be made, from the velocity necessary to a current of air to
displace a stone no larger than an egg ; what velocity would require to be
imparted to a current of air capable of displacing a stone such as some of
those of which this has been told, which must have been at least 50 centi-
metres, or 20 inches in diameter ! The thing alleged is physically impossible ;
and it must be remarked that the people who allege they have seen those
things occur under their eyes, at a few paces from them, do not dream that
if they had been caught in such a current of air they would, at least, have
felt it !
" When these witnesses are cross-questioned, they all declare that they
have seen the stones rolling dry before them ; but no one says he has seen
these stones hegin to move. These witnesses are trust-worthy, in so far as it
is true that the stones were seen rolling before their eyes ; but the point in
which they deceive themselves is the explanation of the phenomenon. They
have attributed this to the force of the current of air ; there is the mistake.
" The fact is a very simple one, and easily explained in accordance with
what has been evolved by the study of the eftect of a sudden retardation on
a current of matter. Through the velocity acquired, and the upward direction
given to their movement, the stones, detaching themselves, are projected
forward from the water by which they were borne along.
" We find that it is towards the contraction of a water-course, occasioned
by a bridge, that the phenomenon manifests itself with most intensity. It
is, moreover, at such points that it ought to be most easily observed. At
the time of a great flood, there are few spectators in the deserted gorges of
the torrents.
" From the moment that we are in possession of principles, nothing is
more easy than to account rationally for all the efl'ects, and all the accidental
incidents which they may produce."
And in a similar way does M. Costa account for other remarkable pheno-
mena which have been observed in connectien with torrents.
In a third part of the work, M. Costa discusses at great length the
extinction of torrents. In his statement of this question, he says, — "According
to the opinion of all the engineers who have had to contend with torrents,
with a view to the protection of valleys against their ravages, works simply
defensive have been acknowledged to be in most cases, if not useless, at least
altogether insufficient, and often dangerous, intensifying at times the evil.
'* M. Surell more especially has put this fact in a clear light ; and he has
established beyond all controversy that it is necessary to carry into the basin
the works designed for the protection of the land, that the evil may be
attacked at its source.
" He has demonstrated, not less triumphantly, that boisement is the most
potent means of extinguishing torrents, as by vegetation we can act, at one
118 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
and the same time, on the delivery of water, and on the consolidation of
the soil.
" M. Surell did not confine himself to preaching the rehoisement of the
mountains, he pointed out at the same time the advantages to be derived
from gazonneinent, and from small artificial works of consolidation formed of
facines properly disposed in the ravines.
" His logical mind perceived the advantages which might be derived from
more extensive and costly artificial works, but he did not believe it possible
to o-uarantee their solidity and their durability under the circumstances in
which they would be erected.
" MM. Scipion Gras et Phillipe Breton have also loudly proclaimed, in a
way the most explicit, that the hoisement of the valley appeared to them the
most efficacious measure which could be adopted against torrents, and that
it was only in default of proceedings with a view to extinction being adopted
— the application of which, when they wrote, was still surrounded with
obscurity and uncertainty — that they proposed the measures they did, as
means of diminishing, at least provisionally, the danger.
" I do not feel called upon to relate here the difficulties and vicissitudes,
moral and administrative, which the foresters had to encounter and over-
come in the commencement of the operation.
" The alarms of the peasants, in regard to their pastoral interests, were
such that they rose in open rebellion. The ferment was extreme in all the
mountain regions, more especially in the region of the Alps ; and, as always,
political passions and local animosities mixed themselves up with the question
at issue and envenomed the discussion.
" Now this agitation is almost calmed down, and it is but right to acknow-
ledf>-e that this happy result is due in a great measure to the spirit which
presided over the direction of the operation.
" The means at our command form three categories : hoisement, gazonne-
ment, and artificial works of consolidation. In order to determine precisely
to what extent, and in what circumstances, each of these means should be
adopted, it is necessary to study apart their respective actions, and after-
wards resume, in a general discussion of the question, the system to be
adopted in a plan of extinction." And he proceeds accordingly.
In speaking of the good done by forests on the face of mountains, forming
a basin drained by water-courses, he says their beneficial action is manifold ;
and though this manifold action it may be difficult to unfold, the attempt
to do this will place beyond all question that their beneficial action of the
water-course is at once most marked and considerable.
" In the discussions which have taken place on this subject," says he,
" the point which has engrossed attention to some extent lias been almost
exclusively the permeability or impermeability of the soil, and the propor-
tion borne by the water absorbed to tliat wliich flows ofi'. This is certainly
an important question, and no difficulty is found in showing that forests
diminish to an enormous extent the amount of water which flows away ;
but the service which they render is perhaps greater still in regulating, as
they do, the flow, and in securing the delivery of only water of peifect
fluidity.
"The study of torrents has shown that the evil done consists not so much
in the greater or less volume of water discharged as in the disturbances or
perturbations of the flow connected with this. The principal causes of
these are sudden changes or variations in the delivery and in the degree of
TORRENTS, ETC., BY COSTA DB BxVSTEIJCA. 119
fluidity of the flood. And if it be shown that the forests have, in relation
to both of these, a regiihiting ])o\vei' sui)crior to that of any other force
operating on the torrent, it will be proved that they arc the most potent
means of extinguishing torrents.
'' If we could expose, by a vertical section, a wooded slope, it would show
in the upper portion a layer of varying thickness, but most frequently of
from 30 to 40 centimetres (12 or 15 inches) of humus, in which the fibrous
rootlets are so developed that the whole has the appearance of a woolly
material. This layer is at once a sponge and a filter. The large roots of
the trees penetrate more or less into the subjacent rock.
" When the rain falls on ground covered with wood a considerable
portion of the water is restored to the atmosphere by evaporation ; {mother
portion is absorbed by the immense expansion of foliage and boughs. If
the rain be prolonged the water comes at length to the ground, which again
is capable of absorbing an immense quantity. A flow from this is slow
to establish itself ; it is necessary, first, that the saturation of the sponge-
like layer be complete ; and when this is effected — when the water has been
able to make a passage for itself by an infinite number of imperceptible
channels — the flow, like that of a charged syphon, maintains a certain
uniformity of flow, and this it continues for a long time after the rain has
ceased.
" So much is this the case that opponents have alleged that forests are
more hurtful than beneficial, as they tend to prolong floods. The flood is
prolonged, it is true, but the delivery is regulated — diminished at the
commencement and increased at the close : the total quantity of water
drained away takes a longer time to flow ; it flows during the whole of that
longer time; and, what is of more importance, it flows uniformly and
equally, with no sudden variations, and thereby much evil is avoided ; and,
what is of more importance still, the forest acts at the same time as a filter,
delivers no water but what is of perfect fluidity, scarcely even discoloured
by the w\ashing away of organic matter, and unable to wash away the earth
of the subsoil protected against erosion by its thick covering of humus.
" When, on the contrary, the rain falls on a soil stript of vegetation, it
tends to cut this up into ravines, and it does so if the tenacity and resist-
ance of the ground be not suflicient to withstand it ; and the flood is subject
to great variations in its current, carrying off" here and there the earth and
other debris of the soil.
" Forests have, then, a double action ; on the one hand they consolidate
the soil, on the other hand they reduce and regulate the flow of the current
— acting at once both on the delivery and on the perturbation, — in other
words, on the primary cause and on the secondary causes of the ovci-flowing
of water-courses.
" It has been tried to subject to experiment and observation the meteoro-
logical and hydrological influences of forests. And doubtless studies so
interesting are by no means lost to science. They cannot be too much
encouraged ; but it should be borne in mind that they can have compara-
tively little value in this question, seeing that they cannot take cognizance
of this modulating and regulating action.
" In regard to any flood which we may wish to make the subject of study,
it would avail comparatively little to know what quantity of rain falls
annually in the basin drained by it. Wiiat is necessary to be known is —
In what way did the flow of the flood operate during the duration of
120 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
the flood, taking iuto account the quantity of water discharged, and all the
causes or sources of perturbation operating ; which is a much more difficult
problem.
'' And in resolving the whole question into the permeability of the soil, and
its capacity of absorption, it appears, importance is attached exclusively to
the reduction of the volume of water which flows away. It seems to be
forgotten in this that water-courses, if steadily suj^j^lied, constitute it may be
said the principal riches of a country, and the most potent of all instruments
of labour.
" By their modulating power forests act as vast reservoirs, not only in
preventing sudden variations of delivery during a flood, but in feeding the
water-courses and raising their level during the period of exhaustion. In
what relates specially to the torrents of the Alps, it has been demonstrated
that the renewed devastating power which they have exhibited, and which
has assumed such portentous magnitude in the course of the last forty
years, is a consequence of the disappearance of the woods. When one goes
over these lands — cut into ravines and despoiled of all vegetation — he meets
with numerous stumps of pine and of larch, which testify that at a period
as yet still recent they were covered by vast forests.
" M. Surell cites, as an example of the action of forests, the torrent of
Savines, now completely extinguished, and the basin of which is everywhere
adorned with a magnificent forest of firs and pines. The forest has
cfl'ectively contributed to the extinction of the torrent, but at this point the
following observations may be made :
" This natural extinction of the torrent goes back to ages most remote.
The cone is of a perfect geometric regularity. At its base, opposite the
Durance, it presents a troncature or section, produced by the erosion of the
river, and the escarpment of which is about 30 metres (100 feet) in height
at its culminating point. This section of the ground lays open the interior
of the torrential deposit formed of rolled pebbles.
" The whole surface of the cone is cultivated, and on one portion has
been built the large village of Savines, the chief place of the canton.
" This enormous heap of deposit is situated at the foot of a high
mountain called Morgon, in the flanks of which are dug out a profound
gorge surrounded by a vast basin, the work of the water. All the upper
slopes of the mountain are hung with a beautiful forest, producing firs
more than 30 metres (100 feet) in height, and 3 metres (10 feet) in girth.
" The lower slopes are deeply ravined, but wooded to the very edge of the
Uucdioejja. A pretty strong stream rises from the principal gorge, but it
swells but little ; it carries down no materials, and it flows into the Durance
by a bed deeply enclosed in the left bank of the cone. Extinction and
stability are complete ; but it is certain that if the forest should be made to
disappear, anew would disorder revive, and this with the same intensity as
before.
" In going over the basin with attention, I satisfied myself that every-
where the bed of the thdvmja of the gorges and the ravines, formed of the
hard rock, were absolutely incapable of being undermined. From this it may
be inferred, that during the activity of the torrent, when the basin was
being deepened more and more, the surface could not have been wooded.
But from the time that the waters had everywhere reached the iiard rock,
and that these could no more be undermined and washed deeper, their
thalwegs in the upper slopes tended to consolidate themselves, taking their
TORRENTS, ETC., BY COSTA DE BABTELICA. 121
natural stable declivity; and from that time vegetation could begin to take
hold and complete the extinction.
"This remark is important in this way, that if the disappearance of a
forest always gives birth to torrential disturbances, it does not always hold
true that one can put a stop to them by tlie planting of a forest alone.
" Much as an unstable ground is protected by being wooded — though it
maintains itself and behaves in a hydrological point of view as do the most
solid lands, if the wood come to disappear, if the ground be deeply ravined,
if the bottom of the ravine continues to be easily undermined and washed
away — it becomes extremely difficult to establish vegetation on the moun-
tains, which continually crumble away, and which with this instability no
longer retain any trace of vegetable soil.
" In the Alps there are numerous cases of old mountains which crumble
away when the foot of the slope is undermined by the water. And one is
thus left, if he desire to effect a radical and prompt extinction of a torrent,
to give, artificially, to the bottom of the ravine a power of resistance to
undermining and washing away, by appropriate works of consolidation.
" But be this as it may, the potent action of forests is beyond all question.
Whatever be the character of the woods — timber forest, coppice-wood, or
simple shrubbery — all contribute to give firmness to the soil, to retard and
to regulate the flow of the water drained off*.
" In comparing the different kinds of woods, it may be said that lofty
timber forests, with their vast apparatus of foliage at a great elevation above
the soil, are of most use with a view to meteorological and hydrological effects;
and that young trees serve perhaps better to insure the consolidation
of the soil on steep declivities. But as generally, on poor land, the soil of
timber forests covers itself with branches, &c., it follows that a mixture
of the two kinds of woods accomplishes best the end which it is sought to
eff-ect."
In regard to gazonnement, he says, — " To report efficiently the influence
exerted by a bed of turf or herbage covering the soil, it is necessary to
follow the very interesting natural process which goes on when pasturing is
suppressed on land, till then, given up to the abuse of pasturage.
" The facts which I am about to state are not exclusively theoretical, they
are confirmed by numerous experiments of enclosures which have been
made during a great many years.
" I ought first to make an important remark on the subject of the
different disintegrations of the soil which occur. Some are simply superficial,
and in no way compromise the stability and the solidity of the bulk of the
ground. The surface is more or less disintegrated, but the subsoil is
unmoved. With others, on the contrary, if they occur on unstable grounds,
or on grounds badly poised, breaking up the mass, they tear it deep and
move it to its very foundation.
"It is apparent from what is said that the influence of turf or herbage,
even if it could be produced there, can be of almost no eff'ect in this latter
case. There is nothing but woods, with their strong and deep roots, which
can render firm and protect a soil so unstable, and often on such the wood
itself requires the assistance of artificial w^orks of consolidation to sustain it.
But the action of turf or herbage is, on the contrary, very powerful if it
be employed only to repair a superficial evil by removing traces of erosion.
Let us take up, then, the description of the work of nature.
"When the soil is no longer trampled, and the few herbs which it is
N
122 . LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
still capable of producing are no longer gnawed to the root, there is a real
awakening of the forces of nature. All the buried seeds spring to life.
From the very first year the ground changes its aspect, it begins to show
a green hue. In autumn the plants shed their seeds. From year to year
the vegetation spreads and takes possession of the place more and more
extensively.
" In proportion as this change is produced in the state of the surface,
the water arrives less rapidly and in less abundance in the ravines and in
the hollows of the soil. Its power of carrying off material is weakened ;
from the first it has no longer the strength to carry off the larger stones,
which roll to the bottom of the ravines and stop there.
*' To the former work of erosion, and of carrying ofl:' material, succeeds
the opposite action of colmatage — depositing mud, &c., in its course — and of
levelling. This action, at first slow, increases with a rapidly advancing
progression. The tendency to effect a general levelling extends throughout
the whole section of the ground over which the water flows ; and a retarda-
tion of swiftness succeeds to acceleration. The vegetation promoted by the
fertilizing colmatage takes on an energetic development ; it invades more
and more the bottom of the ravines. It is there a characteristic sign of
victory being assured to the vegetation.
" When the upper slope is surmounted by crests formed of crumbling
rocks, these summits, more exposed to the destructive action of the elements,
continue to produce masses of minute debris, which sustain the action of
colmatage on the lower slopes. Ravines, and all depressions of the soil,
tend more and more to efface themselves. The soil goes on rising in these
unceasingly. In. this new permeable and minutely subdivided layer the
turf developes itself with more and yet more vigour, and it finishes by
reaching a considerable thickness — it is often 30 centimetres (or 12 inches)
thick. One may estimate from this the influence produced by the thick
layer of turf or herbage.
'' In regard to the consolidation of the soil, the protection is complete.
" In regard to hydrology, the absorption of the water by this permeable
layer is so much the greater as — be it in consequence of a greater levelling
of the surface, or be it through the effect of the long herbage — the flow of
it is subjected to a very great retardation.
" The levelling, in extending indefinitely the section, reduces the mass of
water to an extremely thin sheet ; and then each shoot of herbage easily
breaks this sheet, so that .the water which can only acquire velocity by a
certain concentration is broken up to such a degree that all flow is impossible,
excepting in some extraordinary case as when a water-spout breaks and
pours out itself on a single point.
" Woods also induce colmatage on the higher slopes which they occupy
when the crests are denuded and formed of crumbling rocks, throwing off not
only fine debris, but also very often stones and large pieces of rock.
'' In certain forests all the trees are severely grazed on the upper side by
the shock of stones which roll from the upper part of the mountain. Wlien
these projectiles are launched with very great velocity they roll to the foot
of the mountain ; but most frequently they stoj) on the lower slope, and
form, by their accumulation, a layer of variable tlnckness.
"When tlie colmatage acts slowly and regularly it is extremely favourable
to the vegetation. It is then one of the causes of the beauty of the woods
on the upper slopes.
TORRENTS, ETC., BY CORTA DE BABTKLICA. 123
" In a perfected forest culture it would be possible, by light works, to
enrich the soil by favouring this natural colmatage on steep lower declivities,
and if it be desired to fix voluminous materials, wood is i)referable ; but on
gentle slopes the turf and herbage, which act on the small gravel and the
finest sands, secure a colmatage more complete and more compact.
** It is a fact, ascertained by experience, that lands so covered are more
equably levelled than are wooded lands.
'* One may then draw this consequence — that, in the given cases, even for
lands which it is desired to cover with woods, it is often preferable to
subject them previously to the treatment of simple enclosures, that they
may be subjected to this natural preparation which levels and fertilizes them.
" When, in consequence of the bad state of the soil, and the too advanced
state of the ravine, action of this kind would be too slow to heal over these
deep sores, it is necessary to aid them by artificial appliances. It often
suffices to put some facines across the ravines, to induce the process of
colmatage, and to give to this great energy. It is impossible on this point to
lay down any fixed rule. The principle is this — when it is by its concentra-
tion that the water acquires its velocity, and its power of destruction, it is
necessary, as much as possible, and at all points, to diminish the velocity
by extending the section.
" Simple enclosure does not produce eveiy where a pure gazonnement ;
there is required a certain altitude favourable to the turf forming plants of
high mountains, and also certain conditions of the soil. In the lower
districts of some countries, from the time that a piece of ground is no longer
open to flocks and herds, vegetation revives, and all the plants of the
locality, the seeds of which have been preserved in the soil, or have been
borne thither by the wind, develope themselves. These are the lavender,
the broom, the fescue grass, and very often forest trees, especially the oak,
the seeds of which are very tenacious of vitality.
" All this natural vegetation, whatever it may be, is valuable when it
acts to restore an impoverished land, and to combat the redoubtable effects
of ravines.
" In conclusion, vegetation, under all its forms, is the most powerful
means of the restoration and consolidation of the soil, and through this also
the most active and most valuable agent in the extinction of torrents ; but
there are certain cases in which the evil has made such fearful progress
that nature, left to its own powers, would be powerless to repair it. It is
absolutely necessary to come to its aid if we wish to protect the valley
effectually, and above all if we wish to do it quickly."
Referring to the use of barrages advocated hy Surell, by Scipion Gras,
and by Philippe Breton, M. Costa discusses the whole theory of such
appliances, viewed both as designed for the consolidation of the soil in
danger of being washed away, and as designed to retain or collect gravel —
the former the purpose for which they were proposed by M. Surell, the
latter the purpose for which they are prescribed by MM. Gras and Breton.
He discusses both at considerable length, and also the diversion of torrents
into new courses, and what combinations of each and of all of them with
reboisement and gazonnement were likely to be most efficient in different
circumstances ; and in illustration of the success in consolidating ground
which had followed proceedings such as he advocates, he cites what had
been accomplished in the extinction of the torrent of Saint-Martha, near
124 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS,
Embruu, to which I shall afterwards have occasion to refer ; and he proceeds
in the next division of the w^ork to the consideration of the torrential
phenomena in great rivers.
He says, that with the knowledge which has been attained in regard to
mountain torrents by observation and experience, the question, How can
they be controlled and stifled 1 may be considered as settled. But the
same cannot be affirmed in regard to rivers, which throughout their course
are governed by the same laws — both those governing or regulating the
flow of water and those governing or regulating the torrential phenomena —
any apparent modification being attributable to the greater quantity of
water, its greater fluidity or lesser viscosity, the lesser rapidity of its flow,
and to the more extended reaches throughout which this maintains a
uniformity. All that has been done hitherto in regard to rivers has related
to the delivery or quantity of w^ater in flow. Attention has not been given
to the perturbations of torrentiality and to eff'ects produced by these.
In the regulation of river currents it is desireable that the deliveiy or
water in flow should be equalized, and all perturbation in that flow reduced
as much as possible ; and he says, — " This double result is obtained by the
reboisement of the mountains, but it may be brought about in two difterent
ways. When the object to he accomplished by the planting of forests is to
equalize the delivery or quantity of w^ater it is necessary to extend the
hoisement over extensive areas, comprising the greater portion of the basin.
If, on the other hand, it is the perturbations in the flow upon which it is
desired to act, it is necessary to concentrate the reboisement on properly
selected points, and, it may be, to strengthen the action of these by a series
of the artificial accessory works employed for the extinction of torrents.
" It is this latter system which is alone efficacious and practicable in acting
on a great water-course.
" In a basin such as that of the Loire, for example, there might be planted
a hundred thousand hectares of land without perceptibly modifying the
regime of the river, if the lands were not selected with intelligence with a
view to the consolidation of the soil and to the accomplishment of the
end desired. A study of the whole course of the river, and a comprehensive
plan of operations founded thereon, is absolutely requisite as a preliminary
measure.
" It is necessary from the first thoroughly to know the regime of the parti-
cular water-course, and to ascertain its torrentiality. This may be accom-
plished by a general reconnoissance.
" All the affluents should be classified in a hydrological chart, according to
their degree of torrentiality.
" Most frequently an inspection of the state of the confluence suffices to
reveal the regime of the affluent. When such is torrential it will be found
to straggle over an extended bed before flowing into the main stream.
"By subjecting, then, every one of the affluents to such an examination,
and following out this in all the upper ramifications of the i-iver, it is easy
to determine what are the main centres of production of the stone or clay
materials borne along by the river, which are the causes of the perturbation
which h;ive to be fought.
" By this procedure the evil is localized, determined, and circuniKcribed ;
and it is often astonishing to find how limited in extent, compared with the
area of the basin, are the whole of the sources whence the gi-avel is obtained.
" By such a procedure the operation is not left to chance. All is done
T0PRENT8, ETC., IIY COSTA DE UASTELICA. 125
rationally, with an adaptation of means to tlic end. From the time that
the extent of the sore which has to be cicatrized is known and defined, it is
easy to report beforehand on the importance of the work to be done, on the
expense it will entail, and on the time which will be required for its
execution.
" It may be necessary to limit the operations to bring them within the
means at command, but what is done is done in accordance with a fixed
plan and with the assurance of success.
" I do not conceal from myself that I expose my remarks to the charge of
being premature. I state them more for the future than for the present.
A work so colossal cannot be improvised. Every new idea requires to be
matured before it be accepted. It has got, when true, to pass through the
sieve of contradiction and opposition, but it issues in triumph.
'' The rehoisement of the mountains, looked at from this point of view, has
already overcome obstacles ; and it has stood the test of public calamities.
It is making good its position day by day, and in proportion as it becomes
better understood, more and more will the necessity of developing it be felt.
''To state my opinion in a few words, this is the necessary solution of the
matter : it is an efficacious one, and there exists not another for a problem
which we cannot elude, and which presents itself in a more and more
threatening aspect.
" I shall esteem myself happy if by this treatise, which is imperfect, but
which is expressive of deep convictions, I may contribute to hasten on the
time when our beautiful rivers shall no longer inspire dread or bring danger,
but become magnificent highways of navigation."
The title of the work of M. Costa bears that he treats not only of the
laws, causes, effects, and means of repressing torrents, but also of the means
of utilising them. Means of doing this are indicated again and again in the
course of the work, but the suggestions thus given exhaust not his views of
what may in this way be effected.
" The great perturbations in the order of nature w^hich leave often behind
them saddening traces of their occurrence," says he, "fulfil, nevertheless, a
useful, and it may be a necessary, function in the work of creation. The
storms which create a turmoil in the atmosphere purify the air. Without
the cyclones of the Indian Ocean, the latitudes in which they occur\vould not
be habitable. And storms on the sea help to prevent a tainting of the
waters, by commingling with the superficial layers waters from deeper layers
more nearly saturated with salt.
"The inundations of water-courses, against which we seek to protect
ourselves now, have served to create fertile alluvia on gigantic deltas, and
on many rich valleys, some of them the most beautiful parts of the
earth, in which human society has been able to develope itself, and to bring-
forth its marvels.
" Even in our own times, beneficent inundations — natural or artificial —
by depositing in certain valleys an earth which is repairing an exhausted
land, are the means of generating wealth. We have, then, in inundations
a force or power which sometimes occasions ruin and devastation, but which
sometimes becomes a valuable instrument of good, according as its action
may be chaotic or controlled.
" Having seen how this force may be controlled and kept within bounds,
it is reasonable to suppose, and I cannot but believe the supposition to be in
126 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
accordance with fact, that in accordance with that unity which pervades
eveiy thing, it is possible to indicate a way by which it may be utilised ;
and this all the more that such a way there is, based on the very laws
regulating torrential phenomena which have been brought under
consideration.
" It is this consideration which has determined me to devote some pages to
that interesting agricultural operation known under the name of colmatage,
or warping, and practised by the Egyptians from time immemorial with
great skill.
" To transform deserts into meadows — stony ground, absolutely sterile,
or producing only a sorry pasturage, into alluvial lands, capable of bearing
acoveringof the most luxuriant and richest vegetation — is certainly not only
one of the most lucrative enterprises, but also one, in every aspect of it, most
interesting. Everywhere, where it is has been tried in favourable circum-
stances, it has produced results surpassing all expectations which had been
entertained.
" There exist in France extensive districts, especially in the south, in
which this operation might be carried out advantageously.
'•' The immense plain which extends from the town of Aries, in Provence,
to the sea on the left bank of the Rhone, known under the name of the
Craw, is in its central part a veritable desert of forty thotisand hectares,
covered with pebbles, thoroughly burned up by drought in summer, but
where, during the rainy season in winter, there grow some stalks of herbage
on which the flocks of transhumant sheep feed.
" The fertilization of this plain by colmatage, by means of the waters of
the Durance, would be of immense benefit not only to Provence but to the
whole country. It would be there a creation of enormous agricultural
wealth, which would, without fail, have a reaction on the national wealth
and the general well being."
He states that the credit of first entertaining this idea doesnot belong to him;
that it has again and again engaged the attention of men given to the study of
natural phenomena, and of great ameliorations of which terrestrial condi-
tions are susceptible ; and he gives great credit more especially to M.
Scipion Gras for what he had done and was doing to promote the enterprise.
Having done so, he proceeds to expound his views of what might be eftected.
Next in importance to preventing the devastations occasioned by inunda-
tions, by the washing away of earth and earthy materials from the higher-
lying basins drained by torrents, and by the deposit by these on fertile
fields and valuable lands of a covering of sand and gravel and stones, the
detritus of mountains washed away by the torrent in its rage, he seems to
have deemed the plan of so constructing water-courses that, where
practical or desirable, these should be made to make some compensation
for the mischief done by them, or by others of their kind, by covering
barren plains with fertile soil.
As the result of the study of natural phenomena, he states, that on pure
clay a fjazoniipmnd of herbage is not produced, but that it developes itself
with great vigour on miscellaneous deposits, and this gives rise to the
speedy formation of an upper layer of vegetable soil, and that thus, in a
very short time, there is produced there fertile grounds requiring only in
addition a little maiuire to promote their fertility.
Leaving the subject of torrents, except in so fiir as their phenomena might
TOIIIIENTH, ETC., BY COSTA 1)K BASTELICA. l27
serve to illustrate his subject, ho prepares for the discussion of the possi-
bility of proventiiiL:; iiuuulations by a (liscussiou of the tori'cntial ])henomeua
in great rivers. And considering, as he did, that attention iiad been given
too exclusively to variations in the delivery of water-courses — no previous
writer, so far as was known to him, having even admitted the idea of per-
turbations in the flow giving rise to a confusion of the so-called hydraulic
laws, of something lilje a revolution breaking out in a water-course and
producing an instability which mocked all provisions and precautionary
measures alike — to these perturbations and their phenomena he gives special
attention ; and he again brings under consideration w^hat it is which consti-
tutes torrentiality, with a view to showing that it is seen in rivers as well
as in what are designated torrents.
According to M. Costa, his definition of a torrent embodies the idea of its
bearing along earthy matter in suspension ; and he states that it does so both
in a mass and in what is known in France as triage, dropping some and
carrying on others of the materials in question ; in the former case all the
rocks, pebbles, and lesser fragments are carried along in something like
their relative positions, as would be the case in .a viscid mass or in a glacier ;
in the latter the weightier materials are dropped first, and this going on more
or less continuously, the matters in a state of extreme comminution are
carried furthest. The diff'erence in mode of transport appears in connection
with difference in the velocity of the flow. When this is so great as to bear
the whole along in a mass, the stones, whatever their size, do not come into
collision, and if any were withdrawn they would be found to be as little
rounded as are the stones falling from a glacier and forming a moraine.
But when the velocity is being impaired, as this goes on the stones begin
to roll, suspended in the water, and they may come into collision one w^ith
another ; and the heavier sinking, these are for a time rolled along the
bottom and subjected to collision and friction. At length they rest, and
where they rest the collision of others following and proceeding further
subjects them to continued abrasion ; and what happens thus to the heavier
masses happens there or further in advance, in succession as the velocity
is reduced, to others of lesser weight.
In view^ of these phenomena he makes valuable suggestions in regard to
the structure of barrages. He suggests that, by submerged barrages of little
height, if these be properly disposed, the velocity of a torrent might be so
reduced as to secure a deposit over a great extent of ground of the impal-
pable mud borne down by a torrent. He states that much of the mud thus
carried along would be infertile, but that much fertile vegetable mould is
thus buried in the sea ; and he proposes that in certain circumstances in
which this may be practicable and desirable this should be so secured ; he
points out places of great extent in regard to which he proposes that this
should be done ; and he cites what has been eff'ected in the High AJps in
evidence of the practicability and advantages of the measui'e.
M. Costa looks, in the light of these observations, at the geological
phenomena which led M. Cezanne to conclude that the so-called glacial or
drift period w^as succeeded by what he considered a torrential era ; the
difi*erent appearance of stones found in some heaps from that presented by
these in others — these being in the one angular and in the other rounded,
the former like the stones forming moraines deposited by glaciers, the
others like those found in tits de dejection^ and attributable to attrition,
128 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
escaped in those, having befallen these, having been suggested or been called
in to support the theory or hypothesis. M. Costa, looking to the torrential
phenomenon of transport of material en masse, differs from M. Cezanne only,
or chiefly, so far as to attribute the whole, or by far the greater part of the
deposits in question, which are extensively distributed over some parts of
France, to torrential action alone ; maintaining and citing in support of his
views phenomena of torrents established by his previous observations which
go to prove that torrential action is equal to the production of all the
phenomena of these deposits, — the transfer of the blocks of the greatest
magnitude seen, and the transfer of these and of lesser stones without
damage to their angular outlines, and to the deposit of them where they
are, and in the form in which they are found.
He does not deny that the effect of glaciers is w^hat it is believed to be,
but he alleges that torrents, charged and surcharged with earthy matter,
bear off rocks and stones, and such earthy matters, in certain circumstances,
in a somewhat viscid mass, in which each constituent part may be con-
ceived of as retaining its relative position very much as such matters do in
a glacier, and therefore with their angularities unbroken. But in regard
to the composition and contour of the beds of deposit, he cites observations
of M. Cezanne and of his own which seem fully to warrant a conclusion
drawn by him from them, that all moraines — deposits chiefly associated
with glaciers — have not been produced by these, some having been pro-
duced by landslips and avalanches, if not otherwise, but that all cones of
dejection are the products of torrents. But he goes further, alleging that
while the melting or breaking up of the ice is only an accidental and local
phenomena, torrential phenomena are common and universal, and are so to
such an extent as to make the term torrential era objectionable ; torrential
force being a force which not only has manifested itself in a permanent and
continuous manner within and throughout the historic period, in modern
alluvia, and in the geologic period, in ancient alluvia — buried, some of them, to
the greatest depth ; but also in what may be called the cosmogonic period,
at every instant of the earth's life exercising an influence on the very
contour of the globe, if not also acting in the sun and in the planets.
Such are the views entertained by M. Costa of such deposits as are described
in my citations from the work of M. Cezanne.
And with all his enlarged and comprehensive views of torrential action, he
appears to have held the same views as those I have cited as the views of
Marschand and of Cezanne in regard to the later history of torrents in
France, to the extinction of these by the spread of vegetation, to the resusci-
tation of them by the destruction of forests, and to the re-extinction of them
by rehoisement and gazonnement.
Thus do all concur in pointing out to us the stage of the process in South
Africa, and in other newly settled countries, indicated by torrential floods,
when looked at in connection with the destruction of grass and herbage and
bush and trees witnessed in and beyond the portions colonized by Europeans.
In regard to the means to be employed to secure the extinction of these,
he says, — " When the torrentiality is feeble, and the evil consists mainly in
the quantity of the water, it is l)y hoisemeni, and the si)rcad of vegetation,
that it should 1)0 souglit to effect the restraint or extinction of it. If, on
the contrary, the torrentiality is extreme, and the devastations produced
by it proceed principally from the perturbations iu the flow being now
TITTiES OP TREATISES. 129
violent, now fceble, tliis should bo rectified by tlio extensive application of
works of consolidation, such as Surcll has recommended.
" The works of reboisemeid and gazonucment, to be cflfectual, require to be
extended over largo areas. Works of artificial consolidation, on the contrary,
may be confined within a limited space, and the evil may in some cases bo
stifled by attacking it in its principal source.
" Sometimes it may happen that, through the pastoral and agricultural
operations carried on, it is impracticable to give to hoisement the whole
extension necessaiy to meet the evil. Every case must be decided on its own
merits. And, from the general considerations adduced, it is apparent that it is
impossible to lay down invariable rules of procedure applicable to every case.
" When there is no special urgency for securing immediate results, it is
preferable to employ at once vegetation. By enclosing a space, it is found
that the spontaneous work of nature exercises a most favourable influence
on the soil. Cover, then, with woods all the lower slopes, where there is
no fear of the earth crumbling away, and where the spontaneous work of
nature is not likely to cover them with vegetation. With this done, the
delivery of water will insensibly diminish ; losing bulk and velocity, it
retains no longer the same power of undermining and washing away ; the
hills are less frequently and less powerfully attacked ; and where it is
reckoned that the torrent is sufficiently enfeebled, there may then, if it be
thought necessary, be established in the gorges, with greater ease and at
less expense, works of consolidation deemed useful.
" This order of procedure is more sure, and more economical, but more
slow than is the reverse.
" With the vegetation there may be combined, on the upper slopes and
in the' lesser ravines, a great many small works of consolidation, the design
of which is to effect this by retarding the velocity of the flow, and the sub-
stituting of colmatage for the undermining and carrying away of the soil.
" The time for undertaking works of consolidation in the gorges must be
determined by the degree of urgency for a speedy extinction of the torrents,
and by administrative considerations, of which the superior authority is
the judge."
In illustration of what may be done, M. Costa cites the extinction of the
torrent of Saint Martha, already referred to.
Besides the works which have been cited, the following have been
published in France : —
Belgrand, membre de I'lnstitut, inspecteur g^n^ral des ponts et chauss^es.
Hydrologie et m^Uorologie du hassin de la Seine.
Belancer, ing^nieur en chef des ponts et chaussees. Essai sur le mouve-
ment pei'manent des eaux courantes.
CoLLiGNON, cours d'hydrauliquc professe a I'Ecole des ponts et chauss6es.
CoMOY, inspect, gen. des ponts et chaussees. Memoires sur les ouvrages
de defense contre les inondations.
Darcy et Bazix. Recherches hydrcmliques. Premiere Partie — Recherches
experimentales sur I'ecoulement de I'eau dans les canaux decouvei-ts.
Deuxieme Partie — Recherches experimentales sur la propagation
des ondes.
DuMONT, ingenieur en chef des ponts et chaussees. Les eaux de Lyon et
de Paris, — projets, traces et details d'ex^cution suivis d'une pratique
des distributions d'eau.
130 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
DuPUiT, inspect. g6n. des ponts et chauss^es. Des Inondations, examen
des moyens py^ojyoses pour en prevenir le retour,
DuPUiT, inspect. g6n. des ponts et chaussees. Etudes pratiques et
theoriques sur le mouvement des eaux courantes, suivies de considerations
relatives au regime des grandes eaux, au debouche a leur donner, et d, la
marche des alluvions dans les rivieres h fond mobile.
Fargue, ing^nieur des ponts et chaussees. Mude sur la correlation entre
la configuration du lit et la profondeur d^eau.
FouRNi^ (V.), ingenieur des ponts et chauss6es. Resume des experiences
hydraidiques executees par le gouvernement amh'icain sur le Mississip)i,
et remarques sur les consequences qui en decoident relativement a la
theorie des eaux courantes.
, ingenieur des ponts et chaussees. Progres recents de la meteorologie.
, Amelioration des rivieres torrentielles.
Graeff, inspect, gen. des ponts et chaussees. Theorie des reservoirs.
Krantz, ingenieur en chef des ponts et chaussees. Murs de reservoirs.
Lamairesse. Hydrologie ckc dqmrtement du Jura.
Malezieux, ingenieur des ponts et chaussees, professeur a I'Ecole des
ponts et chaussees. Rapport sur un voyage aux Etats-Unis execute
par ordre de S. Exc. le ministre des travaux 2mblics.
Mangon, ingenieur en chef des ponts et chaussees, professeur a I'Ecole
des ponts et chaussees. histructions pratiques sur le drainage.
, Experiences sur Vemploi des eaux dans les irrigatioyis.
Monestier-Savignat, ingen. des ponts et chaussees. Etudes sur les
p)henomenes, Vamenagement et la legislation des eaux au pont de vue des
inondations, avec app)lication au bassin de VAllier, riviere d, regime
• torrentiel, affluent de la Loire.
Nadault de Buffon, ingenieur en chef des ponts et chaussees, professeur
k I'Ecole des ponts et chaussees. Des submersioiis fertilisanteSy
colmatage, limonage, irrigations d^hiver.
J Des irrigations, canaux d'arrosage de V Italic septentrionale.
Partiot, ingenieur des ponts et chaussees. Etude sur le mouvement des
marees dans les j^arties maritimes des fleuves.
De Passy, ing6nieur en chef des ponts et chaussees. Etudes sur le service
hydraulique.
Plocq, ingenieur des ponts et chauss6es. Etiide des courants et de la
marche des alluvions aux abords du detroit du Pas-de-Calais.
PoiREE (M. A.), inspect. g6n. des ponts et chaussees (en retraite). Quel-
ques mots de riponse ct la brochure de M. Diqmit, intitul6e : des
Inondations.
ViGAN. Irrigations des Pyrenees otientales et phenomene dit : Production
des eaux.
Several of the subjects embraced in this department of the forest science
of France have engaged the attention of students of nature in other countries.
Copious extracts from French works, with copies of official documents issued
in France relative to reboisement and gazcnnement, are embodied in an official
report, issued in the province of Luxemburg, entitled ])le Reboisement des
Terraines vagues Rapport presente au Conseil jjrovincial par la Deputation
permanente Session de 1807. But being a compilation and report, made
with a view to work being undertaken, it communicates no accounts of
hydrological results obtained.
ofiZANNB ON THE HARTZ. 131
Streffleur, in a paper, Ucher die Nntur und die WirTcuiufen der Wildhache,
which first appeared in the Jicr. der M. N. W. Classe der Kaiserl. Akad. der
Wls}<. for February 1852, maintains that all the observations and specula-
tions of French authors on the nature of torrents had been anticipated by-
Austrian writers ; and in support of this assertion he refers to the works of
Franz von Zallinger, 1778, Von Arretin, 1808, Franz Duile, 1826,— all
published at Innsbruck, — and Hagen's Beschreihung neuerer Wasserhauwerkej
published in Konigsberg in 1826. And M. Cezanne, in his continuation of
the treatise of M. Surell, says, and says unhesitatingly, after speaking of
the importance of utilizing, taming, and domesticating torrents, — as beasts
and birds have been tamed, domesticated, and utilized, — " France and
Switzerland are not the only countries in which the struggle against
devastating running waters is Jbeing carried on with alternate triumphs and
defeats. And we may conclude from the works now analyzed, and from
the numerous publications which there are of the same kind, that the time
is still remote when man shall have completely subdued, and, if the word
may be used, domesticated, tamed, and utilized the wild waters of the
mountains. But there is one happy land, the picture of which, contrasting
with these gloomy sketches, may be offered to inquirers as a model and as
an encouragement. It is the German Hartz.
"This mountainous mass, almost isolated on all sides, and but lately divided
amongst four Governments, raises its highest summit — the Brocken — to a
height of 1250 metres, upwards of 4000 feet; steep slopes and deep thcdwegs
are not awanting, nor are abundant rains — the rainfall ranging from 600 to
1500 millimetres (from 24 to 60 inches). The ground is very diversified;
granitic eruptions have dislocated schists of all kinds ; all circumstances
and conditions favourable to torrential phenomena are there in combination ;
but the mining industry, in quest of motive power, has seized upon the
water — a force supplied without money and without price, and renewed
unceasingly by nature ; and it may be said that there there is not a single
drop left to follow its natural course ; from the highest slopes the rain is
collected in furrows forming gutters • all the ravines are closed up, and
numerous ponds store up their supplies ; collected in canals the waters
make the circuit of the brows of the hills, are carried across valleys, bury
themselves in projecting spurs, and, conducted to the gate of the factories,
move the hydraulic wheels placed one below another at all the descending
levels of the mountains ; and, coming at length to the thalweg, the waters
are not yet freed, — they are made to descend into the mine and there to
work underground.
" Seventy ponds or reservoirs of the Ober Hartz have an area of 240
hectares ; they store up fifteen millions of cubic metres, which put in move-
ment above ground 180 water-wheels, and undergTound 23 wheels and
2 hydraulic presses."
From the report of MM. Belgrand and Lemoine, in the Annales des Fonts
et EaiLX, for 1868 (II. p. 307), it appears, — " There are in all 200 kilometres
(upwards of 150 miles) of canals employed to bring the waters to the ponds,
and to lead them to the manufactories and to the mines.
" From the highest situated pond (Hirschler Teich) to the Lautenthal^
there is for wheels above gTound a total fall of 292 metres (weU-nigh 1000 feet).
" For the mines the available fall is still greater ; it is about 370 metres
(nearly 1250 feet). These waters underground give motion to draining
pumps and other machinery, are re-united in different galleries or tunnels — '
132 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
finally in the Ernst-August-Stollen — situated at about 370 metres (1250
feet) under the plateau of Chausthal. This canal, in which are collected
all the waters of the subterranean sheets, conveys them to the open air at
Gittelde ; it is not less than 23-600 metres in length, and its other dimen-
sions are considerable, for this long subterranean passage can be made by
boat. Its breadth is 1'90 metre (6 feet 4 inches), and its height 2*70 (or 9
feet). This magnificent work was completed in 1864, and cost a little more
than three millions of francs."
M. Cezanne goes on to say, — " Many of these works date from the begin-
ning of the eighteenth century. It is a hundred and fifty years since the
inhabitants of the German Hartz have subdued, tamed, and turned to use
their running waters ; it is only ten years since we began to give ourselves
to the attacking and mastering of the torrents of the Alps ! "
In the German literature of Forst-Kunde are not a few treatises on
torrents, on their destructive effects, and on the means of preventing and
counteracting these.
Streffleur refers to a brochure by Franz Duile. It was published in 1826,
under the title Ueher Verhaiimmg der Wildhdche in Gebirgs Ldndern, and
in it the author gives an exposition of the principles which should be
applied to all works of this kind.
" He studied successively," says Marschand, '' the construction of stone
dams and of wooden erections having the same object to accomplish. The
former, described by him, are dry-stone dykes, and are composed of a
horizontal vault with the arch directed up the stream, and sustaining walls
forming kinds of hutments where the hills are not of rock, and to prevent
underminings a radier or screen of stone retained by w^ood-work. The
summit of the dam is lowered somewhat in the middle to facilitate the flow
of water, and it is covered with a wooden plank designed to maintain the
solidity of the summit. The wooden barrages described by him are similar
to those in use in many parts of the French Alps.
*' Duile superintended numerous works on torrents, but through neglect,
or perhaps through the force of the current, they all crumbled into ruins ;
and at the close of his life he expressed to Professor Culmann regret that
he had undertaken works against torrents.
" He treated also of rehoisementj assisted by clayonnages or hurdles, and,
in a word, of everything relating to the extinction of torrents.
" Great works undertaken by his advice leave no doubt of the efficacy
of his system."
In 1844 was published at Darmstadt Das Verdrdngen der Laid>-Wdlder^
in Nordlichen DeiUscMande durch die Fichte und der Keifer, by Edmond
von Berg. In 1852 was published at Erlangen Das Verhalten der Wald-
baume gegen lAcht und Schatte^i, by Gustav Heyer ; both of which have
reference to the subject under consideration.
In a llandbuch der PhysiscJier Geographie by Klodcn, referred to by Marsh,
it is stated by the latter that the author, *' admitting tliat the rivers Oder
and Elbe have diminislied in quantity of water — the former since 1778, the
latter since 1828 — denies that the diminution of volume is to be ascribed
to a decrease of precipitation in consc(|ucnce of the felling of the forests ;
and states, what other physicists confirm, that during the same period
meteorological records, in various parts of Europe, show rather an augment-
ation than a reduction of rain."
GERMAN AND ITALUN LlTKlLVTURl^:. 133
The statement made by KUklcn is in accordance with observations made
by others elsewhere. The eflcct of forests, and of the destruction of forests,
on chmate, botli as regards the water supply and the temperature, has
received great attention from Dr Draper, birector of the Meteorological
Observatory in the Central Park, New York, with results, to some extent,
in accordance with those stated, deduced from observations in the United
States of America.
I have not seen the statement made by Kloden, which occurs in hia
Handbuch der rhysischer Geographie (p. 658), but taking the import of it to
be as given by Mr Marsh, the phenomena may be susceptible of explanation.
There may have been a general increase of the rainfall, but a diminution of
the drainage of the surplus moisture of the land. The ground may have
become more desiccated, and that to such an extent that even an increased
rainfall docs not maintain the rivers at their height.
Of other German works bearing on the subject of torrents I may mention
the following : — Die 0 ester reichischen Alpenliindar und ihre Forste, by Joseph
Wessely — published in Vienna, 1853. Ansiehten uher die Bewaldung der
Steppen des EuropcescJieii Russland, by J. Van den Brinken — Braunschweig,
1854. Die Gehirgshache und ihre Verherungen, by Franz Muller — Landshut,
1857 ; the author was a Bavarian engineer, and the work treats of the con-
struction of harrageSy more especially those of masonry and wood, but it
treats also of the fixation of mountains, by means of hui'dles, with a view
to reboisement. Der Wold samt dessen wichtigen Einfluss auf der Klimat, d&c.
— published in Vienna, 1860. Die Allien in Natur und Lebensbildern, by
H. Berlepsch — Leipsig, 1862 ; a w^ork of which an English translation, by
Stephens, has been published.
In Italy much attention has has been given to irrigation, and the utiliza-
tion and economising of the water supply ; the Italian literature on
subjects connected therewith is very voluminous ; and the effect of vegeta-
tion on the humidity of the climate, and the supply of moisture for the
promotion of vegetation, has not been overlooked. Of Italian works relating
thereto the following may be noted : — DeW Immediata Influenza delle Silve
sul Corso delle Aeque, by Castellani — Torino, 1818-1819. DelV hnpiante e
Conservazione dei Boscki, by Guisippe Cereni — Milano, 1844. Necessita del
Boschi nella Lombardia, by Antonio Giovanni Batti Villa — Milano, 1850.
Connisulla Importanza e Coltura die Boschi, by Pietro Caimi — Milano, 1857.
Le Condizioni de Boschi de fiumi e de Torrenti nella trovincia de Bergamo,
by G. Rosa, in Politecno, Decembre, 1861, pp. 606-621. Sttidii sui Boschi,
by the same writer, in Politecno, Maggie, 1862, pp. 232-238.
The subjects of colmatage or warping, alluvian drainage, and defences
against inundation — all of which come within the scope of the French
treatises I have cited — have also found a place in the Italian literature of
hydrology. To this chapter belong the following works : — Memorie sul
honificameiito delle Maremme Toscano, by Fernando Tartini ; Sidle Paludini
Pontine, by Eustachio Zanotti ; Relazione e voto sopra il deseccaniento delle
Faludi Pontine, by Gaetano Rappini ; Sojyra la distribuzione delle alluvione,
by Vittoria Fossombroni ; Richerche idraidiche relative alle Colmate, by
Pietro Paoli ; Intorno at ripararo delle innondazioni delV Adige la citta di
Verona, by Antonio Lorgna.
In our own language has appeared in a first edition, entitled Man and
Nature, published in 1863, and in a second edition, entitled TJie Earth as
modified by Human Action, published in 1874, by the Hon. George P. Marsh,
134 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS,
Minister of the United States of America at Rome, — a work in which there
is embodied a great mass of valuable information on the subject of torrents,
or the extinction of these, and on subjects closely related to these.
I shall afterwards have occasion to quote at length statements by Mr
Marsh in regard to the provinces of Dauphiny and Provence, to the valley
of the Rhone, and to the department of Devoluy. His own remarks on
subjects connected with the occasion, phenomena, and control of torrents
are not less deserving of consideration. His position as Minister of the
United States at different courts, with a perception of the importance of
such matters, have given him exceptional advantages for the study of this
matter, as of much besides, of which he has conscientiously availed himself,
and embodied the results in his more comprehensive treatise.
By the information supplied by such works as Les Inondations en France
depuis le Vie Siecle jusqita nos jours, by Champion, and Les Forets de la
Gaide et d V ancient France, already cited, the student in this department of
forest science can carry back his studies to times that are past.
Of these Mr Marsh writes : — " The remarkable historical notices of
inundations in France in the Middle Ages collected by Champion are con-
sidered by many as furnishing proof that, when that country was much
more generally covered with wood than it now is, destructive inundations
of the French rivers were not less frequent than they are in modern days.
But this evidence is subject to this among other objections : we know, it is
true that the forests of certain departments of France were anciently much
more extensive than at the present day ; but we know also that in many
portions of that country the soil has been bared of its forests, and then, in
consequence of the depopulation of great provinces, left to reclothe itself
spontaneously with trees, many times during the historic period ; and our
acquaintance with the forest topography of ancient Gaul or of mediaeval
France is neither sufficiently extensive nor sufficiently minute to permit us
to say with certainty that the sources of this or that particular river were
more or less sheltered by wood at any given time, ancient or mediaeval,
than at present. I say the sources of the rivers, because the floods of great
rivers are occasioned by heavy rains and snows which fall in the more
elevated regions around the primal springs, and not by precipitation in the
main valleys or on the plains bordering on the lower course.
*' The destructive effects of inundations, considered simply as a mechanical
power by which life is endangered, crops destroyed, and the artificial
constructions of man overthrown, are very terrible. Thus far, however, the
flood is a temporary and by no means irreparable evil, for if its ravages end
here, the prolific powers of nature and the industry of man soon restore
what had been lost, and the face of the earth no longer shows traces of the
deluge that had overwhelmed it. Inundations have even their compensa-
tions. The structures they destroy are replaced by better and more secure
erections, and if they sweep off a crop of corn, they not unfrcqucntly leave
behind them, as they subside, a fertilizing deposit which enriches the
exhausted field for a succession of seasons. If, then, the too rapid flow of
the surface-waters occasioned no other evil than to produce, once in ten
years upon the average, an inundation which should destroy the harvest of
the low grounds along the rivers, the damage would be too inconsiderable, and
of too transitory a character, to warrant the inconveniences and the expense
involved in the measures which the most competent judges in many parts
of Europe believe the respective govornmonts ought to take to obviate it.
MARSH ON TORRENTS. 135
" But tlic great, the irreparable, the appalling miscliicfs which have already
resulted, and which threaten to ensue on a still more extensive scale here-
after, from too rapid superficial drainage, are of a i)roperly geographical, wo
may almost say geological, character, and consist principally in erosion,
displacement, and transportation of the superficial strata, vegetable and
mineral — of the integuments, so to speak, witli which nature has clothed
the skeleton frame-work of the globe. It is difficult to convey by descrip-
tion an idea of the desolation of the regions most exposed to the ravages of
torrent and of flood ; and the thousands w^ho, in those days of swift travel,
are whirled by steam near or even through the theatres of these calamities,
have but rare and imperfect opportunities of observing the destructive
causes in action. Still more rarely can they compare the past with the
actual condition of the provinces in question, and trace the progjess of their
conversion from forest-crowned hills, luxuriant pasture grounds, and abun-
dant cornfields and vineyards well watered by springs and fertilizing
rivulets, to bald mountain ridges, rocky declivities, and steep earth-banks
furrowed by deep ravines, with beds now dry, now filled by torrents of fluid
mud and gravel hurrying down to spread themselves over the plain, and
dooming to everlasting barrenness the once productive fields. In surveying
such scenes, it is difficult to resist the impression that nature pronounced a
primal curse of perpetual sterility and desolation upon these sublime but
fearful wastes, difficult to believe that they were once, and but for the folly
of man might still be, blessed with all the natural advantages w^hich
Providence has bestowed upon the most favoured climes. But the historical
evidence is conclusive as to the destructive changes occasioned by the
agency of man upon the flanks of the Alps, the Apennines, the Pyrenees,
and other mountain ranges in Central and Southern Europe, and the
progress of physical deterioration has been so rapid that, in some localities,
a single generation has witnessed the beginning and the end of the melan-
choly revolution."
He cites statements made by Surell and by Blanqui which have been
already quoted. He says, in connection with their statements relative to
Devoluy, Barcelonette, and Embrun, — " It deserves to be specially noticed
that the district here referred to, though now^ among the most hopelessly
waste in France, was very productive even down to so late a period as the
commencement of the French Revolution. Arthur Young, writing in 1789,
says, — ' About Barcelonette, and in the highest parts of the mountains^ the
hill-pastures feed a million of sheep, besides large herds of other cattle ;' and
he adds, — ' With such a soil, and in such a climate, w^e are not to suppose
a country barren because it is mountainous. The valleys I have visited are
in general beautiful.' He ascribes the same character to the provinces of
Dauphiny, Provence, and Auvergne, and though he visited, with the eye of
an attentive and practised observer, many of the scenes since blasted with
the wild desolation described by Blanqui, the Durance and a part of the
course of the Loire are the only streams he mentions as inflicting serious
injury by their floods. The ravages of the toiTcnts had, indeed, as we have
seen, commenced earlier in some other localities, but we are authorized to
infer that they were, in Young's time, too limited in range, and relatively
too insignificant, to require notice in a general view of the provinces where
they have now ruined so large a proportion of the soil."
After giving a picture of the devastations wrought by the Ardeche, which
I shall afterwards have occasion to quote, he goes on to say, — " As I have
136 LITERATURE ON TORRENTS.
before remarked, I have taken my illustrations of the action of torrents and
mountain streams principally from French authorities, because the facts
recorded by them are chiefly of recent occurrence, and as they have been
collected with much care and described with great fulness of detail, the
information furnished by them is not only more trustworthy, but both more
complete and more accessible than that which can be gathered from any
other source. It is not to be supposed, however, that the countries adjacent
to France have escaped the consequences of a like improvidence. The
southern flanks of the Alps, and, in a less degree, the northern slope of
these mountains and the whole chain of the Pyrenees, afi'ord equally
striking examples of the evils resulting from the wanton sacrifice of nature's
safeo-uards. But I can afi'ord space for few details, and as an illustration of
the extent of these evils in Italy, I shall barely observe that it was calcula-
ted ten years ago that four-tenths of the area of the Ligurian provinces had
been washed away or rendered incapable of cultivation in consequence of
the felling of the woods.
" Highly coloured as these pictures seem, they are not exaggerated,
although the hasty tourist through Southern France, Switzerland, the
Tyrol, and JSTorthern Italy, finding little in his high-road experiences to
justify them, might suppose them so. The lines of communication by
locomotive -train and diligence lead generally over safer ground, and it is
only when they ascend the Alpine passes and traverse the mountain chains,
that scenes somewhat resembling those just described fall under the eye of
the ordinary traveller. But the extension of the sphere of devastation, by
the degradation of the mountains and the transportation of the debris, is
producing analogous eff'ects upon the lower ridges of the Alps and the plains
which skirt them ; and even now one needs but an hour's departure from
some great thoroughfares to reach sites where the genius of destruction
revels as wildly as in some of the most frightful of the abysses which
Blanqui has painted."
" According to Arthur Young," who travelled in Francejtaly, and Spain,
in 1789, says Marsh, " on the lower Po, where the surface of the river at
high water has been elevated considerably above the level of the adjacent
fields by diking, the peasants in his time frequently endeavoured to secure
their grounds against threatened devastation through the bursting of the
dikes, by crossing the river when the danger became imminent and opening
a cut in the opposite bank, thus saving their own j)roperty by flooding their
neighbours'. He adds, that at high-water the navigation of the river was
absolutely interdicted, except to mail and passenger boats, and that the
guards fired upon all others ; the object of the prohibition being to prevent
the peasants from resorting to this measure of self-defence."
Streffleur quotes from Duile the following observations : " The channel of
the Tyrolcse brooks is often raised much above the valleys through which
they flow. The bed of the Fersina is elevated high above the city of Trent,
which lies near it. The Villcrbach flows at a much more elevated level
than that of the market-place of Neumarkt and Vill, and threatens to
overwhelm both of tlicm with its waters. The Talfer at Botzen is at least
even with the roofs of the adjacent town, if not above them. The tower-
steeples of the villages of Schlanders, Kortsch, and Laas, are lower than the
surface of the Oadribach. The Saldurbach, at Schludenis, menaces the far
lower village with destruction, and the chief town, Schwaz, is in similar
danger from the Lahnbach."
PART III.
LEGISLATIVE AND EXECUTIVE MEASURES TAKEN BY THE G0\T;RNMENT OP FRANCE,
IN CONNECTION WITH REBOISEMENT AND GAZONNEMENT, AS REMEDIAL
APPLICATIONS AGAINST DESTRUCTIVE TORRENTS.
The term reboisement is one of modern origin, because that to which it is
applied is only of modern date, and I know not an English term of similar
import. By a periphrasis the thing may be described, but the conventional
term is more convenient than the constant use of a periphrasis would be
and more explicit than a literal rendering of the tenn would be, or any
English synonym with which I am acquainted.
The term is applicable, strictly speaking, to re-planting with trees a place
or a district previously clothed or adorned with forests. It is held by some
students of forest science that there is a tendency in many species and
genera of arborescent vegetable productions to encroach upon and take
possession of all unoccupied land, and in the struggle of life to dispossess other
plants — if these have previously taken possession of the land, — and if these
cannot submit to their domination. The names of places innumerable in
various parts of Europe — Britain and the Continent alike — are terms
applicable, strictly speaking, only to various forms of wooded land, and
supply a presumptive proof that these were once forest homes.
Marsh says, — "We may rank among historical evidences on this point,
if not technically among historical records, old geographical names and
terminations, etymologically indicating forest or grove, which are so common
in many parts of the eastern continent now entirely stripped of woods — such
as, in southern Europe, Breuil, Broglio, Brolio, Brolo ; in northern, Briihl,
and the endings dean, den, don, ham, holt, horst, hurst, lund, shaw, shot,
skog, skov, wald, weald, wold, wood.
" The island of Madiera, whose noble forests were devastated by fire not
long after its colonization by European settlers, takes its name from the
Portugese name for wood."
And history, properly so called, confirms the conclusion that the whole
of Central EurojDe at least may be considered as having been one vast
forest, such as now extends over the northern governments of Russia and
the northern territori^jes of America. And there are numerous indications,
both historical and physical, that the whole of the High Alps had been at
one time richly wooded. Hence originated the application of the term
in question to the projected sylvicultural operations there, and its subse-
quent application to all similar operations wheresoever prosecuted.
The term gazonnement I have also retained, being unable to render it
by any English synonym which would be equally explicit and equally
comprehensive.
The English term turf is generally, though not necessarily, associated
exclusively with grass, or with turf which is largely composed of grass.
Gazonnement is used in regard to a turf formed largely, and in many cases
P
138 LEGISLATION ON TORTJENTS.
exclusively, of what may be designated herbs, in contradistinction to
grasses ; and the term is more convenient and less pedantic than any I
could devise.
Though it is only of late that prominence has been given to rehoisement
and gazonnement in the legislation of France, the evil they are employed to
aiTest and remedy early commanded the attention of her legislators.
In 1669 was issued an Ordinance by Colbert, regulating woods and waters
in which dehoisements, or the destruction of woods, is forbidden to com-
munities. There is evidence that a great part of the Alps had by that
time been completely deboissee, or cleared of forests.
This and similar dehoisements the forest economists and students of
forest science in France sought to remedy by an extensive system of sylvi-
culture,— replanting trees where forests had been destroyed, and planting
trees where never tree had grown before.
An edict, issued by Humbert Dauphin in the 14th century, forbids
clearings in the Briangonais, assigning, among other reasons for doing so,
the resistance presented by the woods to avalanches and other evils.
The archives of the Benedictine Monastery of Boscodon, preserved in the
church Notre-Dame<V Emhrun, embody a record of a great many contentions,
or legal proceedings, relative to forest depredations. It is the most common
subject of these archives during a period extending over five centuries, and
one which provoked numerous formal excommunications. From these
archives it may be seen, by a host of facts, that the forests had then come
to be a rare and precious thing — the result of long-continued fellings, — and
in the fate of the monastery already referred to we see the consequence
of these.
Latterly, previous to the employment of rehoisement and gazonnement as
means of extinguishing torrents, dikes or embankments were what were
chiefly employed as means of arresting the ravages and devastations of
these. When a river-bank, throughout a considerable extent, was destroyed
by a torrent, the proprietors affected thereby met and constituted a
syndicate or council. An application was made to the prefect ; he appointed
an engineer of roads and bridges to examine the locality, and if necessary to
prepare a specification of the works required for the defence of the river.
The work, when approved, was decreed. The engineer superintended the
execution of it, and sanctioned delivery. The expense was then apportioned
amongst those who were interested, conformably to a scheme prepared by
the syndics.
The whole procedure is prescribed by a special decree, which subjects
torrents to a defined rdgime, and places them under the immediate super-
intendence of the Administration. Tlic following is a translation of this
decree : —
" Decree of the Jfth thermidor, an XI II., relative to torrents of the
department of the High Alps : —
" Art. 1. In the communes of the High Alps, which arc exposed to the
eruptions and inundations of rivers and torrents, the mayors, after having
submitted the matter for consideration to the municipal councils, shall make
application in the usual form to the prefect of the dcpai-tmcnt for authority
to execute repairs, or other necessary works, in urgent cases they may
summon the municipal councils for this purpose without a special permission.
DECREE OP TUEHMIDOU, AN Xlll. 1 3i)
" Art. 2. The prefect shall appohit an imjeuit'ur des jkjiUs el cJuiussees to
examine the spots exposed, to prepare a plan of the places, and to prepare
specifications and estimates, which shall be connnimicated to the municipal
councils ; and after they have made their remarks, the prefect shall give the
authority if recpiired.
" Art. 3. If the works to be executed affect only private parties, the
prefect shall nominate a commission of five individuals from among the
principal proprietors interested, who shall choose from amongst themselves
a syndic, to deliberate on the utility or the inconveniences of the works
demanded.
" Art. 4. The prefect shall then commission an engineer to prepare plans
and estimates, which shall be communicated to the commission, as is pre-
scribed for the municipal councils in Art. 2.
"Art. 5. In cases where the works to be executed would effect many
communes who would not act in concert, the demand of the municipal
council making the application shall be communicated to the other municipal
councils, and the prefect shall then proceed, with regard to all the councils,
conformably to Art. 2.
" Art. 6. When the neglect — be it of one or more private parties, be it
of one or more communes — to make dikes, curages — i.e., clearing away of
stones and deposits in the channel, or artificial structiu'es, along a torrent
or an unnavigable river, shall expose the territory abutting upon it in a way
prejudicial to the public weal, the prefect, on complaints which may have
been made to him, shall order a report of an ingenie^ir desj^onts et chaussees ;
this report shall be communicated to the parties interested, with injunctions
to give their answ^ers in writing within eight days, and the council of the
prefecture shall decide on the disputes w^hich may result.
" Art. 7. If a dike interest a commune in general, and some private parties
oppose the construction of it, the municipal council shall be consulted, and
the opposition shall be submitted to the council of the prefecture.
" Art. 8. In all the cases specified, when the time allowed shall have
expired, if all the parties interested shall have given their consent, or if
there be no protests, the adjudication of the works, according as they have
been determined and resolved upon, shall be made in the usual fomis before
such functionary as the prefect shall appoint in the presence of the parties
interested, or those there duly summoned by posted bills and the usual
ordinary publication of such announcements.
" Art. 9. The amount thus adjudicated shall be apportioned according to
the extent of interest attaching to their property, according to a scheme of
division which the prefect shall make legally obligatory, accord to the law
of the lJf.thjiorea.1, an XI. ; and the council of the prefecture shall decide
protests relative to this partition of the expense.
" Ai't. 10. The adjudicators shall be paid the expense of their adjudication,
in virtue of an order delivered by the prefect, on certification of the works
having been taken over and delivered by the engineer charged with the
management of the works. The parties liable shall be forced to pay in the
form prescribed by the law of the IJfthjioreat, an XL
"Art. 11. No proprietor can be taxed for contributions to such works in
the course of any one year, beyond a fourth part of his net revenue, after
deduction of every other tax."
Of this decree Surell says, that it did great service to the depai'tment of
140 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
the High Alps, because it subjected to a fixed rule all the works which
otherwise would have beeu executed as chauce might determine, perhaps
with mutual detriment and damage to one and another of the works
executed. And he adds, that, if it has not yielded all the fruit which might
have been expected, it may be well to take into account the hostile spirit
which generally animates the proprietors of the opposite banks of a river,
and which, unhappily, often prevents their union and co-operation in the
construction of such an embankment as would be the only means of
rendering the defence perfectly harmless and productive of the greatest
amount of benefit possible.
Valuable information in regard to the subject of this decree may be found
in Notice des j^^i^f'Cipales lois decrets ordonnances, d'c, relatif aux rivieres^
torrents, d'c, 2)ar Morisot, Chef de bureau a la jorefectitre des Basses-Alpes, 1821.
There exists also in the papers preserved in the prefecture of the High Alps
an excellent reglement, which developes fully the decree of the J/ih thermidor,
which was drawn out in 1802 by M. Gauthier, councillor of the prefecture.
By an Act of 16th September 1806, obtained on demand of M. Ladoucette,
who had been prefect of the High Alps, this decree was extended to the
Drome and the Lower Alps.
In a law bearing the date of 16th September 1807, there were embodied
several enactments somewhat at variance, if not directly opposed, to the
requirements of that decree. And the question was subsequently raised,
whether this law were not virtually an abrogation or rescinding of the
decree. To those who are desirous only of learning what may be learned
relative to practical measures, sanctioned and tested, and approved or
abandoned by the Government in dealing with this matter, this question is
of importance mainly as indicative of the importance attached to the subject
by the Legislature and Administration of the country. The importance of
this legislation, under this view of the case, arises from the probability
which there is that it will be long before the more efficient remedies
proposed by Favre, Dugied, and Surell, will be extensively adopted in newly-
peopled territories, and from the probability that meanwhile the adoption
of the less efficient measures which occupy only a secondary position in the
comprehensive projects submitted by them maybe advocated as temporary,
if not as final, measures to be adopted ; and it may be advantageous to
know what has been done in similar circumstances by others, and with
what results.
According to Art. 33 of the law of 16th September 1807, it is enacted, —
" When it is proposed to construct sea-dikes against rivers, streams, and
torrents — navigable and not navigable alike — the necessity for this being
done shall be determined by the Government, and the expense borne by the
property thus protected in the ratio of the interest in the work, excepting
in cases in which the Government shall deem this of p\iblic utility, and
grant all necessary assistance from the public treasury.
" Art. 34. The forms of procedure hereby established, and the interven-
tion of a Commission, shall be applicable to the carrying out of the
preceding Article." . .
It is in these forms of jjrocedure alone that there is aught opposed to the
decree previously enacted. Jjy this law there were established two com-
missions, the Syndicate, and another designated a Special Commission. By
the decree there was cbtabliahcd only the Syndicate^ and the powers of this
LAW OK IGtH SEPTEMBER 1807. l4l
were not exactly cquiviiloiit to that of the two commissions now established.
The law of 1807 gives to the Special Commission not only the right to pre-
pare or to verify and sanction a roll of the valuation of lands interested in
the works, but also the power of regulating ex-propriations, or transfers to
the government, of lands requiring to be used in the execution of the enter-
prise, where this cannot otherwise be effected. In regard to the inquest
de commodo et incommodo^ or the necessity of the measure and the
disadvantages which the execution of it might entail on any whose interests
might thereby suffer, — it had been the custom that every proposal should
be lodged in the Mayor's Office, with summons to all concerned to put
themselves in communication with that office. Objections were recorded,
discussed by the Syndical Commission, addressed to the prefect, and then
submitted to the Council of the Prefectnre. By the law of 1807 it was
enacted that objections and protests should be sent by the prefect before
the Special Commission, which should decide finally on these.
The construction of a dike, according to the decree, required no other
sanction than that of the prefect, who considered the projects of the
engineers, decided whether the construction should or should not be carried
out, and gave a final decision on all disputed points. The formalities
prescribed by the law of 1807 are more complicated, and require the
intervention of the superior administration.
In regard to the course usually followed in preparing the roll of contri-
butions towards meeting the expense of constructing such a dike, required
of the several parties interesed, M. Surell supplies the following information :
" The work is begun by arranging all the properties interested in a certain
number of classes, determined by the greater or lesser probability of their
suffering from inundation. There are thus classified together all properties
which have nearly the same chance of being invaded by the torrent; and to
each class is given a number, designed to be representative of this probability
alone : one class, considered twice as liable to invasion as another, is marked
by a number double that of the latter This done, the area of each property
is multiplied by the number assigned to the class to which it belongs, as
indicative of the chance to which it is exposed. And the total expense is
assigned proportionally to the product."
Thus is the roll of liabilities prepared; but it is pointed out by Surell that
it is neither the most exact, nor the most equitable plan which might be
adopted. There may be two properties equally liable, and of equal extent,
of very different pecuniary value. The soil of the one may be better than
that of the other ; it may have been more improved, it may be of easier
access, or it may have upon it dwelling-houses or mansions, and other ameni-
ties, which would enhance its price if it were sold. Should this be destroyed,
the proprietor would suffer a proportionally greater loss ; having thus a
greater interest in the maintenance of the dike, he ought to be required to
pay a greater contribution towards the execution of the work ; and it follows,
that the rule commonly adopted by the syndic, according to which both pay
alike, is neither rational nor equitable. The payment ought to be calculated
in the same way as the law of probabilities is applied at the gaming-table.
And for this purpose there should be determined — (1) The probability of
inundation in regard to each property; and (2) The value of each property
menaced. And the product of these, multiplied the one by the other, will
give the proper proportion of the expense to be borne by each property.
The determination of the first of these factors is somewhat difficult, but
142 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
it is not impracticable. In normal cases of inundations, of a temporary
character — the waters returning again to their usual bed — there may be
ascertained what marks exist of inundations which have occurred within
the most protracted period during which they can be enumerated — say 80
years. These indications supply a point of departure, in determining with
exactitude levels following the inclination of the river bed, so arranged as
to include in one line all the corresponding marks of one flood. The whole
oTound, from the river to the most distant part reached by an inundation,
would thus be divided into a certain number of zones, subject each to a
different chance of inundation. All the lands included in one zone would
constitute a class subject to the same chance. What this is has next to be
determined ; and that may be done thus : — If the portions included in
the zone nearest to the river have been flooded upon an average three
times every year, the chance of inundation may be represented by the
fraction ^|^. While the zone most remote, if flooded only once in the
course of the fifty years, would be represented by the fraction — ^. The
value of the property in each zone being then determined, representing the
value by v v v\ and the chances by j) j) jy" , the equivalent of the extent to
which the diff'erent classes were interested would be expressed by the
products i^ V, p V, if v\ &c. ; and to determine the quota of each party
interested, it is only necessary to multiply the value of the property by
the chance of the class to which it belongs, and the product by a constant
co-efficient, determined in such a way that the sum of the shares of all
interested w411 equal the whole expense. This co-efficient may be deter-
mined by the following equation, in which the total expenses, represented
S
bv *S', co-efficient = 7—, Tif ^^'
It is an mtricate question, and leaves much to be determined by the
syndic ; but the classes once formed, what follows is rigorously just.
It has been stated, that it has been questioned whether the law of 1807,
in superseding, abrogated the decree of Jfth Thtrmidor^ an VIII.
The question was raised in the Chamber of Deputies, on the 12th April
1837, by M. Jaubert, acting in the name of a commission appointed to
examine a proposed law relative to the joint action of proprietors in works
undertaken on rivers of greater and lesser size. This they considered it
did but? others thought differently. That question has not now the interest
it then excited. In the one may be seen a development of the other. Both
related exclusively to the construction of dikes as means of protecting the
land against the devastations of rivers and torrents.
In 1707 appeared the work by Favre, advocating the creation of planta-
tions as a means of more efficiently securing the object desired. The date
of M. Dugied's work, advocating the same measure, I have not ascertained.
In 1841 was published, printed by order of the Minister of Public Works,
the work by 8u)-ell, shewing the pi-imary and almost absolute importance of
plantation, while the topical upplication of dikes may be necessary as a
secondary and subsidiary means of preventing devastations. And the
legislation of the present is of national application ; these laws were of more
limited local application.
In entering upon the consideration of this later legislation, it may be
mentioned that from the lirst it waa maintained by Surell that as things
nir.TiTs OF rnorniFTOus. 1-13
then were in Franco nothing satisfactory conld be done without Govern-
ment interference ; that the problem to be solved was the prevention of the
formation of new torrents, and the arrest of the ravages which were being
made by toiTcnts already formed ; that the battle-field nuist be in the basin
drained by the torrent, and that a system of extinction must be followed ;
that in view of the pnblic interest it was vain to trnst to the prudence of
comnumes, to the publication of information and warnings, or to moral
suasion in any form ; that both the number of cattle depastured and the
extent of the pastures must be restricted, and the introduction of cattle
and sheep, other than those of the commune, prohibited ; that agi'icultural
operations which do not promote the carrying away of the soil should be
allowed without restriction, but that such as have that ci^ect should only
be tolerated on slopes not exceeding a prescribed inclination — compensation
being given, if necessary, for loss which might be sustained in consequence
of this restriction, but enforcing it with rigour : the circumstances of the
locality being exceptional, exceptional legislation might be requisite.
Further, the forests having an exceptional importance — being required not
only to meet daily recurring wants of the population, but to preserve the
very soil — it was necessary that their conservation should be secured, and
measures taken to effect their extension. And to these preliminary measures
had to be added the more direct measures detailed or suggested in his
treatise, of which a rmnne has been given.
There might be private rights in the way of the execution of these works,
and the conflicting claims of the public interest and of private property
must be reconciled. This might be done, according to circumstances, by
the Government taking possession, with compensation to the proprietor, as
is done in candying out other works carried out for the public good, or by
requiring of the proprietors that they themselves should plant the ground
with woods, and giving to them every just and reasonable assistance in the
execution of the work.
The poverty of many of the proprietors might make it impossible for
them to meet the expense ; and the restrictions imposed upon them by
some of the preliminary measures required would entail upon them a
considerable sacrifice. The measure, moreover, was one affecting the public
interest as really as do many of the public works — such as embankments,
roads, bridges, and the improvement of mountain passes, — while the outlay
by the State might be counterbalanced in a great measure by a diminution
of outlay on these, through the prevention of injuries now done to these by
torrents ; and, as sho^Ti by M. Dugied, the forests would in course of time
become a som-ce of revenue, and, according to others, they would tend to
improve the climate. Such are some of the considerations adduced by M.
Surell as reasons for the Government taking up the work.
Having done this, he gave details of what measures he considered would
be requisite in carrying out the work : the initiative to be taken by the
Government ; the objections to be anticipated, and the means of meeting
these, whether they might take the form of an allegation that it was
impossible to plant the mountains with woods, or of an allegation that if
this were done it would not suffice to cause the torrents to disappear,
or of objections to different regulations which it would be necessary to carry
out in connection with the execution of the work, some relating to rights of
property, some to rights of pasturage, some to one thing, some to another.
1 4 I LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
And, having done this, he proceeded to draw a fascinating picture of the
wide-spread felicity which was to follow the execution of the project.
He had previously given the saddening picture of Devoluy, which I
have cited in the Introduction. And he proceeds to show what had been
done in France when it was perceived that the fruits of the country were
being destroyed ; he details the evils which followed in the train of that
destruction, the alleviations of these secured by the inhabitants of the
plains, but which were unattainable by the inhabitants of the mountains,
and the privations to which they had been in consequence reduced.
" There may be seen," says he, " here in one small valley (that of
Lagrave) the inhabitants reduced to the necessity, in order to heat their
houses and cook their provisions, to burn cow-dung formed into bricks and
hardened in the sunshine. This disreputable fuel saturates with its smoke
their huts, their clothes, the air which they breathe, and even the food
which they eat — the whole atmosphere of the country is filled with it.
Now if they have recourse to such a fuel, it is not that the country is
absolutely devoid of fuel ; it is, on the contrary, very richly supplied, as
there are many beds of anthracite under active exploitation. But one may
easily imagine that this mineral, being very heavy, if it be necessary to
transport it on the backs of mules or of men to great elevations, across
rocks and perilous slopes, the fatigue and consequent price of transport will
raise the cost of it to such a point that the great bulk of the poor people
must renounce the use of it. And the consequence is, these mines, which
would be so valuable in a plain, here benefit only such of the inhabitants as
live in the immediate vicinity of them, and they remain almost unused by
all living beyond a radius of some leagues from the spot."
He contends that, in order that the mountains may be habitable, they
must be wooded ; and that the total annihilation of forests will necessitate
the emigration of the population. But the difference between the destruc-
tion of forests on the mountains and on the plains, says he, stops not here.
" If a forest disappear on the plain it is to give place to agriculture, it is the
substitution of one product of the soil for another, and the substitution
often leaves nothing to be regretted. But if, on the other hand, you fell an
old forest which covers the flanks of a mountain, immediately everything is
upset and overturned. The storms and the ravines cut up the slopes, the
vegetable soil is soon washed away, and with it all fertility and verdure.
No more fields ! No more cultivation ! Delivered defenceless to the
attacks of the waters, eaten down to its very entrails by the torrents, and
sinking at last under its own weight, the mountain, as if crushed and spread
out, is seen rolling its material into the plain, and this it buries under its
debris and involves in its own ruin. It is true, it happens here as in the
plains, that wood is every day felled to free soil for the plough, and those
who root out the trees only do so for the profit which follows. But we
must not confound the ephemeral and illusory profits which are obtained by
them with the lasting advantage and real benefit which follow such
operations in the plains.
" The first years following immediately the rooting up of trees on a moun-
tain produce excellent crops, because of thequantityof humus left behind them
in the soil by the trees. I>ut this valuable earth, the less stable in propor-
tion as it is productive, docs not remain long on tlie slopes ; at the end of a
short time it is dispersed, the sterile subsoil makes its appearance, and the
unreasonable proprietor loses his property from having wished to constrain
REVOLUTION OF 1848. 145
it to produce more than its nature would permit. We see too often the
old stoiy of the goose which laid golden eggs practically exhibited in the
mountains, notwithstanding the instructions a thousand times repeated by
experience. A recent case in point, says he, is supplied by the rooting
out of woods on the mountains of Champsaur.
This rooting out of woods on declivities is always followed with disastrous
consequences ; and the destruction of forests, practised almost always without
inconvenience on the plains, becomes, on the contrary, in the mountains the
most disastrous of disturbing operations. It breaks up the equilibrium of
the land, and brings back the disorder of ancient chaos. After having
\STenched from the inhabitants the usufruct of the forests, it carries off the
soil which nourished them, thus pursuing man with hunger, if he submit
unresistingly to the privation of wood.
And in eloquent and stin-ing appeal, called forth by what he foresaw, he
urged the reboisement of the mountains, whatever the expense might be.
The appeal appeared to have been made in vain — if in this world, in
which no atom of matter appears to be destroyed, and no form of physical
force to be lost, any counsel, good and true, can be given in vain. Years,
at least, passed away — as nearly fifty years had passed away after Fabre
had spoken something similar — and nothing was done. But at length, in
process of time, there was a resurrection of the two witnesses, their testimony
was again called for ; and the fulness of time being come, their testimony
was listened to, and their counsels were adopted.
In November 1840, the year before the publication of M. Surell's work,
there occurred a destructive inundation of the basin of the Rhone. Occur-
ring at that late season of the year, all the crops had been gathered in, but
the damage, notwithstanding this, was estimated at 72,000,000 of francs, or
well-nigh £3,000,000 sterling.
Several smaller floods of the Rhone subsequently occcurred in 1846, at a
somewhat earlier period of the year, and occasioned a loss of 45,000,000
of francs, or £1,800,000.
" If these floods," writes Dumond, " instead of happening in October,
between harvest and seed-time, had occurred before the crops were secured,
the damage would have been reckoned by hundreds of millions."
These inundations in 1840 and 1846 made the question of forests an
order of the day; remedial measures, which were demanded and were opposed
on all hands, became the subject of careful consideration and study; and
the Government was about to promote a general law for the regulation of
all rooting out of woods, and to reform the forest code, when the revolu-
tion of 1848 broke out. The eff'ect of this upon the forests was soon
felt, but in another way. Within thirteen days after installation the
Provisional Government authorised, by decree of 9th March, the sale of
a considerable portion of the crown forests, and all the forests of the
civil list.
On 30th June 1848, the State ceded to the Bank of France 75,000 hectares
of forest, as security for a loan of 150,000,000 of francs.
On 4th December 1848 the National Assembly discussed the forest
budget ; in vain did the Minister and the Director-General defend their
Administration ; in vain did the tribune re-echo the famous words of Colbert
— La Finance perira faute de bois ; retrenchment and economy were the
order of the day, and the different forest services saw themselves threat-
146 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS,
ened with dissolution. Particulars are given in the Annates forestiers, of
December 1848 and January 1849.
This, however, proved but a passing storm. On the establishment of the
empire the Forest Administration, promptly re-constituted, shared after
1852 the great impulse which was given to public works.
There are decrees dated 17th and 27th March, and laws of the 12th
April 1853, of 5th May 1855, of 28th July 1860, and of 8th June 1864,
which have authorised alienations or extensive fellings of the State forests.
These may be considered comparatively unimportant operations, and the
proceeds of them were to be employed in works of reproduction. But when, in
1865, the Government proposed the alienation of forest domains to the
extent of 100,000,000 of francs, to be applied to the commencement and
prosecution of public works, public opinion was roused, and, alarmed
by the proposal, publicists of every shade, politicians, savants, littera-
teurs, &c., combined their efforts and raised a crusade against the projet de
loi, which made it necessary to withdraw it.
Meanwhile another inundation, or the cotemporaneous occurrence of a num-
ber of inundations, had given a new direction to men's thoughts on the subject.
In the month of May 1856 violent and almost uninterrupted rains fell
throughout France, and most of the river-basins of the country were
inundated to an extraordinary extent. In the valleys of the Loire and its
affluents about a million of acres, including many towns and villages, were
laid under water, and the amount of the pecuniary damage was almost
incalculable.
The flood was not less destructive in the valley of the Rhone, and an
invasion by a hostile army, it was said, could hardly have been more
disastrous to the inhabitants of the plains than was this terrible deluge.
" In the fifteen years between these two great floods," says Marsh, " the
population and the rural improvements of the river valleys had much
increased. Common roads, bridges, and railways had been multiplied and
extended ; telegraph lines had been constructed, — all of which shared in
the general ruin, and hence greater and more diversified interests were
affected by the catastrophe of 1856 than by any former like calamity. The
great flood of 1840 had excited the attention and roused the sympathies of
the French people, and the subject was invested with new interest by the
still more formidable character of the inundations of 1856. It was felt that
these scourges had ceased to be a matter of merely local concern, for,
although they bore most heavily on those whose homes and fields were
situated within the immediate reach of the swelling waters, yet they
frequently destroyed harvests valuable enough to be a matter of national
interest, endangered the personal security of the population of important
political centres, interrupted communication for days and even weeks
together on great lines of traffic and travel, thus severing, as it were, all
South-Wcstern France from the rest of the empire, and finally threatening
to produce great and permanent geographical changes. The well-being of
the wliole commonwealth was seen to be involved in preventing the
recurrence and in limiting the range of such devastations."
"The inundations of 1846, and more especially those of 1856," wrote
C6zanne, " compelled attention to be given to the conservation of the forests.
In proportion to the greatness of the prosperity wliich prevailed, and the
profound feeling of security which liad lulled so many to sleep, the more
severe and the more unexpected seemed the disasters thus occasioned."
UEPUHT iJ\ MlNlaXElt OF FINANCE, 1800. 147
A great complaint arose ; this was followed by a keen controversy ; the
Head of the Government took part in this ; a letter from him to the
Minister of Public Works, under date lOtli July 1856, published over the
whole of France, gave a rtsumc of the popular movement ; and, founded on
information elicited, there was issued in his name, under date of 5th
January 18 GO, a programme of procedure, which was followed by a projet
de lot, which was submitted to the Emperor with the following report by
M. Magne, Minister of Finance : —
" Paris, 2nd Feb. 1860.
Sire, — '' The attention of your Majesty has been given at different
times to the dangers which result from the deforesting of the mountains.
At the time of the inundations of 1859, you were led to point out that
deforesting was one of the causes of the evils which had then afflicted the
country ; in the programme traced in the letter of your Majesty is included,
in the innumeratiou of the great administrative measures destined to develope
the public prosperity, the clearance of forests on plains, and the reforesting
of the mountains.
" A law passed in the last Legislative Session has given new facilities for
the clearance of forests situated on the plain. This law, long waited for,
is one of the recent benefits confen-ed by the Imperial Government; it
realizes its liberal views in what relates to woods belonging to private
proprietors. There remains to be proposed, as a necessary complement to
this, a law for the reforesting of the mountains.
" No legislative measure of any importance on this subject has been
adopted by the Governments which have preceded that of your Majesty.
The old edicts, and the ordinances anterior to 1789, contain only exceptional
measures to arrest the progress of deforesting. The code forestier was con-
ceived in the same spirit ; there is found there a series of arrangements
designed to restrain the abuse of depasturing, but only one arrangement w^as
introduced to promote reforesting; it is Ai't. 225, which exempts from tax-
ation, for a period of twenty years, woods sown and planted on the summit
and on the declivity of the mountains. The law adopted last year, in
regard to the clearance of woods belonging to private parties, prolonged
this exemption of taxation to 30 years.
" But, notwithstanding the new" extension given by the Government of
your Majesty to this favourable arrangement, one knows not how we can
await the very important results which must follow. The sowing of trees
and plantations, especially those on the mountains, profit the future more
than the present, and general interests more than the interests of individuals :
hence the necessity for efficacious measures, and for the direct intervention
of the State. This intervention has for a long time been urgently called
for. Since 1843, sixty-three general councils have urged the necessity of
measures being taken for the reforesting of the mountains. A report and a
projtt de loi were prepared by the director-general of forests in 1845. This
projet de loi, remitted for examination to a commission composed of forest
administrators and distinguished savants, was amended in many parts, and
submitted to the Chamber of Deputies in the session 1847. The report
which was presented by the commission admitted the importance which
attached to the question, but also the uncertainty which prevailed in opinions
relative to the measures which should be adopted ; and nothing came of
this projet de loi.
148 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
" But the greater part of the general councils have not ceased to call,
year by year, for legislative measures, designed to favour the reforesting of
the mountains. Many have even voted subventions with this view. There
may be cited, more especially, the general councils of the Puy-de-dome^ of
the Lozere, of the Bouches-dit-rhone, of VAriege, and of L^Ain ; and lastly, a
certain number of communes have imposed on themselves sacrifices, and
have taken the initiative in works of reforesting j but these efforts, which
attest the urgency of the need, are not in keeping with the magnitude of the
evil, and they must remain, moreover, inoperative in securing the co-operation
of the State. It is this co-operation which your Majesty has sought to
secure to the population of the mountains.
"The region in which reforesting is becoming most urgently necessary
comprises a certain number of departments, furrowed by many chains of
mountains, of which the principal, and the most deforested, are the Alps,
the Pyrenees, the Cevennes, and the mountains of Auvergne. It is in these
chains of mountains which the principal affluents of our rivers, and the rivers
themselves, of which the basins are most exposed to inundations — the Rhone,
the Isere, the Loire, the Durance, the Garonne, &c. — take their rise.
" Statistics have been prepared at different times to determine the extent
of lands susceptible of reforesting in the mountain regions of France. These,
carried out more fully and completed of late years by the forest administrators,
have been verified by special reports which had been required of conservators
in 1859. The results have been tabulated, and show that lands susceptible of
reforesting, in the departments the most threatened by the denudation of
their declivities, may be estimated proximately to be in extent 1,133,000
hectares. These lands belong to the State, to communes, and to private
proprietors.
" No legislative aiTangement appears to be necessary in regard to lands
belonging to the State ; it suffices to secure the reforesting of these that
special credits be introduced into the budget of the administration of the
forests. Your Majesty's Government has already taken the initiative in
this matter, and since 1855 a sum of 500,000 francs has been appropriated
annually to works of replenishing in the State forests. This appropriation
has allowed of a great reduction of the void spaces existing in the forests, and
of works being executed during the last five years on lands situated on the
mountains or on the declivities, and thus has led to the reforesting of
fourteen thousand hectares. By continuing this appropriation of 500,000
francs for a certain number of years, it is believed that the forty thousand
hectares of lands belonging to the State in these departments of the moun-
tains may be completely replanted with woods.
''But it is not the same with lands belonging to communes, to public
bodies, and to private proprietors ; the replantings executed by them on
these lands are the result of a few isolated efforts — trials left to themselves,
without direction and without encouragement. The State ought to inter-
fere, to give to these works the impulse demanded by the general interest ;
and a law is required to point out the importance of this joint action, and to
determine the conditions of it.
" For the greater part of the lands situated on mountains, the inter-
vention of the State can only consist in subventions granted to private
proprietors, to communes, and to public bodies. These subventions might
consist, in those which relate to private proprietors, in supplying to them
plants and seeds before the execution of the works, and in the subsequent
EErOHT BY M1N1«TK11 UK KINANCK, 1860. 140
distribution of premiums; in those which relate to communes and to public
bodies, in subventions in money which might be granted before the execu-
tion of the works, but the grants should be proportionate to the wants, to the
resources, and to the sacrifices made by the several departments and by the
several conmiunes.
" The projets de lot, which have been proposed for the replanting of the
mountains with woods, in 1845 and 1847, have recognized the necessity of
authorising, in a public interest so very great, the distribution of subven-
tions and of premiums, as well as the supply of plants and of seeds. This
first part of the projet de loi need not then raise the question of principle.
The Administration will only require to take the necessary measures to see
that the subventions be distributed with discernment. In point of fact, it
is not necessary that the whole of the lands susceptible of replanting
should be covered with woods ; in many places a covering of the land
with tui'f may suffice to ensure the maintenance of the land on the
mountain, and, where the planting with wood is a recognized advantage,
the subventions ought not to have as their result to substitute the action of
the State for the initiation of the work by the individual.
" Communes which may be disposed to demand too high subventions,
regard bemg had to the sacrifices which they impose upon themselves, should
only receive from the State co-operation subject to certain conditions, which
may perhaps appear somewhat severe, such as a proportional participation
in the forests created on the communal lands. It would not be just, indeed,
that certain privileged communes should be able to draw to themselves all
the benefit of the subvention. The benefit, in order to its being shared by
a great many, should not be applied to each otherwise than in a certain
proportion. If this proportion be exceeded, the pecuniary co-operation of
the State should assume another character, and the subvention become an
advance to be paid back, at least in part, to the public treasury, through a
cession of a portion of the lands, the principal value of which will have
arisen from the replanting of them with w^oods.
" At the same time, it is impossible not to foresee that, notwithstanding the
subventions offered, and notwithstanding the advances which the State may
be willing to make, there may be communes, or private proprietors, utterly
unable to execute the replanting, and yet on certain determinate places,
replanting may be demanded, not only by manifest public interest, but, so
to speak, by an imperious necessity.
" There are, on the mountains, places which are more especially threatened
by the violence of rivers, by the impetuosity of torrents, and by the fall of
avalanches or of rocks. Such, for example, are certain lands on steep
declivities, situated on the sides, or at the debouche of torrents ; such are
villages exposed without shelter to catastrophes which are in some measure
periodical. The reformation of wooded masses, designed to aiTest the
ravages of waters, and to divert from the places imperilled disastrous effects
of great natural disturbances, is in the highest degree a work of public
interest. In such masses of woods as are desired every thing combines to
offer resistance to the scourges which desolate the mountains : the roots of
trees keep the ground in its place and consolidate the soil, the branches
form a shelter against the storm and wind, the leaves fertilize the light bed
of vegetable earth covering the rock.
" The reboisemod presents, then, in these exceptional cases, and at certain
determinate places, a character of public utility such that the necessary
150 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
works to reconstitute masses of woods should be rendered obligatory, and,
if need be, be executed at the expense of the State.
" Imperial decrees, issued after the observance of forms of procedure
which shall give satisfactory^ guarantees to all interests, should specify the
boundaries of these lands. The Council of State would then have to
ascertain whether within these exceptional boundaries ex-propriation for the
sake of public utility could not be applied to lands belonging to private
proprietors, and whether the temporary occupation of lands belonging to
communes ought not to take place conformably to the principles laid down
by the law of 1857, relative to the plantation of the communes of the
GUronde and of the Landes.
"But the provisions of this part of the 2^'^^ojet de loi should be applied
with such reserve as not to lead to hasty changes in the general habits of
the population of the mountains. It should be applied, in the first instance,
to places in regard to which it is already seen and acknowledged that the
replanting of them with trees would be a benefit. If in certain communes
it be the case that the population are without cause disturbed by every
attempt at replanting, considering this as a hindrance to the enjoyment of
the right of pasturage, there are, on the other hand, others struck by the
imminence of the dangers by which they are threatened, or pressed by the
scarcity of wood in regions in which the snow lies on the ground eight or
ten months of the year ; and, considering the replanting of woods as a
measure of protection and safety, they' urgently solicit it, as is notably the
case in the departments of the Haute-Loire and of Puy-de-Dome. In
certain mountain countries, then, the co-operation of the population is now
certain to be given to works of replanting. This co-operation guarantees
success in it, and the importance of the results to be obtained will little by
little enlighten the communes which are less favourably disposed towards
the advantages of the measures prescribed by the Government.
" The Administration, however, should not forget that pasturage is one
of the necessary conditions of life to the dwellers on the mountains. The
interest of the shepherd population ought then to be treated with the
greatest care. But this same interest is closely allied to that of the opera-
tions of replanting, for the abuse of depasturing is not less hurtful to the
conservation of the pasturages than it is to the conservation of the forests.
In the day when the forests shall disappear from the mountains it may be
predicted with some measure of certainty that the day is not distant when
the pasturages shall disappear in the train of the forests.
" In the department of the Basses-Alpes, for instance, where the abuse of
the pasturage, and the incursion of stranger flocks, known by the name of
irauskuiuaut flocks, have joccasioned disastrous consequences, the pasturage
resources have rapidly diminished with the destruction of woods on the
declivities, and the latest statistics have attested the impoverishment of the
land and the emigration of the population. A.11 the prefects of this de})art-
ment for forty years past have reported the progressively increasing serious-
ness of the state of things there. Besides, do not the forests themselves
supply in the mountains what is required in pasturage'? Jf, during a period
of some years, the shepherd would respect the forest sowings, the planta*-
tions, and tlie young fellings, till the wood has become capable of self-defence,
the animals might then enter it, and there find abundant nourishment.
And does not the pasturage present more valuable resources in the forests
of the mountain than it docs on the denuded slopes, where vegetation tends
to disappear and to give place to a sterile soil?
REPOHT BY MTNTSTF.n OP PTNANOE, 1 8G0. IT)!
" The replanting: there is not less necessary in the interest of the shepherd
of tlie mountain, than in the interest of the agriculturists of tlie valley, who are
threatened by ininidations ; and tlio legitimacy of the exceptional measures
in certain determinate cases is justified by public interests of the very highest
order. It would be possible, movever, to moderate the dreaded effect of
these measures : there might be granted, for instance, to private propi-ietors,
after the irholsement of their lands, the power of re-entering on the proprietor-
ship of these lands on repayment to the State of the indemnity of expropri-
ation, and the expense of the works. The replanting with woods being
eflected, the public interest is secured, nnd the proprietor might be permit-
ted to exercise a kind of action of recovery within a determinate period.
On the other hand, the State w^ould thus recover a portion of the advances
made, and might apply the amounts received to new works of rehoisement.
" So, also, might communes be permitted to recover possession of their
w^ooded lands, on reimbursement to the State of the advances made ; but
more than this, they might be allowed, without making any reimbursement,
to resume possession of one half of these lands, on ceding the other half of
them absolutely to the State.
" These varied combinations will be appreciated at their true value by the
Council of State, which will know how to reconcile the requirements of the
public interest with the guarantees and arrangements due to private pro-
prietors, and to communes.
" It only remains to intimate to your Majesty the financial measures
which it appears ought to be adopted_, in order to the carrying out of the
projet de loi.
" A sum of ten millions should be appropriated to subventions, and to
works of replanting with woods on the mountains. The necessary resources
for meeting this expense should be obtained through the sale of woods
belonging to the State to a corresponding amount of ten millions.
" The alienation of these woods should take place successively, throughout
a period of ten years, in such a w^ay as to proportionate each year the
resources obtained by the sale of woods on the plain to the allocations
granted to the budget for replanting the mountains w4th woods. The Forest
Administration should be charged with the double operation, and the
Minister of Finance should be charged to see that the advances made from
the treasury be covered by the payments received in the j^ear.
" For the success of the operation of replanting, as well as for the
successful operation of the alienation of woods, it is not needful to urge on
precipitately either the works to be executed, on the one hand, or, on the
other hand, the sales to be effected. An allocation of a million per annum,
devoted to replanting, is sufficient for the distribution of subventions and
important premiums, and for the undertaking of somewhat considerable
sowings and plantations within the exceptional boundaries specified by the
Imperial Decrees. The corresponding annual alienations of woods to the
value of a million can occasion no perturbations in the sales of landed pro-
perty, or of fellings of timber. Hitherto, the success of alienations of woods
has always been neutralised by the mass of operations going on at the time
to meet the urgent requirements of a period of crisis. The alienation which
will take place in carrying into execution the present law will be made
in circumstances much more favourable, and there may be anticipated
good results.
" The woods of which the projected law proposes the alienation are those
152 LEOTSLATTON OX TORT^FA'TS,
comprised in Table T. of the law of the 5th March 1855 ; so the alienation
of them has already been authorised by the Corps Legislatif, as the sales
authorised towards the raising of fifteen millions did not amount to more
than about a sum of six millions.
The woods designated in that table are, moreover, in the conditions
determined by the programme of your Majesty. They are, in general, in
lots of moderate contents situated in fertile plains, or woods, the clearing
away of which has been already authorised. From the point of view of
forest economy, alienations limited to woods so circumstanced presents no
inconvenience, while the reconstruction of extensive masses of woods on the
mountains is seen to be of the first importance.
" Such, Sire, is the general purport of the projet de loi, which I propose
to your Majesty to submit to the consideration and examination of the
Council of State. The eminent men who compose that Council will know
how to improve the arrangements of that law. I have endeavoured, in the
preparation of it, to enter into the spirit of the great foresight which deter--
mined your Majesty to grant the concurrence of the State to the important
work of the rehoisement of the mountains. — I am, with the most profound
respect. Sire, your Majesty's most humble, most obedient servant and faith-
ful subject, P. MAGNE."
In accordance with usage, the projet de loi, or draft of the law proposed,
was submitted to a Committee, along with an Expose des motifs, or state-
ment of reasons for its enactment, to which they were required to give
consideration. And, in accordance with a report made by them, the law was
enacted in the following terms : —
"Law, of the 28th July 1860, on the Rehoisement of the Mountains.
" Art. 1. Subventions may be granted to communes, to public bodies, and
to private individuals, for the replanting with woods of lands situated on the
summits or on the declivities of mountains.
" Art. 2. These subventions may be made in grants of seeds, or of
seedlings, or in premiums of money.
" These to be granted on account of the utility of the works, in view of
the general interest ; and in the case of communes and public bodies, regard
is to be had to their resources, to the sacrifices they have made, and to their
need, and also to the sums granted by general councils for reforesting.
" Art. 3. Premiums in money, awarded to private individuals, cannot be
delivered until after the execution of the works.
" Art. 4. Tn any case in which the public interest requires that the work
of reforesting be made obligatory, in consequence of the state of the ground,
and the dangers resulting from this to lower-lying lands, this is done thus :
" Art. 5. An Imperial decree, issued through the Council of State,
declares the public utility of the works, determines the boundary of the
lands in which it is deemed necessary to carry out the work of reforesting,
and limits the time within wliich the work must be done.
" Tliis decree is preceded by (1) an open inquest or inquiry in each of the
communes interested in the works ; (2) a deliberative discussion of the
subject by the municipal councils of these communes, together witli those
of the more important of those which are circumjacent; (.'5) the opinion of
a special commission, composed of the prefect of the department, or his
delegate, a member of the general council, a member of the coimcil of
the arrondisement or district, and two of the landed proprietors of the
LAW OF 28th JULY i860. 153
communes concerned ; (1) the opinionof Llie council of the Arrondissement,
and that of the General Council.
" The proces-verbal, or attested minute specifying the lands, the
diagram, or chart of the lands, and the specitication of the works proposed,
prepared by the Forest Administration with the co-operation and approval
of an engineer of roads and bridges or mines, are to remain deposited in the
office of the mayor during the inquest or inquiry, the duration of which is
limited to a month, dating from the time of the prefectoral resolution,
which prescribes the opening of the inquest and the convocation of the
municipal council.
" Art. 6. The Imperial decree is to be published and posted up in the
communes concerned.
" The prefect, moreover, is to serve on the communes, on the public
establishments, and on the private individuals concerned, extracts of the
Imperial decree, containing severally what therein relates to the lands
belonging to them.
" The notification made to them is to state the limit of time within which
the works of reboisenient should be completed, and, if there be occasion for
it, the subvention granted by the Administration, or the advances which
they are prepared to make.
" Art. 7. If the lands comprised within the boundary determined by the
Imperial decree belong to private individuals, these are required to declare
if they intend themselves to effect the reboisement, and in that case they are
held bound to execute the works within the period fixed by the decree.
" In case of refusal to do so, or of failure of execution of the engagement
undertaken, it is competent to proceed to expropriation on the ground of
public utility, observing the formalities prescribed by the Title II. and those
following of the law of 3rd May 1841.
" The proprietor expropriated in the execution of this Article has a right
to obtain reintegration in his property after the reforesting, on repayment
of the expense of the expropriation, and of the works, principal and interest ;
or he may relieve himself of repayment of the expense of reboisement by
ceding half of the property.
" Art. 8. If the communes or public establishments refuse to execute the
works on lands belonging to them, or if it be impossible for them to execute
these in whole or in part, the State may do so, either by amicably obtaining
possession of the part of the lands which they do not wish, or are unable, to
reforest, or by undertaking the whole of the works at its own expense. In
the latter case it retains the administration and the use of the reforested
lands until the advances made have been reimbursed, principal and interest.
But while this is the case, the commune will enjoy the right of pasturage
on the reforested lands as soon as the woods shall have been sufficiently
protected from injury.
" Art. 9. The communes and public establishments can, in every case,
exonerate themselves from repayment to the State by giving up their right
of property in half of the re-wooded lands. This cession of right of property
must be made, on pain of forfeiture of privilege, within a period of ten years
from the notification of the completion of the works.
"Art. 10. The sowing or replanting in each commune cannot be made
on more than on one-twentieth of the extent of the lands annually, unless a
resolution of the municipal council authorise the works being carried on on
a more extensive scale.
154? LKGleiLATiON ON T0RHj5NT».
" Art. 1 1 . Forest warders of the State may be appointed to the surveil-
lance of the sowings and plantations within the boundaries fixed by the
Imperial decrees. Offences within these boundaries, proved by these
guards, are to be prosecuted as offences committed in the woods subjected
to forest regime \ and the execution of the sentence is to be enforced
conformably to the Articles 209, 211, 212, and to the §§ 1 and 2 of Art. 210
of the Code forestiere.
"Art. 12. The first paragraph of Art. 224 of the Code forestiere is not
applicable to reboisements effected wdth subvention or premium granted by
the State in execution of the present law\
" The proprietors of lands replanted with woods, with premium or sub-
vention of the State, cannot depasture these without a special authority
from the Forest Administration, until such time as the woods shall have
been recognised by the said Administration as sufficiently protected.
" Art. 1 3. A regulation by the Public Administration shall determine —
(1) the measures to be taken for the determination of the boundary
indicated in Ai'ticle 5 of the present law ; (2) the rules to be observed for
the execution and conservation of works of reboisement \ (3) the mode of
determining the advances to be made by the State, the proper measures for
securing the reimbursement of these, principal and interest, and the rules
to be followed for giving up proprietorship of lands which Article 9
authorises communes to cede to the State.
"Art. 14. A sum of 10,000,000 [francs] is appropriated to the payment
of expenditure authorised by the present law, to the extent of 1,000,000
per annum.
" The Minister of Finance is authorised to alienate, with power of uprooting
if necessary, woods belonging to the State, to the value of 5,000,000 of francs.
" These woods cannot be taken except from amongst those entered in
table B. annexed to the present law. The alienations may be made
successively within a period which shall not exceed ten years, reckoning
from 1st Jan. 1861.
" The Minister of Finance is in like manner authorised to sell the
above-mentioned woods to communes on an approved valuation, and on
conditions determined by a regulation of the public Administration.
" The 5,000,000 of francs, necessary to complete provision for the
expenditure authorised by the present law, shall be provided by means of
extraordinary fellings of wood, and, if necessary, from the ordinary
resources of the budget."
On the same day was enacted a land improvement law, entitled Loi sur
la mise en valeur des communauXy providing for the utilization of commons
by means of State aid in the drainage, or other measures required to fit for
agricultural or sylvicultural operations, uncultivated lands and marshes
belonging to communes, or sections of communes, the utilization of which
might be deemed beneficial.
Under date of 17th August 1860, M. Vicaire, director- general of the
Forest Administration, addressed to the Forest Conservators a circular
relative to reOoisenuiU, of wliich the following is a translation : —
" The question of the replanting of mountains with woods, so important
in view of inundations, is about to receive a practical solution. The
Imperial Government, which does not shrink from any expense required to
give legitimate satisfaction to tlio wishes of the country, is of opinion
that the time has come to bring to a close the discussions to which
this gi*ave question has given rise in scientific societies and in general
councils.
*' His Excellency the Minister of Finance, faithfully following the Imperial
programme of 5th January 1860, has shown, in a remarkable report of the
3rd February following, the necessity of replanting the mountains with
woods, and the measures to be adopted to effect this. Shortly thereafter,
the Council of State, adopting the views of the minister, presented a projet
de loi, which has been adopted, with marked approval, both by the Corps
Legislative and by the Senate, after careful consideration. The ardour with
which the Legislature of the State has set about realising the generous
thought of the Emperor testifies to the greatness of the enterprise, and to
the great interest taken in it by the country.
" To the Forest Administration is assigned the honour of carrying this into
execution, and it will not, I feel assured, come short of its mission.
**The mode of execution being to be made the subject of a regulation
issued by the public Administration, it becomes of importance that there
should be obtained forthwith the data needed for its preparation. I therefore
invite you to consider carefully the provisions which it may appear to you
it should contain,
" As is the case with all new laws, it may be, the law for the replanting
of the mountains with woods wull, on its first application, give rise to some
difficulties. May I ask of 3'ou to consider well those which you may con-
sider it likely to give rise to in your district, and to point out to me the
best means of removing them.
" It cannot be expected that until after the publication of the regulation
by the public Administration you should be able to wTite me fully on
this matter. At present, therfore, I limit myself to soliciting your attention
to provisions of the law^, the execution of which is independent of that
regulation, and to measures which should precede the application of the
regulations which may be issued.
" Your first endeavour should be to determine the localities in which the
work of reboisement will be most useful ; and it should not be allowed to
escape your attention that, according to the prescriptions of the law,
Government aid should be given exclusively to the replanting of lands
situated on the summits or the declivities of mountains.
" The Administration cannot extend the resources placed at its command
to all the lands which may fulfil these conditions ; you should, therefore,
endeavour to ascertain to which a preference should be given. In what
relates to the works entrusted to your consideration you should avoid
making choice, in the commencement of the enterprise, of lands the
replanting of which would present an excess of difficulties, that you may
not bring the enterprise into contempt, which might result in cooling the
zeal of communes and of private landholders.
" You should select as much as may be possible, according to the climate,
the nature of the soil, and the exposiu'e of the lands, the kinds of trees of
which the successful growth would be most certain, and the propagation of
which would be most useful, and prescribe only the culture which w^ould be
most suitable for them.
" It may be it will only be after many trials, which may be like groping
in the dark, that you will be able to make your final selection ; and I cannot
156 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
too strongly recommend to you to multiply your experimental trials and to
make them with all necessary care.
" It is desirable, for instance, that you should caiTy on your operations
on a great many different spots.
" The work of replanting woods can only be carried out successfully if it
secure the sympathy of the people of the locality, and nothing likely to
secure this should be neglected.
" It is then necessary that you should make yourself well acquainted
with the wants of the communes, and lay yourself out to reconcile with
these, as far as possible, the measures to be adopted ; and if present profit
cannot be combined with the interests of the future, to sacrifice these ', it is
nevertheless necessary to give due consideration to this, and to reckon it
a matter of no small importance.
"According to the idea of the Legislature, the encouragements given,
should be given as much as possible in the form of grants of seed and
of plants.
" The Administration is already engaged in carrying out drainage and
forming secheries [for the drying of seeds], wherever it is practicable to do
10 with advantage.
" The case of establishing nurseries pertains more especially to you.
You will be supplied with all the funds needed to make these in sufficient
numbers and under the most favourable conditions.
" You cannot give too much attention to the extension, diffusion, and
development of these valuable works, whether they be carried out on
account of communes or be executed on account of the State.
" Whenever lands of a certain extent are to be replanted with woods, it
will always be found useful to locate one or more nurseries near to these,
so as to avoid the risk of failure consequent on too prolonged transport of
the plants.
" Article 2 of the law bears, that in the distribution of subventions to
communes and public bodies, regard is to be had to their resources, to their
sacrifices, and to their wants, and also to the amount granted by the
General Councils for rehoisement.
" The application of this provision will require, on your part, much care,
discernment, and tact.
" The distribution of subventions will give occasion for the forest officials
entering into frequent communication with the representatives of communes
and of public bodies; I need scarcely remind you that all your communica-
tions should be characterised by the greatest cordiality and amity.
'' The General Councils will be led to consider whether, in carrying out
the views of Government, they ought not to devote a portion of their
resources to the work of rehoisement. Instructions, which may be necessary
to their giving a deliverance on this subject, you should supply without loss
of time to the prefects, and, if necessary, take the initiative in communica-
tions of this kind.
" The law divides itself into two distinct parts, relating severally to
encouragement and to coercion ; we have only to do with the first of these
here.
" The happy results which may be obtained by encouragement may
render the application of coercive measures the more rare. This is a
consideration which should lead you to see that nothing be neglected which
at first sight gives assurance of success.
STATUTE OP 27th APRIL 1861. lf>7
** The whole coimtiy will watch with the greatest solicitude the results
of the new law. It reckons on your zeal ; we must not disappoint the
expectation.
'* I shall annually report to the Minister the works executed each year,
in accordance with the law ; it will be a pleasure to me, in doing so, to make
special mention to His Excellency of your zeal, and of that of the agents
who shall have best seconded you in this work, w^hich is so important."
The following decree, embodying the statute of the Public Administration
for the enforcement of the law of 28th July 1860, was issued 27th April 1861.
" Chap. I. — Of Reboisement Facultatifs, or Sanctioned and Aided
Operations.
« Arts 1, 2, 8, and 12 of the law of 28th July 1860.
*' Art. 1. Proprietors of lands situated on the summits or the declivities
of mountains who desire to avail themselves of the subventions granted by
the State, in terms of Arts. 1 and 2 of the law of 28th July 1860, should
address their demand to the Forest Conservator.
" If it be a commune or a public body, the demand should be addressed to
the prefect, who will transmit it to the conservator, with a letter of advice.
" Art. 2. Lands belonging to communes or public bodies, on which works
of reboisement are undertaken by help of subventions granted by the State,
are subjected to the regime forestiere.
" The works on these, as well as those of conservation, or of full main-
tenance, are to be executed under the control and surveillance of the forest
officials.
" If the lands belong to several communes, and it be necessary to the
successful prosecution of the reboisement that the work be carried on simul-
taneously in all of these, there is to be created, conformable to Arts. 70, 71,
and 72 of the law of 18th July 1837, a syndic council for the purpose of
effecting an execution of the works.
" In case of the non-execution, or of the bad execution, of the works
certified by the forest officials, the prefect passes a resolution enjoining the
restitution to the State of the subventions which have been allowed.
" Art. 3. Premiums in money, obtained by private proprietors after the
execution of the works, are to be paid on presentation of a minute of
acceptance of works, drawn up by the local forest official in the form of
minutes of acceptance of works of improvement in the State forests, and on
the advice of the inspector and the conservator.
" Subventions in seeds, or in plants, delivered to private proprietors
before the execution of the works, are to be estimated at their money value.
The valuation is to be notified to the proprietor, and accepted by him. The
amount of this is to be repaid to the State in case of the non-execution of
the works, the misappropriation of the seeds or plants, or of the bad execu-
tion of the work certified, as has been prescribed in Art. 2 of the present
regulations.
" Art. 4. The allocation of subventions exceeding in amount 500 francs
is to be made by the Minister of Finance ; the allocation of subventions
under 500 francs in amount is to be made by the Director-General of Forests.
" Art. 5. When works of replanting have been executed on lands
belonging to private proprietors by help of subventions, the proprietors,
158 LEGISLATION ON TORRFA'TS.
before admitting cattle into the plantation, must address f\ii tipplication for
permission to do so to the conservator, who is to cause the state of the
young woods to be ascertained by the forest official, and to determine
accordingly, under power of appeal to the Minister of Finance.
" If the proprietor fail to conform himself to the decision given, the whole
or part of the subventions granted may be charged against the proprietor.
" Chap. II. — Of Reboisements Obligatoikes, or Enjoined Replantings.
'* The determination of the boundaries within which it is necessary to execute
the reboisement.
" Act. 6. When the Forest Administration considers that it is proper to pro-
ceed to determine the boundaries of the lands on which it is necessary to
execute works oireboisement^t\ie Director-General of Forests is to give notice to
the prefect of the forest agents designated for the preparation of the minute
of specification of the lands, the diagram, or plan of the places, and the pro-
posed project of the works to be executed.
" The prefect is to designate the engineer of roads and bridges, or of
mines, whose consent to the operation is required.
" Art. 7. The minute of specifications is to be accompanied by a descrip-
tive memoir, indicating the object of the enterprise, and the benefits
expected to attend it.
" The diagram, or plan of the place, is to be prepared in accordance with
the land-register of the district. It is to indicate, in regard to each plot,
the number specifying it in that register ; the superficial contents ; the
name of the proprietor ; and if it belong to a commune, or to a public body,
the sum total of the superficial contents of lands belonging to the commune,
or to the public body.
" The project of works to be executed is to indicate the lands which it is
designed to replant ; it fixes the time within which the works should be
executed; and it contains (1) an approximate estimate of the expense, and
a project of the partition of this expense among the different proprietors ;
(2) an indication of the subventions which might be offered to each pro-
prietor ; (3) a valuation of the actual revenue from each lot, of the value of
the ground, and of the value of the crop ; (4) any other statistical informa-
tion which might be useful, if known.
" Art. 8. The documents spoken of in the preceding Article are to be
addressed by the Forest Administration to the prefect, who is to proceed to
institute in each commune the inquest pi-escribed by Art. 5 of the law of
28th July 1860.
" The project of operations is to remain deposited in the mayor's office
for a month ; at the expiry of this time a commissioner, designated by the
prefect, is to receive, at the mayor's office, during tln-ee successive days,
declarations from inhabitiants regarding the public utility of the projected
works. These days are reckoned from the advertisement, given by means
of publication, and posted notices. The authority for such advertisement,
and the publication of the order of the prefect which appoints the opening
of the inquest, must be a certificate from the mayor.
" After having closed and signed the register of the declarations, the
commissioner is to transmit this immediately to the prefect, with advice,
and the other documents of instruction which have served as a ground for
the inquest.
STATUTE OK 27tH AI'RIL lJ<61. Ib^
''Art. 9. The Municipjil (Council of each comnmne concerned, summoned
for the purpose by injunction from the prefect, is to examine the documents
in question, and, after a dehiy of a month, to give its opinion by a resolution
.adopted in conjunction with the prescribed addition of others, equal in
number to that of the officiating members of the municipal council. This
resolution is to declare, if such be the case, whether the municipal council
authorises the works of replanting to be carried out to a still greater extent
than that specified by Art. 10 of law of 28th July 1860. The minute of this
resolution is to be added to the documents connected with the inquest.
"Art. 10. The commission instituted by the second paragraph of Art. 5 of
the law of 28th July 1860 is formed by the prefect in each of the depart-
ments traversed by the line of works.
" This commission meets at the place indicated by the prefectoral resolu-
tion, and on the fifteenth day from the date of that decree. It examines
the documents giving the requisite instructions, and the declarations delivered
to the registrar of the inquest ; and, after having deliberated on these in
company with any persons whom they may consider it would be well to
consult, and with the information which they consider necessary, they give
their opinion both on the utility of the undertaking, and on the various
questions submitted by the Administration.
" These different proceedings, of w^hich a minute is to be prepared, must
be completed within another period of one month.
"Art. 11. The prefect, after having taken the opinions of the Council of
the Arrondissement and of the General Council, is to forward all the docu-
ments relative to the case, together with his own opinion, to the Minister
of Finance, who, after having previously consulted with the Minister of
Agriculture, of Commerce, and of Public Works, and the Minister of the
Interior, if there be occasion for it, is to submit to us his report.
"A deliverance will then be given by us on the question of the public
utility of the works, our Council of State having heard the case.
"Art. 12. A duplicate of the decree which declares the public utility of
the works is to be transmitted by the Director-General of Forests to the
prefect, who is charged wuth the fulfilment of the formalities prescribed by
Art. 6 of the law of 28th July 1860.
" At the same time the Forest Administration is to notify to the prefect,
in regard to each plot in the register, the works to be accomplished, the
conditions under which they are to be executed, and the time within which
this must be done, the offers of subvention made by the Administration, and
the advances of money to which they are prepared to consent.
" Chap. III. — Of the Execution and Maintenance of the Works.
" Chap. 1. — Lands belonging to j^rivate pivjjrietors comprised within the
boundaries specified by the decretal declarative of public utility.
" Art. 13. Within a period of one month reckoned from the notification
which is made to him of the decreet declarative of the public utility, the
private proprietor of the lands comprised within the boundary shall declare
whether he intends to execute the works himself, or to give up the execu-
tion of them to the Forest Administration.
" This declaration is to be made in duplicate, and transmitted to the
Bub-prefecture of the locality in which the places are situated, or in which
160 - LEGISLATION ON TORHENTfi.
they are registered. These duplicate declarations are revised by the sub-
prefect, who is to return one to the party by whom the declaration is made,
and to transmit the other immediately to the prefect.
'^ If the private proprietor wishes to execute the works himself, his
declaration is to contain, in addition, proof of his possessing means of doing so.
"Art. 14. Failingthedeliverauceof this declaration, the private proprietor
is to be held to have refused to undertake the works at his own expense.
*'Art. 15. The works executed by the private proprietor, with or without
subvention, are to be subject to the surveillance of the Forest Adminis-
tration.
" Art. 16. The Forest Administration is to proceed to the execution of the
works to be carried on on the lands of the expropriated proprietors.
" The completion of the works is to be notified by the Forest Adminis-
tration to the expropriated proprietor. The notification is to contain,
moreover, — (1) a detailed account of the amount, principal and interest,
of the cost of the works executed from the period of expropriation;
(2) an estimate of the annual expenditure deemed necessary for the con-
servation and maintenance of them.
" Art. 17. When, in accordance with Act. 7 of the law of 28th July 1860
the expropriated proprietor wishes to avail himself of the right to obtain
reintegration, he is to make the declaration to the sub-prefecture within the
five years following the notification made to him, in terms of the preceding
article, and to notify in this deed whether he intends to obtain his reintegra-
tion by reimbursing to the State the advances made, or by giving up to the
State a half of the property.
" These declarations are to be registered, and of this a certificate is to be given.
"Art. 18. If the proprietor makes choice of reimbursing the advances
made by the State, he is to produce, in support of his declarations, the
necessary proof that he is in circumstances to reimburse the indemnity of
expropriation, and the expense of the woi'ks, both in their first establishment
and their maintenance — principal and interest.
" This declaration and documents in support of it are to be addressed
within a month to the Minister of Finance, who is to decree and determine
the forms, and the time within which the proprietor shall be reintegrated.
"Art. 19. If the proprietor offers to give up to the State one-half of the
property, proceedings are to be taken by a forest agent, and by the pro-
prietor, or his delegate, to divide the land into two lots of equal value.
" In case of dispute in regard to the formation of these lots, it is to be
determined by a third party, a skilled umpire, named by the president
of the tribunal.
" The appropriation of the lots is to be determined by drawing of lots,
if the parties cannot come to an amicable arrangement.
" If a part of the works has been executed by the proprietor, this is to be
taken into account in making the division, by a proportional deduction being
made from the lot which falls to the possession of the State.
"Chap. 2. — Lands helongiwj to commimes or to public bodies comprised
wiCkiii t/ce boundary specified by the decretals declarative of public utility.
" Sect. 1st. — l^he execution of works to be carried on on the lands belonging
to communes or public bodies.
" Art. 20. Within a month from the date of the decreet declarative of
STATUTE OP 27tII APRIL 18G1. 161
public utility, communes and public bodies, proprietors of lands, comprised
within the boundary, are to notify to the prefect, by an explanatory declara-
tion, whether their intention bo to execute the works with their own
resources, in whole or in part, on the prescribed conditions ; or to leave to
the State the care of charging itself with the works, at its own expense,
subject to reimbursement ; or, in fine, amicably to cede to the State, in
whole or in part, lands belonging to them comprised within the boundary.
" Failing the communes or public bodies notifying their intentions within
the period stated, the State is to undertake the works at its own charge,
conformably to the provisions of Art. 8 of the law of 28th July 18G0.
" Art. 21. Lands belonging to communes or to public bodies, comprised
within the boundary specified by the decreet declarative of public utility,
are to be subject absolutely to the regime forestiere.
" Art. 22. When the commune or the public body shall have notified its
intention to execute the works, the Municipal Council, or the Administra-
tive Commission, is to grant each year the funds judged necessary for the
execution of new works, and for the maintenance of works accomplished.
" Art. 23. The execution of the works is to take place under the
surveillance of the forest agents.
" In case of non-execution, or of bad execution, certified by the conserva-
tor, a decision by the Minister of Finance is to ordain, if the measure be
proper, that the State shall undertake the work at its own charge, in terms
of Art. 8. of the law of 28th July 1860.
" When the lands belong to several communes, and the successful
prosecution of rehoisement requires the works to be carried on together, there
is to be created, if all the Municipal Councils charge themselves with the
undertaking, a syndical commission for the prosecution of the execution of
the works, conformably to Arts. 70, 71, and 72 of the law of July 18, 1837.
" Sect. 2nd. — Determination of the advances made hy the State to
communes or to public bodies, and measures proper to secure the reimbursement
of these.
" Art. 24. When the communes or public establishments decide to leave
the works to the charge of the State, the Forest Administration is to cause
them to be executed in accordance with the forms used in the matter of
works of amelioration in the forests of the State.
" The statements of expenses are to be prepared conformably to the niles
of office accounts in the Forest Administration.
" In the same forms are to be prepared the statement of annual expenses
of maintenance.
"Art. 25. If the works concern several communes, the partition of the
expense is to be made according to the form required by Art. 72 of the law
of 28th July 1837.
" Every year there is to be delivered to each of the parties interested a
statement of the expenses incurred on account of the party by the
Administration.
" After the completion of the works, an account-general of the expendi-
ture is to be ordered by the Minister of Finance, and a copy is to be
delivered to each of the parties interested.
'' The sums forming the amount of this account, and constituting
principal, are to bear a charge of simple interest at 5 per cent, from the
completion of the works.
" Art. 26. The works effected by the State are to be maintained by the
s
162 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
care of the Forest Administration. The advances of the State for this
object, ordered each year by the Minister of Finance, are to bear interest at
5 per cent, per annum.
**A copy of the account is to be delivered to the parties concerned, along
with the statement of the expenses previously incurred.
" Art. 27. Demands of revision or rectification of the annual accounts of
the expenses of the establishment, or of the maintenance of the works,
should, on pain of forfeiture of right to these, be brought before the
Councils of Prefecture within six months of the notification of said accounts.
After that time the accounts become fixed.
"Art. 28. The accounts of these products, and that of the expenses, are
to be made out and approved each year by the Minister of Finance, and a
copy is to be certified to the parties concerned. Within six months after
this notification the parties concerned can, as in the case of the account of
works, make the demand indicated in the preceding article.
" The value of these products is to be deducted from the interest due to
the State, or otherwise, in the next place, from the principal constituted
by the expenses incurred in the establishment and the maintenance of the
works.
" Art. 29. When the State is entirely reimbursed, the advances made by
it — be it by products gathered by it, or be it by payments made by the
parties concerned — these are forthwith to be put again in possession of the
lands administered for them by the State, under such reservations as result
from their being sabjected to the regime forestiere.
Sect. 3rd. — Rules to he folloived in giving up of lands which Art. 9 of the
aw of 28th Jidy 1860 authorises communes to cede to the State.
" Art. 30. If the commune, or the public body, relieve themselves of all
repayment by ceding a half of the lands replanted, the Municipal Council
of the Administrative Commissions is to adopt a resolution to this effect,
which is to be notified to the prefect within the period indicated by the
second paragraph of Art. 9 of the law of 20th July 1860.
"Art. 31. Proceedings are forthwith to be taken by a skilled person
nominated by the prefect, and a Forest Agent designated by the Forest
Administration, to divide the same into two lots of equal value.
" The appropriation of the lots is to take place by drawing of lots, if the
parties concerned cannot come to an amicable arrangement of this. This
proceeding is to take place in the presence of the sub-prefect of the
Arrondissement.
"If a part of the works has been executed by the commune or the public
body, this is to be taken into account in the division, and a proportionate
reduction is to bo made in the share which falls to the lot of the State.
" Chap. 3. — General directions.
"Art. 32. Before commencing the works within the extent of the
boundaries fixed by the Imperial decrees, there is to be made, at the expense
of the State, a determination of the boundaries, and, if need be, a marking
off of the said boundaries on the ground."
In order that the superior local ofiicers of the Forest Administration
might be fully acquainted with what it was desired should bo done in the
carrying out of the decree, the Director-General of the Forest Administration,
OIROULAR OF IST JUNE 1861. 163
M. Vicaire, subscquontly issued the following explanations, in a circular
addressed to forest conservators, under date of Ist Juno ItiOl : —
".Part I. — Reboisements Faoultatifs, or Sanctioned and Aided
Operations.
"The 1st Article traces out the course to be followed by private pro-
prietors, the communes, or the public establishments, in the applications
for aid that they may have to make. By the terms of Art. 2 of the law of
28th July 1860, the aid in the reforesting of the lands situated on the
summits or the slopes of mountains is granted on account of the utility of
the work as regards the general good, having respect, in reference to the
communes and the public establishments, to their resources, their sacrifices,
and their need, as well as to the sums allotted by the General Councils for
reforesting. The communes, whose territory is situated in the regions where
the rehoisement of the mountains is in the highest degree important to the
public good are in general very poor, and often they have no other resources
than what they derive from pasturage. Every reduction in the extent of the
lands free to all excites among the inhabitants of these regions great appre-
hension. Great efforts in the initiative could not, therefore, be expected
from them, and it is better in such cases to be lavish with encouragement.
The Government will contribute very largely to the expense of the work,
whenever the communes placed in these circumstances show their good-
will to the work.
" When, on the other hand, the lands belong to proprietors more advan-
tageously situated in regard to pecuniary resources, it is better to be less
ready in giving aid, and to apportion this more strictly to the efiforts and
sacrifices of the proprietors.
" The law for the reboisement of mountains is essentially a law of general
interest, and it is in this point of view that it is necessary to regard it in
considering the demands for aid.
" With a view to securing proper order and regularity in the consideration
of such demands, they ought to be given in before the 15th of July of the
year previous to that in which the aid is required. Those which arrive
subsequently to that time will be carried over to the next year, excepting,
however, cases in which you may decide that it is better to proceed without
delay to the decision. The requests will be summed up in the form of
ordinaiy reconnaissances, and must reach the Government before the 1st of
September, with your observations and information, at the same time with
the accounts of the demands for seeds which you annually furnish for re-
sowing void places in the Government forests. It is not necessary to say
that the rule in regard to this can only be followed out when the demands
for aid shall have been established in an orderly manner. The demands
which reach you this year, or at the commencement of the next, will be
attended to with the least possible delay.
" It is necessary to take every precaution to insure the proper application
of the aid. To this effect the demands should be made out upon formulas,
conformed to the models 1 and 2 hereto annexed. Notice should be given
of the granting of the aid, in the form of models Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6. As
you will see, these different formulas have been arranged so as to make
known to the parties for whom the aid is destined the obligations to which
they are subjected, and at the same time to give to the Government the right
of exercising, in case of need, its right to reimbursement.
164 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
" The preceding directions are only applicable to the authorised replanting
of woods for -which demands for aid may in future be sent in. The works
already undertaken, by the help of credit placed at your disposal upon>the
fund appropriated to the expenses of the replanting of the mountains with
woods, will be continued according to the plan on which they were commenced.
''Article 2 relates to the work to be done in the lands belonging to the
communes, or to the public establishments. These lands being by clear
title subject to the forest department, it will not be necessary to get for
them special applications ; it will suffice that you address to the Administra-
tion, at a fit opportunity, the necessary instructions, in order that they may
be inscribed upon the roll of the communal w^oods or public establishments
subject to the Forest Administration.
" When there may be occasion to form a municipal commission, you will
make known to the Government the measures taken to this effect. Aid
will only be granted when the said commission shall have been regularly
constituted.
*' You will take care that the control and supervision of works by • the
forest agents shall be efficiently maintained.
" The aids for the execution of works of reforesting on lands belonging to
private proprietors are principally granted in kind. But aid in money can
be granted to private proprietors under the head of money advanced. The
exjoosee des motifs, or explanation of the grounds of the law of 28th July
1860, says, on this subject, that the private proprietors themselves shall be
admitted to the benefit of aid in money, at least in certain exceptional cases,
where the actual expense would be too great compared with the profits,
necessarly remote, and in which the work should present a character of
public utility sufficiently obvious in order to its appearing just on the part of
the State to support outlays, of which the public would in part reap the fruit.
" When a private proprietor shall have framed a request, the same form
will be followed as in the demand for aid in kind. The agents will visit
the localities, certify the state of the property, appraise the expenses of the
work, as well as their utility in regard to the public interest, and estimate,
principally as regards the latter point, the amount of aid to be allowed.
" The third Article traces the course to be pursued in the payment of this.
" As regards the payments in kind, the model formula No 3. has been so
prepared that the deed of notification forms, between the Adminstration and
the receiver of the aid, a contract of a kind supplying a reciprocal guarantee
on behalf of the subsidised proprietor, and on behalf of the general interest.
*' Articles 4 and 5 have no need of explanation.
" AVhen the staff of agents and employes of the ordinary service shall be
acknowledged to be insufficient to insure the execution of measures relative
to the replanting of woods, further measures must be taken for this object.
Already, at a certain number of points, posts of brigadiers and warders have
been created for this special object. 1 recommend to you to see that the
persons appointed to these posts shall render all the services rightly
required of them.
'' Part II. — Reboisements Obligatoires, or Enjoined Operations.
" Specification of the boundaries of the lands on lohich it is necessary that
rehoisement he effected.
" Article 6 gives to the Administration of Forests the charge of marking
out the lands on which it is necessary to execute the work of rehoisement.
CIRCULAR OF IST JUNE 1861. 165
" Of all the measures which are prescribed for the execution of the law of
the 28th July 18G0, there are none to refer to which is more important than
the marking out of these. I call your special uttcntion to this point. The
object of the law is the protection of the soil against the ravages of inunda-
tions, and the falling away of the slopes. In order that the work of reboise-
ment may have any efficacy as regards hydraulic results, and the retention
of the soil, it is indispensable that they should not be limited to scattered
points. The overflow of the water-courses during storms or heavy rains is
caused, as you know, by the sudden flowing in of the waters into the beds
of rivers and torrents. These water-courses are formed by the union of the
streams, more or less considerable, which rise in the bosom of the mountains.
If the surface of the inclines where the streams rise were properly clothed
with vegetation, the water, restrained on all sides in its progress, would flow
without violence into the bed of the river, which would only overflow in
those rare and exceptional circumstances, in which occur great meteorological
phenomena, against which all obstacles are powerless.
" By an analogous operation the presence of vegetation on the surface of
an incline prevents its falling away, by dividing the lesser courses of water
and preventing their augmentation. According to these considerations,
which I cannot avoid mentioning here, but which your experience of moun-
tainous regions must enable you to appreciate, you will understand that the
consideration of the lands on which it is necessary to undertake such works,
ought, with a view to securing the important result desired, to be directed
to both of these aspects of the efl'ects anticipated.
*' In every case the operation must be determined by circumstances
relating it may be to the water-courses, or relating it may be to the moun-
tain declivity ; and it will be for you to judge and decide at what point it
is most urgently required that a commencement should be made.
** Article 6 bears that * the Director General of Forests shall make known
to the prefect the forest agents designated to prepare the report on the
character and condition of the lands, the chart of the localities, and the
specification of the works proposed.'
" The operations must be carried on in general by special agents, who
shall enjoy the same advantages as the agents composing the Commissioners
of the Cantonment, or of Management of Forests.
" The forest agent shall have for associate the engineer of roads and
bridges, or of the mines, designated by the prefect. I do not require to
recommend to the agents of the Forest Administration to maintain in their
relations with the agents of the Administration of roads and bridges, or of
mines, the spirit of cordial co-operation which ought to animate all the
functionaries of the State in their common efi'orts for the advancement of
the public interest.
" Art. 7. The report of the inspector, the descriptive memoir, the plan of
the localities, and the scheme of projected works, form conjointly and exclu-
sively the basis of operations. In terms of article 5th of the law of 28th
July 1860, this work, first submitted for examination for a month, during
which period all parties interested may become acquainted with it, and then
presented for the discussion of the Municipal Councils, is to be examined in
succession by a special commission, by the Council of the Arrondissement,
and by the General Council. It is not until after the Ministry of Agricul-
ture, of Commerce, and of Public Works, and the Ministry of the Interior,
if such there be, have been consulted that the Ministry of Finances is to
166 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
submit it to the Emperor the order to be issued, the Council of State having
been heard on the question of the public utility of the works. It is of
importance then that the work be prepared with due care, and contain suffi-
cient indications, that in passing through this long process of examination no
considerable element of defect may appear.
" I cannot prescribe any determined form to be followed in these docu-
ments, the instructions which would be necessary would vary with the
special circumstances of each country.
" It would be, besides, premature to lay down at the outset of an operation
regulations so important, which experience had given no opportunity of
ratifying. I leave to the agents to consider, under your direction and
in concert with the engineers, what may be the most convenient manner of
presenting the different elements of the work. I consider, however, that I
ought to address to you on this subject some general observations.
'' I have stated to you above the considerations in accordance with which
ought to be carried out the inspection of the lands which it is necessary to
cover with vegetation, to accomplish the object of the law on the rehoise-
ment of the mountains. Amongst these lands, doubtless, many, through
their state of complete denudation, cannot be converted immediately into
what can properly be called woods. The agents ought to make known by
what preparation, be it by putting them totally or partially under enclosure
for a time more or less prolonged, or be it that by the natural or artificial
production of vegetation of any inferior kind, they may be rendered fit for
the reception of seeds or of plantations. This indispensable preparation
comes directly within the range of the works of rehoisement.
" There are also lands which by reason of their situation appear naturally
destined for use as pasturage. The conversion of these lands into woods
would be of no utility, as preserved in the condition of pasturage they ren-
der to the inhabitants the least expensive and best services possible in what
therein concerns the general interest, and the maintenance of these
pasturages in good condition suffices in many cases to retain the water, and
the land. The scheme of operation ought then to divide the lands into
three classes, namely, — (1) Those in which we may proceed immediately to
direct works of rehoisement ; (2) those in w^hich these works ought to be
preceded by a natural or artificial preparation ; (3) in fine, those which ought
to be left free for the growth of pasturage, subject to appropriate regula-
tions. The two first classes alone are subject to the application of the law
of 28th July 1860, on rehouement.
" It will suffice to indicate in regard to lands of the third category, the
regulations to which it would be w^ell to subject the exercise of pasturage.
" In relation to the subvention which might be offered to each proprietor
for the execution of the works within the prescribed limits required by
public utility, you have only to take into account the resources of the
parties interested, their requirements, the sacrifices which they are disposed
to make, and the amount of the sums allocated by the General Council.
"Article 10, of 28th July 1860, bears, 'that the sowings or plantations
cannot be made annually in each commune over more than the twentieth
part at most of the area of these lands, unless a decision of the Municipal
Council authorise works over a more considerable extent.'
" When an area surveyed comprises more than the twentieth of the lands
l)clonging to a commune, if this commune refuse to allow the execution of
works over a more extended area, it will be well to select and indicate the
OIROULAR OP 1st JUNE 1861. 167
portion of the lands on which it will be of most utility to execute these
works.
"Article 8 indicates the manner in which ouftht to be conducted the
examination prescribed by article 5 of the law of 28th July 18G0. 'Measures
to this effect are to be taken by the prefect, when he is supplied by the
Administration of Forest with the papers enumerated in article 7. You
will address these papers to the Administration when the work for any
one complete undertaking shall be finished, whatever may be the importance
of the work, be it for a water-course from a river, from a secondaiy affluent,
or even from a torrent, or, what is better still, be it for a mountain declivity.
"Articles 9, 10, 11, and 12 require no explanation. I shall only call
your attention to the institution of the commission, of w^hich article 10 de-
fines the powers. According to the terms of section 2 of article 5 of the
law of 28th July 1860, it is required that one member of that commission
shall be a forest agent. You will understand the necessity of not desig-
nating to the prefect for that important mission any but an agent capable
of worthily representing the Administration, if you do not judge it proper
to reserve it for yourself, because of the interest attaching to the projected
works.
" Part III. — Of the Execution and of the Maintenance of the Works.
"Chap. 1. — Lands belonging to private proiorietors, comprised within the
houndaries specified by the decree declarative of public utility.
" The Administration will forward to the prefects, with the documents
mentioned in section 2nd of article 12, formulas in accordance with the
models Nos. 9 and 10, hereto annexed, in order that they may be enabled
to furnish particulars, at the same time calling their attention, in accor-
dance with section 2nd of article 6 of the law of 28th July 1860, to the
extract of the Imperial decree, containing the indications relative to the
lands belonging to them.
"Article 13 gives to private proprietors the option of undertaking the
immediate execution of the works under their own superintendence, and at
their own expense, with the subventions granted by the State, if there be
any, or of giving up to the State the execution of the said works.
•' In the first case, advice must be given to the party interested of the
allocation of the subvention in the formulas 8 and 9 hereto annexed.
"According to the terms of paragraph 4th of article 13, the private
•proprietor who wishes himself to execute the works ought to give proof of
his possession of the means of doing so. The public interest being
sufficiently protected by the power given to the State by article 7 of the
law of 28th July 1860, to recover by expropriation of the property, in case
of non-fulfilment of the engagement made, there is no occasion to be
ofifensively exacting in requiring the production of such proof. A declara-
tion from the mayor of the commune, agreeably to the indications borne by
the form No. 7, it appears to me, may be considered in most cases a sufficient
guarantee.
" When the private proprietor has declared his intention to give up the
execution of the works to the State, it is done by the Administration in the
same form as that for the communal lands and those of public establish-
ments, in which the Stat© proceeds directly to the works; and the re-entry on
168 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
possession of the said private proprietor takes place according to the same
mode, and on the same conditions.
*' The operation is considered an amicable one between the State and
the party interested, and is not to take the legal form of expropriation,
excepting in cases of disagreement.
"Articles 14 and 15 require no explanation.
"Articles 16, 17, 18, and 19 detail the course to be followed in case of
expropriation, in terms of sec. 3, 4, and 5 of article 7 of the law of 28th
July 1860. It is but very rarely that there will be occasion to have
recourse to this measure. The exposition of the motives of the law on
reboisement bears, in regard to this subject, * That this exceptional remedy
of the expropriation of private property shall be a rare and exceptional
appliance.' It has not been without great reluctance and repugnance that
the legislative body has consented to introduce into our code a new case of
expropriation.
" When the Administration shall meet with a refusal, or with an insuffi-
ciency of resources of a private proprietor for the execution of the works,
and all attempts at persuasion, and all the offers of subvention, have
come to nought, against a declared opposition, or an absolute inability, it will
become necessary to have recourse to expropriation, But every time that
this shall occur you shall refer to the Administration, which will address to
you timeously the instructions of which you have need. It will consequently
be of no advantage to indicate here general rules in relation to this.
"Chap. 3. — Lands belonging to commimes or puhlic bodies, comprised^ within
the boundaries specified by the decretals declarative of public utility.
" Section 1. — The execution of works to be carried on on such lands.
" The Administration will address to the prefects the documents
mentioned in 2nd section of article 12 of the decree of 27th April last,
formulas conformable to the forms 11-, 14, and 15 hereto annexed, in order
that they may be able to transmit them to the Municipal Councils, or to
the Administrative Commissions, directing their attention, in execution of the
arrangements of par. 2nd of article 6 of the law of 28th July 1860, to the
extract of the Imperial decree containing the indications relative to the
lands which belong to them.
"Art. 20 indicates three different courses which may be followed in
carrying out the work on communal lands, or the lands of public establish-
ments within the limits. The commune, or public establishment, which
does not wish to submit the whole of its lands to the same regime, ought to
make as many special declarations as this land contains of portions destined
to have a different course adopted in the execution of the work upon it.
" In case of allocation of a subvention, advice is to be given to the party
interested, according to the forms Nos. 12 and 13.
" The amicable cession to the State of communal lands, or the lands of
public establishments, in terms of the article 8 of the law of 28th July 1860,
will present in many cases great advantages. On one hand the State will
thus find facilities resulting from the suppression of pasturages, and from
exclusive direction, without disputes in regard to the works ; on the other
hand, poor communes will thus have the means of deriving advantage from
lands which procure for them at present only insignificant resources, and of
which the reboisement '\^ould entail expenses which perhaps they would
never be able to reimburse.
CIRCULAR OF IST JUNE 1861. 169
" In such cases you should uso all your influonco with the Municipal
Councils, and call in that of the prefect to induce them to treat amicably
with the State.
" Communal lands, or the lands of public establishments within the limits,
being subjected absolutely to the forest regimey in terms of Article 21, it will
suffice that you address to the Administration, at the proper time, the infor-
mation necessary to have those lands inscribed among the communal woods,
or the woods of public establishments subjected to the forest regime.
" Articles 22 and 23 need no explanation.
** Section 2. — Specifications of the advances made by the State to the
communes, or to the public bodies, and measures proper to secure the re-
imbursement of these :
** Works at the expense of the State on lands belonging to communes and
to public establishments differ in nothing from the works carried on by the
Forest Administration on the grounds belonging to the State. The agents
directly superintend and maintain these works, without any intervention of
the Municipal Councils, or of the Administrative Commissions.
" It is only required to keep a separate account of the expenses relative
to each commune, or to each public establishment, up to the time when the
State being completely reimbursed the advances made to the commune,
or to the public establishment, they re-enter on possession of the lands
subject to the forest regime.
" There will be sent to you timeously, if there be need, more detailed
instructions for the keeping of this account, and for the annual notification
to the parties interested of the expenses incurred on their behalf by the
Administration.
" Section 3. — Rules to be followed in the giving up of lands which Art.
9 of the law of 28th July 1860 authorises communes to cede to the State :
" In terms of Art. 9 of the law of 28th July } 860, the communes and the
public establisments may, in any case, relieve themselves of repayment to
the State by ceding the proprietorship of half of the lands re-wooded.
" Articles 30 and 31 of the decree of 27th April 1861 prescribe the course
to be followed in such a case.
" The execution of these dispositions ought not to take place but in a
future pretty distant. I reserve to myself to give to you, in good time, the
instructions which you may then require.
" Chap. 4 — General Directions.
" Art. 32. It is necessary that the bounds of the lands comprised within
the limits fixed by the Imperial decrees should be determined in such a
manner as to prevent all subsequent dispute. This end may doubtless be
attained in both cases without its being necessary to proceed very
stringently to work.
" In order to avoid long delays, and the expense inseparable from such,
it will almost always suffice to proceed to a conjoint reconoissance in a
manner almost analogous to that of the partial determination of boundaries.
" The deeds concerning the communes and the public establishments are
neither subject to the formality of official seal nor to that of registration.
" In what relates to private proprietors, the demand for subvention, like
170 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
as do all petitions, requires the official seal. The petitioners are authorised,
by express exception, on paying ready money, to get the official seal applied
to those formulas, either before or after the examination of the demand,
provided in every case that this be before the despatch of the document to
the conservator. In regard to deeds, entitled ' Advice of allocation of a
subvention,' copies are exempt from seal and registration. Despatches
which shall be delivered otherwise than to the public functionaries, for the
service of the Administration, and with notice of this destination, must be
written on stamped paper at 1 franc 25 cents per sheet.
" The instructions which I have just given you for the execution of the
principal arrangements of the law on the 7xhoisement of the mountains may
possibly prove incomplete. If the preceding explanations do not appear to
you sufficient, I shall supplement them by special instructions.
** The season being already very much advanced it is of impoitance to
set to work immediately. The watchmen belonging to the State or to
communes, on duty in the districts where the works are carried on, shall be
put at the disposal of the agents whenever you judge this to be necessary.
These overseers, by reason of their knowledge of the localities, will be for
the material portion of the works very useful auxiliaries.
" When the number of the overseers shall be insufficient, you can pro-
pose to create for the object to which it refers the special employment of
watchmen, or of brigadiers, who shall be ultimately appointed to the over-
sight of the sowings and plantations, in terms of article 11 of the law of
28th July 1860.
" I have already had occasion to point out to you the great importance
which the Administration attaches to the work of rehoisement. I shall not
insist on this matter.
" The agents and the overseers who take part in the works in an active
and useful way shall acquire special titles at the good pleasure of the
Administration. Every time also that the work of rehoisement, whatever
be its nature, shall occasion to them extraordinary fatigue or expense, there
shall be allowed to them either in the form of special indemnity, or in the
form of an annual gratuity, a remuneration proportionate to the burdens
borne and to the services rendered.
"In order to keep the Administration acquainted with the progress of the
works, you should cause to be sent to them, in the months of July and
January, statements in the forms Nos. 16 and 17 hereto annexed, in which
shall be given information relative to the works done during the preceding
half-year."
It has not been deemed necessary to append the schedules referred to.
It may have been observed that care was taken not to run counter to the
prejudices and feelings of those who were likely to be benefited more im-
mediately by the operations proposed ; and by a ministerial decision of the
21st November 1861, there were instituted annual conferences of the agents
employed in the superintendence and execution of the works of rehoisement.
The following is a resume of the first of these conferences which was held on
the 9th, 10th, and 11th of December of that year, at Valence, for the region
of the Alps ; at Aurillac, for the region of the mountains of Central France ;
and at Tarbes, for the region of the Pyrenees.
There are stated the questions discussed, and the annotations of the
Administration, the whole being arranged under different headings.
R^SUMlS OP CONPERENCER IN 18G1, 171
Rf SUM^, ETC. : —
"Dispositions manifested by the roruLATiON op the difperent districts.
" Tho inhabitfints of the mountains, chiefly preoccupied with the interest
of pasturage, do not welcome in general, but with a certain apprehension,
any measures relative to rehoisement. Nevertheless, tho personal proceed-
ings of the agents, with the concurrence of tho prefectoral authority, have
already overcome much of the resistance of the Municipal Councils. In
many departments, amongst which may be cited the Cantal, I'Ari^ge,
Vaucluse, a good many of the communes have voted subventions for the
replenishment of denuded mountain lands belonging to them. In the
Arrondissement of Saint-Girons seventeen communes, according to the
specifications of the inspector, have given up in 1860 and in 1861 either the
twentieth part of the price of the fellings sold, or the proceeds of damages,
or amends pronounced by the civil courts in their favour, to be employed in
works of rehoisement. There has been occasion to remark that on many
points the mass of the population is favourable to the operation, and that
resistance is offered only by some more or less influential members of the
local Administrations having a personal interest in securing that the pasture
lands be not diminished.
" There is reason also to acknowledge that the rapidity of the success of
the works has had the good effect of bringing the communes to enter into
the scheme of rehoisements. This result has been notably the case in
the Puy-de-Dome, where important works of rehoisement have been com-
pleted for some years, and where the Administration meets now but rarely
with opposition, and this opposition is overcome without difficulty.
" As for private parties, they hesitate generally to undertake works of
rehoisement, the fruits of which they can only reap after long delay. They
dread the expense of the works, and the difficulties of surveillance, and they
are kept back by their ignorance of what means to employ to accomplish
conveniently the replenishments. A great many of them, more especially
in the Loire, have manifested a desire to see the direction of works of
rehoisement on their properties entrusted to the agents of the Forest
Administration, and the example in this matter is found to be contagious.
The fact has been established in the Ard^che, where some private parties,
having made demands for subventions on the invitation of the forest agents,
have been speedily followed by many proprietors. The number of demands
of this kind in the department in question has risen to no less than 365
in 1861.
" Remarks. — The report given of the state of mind in the mountainous
regions, relative to rehoisement, indicates the means to be employed
to enlist the sympathies of the population in the operations. To
multiply the personal proceedings, — to make a good selection of
ground for first experiments, in order to arrest the eye, and to con-
vince the indifferent and the incredulous, — to call in the conjoint
action of the prefectoral authority at all times when resistance, re-
sulting from personal interest, is shown in the Municipal Councils —
such are the general means which may be employed by the agents.
The Administration on its part will support their proceedings, and
will be liberal in encouragement whenever the general interest may
appear to demand the powerful concurrence of the State.
" To act on such minds too much cannot be done to diffuse information
of the advantages realized by rehoisement. The commune of Bourg,
172 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
Lastic, in the Puy-de-D6me, possessed a piece of ground of 64
hectares, covered with heaths, which they could not dispose of in
1834 at the price of 7,000 francs. At this time a sowing of the
ground with Scotch firs was undertaken, at the expense of the
commune, with the assistance of the departmental treasury. The
expense was not great. To-day the ground is valued at 70,000
francs, and the commune begins to obtain from it products which in
a few years will be very considerable. The commune of Durtol, in
the same department, possessed a wood of 47 hectares, planted with
Scotch fir some fifteen or seventeen years before, in which they have
lately carried out a thinning which has brought into the communal
chest a sum of nearly 16,000 francs. Such cases are of a character
to remove hesitation.
" As regards private proprietors, the applications for subventions, which
have been made successively in the Ard^che, are an indication of
what will occur, most likely, everywhere where the bite has been
given. The Administration will agree, moreover, to cause the works
of rehoisement to be directed and superintended by its agents or by
special overseers, whenever a certain number of private proprietors,
resident in the same district, shall express a desire for this, and the
measure shall appear necessary to the success of the works, aud
to their development.
^' Reboisements Faoultatifs, OR Sanctioned Reboisements.
" The opinion was expressed that no applications for subventions should
be entertained which are made by private proprietors for the planting of
small widely separated pieces of ground, and which would require the Admini-
stration to expend money unprofitably, without the possibility of superin-
tending and controlling such widely scattered replenishings.
" Remarks. — Certain rules, most assuredly, ought to be observed in
the allocation of subventions. The rehoisement of a territory which
is not attached to any similar operation completed or to be under-
taken, in most cases, will be of no advantage to the general interest,
and will not be of such a nature as to be encouraged by the State.
It will therefore be well, in case of requests for subventions, to
find out in what way the projected rehoisement is related to the
public interest, and to keep this relation in view, when allocations
of money, seed, or plants are in question. Of course, at the begin-
ning of the enterprise, operations aided by the State will be a good
deal apart; it cannot be expected that all the proprietors in a given
area will resolve to effect these repeiqylements contiguously. But
it is necessary to prevent the distances being so great as to make
the control of the subventions and the superintendence of the works
too difficult.
" It was proposed that rewards should be given to communes or to
private proprietors who shall be the first to enclose their lands.
" Kemarkb. — The law regarding mountain rehoisement limits its opera-
tion to works of rehoisement strictly so-called. No portion of the
funds devoted to this work can be employed as premiums to pro-
prietors who may take the initiative in the enclosure of all, or of a
part, of their estates. But this can be always done as regards the
communes, by appealing to the law concerning bringing in the wastQ
communal lands.
R^SUM^ OP CONFERENCES IN 1861. 173
" The proposal can be made at the proper time to the Superior Com-
mission charged with presiding over the combined operation of the
aforesaid law, and the law of rehoisement.
" Questions relating to forest improvement have remained till now, and
especially in the south, too much confined to a narrow circle. It is very
important to make them known in every possible way. A periodical publi-
cation has just appeared under the title of Revue agricole et forestiere de la
Provence. Everything relating to forests, and especially the question of the
rehoisement des montagnes, are to be therein treated of, with the necessary
developments. An appeal has been made for help from those who wish to
popularise forest science.
" Remarks. — Government cannot hesitate to encourage the enlighten-
ment of the popular mind respecting questions connected with the
prosperity of the forests. A subvention of 500 francs has been
granted to the Revue agricole et forestiere de la Provence from the
funds for mountain rehoisement. It is desirable that the employes
should lend their help to this work of enlightenment.
" Reboisemexts Obligatoires, or Enjoined Reboisements.
" Important rehoisements have been effected in certain departments, more
especially in the Puy-de-Ddme, and in the Haute-Loire, with the help of the
enactments in the last paragraph of Article 90 of the forest code. Those
employed have enquired if they may not continue to proceed in the same
way wherever it is possible. Government will thus possess an additional
means of carrying on mountain rehoisements.
" Remarks. — The law of 28th July 1860 has not abrogated any of the
enactments of the forest code, and there is nothing to hinder Article
90 from being applied wherever this means of rehoisement can be
advantageously employed.
" The agents employed have usually agreed upon the best way of finding
out where compulsory 7'ehoisements ought to be effected. For example,
suppose a river, resembling a torrent like the Durance, the flow of which it
is necessary to restrain : the first thing done is to study the whole basin,
beginning at the source of the stream, attentively following its course,
either on the spot or on a map furnishing sufficient details of the principal
and second tributaries ; and after this preliminary study, operations are
projected at different points in the basin in the order of urgency. They
have proceeded in this way in the Basses-Alpes, in the Hautes-Alpes, in La
Dr6me, where all the operations, either projected or in the course of execu-
tion, aim at regulating the flow of the Durance and its tributaries, such as
the Ubage, the Bleone, the Asse, the Buech ; in La Dr6me, L'Aigue,
L'Ouvers, Le Bez.
"Remarks. — If it be necessary to concentrate operations in rehoisement
where they are only sanctioned, this proceeding is much more
important when they are declared to be of public utility. Isolated
observations should not be made, but on the contrary all should be
connected with a plan of operations converging to the same end. It
is very essential to demonstrate by facts the advantage of these
operations. It is necessary, where the examination of a given area
is determined, that it should be pursued through all parts of the
area where the rush of water is to be restrained, so that when the
enterprise is completed the demonstration of the effect oii\iQ reboise-
ment should be perfect and conclusive.
174 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
'' A question has been raised as to the relative importance of reboisement
and gazonnement for the consolidation of the soil and the creation of
obstacles to the sudden overflow of streams. Several engineers, especially
in the Alps, appear disposed to think that gazonnement is often the most
suitable means of attaining the proposed end. Other experts are of opinion
that if in certain cases gazonnement may appear enough, rehoisement will
more slowly but more completely and durably effect a result.
" Remarks. — There seems to be attributed to gazonnement, especially
in the Hautes-Alpes, in L'Isere, and in the La Drome, a power
almost as great as that of rehoisement for restraining torrents. This
is a little exaggeration. The Administration does not deny the utility
of restoring the turf, but works of this kind should be undertaken on
the vast bare surfaces which extend above the region of forest vege-
tation. Executed simultaneously with repeiiplements, they give
powerful aid in hindering the rush of torrents into the valleys \ in
order to seek this result by a double means, the Administration has
promoted the formation of a higher commission for the simultaneous
execution of the two la^vs on reboisement and reclaiming of waste
communal lands. But everywhere where repeiiplement is practicable
this latter seems to promise to be the most efficacious means. The
employes are mistaken if they think themselves obliged every-
where to propose immediate rehoisements with valuable trees. When
the soil is nearly exhausted, and requires to be renewed before being
fit for the production of forest trees, it should be planted with bushes
or hardy shrubs, such as exist here and there on the barest parts of
the mountains. This work is included in the category of repeuple-
ments, properly so called, and constitutes a real reboisement. The
circular No. 806 contains, on this point, pages 7 and 8, all the
necessary hints. According to the enactments of this circular, the
examination of ground for compulsory reboisement should include
grounds to be reboiskl either with permanent trees or with prepara-
tory plantations, and grounds on which it is necessary to carry out
works of gazonnement.
" The replenishings with woods may be effected through the operation of
the law for bringing in the waste communal lands. These under-
takings should furnish all necessary hints; and those of them
which include operations belonging to both categories will be
handed over to the high commission appointed by the decree of 7th
November 1861.
" In La Haute-Loire, the employes entrusted with the survey of districts
for compulsory rehoisement have declared that they are often at a loss, on
account of the peculiarities of the soil, consisting of waste pasture, partly
wooded, but forming no greater obstacle to the torrents than if it were
entirely bare. They have asked the conference to decide whether districts
of this kind, which do not cover less than 65,000 hectares in the depart-
ment, may be included in the perimHres oUigatoires. The employes,
assembled in conference at Aurillac, did not hesitate to answer in the
affirmative, at the same time referring the question to the Administration.
" Remarks.— The principal object of the law of 28th July 1860 is the
creation of barriers to the sudden descent of torrents into the
valleys. There is no doubt that districts sparsely covered with
trees, having no liydraulic effect; should be included in the extent
Jll^.SUMli; OF CONFERENCES IN 18G1. 175
to be rehoiscd when there is an opportunity for fixing or determining
a pev'iml'tre ohl'Hjaioh'c or area of enjoined rchoitsement.
" The form to bo given to enterprises of compulsory rehoisement has been
the subject of a detailed examination. It has been acknowledged that up
to this time these enterprises dilfer very slightly, and that experience will
supply the most useful indications for the simplification and modification of
these projects.
" IIemarks. — It does not seem that the proper time has come for pre-
scribing a determinate form to enterprises of compulsory rehoisement.
The number of those examined by the Administration, up to this
date, is not large enough to enable one to decide on the best form for
these undertakings. On the other hand, no great difference has been
observed in the plans presented by the officials of the different dis-
tricts. The only remark that there is any need to make is that
some officials have assigned too long a time — 10 or 20 years — for
the completion of the work. The Administration has pointed out
that such a delay is incompatible with the rapidity which, from eveiy
point of view, is seen to be very desirable. It has just repeated that,
when rehoisement with long-lived trees is not immediately possible,
the ground can be stocked with shrubs of an inferior order : an opera-
tion which can almost always be effected at once, and which is really
included in the category of rehoisements, properly so-called.
*"' It should be added to the instructions given — (1) That when a pro
<|)rietor possesses several pieces of ground in the p^rimetre, these
pieces may be grouped together if they fall under the application of
similar measures ; (2) That it is not necessary to point out the sub-
vention to be allotted to each piece, but that those pieces may be
grouped together for which the same proportionate subvention is
proposed, and the importance of each group may be known by
the proportional per cent, of the expense ; and (3) That pieces may
be grouped together, the value of which has been fixed by their
yielding the same amount yearly.
" Subventions.
" Various observations have been made upon the allocations of Govern-
ment subventions for works of rehoisement. One employe has expressed the
opinion that it will be difficult, according to circumstances and according to
locality, to grant subventions of variable importance, and to absolve in certain
cases, the communes from all expense, on account of considering, as a direct
participation in the expense of the rehoisement^ the allocation of a subvention
from the treasury of the Department. This employ^ has, in fine, requested
that a maximum should be fixed, for example, say 80 per cent, of the expense
for the communes, and 60 per cent, for private individuals, a maximum
which must not in any case be exceeded in the offers of subventions from
the State or from the Department.
'* Eemarks. — The subvention is in its very natui-e variable. It depends
on the importance of the rejyeuplement, or restocking, with regard to
the public interest, the attitude of the public mind in the district
with regard to mountain rehoisement, the more or less easy position
of the proprietors, and on vai'ious other analogous circumstances
which it does not appear necesssary to detail. From thence it
follows that the Adm.inistration should specially reserve the power
176 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
of taking into consideration on each demand, the amount of the
subvention to be granted. A maximum cannot therefore be fixed.
As regards the communes, the Administration intends, where
required, to consider the subventions voted by the General Councils
of the departments as a direct participation in bearing the expense
of the works.
" Several employes have given an opinion that subventions ought to be
offered in preference to proprietors whose land is included in the perimUreSy
so as especially to encourage reboisements of acknowledged public utility.
" Kemarks. — The law grants subventions in cases of sanctioned rehoise-
ment, and in cases of compulsory reboisement; the Administration will
proportion in both these cases the amount of the subventions to the
expected result of the enterprise, regard being had principally to the
public interest.
" Method of Carrying on Operations.
" Nurseries. — After dififerent opinions had been expressed in regard to the
extent which should be given to nurseries, it was agreed that this should
depend on the yield of the nursery and the extent of territory to be rehoised.
" There were various opinions expressed upon the point, whether it would
be better to form great central nurseries which would cost less and be more
easily superintended, or to form a great number of small nurseries scattered
over the district to be rehoised, which would have the advantage of placing
plants more within the reach of the districts to be re-wooded.
" Remarks. — The chief effect of establishing large central nurseries in
close proximity to the great populous centres, is to attract public
attention, and by degrees to invite the proprietors of waste mountain
land to reboisement, by the facilities which are ofifered them for pro-
curing all that is needful for the operation. Nurseries of this kind
can also be better and more cheaply taken care of. At the same time
nothing is absolutely fixed on this point, and there is no reason to
prefer one system to the other.
*' There were also diverse opinions expressed in regard to how nursery
ground should be selected. Some thought that nurseries ought to be
formed on the best soil of the district to be rehoised, so as to produce
healthy plants. Others were of opinion that nurseries should be formed
where there were average conditions of climate, fertility, and altitude, so as
to produce plants which would run no risk of dying from a too rapid change
when transplanted.
" From the same view, an opinion was expressed that in general it was
not good to manure the soil ; but that in cases where manure appeared
necessary to pulverise the soil or to repair its losses, vegetable compost
should be used, and more especially that which was collected in the woods.
" Remarks. — If the nursery can be placed where the soil is good and at
a moderate distance from the districts to be rehoised, it will evidently
be of advantage to the State to become its proprietor. There are
nearly always dangers in fixing the position of a nursery, if care be
not taken to stipulate in the leases the guarantees necessary to pro-
tect the interests of the State. There is reason to believe that in
most cases the purchase is of greater importance than the situation,
since the State can always, when necessaiy, sell the land which has
been improved by culture, when it becomes useless as a nursery.
H^aiMl^; ()!• l.'oNKKUKNL'K.s IN hSGl. 177
"It is agreed that the ground slionld he thoronglily pulverised and dug
to at least the depth of 30 centiniutrcs, or 12 inches. All were not of
one opinion as to the quantity of seed necessary for stocking a nurseiy. As
to pine seeds, such as arc principally made use of in mountain rchoisemeiit,
the calculation towards which most opinions seemed to converge, was from
8 to 10 kilogrannnes of seed per are.
" Sowing the entire nursery, and extracting the plants from a third of the
extent at the end of two years, with an immediate re-sowing of the ground,
and so on for the two other thirds, appeared to some an economical plan,
yielding satisfactory results. By this system the plants would be used
without being previously planted out.
" Others thought that with regard to nurseries there should be less
thought of the expense than of the benefit to be expected ; and that it was,
above all things, necessary, especially at the beginning of a great enterprise,
to employ all possible means to ensure its success ; and that, with this in
view, the ground should be divided into strips, which should alternately be
sown and left unoccupied ; that the young trees should be planted out
carefully, to allow of a proper development of the root ; and finally, that the
sowings should be graduated in such a way as to obtain a difference of age
favourable fur transplantation.
" Remarks. — The idea underlying this suggestion is a sound one.
Attention should be given primarily to the efficiency of the nursery,
and the question of saving expense be considered secondary to this.
" For stocking the nurseries, it has appeared right to employ, as much as
possible, seed grown in the locality, or in the immediate neighbourhood.
It has been thought good to employ shelter of every kind, — branches,
stretched out cloth, straw quilted between canvas or cord, fern, and screens
of arbor vitae. Some were of opinion that the plants should be watered,
but with much caution; and it was thought that, although in certain localities
indispensable, there was in most cases the inconvenience of accustoming
the plants to a moisture which would not always be maintained, and of
thus making them more sensitive to the action of heat.
" Other operations, such as hinage and hoeing, were considered by every
one to be indispensable.
"All were also unanimously of opinion that the nursery should be
enclosed, and that nurseries of any extent should be provided with a hut as
a shelter and tool-house.
" Remarks. — There have been recommended, as sufficient and econo-
mical fences, either simple ditches, wide enough to present obstacles
to the incursions of animals, or parallel lines of wire fencing, fixed at
regular distances to wooden posts.
" As a useful precaution in transporting, it was recommended to cover
the roots with a mixture of clay and cow-dung.
" Opinions were very various as to the season for sowing, mode of culture,
and several details as to keeping in proper order.
" Remarks. — Experience alone can provide useful hints as to what is
most suitable to each locality.
" Choice of Trees.
" The employes have not been able as yet to submit well prepared returns
as to the kind of trees to be used in mountain rehoisement. Up to this
date, the trees principally used have been the ejyicea, or Norway fir. the
U
178 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
Scot'ch fir, the black Austrian pine, the pine of Aleppo, the Corsican pine,
and the ailanthus, which have generally succeeded, — the larch, which has
failed in certain places because the ground was too damp and the elevation
too low, — and the acacia, which has failed when planted at too great an^eleva-
tion, but has succeeded lower down. The Atlas cedar has been used in several
districts.
" Deciduous trees, such as the white oak^ the green oak, the Liege oak,
the chestnut, the willow, the white poplar, and the birch, have been success-
fully planted in several places ; shrubs, such as Vamel, anchier, the sumach,
the hazel, <fec., have already afforded good results in preparing the soil for a
stock of valuable trees.
'' Eemarks. — It is well to attend to the indications supplied by Nature
in each locality, especially where there is any question of replanting
with shrubs or inferior vegetation. There is nothing to hinder a
trial of new essences, or kinds of trees, when this is made with
requisite caution. Thus, the ailanthus, recently tried in several
places, has everywhere yielded good results. The same can be said
of the Austrian pine, which almost universally succeeds in calcareous
soil, and at the most varied altitudes. It will be only after a
number of experiments that it will be possible to classify with any
amount of precision the kinds of trees, by regions and by zones of
altitude.
" In Germany, a mixture of Norway firs and larches is generally
considered a good one.
" A mixture of oak and Scotch fir is also recommended at points where
the former has a chance of succeeding.
" One cause of the failure in sowing larches is having placed the seed
at too great a depth. Larch seed should be covered very lightly
with earth.
" Mode of Execution of Works of Reboisement.
" After preparing the ground — in doing which, especially on the slopes,
great care should be taken not to disturb the soil too much — it is necessary
to proceed with the work of repeuplement, or restocking with trees. Opinions
are divided as to whether sowing should be preferred to planting, or vice
versa.
" Many are inclined to think that sowing should be employed, as more
economical in temperate districts, where success is sure, but that planting-
is to be preferred at greater altitudes.
" There is, moreover, a mode of sowing, known as semis a la niec/e, which
has been several times employed successfully, and which will facilitate the
stocking of large surfaces at the small outlay of from 25 to 30 francs per
hectare.
** Sowings of larch seed on the snow have several times succeeded in the
ITautcs Alpes, and in tlie 1 Masses Alpes, and it is proposed to make similar
experiments in these disti-icts witli otlicr seeds.
" When the ordinary mode of sowing is emplo3^C(l, it is advantageous to
sow early, tliat is to say, at the ])egimiing of spring, so as to avoid the too
sudden ellccts of the siuiimer heat.
" Sowing by means of polets lytacettcs has appeared most suitable for
clothing uneven surfaces; or friable soil. Tiie ([uantity of seed to be used
is calculated, on an average, at 3 hectolitres of mast per hectare, at G or 8
ilEttUME OF UOANi^'EUiixNCJiJi IN 1^61. 170
kilogrammes of Scotch fir, or of similar seed, and at G kilogrammes of larch.
This quantity ought to bo doubled when the sowing is done in strips.
These quantities are, besides, essentially variable, according to circum-
stances and locality.
" IvE^rAKKs. — The Administration thinks it proper to recommend the
sowing of seed upon the snows. Although its success has not yet
been tested in a sufficient number of places, there is reason sufficient
to employ it with dill'erent kinds of seeds, and in dillerent places,
where it may be likely to succeed. It is not necessary to
enlarge on the advantages of so simple and economical a mode of
repeujjkmeiit.
'* On volcanic soil, covered with scanty heath, good results have been
obtained by sowing broadcast, without any further preparation than
a simple ecobuage when the long thistle heath hinders the seed from
reaching the ground.
'' The necessity for early sowing cannot be too much insisted on, — in
March, for example, when they can profit by a few fine days, often
very soon followed by snow and rain. Germination then takes place
under favourable conditions, and the young plant is able to resist
the great heat, which w^ould have killed it if the sowing had been
deferred until the last snow had melted.
" It is desirable to form artificial shelter wherever it is possible. When
planting is the mode chosen, the season chosen is not the same in every
district. Opinions are not agreed on this point. In Provence it has
appeared that almost invariably planting in autumn is to be preferred,
because of the early season of the droughts, and on account of the scarcity
of workmen w^ho are resuming their agricultural employments.
" The age at which plants should be used is very variable. In the high
regions of the Drome and the Isere, it has been remarked that plants should
be strong in proportion to the elevation of the district. It is good at such
points only to plant trees which are four or five years old at the least.
" The quantity of plants per hectare is necessarily variable, only strictly
local indications can be given on the point.
" The expense of the stocking per hectare has not yet received a sufficiently
approximate calculation. Experience alone can furnish the data necessary.
" Several employes have considered the question, whether the mode of
w^orking by contract might not be advantageous and economical for the pre-
paration of the soil ; without being quite decided, they are inclined to think
that this mode of proceeding may be useful.
" Remarks. — It does not appear that there are as yet sufficient grounds
for throwing open the operations to private speculation. It is only
after they have been for a long time carried on economically that it
will be advisable to substitute contract for Government management.
" The scarcity of workmen in certain districts, and especially in the Alps,
has engaged the attention of the agents, who have expressed a wish that the
Administration would interfere and obtain from the Minister of War the
paid assistance of military workmen when circumstances j)ermit.
"Remarks. — The Administration will most willingly negotiate this
matter with the Minister of War when it becomes necessary. But
to do this it must be able to specify and define the proposal, and let
him know the situation and extent of the operations, their duration,
the time when they will take place, the number of w^orkmen required,
180 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
the point from which they should be sent, the pay which they will
receive, ifec.
" Several employes are of opinion that the special staff of the reboisements
should be in keeping with the increasing development of the operations, and
that the employes composing this staff be entrusted with the execution of
the enterprises which they have suggested, with the assistance of the local
employes, during the disposable time left to these latter employes by the
requirements of their ordinary duties.
'' Remarks. — The Administration proposes to entrust special agents
with the work of 7'eboisement, not only in what regards the prepara-
tion for the undei ^aking, but also the execution. This service will
also be placed in due time in a position to grapple with new
exigencies as they may present themselves.
"At the same time, the Administration does not intend that the
employes of the ordinary service shall consider themselves relieved
from all participat^'on in the operation in question.
" Negotiations with proprietors of waste mountain land, for the purpose
of engaging them in rehoisement, — the giving due notice in regard to
the demands for subventions for reboisements factiltatifs, — the super-
vision of execution of operations of repeiiiilemeiit, — the giving of assist-
ance in operations of enjoined reboisement when they take place, — will
be a part of the functions and duties of the officials attached to the
ordinary service. The Administration has pleasure in believing that
all the officials will assist the enterprise with all necessary zeal and
devotion.
" Such are the principal questions which have occupied the employes
assembled in conference on the 9th, 10th, and 11th December, at Valence,
Aurillac, and Tarbes.
" These agents have, moreover, given a concise account of the operations
already completed, and of those which are projected. The repetition here
of this account would be uninteresting. Concerning the completed works,
the Administration will find more circumstantial details in the statements
Nos. 16 and 17, which should be produced, in accordance with the circular
No. 806. As to the projected operations, special notes will be supplied by
the conservators, each regarding what concerns his own circuit.
" (Signed) — H. Vicaire, Director-General of Forest Administration.
"Paris, 10th January 1862."
The following is a resume, or abstract, of the official report of operations
carried on in 1861 submitted by the Administration: —
" A. Reboisements facultatifs, or sanctioned operations.
" If the comparative unimportance of the greater part of the works, and
if the wide dispersion of these do not permit them to be included to-day iu
the general system of defence against torrents, tliey tend at least efficaciously
to accomplish the object which the Legislature had in view.
" These reboisements, thougli partial, arc in ollcct creating woods, which,
though now isolated, by successively ellectcd combinations will prepare for
the future, masses of important forests. On the other hand, the rendering
productive lands which have remained luitil this time unproductive consti-
tutes a true agricultural progress.
"There have been received, in 1861, 605 demands for subventions,
AlibTKACT l{i:r()UT 1S(')1. 181
almost all of which have been approved. And the communes have com-
peted energetically with private ])roprietors.
'' The extent of coninmnal lands rewooded by aid of subventionB is 2653
hectares. The regions of the Alps, and the Pyrenees, and the central
plateau, have been the sites of the greater part of these reboisnnnits. The
lands replanted with woods by private proprietors comprise f)H4 hectares.
'' Besides, there have been executed works of reboisement on 1402 hectares
of State ^mds on the mountains.
"■ In all, 4G39 hectares. The expenses have been 372,000 francs, or 80
francs per hectare ; the proportion of this paid by the State has been
200,000 francs.
" B. Rehoisemeiits ohligatoires, or eujointd reboisements.
" Of 1,100,000 hectares of lands capable of being rewooded, the resources
put at the disposal of the Forest Administration did not admit of actual
reboisement over an area of more than 80,000 hectares. It has been
necessary first of all to determine what were the localities where the works
were most urgently required, and it is towards the origin or source of the
water-courses that the explorations have been directed.
"There w^erc taken into consideration 129 projects of rehoisementj
embracing 107,474 hectares of land situated in the Alps, the Pyrenees, and
the mountains of central France. These lands are not all designed to be
replanted with trees ; a portion wdll require to be preserved as pasturage,
subject to regulation of trespass ; the remainder may be successively replanted
in definite portions annually, either immediately or after the preparation of
the soil by the erection of fences, and by the natural or artificial production
of vegetation of an inferior order."
A second conference of agents employed was held in 1862, on 8th
September, and following days, at Clermont-Ferrand, for the regions of the
mountains of Central France ; at the same time, at Carpentras, for the
region of the Alps ; and on 15th September, and following days, atFoix, for
the region of the Pyrenees. Of these conferences, the following is a resume,
with annotations by the Administration : —
" I. Reboisements Facultatifs, Sanctioned Reboisements.
" First Question.
" Up to the present time numerous applications for aid in carrying out
sanctioned works of reboisement have been made by communes, by public
bodies, and by private proprietors. The Administration has reason to
believe that the parties for whom this aid is desired, and more especially the
private proprietors, do not alw\ays possess the information necessary to
enable them to make the most of such aid.
" The Administration has reason to believe that it can in general rely
with confidence only on works of restocking woods effected by itself, or
under its direction. Again, looking at the subject from another point of
view, the reboisement carried cut on scattered patches, and often very
imperfectly, will not effect the object in view excepting in so far as they
shall by combination form, sooner or later, a sufficient and eftectivc protec-
tion to the soil.
" In accordance with these views, it is not unreasonable to enquire
182 LEGISLATION ON TOKRENTS.
whether it would not be desmible to specify zones, beyoud which aid shall
not be given for rehoisemoiis facultatifs, excepting in special cases of con-
siderable extent, presenting an indisputable character of public utility, and
holding out in ever^^ way a probability of success. AVithin these zones the
work would be carried on under the superintendence of the overseei*s
actually employed in the vicinity, or of special overseers, the number of
which it will be necessary to determine.
'^ Opinions and Propositions of tlie Agents,
" The members of the conference at Clermont were not altogether
agreed as to the circumstances in which the specifying of such zones should
be carried out. Some were of opinion that the measure, though unneces-
sary in regard to communal lands — for the reforesting of which the Admini-
stration is furnished with sufficient authority — would produce good eftects in
its application to private lands. Others have alleged, against the proposed
measm-e, the difficult}^ of its application. And the conference, without pro-
nouncing tinally upon the question, has expressed the opinion that the
creation of such zones might be considered a very useful measure ; but it
was remarked that the measure should not have the eftect of binding agents,
or fettering their personal action, so as to prevent this aid beiag given to
demands relating to lands situated out of the zones, when the reforesting
of these lands should present a marked character of public utility.
" The agents of the conference at Foix expressed the opinion that it is
useless, and would be inconvenient, to establish zones for communal
reforesting.
*' The members of the conference at Carpentras acknowledged that it is
indispensable, in order to the good use of subventions, that sanctioned
works of reforesting should be carried out by the Administration, and that
consequently it would be desirable to fix the zones. They think, however,
that the grounds are not yet sufficiently explored, nor the spirit of the
population sufficiently known, for this demarcation to be possible at present.
The agents were desirous also that, except in exceptional cases in sanctioned
works of reforesting, a minimum extent — say, for example, of 10 hectares —
should be specified for every one operation, whether on land belonging to
one proprietor or to more.
" Remarks and Instructions of ilie Administration.
" The Administration does not think proper to insist on the reboisenwits
faculiatifs.
" The work of rcboisement on the mountains is so recent that it is
deemed desirable still to allow every latitude in framiug the
demands for aid.
" Every demand brought forward will, as heretofore, be the object of a
special examination, without there being fixed a minimum of
operations.
" Only, the demands being for the most part called forth by the direct
intervention of the agents with the proprietors, the measures ought
to be directed as much as possible in such a way that the works
effected, or to be effected in the same region, should concur to a
common object. With these views it would not be possible to
estimate at present the number of persons whom it would be necessary
to appoint over the works. The creation of new employments of
the guard fur reforesting will go on. The creation of new employ-
ments for those engaged as guards iu connection with reboiaemtni
Rt^.SUMl^ OP CONFERENCES IN 1802. 183
will g'O on ns heretofore, and, until frcsli orders, according to the
present scale and the requirements of the service.
" Second Qy cat ion.
** Hitherto the applications for aid have been trnnsmitted to the Adminis-
tration as fast as their submission b}^ the proprietors of tlie reforested lands.
The number of these applications having now become considerable, it
appears necessary now to group them so as to send up several at one time.
*' It is desirable to ascertain at what time the transmission of these should
take place, so as to secure at the proper season the execution of the works.
" Opinions and Proposals of the Agents.
" The agents at the conference at Clermont advised that the applications
for aid in reforesting by communities should be produced before the 15th
July for the autumnal labours of the same j'ear and the succeeding spring,
and that these demands should reach the Administration by September 1st.
" At the conference at Foix the agents deemed that the demands relating
to the works in spring might be drawn up before October 1st, and sent at
that date to the Administration, and that for the reforesting in autumn
they should be sent in by ^lay 1st.
" The conference was of opinion that no date should be fixed for sending
the requests to the agent, but that the latter should be authorised to put
off till the following year the preparation of every demand which might not
reach him two months before the general despatch relating to the season
for executing the works.
" According to the opinion of the conference at Carpentras, it is better to
fix two dates for sending oiT the reports — i.e. 1st October, for the works
to be carried on in the spring of the following year, and June 1st for those
of the autumn of the same year.
" Bemarks and Instructions of the Administration.
" It seems to be well to fix upon two periods for forwarding collected
applications for aid on sanctioned reboisements to the Administration
accompanied by a report on the same — that is to say, June 1st for
the autumn works ; October 1st for the works of the ensuing spring.
Any demand which shall not reach the superintendent of the depart-
ment a month before each of these fixed times may be carried over
by the chief of the department to the following season, or followino-
year ; and this chief will be the judge in the case in which a demand
for aid should be separately sent in to the Administration out of the
prescribed periods.
" Third Question.
"The Administration has caused to be prepared a form of rej^ort for
instruction on applications for aid. It is desirable to ascertain whether this
formula embraces all the points on which information is required.
" Opinions^ <fec., of the Agents.
" The three conferences have proposed to adopt the formula proposed by
the Administration, with some slight modifications.
" Remarhs and Instructions of the Adniinistration.
" The model of the report has been sent to the conservators by the
Administration in sufficient number of copies for the requirements
of the service.
" When an agent shall have to send at one time a number of applica-
184 LEGISLATION OX TORRENTS.
tions, it -will be unnecessary to add to each a special report. The
attestation of the requests can be verified by a collective statement
in writing, conformably to the directions of the formula.
" II. Reboisements Obligatoires, or Enjoined Reboisements.
" Fourth question.
" In the plans for enjoined reforesting, the estimate of the expense of
the works, as well as the division of this expense among the parties
interested, the fixing of the subsidy, and the estimation of the revenue, and of
the value of the lots, can be given approximately. If further simplifications
should be desirable, the agents are desired to prepare a statement of these,
after having discussed the subject in conference.
" Ojnnions, d'C, of the Agents.
" The conference at Clermont remarks that, in a certain number of projects
already presented, it has been thought best to unite in one group the
different lots belonging to the same proprietor. This measure, which is
tedious and laborious, does not appear to the agents to be of much use.
" The same conference remarks that the Administration has returned
several plans of enjoined reforesting, on account of stipulutions for too
long a delay in the execution of the works. The agents think that a con-
siderable latitude should be left in this respect, as well as for the other
details of execution.
" Bemarl's, d'C, of the Adrninistration.
" The union of different lots belonging to the same proprietor, useful
in certain cases, is not prescribed absolutely. The Administration
leaves to the agents to decide whether or not there be reason for *
doing so.
" The Administration considers that it is desirable to push on energet-
ically the execution of the w^orks, and that, in this point of view, it
is inconvenient to stipulate in the plans for the long delays which
interested parties may desire the Administration to sanction.
" It is certainly necessary to allow^ all possible discretion in execution ;
but it is necessary also to avoid raising hindrances of a kind to
paralyse the effort of the Administration, and to hinder it in giving,
or trying to give, a fresh impulse to the progress of the works, as
circumstances may require.
''The agents submit to the Administration the question — Whether the
directions, relative to the designation of two proprietors as members
of the special commission, instituted by the fifth Article of the law
of the 28th July 18G0, should be understood of two proprietors of
each commune comprised within the area of rehoisement, or only of
two proprietors for all the communes 1 The agents of the conference
at Foix have not pointed out any further simplification required.
'' The composition of the commission lies with the prefect; it belongs,
then, to this magistrate to interpret, according to his judgment,
the directions of the law in this respect.
'' The Administration deems that in appointing two proprietors to take
part in the conuiiission, the Legislature had in view to introduce
into this commission members possessing knowledge of localities and
their requirements, and not of persona directly interested in the
operation only.
RESUMi5 OP CONFERENOEfl IN 1862. 185
"With this view two proprietors would suffice not only for one
p(!*riui6tro, or urea of rcboiscmenty but also for several p^rim^tres in
the sauie district.
" 111 the conference at Carpentras, the agents have expressed the opinion
that it is better to leave as much hititude us possible to the verbal report,
and to the written account of tlie examination of the land, and thut the
specifications of the works proposed for execution should be on printed
forms, supplied b}'^ the Administration.
" Rtnnarlcs, tOc, of the Administration.
" The form of the specification of works proposed for execution
being susceptible of variation according to circumstances, it does not
appear desirable to provide a separate form for this any more than
for the report of survey and descriptive memoir.
" Some agents have expressed an opinion that it would help the full
understanding of the report if there were indicated on the charts the lay, or
inclination of the land, the general water-shed, and the flow of the waters.
" Remarlcs, cC'c, of the Administration.
" These suggestions are valuable, and the Administration strongly
recommends to the agents to carry them out in the preparation of
plans for projected works.
" Fifth Question.
" It should be ascertained whether it would not be well to prepare for
every p^rimetre, or specified area of rehoisement, a detached statement, in
w^hich shall be anticipated all the cases mentioned in chaps, i. and ii. (sees.
1 and 2) of part iii. of the decree, regulating the reforesting, of April 27
1861. In this statement should be classed in order all the lots included in
the perimetre, with indications of the course followed with each of them,
and of the expense of the same. In it especially should be included all the
necessary elements for establishing the annual accounts mentioned in
Arts. 26, 27, and 28 of the above-mentioned decree.
" Opinions^, d'c, of the Agents.
" The agents of the conference at Clermont expressed the opinion that it is
impossible, in the case of a perimetre composed of a great number of separate
lots of small extent, to keep a separate account for each lot of the quantity
of seed and of the manual labour employed ; that it is only necessary to
keep one account of the whole of the lots requiring the same expenditure in
execution of the work reforested the same year ; and that it would be easy to
estimate from this account, at the end of the year, the cost per hectare
of each parcel, as well as the expense to each proprietor.
" Some agents proposed the keeping of two statements for each p6rim^tre
the one to contain statements of all the lots included in the perimetre, and
in which account would be kept of the changes effected on each lot by each
proprietor ; the other, which should be destined for the total of the lots
reforested the same year, supplying all the information relative to this
reforesting.
" The conference expressed definitively the opinion, that on account of the
variety of conditions occurring in different districts, the Administration
cannot well prescribe the use of the same form of account in all ; and
that at present uniformity should only be required in half-yearly estimates
to be transmitted to the Administration in accordance with the circular
No. 806.
186 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
" The agents of the conference at Foix proposed the formation of a state-
ment comprising seven principal divisions, each corresponding to * one of
the seven cases provided for in chapters I. and 11. of title III. of the
decree of 1861 ' ; each one of these principal divisions to be divided into
columns, corresponding yearly to the different details of the work.
" The conference at Carpentras submitted a form of statement which it
considered would meet the case.
*' Remarks, d'c, of the Administration.
" The different forms of statements presented by the conferences have
not appeared sufficiently definite to produce a form adequately simple
and clear to meet all the instructions proposed. This is naturally
explained by the fact that, as the works of obligatory reforesting have
scarcely begun to be executed, the progress of these works has not
yet presented the opportunity of these being studied. In these
circumstances, the Administration does not feel called on to prescribe
a uniform rule, which probably would require to undergo numerous
modifications in the course of its working.
" The Administration thinks it proper to pospone the settlement of this
question till it shall be more enlightened in regard to details to
which the question relates. At present it confines itself to recom-
mending to the agents to supply all the information likely to be
useful, whether this be done in the form of a statement, the substance
of which is optional, or under the form of instructions, prepared with
care and method, in the file of papers supplied for each perimetre.
" As to what relates to the determining of expenses, as it would be
impossible, as the agents of the conference of Aurillac have deemed
it to be, to keep an account in detail of the expenses belonging to
each lot, the expenses will be calculated annually, when there is
occasion so to do, from the account of the expense established by
hectare for the whole of the lands comprised in the p6rimetre.
" Sixth Question.
" It will be desirable to consider, if it would not be well to establish, for
each p6rimetre, a statement in which the periodical phases of the operation
of reforesting shall be recorded.
" Ojjinions, djc, of the Agents.
" The agents presented different forms of statements intended to meet the
requirements of the question.
" Remarks, d^c, of the Administration.
" The same remarks and instructions as have been given in relation to
the preceding question, are aj^plicable.
" III. Execution of the Works.
" Seventh Question.
" In what cases is it proper to proceed to the restocking of woods by
planting ? and in what by sowing ?
" Opinio7is of ui gents.
'' According to the agents at the coJifercnce at Clermont, tlie sowing, being-
more economical than plantations, making more certaiii the retaining of the
land and opposing greater ol)staclcs to tlio flow of watei-s,ouglit to be preferred
to plantations in view of the object of the law of 1860 ; but when the works
rI^.sum^ op conferences in 1862. 187
arc at great altitudes on steep declivities, not well adapted for retaining the
seed, and in certain soils, such as the chalks of I^a Brcssc, or the calcarious
schists of La Loz6re, it will be necessary to have recourse to plantation.
*' At Foix, the agents express the opinion, that it is better to proceed
exclusively by means of plantation in the elevated parts, and only to employ
sowing in connection with planting in the places of medium height, and
low parts, where frosts are less to be feared.
" At Carpentras, the agents were of opinion that plantation is preferable
to sowing, looking, and looking only, to culture 3 but that sowing, being
more economical, it is better to employ it when it appears to oflfer sufficient
chances of success.
" Remarks^ d'C, of the Administration.
" Without its being possible to point out exactly the cases in which the
one or the other of the two modes of procedure should be followed, it
seems expedient to admit, as a rule, that plantations, being subject
to fewer destructive agencies than seed-beds, it is better to plant
under rigorous and peculiar conditions of climate, locality, or soil.
The esselitial point is to ensure the success of the reforesting of the
locality. The question of economy ought undoubtedly to be one of
great consideration, but whenever success appears to be certain by
one mode and to be doubtful by another, there should be no hesita-
tion in employing the former.
" Eighth Question.
" Discuss the kinds of trees selected ; the mode of plantation, singly,
or in clumps, &c. ; the number of plants per hectare ; the season best for
the execution of the w^ork ; the expense, per hectare, of restocking woods.
" Opinions, <j&c., of the Agents.
" The agents attending the conference at Clermont have experimented
successfully with the larch in reforesting bare lands.
" The Norway pine and the pine of the country have given results which
are pretty satisfactory, and they appear to be such trees as should be
employed in regions of medium altitude.
''The oak, planted but only to a limited extent in the Puy-de-dome and
in the Haute-Loire, has succeeded well.
" The ash, whether planted in large clumps, or intermixed with resinous
trees, promises to succeed well in the Haute-Loire.
" Remarks, d'C, of the Administration.
*' The indications reported by the agents are based on experiments
actually made, and the Administration has nothing to add to the
contrary. It can only recommend to the agents carefully to note
all the facts observed in the different regions, with a view to obtain-
ing, when requisite, instruction from these. It is by continual
experimenting that the Administration will gradually come to give
the operation a more and more satisfactory direction.
Hitherto planting single trees has alone been attempted, and this has
succeeded very well. It is only from next year tho.t the nurseries of
Arpajou, of the Puy, and of the Mende, will present sufficient resources to
permit of the experiment of planting thickets being made. In any case
this latter mode could not be at great altitudes, plants of three, four,
and five years growth alone succeeding under such conditions.
" The number of plants ranges from 7,000 to 11,000, according to the
188 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
conditions of soil, exposure, inclination, &c. The most favourable season is
spring, in climates where the winters are very severe. In the middle, or
low lying districts, autumn seems preferable, on account of its permitting
the young plant time to get strength to resist the great heats of summer.
The spring seems to suit better for the plantations of resinous trees. There
is reason to believe that plantations of these, W'hen the sap begins to move,
succeed more certainly. Broad-leaved plants seem to accommodate them-
selves better to the autumn planting.
" The expense of carrying on the w^ork of plantation amounts, for the
hand labour, to 70 francs, by the hectare, in the Loire, to 57 francs in the
Haute-Loire, to 48 francs in the Cantal, to 38 francs in Puy-de-D6me.
" Seedlings brought from the depths of forests, and planted in various
localities experimentally, wdth a view to determming the economical
importance of such a procedure, have not given satisfactory results.
" Remarks, <hc., of the Administration.
" The A.dministration is aware that plants from the source mentioned
have no great value. But in order to avoid the expense of purchase,
it was necessary to try to derive some advantages from the resources
offered by the forests, until such time as the nurseries shall yield
plants.
*' The conference at Foix was of opinion that it is best to employ the
indigenous products of the Pyrenees — such as the Mugho, or dwarf pine,
the Scotch fir, the birch, the silver fir, the ash, the beech, the oak, the
evergreen oak, the great maple, and the chesnut ; and to continue the
experiments which had been made with plantations of the Norway pine,
the Austrian pine, the acacia, the silver fir, the ailanthus, the larch, the pine
of Aleppo, and the mountain pine. These kinds to be distributed according
to the altitude, to the local conditions, and to the results of experience.
" The planting in separate holes plants transplanted from nurseries seems
to offer the best chances of success. The planting in clumps is, however,
preferable, when disposing of very young plants taken from a plantation
near the lands to be reforested.
" The number of plants on each hectare may vary from 10,000 to 2,500,
this last number being applicable more especially to saplings, and to the
chesnuts, if it be desired to obtain from them poles of good growth at an
early age. The season of spring being almost unknown on the mountains,
where great heat succeeds, almost always without interval, to the cold of
winter, the autumn is in all cases the most convenient season for planting.
The price of hand-labour varies from 50 to 100 francs per hectare. The
purchase of plants has occasioned an expense of not less than 10, 15, and
25 francs per thousand plants.
*' Remarks, dx., of the Administration.
" The minimum of 2,500 plants per hectare appears very small. The
reforesting of the mountains having especially for its object to cover
the soil, independently of the addition of future produce, it is better
to avoid planting the trees separately, at great distances apart.
" The nurseries belonging to the Administration promise soon to
supply plants at less expense than that at which at present they
can be obtained
" The agents at the conference at Carpcntras stated that they had
employed, on L'Is6re, and the High and the Low Alps, the white oak up to
1000 mHres of altitude, the acacia up to 000 metres, in all exposures. The
r£sum1^ of oonfkrrnoeb in 1862. 189
^ailanthus had as yet given too little experience for deducing from its use
any certain remarks. Tlio Scotcli fir, the Noi'way hr, the Mugho, and tlie
larch, liavc been employed with success in diHci-ent situations. In the
departments of Vancluse, of the Uard, of the Bouches-du-Rhone, of the Var,
of the Maritime Alps, and of L'Hcrault, there was reason to tliink tliat the
trees wliich should bo used principally were the white oak, the green oak,
the acacia, the maritime pine, the Norway fir, and the larch — at all altitudes,
and in situations pointed out by experience. The planting in holes, taking
the precaution to disturb the soil very little, and to procure for the young
trees natural shelter — such as bushes, rocks, and the stones which are found
on the land — seemed to be the most suitable system of planting.
" The mode of planting in clumps, which is very costly, should only be
used for resinous trees, and in situations where to secure success is difficult.
But this proceeding will always be most advantageous when it is not
necessary to regard the question of economy. The best plants are generally
transplanted plants of two or three years.
" Remarks, d'c, of the Administratiou.
" The last mentioned method has been made the subject of experi-
ment with success. It is not well to attach too much importance to
the expense which it occasions : in the first place, the plants being-
very small, their price is not great ; in the second place, the prepara-
tion of the soil is very easy ; finally, as this process is almost always
successful, it must be employed without fear in difficult situations,
apart in some measure from the question of expense.
" The number of plants per hectare to be employed varies from 10,000 to
16,000 for separate plants, according to the conditions of exposure and soil,
and the kind of tree, etc. • For planting in clumps, the number W' ould be
from 30,000 at the rate of 3 plants per hole, and 10,000 holes per hectare.
The planting in autumn is generally preferable, as giving time for the plants
to be in a state to resist the spring frosts and the early heats.
" The cost of manual labour varies from 40 to 100 francs. The cost of
plants varies too much to allow of an estimate approximately correct being-
made.
"Ninth Question.
"Sowing. — Discuss the choice of kinds of trees, the fitness of each
mode of sowing, (sowing in rows, in holes, in the open bed, etc.,) the quantity
of seed to be used per hectare, the fit season for carrying on the works, the
expense of the work per hectare, etc.
" Ojnnions, (L'C, of the Agents.
" The agents of the conference at Clermont reckoned that in the central
region, wherever the climate is mild, and the altitude a medium one, (800
metres and under,) the oak and chesnut should be employed in preference
to every other tree, and if the soil is of poor quality, the resinous trees, the
acacia, and ailanthus.
" In the regions where the climate is more severe, and the altitude greater,
recourse should be had to the Scotch fir, the Austrian pine, the Corsican
pine, the mountain pine, the Norway fir, and the larch. The Atlas cedar,
the larch, and the Siberian cedar can be used for the greatest heights.
" No tree, except perhaps the fir-tree and the beech, ought to be rejected
in so far as the sowings are made in loco.
" The least costly and most simple method of sowing, practised for a long
190 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
time iu the Puy-de-D6me, is sowing at hap-hazard on short heath, or after
ecohuage if the heath be too high. But this system is not practicable every-
where. The method of sowing most usually employed is sowing in rows,
or in holes, according to circumstances. In both cases much disturb-
ance of the soil is to be avoided.
" The quantities of seeds necessary are, for the oak and chesnut, 6 to 10
double decalitres ; for resineous seeds of small size, 10 to 12 kilogrammes,
on ordinary land, and a third more if the conditions be unfavourable ; for
the Austrian pine, 12 to 15 kilogrammes; for the maritime pine, 20 to 25.
" The most favourable time for sowing is the autumn for broad-leaved
trees, and spring for the resinous.
" The spring sowing should be as early as possible in February or March.
The cost of hand-labour is, for sowing in handes, from 30 to 35 francs, per
hectare ; and for sowing in 2^otets, from 25 to 30. Reforesting in resinous
seeds costs on an average, in central regions, 70 or 80 francs per hectare.
At Foix, the members of the conference were of opinion, that the choice
of trees depending essentially on the nature of the land, and on its exposure
and altitude, nothing decisive can be pronounced on this head. At the
same time it may be concluded, that in elevated regions there will be used
with success, the Norway fir, the larch, and the black Austrian pine ; in
the regions of medium altitude, the pine, the Norway fir, the beech, and
the pine intermixed with the beech ; in lower regions, broad-leaved trees in
general, the chesnut, the green oak, the ash, and the ailaiithus.
" The method of sowing in ^joiJe^s seems to be the most advantageous.
The quantity of seed to be used is from 10 to 15 kilogrammes per hectare.
*' Spring in general is the best season for sowing, especially for resinous
seeds. The expense of sowing can be approximately, and in a general way,
reported at 100 francs per hectare — i. e., 60 francs for manual labour, 36
for the purchase of the seeds, 4 for unforscen expenses.
" At the conference at Carpentras, the agents estimated, that for sowings
the trees to be preferred are generally the same as those pointed out for
planting, with the addition of the Corsican pine, the cedar, the pine of
Aleppo, and the shrubs intended for the preparation of certain soils, or for
the prevention of erosion of hill sides, such as the box-tree, Vargoussier
VamUanchier, the barberry, the juniper tree, etc. In L'Ardeche, the sowings
of the Norway fir do not oftcr sufficient chances of success.
" Sowing by handes is preferable whenever it can be employed, but it has
the inconvenient disadvantage of loosening the soil too much on the inclines.
The method of sowing in 2'>otets will be more generally employed. Com-
plete or full sowing is the only method possible on rocks, on ground
difficult of access, stony parts, and volcanic scoria). The quantity of seed
to be employed per hectare is from 7 to 10 kilogrammes for resinous trees,
and 3 to 6 hectolitres for the oak. Opinion was much divided on the
choice of season. The result appeared, however, to be generally that for
resinous trees, and in friable earth, spring ought to be preferred ; whilst
autumn appears to suit better for the oak.
" The expense of manual labour may be estimated at 60 francs per
hectare for sowings jf-tar hauden, at 35 francs for sowings ^>a?' j^oiefs.
" The price of seeds being approximately, on an average, 3 francs per
kilogrammes, the expense will be from 70 to 100 francs per hectare.
*' Remarks, (kc, of the Administration.
" The quantities of seed mentioned by the agents at the conference
R^SUMl5 OF CONFERENCES IN 1862. 191
at Clermont will require to be increased, in so far as larcli is con-
cerned, the seed of which in general only succeeds in the proportion
of 40 to 50.
" Sowing in potets, or drills, seems generally recognised to be the most
advantageous.
" There is a mode of sowing called semi a la nieye, which consists in
sowing seeds broadcast on the snow, which melting away deposits these on
the soil, and causes them in some measure to sink partially into the ground.
" Opinions, d'c, of the Agents.
" No trial of sowing a fa niege, as it is called, has yet been made in the
central region ; and all experiments in the Pyrenees have failed. In the
Alps it was that this mode of sowing was first intoduced, some fifteen or
eighteen years ago. The experiment was made in the department of the
Basses-Alpes, on a calcareous soil, for a long time unused and covered with
grass, and with a northerly exposure ; it succeeded perfectly. The experi-
ment was renewed in 1862, in the same department, on 200 hectares, and
in the Hautes-Alpes on 40 hectares, with fir, larch, cedar, Norway fir, and
Scotch fir. The fir did not succeed ; the larch succeeded only in part on
grass lands, and with a northerly exposure ; the cedar succeeded well ; as
to the Norway fir and Scotch fir the result has not been established.
" There were used from 6 to 8 kilogrammes of seeds per hectare ; the
manual labour cost only 2 francs.
" An attempt made in the Drome, at 700 metres of altitude, on limy soil,
and in a northeast exposure, with the maritime pine, succeeded to a medium
extent.
" The sowing should be made on soft snow, and in a settled temperature,
in order to avoid the floodings caused by the southerly winds and warm rains.
*' Eemarl's, d'c, hi/ the Adminstration.
" The so-called semi a la niege is very economical, and for this
reason one might be tempted to employ this method for the
reforesting of large surfaces. But experience in this matter gives
reason to conclude that the results, always uncertain, are generally
unsatisfactory. It does not appear that there is any reason for
classing this kind of sowing in the category of regular modes of
reforesting. But it may be considered as an expedient capable of
being employed with success iu certain cases. The attempts made
up to this time are, however, too few for a certain deduction to be
drawn on this point. It might be usful to try further experiments
when the conditions shall appear more favourable. Manual labour
being at a very low price, there would be no diflticulty in increasing
the quantity of seed sown, which appears to have been too small in
the attempts made in the Basses-Alpes.
*' IV. Preparatory Works in Reforesting.
" Tenth Question.
" Nurseries. — A moderate number of nm'series, of which some are of great
importance, have been created by the forest agents, with all the care and
intelligence necessary.
*' It is desirable to discuss the processes of extracting and packing the
plants, as well as the precautions to be taken at their despatch and receipt,
in order to insure their gro\Yth ; to study the method of sowing adopted in
192 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
the nurseries (in handes or in 2^otet^), — the quantity of seed used per
hectare, — the means used for protection, — the expenses of the works. The
system of repeated transplanting may be discussed. As soon as the beds
produce plants fit to be used, it will be important to have kept, by the
official specially charged with the nursery, a register, in which shall be
inscribed the number of disposable plants, and the numbers taken away and
sent off ; and the conference is to consider the plan that should be adopted
in keeping this register, of which an extract shall be periodically addressed
to the Administration, that it may know the number of plants ready for use.
" 02>inioas, kc, of the Agents,
"At the conference at Clermont very circumstantial details were pre-
sented— taking, for example, the nursery of Arpajon, the creation of which
has been attended to with great care, and the state of which is very satis-
factory. It may not be uninteresting to reproduce details which answer
to the questions put by the Administration, which may serve as useful
indications of what may advantageously be done.
"Before being sown the bed should be prepared. The preparation con-
sists, after having cleared and cleaned the ground, in mixing the natural
earth with heath mould for leaf trees, and in adding to the soil some kind
of manure. The ground is then carefully broken up.
" Remarks, d-c, of the Administration.
^' If the ground be encumbered with weeds it may be well to raise on
it a crop of potatoes to secure the destruction of the weeds before
appropriating it to the growth of forest seeds. And too much
digging, or displacement of the soil, should be avoided.
" The ground may then be divided into beds, a metre, or 40 inches, in
breadth, raised above the level of the ground, and separated by footpaths ;
and the beds about 8 or 10 metres long must then be surrounded by sheltering
screens or fences of the Chinese arbor vitse. While these shelters are
growing to a convenient height, their place is supplied by artificial shelters,
either formed of straw, or of osier, or hazel lattice work placed nearly
vertically, or linen stretched over boards. The sowing is done in the
first 15 days of April, or later, if possible, in moist weather. It does not
seem necessary to cover the seeds with earth, it is enough to pass the roller
over the bed after scattering the seed, and it is covered with moss reduced
to small pieces and watered. The quantity of seed to be used per are is
12 kilo(>Tammes for pines with small seeds; 15 to 18 for larch trees, the
Norway fir, the black pine of Austria ; 26 to 30 for the fir; for the oak 1
hectolitre ; for the chesnut 6 double decalitres. The seeds gathered in the
country have given much better results tlian those obtained from purchased
seeds. Tlie beds must usually be watered every day until the plants have
gained some strength. After the first year the plants can be used. They
are then, according to the expression used by the nursery-men, in the con-
dition oi poiireites. They cost little, 1 to 2 francs the thousand, are easily
duf up, and are removed at little expense. ]3ut the chances of such young
plants taking root being necessarily limited, it is only prudent to use them
in moderate conditions of soil and altitude.
" Remarks, d:c.
"The lifting of pourettes in the way described is employed with
advantage in planting in tufts. The earth raised is divided into
clods containing each a certain nunil)ej- of ])lants, and these plants are
conveyed in the clod to the place in which they are to be planted ;
\
Bl^.8UM^ OP CONFERENCES IN 1802. 1 9.T
fragments, containing two, three, or four plants, to be put into the
place together, are broken off, and at least one of these almost
always grows.
" To obtain hardier plants more likely to take root under severer condi-
tions, it is necessary to wait nearly three years, and to have them trans-
planted. The design of this operation is to place the young plants in
circumstances favourable for the development of the fibrous root. It is
employed for plants of a year old, and should be done in spring, in order
not to expose the young subjects to the risk of being raised above the ground
by the effects of frost.
" It has been attempted to avoid the expense of this difficult and costly
operation. As regards the oak, one agent has mentioned a process which
it may not be uninteresting to bring under the notice of the agents. This
process consists in artificially causing the acorns to germinate during the
winter, to cut off the radicle and to sow in the seed-beed the acorn thus
mutilated. It has been remarked, that the extinguishing of the radicle led
to the formation of lateral roots, and to suppress the growth of the descend-
ing taproot.
" Remarls, <^c.
" Transplanting does not appear to be always necessary. In the
nurseries it is practised at different periods of the plants growth.
If, when the plants are required, the best and most fibrous-rooted
alone are made choice of, the removal of these will have the effect
of relieving the others, and so favouring their development ; in this
way plants of different stages of development may be successively
removed, and this kind of periodical thinning has for its result, to
permit the plants of inferior growth to acquire sufficient strength.
This removal is facilitated by the arrangement of the plants being-
sown in furrows on the flat beds. When it is necessary to thin the
plants, there is dug along the furrow a hollow into which the plants
are turned ; the proper choice is then very easily made, and the
plants remaining in the fuiTow are easily re-arranged. Finally,
the operation of transplanting can sometimes be replaced by
the cutting off of the root in the ground, by the use of the
spade used at Hagenau (coupe-pivot), which ends in a diamond-
shaped edge.
" The cutting of the root has for its effect to favour the development
of a fibrous root This economical and beneficial operation, however,
can only be practised in the earths into which the edge of the spade
easily penetrates. It has not been attempted in the case of resinous
trees ; it would not be without interest to make some attempts in
this direction.
" The sowings in the nurseries are exposed to ravages by rats, field mice,
mole crickets, moles, birds, &c. It does not appear to be necessary to enter
into the details of the methods employed to combat these various enemies.
The methods followed, moreover, have succeeded only imperfectly, and it
will be necessary to devise others more efficacious. To prepare the plants
for sending away, a dry day must be chosen, the digging must be done with
the spade, 100 plants are united in one clod, the roots of which are immersed
in a bath of well-tempered clayey earth, and they are covered with dry
moss ; they are then placed in layers in a box with open bars, the spars
of which are covered with dry straw. A rapid conveyance is chosen,
Y
194 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
in order not to leave the plants for more than five or at most seven
days in the boxes. On arrival, the plants are immediately unbound
and sorted.
" Remarks, <&e.
" It is by the spongeoles or extremities of the fibres that the roots draw
from the earth the nourishment of the plant. It is therefore in the
highest degree necessary to protect these delicate organs. For this
pui'pose the bath of tempered clay is a veiy useful precaution.
Before putting the plants into the earth, it will be well to leave the
roots nearly 24 hours in urine.
" This operation has the effect of singularly reviving the vegetative
power of the plant.
** To show the importance of the services that the nurseries are expected
to render, the conference at Clermont cited the results of the nursery of
Arpajon, formed scarcely two years before. It appeared from the accounts,
kept with care in this nursery, that it would contain 32,489,000 plants of
various kinds, of the value at a commercial valuation of 159,622 francs.
" The details given render necessary a similar circumstantial account of
the observations made by the agents at the conferences at Foix and Carpen-
tras on the subject of nurseries.
"The principal points of the discussion, with those which have called
forth diff'ering opinions, will alone be requisite.
" At Foix, the agents considered that the operation of transplanting is
too expensive, and requires too great an extent of land, to be followed. A
method of taking up plants analogous to that which has been above des-
cribed, in the opinions and instructions of the Administrations, seems to be
almost sufficient to take the place of transplanting.
" Watering appears necessary to be practised with moderation, on account
of the expense which it causes. At Foix and at Carpentras, the observations
relative to the digging up and packing of plants, as well as the precautions
to be taken at their despatch and receipt, do not difter from those presented
at the conference at Clermont, and reproduced above. At Carpentras the
sowing in furrows has seemed, in all points of view, that deserving to be
preferred for nurseries. The quantity of seed necessary to be used has
been estimated at 10 or 15 kilogrammes per are for the resinous plants, at
1 or 2 hectolitres for the oak, and at 10 or 15 kilogrammes for the acacia
and ailanthus.
" The agents have unanimously expressed the opinion that it is advisable
to diminish the sheltering fences as soon as the plants acquire strength, and
that it is necessary to make them always sufficiently low to enable the light
to reach easily the plants. The transplanting, which appears to the agents
at the conference at Carpentras indispensable for the oak, is considered less
necessary for pines and the Norway fir.
" Watering, if not indispensable, is at least useful to the resinous trees,
and it must, when once commenced, be assiduously pursued.
" The agents of the three conferences have presented plans of a register
for the record of the plants ready for sending out, and those sent out.
" Remarks, d'c.
" The form to be adopted temporarily for this registci- is the following,
which must be tried upon formulas prepared in writing in each
conservatory till the time when a definitive model, made from ex-
periments, shall be adopted : —
HE8Um£ ok CONFEEKNCE8 IN 1862.
196
N U 11 S E R Y O J '
PLANTS PIT TO BE DISPOSED OF.
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Observations.
PLANTS SENT OFF.
Scotch Fir.
Black Pine of -vr t^-
Austria. ^^'^^^ ^^^-
Observations.
1 year.
2 years.
3 years.
1 year.
2 years.
3 years.
1 year.
2 years.
3 years.
1 year.
2 years.
3 years.
The date of des-
patch and destina'-
tion are marked
in this column.
" This register will be kept by the official in charge of the nurseiy
under the inspection of the chief of the district.
" At the end of every month the work will be repeated by making an
entry in each column of the plants then lit to be disposed of, and of
those despatched.
" An extract of this register is to be sent to the Administration at the
periods to be hereafter specified.
196 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
*' Eleventh Question.
" Secheries. — The Administration having ascertained that seeds prepared
in the Government drying booths are superior in quality to seeds obtained
by purchase, it is desirable to consider whether it be not desirable to erect
additional drying-booths (secheries), or seed depots.
" Opinions, d'c, of the Agents.
" The agents at the conference at Clermont have observed that the seeds
furnished by the Goverment secheries, or drying-booths, of Murat (Cantal),
or gathered in the country, are incomparably superior to the seed purchased.
This secherie furnishes only 4000 kilogrammes of seeds yearty, which is a
quantity much below the requirements of the departments of La Lozere, of
Puy-de-D6me, of Cantal, of the Haute-Loire, and of the Loire ; the quantity
required annually being estimated at 10,000 kilogrammes, it is desirable to
establish a new secherie. This the conference proposes should be located
at Puy. Subsequently another might be constructed at Marvejols.
" A member of the conference at Clermont showed that the Corsican pine
might be advantageously employed in reboisement, — that the price of the
seed of this species is from 7 to 12 francs per kilogramme, — and that,
without doubt, it would be possible to establish in Corsica one or two
secheries, by which the seed of the Corsican pine would be furnished at the
cost of 4 francs at most.
" The agents at the conference at Foix state that the sechei^ie of La Lagonne
is capable of furnishing annually 4000 kilogrammes of seeds. They think
that it would be desirable to establish in the inspection district of Simoux,
within reach of the nurseries, a secherie for fir-tree seeds.
" At Carpentras the agents expressed in general terms the opinion that
there would be great advantage in erecting secheries, or seed depots, where-
ever the existence of extensive masses of forest admit of this being done.
" Remark of the Admitiistratio7i.
" Notes have been taken of the different opinions expressed by the
agents on the question of establishing new Government secheries.
" Twelfth Question.
" Examine, and say whether it would not be desirable to gather seeds in
the Government forests under the charge of the local officials, and to have
them put into places of deposit, from which at a fit time they might be sent
off to the places to be reforested.
" This measure promises to the agents of the three conferences to be
productive of advantageous results. The agents of the conference at Car-
pentras express the wish that the gathering should also be made in the
communal forests.
"V. Measures for Securinq Order.
" Thirteenth Question.
" Discuss the measures taken to insure the thorough execution of the
works, and to justify the use made of the credit accounts opened by the
Government.
•' Opinions, d'C, of the Agents.
" At Clermont, the conference expressed the opinion that the first condi-
tion of the success of the works of reboisement is, that the direction and over-
bight of these works should be entrusted exclusively to the agents, and that
)lESUMl^ OK OONFEnENOKS IN 1862. 1 '>7
it is necessary that a guard should be constantly stationed at the wood-yard
of the works. This obligation necessarily causing heavy expenses to the
officials, it is dcsi\-ablo to extend the arrangements of circular No. 708 to
each official compelled to sleep away from home.
** Bemarks, d'c, ofjhc Administration.
" The Administration is of opinion that the works being executed under
the direction of agents gives the only security for success. It does
not seem possible always to exact the presence of an official on the
spot. This ought, however, to be secured whenever it is possible.
The Government has the intention to remunerate in a suitable
degree the officials w^lio accomplish onerous duties, and who render
important service. In this respect no absolute rule can be fixed,
the rewards must vary with circumstances.
" Special propositions on this head may be sent in ; and, in order to
prevent these coming at all times of the year, (which occasions
serious loss of time to the Administration) it is desirable, hencefor-
ward, to collect them into two despatches, added to the forms
ordered, Nos. 16 and 17 (Circular 806).
" In justification of the credits opened, the agents stated that in the
delay of a mouth, which occurred in the settlement of accounts, the agents
have produced tables with margins of the accounts of the day's work of the
labourers, as a return for the sums put to their account ; for the supplies,
they have presented receipted bills, all according to the rules of debit and
credit.
" The conference at Clermont submitted to the Administration the
following question : When the aid granted, according to the estimate of the
works, exceeds that estimate, should the extra sum be granted to the appli-
cant, and if the expense is less than the allotted aid, should a credit for
that extra sum be demanded ]
" Reply, &c. — The estimate of the expenses of the works can only be an
approximate one. Consequently, when the aid is greater than the
actual expense, the course to be pursued is to extend the works over
a space proportionate to the excess ; or, if that extension is imprac-
ticable, to leave unemployed the said excess in money, which will
thus be disposable for other works. If the aid granted be less than
the expense would be, the works should be reduced by an extent
corresponding to the difference of means.
" The agents at the conference at Foix proposed that the good or bad
execution of the works should be established by a minute declarative of the
facts, and to extend the application of this measure to the sanctioned
rehoisements of communal lands, when undertaken by individuals with the
grant in aid.
** Remarks, d'c.
" Nothing would be gained by the establishment of the good execution
of the works by such a minute ; and in regard to the bad execution
of the work, it is already prescribed by the regulation to supply
grounds for exacting repayment, in whole or in part, of the grant
made.
" The agents at the conference at Carpentras, in giving account of the
means employed to insure the good execution of the works, and the pay-
ment of expenses, stated, in regard to delivery of orders, that where this is
done it is by small coupons, which has facilitated payment and rectification
198 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
of accounts, and has rendered unnecessary the making of advances, and
repayments of these, which it is always desirable to avoid in accounts.
" Remarl:.
" To this there is nothing to object, but the fear that it may lead to
too great complication of accounts.
'^ Fourteenth Question.
" The allotting of aid having, up to this time, been made as fast
as the production of the demands, the Administration have been obliged to
leave to each conservator the care of procuring by purchase the seed
required, and the necessary plants. It would seem to be more simple,
more convenient, more regular, and doubtless more economical, that the
Government should centralize the orders for, and the despatch of, these
seeds and plants j Discuss the means of effecting this centralization, if it
does not appear to the agents better to leave the ordering of seeds and
plants to be done directly, as heretofore, by the agents.
" Opinions, d'c, of the Agents.
" The agents of the conference at Clermont considered that the centraliza-
tion would be very useful, and proposed, for this purpose, the mode of
organization which seemed to them most convenient.
" The agents of the conference at Foix expressed the same opinion, and
presented their proposals.
" At Carpentras the conference expressed the opinion, that, whenever the
articles required can only be obtained by purchase, the centralization of the
orders for these supplies will be more simple, more convenient, and more
regular, but not always more economical : (1) because the seeds purchased
are generally inferior in quality to those bought on the spot by the agents
themselves ; (2) because the expenses of carriage are great in the one case
and nothing in the other. The centralization of orders does not then appear
in all cases to offer the advantages to be desired, and ought to be restricted
in the one case to species rare in France, such as cedars, Austrian pines,
Corsican pines, and in the other, to supplies of seed which cannot be had in
the locality.
" Beniarks, d&c, of the Administration.
" The ordering of seeds from merchants at a favourable time for the
procuring of the supply, and the ordering of these in large quantities
are favourable conditions for obtaining them on the most favourable
terms possible. But notwithstanding this, the Administration does
not intend to prevent in any way the agents from taking advantage
of local supplies. To this end, at the periods for the despatch of the
collective demands for aid, the agents will add to these demands the
following information: (1) the quantity of seeds or plants of each
kind necessary to meet the said demands, which can be delivered
at their destination by the direct care of the conservator through
the local resources ; and let the destination of these seeds be stated ;
(2) Quantity of seeds or plants presumed to be necessary for the
rehoisetnents ohligatoires during the season following the despatch of
the information. In this let the quantity and species of plants and
seeds to be sent by the Government be indicated, also the place
of destination and time at which they are required ; (3) Extract from
the register of the nursery. Let each conservator state the number
of plants required by him and their destinations ; (4) Situation of
Rt?:SUM^ OP CONFERENCES IN 1862. 199
the seclierics. And let each consevvator report the quantity of seeds
required by him, and their dost inal ions.
" By help of this information the Administration will be able to give
to the trade the necessary orders, and to provide for the direct trans-
mission to their destination of the seeds and plants which cannot be
obtained in the locality.
** Various Questions Discussed by the Agents in Addition to those
Submitted by the Administration.
" The questions discussed by the agents, in addition to the progi'amme,
do not appear to present in general other than purely local interest, and
consequently it would be useless to reproduce the whole of them in the
present summary. There are, however, some of those questions, which, on
account of their wider interest, will be mentioned here.
" Opinions, dr., of the Agents.
"The agents of the conference at Carpentras have remarked, that the method
of rehoisement by strips and by clumps seems a desirable one to practise in cer-
tain regions, especially in the departments of the L'Izere and the Hautes-Alps.
Clumps of larch would suit well for the high mountain pasture lands.
" Bemcn^Jcs, d'C, of the Administration.
" This method of rehoisement w^ould only be efficacious in so far as it
was practised concurrently w^ith the works for improving pasture,
and it is necessary to have it kept in mind, that the law" for the
rehoisement of mountains limits its action to works of rehoisement
properly so called. Besides this, rehoisement by clumps w^ould have
the effect of extending the defences to embrace very vast areas
during the w^hole period of the first growth of the new plants, and
during the successive periods of rehoisement.
" The question of the mixture of different kinds of trees in the rehoise-
raent was under discussion at the conference at Carpentras, but the discus-
sion elicited nothing new\
" RemarJcs, dc.
'' There has not been obtained as yet a sufficiency of results to decide
this question.
" At Foix, an agent said he had tried the effect of sulphur upon seed-
beds of laburnum, of ailanthus, and of pines of Aleppo. It brought only
to the laburnum a sensible augmentation in vigour of vegetation. The
sulphur was only applied at the period of the August sap. The attention
of the conference was called to the operation, which might be made the
subject of interesting experiments.
" Remarks, dc.
" The operation of applying sulphur, which is pretty expensive, seems
here to have had no other effect than to increase the power of vege-
tation in the plants of the seed-beds. It does not appear certain
that important advantages result from its use. It will not be with-
out use, nevertheless, to make experimeiits in this direction when a
good opportunity may present itself.
" A proprietor of the department of L'Ariege had proposed to the
Administration to grant to him land for the establishment of a central
place for trials, experiments, and observations, in forest, pastoral, and
hydrological matters, in relation to the rehoisement of mountains.
200 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
" The agents deemed that such a field of experiments, however useful for
the district in which it might be placed, would not be capable of furnishing
certain information for other regions, and that, in this point of view, the
proposed establishment does not present the promise of adequate general
interest.
" Remarlcs, d^c. "
" The Administration shares the opinion of the agents at the conference
at Foix.
" Desires Expressed by the Agents Assembled in Conference.
" The Agents at the conference at Foix expressed the wish that the
Administration of Forests should be charged with the mise en valeur, or
improvement, and the rehoisement of the communal lands situated on the
mountains.
" The execution of the law on the mise en valeur of the communal uncul-
tivated lands lies with the prefects. There is nothing to prevent the
execution of such works of this character, as have for their object rehoisement,
taking place under the care of the forest agents. It is thus that the law in
question is applied in the department of the Vosges. The conservators will
consider whether they ought not in this matter to advise with the depart-
mental administrations.
" The agents at the conference at Carpentras have expressed the following-
wishes : (1) That in future the programme of the conference should be sent
to each agent at least a month in advance ; (2) That the members appointed
should bring with them samples, models of instruments, &c. ; (3) That
they should put down beforehand in writing, as far as possible, their
answers to the questions on the programme, and their observations.
'' (Signed) H. Vicaire, Director-General of the Forest Administration.
" Paris, January 10, 1862."
The following is an Abstract of Report of operations in 1862 : —
In 1861 the expense of the rehoisement of the mountains was settled as
follows : —
Subventions for rehoisements facultatifs, or sanctioned opera-
tions, granted to communes and private individuals for
labour upon Crown lands, for nurseries, for secheries (or
places for collecting and drying seeds), for keeping up
the works, and for various kinds of labour, - Francs, .548,855,30
Support of agents and overseers, - - - „ 46,718,94
Indemnities to agents, overseers, and assistants, „ 42,439,40
Francs, 638,013,64
A. R(^)oisemenis Facultatifs.
In 1862 the demands for subventions have been as follows : —
By communes and public establishments, 730 ) 1,190
By private people, - - - - 698 J '^
Of which only 40 have been rejected, as not falling within the scope of the law.
These demands came from 39 departments in all. The areas reforested
were, for what had been done by 742 communes and public establishments,
5,774ii 58a ; ))y 394 jmvatc individuals, l,714n 15a — total, 7,488h 73a 00.
It was in the departments of Puy-de-D6me and of Vancluse that there was
the largest extent of communal rehoisements.
ABSTRACT REPORT 18G2. 201
Subventions in money and in kind, amounting to 280,000 francs,
representing about two-thirds of the total expense of the works.
The rcboisoncut of private projierty has been most extensively carried
out in the departments of the Gard and the Drome, where the subventions
amounted to 70,000 francs, representing about 40 per cent, of the total
expense of the works.
The discovery, it is stated, is being made, that rehoisement is an opera-
tion much more fruitful in immediate advantages than had been generally
believed.
The report cites two examples of these advantages :
A commune possessed a district of 64 hectares covered with heath,
which had not been sold, though in 1844 offered for sale at 7000 francs.
At this time a so\ving of ^jz?i sylvestre was undertaken, at the expense of the
municipal chest ; there was little additional expense ; and now this district
is valued at more than 70,000 francs. Another commune possesses a w^ood
of 47 hectares in extent, planted w^ith ^>i;is sylvestres about 15 or 16 years
old. Lately a thinning was effected, which produced 16,000 francs.
These well-known facts have not a little contributed to the favour with
which the w^orks of rehoisement are regarded in the departments in which
they had been carried out.
Joint stock companies, or associations of capital, are now veiy advan-
tageously employed for the exploitation of different branches of industry. The
acquisition of m.ountain districts on generally very moderate terms, and their
replenishment with wood by the help of large subventions, seems to form the
basis of a speculation which is both productive and exempt from risk of loss.
The restocking of the mountain Crown lands had extended, in 1862,
over 1866h. 03 ares, at an expense of 146,747 fr. 51 ct.
B. Reboisements Ohligatoires, or Enjoined Rehoisements.
In all cases in which public safety demands the creation of such hinder-
ances as rehoisement can offer to the irregular action of rivers or floods, or to
the crumbling of the ground, and where the safety of the inhabitants, the
condition of the roads, and the culture of the lower declivities, are most
threatened by torrents and avalanches, the law has commanded the formation
of woods ; the extent of these is in proportion to the hydraulic effects they
are designed to produce.
The Administration has carefully considered the condition of the dis-
tricts where rehoisement seemed to be most urgently required.
These careful inquiries in 1861 and 1862 extended over 21 departments,
and gave rise to the origination of 269 enterprises, comprehending 136,756
hectares.
89 midertakings, extending over an area of 59,833h. 28a. have been offi-
cially inspected. The projects have encountered a good deal of opposition.
" It is necessary clearly to define the character of this opposition," says
the Director General of Forests, " in order to exhibit the influence of the
operation of rehoisement upon the condition of the mountain population.
" In most cases the herds of cattle do not belong to the poorer inhabit-
ants. The flocks of sheep belong to a certain number of local owners, who
make all they can out of the communal lands, or to people from a distance,
wdiose immense flocks, known by the name of trcinshiimant flocks, eveiy year
cover the mountains leased from the communal bodies, at usually a very
moderate rent.
Z
202 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
" The operation of rehoisement, far from introducing new restrictions into
the already straitened circumstances of the poor inhabitants, would, on the
ncotrary, be a source of numerous advantages. Without mentioning one of
these advantages which can only be realised in the more or less distant
future, there can be pointed out as an immediate and direct result, the
unusual comfort diffused over these poor districts by the money devoted to
the execution of the works in the form of wages, purchase of seeds and
plants, and other outlays of various kinds.
" There is reason to think that the mountaineers, with their characteristic
mental quickness, have already come to appreciate the operation of rehoise-
ment, and that the opposition which has arisen in several cases is only an
expression of personal and isolated interests.
'' It is, moreover, only through mistake that the pastoral population takes
alarm at the undertakings of the Forest Administration, the greatest number
have been in favour of this industry. Besides the immense tracts known by
the name of pastoral mountains, which lie above the zone of forest vegeta-
tion, and of which the destination indicated by the nature of things cannot
be modified, the actual sheep runs are in many cases not only preserved but
improved from the double point of view of the pastoral interest and the
preservation of the turf."
Nearly all the commissioners charged with the direction of these
inquiries have earnestly approved of the projected rehoisement, and in all
cases the special commissioners, the Councils of the Arrondissement, the
General Councils, and the prefects have adopted these projects. Besides,
the General Councils have voted subsidies in favour of the rehoisements.
These subsidies, 20,000 francs in 1860 rose to 40,000 francs in 1861, and
to 71,000 in 1862.
The gradual increase of these sums, more than their absolute importance,
is an indication of the increasing movement of public opinion in favour of
the operation.
Rehoisements ohligatoirs, or enjoined rehoisements, had extended in 1862
into three departments, and into seven perimeters, or defined areas, of over
2061 hectares 87 arcs, and has cost the State 69,576 francs 21 cents.
Thus the rehoisements effected in 1862 amount in all to 11,416 hectares
63 ares.
C. Secheries and Nurseries.
The rehoisement in 1862 has been effected, by means of sowings, upon
8344h. 26a. — by means of planting, upon 3072ii. 37a. For the sowings
95,403 kilogrammes of the seeds of different trees have been used. For
the plantations there have been used 22,137,500 plants of different sorts of
trees, besides those transplanted from the woods.
The jrm sylvestre, or Scotch fir, epicea, or Norway fir, and the larch,
have been most generally employed. Other trees have also been used — as
the oak, the Austrian pine, the Muglio, tlie Aleppo pine, the cedar, the
ailanthus, which are introduced gradually in proportion as new experiments
are tried. The selection of trees has generally been directed by local
indications.
Four secheries were formed in 1861 ; two others were established in
1862. These supply from 15,000 to 20,000 kilogrammes of seed, corres-
ponding to the rehoisement of 2000 hectares. The outlay in 1862 amounted
to 38,515,24 francs.
AliaTUACT IIEPOIIT 1803. 203
The Administration has, morovcv, in lcSG2, set agoin<^ the collecting of
seed in the Crown forests, ami has collected considerable quantities at a
very moderate expense.
In 1861 there had been formed 473 nurseries, 330 hectares in extent,
and capable of supplying about GO millions of plants per annum.
In 18G2 there had been formed 359 new nurseries, covering 272 hectares
96 ares, capable of producing annually about 40 millions of plants.
Many of these nurseries are of small extent, and are designed to supply
plants for restocking the immediate vicinity. But in several cases central
nurseries of considerable importance have been formed, situated in suitable
districts, which had been bought or rented with a special view to the work
in hand.
These nurseries have been the object of the greatest care, they are 14
in number, and are spread over ten departments. It is calculated that 5000
hectares is the extent annually reforested by means of planting, and that
40 millions is the necessary supply of plants. At the market pu'ice this
quantity of plants would cost 240,000 francs.
In 1852 the expense for the formation of new nurseries, and the keeping
up of the old ones, amounted to 153,772 francs.
D. Administrative Measures.
A new district under a forest conservator has been formed.
Annual conferences, attended by those taking a part in mountain
reboisement, have been instituted.
The Director of the Government School of Forests has been appointed
to visit the works of reboisement in the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the moun-
tains of Central France. The object of this visitation is to encourage the
efforts of those employed, to secure e very W' here good methods of culture,
and to report to Government upon the execution of the works and the
result obtained.
According to the preamble to the law of 28th July 1860, the expense
of reboisement was estimated at 180 francs per hectare. In 1861 and 1862
160,055 hectares 63 ares had been reforested. The expense during these
two years had been 1,738,000 francs, or 180 francs per hectare, without
taking into consideration the part of the above mentioned expense incuiTed
in the preparation for enjoined reboisements, the formation of secheries, the
purchase of land, and other expenses not directly belonging to the work of
replanting, properly so-called. The expense per hectare reforested will be
still further reduced through use being made of the extensive resources
supplied by the nurseries and secheries, and of experience acquired by practice
in the execution of the works.
Abstract of Report for 1863 : —
According to the detailed accounts of expenditure on the work in 1862,
the expense has been as follows : —
Subventions, Frams, 350,000,00
Purchase of Property, ----- ^^ 13,231,00
Execution and Superintendence of the Works, - „ 761,957,31
Total Francs, 1,125,188,31
204 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
A. Reboisements Faciiltatifs, or Sanctioned Rehoisements.
Subventions have been granted to 450 communes, or public establish-
ments, and to 983 private individuals.
These reboisements are extended over communal lands, 7,07 3h. 24a. ;
private property, 2,157h. 05a. ; crown lands, 1,750h. 88a. ; total 10,981h.
17a. Outlay, at the Government expense, 595,000 francs, besides the
expense of keeping up the sanctioned rehoisements of former years, 81,800
francs. When requested by proprietors, the Forest Administration have
carried on the work of yehoisement under the superintendence of its agents
and guards, and they will continue to keep them up and develope them, so
far as possible, till success appears assured.
The works have been spread over 40 departments.
^ The report specially mentions an experiment of reboisement in the
Crown forest of the Luberon, situated on the formation called neocomie?i,
belonging to the lower portion of the chalk formations, where the bare
places are covered by enormous heaps of rocks, burnt by the sun, and
entirely destitute of vegetable mould. Such is the district of which the
forest agents have not been afraid to attempt the reboisement. Nothing has
been neglected to ensure the success of this bold enterprise. After several
attempts at plantation, which proved either fruitless or else too costly, the
agents fixed on the method of replenishment by sowing, principally with the
seed of the pine of Aleppo. The small quantity of vegetable mould still
remaining between the rocks was gathered together into narrow ridges, and
prevented from falling down by layers of stones. Upon soil prepared in
this manner the sowings were most successfully effected. In the month of
September, after the trial of an exceptionally dry and hot summer, the
young plants appeared quite flourishing. To one who has seen the sowings
of Luberon, (says the report) no reboisement will appear impossible.
Among private individuals the taste for forest improvement seems to
have a tendency to increase wonderfully. The number of private pro-
prietors who had received subventions, which was 394 in 1862, '-\ 1863
amounted to 983.
B. Rehoisements Obligatoires, or Eoijoined Rehoisemeiits.
On the 1st January 1864, the districts comprehended in the Government
undertakings were to be found in 23 departments.
Digests have been prepared of 264 enterprises, of which 77, embracing
about 60,000 hectares, hcve been approved, with decrees declaring their
public utility.
The works of reboisement then in course of execution in 26 circles ex-
tended over a surface of 1,853h. 57a.
The expense has been 154,850 francs, besides 13,100 francs for keeping
up the works already effected. This outlay, however, is only a Government
loan in terms of Articles 8 and 9 of the law of 28th July 1860.
In cases where direct reboisement did not present a suflicient probability
of success, because of the absence of vegetable mould, it has been preceded
by the restoration of the soil, by means of planting or sowing herbs or
bushes. The principal plants growing spontaneously on the mountains
are juniper, barberry, Vargoussier, t'amelanchier, which arc chiefly found in
the rockiest places, white fescue grass, whose luxuriant tufts appear on the
steepest parts of the ravines, the sainfoin and lucerne, the long matted
rootB of which are well fitted to retain the soil upon the slopes.
AIJSTHACT UEroRT 18G3. 205
•A considerable number of rustic l)arricrs have been formed on the upper
branches of the torrents. Instead of a hirge work of art constructed at the
mouth of the ravine, which nearly always gives way, the system of defence
consists in the formation of a number of dams across its ramifications
throughout the upper portion of its course. The small furrows which form
the highest branches of the torrents are dannned by simple faggots fastened
with stakes. In the larger branches, and where the presence of rocks or
any other circumstance appears to favour the construction, there are formed
dams made of hurdles and boughs, or walls of stones placed one upon
another strongly attached to the banks, or by rude carpenter work, the
whole being completed by interweaving quantities of willow^ and osier wands
into the banks, and into collections of earth which accumulate above the
barricade.
" The success of these simple and economical w^orks is remarkable. The
water, arrested everywhere in its descent, falls wdth much less violence and
rapidity ; a great part of the materials which it bears along are stopped
by the barricades, and no longer spread themselves over the villages and
lands situated at the foot of the mountain ; finally, the accumulation of
these materials, joined to the quick grow^th of the wallow wands, tends to
efface the effects of the torrent between the successive barricades, and in
some measure to lessen the torrent by stopping up the ramified furrows of
which it w^as composed." Total extent of reboisemenis effected in 1863, was
12,834h. 74a.
C. Preparatory Works.
The question, wdiich of the two methods of replenishment, sowing or
planting, should be preferred, does not admit of absolute solution.
*' In planting, two principal dangers are to be dreaded : The swelling up
or upheaval of the soil in spring, produced by the alternations of frost and
thaw, the effect of w^hich is to lay bare the roots, and even to throw out the
plants, — and the drought in summer. These dangers may often be averted
or escaped, by placing, when circumstances permit, at the root of the plant
one or two stones, intended at the same time to hinder the swelling of the
soil and to keep the surface of the ground cool. When the trees are
planted amongst herbage, after a turf is cut, for the purpose of planting a
young tree, it is cut in two and placed at the root, either in the position
which it occupied before the operation, or turning the grass side towards
the ground.
" Autumn has been preferred for planting, spring for sowing ; but experi-
ence has proved that sowings completed after the greatest heat of summer
are the most successful ; the young plant appears before the cold, then
comes the snow to cover and protect it till the return of spring ; it then
resumes its scarcely interrupted growth, and when summer arrives it is
robust enough to resist the heat."
D. N^trseries.
Since the beginning of the enterprise of the rehoisement of the moun-
tains, Government has felt the necessity of getting rid of the obligation to
have recourse to purchase, because the outlay is great and the produc-
tions are not always to be depended upon. The harvest of the fruit of this
foresight is now beginning to be reaped. Two kinds of nurseries have been
formed. (1) Small nurseries, scattered over the district where the rehoise-
206 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
nunts are of small extent ; (2) More important nurseries, intended to supply-
subventions of plants to communes and to private individuals, as well as
the rehoisements ohUgatoires of specified perimetres.
The first-mentioned nurseries, containing less than 50 ares, are 355 in
number, and cover in all 41 hectares 42 ares. The second, of greater
extent, containing more than 50 ares, are 97 in number, and cover in all
144 hectares 72 ares. The expense of the nurseries, for establishment and
keeping up, has been 163,000 francs.
The following is an account of the expense and returns of two nurseries
of the second class, those of Arpajon (Cantal) and of Bourg (Ain) : — The
first, 7 hectares 43 ares in extent, has cost in all 51,252 fr. 60 ct. It
has produced since its formation 4,365,310 resinous and broad-leaved
plants, of the value of 42,712 fr. 60 ct., according to market value. The
expense of keeping up will be from 10 to 12 thousand francs annually, and
the return from 6 to 8 millions of plants, which, at an average price
of ten francs per thousand, represent a value of from sixty to eighty
thousand francs. The second nursery, 4 hectares in extent, has required
an outlay of 29,107 fr. 53 ct., and it has supplied 2,050,000 plants, 20,000
francs in value. Its keeping up costs annually from 5 to 6 thousand francs,
and it produces about two millions of plants, valued at 20,000 francs.
E. Co-operatio'ii of the De2')artments.
The General Councils have approved- of the greater part of the projects
submitted to them.
In 1863, 35 departments have granted sums amounting to 98,000 francs.
These subsidies have been in 180, 20,000 francs.
161, 40,000 „
162, 71,000 „
Abstract of Report for 1864 : —
In 1863 the expense of the reboisement of the mountains amounted to
1,316,652 fr. 15 ct., apportioned as follows : —
Subventions to communes, to public establishments, and
private proprietors, ----- Francs, 494,000.00
Purchase of land, „ 23,879.13
Execution and superintendence of work, - - „ 798,773.02
Total Francs, 1,316,652.15
In 1864 the expenses were, ... ,, 1,401,822.48
A. Rehoisements Facultatifs, or Sanctioned Rehoisements.
Tracts of land helonrjimj to communes or lyiMic estahlishments. — 458 com-
munes or public establishments have received, in 1864, grants of seeds and
plants, or of money, amounting to 352,210 francs 15 centimes.
The tracts rehoiscd with the help of these grants were, 6,164 hectares
32 ares in extent. According to results determined by forest officers, the
sowings and plantings succeeded in at least a proportion of from 60 to 80
per cent.
Land helonginy to 2)rivate individuals. — Government had in 1864 granted
subventions to 739 private 'm([i\]dmih for the rehoisrmenf of mountain terri-
tory, covering an extent of 1,601 hectares, dispersed among 28 departments.
I
ABSTRACT REPORT 1864. 207
Crown lands. — In the departments where the State possesses bare moun-
tain territory, the Forest Administration lias set tlie example of rehoisement
by sowing or planting every year areas more or less considerable. 1,834
hectares 70 ares of this kind of ground has been rewcoded in 18G4.
It is chiefly in the department of Ari6gc that the rcstockings of this
kind have taken place during several years with remarkable success.
Altogether the 7'€bois€me)its facnltatifs of every class, in 1864, covered 4,743
hectares 90 ares.
B. Rehoisenients Ohligatoires, or Enjoined Rehoisements.
At the end of 1864 the number of projected enjoined rehoisements
were 322, covering a total extent of 168,300 ares. Of this number, 84,
covering 61,814 hectares, have been at the same time subjects of a decree
declaring them to be of public utility.
In the course of the same year, works have been executed in 65 p^ri-
m^tres. These works have consisted of rehoisements properly so called, the
keeping up of rehoisements efl'ected in preceding years, sowings or planta-
tions of herbs or bushes, construction of dams, lopping trees, and enclosures.
These have cost 249,000 francs.
The Government in 1864 has only had recourse to expropriations in
the cases of two tracts of ground, extending to 25 hectares, for which the
price paid amounted to 9,476 francs 47 centimes.
It is with the utmost reluctance that Government makes use of the
privilege accorded by the 2nd paragraph of Art. 7 of the law of 28th July
1860. Since the law has come into operation, there have only occurred some
three cases in which it was needful in the public interest to proceed to ex-
propriation.
C. Conferences.
Conferences held in cantons to determine w^hat lands should be re-
planted have continued to discharge this duty in a manner the most
satisfactory.
D. Resume of Worh executed in 1864-
The total sum of rehoisements effected in 1864 embraces an area of
12,193 hectares 32 ares.
E. Kinds and quantities of Seeds and Plants used in 1864, f*^?^^ ways in
which they have been apportioned.
Of the 12,193 hectares 32 ares rewooded in 1864, 7632 hectares 44 ares
have been sown with seed ; and 4559 hectares 88 ares have been planted.
The principal kinds of trees thus used have been, as in years preceeding,
le jnn sylvestre^ or Scotch fir ; Vepicea, or Norway fir ; le pin maritime, or
maritime pine ; le meleze, or larch ; le j^in noir d^Autriche, or Austrian pine ;
le pin laricio, or Corsican pine ; le 2^in ct crochets, or Mugho pine ; le sapin,
or silver fir ; le chene, or oak ; le chdtaigner, or chesnut ; le hetre, or beech ;
lefrene, or ash. It is with the greatest reserve that attempts have been
made to introduce other kinds of tree, which are not indigenous, in such
districts as have been rewooded.
Of the 161,260 kilogrammes of seed used in 1864, 137,028 kilogrammes
have been supplied by secheries domamials. But the Administration has
not found any great advantage in preparing their own seeds.
208 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
In regard to plants, of 55,740,000, 49,334,000 have been reared in
nurseries belonging te the State ; and the others, 6,408,000 have been
obtained from nurseries belonging to private parties.
The expenses of all kinds incuiTed in maintaining the State nurseries
has amounted, in 1864, to 175,892 francs; and the value of the plants
supplied from them in the course of the year, estimated at 6 francs per
1000, which is much below the average market price, amounts to about
300,000 francs. It is of some importance to add that, in regard to adapta-
tion to their destination, the quality of the plants supplied from the State
nurseries is in general much superior to that of the others ; and, in the
report it is added, there is reason to hope that the Administration will soon
be in a position to dispense entirely with having recourse to purchase for
the supply of plants.
The principal nurseries of the Administration collectively cover an area
of 257 hectares 34 ares, and can supply 93 millions of plants per annum.
F. Co-operation of Departments.
The amount of subventions voted by the departments in 1864 is nearly
the same as in 1863, being 81,104 francs, as against 78,000.
The following is a general resume of what w^as effected in these first four
years of the enterprise : —
In these years there were replanted with woods 41,083 hectares 26 ares.
Of these there were rehoisements facultatifs, or sanctioned
reboisements, on property belonging to private proprietors, 6056h 13a
to communes, - 21665h 84a
to the domaine, - 685 3h 56a
34575H 53a
Rehoisements ohligatoires^ or enjoined 7'ehoisements, - 6507h 73a
41083H 26a
The accomplishment of the work cost the State, in 1861, 638,013 fr. 64 ct. ;
in 1862, 1,125,188 fr. 21 ct. ; in 1863, 1,316,652 fr. 15 ct. ; in 1864,
1,401,822 fr. 48 ct.,— total 4,481,676 fr. 48 ct., being, on an average, 102
francs j)er hectare.
Thus far all seems to have gone on satisfactorily. Every thing had been
done to carry public opinion, and the sympathies of those who were more
immediately affected by the operations, witli the enterprise. But it becomes
necessary at this point to advert to the results of this commendable
endeavour, and the supplementary legislation which this necessitated.
From the first the work had been prosecuted with vigour, and it had
the support of many of the more intelligent inhabitants of the district;
but after a time, as may be seen from tliese reports, a reaction began to mani-
fest itself, and this became at length developed into strong opposition on the
part of many.
" As may always be expected," says Cezanne, " difficulties whicli had not
been taken into account began to make tliemsclvcs apparent when the work
was commenced. The word reboisemeni frightened the pastoral communities ;
there was promised to them herbage growing under the trees in about
EXPOSl? DES MOTIFS OP LAW OP 8tH JUNE 1864. 209
twenty years ; but in awaiting this how were they to support the flocks,
which supplied their only income? 'The operation,' cried they, * is a
flagrant injustice ; they are ruining the mountains in order to enrich the
plains.'
" The Administration saw that there was some foundation for this com-
plaint, and they resolved to do what was right in the case ; but the
law spoke on\y of rehoisement — their powers, and the funds placed at
their disposal, related only to this ; and something must be done to meet
the case.
" It was thought at first that this might be eff'ected by the law, Sur la
mise en valeur des liens cojnmunaiu% for the improvement of communal pro-
perties. The greater part of the lands to be replanted being communal
lands, it was thought practicable to unite the two objects, and combine the
two funds for a common action, and a mixed commission was nominated by
the three ministerial departments interested ; but it was found that the two
laws which they sought to combine in joint action had two very different
objects : the law on rehoisement had for its object to secure the public
safety, the other to promote the national wealth ; the former acted on
decrees with credits and subventions, the second by prefectoral resolutions
granting simple advances ; by the first the Agents des Eaux et Forets were
charged with the reconstitution of communal property, to carry out the
second the officials of Les Fonts et Chaussees labour to convert communal
into national or personal property."
The Mixed Commission soon reported its powerlessness, and the Govern-
ment had to follow up the law in regard to rehoisement with one relative to
gazonnement.
The following is a translation of the Expose des Motifs, which accompanied
the draft of this law, addressed to the councillors of State charged to support
it before the Corps Legislatif : —
" Gentlemen, — AVhen the law of the 28th July 1860, on the reboise-
ment of the mountains, was submitted to the consideration of the Co7ps
Legislatif, the honourable reporter, in the name of your commission, expressed
himself in these words : —
" ' It may be well, then, to recognise the fact that the dehoisement, or
destruction of woods on our mountains, is not the only cause, or even the
principal cause, of the disasters produced by the ravages of the waters.
Along with this, as still more hurtful, must be classed as a disturbing
cause degazonnement, or the destruction of herbage.
" ' In like manner, rehoisement alone is not enough to remedy these evils.
It would be impossible to replant with trees all the bare mountains, on
account of the great expense. It would also be useless, as keeping up the
turf is a sufficient preservative, the benefit of which has been proved by
experience. It would also be difficult, looking at it from the stand-point of
the wealth of the country, as it would substitute comparatively profitless
forests for the magnificent pasturage, the destruction of which would ruin the
population of the mountains.
" ' But it is not the less true that, in conjunction with gazonnementf
rehoisement will have a most happy eff'ect.
" ' The present law will only produce all the good eff'ects which may be
expected when it shall be supplemented by gazonncment,
2a
210 LEGISLATION ON TORBENTS,
<< < The experience and the investigations of engineers have shown that in
certain cases it is indispensable to arrest a daily increasing evil, for only in
this way can possibly be preserved certain districts unfitted for pasturage,
and threatened with approaching destruction. Rehoisement will create a
great protection, preserving even the pasture lands, regulating the flow of
the water, and preventing the formation of avalanches, and exercising certain
specific effects during atmospheric perturbations.
" ' The measure which is now proposed is truly a law for the public
welfare, and has a right to all our sympathy ; but it will not produce all
the good that may be expected, until it shall be supplemented by measures
for the protection of the herbage, and by measures repressing the increasing
evils of depasturing.
" ' The commissioners appointed by you pray earnestly for these measures,
regarding which they have no power to take the initiative.'
" Goverment has not overlooked this view of matters in the preparation of
the law of 1860. The Expose des Motifs, or reasons assigned for this law,
explained to the legislative body the various reasons which at that time led
the Government to determine not to extend the action of the law to the
restoration of herbage. One reads as follows, at page 17 : —
" * We do not conceal, that, even looking at it from the point of view
of hydraulic results, which is the stand-point of the law, the restoration
of the herbage is fitted to give important help to rehoisement. At the same
time, it does not appear possible to extend so far the operation of the pro-
posed measures, and that for several reasons.
" * First, the financial resources which are at command are not adequate
to meet the expense of the rehoisement which it is desirable to encourage
and execute, unless they be laid out with the greatest economy and wisdom ;
no part, therefore, should be diverted to works of a different nature, or
inferior utility.
" ' Second, rehoisement, where executed intelligently, having solidified
the soil, will also, in a certain degree, promote the natural restoration of
herbage in certain places.
" * Third, there is room to hope that, having before their eyes the rehoise-
ment executed by or under the influence of Government, communes, to
whom depasturing offers immediate and individual advantages, will be easily
induced to undertake for themselves the restoration of their pastures, now
that it has become more easy and sure of success.
" * Finally, the legislative body is engaged on a special law for bringing
under culture communal lands, which will serve in cases altogether excep-
tional as a last resource.'
" The first reason which we have adduced still subsists ; it is certain
that it would be impossible to proceed with rehoisement and with gazonne-
ment simultaneously, and to a sufficient extent, with nothing but the
resources created by the law of 1860 ; but the hindrances may speedily
disappear should Government approve of the proposals wliich we shall
shortly have the honour of presenting.
" As to the two last reasons, they rest upon conditions which it must be
confessed have not yet been confirmed by experience. AVe shall later explain
the causes which are opposed to the realisation of our hopes.
" It is right that we should farnish the Corps Legislafif witii a summary
of the practical results of the law on rehoisement. The success of this law
may be confidently affirmed.
teXPOsi DE8 MOTIFS OF LAW OF 8tH JUNE 1864. 21 1
" Eeboisements facultatifs, that is to say those set a-goiug by the bimpl©
encouragement of State subventions, have extended, —
In 1861, to - - 3,237 hectares.
In 1862, to - - 7,448 „
In 1863, to - - 9,320
'* ReboUements effected on the Crown lands liavc replanted, —
In 1861, - - - 1,402 hectares.
In 1862, - - - 1,866
In 1863, - - - 1,750
" As regards veboiseDient ohligatoires, that is to say, what is done in the
p6rim^tre, or boundary, the replanting of which has been pronounced
necessary for the public welfare, the operations have been necessarily
retarded by the fulfilment of legal formalities, but investigations and
instructions have been carried on with activity.
"At the end of 1863, 264 undertakings, comprehending 140,000 hectares,
were made the subjects of special consideration, and 77 had been the subject
of special decrees declaring their public utility. The operations w^ere being
executed in 26 perimetres, and over an extent of 1,853 hectares.
*' At least 40 Departments are profiting by the operation of the law.
''Several General Councils of Departments have desired to take part in
the Government works. The sums voted have been, —
20,000 francs in 1860
40,000 „ „ 1861
71,000 „ „ 1862
98,000 „ „ 1863
" The import of such a constant and rapid progress has not escaped the
notice of Government. The net cost of the operations has not been less
satisfactory.
"The reasons assigned for the law of 1860, inspired by a very decided
wish to avoid all illusions and chimerical promises, fixed the average expense
of the work of repeuplement at 180 francs per hectare. What has been
done in the average expense has not exceeded 108 francs, and the benefit
of the law may thus extend to other and more extensive districts.
" Government has all along met with the greatest sympathy from the
General Councils of Departments, Councils of Arrondissements, and Special
Commissioners.
" But now, as we approach a very important and very delicate point — the
moral disposition of the population towards the measures taken to carry
into effect the law of 1860 — we meet facts which have induced Government
to think that it is opportune, and perhaps necessary, to complete this law
in accordance with the wishes expressed by the Commission of the Corps
Legislatif, at least in so far as relates to the communal pasture lands.
" The aim and consequences of the law relative to mountain reboisement
has been but imperfectly understood and appreciated by Municipal Councils,
and by the inhabitants of the communes most interested.
" Those who have the rights of pasturage, accustomed to the slender in-
come derived from depasturing — and it must be admitted sometimes too
poor to do without this, are disturbed by measures which temporarily restrain
their individual privileges. Moreover, seeing that Government occupies
itself exclusively with works of reboisement, they attribute to it the design
of everywhere substituting forest for pasture, so as to progressively accom-
plish the suppression of depasturing.
212 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
" The consequences have been these : on one hand, a pretty large number
of decrees proclaiming the public utility of the measures have been published,
contrary to the advice of the Municipal Councils and to the wishes expressed
by witnesses at the inquiry ; on the other hand, the commimes have refused
to make the small sacrifices which would have been necessary for the
restoration, in a future more or less distant, of pastures of which they
believed they were destined to be deprived altogether.
'' Independently of these obstacles and these misunderstandings, we
ought to add, that many communes are to be met with which are really too
poor to undertake the operations at their own expense, however inexpensive
they may be, or to endure being deprived, even for a short time, of the
incomes which a number of them derive in one form or another from the
communal pastures.
''In this predicament Government has seen the necessity of intervention,
and the pressing duty of enlightening the inhabitants, of reassuring them,
and especially of meeting their real necessities and their just desires, by
seeking to make compensation for the diminution of their privileges, looking
to the valuable possessions of the pastures.
" Before having recourse to a new law. Government has tried what effects
would be produced by the combined co-operation of the law Sur la mise en
valeur des hiens communaux, with the law on 7'ehoisement.
" A High Commission has been created ' for the purpose of finding out
the best way to make the two laws co-operate towards a common end, and
with the help of their mixed character to smooth away the difficulties which
may arise between the two Ministerial Departments entrusted with the
execution of these two laws — that of agriculture, commerce, and public
works, and that of finance'.
" This Commission has acknowledged the impossibility, or at least the
extreme difficulty, of reaching the same end with the two instruments at its
disposal. And in order to attain this end it is necessary, in the first place,
to find out the moimtain districts, the consolidation of which is demanded
by the public interest; to distinguish between ground which must be reboised
or replanted with woods, and ground which must be regazo7ined or planted
with turf; to mark out the p^rimetres with reference to these; and in these
p^rim^tres to determine the number and form of massive woods which are to
retain the floods and protect the pasturage. It is necessary that the
enactments prepared by Government should be submitted, as a whole and
in their harmony, to the various authorities, to the Councils, and to the Com-
missions, whose duty it is to give their advice in regard to the instructions
issued. It is necessary that the subventions furnished by the State and
the demands for local subsidies should be in proportion, on the one hand, to
the public utility of the enterprise, and, on the other, to the advantages
which would result to the local population ; finally, it is necessary that the
temporary privation of privileges should in certain cases be compensated
by grants of money, at least to the poorest communes.
" It may be seen that this combination of circumstances, or conditions,
can only be secured through a double operation — by means of two parallel
codes of instructions, by means of two administrations, and b}'- the applica-
tion of two distinct laws. The difliculty is not wholly related to the truth,
that to be useful an operation should have a single aim ; but also to this,
that the two laws, while presenting incontestable analogies, are, nevertheless,
diftiinguifthecl by notable diiferences.
EXPOSl^ DES MOTIFS OF LAW OF 8tH .TUNE 1864. 213
*' The principal stand-point of the law of reboisemeni is the public safety,
the regulation of the water-flow, and the protection of the low grounds.
Economy is only sccondar3^
" The stand-point of the law relative to bringing communal lands
under culture is more especially economy, the improvement of the com-
munal patrimony, the increase of the general food supply, and the increase
of the municipal revenues.
" The formalities prescribed by these two laws are analogous ; but they
are not identical.
** According to the law of rehoisement the initiative should be taken by
the Central Government ; according to the In w Sur hi mise en valeur des
biens communaux the initiative is to be taken by the prefect.
" The law on reboisements sets agoing a very complicated machinery,
more especially the special commissions ; the law Sur la mise en valeur des
biens communaux does not require the interference of these commissions.
" In another relation the law on reboisement offers two kinds of encourage-
ment— fixed subventions and recoverable advances ; the other law offers
onlj^ recoverable advances.
" Finally, the law Sur la mise en valeur des biens communaux, conform-
abl}'' to the nature of its aim, tends to withdraw the p 'operty improved
from the possession of the public ; it formally authorises the State to enact
that the improvements shall be consolidated ; the law on reboisements, on
the contrary, promises to throw open the ground for pasture whenever the
trees are old enough, and the result expected from regazonnement is
designed to be, as we have already said, to restore to the possessor a more
valuable in the place of a more extended privilege.
" These differences will explain how it is the High Commission has been
led to think that there is no hope of great and regular development, the
necessity of which is now clearly shown, through the conjoint operations of
this double initiative, of these double instructions, and these different
tendencies, whatever may be done to organise the simultaneous application
of the laws. The High Commission has unanimously acknowledged that
the only practical efficacious means of obtaining the desired combination of
gazonnement and rehoisement in the jjerimetres mixtes, is to entrust the
initiative and instructions to be given, and the execution of these, to one
single administration under identical conditions, with the performance of
the same formalities, with a single end in view, and that that which is
arrived at by the law of reboisemeni, and of which a law simply supple-
mentary to this would easily ensure the attainment.
" Government has adopted the proposal of the High Commission, and, the
principle once admitted, the drawing up of the scheme presents few diffi-
culties. Nothing is needed but to extend to the renewal of pasture in the
perimetres mixtes the arrangements already adopted for the forest repeuple-
ment, and to add to the funds created by the law of 28th July 1860 the
necessary supplement.
" Gentlemen, we have very little to say upon the different articles of the
scheme, and we shall advert to them here very cursorily.
*' Art. 1, in reproducing the definition of art. 4 of the law of 28th July
1860, aims at defining the object of the new law, and at demonstrating that
it is only a supplement to the older one. And it should be thoroughly
understood that the action of the Finance Department can never take the
place of the Agricultural, Commercial, or Public Works Depai-tment ; that
214 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
the Forest Administration will only exert its power to investigate or to execute
operations for restoring the sward on hilly ground, looking exclusively to
the public utility in the regulation of the water-courses, and the consolida-
tion of the soil — that is to say, in conditions identical with those which led
to its being invested with the power of encouraging or executing the
7'eboisements.
" Art. 2, for the arrangement of preparatory formalities, refers simply to
the law of 28th July 1860 ; it could not do otherwise, for in most cases the
question is, how to accomplish the formation of mixed perim^tres composed
of woods and tracts of new turf ; the directions ought to be combined for
this double object, and consequently should be subjected to the same
regulations.
" A temporary arrangement authorises the Forest Administration, in
regard to around included for the first time in the area of reboisement
ohligatoire, to substitute operations for renewal of the turf for operations
for rehoisement in such measure as they my deem fit.
"Art. 3 relates to art. 9 of the law of 28th July 1860. This last article
enacts that, in cases where the State executes operations of rehoisement
upon communal lands, the communes may relieve themselves of the burden
of repayment by giving up the proprietorship of half of the lands reboised.
It has appeared that, when operations oiregazonnement only are in question,
the proportion of one-half is nearly always too great, taking into considera-
tion the expense of the work. Hence, an arrangement by which the
communes may always get exemption, by giving up land in proportion to
the advances made for their benefit.
"Art. 4 fixes the different executive measures which should be specified
by regulation of the public administration. This statute should determine
the mode of certifying the advances made by the State, and the measures
necessary for securing the repayment of these ; it should also lay down
rules for the allocation and settlement of grants of money which it may be
necessary to allot, to communes which are too poor to submit to even a
temporary deprivation of pasture, though in the view of its improve-
ment,— grants of money, which, besides in certain cases, will constitute the
greatest part, or even the whole, of the expense of restoration, and which
should only be granted in cases of absolute necessity by a decree declaring
the public utility of the measure.
" Finally, Art. 5 creates the financial resources required for the operation
of the law. The Government is referred, for the specification of the nature
of these, to the law of 28th July 1860, and in proposing to obtain these
resources from extraordinary fellings it has only followed the line of action
indicated Vjy your Commission four years ago.
" Such, gentlemen, are the principal arrangements of the Project de lot
which we have the honour to submit to you ; they have a sj^ecial reference
to the mountain lands, because the Forest Administration, with whom the
execution of them will lie, has only, in what relates to the regeneration of
pasture lands which are not wooded, for its work, to carry out measures
complementary to the law Sur le Reboisement des Montagues ; they have
also a special reference to communal lands, because the improvement of
meadows belonging to private proprietors have not appeared of a character
to warrant either the application of coercive measures, or the employment
of the funds of the State ; these arrangements do not the less apply to
numerous localties, and to areas of very great extent ; they will produce.
LAW OF StU JUNE 1864. 215
no small effect by their physical action, and they will not be without
interest, in more than one locality, in regard to their influence in pacifyuig
the mind. We hope, gentlemen, that they will meet with your approval."
The draft, or ProjH de loi, with such modifications as were pro])osed by
the Commission to which it was submitted, was adopted by a unanimous
vote of the Corps Legislatif, and was issued in the following terms : —
'* Law of 8th June 1864, completing, in what relates to gazonnement^ the
law of 28th July 1860, Sur le liehoisement des Montagues.
"Art. 1. Ground situated in the mountains, the consolidation of which
is, by the terms of the law of 28th July 1860, recognised to be necessary
on account of the state of the soil, and the dangers which may result to
the lower ground, may be, according to the necessities of the public
interest, either entirely returfed, or partly returfed and partly reboisedf or
entirely rehoised.
"Art. 2. Applicable to the work oi gazonnement, in so far as they contain
nothing contrary to the present loi, are the Articles 1 to 8, and Articles 11,
of the law of 28th July 1860, on reboisement.
" Everywhere, with regard to territory comprehended within the p^ri-
mfetre of obligatory rehoisements, previous to the publication of the present
law, the Forest Administration is authorised, after consultation with the
Municipal Councils of the interested communes, to substitute gazonnement
for rehoiseme7it, in such measure as they may judge necessary.
" Communes and public institutions, and private proprietors, may call
for this substitution. In case of refusal by the Forest Administration, it
shall be decreed by the prefect in council, after the fulfilment of the
formalities enacted by 3 and 4 of the second paragraph of Art. 5 of the
law of 28th July 1860.
" The decision of the prefect may be referred to the Minister of Finance,
who shall make it law, after having taken the advice of the finance section
of the Council of State.
"Art. 3. In every case, communes and public institutions maybe released of
repayment to the State by giving up at most the half of the returfed land,
during the time necessary to repay to the State, both principal and interest,
the advances made for useful works ; or they have the alternative of giving
up entirely a part of the land, not to exceed one-fourth, all being specified
by professional surveyors.
" Art. 4. There shall not be carried on the execution, at one time, of
works of gazonnement and enclosure, on more than one-third of the surface
to he gazoiined in each commune, unless the Municipal Council shall authorise
them being carried on over a more considerable extent.
" Art. 5. A proprietor expropriated by the execution of the present law
has the right of recovering his estate after being gazonned, on condition of
repaying the price of expropriation, and the expense of the operations, both
principal and interest. He can exonerate himself from the repayment for
the work executed by resigning one-fourth of his estate. ^
"Art. 6. An enactment of the public Administration shall determine (1)
What measures are to be taken for selecting the portions pointed out in
Art. 1 of the present law ; (2) Rules to be observed for the execution and
preservation of the gazonnement ; (3) The mode of determining the grants
made by the State, the measures necessary for securing the repayment
of principal and interest, and the rules to be followed for the cession or
216 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
resignation to the State of the possession and proprietorship of land ; (4)
The mode of fixing and allocating grants of money, which, according to cir-
cumstances, may be allotted to communes in case of the temporary
deprivaiiion of them of pasture on the communal lands which are, for the
time being, the subjects oi gazonnement or reboisement.
" Art, 7. A sum of five millions is set apart to the payment of expenses
authorised by the present law, amounting to 500,000 francs per annum.
" This shall be provided by means of extraordinary fellings in the Crown
forests being made in aid of the ordinary resources of the treasury."
On the 10 th November, in this year, was issued the Imperial Decree,
embodying the regulation of the Administration for the execution of the
laws of 28th July 1860, and the 8th June 1861, on the i^ehoisement and the
gazonnement of the mountains, in which, after the preamble stating what
documents had been seen and considered, it is stated, —
" We have decreed and decree what follows : —
" TiTRE I. — Reboisements et Gazonnements Facultatifs.
"Art. 1. The proprietors of land situated on mountain tops or
declivities, who may wish to benefit by the subventions to be granted by
the State in terms of Arts. 1 and 2 of the law of 28th July 1860, and of
paragraph 1 of Art. 2 of the law of 8th June 1864, should make their
desires known to the Conservateur des Forets.
"When a commune or public institution is in question, the request
should be made to the prefect, who transmits it to the conservateur, along
with his opinion and reasons attached.
" Art. 2. Ground belonging to communes or public institutions on which
operations of reboisement or gazonnement are undertaken, with the aid of
State subventions, are for the time submitted absolutely, the parts reboised
to the forest regime, the parts regazonned to the pasture regulations pi'e-
scribed by article 21 of the present decree.
" These operations, as well as the work necessary for preserving and
keeping them ujd, are effected under the control and superintendence of the
forest officials.
" Art. 3. If the ground belongs to several communes, and the success of
the reboisements or gazonnements .renders necessary combined operation, in
accordance with Articles 70, 71, and 72 of the law of 18th July 1837, a
Syndical Commission is appointed to attend to and carry on the operation.
" In any case in which the work has not been done, or has been badly
executed, according to attestation of the forest officials, through the com-
munes or tlio public institutions neglecting to conform to the decrees for
the regulation of the right of pasturage, the prefect takes out a summons
commanding the restitution of the subventions which have been allotted by
the State.
Art. 4. Tlic money premiums obtained by private individuals are paid
after the work is ])crfornie(l, on presentation of a nunnte declarative of the
works having been accepted, prepared by the local forest official in the form
of the corresponding minute required on completion of operations for im-
proving the crown lands, and on the advice of the inspector of the consei^-
vateur.
" A valuation is made of the subventions of seed or plants which are
nrPERTAL DECREE OP IOtH NOV. 1864. 217
given to private proprietors before the beginning of the operations. This
valuation is notified to the pro])rietor, and accepted by him. The amount
can be recovered by the State in cases where the work is undone, where
there may be an embezzlement of part of the seed or plants, or where tha
work is badly executed.
" Art. 5. All subventions exceeding 500 francs in value shall be decreed
by our Minister of Finance ; all subventions of the value of 500 francs and
under shall be granted by the Director of Forests.
** Tithe II. — Compulsory Reboisements and Gazonnements — Settle-
ment OF THE P^RIMETRES WITHIN WHICH ReBOISEMENT AND GaZONNEMENT
ARE Necessary.
" Art. 6. "Whenever the Forest Administration deem it right to fix the
perimetre of ground within which rehoisement and gazonnement are required,
the Director-General of Forests intimates to the prefect the names of the
forest officials entrusted with the duty of drawing up the proces verbal of
the survey of the grounds, the map of the district, and the plan of the pro-
jected operations.
" The prefect appoints the engineer of bridges and highways, or of mines,
who is to lend assistance.
" Art. 7. The minute of reconnoissance is accompanied by an explanatory
memorandum regarding the aim of the undertaking, and the benefits which
are to be expected.
" The map of the district is prepared with the help of the registrar of
lands. The number of the registral volume is given for each portion, also
the extent, the proprietor's name ; and in dealing with a commune or public
institution, the total extent of land belonging to the commune or public
institution.
" The perimetre is marked by a continuous border of a uniform bright
colour. The grounds to be regazonned or rehoised are distinguished by flat
colours of diflferent hues.
" The prospectus of the operations intimates what land is to be rehoised^
and what to be regazonned, it also fixes the period within which the whole
should be completed, and contains, — (1) An approximate estimate of the
expense, and a rough draft of the division of this expense among the
different proprietors ; (2) An indication of the subvention which should be
offered to each proprietor; (3) An estimate of the actual value of each
parcel, and its value in itself and in its superficies ; (4) When necessary, a
note of the indemnity which may be awarded to each commune in cases where
there is a temporary deprivation of the pasturing on land included in the
p^rimHre ; (5) And all other necessary statistical information.
" Art. 8. The papers enumerated in the preceding article are forwarded
by the Forest Administration to the prefect, who proceeds in each commune
to make the enquiries prescribed by Art. 5 of the law of 28th July 1860,
and paragraph 1 of Art. 2 of the law of 8th June 1864.
" The draft lies at the mayoral office for a month, at the expiry of which
time a commissioner, appointed by the prefect, receives at the mayoral
office, during three consecutive da^^s, the depositions of the inhabitants aa
to the public utility of the projected operations. The month specified
dates from the time when the project is advertised by proclamation and
hand-bills.
2b
218 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS,
" A certificate from the mayor attests the performance of this foimality,
as well as the publication of the prefect's decree requiring the members of
the inquest to begin operations.
" After having closed and signed the register of declarations, the com-
missioner transmits it immediately to the prefect, along with his opinion
and reasons annexed. He also sends the other papers which have served as
a basis to the inquiries.
*' Art. 9. The Municipal Council of each of the communes interested,
called together by the prefect for the express purpose, shall examine the
papers connected with the investigation, and at the end of a month shall
give an opinion, by a resolution agreed to by them, along with the super-
added assessors, in number equal to that of the acting municipal council-
lors. If it is necessary, this resolution shall declare it ; if the Municipal
Council authorises operations of 7'ehoisement to a greater extent than that
fixed by Art. 10 of the law of 28th July 1860, also operations of gazpnne-
nient and of enclosure to a greater extent than that fixed by Art. 4 of the
law of 8th June 1864, the minute of this resolution is added to the
papers connected with the inquiry.
" Art. 10. The Commission ordained by par. 2 of Art. 5 of the law of 28th
July 1860, and par. 1 of the law of 8th June 1864, is appointed by the
prefect in all the departments traversed by the line of operations.
" The Commission assembles, in the place pointed out by the prefect, on
the fourteenth day after he has given intimation. The papers giving
directions are examined, also the declarations handed in to the clerk of the
investigation ; and after all necessary information has been collected from
persons suitable to be consulted, the Commission gives its opinion, with
reasons annexed, both concerning the utility of the enterprise and upon the
different questions that have been submitted by Government.
" These different proceedings, from which the ^;?^oces verbal or minute
is prepared, should be completed within the course of another month.
" Art. 11. The prefect, after having taken advice from the Council of the
Arrondissement, and from the General Council, shall forward all the docu-
ments, with his own opinion and reasons annexed, to our Minister of Finance,
who, after having consulted our Minister of Agriculture, Commerce, and of
Public Works, and also, when necessary, our Minister of the Interior, shall
lay his report before us. We afterwards, in conjunction with our Council of
State, shall decide upon the public utility of the operation.
"Art. 12. A duplicate of the decree declaring the public utility of the
works is forwarded by the Director-General of Forests to the prefect, who is
responsible for the performance of the formalities prescribed by Art. 6 of
the law of 28th July 1860, and par. 1 of Art. 2 of the law of 8th June
1864. At the same time the Forest Administration intimates to the
prefect, in regard to each registered lot, the operations to be effected, the
conditions and time fixed for the completion of the offers of subventions
by the State, or the advances they are disposed to give, and finally, if need
be, the indemnities awarded for temporary deprivation of pasture.
" TiTRE III. — The Execution and Keeping up of the Work.
" Chap. I. — Lands belonging to Private Proprietors, included in the
PerimUres, fixed by decrees declaring their pidAic %Uility.
** Art. 13. At the end of one month, reckoned from the intimation made
IMPEniAL DECRRE OF IOtiI NOV. 1864. 219
to him of the decree declarative of public utility, the proprietor of land
iucluded in tlie perinl^tro shall declare if ho iutends doing the work himself,
or intends leaving- it to the Forest Administration.
" Two copies are made of this declaration, and forwarded to the sous-
prefecture of tlie locality, where tlicy are registered.
" These copies are examined by the sous-prefect, who returns one to the
proprietor, and sends the other immediately to the prefect.
" If the proprietor wishes to do the work himself, his declaration shall
contain, moreover, some proof that he has the means of doing so.
"Art. 14. When no declaration has been made within the specified time,
it is taken for granted that the proprietor refuses to undertake the work.
"Art. 15. The work completed by a private proprietor, with or without
the aid of a subvention, shall be subjected to the surveillance of the Forest
Administration.
"Art. 16. The Forest Administration shall proceed to the execution of
operations to be effected on expropriated lands.
" The completion of the work is notified by the Forest Administration to
the expropriated proprietor ; this notification besides contains, (1) a detailed
account, principal and interest, of the cost of works executed from the date
of expropriation ; (2) an estimate of the annual expense supposed to be
necessary for their preservation and maintenance.
" Art. 1 7. When, in accordance with the Articles 7 of the law of 28th
July 1860, and 5 of the law of 8th June 1864, the expropriated proprietor
wishes to use his right of obtaining restitution, he makes a declaration to
that effect at the sous-prefecture within five years of the notification having
been made to him, in terms of the preceding Article.
*'In this declaration he makes it to be understood whether he wishes to
obtain restitution by repaying the money advanced by Government, or by
giving up the half of his property if rehoisement is in question, or the
quarter if gazonnement has been effected.
" These declarations are registered and a deed is executed.
"Art. 18. If the proprietor decides on repaying the advances made by
the State, he produces in support of his declarations necessary proof to
establish that he is in a position to repay the expense of expropriation and
the cost of the operations, both the execution and maintenance of them,
both principal and interest.
" The declaration and attesting proofs are to be addressed, within a
month, to our Minister of Finance, who decrees and fixes the formalities
and the period within which the proprietor shall have his rights restored.
" Art. 19. If the proprietor offers to resign the half or the quarter of his
property, according as the ground has been i^ehoised or regazonned, a forest
official and the proprietor, or his deputy, proceed to the division of the
ground — that is to say, if it has been rehoised, it is divided into two lots of
equal value, and if it has been gazonned, into two lots, one being three
quarters, the other one quarter, of the value of the whole.
" In case of dispute about the division of the lots, it is made by a third
party, an expert^ nominated by the President of the Tribunal.
" If one part of the work has been done by the proprietor, he is re-
imbursed by a proportionate deduction from the portion falling to the
State.
"Where the land has been reboised the division is made by drawing lots
when the parties disagree.
220 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
" Chap. II. — Lands belonging to Communes or Public Institutions
included in the Perimetres fixed by decree declarative of public utility.
" Section 1st. — Execution of works on ground belonging to communes or
public establishments.
" Art. 20. Within a month, reckoned from the issuing of the decree declar-
ative of the public utility, the communes and public institutions possessing
land situated within the perimetres inform the prefects, by a resolution, with
reasons annexed, if they intend to execute, at their own expense, the whole
or part of the work on the conditions prescribed; or leave the State to do
it at its own expense, subject to repayment ; or finally, amicably to resign
to the State the whole or part of the land included in the perimetre.
" When the commune or public institution fail to make known their
intention within the above mentioned period, the State undertakes the
work in accordance with Art. 8 of the law of 28th July 1860, and of para-
graph 1st of Art. 2 of the law of 8th June 1864.
" Art. 21. Lands which have been reboised, or are to be reboised,
belonging to communes or to public institutions included in the perimetres
fixed by the decrees declarative of the public utility of the measure, are
subject absolutely to the forest regime.
" Ground that has been or is to be gazonned, included in the same peri-
metres, falls under the application of the provisions and arrangements of
the 8th section of Titre iii. of the forest code, and the 9th section of Titre
ii. of the Act of 1st August 1807, which relate to the arrangements
regarding pasture.
" Art. 22. When the commune or public institution has intimated its
intention of caiTying on the work, the Municipal Council, or the Adminis-
trative Committee, annually allots the funds considered needful, either for
the execution of new works or for keeping up those already completed.
" Art. 23. The forest agents superintend the execution of the operations.
In cases where the conservateur has proved that the work has been left
undone, or badly done, a decision of our Minister of Finance shall decree
that the State shall take charge of the operations, in terms of Art. 8 of the
law of 28th July 1860, and paragraph 1 of Art. 2 of the law of 8th
June 1864.
" When the ground belongs to several communes, and the success of the
reboisements, or of the gazonnements, demands combined operations, if all
the Municipal Council intimate their consent, a Syndical Commission is
appointed to carry on the work in accordance with Art. 70, 71, and 72 of
the law of 18th July 1837.
" Section 2nd. — Certification of the sums advanced by Government to the
communes and public institutions, and the measures necessary to ensure
repayment.
** Art. 24. When communes or public institutions intimate that they
leave the operations to be performed by Government, the Forest Adminis-
tration causes them to be done in accordance with the formalities used
when the improvement of the Crown lands is in question.
" The statements of expense are prepared in accordance with the rules
of liabilities of the Forest Administration.
*' It is the same with the annual statements of the cost of maintenance.
'* Art. 25. When several communes are interested in the operations; the
IMPERIAL DECREE OF lOXH NOV. 1864. 221
division of expense is made in the way prescribed by Art. 72 of the law of
18th July 1837.
" Every year the parties interested receive a statement of the outlay
on their behoof made by the State. After the completion of the works,
the general account of the outlay is closed by the Minister of Finance,
copies being delivered to the parties interested. The principal, forming
the total of the amount, bears simple interest at five per cent, from the
date of the completion of the works.
" Art. 26. The works efiected by the State shall be kept up by the
Forest Administration.
" The interest of the advances made by Government for this object, the
account of which is closed annually by the Minister of Finance, is also five
per cent, per annum. A copy of this account shall be delivered to all
parties interested, along with a statement of the expense incurred.
*' Art 27. Appeals for revision or rectification of the yearly accounts of
expenses for the completion and keeping up of the operations shall, under
pain of forfeiture, be laid before the Prefectorial Councils within six months
from the notification of the said accounts. When this time has elapsed the
accounts are confirmed.
" Art. 28. A statement of the produce, and one of the expenses incurred,
shall be made and closed every year by the Minister of Finance, copies of
which are sent to the parties interested.
" Within six months from this notification, parties interested may, as in
the case of the expenses of the works, avail themselves of the privilege
mentioned in the preceding Article.
" The value of the produce is deducted from the interest due to Govern-
ment, and, in subordination to this, from the expense of the completion or
keeping up of the works.
" Art. 29. When the advances made by Government are entirely repaid,
either by the produce or by payments made by the parties interested, the
latter are immediately put in possession of the ground managed for them by
Government, under the restrictions resulting from their being subjected to
the forest regime as regards the portion reboised. and with regard to the
portion regazonned, subject to the regulation repeated in Art. 21 of the
present law.
'' If the communes and public institutions wish to repay the sum total
of the Government loan, they must prove that they can do so, and execute
the necessary commissions.
^^ Section 8rd. — Rules to be followed when communes and public institutions
give up the enjoyment or proprietorship of grounds, as authorised by Art. 9
of the law of 28th July 1860, and Art. 3 of the law of 8thJune 1864.
" Art. 30. Should a commune or public institution wish to release itself
from all Government claims by giving up either the proprietorship cf the
half of the ground rehoised, or the use of not more than the half, or the
proprietorship of a quarter at most of lands which have been regazonned, the
Municipal Council, or the Administrative Commission, shall adopt a resolu-
tion relating thereto, with reasons annexed, which resolution shall be
notified to the prefect.
" Art. 31. As regards land which has been rehoised, when this is to be
divided into two portions of equal value, this is done by an expert nominated
by the prefect, and a forest agent nominated by the Forest Administration.
222 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
" The portions are assigned by lot, when the parties do not agree. This
is done before the sous-prefect of the Arrondissement,
" If a part of the work has been executed by the commune or public
institution, this is made up to it in the division by a proportionate
deduction from the portion which falls to the Government.
" Art. 32. With regard to ground which has been gazonned, the division is
made by an expert nominated by the prefect, and an agent appointed by
the Forest Administration, according to the valuation of works of public
utility effected by the State, and also the settlement of which portions of
ground are to be given up to it altogether, or only for a time.
" When there is any dispute, this shall be done by an expert chosen by the
President of the Tribunal.
" Art. 33. An account is kept by the Forest Administratiou of the produce
of ground the use of which has been given up to the State. The enact-
ments of section 2nd of chapter ii., Titre iii,, of the present law are appli-
cable to this account.
" Section Jftli. — Method of determining and allocating indemnities, which
may have been granted to communes, when there has been a temporary
privation of the right of pasturage on communal land which has been
subjected to gazonnement or rehoiseinent.
" Art. 34. In cases where the right of pasturage on communal lands
which have been subjected to rehoisement or gazonnement has been withdrawn
for a time, indemnities are granted in proportion to the resources, to the
sacrifices made by the communes, to the wants of the needy inhabitants,
and to the sums granted by the General Councils for rchoisements and
gazonnenients.
" Regard is also had to any agreement made by any commune to
suppress the keeping of goats, either wholly or in part.
" Art. 35. These indemnities are fixed by decrees declaring the public
utility of the measure. They date from the day when the right of pasturage
ceased, and they are paid into the communal treasury at the end of every
year. These appear among the extraordinary 7-ecei2Jts, under the name of
accidental receipts, and the use to which they are to be put, regulated by
the Municipal Council, in the form of sanctioned expenses (depences
facidtatifsj.
" Chap. III. — General Enactments.
" Art. 36. Before beginning operations within the limits of the perim^tres
fixed by Imperial decree, the limits of the perim^tres, and if need be the
boundaries of the said perim^tres, must be determined at the expense of
the State.
"Art. 37. Our decree of 27th April 1861, containing enactments of the
Public Administration for the execution of the law of 28th July 1860, on
mountain rehoisement, is renewed.
" Art. 38. Our Ministers — the Secretaries of State in the department of
Finance, in the department of the Interior, of Agriculture, of Commerce, of
Public Works — are intrusted, each in his own sphere, with the execution
of the present law.
"Given at Compi^gne, 10th November 1864."
In 1865 there came into operation the supplemental law in regard to
REPORTS OP OPERATIONS, 1865-1866. 223
gazonnement, but circumstances which will afterwards bo stated prevented
the issue of the official re])(U't of opcratiouH nt tlic usual time, and the
reports for 1865 and IHGG were issued conjointly.
From these it appears that in these years nothing was done in gazonne-
ments in connection with sanctioned works, or irhoisemenfs faculindfs ; but
in connection with rehoisemcnt and gazoiwement oUigatoiim, 37 new p^ri-
m^tres, embracing a total area of 25,916 hectares, had been considered, and
31 p6rim6tres, in regard to which the prescribed formalities had been fulfilled,
had been decreed of public utility. Works had been carried on during the
same period over an area of 6491 hectares 3 ares, embracing 120 p^rim^tres,
of which 41 were new ones. Of these 6491 hectares, almost all had been
situated at great elevations, and 1613 hectares 88 ares had been brought
under gazonnement.
A tabulated statement of all the works executed m 1865 and 1866 is
given. And the report goes on to say : —
"These works were executed at an expense of 924,122*64 francs, of
which 55,978*34 francs were subventions, and 16,806*87 francs indemnities
granted for temporary deprivation of pasturage, and the balance —
851,407*43 francs — might be considered money advanced to communes and
public bodies which had given up to the Administration the execution of
the works, subject to reimbursement, according to one or other of the
modes of reimbursement specified by Arts. 8 and 9 of the law of 28th July
1860, and Art. 2 of the law of 8th June 1864.
''These indemnities for temporary deprivation of pasturage, provided for
by A.rt. 6 of the law on gazonnement, were — in 1865, 4134*50 francs; and
12,672*75 francs in 1866."
A tabulated statement, giving details of the expenses met by the State
in 1865 and 1866 in these works of rehoisement and gazonnement follows,
and the report, summarising these, goes on to say : —
" The reboisements ohligatoires in 1865 and 1866 extended over a total
area of 5,919 hectares, of which 1,276*9 hectares have been rehoisedhj pro-
prietors by aid of subventions, and 4,624*91 hectares by the State in their
stead ; gazonnement has been applied during the same time to 2,195*9 hectares;
and 91,645 barrages have been constructed within the perimetres, and, in
combination with these, numerous lateral hurdles ; the expense of the two
operations amounts to the sum total of 924,192*64 francs, which has been
created thus : —
''Subventions, in kind and in money, allotted for works
of rehoisement and gazonnement decreed to be of
public utility, - _ . . Francs, 55,978*34
" Advances made by the State for reboisement and
gazonnement, . _ _ _ ^^ 485,219*56
" Advances by the State for works of maintenance, ,, 169,641*27
" Advances by the State for barrages and various
works, ----- „ 196,546-60
" Indemnities allowed to communes for temporary de-
privation of pasturage, - - - j^ 16,806*87
Total, Francs, 924,192*64
" Besides these works decreed to be of public utility, there were other
works sanctioned by the Administration.
224 LEGISLATION ON TOBRENTS.
" The sanctioned works, fravaux faeultatifs, of 1865 embraced a total
extent of 7,734:'15 hectares, and necessitated allocations on the part of the
State to communes and private proprietors of subventions, in kind or in
money, amounting to 374,772"32 francs, with an expenditure on the works
of 169,776-26 francs for the o^ehoiseinent of lands belonging to the State — in
all, 544,548-58 francs.
" The subventions, in money and in kind, granted by the Administration
for works of maintenance have amounted to a sum of 99,904*10 francs ; the
expense of maintenance of State 7'ehoisements has been 51,531'75 francs.
" Proprietors of different classes have further constructed, by means
of the above-mentioned subventions, 5,804 new barrages, and have
repaired 818.
" The whole expense to the State for sanctioned works of rehoisementy in
1865, has amounted to 695,984*43 francs; and the expenses of every kind,
incurred by communes and private proprietors, for the works for which
subventions were granted, including funds granted by the General Councils
of the districts, may be estimated at 650,000 francs.
" The extent of land belonging to communes, private proprietors, and to
the State, over which rehoisement was effected in 1866 was 5,697*80
hectares. The rehoisement of lands belonging to the State cost 119,615*77
francs ; the subventions, in money and in kind, granted by the State for
reboisements by communes and private proprietors, amounted to 273,484*67
francs ; the maintenance of State reboisements entailed an expenditure of
47,951-85 francs; the State contributed by subventions, in money and in
kind, for the maintenance of reboisement by communes and by private pro-
prietors, 112,573*75 francs; the total expense to the State for sanctioned
reboisement in the course of the year amounted to 553,826*04 francs.
" There were constructed in the course of the year in the sanctioned
reboisements effected with the subventions mentioned, 2459 new barrages,
and besides these, 561 old ones were repaired. The quarter of the expense
of the whole work born by private proprietors, by communes, and by
departments, was estimated at 400,000 francs."
It has been stated, that circumstances prevented the issue of the report
for 1865 at the usual time. In reference to this it is stated by the
Director-General of the Forest Administration : —
''The report, relative to the operations carried on in 1865, could not be
produced at the usual time in consequence of serious disturbances which
the unexpected inundations in the autumn of 1866 occasioned in the
greater part of the mountainous countries the regeneration of which has
been entrusted to the Forest Administration. It might be expected
that the restocking of forests, executed within a year before, could scarcely
fail to have suffered much from such an outbreak of waters, and I tliought
it desirable, before making known the result of the works, to be fully and
correctly infornicd on the extent of the evil done to them.
"Happily," he goes on to say, "the delay has, and lias only, established
the fact that any desolations which have occurred are trifling in import-
ance compared with the calamities which have befallen the valleys and the
plains.
"The deluges of rain which fell on the 23rd and 24th of September in
the high lying regions of Auvergne, and of Vivarais, and on some spots in
Savoie, transformed the most of the thread-like streamlets almost instan-
REPORT ON FLOODS OF 1865-1860. SSS
tftiicously into furious torrents, and raised in less tlian twenty-four hours,
first the Lot, then tlie Avcyron, the Tarn, the river Arc, the AHier, and tlie
Loire to a height which the greater part of these water-courses had never
reached, even at the time of the floods of 1856.
" It may easily be conceived, that in such circumstances tJie w^orks of
rehoisemeut, undertaken within a few years before on the browns and slopes
of the mountains, could scarcely have any effect on the enormous masses of
water, the impetuosity of which only the oldest w^oods could be of use in
moderating. But if they have opposed no obstacle to the inundations, they
have sustained perfectly the shock, and it may be affirmed that they have
throughout exercised a happy influence.
"Thus in the Lozere, where the bridges carried away or damaged are
reckoned by hundreds, where the valleys have been half-filled w4th sand
and rocks, the rehoisements and gazonnements executed on about 1700
hectares have perfectly maintained the soil on which they are situated, and
protected the lower-lying grounds.
" In the p^rimetre of Chadenet, situated above the valley of the Crouzet,
of 566 barrages which have been constructed, 2 only have been carried
away, and the volume of earth and stones retained by the 564 barrages
remaining standing is estimated at no less than 2000 cubic metres, while,
on the other hand, all the slopes rendered mobile by cultivation or by
excessive depasturage have been cut up into ravines, and jielded up to the
w^ater-courses dejections which have increased considerably the disasters
experienced.
" These results have been established by the prefect of Loz^re in a
discourse addressed to the Agricultural Society of his department.
"In the Cantal corresponding eff'ects have been produced. On the
slopes, stripped of w^oods, there are traces of torrential ravines to be met with
at every step ; at the base of these the meadows are covered with gravel
and detached rocks ; and the rocks and highways are cut up. But where-
ever the temporary prohibition of passage and pasturage has permitted
vegetation to develope itself, and on spots on which reboisement has been
carried out by the State, by communes, and by private proprietors — reboise-
ments which cover a thousand hectares, there is no formation of ravines ;
and the lands and the lower-lying roads are untouched.
" The w^orks executed in the Haute-Loire are much more important than
those carried out in the Cantal. Besides the sanctioned reboisement^ re-
boisement facultatifSj the perimetres, the reboisement of which was decreed of
public utility, embraced in 1866 an area of nearly 5000 hectares, on 1650
hectares of which the reboisement has been effected. In the high moun-
tains of M4zenc and of Megal, where most of these perimetres are situated,
none of the portions reboised or regazonned have suffered from the violence
of the rains, whilst a contiguous mountain, that of Chaulet, wiiich is
being constantly traversed and broken up by the feet of sheep, has been
ploughed up into deep ravines. Those good results established in the
Mezenc and Megal are due not to the action of the vegetation drawn
over the denuded lands alone, but also to the restraining, power of the
barrages. Of 407 of these, constructed on the steep slopes of the Holme,
nine only have given way before the impetuosity of the torrent of Ponteils.
" The department of the Ardeche has scarcely been affected by the
storms of rain and the inundations, excepting in the Lorth-west portions,
and more particularly in the canton of Saint-Etienne-de-Lugdar^s. This
2c
226 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS,
canton is situated on the plateau, at an elevation of 1200 mHres, surmounted
by peaks of from 1400 to 1600 metres. In this region is the p^rimetre of
enjoined rehoisements, rehoisement oUigatoire, of Bor6e, and the unoccupied
domains of Mazan and those of Bonnefoi. Scarcely any traces of sand-hills
are to be found in the portions which have been rehoised. But it is not so
with the adjacent lands, and more especially with the valley of Saint-
Etienne-de-Lugdares, the basin of the Allier. There, where terminate the
slopes which have been rehoised, the rock has been laid bare, deep excavations
have been dug by the waters, and the valley has been covered with the
material dug out and carried away.
" The department of the Gard, like that of the Ard^che, only suffered in its
north-west portion, that is to say, in the Arrondissements of Alais and of the
Vigan, in which are situated the principal p^rimetres of rehoisement oUiga-
toire. With the exception of two harrages carried away by the waters, the
works which have been executed have stood wonderfully, and have at the
same time protected all the lower-lying lands against erosion. But eveiy-
where else, and notably at some distance from the perimetres of
Montdardier, of Concoules, of Genolhac, and of Ponteils, new ravines and
considerable accumulations of sand have been produced.
" In the department of the Puy-de-dome, until 1866, enjoined rehoisement
had been carried out only in one perim^tre, that of Clermont, about 400
hectares of which had been restored at the time of the inundations. But
sanctioned rehoisements had been there undertaken upon a great scale, and
they extended over many thousands of hectares. Both have sustained
perfectly the rude test of the deluges of the month of September 1866. In
many places they have to some extent contributed to moderate the ravages
of the waters. Thus, amongst the affluents of the Allier, the slopes of
which have been happily protected by the recent replantings, may be cited
the Couze-de-Chambon. This torrential water-course had always, when
great rains fell, caused great havoc and desolation in the commune of
Chambon d'Issoire. In 1866 the losses sustained, though still consider-
able, have been less marked than previously ; moreover, the inhabitants
convinced, as are likewise the agents of the Forest Administration, that the
amelioration of the regime of the torrents ought to be attributed to the
rehoisements effected since 1862, on an area of about 200 hectares, have,
without loss of time, hastened to offer contributions of day-labour towards
the completion of these useful works.
It is befitting to make mention in the same way of the Puy-dc-la-Chopine,
or of I'Echorchade, the abrupt steeps of which were lately throughout a great
extent denuded, and the dejections, spreading far, were augmented by every
rain. Sowings and plantations of resinous trees, combined vfith gazo7inement
and a system of planting slips or cuttings, which might root, have completely
changed the aspect of these grounds ; and the storms of rain of the autumn
of 1866, notwithstanding their extreme violence, have not effected any
erosion of importance. In fine, in the basin of the Morge, the Arrondisse-
ments of Clermont and of Riom, the rehoisements of ChiUel-Guyons and of
Keyot, which arc still of l)ut limited extent, have given a striking illustra-
tion of the cfi'ects which works of this kind may i)roducc. The old ravines
are now stopped up, and the little rivers of the CJroslicrs and the Tirctaine,
which in 1835, from the eUccts of rains like those whicli have led to the
late inundations, would have ravaged and desolated the valleys, have not,
it may be said, occasioned any havoc.
EKPORT ON FLOODS OF 1865-1866. S27
" 111 the departments of the Loire, the p6rim6tres of which the rehoise-
ment has been decreed to be of public utility do not as yet embrace more
than an extent of 1700 hectares, of which about one-fourth part has been
sown or planted. These works arc evidently too restricted to be able to
exert a really useful action on the neighbouring water-courses, the floods of
wdiich are so sudden and so disastrous. But it has been established that
they have reduced, in some measure, the rapidity of the flow by the
obstacles created, not only by the plants, but also by the dense herbage
and bushes which have grown since the grounds were enclosed, or 77iise
€11 defends.
" The numerous harraaes erected in the department of Is^re have acted
well ; they have prevented the crumbling down of the hills, — they have
slackened the flow^ of the w\aters, and arrested on their way the enormous
masses of earth and stone which previously would have precipitated them-
selves to the bottom of the basin. As for rehoisementSf properly so-called,
they had not been undertaken to any extent previous to 1863. The w^orks
are thus of too recent a date to be able to modify the regime of the waters
of the district ; but the enclosures, les mises en defends, which have followed
as a matter of course the declaration of the public utility of the rehoisements,
have had for effect, by covering again vast extents of ground with what
may be called a spontaneous vegetation, to arrest the progress of dejections
being carried away by the waters.
" The suppression, or rather the regulation, of the right of way, and the
depasturing of these, has produced an almost immediate effect at Valbonnais,
and on the eastern flank of the mountain of Connexe. The creation of
ravines, previously so frequent, no longer occurs ; and the old ravines have
ceased to be a continuous menace to the population, or to the imperial
road from Grenoble to Gap, w^hich used to be cut up whenever a great flood
occurred.
"The w^orks of reboisement executed in the Maurienne, department of
Savoie, extend only over 500 hectares -, but old drains, transformed into
dangerous ravines, have been stopped, and numerous barrages have been
established on spots which were formerly more exposed to erosion. These
works have stood -well, and everywhere they have prevented the disintegra-
tion of the soil.
" The departments of the High Alps, and of the Dr6me, did not suffer
from the rains which caused such great disasters in Central France. Con-
sequently, all the works undertaken in these regions by the Forest
Administration remain uninjured.
" In the departments of the Lower Alps, and Vancluse, there have fallen
only the usual rains, and there has been no general inundation.
" The trifling damages caused by the waters have been only local and
accidental. But there may be collected, from the consequences of two days
of rain w^hich fell, a good many observations which tend to establish the
efficacy of the works which have been executed.
" The ravines which furrow the chantier of the reboisement of Barr^me
formerly washed on to the imperial road immense quantities of material
torn off from the mountain ; now, the slopes are covered with numerous
barrages, and there come to the road only small stones mixed with mud
which are easily stopped by the bordering ditch. In the commune of Saint-
Andre, a mass of schistose granite, completely stripped of wood, and in full
process of desintegi'ation, has been almost consolidated through the effects
228 LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
of the barrages in combination with plantations. The principal ravine, by
which formerly flowed torrents of black mud to the Verdon, which often
spread themselves over the cultivated lands, is now cut up into sections by
barrages of stone, and of facines ; the willows, planted in the ground formed
by the coming down of earthy material, fixed this mobile soil, — the bottom
became level, and the slopes gentle, — and the ravine manifested a tendency to
disappear altogether. The influence of barrages was equally shown in the
chcmtier of Riou-Chanal, established to reduce the torrent of that name. It
has been established that the Riou-Chanal, which formerly brought down
blocks of from 10 to 15 cubic metres, has been so subdued by the barrages
that a foot-bridge, formed of a single plank at the embouchure of the
ravine, at the height of a metre, 40 inches from the bottom of it, has not
been carried away during many years ; formerly, it would have disappeared
after the first heavy shower of rain.
" The gazonnements being carried out now and for two or three years past in
the lower Alps have given very beneficial results. Since the hills bordering
the Labouret and the Seyne have been sown with sainfoin, there have no
more been seen formed these numerous deep ravines which the waters dig
out so easily in the disintegrated schists, of which the moutains in this
region are composed. The simple prohibition of pasturing has frequently
produced similar results ; scarcely has the ground been shut up from the
flocks than it covered itself again with a vegetation sufiicient to extinguish
the torrents. This fact has been established on the chantiers of Saint-
Andr6 and of Castellane, and on many other spots.
" Not to multiply citations, which may be considered already too
numerous, I shall now confine myself to indicating in a few lines the con-
clusions which naturally flow from the observations collected from all parts
of France.
" These conclusions may be summed up thus : — The inundations of 1866
had for their point of departure the most elevated summits of the central
plateau, they were too violent and too sudden to allow of the irruption of
the waters into the low-lying valleys being retarded by the works of
reboisement erected on only a few isolated spots.
" But if the works of recent creation, and the barrages which in com-
pleting the eftect produced by these do not yet cover areas sufliciently
extensive to cause them to modify perceptibly the regime of the great water-
coures, they have exercised a very appreciable action on the spots subjected
more immediately to their influence.
''They have not only slackened and divided the flow of the waters, but
they have, beyond this, retained in their places enormous masses of earth
and of rock which these waters would otherwise have swept away with
them.
*' This is one of the most indisputable and most useful of the eff*ects of
these works, for it must not be forgotten that the disasters, occasioned by the
inundations, are not only those due to the elevation of the bed of the rivers,
and to the flowing forth of their waters upon the plains ; the desolations
committed by them which are most difficult of cure proceed from deposits
of pebbles and of sand, and these are the consequences of ravages com-
mitted by the waters in the higher-lying regions.
''When the rivers come down from wooded regions, which are thus
protected from being cut \\\) by ravines, their l)cd is regular and unencum-
bered with material in transit. If great rains do come, the river may
nia»ouT ON FLOoi)8 OF 1805-1866. 220
overflow its banks, its waters may cover the plains, destroy some crops,
and damage dwellings, but all of these damages are easily repaired, if they
repair not themselves when the waters recede within their banks. Rivers
like the Loire and the Allier, which come from granite mountains which
have been for a long time stripped of woods^ do not act so. At every flood
they sweep away with themselves ent)rmous masses of sand and of pebbles,
which they spread over the cultivated fields, thus rendering them for ever
unproductive. The bed of these rivers, constantly filling itself up with this
debris torn from the mountains which they traverse, is of no depth ; and
their thaliveg, being without any fixity, is displaced at every flood, passing
into grounds which speedily disappear, carried away by the current. Now
there is no better preservative of rivers against the filling up with sand than
the fixation of the soil of the mountains by means of reboisement, or of
gazonnevient, or of barrages, and works tending to moderate the flow at the
origin of the water-courses — that is to say, at the very source of the evil.
" The experiment has been made, and now we can forsee from the present
that that day is coming when vegetation, drawn again over the slopes of
the mountain, shall have consolidated the surface, — when the torrential
w^ater-courses shall have been diverted from these, and shall no more carry
their dejections to the seaj — w^hen all the old ravines shall have been stopped
up, and the valleys and cultivated plains shall have almost nothing to
dread from the violence of inundations."
In a subsequent part of the report, attention is called to the diff'erence
between the expense and the extent of the work of rehoisement and gazonne-
Client in diff'erent regions, which is pretty considerable ; and the Director-
General of the Forest Admistration goes on to say, — " These diSerences
result generally from the nature of the works executed. Where the rocks
which constitute the soil of the mountains present a sufficiently solid base,
and where the water-courses do not charge themselves with great masses of
disintegrated material, the operations ought to consist principally in the
creation of vast extents of woods, or of dense herbage, destined for the
retention of the vegetable earth, to fix it permanently, and as a consequence
to control the regime of the waters. Then the artificial works are only
accessory, and it sufficed, for the greater part of the time, to bring back
again upon the slopes the vegetation which the abuse of pasturage had
caused to disappear. But on other ground, as in the Alps in particular —
where the grounds, devoid of consistency, are constantly being undermined
by the waters, and in consequence crumble dow^n on all hands — sowings
and plantations would be insufficient to remedy the evil, if the consolidation
of the soil were not previously secured by preparatory works, such as
barrages, facinages, sustaining walls, and w^ater-leadings from the torrents.
" These works, the complete efficacy of which has been demonstrated by
six years' experience, occasion indeed a pi'etty considerable augmentation of
the expense in the reboisement and gazonnement of those perimetres in which
they are executed ; but no outlay would appear to be more justifiable, if
we take into account the vast extent of lands which are thus protected
against the ravages of the waters, a good way beyond the boundary of the
p6rim^tres themselves.
" It would be superfluous work to go over the different proceedings
adopted in the construction of barrages, and other artificial works, in regard
to which the necessary details have already been given. I confine myself
230 . LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
to point out the effects which have been produced by these works. A great
number of small torrents have been extinguished ; and villages, cultivated
fields, and highways, which were severely threatened, have now been placed
beyond risk of danger.
" Amongst places effectually protected may be named Sainte-Marie, a
dependent village of the commune of Vars, in the High Alps, which a
previous torrent had repeatedly invaded, and which was in imminent
danger of immediate destruction ; that of Chorges, in the same department,
which is now traversed by a stream which has become inoffensive ; the
Bourg-d'Oisans, in the Isere, the existence of which was imperilled at every
storm of rain by the muds brought down by the torrent of Saint-Antoine,
the bringing down of which the rehoisement may be said to have entirely
suppressed ; and a part of the town of Mende itself, against which the
waters of a torrent, now extinguished throughout the whole of its course,
were- directing their flow.
" The great torrents require more time, and more especially more money
to be spent upon them ; nevertheless, the effect of the works is already
making itself to be felt on many among them, the regime of which has been
perceptibly improved ; and there are some, even of them, which may be
looked upon as extinguished. Amongst others may be mentioned that of
Sainte-Marthe, in the High Alps, which was the terror of the valley of
Embrun, and which is now so inoffensive that the inhabitants have in
contemplation to bring again under culture all the lands previously
abandoned on account of the ravages committed by the waters.
"In regard to the works of reboisement Siud gazonnement, strictly so-called,
the results established, obtained on the occurrence of the inundations of
1866, admit no longer of any doubt being entertained in regard to the
influence which they exercise on the regime of the waters.
" The test which these works have just sustained warrant the conclusion
that the period of studies and experiments always needed at the commence-
ment of such complicated operations, may be considered as having now
come to an end. The forest agents are now satisfied in regard to the best
method of procedure, and in regard to the most appropriate kinds of trees
to employ.
" I shall not attempt to describe the methods which vary, it may be said,
ad infinitum, with the regions, the lands, the exposure, the altitude, &c. ;
but it may be useful to make known the kinds of trees which have given
satisfaction in the different mountain countries of France, and the degree
of success which has followed sowings and has followed planting."
There is given a report relative to the different kinds of trees employed,
and a tabulated statement of the degree of success which has followed all
the operations of planting, of sowing, and of gazonnement, excepting on
rehoisement famdiatij's of less extent than 50 hectares; from the commence-
ment of these till 1866 inclusive, the success ranges from 1 per cent, to
100 per cent. The most freciuently recurring figures are 60, 70, 75, 80,
85, and 98, and 100 per cent, or complete success is frequently reported.
A report of the seeds and plants employed in the works of reboisement
and gazonnement follows, stating kinds, quantities, and prices, and the
expense of maintaining sechcries, or places for drying seeds, where these had
been erected.
This is followed V)y reports of grounds obtained by expropriation and
otherwise, of subventions voted by the General Councils of thirty-six
REPORT FOR 18G7-1808. 231
departments, of the Administration and surveillance, and of forest roads
constructed or improved under the laws of 28th July 18G0, and of 13th
May 18G8, from 18G1 to 18GG inclusive.
In this there are given tabulated statements of G 19,708 metres of new
forest roads executed, and of 817,517 metres improved, the former at an
expense of 2,209,753 francs, the latter 1,943,9GG; it shows a similar
tabulated statement of 105,781 metres of new roads, and 108, 7G0 metres
of improvements, commenced in 18GG to be completed in 18G7, upon which
in 18GG there had been expended respectively 512,809 francs, and 18G,932
francs, and a tabulated report of diverse works executed on other than forest
roads, but also required for the getting out of the product of fellings in the
forests, upon which had been expended 181,432 francs.
In August 18GG there w^as issued by the Director-General of the Admin-
istration of Forests, a circular, containing instructions and directions in
regard to all matters pertaining to the work, arranged under the heads of
(1) General disposal of business projects, specifications, estimates, works,
and expenses ; (2) works of restoration of forests after felling, fixation of
dunes, reboisement and gazonnement of mountains and secheries, for the
preparation of seeds ; (3) roads, bridges, and sustaining walls ; (4) house-
w^ells, and cisterns; (5) saw-mills; (G) ditches, enclosing-walls, and fences;
(7) works executed for special payments ; (8) works executed by forest
warders; (9) works executed by brigadiers, and w^atchment of deposits;
(10) works executed by concessionaries enjoying a temporary concession of
advantages; (11) works executed by parties holding concessions of lands ;
(12) works executed by holders of concessions of lesser products; (13) works
executed by insolvent delinquents; (14) works executed in repair of disinteg-
ration consequent on the felling or bringing out of timber, kc. ; and
forms of returns, accounts, and statements to be rendered to the
Administration.
Though many of the instructions might prove suggestive to those who
may encounter practical difficulties in carrying out similar operations, a
translation of the whole does not appear to me to be necessary in a pre-
liminary report on the subject.
The report of w^orks executed in 1867 and 1868 is similar in character;
but enough has been cited to supply data required for the formation of some
idea of the nature, the extent, and the expense of the operation earned on.
This report, however, enters more fully into details of what has been
done in different localities, and the beneficial eftects which have followed.
But these can be reported more satisfactorilly in a separate chapter.
" The total amount of the expenditure, in relation to the laws of 28th
July 1860, and of 5th June 1864, to the end of 1868," says M. Fare,
Councillor of State and Director-General of the Administration of
Forests, in this report, issued under the date of 30th May 1870, " is
10,187,240 francs 34 centimes. According to the provision of these tw^o
laws the expense might have risen to 10,500,000 francs in the time. There
is then a balance remaining of 312,759 francs 66 centimes, which should be
furnished by the produce of extraordinary fellings made, or to be made,
within the limits specified by these special laws.
" To put before your excellency (the Minister of Finance) a complete
resume of the operations, from the commeucement][of the epoch when the
232
LEGISLATION ON TORRENTS.
law of 28th July 1860 came into operation, I have recapitulated in the
following table all the areas reboised or gazonned to the end of 1868 : —
^
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REPORT ON REB0I8EMENTS TILL 1870. 233
"This table, in which arc made reports of work done year by year, shows
that the works have been extended over a total area of 79,703 hectares.
The part referred to as ' Undertakings executed as Sanctioned Works ' is
58,383 hectares, that of ' Enjoined Works ' 21,320 hectares.
"Seeing that the work of 1861) is not yet closed, nor that of 1870 well
begun, it may be anticipated that at the close of the current year the whole
of the rehoisenients effected will embrace nearly 95,000 hectares, of which
25,000 at least have been restocked by Reboisements et Gazonnements Obli-
gatoires. Such, approximately, \\'\\\ be the statement in the balance-sheet
of the first decade, or 10 years work of the rehoisement of the mountains,
prescribed by the law of 28th July 1860. We must not, however, consider
the actual influence of the works as limited to the areas which shall then
come to be indicated.
" To compare the results obtained with the expenditure incurred, it is
necessary to take into account not only the surveillance, and the regulation
of the passage and pasturage of the portions of the p6rim^tres not
replanted, but also, and more especially, the numerous barrages which have
caused their influence and protective action to be felt at very great
distances, as well as in the valleys."
2d
PART IV.
PAST, PRESENT, AND PROSPECTIVE ASPECTS OF THE WORK.
Having passed in review the evils which were devastating valuable land,
by torrents washing away mountain sides and depositing the detritus in
the valleys and on the plain ; the remedial measures which have been at
different times proposed ; the legislative measures by which rehoisement and
gazonnement have been enforced and regulated ; the practical measures
which have been adopted ; and the change which has thus been effected,
both on the face of nature and in local popular opinion ; we are prepared,
with advantage, to cast a glance over the whole field, that we may see
what has been, what is, and what is to be.
In the Introduction, I have stated some facts in regard to the ravages
which were committed by torrents some forty years ago. But, to a full
realization of the state of the case, it is necessary that something should be
known of the previous history of Alpine torrents, and scarcely less
necessary, with a view to preventing misapprehension, that something-
should be known of the vast extent to which the mountains ravaged by
torrents, and now subject to rehoisement, were and are covered with
primitive forests ; and while this may be necessary to prevent misappre-
hension, it may at the same time bring into view what evils have resulted
from what are at most but partial clearings.
Chap. I. — Past History of Alpine Torrents.
Washington Irving represents Knickerbocker, in his History of New
York, as deeming it proper to give the history of New York from the very
founding of the city, and, to enable him to do this satisfactorily, to cite
and demolish or sustain the various schemes of cosmogony which learned
men had proposed to enable them to account for the creation and existence
of the world. I do not propose to myself to go so far back as this ; but I
know that the expositions of the physical geography of France, and of what
are generally reckoned geological phenomena, by Cezanne, and by Costa,
and by others, are not out of place in their treatises in this department of
hydrology, and by referring to these I may enable many who never saw,
and are never likely to see, the works of rehoisement and gazonnement of
which I w)-itc, to form a more correct idea of what is being done, and has
been done and accomplished by the works referred to.
The views of Lab6chc, cited by Surell, have been given in full, in so far
as they related to pre-adamic torrents and their effects ; and the geological
doctrines of MM. (j^zanne and Costa dc l^nistclica, in regai-d to ])re-adaniic
torrent action, have also been given.
According to the views advanced by C6zannc, extensive districts of
France owe their existing surface, composition, structure, and contour, to
mor^aine-like deposits by far-extending glaciers, existing and flowing during 0 i
what is generally s])oken of by geologists as the glacial or as the drift
period, a period long anterior to the GOUO years uhich constitute what we
may designate the historical era of the world's existence ; and to deposits on
a stupendous scale of what were the lits de dejection of torrents — compared
with which the torrents of the present day are as tiny streamlets — the
regime of which followed close upon the glacial era, succeeding it apparently
immediately, and giving occasion for the designation the torrential era,
intermediate, there at least, between the eras of glacial and of alluvial
deposits. •
M. Costa advances similar views in regard to the character of the
geological formation upon which M. Cezanne founds his theory, but he
considers that the morj-aine-like deposits, w^hich M. Cezanne attributes to Tj
glacial action, may have been, and probably were, like the others, the lits '
de dejection of torrents, and he alleges that, compared wdth the regime of
torrents, the regime of glaciers is temporary, local, and accidental ; while
this is universal, extending to all lands, if not also to all worlds, and
extending over all time.
We are thus by both carried back to a time in which, if the earth was
not without form and void, the mountains then were naked and bare.
Observation shows that, now at least, soil capable of nourishing plants
when exposed naked and bare is soon covered with vegetation. A little
decaying cheese, or fruit, or damp bread, so exposed is soon covered with
mould. In experiments designed to test the hypothesis of spontaneous
generation, ingenuity seems to be baffled in the endeavour to devise a
crucial experiment which shall either establish or disprove the hypothesis.
Under conditions the most unlikely, the simpler organisms make their
appearance ; to j)reveut this has hitherto proved impracticable, if it be
not impossible ; and w^hat is seen thus in the laboratory on a simple scale is
seen on a large scale taking place everywhere.
"Whenever a tract of country, once inhabited and cultivated by man,"
says Marsh, "is abandoned by him and by domestic animals, and
surrendered to the undisturbed influences of spontaneous nature, its soil
sooner or later clothes itself with herbaceous and arborescent plants, and,
at no long interval, with a dense forest growth. Indeed, upon surfaces of
certain stability and not absolutely precipitous inclination, the special
conditions required for the spontaneous propagation of trees may all be
negatively expressed and reduced to these three : exemption from defect or
excess of moisture, from perpetual frost, and from the depredations of man
and browsing quadrupeds. Where these requisites are secured, the hardest
rock is as certain to be overgrown with wood as the most fertile plain,
though, for obvious reasons, the process is slower in the former than in the
latter case. Lichens and mosses first prepare the way for a more highly
organised vegetation. They retain the moisture of rains and dews, and
bring it to act, in combination with the gases evolved by their organic
processes, in decomposing the surface of the rocks they cover ; they arrest
and confine the dust which the wind scatters over them, and their final
decay adds new material to the soil already half-formed beneath and upon
them. A very thin stratum of mould is sufficient for the germination of
seeds of the hardy evergreens and birches, the roots of which are often
found in immediate contact with the rock, supplying their trees with
nourishment from a soil deepened and enriched by the decomposition of
236 PABT HISTOhY Oh' ALIUNJ^ XOHMNTS.
their own foliage, or sending out long rootlets into the suiTounding earth
in search of juices to feed them.
*' The eruptive matter of volcanoes, forbidding as is its aspect, does not
refuse nutriment to the woods. The refractory lava of Etna, it is true,
remains long barren, and that of the great eruption of 1669 is still almost
wholly devoid of vegetation. But the cactus is making inroads even here,
while the volcanic sand and molten rock thrown out by Vesuvius soon
become productive. Before the great eruption of 1631 even the interior of
the crater w^as covered with vegetation. George Sandys, who visited .
Vesuvius in 1611, after it had reposed for several centuries, found the
throat of the volcano at the bottom of the crater ' almost choked with
broken rocks and tr^ees that are falne therein.' ' Next to this,' he
continues ' the matter thrown up is ruddy, light, and soft : more removed,
blacke and ponderous : the uttermost brow, that declineth like the seates
in a theater, flourishing with trees and excellent pasturage. The midst of
the hill is shaded with chestnut trees, and others bearing sundry fruits.' "
He adds in a foot note, — " Even the volcanic dust of Etna remains very
long unproductive. Near Nicolosi is a great extent of coarse black sand,
thrown out in 1669, which, for almost two centuries, lay entirely bare,
and can be made to grow plants only by artificial mixtures and much
labour.
" The increase in the price of wdnes, in consequence of the diminution of
the product from the grape disease, however, has brought even these ashes
under cultivation. ' I found,' says Waltershausen, referring to the years
1861-62, * plains of volcanic sand and half-subdued lava streams, which
twenty years ago lay utterly waste, now covered with fine vineyards. The
ash-field of ten square miles above Nicolosi, created by the eruption of
1669, which was entirely barren in 1835, is now planted with vines almost
to the summits of Monte Rosso, at a height of three thousand feet.' "
To the spread of vegetation and the growth of trees is attributed the
extinction of the primitive torrents, — to the destruction of forests, which
had protected the land for ages, is attributed the reappearance of them in
our day, — to the spread of forests over denuded ground is attributed the
extinction of some which seem to have originating in later times, — and to
aid in this work is the object of the reboisement and gazonnement which are
being carried out. The whole process is thus sketched by Marschand, in
his work entitled Lts Torrents des AIjms et le Faturage : —
''After their elevation, the Alps presented everywhere abrupt crests,
separated by deep rents. Physical and chemical agencies disintegrated
the rocks everywhere naked, and formed of their accumulated debris the
first slopes of crumbled materials. The waters flowing on these extremely
steep lower slopes, gnawed them away little by little, and levelled up the
bottom of the valleys. At this epoch all the water-courses must have had
a character essentially torrential ; they carried away immense quantities
of materials, which have formed the beds of alluvial deposits, the thickness
of which is at times so considerable.
''But soon a powerful vegetation came to cover the ui)pcr slopes, and to
arrest, or rather to retard, the great work of levelling. VVhen one pictures
to himself what must have been then the configuration of tliese mountains
formed of rocks without consistency^ lie is led to suj)pose that the power
of vegetation must have been then much greater than in our days, for it is
VJKWk ()V mm. MAHaUUANl) ANU GUAb. 237
doubtful if, in existing circumstances, forests could be ])roduced by spon-
taneous growth on the very steep lower slopes of mistable soil, where we
find them to-day.
" From the time that the mountains were covered with woods, the
torrents took a more regular course ; to the primitive disorder succeeded
a life more calm, more regulated. The destruction continued, but with
less rapidity ; the very steep lower slopes were reduced by local landslips,
erosions led to the formation of torrents, which, after having had their
period of ascendanc}'^, by degrees became extinct, and clothed themselves
with woods. We are promoting every day this slow and measured destruc-
tion of the mountains ; we meet in all chains of mountains with these
erosions, with bare mountains, and in a word, with torrents, but their number
is very limited, and their development inconsiderable. When the upper
slopes are covered with forests, as in Styria or in the Afenin Engadine, the
wooded curtain in which torrents occur arrests their overflow, and generally
prevents them from becoming formidable.
" Unhappily man, improvident and avaricious, has frequently destroyed
the forests, that he may thereby get possession of the soil ; he has hindered
forests from forming themselves ; he has substituted for them pasture
grounds often but ill maintained. With the ruin of the soil begins that of
the people. The more unhappy a people are the more selfish do they
become, and the more they destroy ; so that, from the time that the evil
begins it cannot but go on increasing.
" In restoring to the mountains their ancient forests, we have for our
end and design to arrest the disorders which have appeared on the
deforested lands, — in a word, to maintain on all the lower slopes their
fixity, and all this is in augmentation of the public wealth."
The views expressed by M. Marschand are in accordance with views
expressed by other students of the subject, and I know of no writer of the
present day on the subject w^ho has advanced views conflicting with them.
Cezanne, writing in regard to facts underlying such views, and which are
the facts upon which they are based, says, — " These facts which had some
novelty in 1840 are to-day, in 1870, above and beyond all dispute. They
have been verified throughout a great extent of the Alps.
" M. Gras, Ingenieur en chef des mines, has confirmed them satisfactorily
in an interesting memoir, published in 1848. According to this geologue,
the formation of the torrents now extinct must have followed close upon
the epoch of the glaciers and of the erratic boulders ; the Alps must have
found themselves at that time completely denuded by the cold and the
protracted continuance of the ice.
" At length," says he, " the productive powers of nature restored vege-
tation to the bosom of the Alps, and came to cover them with thick forests.
This boisement greatly modified the regime of the water-courses, which lost
their torrential character, and the deposit of material on the beds of
dejection was extinguished.
" When man, in process of time, began to inhabit the Alps, he destroyed
a part of the forests and extended cultivation over the flanks of the
mountains. The clearings have re-awakened to some extent the destructive
action of the torrents, and given a new life to their deposits ; these have
re-appeared in a great many places, without becoming, however, so
uumerous and so extended as aforetime."
338 BXiijTiNG j/oiiKsTs,
And on rehoisement and gazonnement- — the means by which the greater
and more destructive torrents of pre-adamic times were extinguished —
being employed artificially, 'at great expense, but on a corresponding
magnitude, to bridle and subdue, and if possible utilize their successors of
the present day, and to cause them to minister to the promotion of indus-
trial operations which they have disturbed and destroyed, they have proved
efficient.
Chap. II. — Existing Forests.
While the torrents which have committed such ravages and devastations
in France are attributed, and justly so, to the clearing away of forests, it
must not be supposed that the forests have been utterly and everywhere
absolutely destroyed. According to a valuable paper addressed to the
Academy of Sciences in 1865, by M. Becquerel, it appears from official
statements that France has an area of 52,768,610 hectares, or 131,921,525
acres, of which 8,804,554 hectares, or 22,011,376 acres — or about a sixth
part of the whole surface of France — are covered with forests, and of this
the new plantations constitute but a fractional part.
M. Marschand, in a work I have cited, gives the following picture of the
extent to which natural forests are still extant on the Alps : — '' The Alpine
mountains may be considered as divided into three great zones : at the
summit, around the rocks and glaciers, are the pastures ; lower down are
the forests ; the bottoms of the valleys, where the villages are usually
situated, is cultivated. This division is necessary, and wherever it has
been disturbed the greatest misfortunes have followed these infractions of
the laws of nature.
" The zone of pastures, or alpages, consists usually either of valleys or
of high acclivities ; its existence is due to this, that at such heights, where
forests and cultivation do not flourish, herbage grows spontaneously —
thanks to the fertility of the soil, enriched and improved by the great
quantity of snow which covers it during the winter. This zone exists
everywhere, and everywhere can be modified. In many countries the
abuse of the pasturage by overstocking has impoverished, and sometimes
ruined, the higher pastures ; but this is a local, and generally a temporary,
evil, which wise regulations and skilful labour can remedy.
"Below the alpages are situated the forests; this is their natural,
position, here they grow to the greatest perfection — in a word, nature has
placed them here to protect the valley by arresting the torrents which flow
over the alpages, and the avalanches which slide down the higher slopes.
Their salutary influence extends to the climate, and to the jproduction and
regulation of a slow and measured flow of water in the spring. In a
word, without these forests the Alps would only present an immense
ruin, threatening all tlie districts traversed by the floods which flow down
its sides.
" I should add, that there is often too much dogmatism displayed in
fixing the altitudes of the difFcrcnt zones, especially the forest zone. 1 have
often heard the erroneous argument, — ' 1 have seen at such a place a grove
of larches, or of some other tree, situated at a great height — 2800 metres
for example. I therefore conclude that wo may i)lant tlic kind of trees I
have seen at the same altitude.' In opposition to this opinion I would
remark, that the upper limit of the forests rises with the bottom of the
I
LAWS REOULATINO REROlfiEMENT. 239
valleys ; that at the entrance to some of these — that of Urbage, for example
— it does not exceed 1400 or 1500 mi»tres (the forest of St Vincent), whilst
higher up, round the lake of Parouard, it reaches about 2500 metres.
''The limit is not always the same, but it varies in the same valley
following its direction — in a word, the upper limit of forest vegetation is
regulated by the local climate, and will change with it. In general, it may
be admitted that the summits of the Alps are bare, exposed as they are to
all the winds ; that the upper limit of forest vegetation rises wherever the
forest is sheltered from the north, and where it can receive the influence of
the south wind.
" I now come to the cultivated zone. In the French Alps this has
suffered the most ; to the primitive gentle slopes have succeeded, at many
points, more or less terrible erosions, which increase eveiyyear; it is in
this zone that the most awful havoc is caused by torrents descending from
above. It is there that villages and fields are sometimes carried away, and
sometimes buried under the mud, to which by analogy the name of lava
is given. In a word, it is the cultivated zone which suffers the havoc caused
by the blindness and apathy of the dwellers in the higher districts. It is
here that the torrents may be obstructed by artificial obstacles, doubtless
insufficient to arrest their ravages permanently, but which may permit us
to await without great danger the restoration of the upper districts."
From this it will be seen that forests still exist, and that to such an
extent as to be the characterestic feature of a broad and widely-extended
zone in the Alps, where there are forests of an extent of which few
untravelled students of arboriculture can form any conception. In the
Vosges the extent and the conservative influence of the forests is such,
that we have seen M. Surell boldly declaring that a writer on torrents,
familiar only with torrents as seen there, evidently did not know what
torrents were.
Chap. III. — Laws Regulating the Reboise^eent Effected and
Measures Adopted.
The work of rehoisement which has been and is being canned on in
mountainous regions of France must not be confounded with the work of
sylviculture in the Landes, and in the district of the Gironde. The object
aimed at, and the system of operations adopted in ea-ch of these enter-
prises, is diff'erent from those of the other. The latter, advocated by
Br^montier, was begun in 1787; it was interrupted in 1789, resumed in
1791 ; abandoned in 1793, and begun again in 1801, from which time it
has been prosecuted without interruption, and with most satisfactory
results. The object aimed at was to arrest and utilize the dunes, or drift
sands of Gascogny and adjacent lands. Though still commanding attention,
it may be spoken of as the work of the first half of the present century ;
the work of rehoisement has been the work of the latter half of the century.
Originating from the publication of the Etude sur les Torrents des Hautes
Alpes, by M. Surell, it has for its object to arrest the destructive effects of
these.
As stated by M. Magne, in his report to the Emperor, of which a trans-
lation was previously given (ante pp. 147--152) between 1843 and the date
of his report, February 1860, "sixty-three general councils have urged the
necessity of measures being taken for the reforesting of the mountains. ^
240 LAWS REGULATING REBOTSEMENT.
report and a projet de hi were prepared by the Director-General of Forests
in 1845. This projet de lot, remitted for examination to a Commission
composed of forest administrators and distinguished savants, was amended
in many parts and submitted to the Chamber of Deputies in the session
1847." But, he adds, nothing came of this law.
This law, M. Cezanne alleges, became abortive, through its being too radical
in its enactments : it subjected to the forest regime all lands on which were
to be effected the reproduction of forests or of pasture lands. With the
law of 1860 it was different. The law of 1860, it is stated by him, limited
the action of the Government to the rehoisement, strictly so-called, and to
this in perimetres, or specified areas, embracing only portions of the
country at large and of the localities, and it provided for the proceedings
being carried on principally by subventions to the proprietors themselves,
in the form of money grants, or of the grant and delivery of seeds and of
plants. There was required the sanction or approval of the Council of the
Arrondissement and of the General Council of the district, and, in fine,
that of a mixed Commission, composed of the prefect, of members of the
General Council, and of the Council of the Arrondissement, — of an Ingenieur
des Fonts et Chaussees, — of an official of the forest service, — and of two
landed proprietors : and only after these had been obtained could be
obtained a decree to determine the extent of the p6rimetre, or specified
area given up to the Forest Administration for rehoisement^ Art. 4
provided, indeed, that recourse might be had to expropriation, but only in
cases in which this is required in the interests of the community in con-
sequence of the condition of the soil, and the dangers resulting from this to
the lower-lying grounds. And Art. 5 increased the number formalities of
which had to be observed before anything could be done by the State in
carrying out the works ; it required, besides a public enquiry, the judgment
of the Municipal Council.
The law prescribed the course to be followed in regard to proprietors and
to communes, property belonging to whom might be included in p^rimHres,
and who either could not or would not execute the works themselves ; the
law determined, also, in what cases it was competent to the State to make
pecuniary advances in aid of the works, and to what extent the State
should in such cases participate in the benefits resulting from the operation.
The Minister of State estimated at that time the total area of lands
susceptible of rehoisement at 1,133,000 hectares; and the Commissioners
calculated, from data supplied by work done, tliat it would cost upon an
average 180 francs per hectare to do the work; and they estimated that,
making allowance for what portion of the expense might be met by pro-
prietors and communes, 80,000 hectares might be replanted by means of
the credit of ten millions, decreed by the Govcninient for the prosecution
of the work.
This credit was spread over a period of ten years, and was designed to
be, to the extent of five millions, covered by the sale of forest lands ; while
the remaining five millions were to be met by extra fellings, and by the
ordinary resources of the Government.
At this rate it was rc(;koncd that it would take 140 years to complete
the rehoisement of the mountains ; and it was considered that this was not
an unreasonable time to be required to undo the work of twenty centuries ;
])ut it was arranged that the first enbcts should be directed towards the
points which were most threatened ; and this has been done,
1.AW9 nBOur. ATTvn nrnoiSEMENT. 24 1
The works by ^vll^c•h it lias been accomplished have been mainly those
recomnicndcd by Surcll : — •
First, the formation of zones dc defence^ or zones de defendx. Zono^ alonj^
the main cliannel of a torrent, and ramifications of this in the basin drained
by it — the former enclosed, the latter simply protected by prohibition of
trespass by pasturing sheep or cattle thereon.
Second, boisemeiit — the planting of some of these zones more or haa
extensively with trees and shrubs.
Third, gazonnement — or the creation of what, in contradistinction to dead,
crumbling, denuded slopes, were called herges vives, by promoting the growth
of a dense covering* of herbao-e.
Fourth, the construction of bandages, or wears, generally of facines, &c.,
but in some cases of stone, to arrest the current and so to prevent erosion,
and to arrest detritus in its progress towards the valley.
At first, and for a time, it was intended that the zones should be
enclosed; but, with the modification of the law of 1860, introduced by that
of 1864, which substituted to a great extent gazonnement for hoisement, it
was considered enough, except in some special cases, to prohibit the admit-
tance of flocks within the area of operation. And it was found, that the
zone left to itself, or sown broadcast with appropriate seeds, by degrees
became covered with a natural turf of herbage and bush.
The hei^ges vives generally take the form of rounded, elongated banks,
which become in like manner clothed with verdure. The object aimed at is
to give to a transverse section of the valley a stable waving outline, by the
bringing down of unstable elevations, and filling up with the debris inter-
vening depressions, converting the acute, projecting, and retiring angles
wdiich they generally form into connected curves. This operation was
sometimes effected on an extensive scale by blasting, but in general the
pickaxe could do all that was required.
Simultaneously with this operation has been carried on the erection of
barrages where necessary.
The barrages, or barriers or wears, were designed to arrest and retain gravel
which might fall or be washed down slopes, and so to prevent its reaching
the cone de dejection to add to accumulations there. The structure of them
varied with the material at command, and the requirements of the situa-
tion. There are barrages of large blocks of stone in solid masonry, held
together by iron clamps ; there are dry stone dykes ; there are some
barrages formed of stakes, and of wickerwork or hurdles ; and in acute
angled beds of currents, there are laid in the bottom beds of fagots and
stone, over which are spread the debris of demolished surmounting hills ;
and sometimes a simple gabion is placed in the thahveg, with its mouth
directed up stream, and left like a bow-net in that position to be filled
with earth by the flood occasioned by the first storm of rain which may
come ; and sometimes for this there is substituted a tree or a bush half
buried, with its branches and roots in the bed of a stream. All that is
sought to be done is, with the readiest materials to adapt the barrier to
the requirements of the localit}'-, giving it strength proportionate to the
strain ; and in some cases a turf or tuft of grass may suffice.
The importance of giving fixity to the hills, in combination with the
arrest of debris by barriers adapted to the locality, can, perhaps, only be
realised fully in view of the landslips, of a greater or less extent, constantly
occurring. In view of these, the arrest of the debris by the barrage was
2e
242 DEVASTATIONS OCCASIONED BY TORRENTS.
primarily designed ; and it was sought to eftect this by so regulating the
flow of the water as to diminish its power of erosion, and of undermining the
confining banks of the torrent. With this effected, it was considered that
the extinction of the torrent would follow in the course of time, but that
by rehoisenient the work might be so expedited as to accomplish within a
few years what otherwise it might have required decades to effect, — and
within a decade what might have required a century. And with this in
view, the production of timber, and the securing of large and early
pecuniary returns from the sale of forest produce, were considered of but
secondary importance compared with the prevention of the crumbling away
of the mountains. In the prevention of this, and of direful consequences
which might follow — the destruction of houses and lands by the ravages of
the torrents, the devastation of the valleys, with their houses and fruitful
fields, by covering them with the debris, and the inundations of the
plains below, destroying life and property to an extent to affect materially
the national resources — was compensation looked for. And in accordance
with this view of the matter have the plantations been managed throughout
the period embraced by this report. They have been and are being managed
in accordance with the most advanced forest science, and with a business-
like view to the reduction of expenditure and the increase of returns ; but
all this has been and is being done in subordination to the great objects
aimed at — the regulation of the flood, the extinction of the torrent, the
conservation of the mountains, and the preservation of the plains ; and the
proceeds obtained are looked upon as a set off against the expenditure
incurred rather than as a reimbursing revenue.
In the prevention of the evils referred to there was expected, and in the
prevention of these evils it may be said there has been obtained, a return
satisfactorily compensating the outlay of thought and labour and money
demanded by the enterprise.
Chap. IV. — Devastations occasioned by Torrents which it was sought
TO Arrest and Prevent, and Measures Employed.
It was the devastations in the valleys and plains, which were occasioned
by torrents, which first caused attention to be given to the subject of
rehoisenient ; and for a time it was the allegation of the mountaineers
that the operations were begun and carried on solely in the interests
of the dwellers in the plains.
Details already given show, as was subsequently seen by the mountain
population, that they had a beneficiary interest in these operations, as real
as that of those for whom they had thought that their interests were being
sacrificed. A few more of these may be given.
M. Ladouccttc, in hln J/isioire, dx., of the High Alps, writes, — ''Saint-
Eus6bc, a village of GOo inhabitants, built on an argillaceous layer at an
elevation of more than 200 metres, or 050 feet, above the Drac, and at a
distance of a kilometre, about two-tlvirds of a mile, from tlic river, presents
the phenomenon, at once curious and alarming, of the sinking down of this
layer. Jt is seen distinctly from the royal road along the Drac ; while for
some years it was entirely concealed by the elevation of the ground before
it. The crevasses, which exist along the whole line, give the unwelcome
intimation and assurance that the successive overturns of its terrible neigh-
LANDSLIPS. 243
bour will end in withdrawing its fonndation, and bringing about its total
ruin. The prospect is one which it is frightful to contemplate."
M. Cezanne, in his continuation of the work of Surcll, writes, — '' There
may sometimes be seen, at a certain distance from tlic hills bordering a
torrent, a series of parjillel fissures, between which the land appears to be dis-
located by unequal landslips. It is not seldom that these landslips extend over
a vast surface, and in such a way that the cultivated fields and even detached
houses of a higher lying plateau have evidently sunk to a lower level.
" When, by such fissures, a mountain is thus cut up into prisms unstably
balanced, it is enough that some day, on the occurrence of a storm of rain,
the gushing waters find their way into a cleft and lubricate the surfaces of
these, to occasion a landslip. If the mass of material which crumbles
down be considerable, it temporarily bars up the ravine, and soaking itself
by degrees with the water it becomes soft ; it then gives way all at once,
and precipitates itself in a rush of viscous lava, the impulsive force of which
is more formidable than that of pure water, for this lava, not having the
fluidity of water, cannot, like it, flow round a resisting object without
dragging it along with it. Such appears to be the origin of these debddes
of mud, observed by Saussure, and described in his Voyage dans les Alpes,
and which he in like manner attributed to the rupture of a barrage. And
it is only by the supposition of such temporary barrages giving passage to a
debacle, that certain phenomena which accompany torrent floods can be
explained and accounted for.
" A proprietor on the bank of the torrent of Sainte-Marthe states that
many a time, while he heard with anxiety, in the silence of the night, the
grand roar of the torrent which was eating away his domain, he has
remarked distinctly a time of arrest of this — a sudden quieting — which he
attributed at once to a sudden cessation of the flood ; but after some
minutes the uproar recommenced with greater force than ever ; and anew
the tumult of blocks of stone striking against each other gave response to
the bellowing roar of the waters."
M. Scipion Gras relates a case which may be considered characteristic,
— " On the 4th June 1827 the village of Goncelin, not far from Grenoble,
was suddenly threatened by a torrent flood, the inhabitants in alarm ran
up on to the embankment; but the waters subsided, the flood seemed to have
passed, and, reassured, they retired from the embankment, when, all at
once, they saw issue from the gorge a mountain of water which precipitated
itself upon them with i\uy. Forty-two houses were engulfed or over-
thrown, twenty-eight people were surprised and drowned ; and half of the
village, buried under a layer of mud, of stones, and of rocks, had to be
rebuilt on this mass of ruins. How can such phenomena be explained if
not b}^ the formation and giving way of a temporary natural barrage.
" The Secheron, a torrent of the Tarentaise, flows between two schistose
hills, otherwise firm, but which, since 1853, at which time they were
stripped of wood, have been subject to movements which have been
rather disquieting. In April 1869 this torrent, stopped by a quantity of
earth which had crumbled down, threatened to overwhelm two villaaes :
the tocsm sounded throughout the valley, assistance w^as organised, the
engineers and the soldiers hastened to the spot, and it required all their
exertions to divert the issue of the waters, and prevent the Is6re itself from
being stopped in its course."
24:4 DEVASTATIONS OCCASIONED BY TORRENTS,
jNI. Cezanne cites, in further illustration, the case of the Lake Saint-
Laurant, already detailed (ante p. 81), and goes on to say, — " These cases
are not extraneous to the matter in hand, but they show how it becomes of
importance to fix and consolidate the crumbling hills bordering a torrent ;
and they make intelligible how, in certain special cases, by the suppression
of dehdcles, the extinction of a torrent, of which time would appear to be a
necessary element, may be in fact the immediate and decided result of some
artificial operation." And he refers in illustration to the case of the
torrent of Yacherio, which I shall afterwards cite."^
* I have not myself seen much of landslips in France ; but I have visited the scene of such
in the Notch of the White Mountains in New England, and seen their disastrous effects.
These mountains are the loftiest in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains ; several
of the summits, Washington, Jefferson, Adams, and Madison, tower 5350 feet, 5261 feet, 5383
feet, and 5039 feet, above the level of the Connecticut river ; and Munroe and Quincy rise to
the approaching height of 4932 and 4470 feet. 1 travelled from Burlington, it was in 1834,
long before railways had been introduced into the locality, and I can still reproduce the feeling
of solitude which stole over me in the midst of the mountains and forests, with no one near me
but the driver of my light conveyance, and a feeling of shrinking, when hungry and weary,
from what seemed to be a realization of the poets wish for some vast wilderness and endless
continuity of solitude. But having to trust to the accuracy of my recollection, I prefer giving
details in the words of another to givmg them in my own :
" The first view of tlie White Mountains, as distinguished from the multitude of peaks and
summits which meet the eye in every direction, is obtained a short distance from Littleton ;
but Mount Washington is not seen till arriving near to Crawford's. The first view of these
mountains is magnificent, and as they are approached they become more and more so, until
the bare bleak summit of Mount Washington, rising far above the immense piles which sur-
round it, strikes the traveller with awe and astonishment. But the emotions which one
receives from the grand and majestic scenery which surrounds him here are utterly beyond
the power of description. There is no single object upon which the eye rests, and which the
mind may grasp, but the vast and multiplied features of the landscape actually bewilder while
they delight.
"These mountains are the loftiest in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains; and
their heights above the Connecticut river iiave been estimated as follows :— Washington, 5350
feet; Jefferson, 5261; Adams, 538 i ; Madison, 5039; Monroe, 4932; Quincy, 4470. From
the summit of Mount Washington, the Atlantic ocean is seen at Portland. 65 miles S,E. ; the
Katahdin Mountains to the N.E., near the sources of the Penobscot river ; the Green Moun-
tains of Vermont on the west; Mount Monadock, 120 miles to the S.W. ; and numerous
Jakes, rivers, &c,, within a less circumference. The Notch or Gap is on the west side of the
mountains, and is a deep and narrow defile, in one place only 22 feet wide. A road passes
t'lrough, which is crossed by the river Saco ; into Avhich several tributary streams enter from
the mountain heights, forming beautiful cascades. Lafayette Mountain is situated in the north-
east part of the township of Franconia, nearly equidistant from Mount Washington at the
northeast, and Moose-lliliock at the southwest, b^ing about 20 miles from each; and it is
obviously more elevated than any other summit in sight, except the White Mountains.
" At the Franconia Notch, near the road leading from Franconia to Plymoutii, and about
three miles sou'h of Mount Lafayette, a foot-path has been cleared out from the road to the
top of the mountain. The point where the path commences is six miles from the Franconia
iron works, and the length of it from the road to the summit is three miles ; aiid throughout
this distance it is almost uniformly steep. The ascent for the distance of about two miles is
through a thick forest of hemlock, spruce, &c. Higher up, the mountain is encompassed with
a zone, about h:ilf a mile in widtii, covered with stinted trees, chiefly hemlock and spruce.
Above the upper edge of this '/one, wliich is about half a mile from tlic top, trees and shrubs
disappear. The summit is composed chiefly of bare rocks, partly in large masses, and partly
broken into Hmall p'cces.
" The view from the top is exceedingly picturcsqu^i and magnificent. Although it is not so
extensive as that from tin! summit of M'.uiit Wasiungton, yet owing to the more advantageous
pituation of ijafayette, being more central as it respects this mountainous region, it is not
inf(!rior to it either in beauty or grandeur. The view to the norlheast, east, south, and south-
west, is one grand panorama of mountain scenery, presenting more than fifty .■summits, which
when viewed from this elevation do not appitar to differ greatly iii height. Some of these
mountains are covered with verdure to the top, while the summits of others are composed of
naked rocks; and down the sides of many ol tluim may be seen sliilcs or avalanchts of earth,
rocks, and trees, more or less extensive, which servo to divcjrsify the scene. The only appear-
a'lce of cultivation in this whole compass is confined to a few farms seen in a direciion west of
south, on the road to Plymouth, extendmg along the Pemigewasset branch of the Menimack,
To the west is seen the territory watered by the Connecticut and the Ammonoosuck.
" At a place in the road through the Franconian Notch whero tlie path up the mountain
IjANDSUpb. 245
On the subject of landslips, there is valuable information supplied by Mr
Marsh,' in his treatise on The Earth <(s Jlfodijjcd />?/ J/finutn Action. He
saj'^s, — " Karth, or rather mountain slides, conipiircd to wliich the catas-
trophe tliat buried the Willey family in New Hampshire was but a pinch
of dust, have often occurred in the Swiss, Italian, and French Alps. The
commences, is exhibited to the view of the traveller, on the mountain opposite to Lafayette,
the Projilc or the Old Man. of the Mountain, a singular lusus naturfv, and a remarkable
curiosity. It is situated on the brow of the peak or precipice, which rises almost perpendicu-
larly from the surface of a small lake, directly in front, to the height (as estimated) of fromiGOO
to 1000 feet. The front of this precipice is formed of solid rock, but as viewed from the point
where the profile is .seen, the whole of it appears to be covered with trees and vegetation,
except about space enough for a side view of the Old Man's bust. All the principal features
of the human face, as seen in a profile, are formed with suprising exactness, 'J'he little lake at
the bottom of the precipice is about half-a-mile in length, and is one of the sources of the
Pemigewassat river. llalf-a-mile to the north of this there is another lake, surrounded with
romantic sceneiy, nearly a mile in length, and more than half-a-mile in breadth. This is one
of the sources of the southern branch of the Ammonoosuck, which flows into tlie Connecticut,
These lakes are both situated in the Notch, very near the road, and near to the point where
the steep ascent of Mount Lafayette commences. The northern lake is 1)00 feet above the site
of the Frauconian iron works, and the highest point in the road through the Xotch is 1028 feet
above the same level. Other curiosities in this vicinity are the Basin and the Pulpit.
" A portion of the Gap, including the Xotch in the White Mountains, which is the most sub-
lime and interesting, is about 5 or ti miles in length. It is composed of a double barrier of
mountains, rising very abruptly from both sides of the wild roaring river Saco, which fre-
quently washes the feet of both barriers. Sometimes there is not room for a single carriage
to pass between the stream and the mountains, and the road is cut into the mountain itself.
This double barrier rises on each side to the height of nearly half-a-mile in perpendicular
altitude, and is capped here and there by proud castelated turrets, standing high above the
continued ridges. These are not straight, but are formed into numerous zig zag turns which
frequently cut oif the view and seem to imprison the traveller in the vast gloomy gulf. The
sides of the mountains are deeply furrowed and scarred by the tremendous effects of the
memorable deluge and avalanches of 1826, Xo tradition existed of any slide in former times
and such as are now observed to have formerly happened, had been eouspletely veiled by forest
growth and shrubs. At length, on the '28th of June, two months before ihQ fatal avalanche
there was one not far from the Willey house, which so far alarmed the family, that they erected
an encampment a little distance from their dwelling, intending it as a place of refuge. On the
fatal night, it was impenetrably dark and frightfully tempestuous ; the lonely family had
retired to rest, in their humble dwelling, six miles from the nearest human creature. The
avalanches descended in every part of the gulf, for a distance of two miles ; and a very heavy
one began on the mountain top, immediately above the house, and descended in a direct line
towards it ; the sweeping torrent, a river from the clouds, and a river full of trees, earth
stones, and rocks, rushed to the house aud marvellously divided within six feet of it, and just
behind it, and passed on either side, sweeping away the stable and horses, and completely
encircling the dwelling, but leaving it untouched. At this time, probably towards midnight
(as the state of the beds and apparel, &c., shewed that they had retired to rest,) the family
issued from the house and were swept away by the torrent.
" iSearch, for two or three days, was made in vain for the bodies, when they were at length
found- They were evidently floated along by the torrent and covered by the drift wood, A
pole, with a board nailed across it, like a guide post, now indicates the spot Avhere the bodies
were found. Had the family remained in the house they would have been entirely safe.
Even the little green in front and east of the house was undisturbed, and a flock of sheep (a
part of the possession of the family) remained on this small spot of ground, and were found
there the next morning in safety — although the torrent dividing just above the house and
forming a curve on both sides, had swept completely around them, again united below* and
covered the meadows and orchard with ruins, which remains there to this day, Xine persons
were destroyed by this catastrophe, and the story of their virtues and their fate is often told
to the traveller by the scattered population of these mountain valleys, in a style of simple
pathos and minuteness of detail, which has ail the interest of truth and incident of romance
in its recital.
" The number of visitors to the White Mountains has been considerably increased, on
account of tilt! interest excited by these avalanches. The most sublime views of them
(several of which are nearly equal to the memorable one which swept away the unfortunate
Willey family), may be seen all along for several miles, in passing through the Xotch. They
are also observed from various points in the countr\ around, extending down the sides of many
of the elevated mounlau.s, and the astonishing tflects of this extraordinary inundation are
also witne^scd in the gieat enlargement of the chaiinels ot the streams which rise in these
clusters of mountains. This is^the fact especially with regard to the channel of the principal
branch ot the Ammonoosuck, which rises near the summit of Mount \\ ashington."
246 DEVASTATIONS OCCASIONED BY TORRENTS.
landslip which overwhelmed and covered to the depth of seventy feet the
town of Plurs, in the valley of the Maira, on the night of the 4th of Sep-
tember 1618, sparing not a soul of a population of 2,430 inhabitants, is one
of the most memorable of these catastrophes, and the fall of the Rossberg,
or Rufiberg, which destroyed the little town of Goldau in Switzerland, and
450 of its people, on the 2nd of September 1860, is almost equally cele-
brated. In 1771, according to Wessely, the mountain-peak Piz, near
AUeghe in the province of Belluno, slipped into the bed of the Cordevole, a
tributary of the Piave, destroying in its fall three hundred and sixty lives.
The rubbish filled the valley for a distance of nearly two miles, and, by
damming up the waters of the Cordevole, formed a lake about three miles
long, and a hundred and fifty feet deep, which still subsists, though
reduced to half its original length by the wearing down of its outlet.
'' The important provincial town of Veleia, near Piacenza, where many
interesting antiquities have been discovered within a few years, was buried
by a vast landslip, probably about the time of Probus, but no historical
record of the event has survived to us.
'' On the 14th of February 1855, the hill of Belmonte, a little below the
parish of San Stefano in Tuscany, slid into the valley of the Tiber, which
consequently flooded the village to the depth of fifty feet, and was finally
drained off by a tunnel. The mass of debris is stated to have been about
3,500 feet long, 1,000 wide, and not less than 600 high.
" Occurrences of this sort have been so numerous in the Alps and Apen-
nines, that almost every Italian mountain commune has its tradition, its
record, or its still visible traces of a great landslip within its own limits.
The old chroniclers contain frequent notices of such calamities, and Giovanni
Villani even records the destruction of fifty houses, and the loss of many
lives, by a slide of what seems to have been a spur of the hill of San
Giorgio in the city of Florence, in the year 1284.
" Such displacements of earth and rocky strata rise to the magnitude of
geological convulsions, but they are of so rare occurrence in countries
still covered by the primitive forests, so common where the mountains have
been stripped of their native covering, and, in many cases, so easily expli-
cable by the drenching of incohesive earth from rain, or the free admission
of water between the strata of rocks — both of which a coating of vegetation
would have prevented — that we are justified in ascribing them for the most
part to the same cause as that to which the destructive effects of mountain
torrents are chiefly due — the felling of the woods.
" In nearly every case of this sort, the circumstances of which are known
— except the rare instances attributable to earthquakes — the immediate
cause of the slip has been the imbibition of water in large quantities by
bare earth, or its introduction between or beneath solid strata. If Avater
insinuates itself between the strata, it creates a sliding suiface, or it may,
by its expansion in freezing, separate beds of rock, which had been nearly
continuous before, widely enough to allow the gravitation of the super-
incumbent mass to overcome the resistance aflbrded by inequalities of face
and by friction ; if it find its way beneath hai-d earth or rock reposing on
clay or other bedding of similar properties, it converts the supporting
layer into a semi-fluid mud, which opposes no obstacle to the sliding of the
f5trata above.
" The upper part of the mountain which hiiri(;(l (u)ldau was composed of
a hard but brittle conglomerate, called na(jeljlae, resting on an unctuous
LANDHLir8 AND AVAl.ANCHEB. 247
clay, and inclinino; rapidly towards the village. Much earth remained upon
the rock, in irregular masses, but the woods had been felled, and the water
had free access to the surface, and to the crevices wliich sun and frost had
already produced in the rock, and, of course, to the slimy stratum beneath.
The whole summer of 180G had been very wet, and an almost incessant
deluge of rain had fallen the day preceding the catastrophe, as well as on
that of its occurrence. All conditions, then, w^ere favourable to the sliding
of the rock, and, in obedience to the laws of gravitation, it precipitated
itself into the valley as soon as its adhesion to the earth beneath it was
destroyed by the conversion of the latter into a viscous paste. The mass
that fell measured between two and a half and three miles in length by one
thousand feet in width, and its average thickness is thought to have been
about a hundred feet. The highest portion of the mountain was more
than three thousand feet above the village, and the momentum acquired
by the rocks and earth in their descent carried huge blocks of stone far up
the opposite slope of the Rigi.
" The Piz, which fell into the Cordevole, rested on a steeply inclined stra-
tum of limestone, with a thin layer of calcareous marl intervening, which,
by long exposure to frost and the infiltration of water, had lost its original
consistence, and become a loose and slippery mass instead of a cohesive and
tenacious bed."
He then goes on to say, — " In Switzerland and other snowy and
mountainous countries, forests render a most important service by pre-
venting the formation and fall of destructive avalanches, and in many parts
of the Alps exposed to this catastrophe the woods are protected, though
too often ineffectually, by law. No forest, indeed, could arrest a large
avalanche once in full motion, but the mechanical resistance afforded by
the trees prevents their formation, both by obstructing the wind, which
gives to the dry snow of the Staub-Lcavine, or dust avalanche, its first
impulse, and by checking the disposition of moist snow to gather itself into
what is called the Rutsch-Lawine, or sliding avalanche. Marschand states
that the very first winter after the felling of the trees on the higher part of
the declivity between Saanen and Gsteig, where the snow had never been
known to slide, an avalanche formed itself in the clearing, thundered
down the mountain, and overthrew and carried with it a hitherto un-
violated forest to the amount of nearly a million cubic feet of timber.
Elisee Reclus informs us, in his remarkable work La Terre, vol. i. p. 212,
that a mountain, w^hich rises to the south of the Pyrensean village Ara-
guanet in the upper valley of the Neste, having been partially stripped of
its woods, a formidable avalanche rushed down from a plateau above in
1846, and swept off more than 15,000 pine-trees. The path once opened
down the flanks of the mountain, the evil is almost beyond remedy. The
snow sometimes carries off the earth from the face of the rock, or, if the
soil is left, fresh slides every winter destroy the young plantations, and the
restoration of the wood becomes impossible. The track widens with every
new avalanche. Dwellings and their occupants are buried in the snow, or
swept away by the rushing mass, or by the furious blasts it occasions through
the displacement of the air ; roads and bridges are destroyed j rivers
blocked up, which swell till they overflow the valley above, and then,
bursting their snowy barrier, flood the fields below with all the horrors of a
winter inundation."
And he adds in a foot-note, — " The importance of the wood in preventing
248 DEVASTATIONS OOOASIONRD RY TORRENTS,
cavalauclies is well illustrated by the fixct that, where the forest is wanting,
the inhabitants of localities exposed to snow-slides often supply the place of
the trees b}'- driving stakes through the snow into the ground, and thus
checking its propensity to slip. The woods themselves are sometimes thus
protected against avalanches originating on slopes above them, and as a
further security, small trees are cut down along the upper line of the forest,
and laid against the trunks of the larger trees, transversely to the path of the
slide, to serve as a fence or dam to the motion of an incipient avalanche,
which may by this means be arrested before it acquires a destructive
velocity and force.
" In the volume cited in the text, Reclus informs us that ' the village
and the great thermal establishment of Bareges in the Pyrenees were
threatened yearly by avalanches which precipitated themselves from a
height of 1,200 metres and at an angle of 35 degrees ; so that the inhabi-
tants had been obliged to leave large spaces between the different quarters
of the town for the free passage of the descending masses. Attempts have
been recently made to prevent these avalanches by means similar to those
employed by the Swiss mountaineers. They cut terraces three or four yards
in width across the mountain slopes, and support these terraces by a row
of iron piles. Wattled fences, with here and there a wall of stone, shelter
the young shoots of trees, which grow up by degrees under the protection
of these defences. Until natural trees are ready to arrest the snows, these
artificial supports take their place and do their duty very well. The only
avalanche which swept down the slope in the year 1860, when these works
were completed, did not amount to 350 cubic yards, while the masses which
fell before this work was undertaken contained from 75,000 to 80,000 cubic
yards.' " — La Terre^ vol. i. p. 233.
In many cases such as are cited the evil may be traced to the infiltration
of water upon argillaceous beds, such as are referred to, which thus become
lubricated, and so admit of the sliding over them of thick beds of super-
incumbent earth, bearing with them, it may be, houses, and trees, and cul-
tivated fields ; in other cases, the infiltrated water comes upon beds of
materials the disintegration of which leads to similar results.
M. Marschand — after describing a deposit on which is situated the village
of Meyronnes, and its lands in the upper part of the valley of Barcelonstte,
in the Lower Alps, which deposit was then in movement in one mass
throughout the whole extent, from Saint-Ours to the Ubayette, a distance
of about 3|- kilometres, or two miles and a half, threatening direful conse-
quences, which he details — states, that any one may see at a glance from a
road on the Sylve, a mountain situated on the other side of the valle}'-, that
this movement is manifestly attributable primarily to the waters of a
stream, the sources of which are, at Fous-Vive and at Saint-Ours, being
absorbed largely b}'- the ground which it traverses, which is thereby soft-
ened,— and secondarily to the percolation of water produced by the melting
of the accumulated snow on the southern slope of the mountain of Saint-
Ours, — -and, in fine, to tlie meadows covering the ground being extensively
irrigated, and an additional percolation of water resulting from tliis irriga-
tion. The cohesion of the mass was being tlius destroy e(l, and the base of
the mass was being at the same time undei'mined by the waters of the
Ubayette; and it was manifest that the catastrophe threatened must
happen sooner or later.
PREVENTION OP LANDSLIPH. 249
A similar case is reported by him, as having been seen by him in Tessin,
imperilling the village of Campo. In this case tlio process was more
advanced than in that at Meyronnes ; the river Rovana, an affluent of the
Maggia, having attacked the mountain on which the village was standing.
In neither of these cases was the ground in movement wooded. But he
mentions also the crumbling of a portion of a forest of Norway firs, 120
metres long by 90 broad, at Giiruigcl Bruck, on the mountain of Giiruigel,
on the east slope of which is the source of the torrent Giirbc ; and he states
that in the forest of the Giirbe are immense heaps of rubbish, the remains
of former landslips, while at a higher level are the denuded mountain
sides, whence the material has slid. But it is mentioned by him that
above the land bared by the landslips specified, and distant only a few
metres from the summit of the mountain, are to be seen numerous springs.
And to water thus supplied may be attributed the landslips which have
occurred.
Such is one of the aspects of the enterprise ; it is to prevent landslips as
well as to preserve the lower-lying valleys from dejections.
In all such cases as these last cited there is required drainage and
desiccation as well as rehoisement and gazonnement.
" When the landslips are occasioned by infiltrations of water into ground
which retains it in great quantity — as, for example, at Meyronnes, or at
the Giirbe — it is of primary importance," says M. Marschand, " to cut off
these waters. How this is to be done must be determined by a careful
study of the ground, which must be brought, if possible, into a healthy
state — (1) By turning off and leading away to a distance from the lands in
movement all the streamlets flowing thither ; (2) Causing all waters which
traverse these lands to follow the line of most rapid declivity ; (3) Searching-
out the sources which feed the mud, and draining them by caiTying off the
water by ditches and by tile-drains ; and (4) Suppressing in-igation on or
above the lands in movement."
The work of rehoisement — applying that term, as is often done, to the
whole of the operation of reforesting the denuded mountains — is thus found
to embrace in practice a variety of operations over and above the mere
sowing of seeds and planting of trees. The object aimed at is the extinc-
tion of the torrent, and nothing tending to the accomplishment of this is
neglected, and there is a pleasurable excitement experienced in observing
how this is done.
" The extinction of a torrent," says Cezanne, '* is a struggle with a for-
midable foe, in which are called into exercise the same qualifications which
command success in war, — bravery, energetic perseverance, and that sage
tact which discerns the weak point in an enemy and carries the attack
direct to the heart of his defences." And he cites the torrent of Vacheres
as an interesting illustration of the stratagetic skill with which the works
employed have been distributed in the basin of the torrent.
" The torrent of Vacheres, (says he,) one of the very worst in the Alps, is
on the left bank of the Durance, over against Embrun, and in the plain its
vast cone of sterile gravel presents a sad contrast to the rich cultivated
grounds by which it is bordered, and which by it are menaced. This
torrent is in reality a small mountain river, its bassin de reception covering
an area of 7000 hectares, or well nigh 3000 acres, embraces excavations in
2jf
250 DEVASTATIONS OCCASIONED BY TORRENTS
three mountains ; and some of the affluents are 20 and 30 kilometres, or 14
and 20 miles, in length. In all the upper parts of these, which may be
considered the sources of the torrent, the ground is comparatively firm,
and the water limpid; but when it approaches the gullet by which it
debouches into the plain, it traverses an extensive bed of detritus,
apparently a formation of the glacial period, an old mor^aine it may be, a
confused mixture of mud, and sand, and erratic blocks, torn from the far off
summits of the High Alps. In this quarter the torrent is enclosed in pre-
cipitous banks, to the depth of 100 metres, or nearly 350 feet, and these
banks are being eaten away unceasingly at their base, and are in a state of
the most complete instability.
" Here the torrent at once changes its character ; clear thus far, here it
loads itself with muddy dejections — the everchanging divarications begin —
and the least storm of rain causes the hills to crumble down, and gives rise
to the most violent effects of a dehdcle, or breaking up of a dam. Near to
this spot the principal torrent receives two considerable affluents : on the
right, the torrent of the Grande Combe comes down from the mountain
Saint-Sauvier ; while, on the left, the torrent de I'Homme tears and eats
away, in a great fan-shaped basin, the mountain of Baratier, These two
torrents wear down a black schistose earth of the worst kind, and, between
the two, a single flood suffices partially to dam up the principal torrent,
which is then driven against one or other of the confining unstable banks.
Thus all the producing causes of disaster meet within a space of about a
kilometre, or two-thirds of a mile square ; for this reason those desolate
spots have been chosen by M. Costa as the field of battle, while he is
satisfied with simply prohibiting the access to flocks in the upper part of
the basin.
"The bold plan, which is in course of execution, consists in breaking the
living force of the principal torrents by a massive wall, behind which the
water-course will accumulate its dejection in such a way that the base of the
existing banks forming the gullet will be covered deep by these ; the crest
of these banks will then be broken down, and a gentle and regular slope
will replace the torn and ruinous surfaces which they now present. While
these works are in course of execution, a longitudinal dike, built higher up
the barrages, in a situation happily chosen, prepares for the torrent an arti-
ficial bed, into which it will be cast when they shall have banked up the
ancient bed.
" One of the two affluents mentioned above, de I'Homme, already
extinguished by planted banks and small barrages, has become innocuous.
And its counterpart, coming in an opposite direction, the torrent of the
Grande Combe, which now, after having flowed for some distance parallel
to the principal torrent, falls into this below the wear, will, by means of a
cutting, the locality for which is indicated by a natural depression in the
ground, be brought into the torrent above that barrage. And by the
change thus made the torrent of the Grande Combe will be led away to a
distance from the black schist, with which it now charges itself to
repletion ; the bed which is now hollowing out will be filled, and the hills
between which it now flows will be laid out in banks and subjected to the
usual treatment.
"M. Costa hopes, that by the new channel which he has in view for the
torrent of the Grand Combe, the extinction of it will be brought about as
by stage effect, for in the course of a few hours the muddy waters of to-day
AND PREVENTIVE MEABURES. 251
will have given place to a sheet of limpid water, flowing into the torrent
above the barrage"
While all the credit given to M. Costa by M. Cezanne is justly due to
him for devising and executing such works, it is also due to M. Surell to
mention that the sufficicnc}^ of such measures in some cases was not
unforeseen by him. In view of the whole sul)jcct of torrents, he remarks, —
" When a torrent is examined witli attention, it may be seen that all its
parts are not equally hurtful. The mischief is often committed by but one
branch of it, and the others contribute but little thereto. It would, then,
be useless to apply the same treatment to all without discrimination ; the
attack must be made on the devastating branch, and that once extinguished,
the ravages will be found to have ceased."
From what has been stated, it will be seen that the work assumes a
variety of forms; but reboisement seems still, as from the first and all along,
to be considered the most important, if not the most necessary, of the
various forms which the work of extinguishing torrents assumes, or reboise-
ment and gazonnement in combination ; and I would now report how the
work is being executed in the High Alps, where the importance of this
enterprise in all its magnitude has been realised by all classes of the
population.
There, over the whole surface of the berges vives, sloping but often very
steep banks to be covered with vegetation, are traced horizontal level
banks, about 6 or 7 feet broad, with a slight inclination towards the moun-
tain, designed to give to the water facilities for collecting and remaining
there. Towards the edge of these banks, where previously the earth has been
loosened to a considerable extent by the pickaxe, they plant broad-leaved
trees of three or four years growth in such proximity to each other that
the extreme branches touch, and in such a way that the collet of the root
is buried some eight inches under the surface of the ground as a security
against drought. The stem is pruned to the level of the ground, that too
rapid vegetation may not exhaust the plants ; and the pruning is repeated
until the vigorous appearance of the young trees testifies that their roots
have at length reached a moist subsoil capable of supplying them with
nourishment.
These embankments are made at distances from each other varying with
the degree of slope ; and the intermediate strip is sown broadcast with forage
plants, or plants chosen from amongst those which grow spontaneously on
the mountains. Sometimes, midway between the rows of trees, are planted
other hedges of trees which receive less attention, but which grow pretty
well in favourable sj)ots ; and between these trees, and midway between
these rows, there may be planted lines of lucerne, while on the space
between grow herbs of various kinds. This is the case where the main lines
of trees are from 20 tu 100 feet apart.
When the slope is very precipitous, the embankments are sustained by
stones or hurdles ; and when on steep declivities the soil is so disintegrated
as to be unable to withstand the violent impinging of the rain-droj^s in a
storm, the ground sown is sometimes protected by a covering of straw,
or with cuttings of herbs, &c., which the growth of the herbage underneath
soon renders unnecessary.
M. Marschand gives the following instructions, and refers to the Traite
Elementaire de Sylviculture of M. Franckausen, translated into French by M.
252 DEVASTATIONS OCCASIONED BY TORRENTS,
Amyot, as containing valuable details in regard to the measures adopted —
both in sowing and planting — in the mountains of the Oberland. Of the
preparation of the soil he says, — When the surface of the soil is bare, and
of too great a declivity to give any certainty of stability, the first thing to
be done is to fix it, which may be done by means of hurdles.
The soil being fixed, it is next requisite to prepare it for the reception
of seed or plants ; and in reference to this he quotes a proverb, current in
the south of France, to the efi'ect that good weeding, hoeing, or digging,
may count for a watering. And he goes on to remark, that plantations
should only be made in ground well broken up and well wrought, any
danger of such soil being carried away being met by the hurdles employed.
The digging and breaking up, he recommends, should penetrate to a
depth of from 16 to 20 inches, and should be accompanied by the removal
of stones, and the filling up of the hollows they created with the good
superficial soil surrounding them.
When the soil betwen the hurdles has been thus broken up, the location
of the plants must be determined by the nature of the soil. On calcareous
rubble, the plants must be set immediately below the hurdles, for such
ground being constantly falling they will thus be protected from injury by
the falling stones. But on ground more stable — as on marls, for example —
they may be planted in the middle of the bands between the hurdles, or
even immediately above these, the earth which may accumulate from the
continuous falling being too little to destroy or injure the plants.
When the surface is covered with vegetation, and stable, hurdles are
unnecessary ; but it may be well to break up the ground in plots on places so
narrow and steep that there may be some danger of the falling down of the
earth occasioning erosion. These plots may be from 16 to 40 inches square,
or in the some cases the ground may be broken up in horizontal strips 3
feet or more in breadth, and 12 or 15 feet long, at such a distance from
each other that the branches of the trees to be planted may touch when they
have attained to the state of perches, a distance varying with the kind of
trees planted from a fathom to 20 feet.
When the work takes this form of strips, it is necessary to make the
surface as horizontal as possible ; otherwise, the earth may be swept to
the lower edge of it it by the first storm of rain which may occur. In
many cases, the lower sides of such strips may be sustained by low walls
composed of the stones taken out in breaking up the ground. In stony
ground, such walls are built on the upper border of the strips, in such a
way as to arrest rolling stones, and so keep these from falling against the
plants. This system has been employed with the happiest results by M.
Demontzey in the southern Alps, securing at the same time other advan-
tages besides that referred to.
When it can be done, it is well to leave the broken-up ground for some
time exposed to atmospheric influences — allowing a winter, or at least some
months, to intervene between the preparation of the soil and the planting
of the trees.
With regard to the method of rehoisement by sowing seeds of trees, he
writes, — " This method of rehoisement it is not in general advisable to adopt,
as it rarely gives satisfactory results ; while a considerable gain of time is
secured, with greater probability of success, by planting young trees. But
there is a method of sowing frequently adoptecl where the ground is pre-
pared in strips, which — thanks to the good preparation of the soil, and the
relatively pretty large extent of the ground broken up — succeeds well.
AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES. 253
" There are made of these a kind of pepi7iieres volantes, or temporary
nurseries, in the centre and on all points of the lands to be replanted,
in which may be found, at befitting times, and at little expense, plants with
which to supply void spaces, or even to carry on the rehoisement over the
entire surface, when a small number of strips may have been sown for
this purpose."
Of plantations, he says, — " The success of these depends on the plants
employed, and on the time at which the operation of planting is performed.
There has been much discussion on the question, whether this should be
done in spring or in autumn. Spring is preferable in the Alps, as the frost
of winter extrudes the plants from the ground, and destroys many of them.
And there it is necessary to plant as much as possible after rain, while the
ground is moist, thus giving the best security for their success ; and where
this is made a point of some importance, the pqyinieres volantes are of great
service — they allow of young plants being had on the ground at any time ;
while the difficulties of procuring plants in sufficient quantity, at a given
time, at a great many different places, often prevents their arrival at the
time required, and is otherwise prejudicial to the work.
" It is scarcely necessary," says he, " to add, that in planting great care
must alw^ays be taken to place the best soil finely comminuted around
the roots, which should be placed and disposed with consideration and
attention, — to heap up the soil and press it down with the foot, &c., — to
take, in short, all the care recommended for plantations in general, and
which it is unnecessary to repeat."
In regard to the choice of plants, he says, — " In the Grissons, where the
mountains are calcareous, and where the climate in summer is extremely
hot, they can use only plants which have been transplanted in a nursery.
The plantations always succeed, and the inspector of the forests of the
canton, M. Coaz, attributes the success which has been obtained solely to
this use of retransplanted plants.
" In the Oberland, in like manner, they employ only retransplanted plants,
and rarely do these perish. There are thus obtained indisputable facts,
over against which can only be set the fact of the success of some species
of resinous trees particularly robust, such as the Austrian pine and the
larch, transplanted or sown ; but even these, however, when first trans-
planted in the nursery, and then replanted, are unquestionably superior to
those which have not been so treated.
" The objections which may be raised to the employment of retrans-
planted plants, are the pretty high price of them, and the difficulty of pro-
curing them in great quantities. But in reply," says M. Marschand, " to
the first of these objections, I have no doubt that the final result will be
generally obtained at less expense with retransplanted plants than with
others, taking into account the interminable labour required with these in
supplying the places of dead plants — works often more onerous than the
original planting. And I can adduce in support of this opinion," says he,
" a great many examples of this having been the case in the French Alps.
" The second objection may be easily met — it is only requisite to extend
the nursery proportionately with the area to be replanted ; if there have
been made pepinieres volantes, in strips within the perimHres, there may be
transplanted thence the young plants, and those which are not required
may be left there, where they will not fail to grow." And he goes on to
say, — " It may be superfluous to add, that the superiorty of transplanted
264 PEVASTATIONS OCCASION^:!) BY T0BRENT9,
plants over others consists in this, that within one or two years after being
transplanted they have acquired body, have become more densely branched,
and have formed more tufted and branched roots, and so can better adapt
themselves to transplantation to the place destined for their growth.
" Plants obtained from the strips where they have been reared are, on
the contrary, always rather slender and poor, because they have grown up
in a very crowded condition."
The kinds of trees best suited for the work of reboisement is the next
subject to which attention is given by M. Marschand. '' The choice of the
kind of tree to be planted," says he, " ought always to be made with great
care ; and if it have been practicable to make trial of dififerent kinds in the
locality, never should extensive works be attempted with any but the kinds
the success of which has been made certain." And he goes on to say, —
"I have seen the most beautiful reboisements obtained by means of — (1)
the Scotch fir, (2) the Austrian pine, (3) the Siberian pine, (4) the larch,
(5) the Norway fir.
" The pin sylvestre (pinus syhestris), or Scotch fir, transplanted and
replanted, succeeds always ; it is employed in the Contre-fort of the Alps,
which constitutes the principality of Lichtenstein. This tree, which does
not grow well but on deep earth, covers in the Alps immense areas, but it
becomes remarkable there for its poor and stunted appearance ; and this
variety, which offers no redeeming advantage, should be rejected.
" The jom noir d'Autriche, or Austrian pine, is very robust, and may be
considered the pine of calcareous lands ; it has almost everywhere given very
good results ; its qualities and its products make it valuable, and it is not
without reason that day by day the adoption of it is spreading on all hands.
" The pin d, crochets, the Mugho or dwarf pine, is common in the Alps ;
the greatest mass of this in growth which I know extends from the Engadine
to the Munster-Thal ; it is the forest of Offen, more than 50 kilometres, or
about 35 miles, long. The tree — now creeping on the ground, now shooting
up — presents everywhere a poor appearance, and yields wood fit only
for fuel.
*' This tree rarely attains to great dimensions ; it is well, therefore, to be
chary in tlie employment of it — it should be consigned to dolomite chalks,
and pebbly ground, unsuitable for all other kinds of forest vegetation. Yet
I have often seen this tree in demand in the Alps, though often enough it
possessed no claim to be classified with forest trees.
" The pin Cembro, or Siberian pine, is a tree growing at great altitudes;
it is not much employed, nor has it generally succeeded well on the Alps.
In the Orisons and the Oberland, it is considered one of the most robust of
trees, the success of which when planted is most certain.
" The seed of it should be gathered in autumn ; during the winter it is
kept in sand or in saw-dust, in a place slightly moist and of mild temperature,
such as a cellar or stable ; or the cones may be left spread on hurdles in such
places. In spring tlic seeds are slightly watered daily for a fortnight, at
the end of which time they are taken out and sown. Unhappily the mice
are very fond of this seed, and scarcely have they been committed to the
earth when they are devoured ; in Engadine they surround the seed-beds
with frames of planks, sunk about IG inches, and covered with wire-cloth —
and thus the mice are kept out. M. Coaz, by successive waterings, causes
the seeds to germinate in the boxes in which they are kept during winter,
he then sows them on the ground ; and the mice do not attack these,
IND PREVENTIVE MEABUHES. 255
" The young trees are transplautcd when one or two years old, according
to their strength, to be pUinted out two years later, wlien three or four
years of age.
" The reboisements executed in the environs of Stalla, below the pass of
Julicrs, at an altitude of about 1800 metres, or 6000 feet, have succeeded
perfectly, not a plant has died ; but it may be doubted whether the
Siberian pine will have a rapid growth at such altitudes.
*' The finest masses of this tree which are known to me are situated in
the environs of Saint Moritz, Upper Engadine, at an altitude of 1800
metres ; they are very compact and complete, and of various ages, and are
beautiful forests.
" The meleze, or larch, is the most robust and valuable of the trees of the
Alps, and is the one which it should be sought to multiply and diffuse as
much as possible. It succeeds pretty often when sown, but always when
planted ; and its growth is rapid enough to produce quickly good results,
in fixing the soil and regulating the water-flow.
" The epicea, or Norway fir, is not held in high estimation in the Alps.
In Switzerland and in Austria it is much employed, even in southern
climates ; in general it is planted out after transplantation."
With regard to deciduous or broad-leaved trees, M. Marschand says, —
" I am myself no advocate for the employment of these in reboisements on
the Alps. The resinous trees have been located by the Creator on the great
mountains, because they possess, in view of the general regime of the waters,
properties which the broad-leaved trees do not.
" But I may add," says he, " that in the level lands of lower-lying spots,
extending to 1200 metres, or 4000 feet, in the southern Alps, the acacia
succeeds well ; the ash and the sycamore equally weU ; and, in fine, as a
bushy growth giving a first shelter, I have seen employed with success
the plum tree of Brian (^on, and the variety of willows which cover calcareous
slopes ; on the calcareous coasts of the Adriatic, they employ as a first
shelter the juniper.
" In conclusion, I repeat," says he, " that since with care a direct reboi&e-
ment may be obtained by means of resinous trees, recourse should never be
had to provisional protection excepting after the most manifest failure
with these."
It may be desired to compare with these matured opinions, deliberately
expressed by M. Marschand, the opinions which have been expressed by
others. To facilitate this being done I may repeat here that, at the first of
the annual conferences of agents employed in the works, instituted by
Ministerial appointment, and held in 1861, it was stated that the kinds of
trees which up to that time had been employed, had been chiefly the
epicea, or Norway fir, the Scotch fir, the Austrian pine, the Aleppo pine,
the Corsican pine, the larch, the ailanthus, the acacia, the Mount Atlas
cedar, the white oak, the ilex, or evergreen oak, the cork tree, the chestnut,
the willow, the white poplar, and the birch; and of shrubs — the filbert
the shumack, the hazel, &c. But this referred to a much wider range
of country than the High Alps alone, to which M. Marschand's remarks
refer.
The opinions expressed by the agents employed, in regard to the adapta-
tion of these several kinds of trees and shrubs for which they had been
selected, and in regard to localities for which one and another of them were
356 DEVASTATIONS OCCAStONED BY TORRENTS,
appropriate, and the annotations of the Administration on the opinions
expressed, have been given (ante pp. 177-207).
In the report of operations in 1865-66, it is stated that the kinds of trees
most extensively diffused in the region of the Alps — including the Is^re,
the High Alps, the Lower Alps, and the Drome — in the order of most
importance, were the Austrian pine, the Scotch fir, the Norway fir, the
larch, the oak, the Corsican pine, the alder, the ash, the silver fir, and the
Mugho, or dwarf pine. And in this region much use has been made of
suckers and twigs of willows and poplars and of herbaceous plants.
In the Pyrenees — including the Eastern Pyrenees, the High Pyrenees,
the Lower Pyrenees, Aude, and Ariege — the kinds of trees most common
were the Scotch fir, the Mugho, the Austrian pine, the larch, the chestnut,
the maritime pine, the oak, and the acacia. And in the region of the
C^vennes, and the central plateau — including Ard^che, Grand Loz^re,
H^rault, Puy-de-D6me, Cantal, and High Loire — there were employed
principally the Austrian pine, the Scotch fir, the Norway fir, the oak, the
maritime pine, the Aleppo pine, and the ailanthus.
It is then stated generally that, in the selection of trees, the maple, the
acacia, and the filbert, were preferred for unstable ground, on account of
their rapid growth and their roots sending forth numerous suckers. The
oak and the walnut were reserved for strong, dry, solid grounds ; while in
the moist depths of the ravines the alder, the poplar, the ash, the osier, the
white willow of the Alps, &o., were made use of.
These are, in some soils, preferred to the coniferae, in view of the object
aimed at ; and some other trees have been employed experimentally. But
a preference or prejudice has been expressed in favour of indigenous trees.
Amongst the bushes cultivated may be mentioned the black thorn, the
bramble, the myrtle, the juniper, the hip'po'phoi^ and above all the barberry.
This last, by virtue of its strong root, was formerly spread over the
country from the valley to the mountain summits, but the root being in
demand as a dye, this led to reckless destruction of it, and it had almost
entirely disappeared.
Amongst the herbs employed are the sainfoin, the lucerne, and the
restharrow, a plant indigenous to the combes, which may be seen suspended
over the edge of the precipice, the crumbling crust of which it holds and
retains as with the grip of despair.
In regard to most of the trees, of which mention has been made as used
in the work of rehoisement, much information may be found in almost any
English work on Arboriculture, Forests, or Forest Trees. But when I was
engaged in the study of this subject I failed to obtain the kind of informa-
tion I required, to enable me to learn for myself, and to give to others,
counsel, in regard to measures to be adopted in carrying out works of such
magnitude as would be requisite in some of our colonies, if it were
attempted to prevent by sylviculture the devastating effects and conse-
quencea from torrents, and from inundations from which occasionally they
suffer. This information is to be had at command in France. In a work
entitled *' Coiirs elementaire de culture des Bois cree a VEcole Forestiere de
Nancy, 'par M. Lorentz, Directeur-Fondateur de cette ecole, aiicien Admini-
strateur des Forets, Officier de la Legion dlionneur, Memhre Correspondent de
la Societe Imperiale d^Agricult^ire, d:c., comjylctc et ptuhlie par A. Parade j
Gon&ervateur des Forets, Directeur de VEcole Imperiale Forestiere. Cinquieme
Edition^ publicc par A. Lorentz et II. Nanquette^ avec une preface par L,
AND niEVKNTIVE MKAHURER. 257
Tassy, lS67y^ there is abundance of such information, which T purpose
embodying in a separate vohimc on Forest Science and its practical
application in the forest economy of France.
Chap. V. — Devastations and Restorations.
There are still extant forests of great extent on the mountains of France,
but there have been extensive clearings. And while we picture to
ourselves mountains begirt with forests, it is expedient with the object we
have in view to introduce into the picture such scenes as have been
described in the Introduction, as presented by Devoluy, by the vicinity of
Embrun, and by the valley descending from the col Isoard, and others
which have been given of the ravages and devastations wrought by the
torrents which owe their birth to the clearings which have been made in
these ancient forests. Elsew-here it is the same ; and the study of this will
show what evils have resulted from what may be considered but partial
clearings.
M. Cezanne follows up a lengthened lucid and instructive exposition
with the statement, — " These long explications which have been given can
give but a very inadequate and incomplete idea of the treatment applied
to torrents ; on the other hand, it suffices to visit any one of the
peri metres, and cast a glance over the whole, to receive a convincing-
demonstration of what is being done, and to be imbued with absolute
confidence in the efficacy of the cure. If then the Administration of
Forests desires to form at any time a special service for the artificial
extinction of torrents, the best measure to take would be to send their
agents on a mission into the High Alps, as L'Ecole des Pouts et Chaussees
send their students to visit the works in course of execution."
I am aware of the importance of this suggestion, and I would make the
same to those w^hom I desire to move to the adoption of like measures.
Meanwhile, without detriment to this suggestion, I can produce statements
innumerable, and of unquestionable authority, descriptive of what was,
within the last tw^enty years, the condition of various localities, and what
is the condition into which they had been brought by rehoisement and
gazonnementj and barrages, at the time w^hen operations were interrupted
by war.
To students of Forest Science, information embodied in the official
documents, of which translations have been given, may suffice to enable
them to form a definite idea of w^hat has been done, and enable them,
perhaps, by a vivid fancy, to reproduce the past, to picture the present,
and to imagine what the future is likely to be ; but others may prefer being-
supplied with less formal and more detailed information — and such is at
command.
Sect. I. — The High Alj^s.
The state of desolation to which this region had been brought has been
again and again brought under notice ; but other details are not awanting.
Of that desolation some idea may be formed from the following- account of
the vicinity of Embrun, given by Surell, — " In going from Gass towards
Embrun, following- the highway numbered 94, more than a fourth of the
journey is made on the beds of torrents. They are seen scattered over the
2g
258 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
whole couutiy, inundating all the valleys, and furrowing all the slopes, and
hence comes that air of desolation so peculiar to the country, which at once
strikes strangers on their crossing these mountains for the first time.
" The multiplicity of torrents in this department is a fearful scourge, it
is- like a leprosy which has seized upon the soil of the mountains. The
torrents eat into the sides of these, and, dejecting on the plains heaps of
debris, by a long-continued succession of accumulation they have created
enormous beds of dejections which are ever increasing and extending. They
threaten to overwhelm everything. They doom to perpetual sterility the
soil which they bury beneath their deposits. Every year they are
swallowing up some additional estates. They intercept communication
between different parts of the district, and hinder the establishment of a
good system of roads. And these ravages are to be deplored all the more
because they take place in a country which is very poor, and is devoid of
manufactures, and one in which arable ground, which is the only resource
of the inhabitants, is rare. These, it often happens, succeed in creating a
small field, but only after prodigies of labour and perseverance, and then
comes the torrent unexpectedly and deprives them, it may be in one hour,
of the fruit of ten years of labour and toil.
'' The dread which these torrents inspire appears in the names which
have been given to them. Thus is it with the torrent V iipevoir, the hawk,
and with the torrents Malaise^ ill at ease, Malfosse, evil pit, and Malcombe,
Malpas, Malattret, — all names speaking of evil. Some bear the name of
Rahioux, the enraged ; several others that of Bramafaim, howling hunger.
There are some which seem ready to swallow up entire villages and even
market towns ; and there a dark cloud hovering over the sources of the
torrent is sufficient to spread alarm over a whole community."
From this statement some idea may be formed of what some thirty years
ago was the state of things there. The passage is cited in the official
report of works executed in 1867 and 1868, and with it the following
statement by M. Surell in regard to what influenced him in doing what he
did in the matter is given : —
" There was yet another consideration which determined me to undertake
this study, and I must say that it is this which all along has given
direction to me in my work. This wretched department going fast to ruin,
and the Administration, whose duty it is to look to the C(fnservation of its
territory, not having yet tried to put forth the least effort to avert the
coming evil, it appears to be high time to call the attention of the Admini-
stration to the state of this country. It seems to be ignorant of the extent
of the evil, and it is my belief that in throwing light upon this plague, and
showing what might be done to cure it, I am disciiarging a sacred duty."
" As may be imagined," writes M. Far6 in the report cited, " a state of
things such as tlii« lias commanded tlie most serious attention of the Forest
Administration from the time they were intrusted with tho execution of
the law of 28th July 1860."
A summary is tlicn given of the extent to which yehoisement and yazonne-
ment had been effected, and the Director-General goes on to say, — " 1 have
cited above some of the statements made by M. t:^urell, which bring into
prominence the imminence of the danger with wliich the French Alps were
being threatened. In furtlicr reference to tlie sad picture thus [)rcsented,
and to make apparent the results already produced by the works of
restoration executed by the Forest Administration, 1 shall confine myself to
THE niQH ALPS. 259
rcprintinp:, from a report presented in 1869 to the Conseil General clcs
JJautcs A/jHS, by M. (Jentil, Inyenicur en chef des ponts et chaussees, the
following ]^iissagc : — * Torrents are one of the most disastrous plagues of
the High Al))s ; the coufi^ dc dejection invade the valleyn, bury under their
heaps the cultivated ground, end in annihilating every kind of cultivation,
and hunt the inhabitants away from the country ; and at the same time
the erosions occasioned by them destroy the sides of the mountains ; and
thus is destroyed at one and the same time all the value of the mountain
and the value of the plain.
" ' The embankments attempted on the cones de dejection at the issue of
the gorges, by which come down the materials carried off by the w^aters
from the higher-lying lands, have always failed, or at best the eflccts pro-
duced by them have been but precarious. The dikes in a few years have
disappeared under the rubbish from the mountain.
" ' But the Forest Administration has succeeded, by the consolidation of
the soil, in the creation of a robust vegetation on the flanks of the bassins
de receiytion. The results are assured : the case of the works at La Batie,
at Sainte-Marthe, at Resail, has demonstrated most manifestly and most
indisputably, that it is quite possible not only to arrest dejections, but also
to re-establish vegetation on mountains the most ravaged by these torrents.
" 'It is not required of me here to show^ by what means the Forest Adminis-
tration has succeeded in extinguishing the torrents. I confine myself to
specifying the results of these operations. These results, in regard to the
valleys, to the lands there, and to the roads by which they are traversed,
are remarkable in the extreme, and it is now required of me to point out
these to the Departmental Administration.
" ' From the time that the soil in the hassin de reception is consolidated,
and by plantings and sowings and w^orks of the Forest Administration the
soil is fixed, material is no longer torn away and thrown into the current
which transports it to the lowef-lying parts. The w^aters assume in some
measure a regular regime, they come clear and free from mud upon the
cones de dejections, they dig out there a stable bed for themselves by carry-
ing away the less ponderous material ; at this stage embankment becomes
possible in the valley, and it is practicable at little expense to keep in one
unchanging direction the flow of waters which no longer carry away the
stones. Properties along the banks are then securely protected ; they
are no more exposed to a sudden disaster such as those of which we have
so many examples ; they recover with this security their money value ; and
the population reassured may count upon their harvests.
" ' On the other hand, the fixing of the bed of the current permits the
erection of bridges and aqueducts on the roads and highways ; com-
munication is protected against the frequent interruptions to which it was
exposed when the torrent was in full activity; and, in fine — nor is this the
least important result of the regeneration of the basin of reception — the
principal rivers no longer receive the masses of dejection which encumber
their beds and create confusion in times of flood. In illustration of these
results, which have been thus referred to in a general and summary way,
may be cited the following facts : —
*' ' The torrent of Sainte-Marthe, nearEmbrun, w^as threatening to extend
its dejections, so as to cover the imperial road, No. 94. A proposal to construct
a dike on the left bank had been formally discussed ; the expense of this
was estimated at about 45.000 francs, and it w^as considered that it should
260 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
be met in part by the State, and in part by the proprietors on the river
bank. But since the execution of the works of rehoisement, in the basin of
Sainte-Marthe, by the Forest Administration, this water-course has lost its
torrential character, and has settled its bed in the co7ie cle dejection, the
embankment has become useless, and the project which had been under
discussion has been entirely abandoned.
" ' The torrent of Palps, in the commune of Risoul, was threatening both
the departmental road. No. 4, and the imperial road. No. 94. In 1865 the
draft proposal of work to be executed to cause the torrent to be con-
ducted directly into the Guil, and to settle the bed at the end of the depart-
mental road, had been discussed and presented for approval. The execution
would have entailed an expense of 30,000 francs. But the Forest
Administration has consolidated and covered with herbage the hassin de
receiytion of this torrent, and they have been able to leave the waters to flow
on in the course they have taken, and to construct a simple aqueduct under
the imperial road. No. 94.
*' ' The torrent of Riou-Bourdoux was noted as one of the formidable
torrents of the High Alps ; the quantity of material which the waters put
in movement at every flood, had, in some measure, led to the abandonment
of the construction of a bridge for the passage of the imperial road. No. 94 ;
the Forest Administration has enclosed, mis en defens, the basin of reception,
and executed some works of consolidation and of gazonnement. The regime
of the torrent has been in consequence so far changed, that, at little
expense, the bed on the cone can be definitively settled, and a bridge
erected for the imperial road.
" ' I might bring forward other examples of what has been effected ;
those which have been given may suffice to make appreciable how complete
and efficient are the results obtained.' "
This testimony is endorsed by the Director-General, who says, — " I have
nothing to add to this report of the eminent engineer-in-chief of the depart-
ment of the High Alps, save to say, that I fully share his firm conviction
that it is practicable to arrest the dejections of the torrents, and to
re-establish vegetation on the most ravine-furrowed mountains."
He subsequently, in another connection, cites the following statements
from a report which had been presented to the Council General of the High
Alps in 1868, by a Commission appointed by themselves : —
" Our Forest Commission felicitates itself in having to present to you
a most satisfactory picture of the works of rehoisement and gazonnement
undertaken in the High Alps.
'^ The two distinguished engineers who were appointed along with us,
more competent in many respects than the members of our Commission,
have expressed with warmth the satisfaction afforded them l)y their visit
to these immense and ijitercsting works ; and as for the Commissioners
themselves, the same who in 1866 had seen the works in an embryotic
state, they know not whether they should praise most the admirable
harmony which is characteristic of the works as a whole, or the wonderful
results already obtained.
" Gazonnement is substituted for rehoisemevt Avhcrevcr the hoiscinent is
not indispensably requisite to consolidate the ground, and tliere have been
planted scarcely any but broad-leaved trees in active growth, which are
becoming speedily defensible in such a way as to pei-mit of tlie early
restoration to the depasturing of sheep of the grounds thus reconquered.
THE HIGH ALPS. 261
" By these results the most active resistance has been deadened, and in
many localities, where the mere apprehension of works to bo undertaken had
created the most violent complaints and the keenest o})poKition, the agents
of the Administration are to-day loaded with i)raiso, and tliosc who in tho
beginning showed the greatest hostility, come forward of their own accord
to solicit of the Commission the extension or the conii)lcteinciit of the
works in course of execution.
" We can certify, and do, that in many communes the evidence of the
results obtijined has allowed syndicates of dikes to give up their works of
defence as being rendered superfluous by the consolidation and gazonne-
ment of the grounds in the higher basin of the torrents which they proposed
to embank ; and we certify what we have ourselves seen, that in the
p^rimetre which we have visited, works undertaken only two years ago have
sufficed literally to extinguish completely many ravines, dangerous affluents
of the torrent of the Sasset, affluents which were producing the greatest
masses of dejections of earth and blocks of stone w^hich were encumbering
the bed of the torrent ; we certify, in fine, that in spite of the many terrible
storms of rain w^hich this year have desolated our country, and in particular
the quarter of Sasset, not a barrage, not a dike, not one of those verdant
strips which give to the p6rim^tre, as a whole, the aspect of a smiling
parterre, has been cut in upon, and that the growth of the bushes and of
the herbaceous plants has attained an uulooked for development. .
" The results, of which we have submitted to you a report, lead us to
invite the Council to solicit the immediate publication of decrees of public
utility for the perimetres approved at its first sederunt.
" The Commission, penetrated with the greatness of the interest w^hich the
w^hole department has in the continuation and in the development of the
works of regazonnement and rehoisement, propose to you to vote for this
source, as in former years, a subvention of 500 francs."
Of this region, it was considered originally that, by reason of the extent
of the evil, little could be reckoned on proprietors and communes taking
the initiative in the work, and that subventions, however extensively they
might be distributed, would be altogether inadequate to bring about a
restoration of tlie mountains, from which vegetation had almost entirely
disappeared ; but it has been accomplished, and details are given which may
enable any one to fill up the outline of the picture which such general
statements may suggest of what has been effected.
Appended to the report cited are numerous monographs on the work
done in diff'erent perimetres of rehoisement in different parts of France ; and,
amongst these, are monographs on what has been done in several perimetres
in the High Alps.
The first of these is on the works executed in the perimetre of Sainte-
Marthe, in the valley of the Durance. This valley of the Durance has at
all times been deemed one of the most convenient highways between
France and Italy. By the valley of the Durance, says Cezanne, passed
Hannibal, Caesar, Charlemagne, Charles VIII., Louis XII., Francois I.,
Louis XIII. Victor Amedee, Duke of Savoy, invaded and devastated it in
1692. Lesdiguieres, Catinat, Berwick, Vittars, carried on campaigns in the
High Alps ; there is not a gorge in the department, nor a pass, which
has not become famous as a battle field ; and there the Vaudois and the
Protestants formerly found refuges in which they were safe.
262 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
The Col clu Mont Gen^vre, upon which the valley of the Durance abuts,
is less elevated than those of Mount Cenis, of the Great and the Little St
Bernard, of the Simplar, and of the St Gothard ; sheltered as it is against
the north wind, it presents exceptional advantages in the inclement
season ; and the pass is not, like the others, a desert and inhospitable col, but
is a cultivated and inhabited plateau, in which there are two villages — the
principal villages of two communes.
The Dauphines of a former day, more especially Humbert II., and Louis
II., and subsequently Louis XL, took a special interest in this region ;
they dug channels of irrigation, raised dikes, and founded useful establish-
ments. The memory of them is still maintained among the mountain
population.
By order of Louis XIV., Vauban, after having completed the fortifications
of Briangon and Embrun, of which the Romans had laid the foundation,
constructed in all its parts the stronghold of Mont Dauphin.
Previous to the revolution, Dauphiny was considered an independent
State connected with France ; not incorporated with the kingdom, but
governed by the king under the title of Dauphin of the Viennois. It
embraced the territory now forming the departments of the Is^re, the
Drome, and the Higher Alps. Until then the Higher Alps, being an
integral portion of Dauphiny, shared the revenues of a wealthy province ;
and they were dependent on a central administration not far distant, where
their requirements were known, and where an interest was taken in efforts
the inhabitants had to put forth. Subsequent to the division of France
into departments it was otherwise. But Napoleon I., having his attention
directed to the subject by M. Ladoucette, who was prefect of the High Alps,
constructed, by the Durance and the Mont Genevre, the great military road
from Spain to Italy, and caused the route from Paris to Nice to pass by
Gass. And the department was enriched by Napoleon with many vitalising
institutions which were subsequently suppressed.
At the time of the reverses, experienced by the nation in 1815, and, in
despite of orders received from the authorities in France, the inhabitants of
Brian^on, of Mont Dauphin, and of Fort Qucyras, refused to open their
gates to the Austrio-Sardinian army; and by this patriotic conduct there
was preserved for France a great quantity of munition and war stores which
the army had taken to Italy.
But from that time onwards the High Alps have exhibited a continuous
decadence. Through the policy of centralization the business of the
department, in commen with that of the whole country, removed to Paris,
failed to receive from tlic Administration tlic attention given to districts less
inaccessible and more out-spoken ; and depopulation followed, apparently in
consequence of the continuous impoverishment of the land,
M. L(ionce de Lavergne, in a treatise on Eamomie Uuraic, writes, — " The
two departments of the High and the Low Alps present a sad contrast to
the otlier parts of tliis region. TJtey have retrograded instead of advcnicing.
It is the least wealthy portion of the district ; it has only 22 inhabitants to
the hectare, while even Corsica lias 27. For more than a hundred years
past all who have known the French Alps s])eak of the coming destruction
of the whole of the vcgctaV)le soil by the periodical ravages of the torrents."
The population of the High Alps, it is stated by C6zanne, increased by
14,000 from LSOGto 1810 ; but it diminished by 11,000 from 1840 to 18GG;
and he gives official returns in j)roof of this fact, with ofTicial returns
THE HIGH ALPS. 2fi3
showing tho continuous increase of the population of France throughout the
whole of the time spocilicd. "We have lost," says lie, "in twenty years
what we liad gained in forty ; and tho public wealth has experienced a
similar falling olf. If we look to the production of timber, this from 1834
to 184:7 increased over the whole of France 44 per cent., but in the High
Alps only 30 per cent. From 1847 to 18G8 it increased over the whole of
France 103 percent., but in the High Alps only 12 per cent., and he cites
official returns iu proof, so that, whether tested by population or by wealth, the
High Alps only followed at a distance in the general advancement of France
till 1847, and from that time onward it has, in the words of Lavei'gne, retro-
graded instead of advancing."
M. Cezanne goes on to say, — " The smiling fertile valleys of this region
are narrow ; the greater part of the villages extend up the steeps to the
region of a -trying climate, where even the sweat of man cannot make the
ground productive. There the peasants live on the verge of the habitable
parts of the land. The least physical accident — frost, drought, or rain — is
disastrous to them ; and the roar of the torrent in their immediate vicinity is
always threatening them. They toil and they suffer ^vithout complaint ;
they neither blame the Government nor God; but when the misery becomes
unbearable they depart, they yield to the greater attractions which invite
them to the opulent cities of Marseilles and Lyons and Paris. It is to the
betterment of their circumstances indeed ; but it is a cruel wrench ; and the
nation suflers.
"There are some who have said, — 'Let the mountains crumble into ruins if
they cannot sustain themselves against the effects of the weather ! ' But
others have said, — ' These are a part of the ramparts of France ! and what will
it advantage us in the day of danger to have fortresses on the frontier, if
behind these strong places there be only a desert, supplying to the army of
France neither woods, nor fields, nor railroads, nor population r There
were others who had their attention called to the subject, and more
especially to the importance in many respects of the rehoisement of the
mountains ; and the reaction commenced ; but the state of the land was
not more encouraging than was the condition of the people."
I have given a translation of M. Surell's account of Devoluy ; not less
saddening is the account given by him of the valley descending fi^om the
Col Izoard, which he cites as a typical specimen of the hassin de reception of
a torrent. He says, — " The aspect of this monstrous channel — a gorge
which serves as the common point of accumulation and discharge of several
lateral torrents — is frightful. Within a distance of less than tw^o English
miles, more than sixty torrents hurl iiito the depths of the gorge the
detritus torn from its two flanks. The smallest of these secondary torrents,
if transferred to a fertile valley, would be enough to ruin it."
And of this torrent of the Col Izoard, he says in an appendix to his
treatise, — " This gorge, dreadful in appearance as it is, is nevertheless the
most convenient route there is leading to the valley of Queyras a Briancon.
The bed of the torrent serves as a district road ; and from this one may
judge of w^hat the district roads of the department are. The traveller who
should be caught by a storm of rain in the midst of this defile would
there infallibly lose his life. Where could he find refuge from the dangers
pressing upon him on all sides 1 The soil sinks under his footsteps j if he
remains in the bed he is engulfed by the torrent ; if he try to climb the
264 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
mountains he is crushed by the blocks of rock, and by the clods of earth,
which are there tumbling down from all parts ; consequently the inhabitants,
when they venture on this route, have to take care and see that there be
no threatening of bad weather.
" The torrent of Labeoux, which leads into the Devoluy, presents nearly
the same features with the same consequences. The district road is the bed
of the torrent, and the mountains which enclose it are in many places so
steep, or they are composed of so crumbling a material, that it would be
difficult to find refuge on tliem in the event of a storm of rain suddenly
swelling the torrent, and effacing under a body of furious waters all traces
of the road."
Such was the state of things, and such were the evils, which were fearlessly
attacked by the Forest Administration and the hydraulic engineers of France
with the simple appliances of 7'ehoisement and gazonnement, or the planting
of trees and the fostering of the growth of herbage.
It was like David going forth with his sling and his five smooth stones
in his shepherd's wallet to kill Goliath of Gath j but, preposterous as seemed
his scheme, and ridiculously inadequate his provision for what he proposed
to do, he did it ; and so likewise was it here.
Of what was done the following account is given : — " The torrent of
Sainte-Marthe is situated on the right bank of the Durance, and has for its
origin the brows of the Mount Saint-Guillaume, the height of which is 2,500
metres, well nigh 8,350 feet. The point at which it reaches the river after
a course of 8 kilometres, above 5 miles, is about 2 kilometres, about a mile
and a third, below Embrun, at an altitude of 700 metres, or well nigh 2,350
feet. The diff'erence of level between the origin and the embouchure of
this torrent is about 1,800 metres, or 6,000 feet. The slopes of the thahveg
are consequently very great.
" When the works were commenced on the hassin de reception, the surface
of it was absolutely bare and everywhere cut up by ravines. But as this
upper part is formed of sandstone and of pretty hard compact limestone,
the disintegration was only superficial.
" The canal d^ecoidement is a narrow gorge, and has an extremely steep
descent, all along which exist berges vives in a tumbling down condition.
The upper half is formed of earth, stones, and blocks of rock which have
been borne thither ; the lower half traverses black marl almost in a state
of clay or mud.
" Everything to produce the well-known eff'ects of torrents is found in
this torrent. The bassin de reception, entirely denuded of vegetation, forms
a funnel in which the waters, at the time of storms of rain, rush to a
common centre almost instantaneonsly. Tlie mass of waters precipitates
itself on the steep declivities of the thalweg, from the first tearing away
from the flanlis of the upper hills large quantities of stones and of rocks of
all sizes ; lower down the flood mixes up with itself the black mud furnished
by the washing away of the lowei'-lying hills ; and then, like an avalanche,
which in some respects it resembles, it precipitates itself with a violence
which notlxing can resist, and debouches at the bottom of the valley at the
extremity of the gorge which forms the summit of the cone de dejection.
Fine properties in the environs of Embrun, of a value of at least 300,000
francs, an imperial road, with a bridge and dike belonging to the State, of a
value of more than 200,000 francs, and a district road of great importance,
THE HIGH ALPS. 265
were tall being threatened with destruction. Dikes had been constructed
along the side of the torrent to protect the plain ; but the bed of tlic
torrent rose liigher and highei" still. It had been necessary to meet this by
raising higher and higher the embankment ; and it had now come to pass
that the torrent was several metres above the level of the pioperty
along the banks. Although it was imprudent to elevate still higlier the
torrent, a new scheme of embankment, which it was estimated would cost
45,000 francs, had been formally discussed ; and it was about to be
carried out.
** It was in these circumstances that the ton^ents of Sainte-Marthe was
attacked in 1865 ; from 1863 the whole of the basin, which measures 530
hectares, upwards of 200 acres, had been enclosed, mise en cUfeus, with the
consent of the Municipal Council of Embrun, though it had been opposed
by the inhabitants of the hamlets on the sides of the torrents. These I ad
in reality the greatest interest of all in the execution of the works, as tl.eir
dwellings and their crops, dragged along with the general movement of the
soil, were tending towards engulfment in the torrent.
'' The works began with an improvement of the basin. Two years of
enclosure had prepared the ground. All the ravines were cut up into
portions by more than 200 barrages ; channels to lead off and disperse the
w\ater were cut ; and seeds of forage plants were sown over places which
required them,
" Attention was then given to the consolidation of the hills bordering the
canal cUecoulement. With this view there were constructed, first, strong
barrages in the upper-lying parts of these. The years 1865, 1866, and
1867, were employed in securing the command of the head of the torrent,
and diminishing the violence of the flood. It would have been imprudent
and almost impossible to construct barrages in the middle of the black slime
of the lower-lying portion of the canal d'ecoulement, inasmuch as the force of
the flood would not have been sufficiently reduced at that time.
" In 1868 it was considered that the last part of the work might be taken
up with some chance of success. If matters had been less pressing this
might have been deferred for one or two years more ; but it was deemed of
importance that the results should be made apparent.
'' In constructing the lower series of barrages, the work was begun anew
from below, instead of being continued from above. First, there were
planted at the lower extremity strong barrages capable of withstanding the
strongest floods. Others were then constructed successfully further up the
torrent, and pretty near to each other, that each might give support to the
one above it. And in proportion as land was gained by each barrage, the
hills were cut into shape by the pick-axe to give them the angle of stability.
" In the same time that the principal thahveg was thus being consolidated,
boisement and gazonnernent were carried on on the lateral slopes. The
ravines were choked wdth small barrages of stones, with hurdles, and with
fasciites ; and the ground was drained at spots where infiltrations of water
were producing subterranean disintegration.
" These works, carried on in combination with each other, have proved
completely successful. The torrent is now [1870] extinguished. For two
years the greatest storms of rain have deluged the basin, but have had no
other effect than to occasion a moderate increase of the flow. This has
carried oft' no material, nor has the stream overflowed its banks, xlll
danger to the plain has disappeared. The Syndicate has dissolved itself.
2h
266 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
The new scheme of embankment has been abandoned. The proprietors
have again brought under culture all the lands previously invaded, and a
few years ago they planted vines and orchards within the very embank-
ments of the torrent formerly reared. These facts are patent to all ; and
they have been officially certified by the Service des Fonts et Chaussees.
" The expenditure, including that of 1868, has been 91,134 francs 24
centimes. The number of barrages constructed is 759. The total length of
the barrages vivants and the hurdles is 32,270 metres. The length of roads,
9,400 metres. The length of channel to carry off and disperse the water,
1117 metres. The extent of ground regenerated and restored is 400
hectares. The extent of what may be considered as regained and main-
tained is 300 hectares."
Such is the report of the Administration in regard to the extinction of
the torrent of Sdinte-Marthe. In accordance with this is the statement by
M. Gentil, previously cited. And in accordance with both are statements
which have been subsequently published.
In the same valley is the torrent of Vacheres, in regard to which corres-
ponding details are given, the torrent of Chagne, the torrent of Riou-
Bourdoux, the torrent of Reallen, the torrent of Valeria, the torrent of Trente-
Pas, the torrent of Lhubac, in regard to all of which are given similar
details not less romantic, but true. Ex uno disce omnes.
And there are other, and many other, valleys in these same High Alps in
which corresponding w^ork has been done, varying only as it varied with
varying circumstances in different localities here.
Statements scarcely, if at all, less interesting and encouraging than this I
have quoted in regard to the valley of the Durance are given in regard to
operations in the basin of the Drac, including those in the Communes of
Saint-Jean-Saint-Nicoals, of Orcieres, and of Champoleon, which two
latter give their names to two branches of the river, the Drac d'Orcieres, and
the Drac de Champoleon.
From a Notesur les Dessechements, d-c, by M, Montluissant, in the Annales
des Fonts et Chaussees for 1833, it appears that the Drac has when in flood
poured into the Isere, at its confluence with this river a little below Gren-
oble, 5,200 cubic yards of water per second, such is its importance.
M. Cezanne intimates that nothing could be more profitable to a student
of such works than would be a visit of inspection to the works of reboisement
in the High Alps, if there could be secured the advantage of making such
inspection under the guidance of a man who has organised them amidst
difficulties, which description can only imperfectly bring before the mind,
and such a one, says he, is M. Costa de Bastclica — a man heart and soul
devoted to the work. Whilst some functionaries sent to the Alps, says he,
frooi the day of their arrival live in thoughts of the day when tliey shall
be able to leave the miserable country, M. Costa has attached himself to
these mountains by a protracted residence. Daily witnessing the ravages
of the torrents, and imbued with the ideas of M. Surcll, he has had faith
in success, and when the law of 1800, and the confidence in him justified
by his administration, gave him the means and ojjportunity of action, he
gave himself to the work with an enthusiastic interest, to which his country,
witness of his efforts, renders with unanimity its homage.
The time is not yet lung gone past when the ucared mountaineers were
DEPARTMENT OP THE ISERE. 267
threatening his house and his person ; he sees at length the success crowning
his efforts, and every spiing decking a new group oi combes until then naked
and desoltito, wliilo tlie torrent subdued clears for itself a channel in tho
old (hyectiovs ; and in manifestation of his victory, M. Costa, as if in defiance
to his enemy, has here and there thrown ;:)rtss^^?Y//(^s, or foot-bridges, at a
height scarcely exceeding a m^re above the water, and takes ])leasure in
showing that the torrent, SainteMarthe for example, which but lately rose
above its embankments and carried off high bridges, has respected for years
this feeble barrier.
But if I should tell all that is told of what has been done in one of the
p^rim^tres in these, I should feel strongly disposed to tell with similar pro-
lixity of all that has been done in all : I should feel like a boy running
down a steep declivity unable to stop till he has reached the bottom. A
stand must be made somewhere — I make it here. In language suggested
by the Bible, I leave off before I begin, that I may report what has been
done elsewhere, and the changes which have been effected there by the
works executed, and their results.
Sect. II. — Department of the Isere.
Nowhere, perhaps, are torrents to be seen acting with such fuiy as they
have displayed in the department of the High Alps ; and it was in the
arrondissement of Embrun, more especially, that they were to be found in
greatest numbers, and in their most terrible forms. In proportion as we
recede from this district, which may be regarded as the centre of their
action, they are seen less and less violent, and are more and more rare,
until, at a great distance, their characteristic peculiarities finally disappear ;
but as is thus indicated, they do not all at once cease, nor are they confined
to the region of the High Alps alone.
Throughout a great part of the former independent State of Dauphiny
they have committed ravages.
The following account of Dauphiny and Provence is given by Mr Marsh,
the facts stated in which w^ere supplied by the work by Charles de Ribbe
entitled La Provence an 2^^int de vue des Bois, des Torrents et des Inondations :
— " The provinces of Dauphiny and Provence comprise a territory of four-
teen or fifteen thousand square miles, bounded northwest by the Is^re,
northeast and east by the Alps, south by the Mediterranean, west by the
Rhone, and extending from 42"^ to about 45° of north latitude. The sur-
face is generally hilly and even mountainous, and several of the peaks in
Dauphiny rise above the limit of perpetual snow\ Except upon the moun-
tain ridges, the climate, as compared wMth that of the United Stales in the
same latitude, is extremely mild. Little snow falls, except upon the higher
mountains, the frosts are light, and the summers long, as might indeed be
inferred from the vegetation, for in the cultivated districts the vine and the
fig everywhere flourish ; the olive thrives as far nortVi as 43^°, and upon
the coast grow the orange, the lemon, and the date-palm. The forest trees,
too, are of southern type, umbrella pines, vaiious species of evergreen oaks,
and many other trees and shrubs of persistent broad-leaved foliage, charac-
terising the landscape.
" The rapid slope of the mountains naturally exposed these provinces to
damage by torrents, and the Romans diminished their injurious effects by
erecting, in the beds of ravines, barriers of rocks loosely piled up, which
268 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
permitted a slow escape of the water, but compelled it to deposit above the
dikes the earth and gravel with which it was charged. At a later period
the Crusaders brought home from Palestine, with much other knowledge
gathered from the wiser Moslems, the art of securing the hillsides and
making them productive by terracing and irrigation. The forests which
covered the mountains secured an abundant flow of springs, and the process
of clearing the soil went on so slowly that, for centuries, neither the want
of timber and fuel, nor the other evils about to be depicted, were seriously
felt. Indeed, throughout the Middle Ages, these provinces were well
wooded, and famous for the fertility and abundance, not only of the low-
grounds, but of the hills.
" Such was the state of things at the close of the fifteenth century. The
statistics of the seventeenth show that while there had been an increase of
prosperity and population in Lower Provence, as well as in the corres-
pondingly situated parts of the other two provinces I have mentioned, there
was an alarming decrease both in the wealth and in the population of Upper
Provence and Dauphiny, although, by the clearing of the forests, a great
extent of plough-land and pasturage had been added to the soil before
reduced to cultivation. It was found, in fact, that the augmented violence
of the torrents had swept away, or buried in sand and gravel, more land
than had been reclaimed by clearing ; and the taxes computed by fires or
habitations underwent several successive reductions in consequence of the
gradual abandonment of the wasted soil by its starving occupants. The
growth of the large towns on and near the Rhone and the coast, their
advance in commerce and industry, and the consequently enlarged demand
for agricultural products, ought naturally to have increased the rural
population and the value of their lands ; but the physical decay of the up-
lands was such that considerable tracts were deserted altogether, and in
Upper Provence, the fires which in 1471 counted 897, were reduced to 747
in 1699, to 728 in 1733, and to 635 in 1776."
As an example and illustration of what has been done in the department
of the Isere, to the north of the High Alps and of the department of
Drome, I take at hap-hazard the monagraph given by the Forest Adminis-
tration on the works executed in the p6rim6tre of the Bourg-d'Oisans : —
" The territory of the Bourg-d'Oisans has been formed by the union of
the two communes, formerly distinct, of the Bourg-d'Oisans and of Gau-
chfjirs ; it lies with a general exposure to the northeast, and comprises two
distinct valleys, which meet at the confluence of the V6n6on and the
Romanche ; the one (Bourg-d'Oisans) is throughout a cultivated plain of
an average extent of 3 kilometres, or nearly 2 miles, traversed by the
Romanche throughout its entire length, and includes all the escarpments
which overlook it on the southeast to an altitude of 1800 metres, or 6000
feet ; the other (the Oauchoirs) lies on the loft bank of the V6neon, and
extends to the upper ridge of the mountains, the dominating peaks of which
attain a height of 2900 metres, or upwards of 10,000 feet. The slopes of
the mountiiinous region of the territory present abrupt declivities of from 45
to 60 degrees; witli the exception of the dominal forest of Riou-P6roux,
and of some masses of resinous trees of no great extent, they are entirely
denuded and furrowed hy numerous ravines, amongst which may be
mentioned the torrent of Saint-Antoine.
*' This torrent has hollowed out for itself a vast notch in the very flank
DEPARTMENT OF THE I8ERE. 269
of the mountain, and by this notch, wliich is ahnost vertical, it was enlarging
itself unceasingly by the tumbling down of the upper parts. It was trans-
porting on to the cultivated fields, and even on to the highway of the imperial
road No. 91, at each storm of rain, rocks and stones mixed with mud ; and it
was tlu'eatening immediately the Bourg-d'Oisans, which it was necessary to
secure by the construction of a strong dike designed to alter the direction
of the current of dejections. This constant ccoulement, or coming down of
rocks and earth, was still further augmented by the proprietors of adjacent
lands, who, finding this mode of getting out timber cost less, projected
trunks and whole trees from the forests by the friable slopes and precipices
of these declivities.
" The vegetable soil, kept on the surface by some bushes and tufts of turf,
which the teeth and the treading of the flocks were destroying, no longer
offering resistance, was converted into mud by the waters, and washed away
on all hands ; the argillaceous marls and slates which constituted the sub-
soil of the escarpment over which the torrent rolled its water, divided into
thin layers, cleft and fragile, fell into a state of desintegration with the
greatest rapidity, and filled up the basin of the Saint-Antoine with their debris
continually renewed. On the other hand, the depasturing of flocks on the
mountain cari'ied to excess, in completing the ruin of the pastures, was
extending the ravages of other torrents, and was hindering in the plain the
fixation of the gravels of the Y^neon above the dikes constructed to confine
it, and was destroying the vegetation which, by spontaneous or natural
growth, would have opposed serious obstacles to the violence of the current.
" In order to fix the dry accumulations of alluvial deposits brought down
by the Veneon, to arrest the disintegration of the declivities, and to pro-
tect the houses which compose the Bourg-d'Oisans, it was becoming of
importance to subject to a rigorous regulation the exploitation of the
communal property, and to fix in a secure manner the hills of the most
dangerous torrents.
" It was with this design that was proposed, by reports of the 31st
March 1864, and 12th March 1865, the rehoisemeitt of the p^rim^tre of
Bourg-d'Oisans.
" Notwithstanding the energetic opposition raised by the inhabitants of
these lands, which are essentially pastoral, who saw in the subjection of
their mountains to a protective regime a great disturbance to their sole
industry, the works were declared to be works of public utility by a decree
of the 4th April 1866.
" The perimetre comprises 893 hectares 50 ares to be rewooded. Of this
73 hectares 42 ares belong to individual proprietors ; the Remainder to the
commune; and 994 hectares 17 ares to be regazonned, belonging to the
section of the Gauchoirs, in regard to which was pending a lawsuit between
that section and the commune of Yillard Eymond.
'' The individual proprietors, with the exception of one whose land was
already wooded, refused either to undertake the work at their own expense,
or to leave it to the execution of the Administration. Almost all of these
properties are wooded. They are situated on the basin of Saint-Antoine,
and have been included in the perimetre in order that sentence of expropri-
ation might be recorded in regard to them : for it is essential to the success
of the works to be executed in this basin, and for the securing of the results
obtained, to prevent not only the grubbing up of woods, but les con-pes a
blaiic etocy or the felling of them with a clean sweep, and even partial
270 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
exploitations, which, by denuding the gi'ound, would give birth immediately
to new ravines and, as a consequence, to new dangers.
" The Municipal Council of the Bourg d'Oisans, by a decision of the 10th
May 1866, decided to give up to the Administration the execution of the works
oireboisement £Lnd gazoimement ; the State, moreover, remains charged with the
gazonnement of the lands in dispute with the commune of Villard-Eymond,
this last having refused to make known its intentions.
" Face to face with the increasing devastations, and with the urgency of
a prompt execution of the works designed to avert them, the Forest Agents
undertook from 1866 the different operations of acknowledged necessity.
They constructed on the torrent of the Saint-Antoine four barrages of dry
stone masonry, measuring together 460 cubic metres. They dug un canal
de derivation, or channel for leading off the stream, 240 metres long. And that
they might be able to fix, by rewooding, the abandoned river-bed of the
Veneon, they covered v^^iiii fascines of willow wands a surface of 5 hectares,
composed of mobile earth, on the precipitous slopes, and planted 45,000
alders, or birches, and 240,000 resinous trees, on an area of 16 hectares.
" Prosecuted with vigour in the subsequent years, the works executed up
to the 1st January 1869 may be summed up thus : —
" The plantation, on 43 hectares 11 ares, of resinous trees, alders, willows,
and birches ;
"The sowing, on 43 hectares 11 ares, of 590 kilogrammes of seeds of
the same kinds of trees ;
" The construction of 20 barrages of stone, comprising 1920 cubic metres ;
" The opening of a caned de derivation of 240 metres ;
" The employment of more than 300,000 willows in hurdles and fascines
for the fixing and consolidation of shifting land.
" The whole expense of the work, inclusive of material, transport, and
labour, amounted, for the works of all kinds, to the sum cf 21,206 francs
30 centimes,
" If it were required to specify the failures which have occurred in the
works of reboisement, properly so called, sowings and plantations, notwith-
standing the care which the Agents have bestowed upon them, it might be
affirmed that the works in barrages and willow /ascme works have succeeded
in a very remarkable way, and have offered an effectual barrier to the tor-
pent of Saint-Antoine. And although the barrages and fascine works, acknow-
ledged to be necessary, have not been entirely completed, the torrent appears
subdued, the considerable mass of material which it was carrying away has
been arrested, the tumbling down of earth does not produce more ; and, on
the imperial road. No. 91, from Grenoble to Briangons, communication is no
longer intercepted.
" But here, as in other p6rim6trcs, the plantations of Austrian pine have
only given mediocre results : the plants of these brought from remote nurseries
got heated in the transport, and arrived more or less damaged ; the Norway
firs and the larches liavc succeeded to the extent of 50 per cent. ; the
willows, the alders, and the birches, planted in the moist alluvia of the
Vev^an have succeeded to the extent of 90 per cent. The sowings have
generally failed ; they have been unable to withstand on these denuded
lands the vigour of the winter and the sun's heat during summer. The want
of success should be in part attributed to certain mistakes made in the dis-
tribution of the different kinds of trees, to exposures, and to elevations
which are unsuitable to them.
DIOrAHTMENT OF THE DROME. 271
**Thc works oi gazotuiemeid have been carried on cotemporaneously with
the works of reboimcnieiU. They consisted in 1867 of a sowing of 600 kilo-
grammes of fescue grass, on 70 hectares 58 ares, and of the construction of
five stone barrages of 58 cubic m6tres. In 1868 they consisted in enclosing
the same lands.
"But the sowing executed in 1867 is far from having given satisfactory
results. The Administration could supply only fescue seed, and experience
has shown that, on the grounds of the Alps, gazonuenient can only be
obtained by the simultaneous employment of many kinds of seeds of
forage plants.
'' The five barrages have stood well, and have accomplished the purpose
for which they were employed, arresting the sweeping away of material
into the bed of Ven^on.
" The total expense for material, transport, and labour, for the works of
all kinds connected with gaionnement has been 752 francs 95 centimes.
" The surface of the perimetre of the Bourg d'Oisans is too extensive for
the subjection of it to forest regime not to have excited certain discontents
among a population of which the principal industry is the rearing of cattle.
To meet the reiterated protests and complaints of the communes interested,
and to appease this opposition, the conservator, after having visited the
places, has proposed to maintain in the 2^eriinetre de gazonnement unenclosed
properties between the Gauchoirs and Villard-Eymond, and about 450
hectares situated in the canton of Cornillou.
*'To resume, notwithstanding the checks experienced in the works of
reboisement on 86 hectares and 23 ares, recorded from 1866 to 1869, there
are only spots of limited extent on which the regeneration sought to be
effected has not been accomplished.
" As a consequence of the enclosures, the gazonnement straightway en-
suing, and some seeds of resinous trees, carried by the wind, have naturally
reclothed the soil ; and the whole surface may be considered in good
keeping. When the local nursery, established within the perimetre, shall
have provided the requisite plants, it will become an easy matter, and by no
means costly, to complete the existing stock of trees."
Thus are failures and success alike reported. Similar monographs are
given on the works executed and difficulties overcome, and results obtained
in the perimetres of Roissard and of Cornillon in the same department, in
which operations were being carried on at the same time on fourteen other
perimetres, the area of the whole comprising upwards of 7,600 hectares.
Sect. III. — Department of the Drome.
The former independent State of Dauphiny included, besides what are
now the departments of the High Alps and the department of the Isere,
the department of Drome. In this department there w^ere, within the first
decade of these operations, seventeen p(^rimetres in which works of reboise-
riient or gazonnement obligatoires were being earned on. Not the least
important of these, but not the most important of them, was the perimetre
of Luc.
" The perimetre of Luc, in the Arrondissemeut of Die, lies at an altitude
of 800 metres, on a mountain side, of which the general inclination is
to the north-west.
." The area is 815 hectares 72 ares, of which 593 hectares 83 ares belong
272 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
to the commune of Luc, and 222 hectares 40 ares to different individual
proprietors. Tiie soil is compact argillaceous marl, the surface is deeply
ravined by the torrent of Luc and its numerous branches.
" The works of rehoisement declared to be of public utility, by two decrees
dated respectfully 11th February 1863 and 12th August 1865, were begun
in 1863. During all the period embraced by this monograph, they had to
be confined within the communal part of the perimetre, awaiting while the
proprietors of private lands opposed every work of restoration. Of them,
110 hectares may be considered as perfectly improved, remis en valeur ; at
least they will now require nothing more than works of maintainance of little
importance. The ground there has been consolidated by means of numerous
barrages of stone and of fascines. The soil there has been cultivated in
horizontal strips and garnished with young plants of the oak, the Austrian
pine, the Scottish fir, the Norway fir, the ash, and the accacia. In the
beginning recourse was had to sowings, but this method of restocking the
groun 1 not having given good results, it was not long ere it was abandoned.
Between the cultivated strips there have been scattered seeds of forage
plants ; herbs bruised by the teeth of cattle in browzing have been topped ;
and a few slips and suckers of hois hlanc, more particularly of the willow, have
been planted in the new grounds which were being formed above the
barrages.
" The expense, borne entirely by the Treasury, had amounted altogether
in 1869 to 49,097 francs 80 cents., exclusive of a sum of 1081 francs allotted
to the inhabitants of Luc as compensation for temporary deprivation of
pasturage.
" It was estimated that the works remaining to be executed would entail
an additional expenditure of about 120,000 francs.
" But by this time the good effects of the works were beginning to make
themselves felt, the torrent of Luc no more rolled down water charged with
materials ; its regime had become more regular, its bed had become hollowed
out, it no longer threatened, as previously, to carry away the upper parts
of the village, and thus the population had come to desire that the works
might be speedily happily completed, not only because they had ascer-
tained what good results had followed, but because, besides this, the wages
paid had contributed to diffuse comfort amongst them."
Sect, IV. — The Lower Alps.
While, as has been stated, Embrun might be considered the centre of
torrential phenomena, which gradually diminished in violence as distance
from the spot increased, we have found these ravaging and devastating
lands in the departments of Isere and Drome. Throughout a great extent
of the Lower Alps they have told with crushing effect. Mention has been
made in preceding pages oftencr than once of the valley of L'Ubayc, in
which is situated the town of Barcelonettc ; there they have ravaged and
devastated the land in a way and to an extent which make it terrible to
contemplate.
In this department there were, when the report of operations in 1869 was
prepared, ten p6rimetres in which works of rehoisement, or gazonnement
obligatoires, had been decreed, but in three only had tlicy then been begun.
Of what was done in the pdrimctrc of Labourct, it was reported that this
perimetre, in the Arrondissement of Digne, was composed of 113 hectares
THE LOWER ALrti. 273
28 ares, belonging to the two communes of Beaujeu and of Veniet. It
extends over two very precipitous slopes, the one with a north-west, the
other with a south-east exposure. Tlie soil, belonging to the jurassique
formation, is composed of bhick marls and calcareous rock, which easily
disintegrate under the action of meteoric agents. The imperial road. No.
100, traverses the p^rim^re on an embankment of about 3 kilometres, along
the right bank of the torrent of Labouret, and leaning on the left hand
against a very abrupt declivity of rocks in a state of decomposition.
Formerly numerous transhumant flocks passed hither and thitlier in the
bed of the torrent in going to the mountain pastures, where they spent the
summer, or in returning thence to winter in the plains of the Crau. These
devoured any little herbage which had come to fix itself on the hills
between the two roads. When the rains came, if these were abundant and
sudden in the region of the Lower Alps, the waters flowing freely on a col,
completely denuded, and accumulated rapidly in tlie ravines, sweeping away
with them earth and stones, and forming quickly a blackish mud which precipi-
tated itself with violence towards the foot of the mountain, and in doing so
destroying the imperial road and covering with a layer of gravel the
cultivated grounds of Beaujeu and of Javie.
•^ The reboisemeM of the perimetre of the Labouret was declared of public
utility, after the legal formalities, by a decree of 18th June 1862. The
works were begun in 1863. They embraced the construction oi barrages as
well as the sowing and planting of forest trees or of forage herbs.
" The barrages constructed up to 1869 were in number 2,139: — viz., 210
of stone, 503 of wood, and 1,426 in planted twigs ov fascines of willow. The
wooden barrages in general offered but little resistance ; the greater part
have been destroyed and swept away by the first floods of the torrent.
Those of stone and fascines have done better ; they have rapidly consolidated
the ground and facilitated the subsequent execution of works of sowing and
planting. One year after their erection, when the earth washed down
arrested by them had reached about the level of the barrage, no time was
lost in fixing this mobile earth by planting it with shoots and cuttiLgs of
quick-growing wood, especially willows. The steeper hills were also fixed
by the growth of fescue grass.
"The kinds of trees which have been employed are the cedar, the
Austrian pine, the Scotch fir, the Mugho or dwarf pine, the Corsican pine,
the ash, the willow, the acacia, the ailanthus, the hippopha'e, the walnut, the
cytisus, the alisier, the maple, &c.
" There have been sown 4,616 kilogrammes of seeds of resinous trees, and
332 kilogrammes, of broad-leaved trees. There have been planted out
besides this 200,729 plants of resinous trees, and 439,261 plants of broad-
leaved trees, including 10,000 shoots or cuttings, and further, there have
been sown 8,495 kilogrammes of the seed of sainfoin, or oifenasse.
'' In the first years of these operations the seed was sown broadcast
without any previous preparation of the ground, but this yielded no results.
So also the first plantations made in the bed of the torrent before the con-
solidation of the hills were rapidly swept away by the waters. From
1867 the works have been better directed. Barrages, and more especially
those constructed o^ fascines, have been multiplied in the birth-place of the
ravines to stop the washing away of mud, and the sowings, as well as the
plantations, have received all the care required.
" The total expense up to this time [1809] amounts to the sum of 42,221
2i
274 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
francs. Thanks to these works, the perimetre has completely changed its
aspect; 100 hectares are rewooded, and now require only the labour needed
for their maintenance. The remaining 13 hectares represent calcarious
precipices, on which one can scarcely dare to hope to fix some herbacious
plants by persevering eftbrts. Formerly, after the least storm of rain, the
torrent rolled away masses of mud, of stones, and of fragments of rocks,
which covered anew the imperial road as well as the lower-lying cultivated
fiilds. Now the waters, the current of which has been retarded, deposit all
B ich materials above the barrages, and the imperial road is no longer
flooded. If the Treasury have imposed on itself great sacrifices, it will not
be long in reaping the benefit of these ; for as soon as the vegetation shall
be completely fixed on the Labouret, the expense of the maintenance of the
road, which has already been reduced to a marked extent in consequence of
the works, wiU not exceed those of a mountain road of average conditions."
A corresponding report was given of what had been done in the perimetre
of Seyne, in the same Arrondissement, a perimetre of 1,250 hectares, situated
at an altitude of from 1,400 to 2,400 metres, and formerly covered with
fjrests, but which in 1861 presented the desolate aspect of a vast desert
ravaged by torrents. These, five in number, are tributaries of the torrent
De la Blanche, which precipitates itself into the Durance. But adherence
to the principle adopted, of citing details of only one perimetre in each
locality, in illustration of what has been and is being done, forbids this
monograph being also translated.
M. Cezanne intimates, that in the Lower Alps there had been victories
gained which may be classed with those of M. Costa, already noticed.
*• Previous to the law of 28th July 18G0," says he, " slight barrages of
hurdles, combined with the reclamation of waste ground, had fixed the
lands of the MoUard, near Sist^ron, the detritus of which was covering the
site of the town. The torrent had been so completely extinguished, the
water so entirely absorbed, that a small aqueduct, constructed for the con-
veyance of them to the Durance, had become useless. But in this depart-
ment these most remarkable results had, he said, been brought about by a
simple communal guard, and the following citations from the Annates
Forestieres justify the statement : —
" M. Jourdan has commenced his works in the forest of Salignac ; and in
commencing them he has had to overcome a pretty keen opposition on the
part of the inhabitants, as might have been anticipated. Until 18G0 the
greater part of the barrages erected in the forest of Salignac have been made
by this guard alone ; and he was obliged to repair many of those which the
storms of rain or the malevolence of the people destroyed. From 1853 to
1861, the guard Jourdan has constructed and repaired by himself alone
three hundred barrages, and the more is he to be commended that
two-thirds of these are distant, upon an average, from 8 to 10 kilometres
from his place of residence."
M. Labussi^re, conservator of forests at Aix, who was honoured with a
gold medal, decreed to him by the Central Society of Agriculture of the
Puy-de-D6me, for his beautiful works of reboisement in that department,
commends in these terms to the functionaries placed under his orders the
results obtained by Jourdan : —
** A communal ^uard of the Lower Alps has had the happy idea tu
DEPARTMENT OP l'aRDEOHE. 275
estftblish harrarjcn of fascines in the ravines formed in the clearings and
felling's of the forest in proportion as they wore exploited. Some of these
ravnies soon became veritable torrents, often dangerons, and they all caused
damage more or loss considerable to the lower-lying properties. This
simple work, which required only some hours of work and a few fascines of
almost no value, has given excellent results in the communal woods of
Sist^ron, Salignac, Entropierre, and Vilhosc. I do not need to add that
the hnrra(/es ought to begin at the origin of the ravines, and that they
ought to be near to one another in proportion as the declivity is more
steep and the soil more friable. Experience has shown that the best result
is obtained by proceeding in the following manner : a first bed of fascines is
laid on the ground across the ravine; this is coA'ered with other fascines placed
perpendicularly with the point looking toward the summit of the mountain ;
and the structure is carried on in the same way to a height indicated by
the condition of the localities. The ^r^t fascines laid in the direction of the
ravine may. be kept in their place and consolidated by large stones, or by
turfs, if they can be found near.
" If such works of so easy execution could be constructed one after
another, it would produce excellent results in a few years, if we may judge
from those obtained by Jourdan, who had no motive for his undertaking
but a desire to do good, and to turn his spirit of observation to account for
the benefit of others."
The Societie imperiale et centrale d'agricultare de France decreed to Jourdan
a gold medal with the effigy of Olivier de Serres. " Is it not touching," says
the report, " to see a whole city protected against the most terrible
scourges by the intelligent hand of a forest warder, one of the most modest
functionaries of the State.
" While savants were writing treatises, a simple guard was solving the
problem. And to perpetuate the memory of this they have in the country
given to the form of barrage just described the name of Barrages Jmirdan'^
Sect. V. — Department of VArdeche.
All of the operations which have been now detailed are in the region of
the Alps. In the region of the C^vennes, and the plateau of Central France,
operations have been carried on extensively in Ard^che, Gard, Loz^re,
Herault, Puy-de-D6me, Cantal, and the department of Hautes-Loire. And
again selection becomes necessary.
In 1860 there was published a Memoire stir les Inondations des Bivih'es de
VArdeche, by ^M. de Mardigny. Mr Marsh has given the following statement
of what is known in regard to that department, founded to some extent on
the statements made by M. Mardigny : — "The river Ardeche, in the French
department of that name, has a perennial current in a considerable part of
its course, and therefore is not, technically speaking, a torrent ; but the
peculiar character and violence of its floods is due to the action of the
torrents which discharge themselves into it in its upper valley, and to the
rapidity of the flow of the water of precipitation from the surface of a basin
now almost bared of its once luxuriant woods."
He says in a foot-note, — " The original forests in which the basin of the
Ardeche was rich have been rapidly disappearing for many years, and the
terrific violence of the inundations which are now laying in waste is
ascribed, by the ablest investigators, to that cause. In an article inserted
276 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
in the Annales Forestieres for 1843, quoted by Hohenstein, Der Wald, p.
177, it is said that about one-third of the area of the department had
already become absolutely barren, in consequence of clearing, and that the
destruction of the woods was still going on with great rapidity. New
torrents were constantly forming, and they were estimated to have covered
more than 70,000 acres of good land, or one-eighth of the surface of the
department, with sand and gravel." And he goes on to say, —
" The floods of the Ardeche and other mountain streams are attended
with greater immediate danger to life and property than those of rivers of
less rapid flow, because their currents are more impetuous, and they rise
more suddenly and with less previous warning. At the same time, their
ravages are confined within narrower limits, the waters retire sooner to their
accustomed channel, and the danger is more quickly over, than in the case
of inundations of larger rivers. The Ardeche drains a basin of 600,238
acres, or a little less than nine hundred and thirty-eight square miles. Its
remotest source is about seventy-five miles, in a straight line, from its
junction with the Rhone, and springs at an elevation of four thousand feet
above that point. At the lowest stage of the river, the bed of the Chassezac,
its largest and longest tributary, is in many places completely dry on the
surface — the water being sufficient only to supply the subterranean channels
of infiltration — and the Ardeche itself is almost everywhere fordable, even
below the mouth of the Chassezac. But in floods, the river has sometimes
risen more than sixty feet at the Pont d'Arc, a natural arch of two hundred
feet chord, which spans the stream below its junction with all its important
affluents. At the height of the inundation of 1857, the quantity of water
passing this point — after deducting thirty per cent, for material transported
with the current and for irregularity of flow — was estimated at 8,845 cubic
yards to the second; and between twelve o'clock at noon on the 10th of
September of that year and ten o'clock the next morning, the water dis-
charged through the passage in question amounted to more than 450,000,000
cubic yards. This quantity, distributed equally through the basin of the
river, would cover its entire area to a depth of more than five inches.
*' The Ardeche rises so suddenly that, in the inundation of 1846, the
women who were washing in the bed of the river had not time to save their
linen, and barely escaped with their lives, though they instantly fled upon
hearing the roar of the approaching flood. Its waters and those of its
affluents fiill almost as rapidly, for in less than twenty-four hours after the
rain has ceased in the Cevennes, where it rises, the Ardeche returns within
its ordinary channel, even at its junction with the Rhone. In the flood of
1772, the waters at La Beaume de Ruoms, on the Beaume, a tributary of
the Ard6chc, rose thirty-five feet above low water, but the stream was
again fordable on the evening of the same day. The inundation of
1827 was, in this respect, exceptional, for it continued three days,
during which period the Ardeche poured into the Rhone 1,305,000,000
cubic yards of water.
''The Nile delivers into the sea 101,000 cubic feet or 3,741 cubic yards
per second, on an average of the whole year. This is equal to 323,222,400
cubic yards per day. In a single day of flood, then, the Ardeche, a river
too insignificant to be known except in the local topography of France, con-
tributed to the Rhone once and a half, and for three consecutive days once
and one third, as much as the average delivery of the Nile during the same
periods, though the basin of the latter river probably contains 1,000,000
DEPARTMENT OF l'aRDEOHE. 277
square miles of surface, or more than one thousand times as much as that
of the former.
" The average annual precipitation in the basin of the Ard^che is not
greater than in many other parts of Europe, but excessive quantities of rain
frequently fall in that valley in the autumn. On the 9th of October 1827,
there fell at Joyeuse, on the Beaumc, no less than thirty-one inches between
three o'clock in the morning and midnight. Such fiicts as this explain the
estraoidinary suddenness and violence of the floods of the Ard^che, and the
basins of many other tributaries of the Rhone exhibit meteorological pheno-
mena not less remarkable. The Rhone, therefore, is naturally subject to
great and sudden inundations, and the same remark may be applied to
most of the principal rivers of France, because the geographical character
of all of them is approximately the same.
" The volume of water in the floods of most great rivers is determined by
the degree in which the inundations of the different tributaries are coinci-
dent in time. Were all the affluents of the Lower Rhone to pour their highest
annual floods into its channel at once, as the smaller tributaries of the
Upper Rhone sometimes do — were a dozen Niles to empty themselves into
its bed at the same moment — its waters would rise to a height and rush with
an impetus that would sweep into the Mediterranean the entire population
of its banks, and all the works that man has erected upon the plains which
border it. But such a coincidence can never happen. The tributaries of
this river run in very diff'erent directions, and some of them are swollen
principally by the melting of the snows about their sources, others almost
exclusively by heavy rains. When a damp south-east wind blows up the
valley of the Ardeche, its moisture is condensed, and precipitated in a
deluge upon the mountains which embosom the head-waters of that stream,
thus producing a flood; while a neighbouring basin, the axis of which lies
transversely or obliquely to that of the Ardeche, is not at all affected.
" It is easy to see that the damage occasioned by such floods as I have
described must be almost incalculable, and it is by no means confined to
the effects produced by overflow and the mechanical force of the superficial
currents. In treating of the devastations of torrents, I have hitherto con-
fined myself principally to the erosion of surface and the transportation of
mineral matter to lower grounds by them. The general action of torrents,
as thus far shown, tends to the ultimate elevation of their beds by the
deposit of the earth, gravel, and stone conveyed by them ; but until they
have thus raised their outlets so as sensibly to diminish the inclination of
their channels — and sometimes when extraordinary floods give the torrents
momentum enough to sweep away the accumulations which they have
themselves heaped up — the swift flow of their currents, aided by the
abrasion of the rolling rocks and gravel, scoops their beds constantly deeper,
and they consequently not only undermine their banks, but frequently sap
the most solid foundations which the art of man can build for the support
of bridges and hydraulic structures.
" In the inundation of 1857, the Ardeche destroyed a stone bridge near
La Beaume which had been built about eighty years before. The resistance
of the piers, which were erected on piles, the channel at that point being of
gravel, produced an eddying current that washed away the bed of the river
above them, and the foundation, thus deprived of lateral support, yielded
to the weight of the bridge, and the piles and piers fell up-stream.
" By a curious law of compensation, the stream which, at floods, scoops
278 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
out carities in its bed, often fills them up again as soon as the diminished
velocity of the current allows it to let fall the sand and gravel with which
it is charged, so that when the waters return to their usual channel the
bottom shows no signs of having been disturbed. In a flood of the
Escontay, a tributary of the Ehone, in 1846, piles driven sixteen feet into
its gravelly bed for the foundation of a pier were torn up and carried off,
and yet, when the river had fallen to low-water mark, the bottom at that
point appeared to have been raised higher than it was before the flood, by
new deposits of sand and gravel, while the cut stones of the half-built pier
were found hurried to a great depth in the excavation which the water had
first washed out. The gravel with which rivers thus restore the level of
their beds is principally derived from the crushing of the rocks brought
down by the mountain torrents, and the destructive eff'ects of inundations
are immensely diminished by this reduction of large stones to minute
fragments. If the blocks hurled down from the cliffs were transported
unbroken to the channels of large rivers, the mechanical force of their
movement would be irresistible. They would overthrow the strongest
barriers, spread themselves over a surface as wide as the flow of the waters,
and convert the most smiling valleys into scenes of the wildest desolation."
M. Cezanne refers to the Ard^che as an illustration of the transition from
torrents to rivers, — it may be described as a torrential river. And he
refers to the work by M. de Mardigny as one in every way satisfactory,
because the author, free from all foregone conclusions and theories, confines
himself to description, provokes neither objection nor opposition. He says, —
" The Ard^che is a great torrent, in which everything meets to produce a
maximum of effect — a circular basin, converging affluents, denuded moun-
tains, extraordinary rains. It is difficult to form any conception of the
violence of the storms of rain which the wind from the south-east, the
counter current to the mistral, precipitates on the amphitheatre of the
Cevennes. M. Tardy de Montravel has received in his rain-gauge, in one
day, 792 millemHres, about 32 inches, as much as falls in Paris in a year
and a half These tremendous rain storms occur only in September or
October.
" The Ardeche is ordinarily a dry river-couvse, and the flood descends from
the mountains and rushes along faster than a horse can gallop : the washer-
women have to flee without thought of gathering up their linen ; the de-
livery rises suddenly from 0 to from 7000 to 8000 cubic metres, and next
day the river is fordable : the deluge has flowed away.
** Sometimes the flood has been seen to rush across the Rhone presenting
the appearance of a barrage, a wear, a broad wall of water, to break on the
dike opposite the debouchure, and to spread itself over the plains on the
left bank, and sometimes to cover the river with a continuous raft of trees
torn from the mountains.
" The Ard6che alone creates in the Rhone at Avignon a sudden rise of
more than 5 m^res, or nearly 17 feet, and in that country the sudden
floods in tlie Rhone are called rmqn de I Ardeche.
" If at any time a change of wind to the south-east, after having blown for
a long time to the east, were to occur, and such a flood to occur wlien the
Rhone and its affluents on the left bank were in flood, the river would pro-
bably exceed by many metres the highest level known to have been reached
by its waters.
" Such a thing might happen, and it has been asked, — What, in such an
DEPARTMENT OF GARD. 279
event, would be the effect of reboisement in tlie mouiituiua'? M. do Mardiguy
thinks that reboiseuit/it in the Cevennes would be of no effect ; ho aeema
to consider the Ardecho aa one of those extreme and deaperate cases, to
which man, mastered by the elements, can only meet their fury with
resignation."
Whether it be so remains to be seen.
In the department of I'Ard^che operations are being carried on in several
perimetres, amongst others in these — Boree, Montpezat, La Champ, Raphaiil
and LavioUe, which conjointly comprise an area of 2,155 hectares.
Sect. VI. — Bejxirtment of Gard.
In the department of Gard operations in some ten or more peri metres,
one half of which, those of Ponteils, Malons, Concoules, Dourbies, and Br<^au,
cover an area of upwards of 4,000 hectares.
Of Ponteils, it was reported in 1869, that " this p^rimetre lay between 300
and 14:00 metres of altitude, on the flanks of the Mount Lozere, the higher-
lying region of the basin of the river C^ze, which is an affluent of the Rhone.
" The area of it is 741 hectares 93 ares, of which 654 hectares 93 ares
belong to the commune of Ponteils, and 87 hectares to private proprietors.
" The soil, pertaining to the granitic formation, is deeply ravined by the
different ramifications of the torrents which roll their waters into the Ceze.
" The restoration of these lauds having been declared of public utility by
a decree of date 13th January 1864, the works were begun in the spring of
that year; and they have been prosecuted without interruption from that
time onwards with the most hearty concurrence of the population.
*' The State undertook directly the rthoisement of the most elevated portions
of the perimetre, measuring 451 hectares 87 ares. The different sections
of the commune of Ponteils remained charged with the works on the
remainder of the ground, but subventions were granted to them both by the
Treasury and by the department.
" From 1864 to 1869 there had been subjected to rehoisement ov reyazoiuie-
ment 262 hectares 60 ares, viz : — u. a.
"On communal lands at the expense of the Treasury alone, 113
" On communal lands at the expense of the commune, with
subventions from the State and from the Department, 131 70
" Ou the lands of individual proprietors, with subventions
from the State, . . . , . 17 90
"Total, . . . . 262 60
" The half of the area might be considered as completely restored ; it
required further only works of maintenance. In the remainder of the
extent, which corresponded to the higher-lying lands of the perimetre, the
works had still to be made complete by new plantations.
" There had been employed 4990 kilogrammes of seed of resinous trees,
210 kilogrammes of seed of broad-leaved trees, (acacia, ash, chestnut, and
oak,) and 1,500 kilogrammes of fenasse. There were planted, besides, in
all, 81,000 young resinous and broad-leaved trees, and there were constructed
91 barrages, and on an extent of about 70 hectares there were pruned, with
a view to recovering their vegetation, old trunks of chestnut trees.
" Exclusive of indemnities granted for deprivation of pasturage, which
amounted to 1,221 francs, the whole expense of the works had been 22,0 i5
280 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
francs 5 cents., of which 16,523 francs had been met by the Treasury, 3,600
by the department, and 1,922 by the sections of the communes and pro-
prietors of the lands.
Sect. VII. — Department of Lozere,
The perimetre of Ponteils, though situated on Mount Lozere, is not
situated in the department of Lozere, but in the department of Gard.
In Loz6re, operations are being carried on in twelve or more p^rim^tres,
in seven of which — Saint-Bauzille, Lanu^jols, Badaroux, Balsi^ges, Mende,
Saint-Etienne-de-Valdonnez, and Ohanac — there were comprised 5250
hectares.
Reference has been made in a preceding Part to what had been accom-
plished in the department of Loz6re through the zealous co-operation of
the prefect.
Speaking of the ravages committed in this department by torrents, and
devastations occasioned by inundations, that honoured magistrate, at a
meeting of the district Societe d' Agriculture, held after the inundations of
1866, gave the following graphic account of the disastrous consequences
which had come upon the department through the reckless destruction of
forests. Speaking of these he said : —
*' No, no, it is not God who has occasioned the evil which has come upon
us, but men have done it in their improvidence, in their great desire to
make the present minister to their enjoyment, without thinking of their
children, without thinking of the future ! When three years ago, on my
arrival in La Lozere, the Municipal Council of Mende did me the honour to
wait upon me ; the first sentiment I expressed to them was that of my
astonishment — my painful surprise — at not seeing more wood on the
mountains, and on the steep declivities. And this was also the subject of
my first address to this Agricultural Society.
" I brought before you the case of a land covered with sand — the
poorest, the most miserable, the most insalubrious in France — the Landes ;
and I added that, thanks to rehoisement, this department is to-day one of the
richest, and the most salubrious in the empire. And, with a saddened
feeling, I said to you, ' Take care ; the rains and the snows are carrying off
every day the lands of your mountains, strewing your valleys with the
debris of rocks, raising up the beds of your rivers, and bringing about fear-
ful and disastrous inundations. These lands, thus carried away, are lost
f jrever, they go to the sea w^hich engulfs them and never renders back what
she engulfs.' Three years have not yet run their course, and see how this
prophecy has been fulfilled ! And do not persuade yourself that this is an
accidental occurrence, which could neither be foreseen nor averted. How
many warnings have you not received ? These inundations are to a certain
extent periodical; 1846, 1856, 1866, are three fatal years not likely soon
to be forgotten ! And note what a fearful progression may be seen in these
disasters ! In 1846 the Lot overflowed its banks and rose to a great height;
but it did so slowly ; it covered the valleys with mud and sand, it carried
away the gathered crops, but it carried not away the land. The same was
done in 1856, with this difference, that the rise of the river was less power-
ful. In 1866 the Lot, the Tarn, the affluents of the AUier and of the
Ard^che, became furious torrents ; within a few minutes they overflowed
their banks, bearing down bridges, trees, mills, destroying liouses, ploughing
DEPARTMENT OF LOZERE. 281
out for themselves now beds, and ravaginty the soil so deeply that in many
places they left only the hard rock. You have, with imprudent hands,
overturned the bivrriers which retain the waters ; you have cut down your
woods, you have put 3'our turf-covcred banks under culture, and now you
are astonished ! Have you then no experience, and have times past taught
you notiiing?
** Glance over the Lot, from its source down to Barjac, and all alono- its
course you will see nothing but stripped, bare, and naked rock ; here and
there some stumps of trees are there as if to attest that but lately there
was there vegetable soil, and splendid woods and forests. Go from Mende
to Florae, and over a stretch of 40 kilometres, and the same scene of desol-
ation will be seen. Formerly all these sharp declivities were shaded by old
pines and beeches and oaks ; what a treasure ! And to-day there is only
the rock — the rock doomed forever to sterility, if j^ou no not try to replant
it with woods. Let a great storm come and our roads are covered with
debris, and travelling is interrupted ; and the State is compelled year by
year to lay out for the restoration immense sums, which, but for this, had
been more usefully employed in the improvement of our great highways.
Communication is interrupted for man}'- weeks, and agriculture suffers,
because the farmer cannot go to the town to reach the markets for the dis-
posal of his produce.
"Would you have a case still more striking? This summer I made a
hurried tour through the south-eastern department. A mountain top
caught my view. All the northern part of it was covered with a rich turf
and trees ; the southern portion, denuded, presented only a shapeless mass
of rocks. The soil of it had disappeared. Low walls marked the division
of the two properties. Alas ! there was no need for this ; it was sufficiently
defined by the contrast of a rich vegetation with a soil of stones. I made
inquiry, and I learned that the northern portion belonged to an intelligent
proprietor, who had carefully conserved the turf and the trees, the heritage
descending to him from his fathers. The southern part was a communal
property. The inhabitants of the commune had partitioned it amongst
themselves, and having cut down the trees, they had passed the ploughshare
through the turf and sown it with rye. The snows and the rains had come,
and the earth, little by little, had rolled down into the valley ; ten years
had sufficed to carry off all, and to leave there the rock alone. The com-
munal property is now unproductive ; the rest of the mountain crest has,
on the contrar}'-, acquired a considerable increase in value. The intelligent
proprietor has enriched himself; the commune has impoverished itself. All
the inhabitants have had was the delight to reap for some years a little
barley. To-da}^ they no longer reap anything, and they find themselves
in misery.
" If I demand of history what she has to tell, I learn that for one hun-
dred and fifty years the Gevandau was covered with forests, and the
population rose to a hundred and fifty thousand souls. I do not know
the result of any actual census, but what I do know is, that from 1850 to
1860 Lozere lost one thousand souls a-year. If one takes into account the
increase of the population of France, which in the year 1800 reckoned only
18 millions of inhabitants, but counts to-day 36 millions, Lozere ought to
have more than 300,000 souls! The earth being impoverished, the crops
fail, the cattle become more sparse, the soil no longer supports man, and
man expatriates himself ; in this way the depopulation goes on increasing,
2e
282 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
agriculture fails to get labourers, extensive lands lie fallow, the cultivator
cannot give to the land what it ought to produce, and thus the soil no
more supports the man, and the man no longer makes the soil fertile ; a
vicious and fatal circle which infolds you, and the consequences of which, if
you do not apply a remedy, will be to make this department a desert, which
in a century, perhaps, having no more individual existence, will be divided
amongst the neighbouring departments, and deleted from the map of France.
" God had made your country a country of woods, of pasturage, of cattle.
To each country he has given its function ; this was yours. You have
changed it, you have uprooted the trees, you have j)loughed up the turf,
you have sought on these steep declivities to sow rye and wheat, you have
run against the decrees of Providence and against the laws of common sense,
and you have been sorely punished !
" In order to prove this, I have brought before you facts of the present
and the teachings of histoi-y ; permit me, in closing, to interrogate science ;
she also will give you instruction !
" The turf, the trees, which in your improvidence you have destroyed,
retain by their roots the water of the storms. This water, of which one
portion was absorbed, could only flow away slowly. The rivers could not
enlarge and flow with the rapidity, with the violence, which makes of them
to-day frightful torrents. The earth retained on our mountains was not
carried away into the valleys ; it did not raise the bed of our streams, it
did not occasion their overflowing. Not only did the trees retain the water
and absorb a great portion of it, but more than this, they caused it to
penetrate to a certain depth into the soil. Their roots entering the rock
lying under the vegetable soil, made as it were wells in which the water
lost itself.
" To-day the torrents of rain have quickly carried away 20 or 30 centi-
metres in depth of the vegetable bed ; underneath this they find the rock,
and flowing over this as over a marble slab they carry away what earth
remains. Would you have a proof of this"? Run over the devastated
cantons and everj^where you will see the fields, newly sown, cut into deep
ravines ; the neighbouring fields which have not been wrought, but which
are covered by a dense turf, do not appear to have been ever touched by
the storm. It seems as if God had desired to multiply proofs, for one
cannot take a step on the mountain but they present themselves to the eye !
" All that was in wood, all that was in turf, has been preserved ; all that
was sown has been cut into ravines ; and it is the earths detached from the
mountains, it is the diluvial waters Avhich nothing has retained, which have
caused all our rivulets to overflow their banks, and has converted Lozere
into ruins. Here even in Monde you have a providential teaching. When
the Lot inundated all the lower part of the town, threatening with death so
many families, to whom it was impossible to us for eighteen hours to give
Ruccour — eighteen hours of agony ! — I heard it said, ' AVhat will the
Merdan^on do? Stojipcd by the rise of the Lot, it will change itself into
a furious torrent, and it will ciiriy away in the upper town the houses, as in
the lower town the Lot bears down and overturns everything in its passage.'
The Merdan(^on Avas an inoffensive rivulet, a few stones suiliccd to make for
it the semblance of - a dike, it flowed slowly, it did not rise mni-e than 30
centimetres, or 12 inches, it did no harm, it occasioned no disaster.
Why? Because it flowed from a mountain the sides of whicli had been
completely replanted with woods.
DEPARTMENTS OF THE LOUIE AND OF HAUTE LOIRE. 283
" Sec, gentlemen, tlio effects of rchoisement ; but tlicse uio not all. These
trees, these turfs, which absorb, wliich retain the water in the storms, which
prevent inundations and hinder the formation of torrents, these trees, these
turfs, in the time of drought keep tlie s])rings from drying up. How many
thousands of cattle have perislied in the droughts which liave fallen upon
Loz6re in 1864 and 1865] The more water, the more herbage !
" The farmers w^ere ruined before because it did not rain, as to-day they
are ruined because it has rained too much ! And why *? Because they
have eradicated the woods and the turf which were their providence. They
have killed — allow me the common expression — they have killed the goose
which laid the golden eggs. It is true that, as some consolation, they say
to themselves that they have cultivated a little wheat and a little rye on
these precipitous slopes ; but there they will soon find only misery, when
the snows and new storms shall have carried away the little vegetable soil
that remains."
Within three years after these appeals and statements* had been made,
the work of rehoisement, as w^e have seen, was in full operation.
Sect. VIII. — Dejmrtments of the Loire and of Haute Loire.
The Ard^che has been shown to be a torrential river. The Loire pre-
sents to some extent the torrential character. The high mountains from
which both it and the Allier descend — the sources of the Loire from an
elevation of 1481 metres, those of the Allier 1501 metres, arresting in its
passage the pluvial current from the west and from the north-west — receive
very considerable rains, the produce of melted snows. The thaw, it has
been remarked by M. de Coulaine, incjenieur en chef, is sometimes brought
about at Mende by a wind from the north-east ; but this, it is stated by M.
Cezanne, is originally a current of the west wind, which, caught in the
valley of the Allier, having ascended it and passed the mountain, re-
descends into the valley of the Loz^re, with a direction almost the reverse of
that which it took from its point of departure \ and thus is solved the
apparent paradox \ and the seeming exception, according to the popular
misapplication of the expression, proves the rule.
The granitic slopes of the mountain are of coui'se impermeable to water,
and they are steep. Above Roanne, where the Loire becomes navigable for
barks, the basin extends over an area of 6400 kilometres, about the same
area as those of the Eure and the Somme ; but the Loire experiences
floods of 7290 cubic metres per second, which is a hundred times the
magnitude of the greatest floods experienced by these rivers — a diff'erence
attributable to the greater abundance of rain, the more favourable ramifi-
cations of the thalwegs, the steepness of the slopes, and the absence of
permeable soil.
By Cezanne has been brought forward the question, — Would the complete
boisement of the basin of the Loire change the state of things in respect of
floods ? And he says, — " It is impossible, without having made a thorough
and careful study of local circumstances, to answer the question, as some
extravagant and enthusiastic advocates of forests desire to do ; but what
may be affirmed is, that in the Loire bringing down a very considerable
quantity of sand, we have evidence that the higher-lying portion of the
basin is subjected to an energetic action, whereby ground is cut up and
284 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
washed away ; and consequently there is reason to believe that the general
boisement of the basin would to a marked degree modify the regime of the
river. But as for the questions, — Would such boisement be a remunerative
operation, or is it only possible that it might prove so 1 These are economic
questions, the discussion of wliich has been often taken up, but the final
settlement of which is still remote."
In the Haute Loire, operations of reboisement have been carried on in the
p^rim^tre of Megal, measuring upwards of 1440 hectares; and of M6zenc,
measuring upwards of 1136 hectares. and in several other hectares, measuring-
together i026 hectares. And in the department of the Loire similar oper-
ations have been carried on in nine several p^rimHres, comprising in all an
area of nearly 3000 hectares.
Sect. IX. — Department of Herault.
In Herault reboiseinents et gazonnements obligatoires have been carried on
in some eight p^rim^tres, four of which — Riols, Mons, Saint-Pons, and
Samt-Julien — cover an area of nearly 4,800 hectares. Of the first of these
it was reported in 1869 : —
" The perimetre obligatoire de Riols, declared of public utility by imperial
decree of the 13th January 1864, is situated entirely in the commune of
Riols, canton of Saint-Pons. The mean altitude is 900 metres. It com-
prises 1147 hectares 3 ares, of which 968 hectares 43 ares belong to the
commune; 162 hectares 70 ares to sections of the commune; and 15
hectares 90 ares to different individuals.
" The p^rim^tre, shut up by high mountains, has steep slopes, the
denuded flanks of which are furrowed by numerous ravines.
*' The mountains of Riol form two distinct groups : the chain of Somraail,
with an altitude of from 900 tolOOO metres; and that of Marcon, from 800 to
about 900. The slopes vary from 50 to 75 in 100. In general they present
a sad and desolate aspect ; there are everywhere meagre pastures, cut up
in all directions by ravines, where the eye meets not a single clump of
trees, for the wood has by imperceptible degrees disappeared, destroyed by
the hand of man, or laid waste by the teeth of sheep.
" The chain of Sommail is of granitic land ; that of Marcon is cal-
careous.
"The first works undertaken in the p^rim^tre date from the year 1864.
At the beginning, the soil was prepared by digging holes, called potets, from
12 to 16 inches across, 12 inches deep, and from 3 feet to 3 feet 6 inches
apart. Experience has led to some modification of these proceedings.
Now, holes much longer, wider apart, and trenched to a greater depth, are
made, which, permitting the roots to take more quickly possession of the
soil, develope vegetation more in the places in which there is little depth
of soil prevailing generally.
" These potets, when 6 or 7 feet apart, are about 40 inches square, and
are dug to a depth of 18 or 20 inches.
" At the altitude at which the operations arc carried on, resinous trees
and the biich alone can withstand tlic rigorous temperature and the high
winds which prevail on tliese unsheltered plateaux.
" Sowing or planting is the mode of operation adopted, according to the
depth of earth. Sowings are preferable on the plateaux ; but they do
not succeed well on the elevated steep slopes, on account of the heat of
DEPARTMENT OF THE PYRENEES. 285
summer, which affects injuriously the roots while they are too little developed
to withstand the drought.
*' Since 18G4 all kinds of trees have been tried : amongst resinous trees —
the silver hr, the larcl), the Norway fir, the cedar, the Scotch fir, the
Austrian pine, tlio Mugho or dwarf ])ine, and the Maritime pine ; amongst
broad-leaved trees — tlie oak, tlie beech, and tlie ailanthus. The silver fir
and the larch have not succeeded well ; the Norway fir and the Maritime
pine on the heights tend to disappear, the ground being too dry, and the
altitude too great ; the cedar forms a thicket ; but on the other hand, the
pines withstand all extreme cold as well as heat, and snow as well as the
wind, and thus the Austrian pine and the Corsican pine maintain their
place.
" The beech takes well to the mountain, but grows slowly.
"The oak does not succeed on the plateaux, but grows strongly on the
lower slopes.
" The ailanthus disappeared completely during the first winter.
" It may be well to add, that sowing broadcast short brooms has given
good results.
" Thus it is now quite determined what kind of trees should be introduced
into the perimetre of Riols.
"The law of 8th June 1864, which sanctioned the diversion from what
was primarily set apart for rehoisement of considerable areas for pasture
grounds, has met the feelings of the inhabitants of the Sommail, proprietors
of pretty large flocks. There has been nothing more to fear of dispute or
opposition in this commune.
" From 1864 to 31st December 1868, there have been rewooded 415 hect. :
and there have been expended on new works, and works of maintenance,
49,955 francs 28 cents., inclusive of 1445 francs provided by departmental
conventions.
"The 415 hectares which have been rewooded from 1864 to 1868 may
now be considered in a state of good keeping.
" The reboisements in the commune of Riols are of too recent a date for
them to have been able as yet to exercise a marked influence on the regime
of the water. The enclosures, and prohibitions of grubbing of box trees
within the perimetre, have, however, prevented the increase and extention
of ravines."
A corresponding report has been given of operations in the perimetre of
Saint-Julien, in the canton of Olargues, in this department.
Similar are the operations carried on in the Puy-de-D6me, and Cantal
both belonging to the region of the Cevennes and the central plateau ;
but these I pass to give information in regard to operations in the Pyrenees.
Sect. X. — The Pyrenees.
It has already been mentioned that it is only in the department of the
Is^re, the Drome, and the Lower Alps, that we met with torrents like those
of the High Alps. In the Lozere there are vallats somewhat resembling
them ; their representation in the Pyrenees are Gaves, which are torrential
rivers or rapid water-courses in deep cuttings, losing themselves occasionally
in subterranean canals.
Of the Pyrenees, the following account was given by Wild, some fifteen
years ago, and relating to the everlasting mountain, it holds true, and will
286 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
hold true, for a long time to come. In his volume entitled The Pyrenees
West and East, he writes, — " Regarded in their largest extent, the Pyrenees
may be said to extend from Cape Creux, on the Mediterranean, to the
Gallician coast — a distance of about 670 miles ; but by the Pyrenean range
is generally understood those mountains which divide France from Spain.
" Silius Italicus, whose voluminous writings throw light on the
geographical history of various countries, says : —
u i Py'f^e'jie celsa nimhosi verticis arce
Divisor Celtis late i^rospectat Iberos
Atque ceterna tenet magnis divortia terris.'
And the Pyrenees are still the barrier between those two countries.
''In a straight line these Pyrenees are about 280 miles long, 50 miles
broad, and comprise an elevated area of about 1,100 square miles. The
maximum height is nearly midway between the Atlantic and the Medi-
terranean, where the Maladetta attains an elevation of 11,424 feet, while
several mountain peaks in the vicinity are but little below this elevation,
and forty-five mountains are above 9,000 feet in height.
" The range is remarkable for its wall-like form indented by gaps, or
* ports ' as they are called, which give passage between France and Spain.
Through about fifty of these the principal traffic between the two countries
is carried on, the intricacies of many of them being only known to the
contrahandistas who abound in the Pyrenees. There are but five carriage
roads in the chain, all lying to the extreme east or west. The ' ports ' are
generally higher than the Alpine passes, and present scenery of great
grandeur. In consequence, however, of the Pyrenees being much more
south than the Alps, and of their vicinity to the sea, the line of congelation
is higher than it is in the Alps. Raymond fixes it at 8,600 ; Malte-Brun at
8,300 on the south side of the range, and 9,266 on the north side ; probably
we shall not be far wrong if we assume 8,700 feet, or 1,300 above the line
of perpetual snow in the Alps, as the Pyrenean altitude of perpetual
congelation.
" Thus the grand glacial features which are characterestic of Alpine passes
are frequently absent in the Pyrenees, when you are even on elevations
which in the Alps are covered with ice and snow. But glaciers, snow-fields,
and drifts, are not wanting in the high 'parts,' where the weather is
generally so wild, and the path so bad, as to give rise to the proverbs —
' In the " part " where the wind rages the father waits not for the son, nor
the son for the father ;' and ' He who has not been on the sea, or in the
"part" during a storm, knows not the power of God.'
" A remarkable and very interesting feature in the Pyrenees, are the
basins — ' cerques,' or ' oules,' is their local name. They are situated in the
transverse valleys lying between the buttresses of the principal range, and
are generally surrounded on three sides by lofty walls of rock, opening into
the valley by a narrow gullet. The scenery of these ' cerques ' is peculiar,
possessing much sublimity with great pastoral beauty.
" The geology of the Pyrenees has not been as thoroughly investigated
as is to be desired. Enough, however, has been done to inform us that the
primitive rocks occupy but a very small portion of the chain. The
arrangement of these differs very remarkably from that in the Alps, and
elsewhere, where they burst out irregularly in the transition and secondary
formation, whereas in the Pyrenees they run in bands, or zones, parallel to
the chain, Thus, a very long granitic zone extends between Mont Perdu
DEPARTMENT OF THE TYRENEES. 287
and the Maladetta, and other zones of the primitive formation may be
traced to the cast and west of those mountains.
*' The secondary formation, or transition rocks, of which the greater mass
of the mountain range is composed, consists of argillaceous schist, schistoze,
and common grauwack, and limestone. These formations contain some
minerals, principally iron ore, copper, and argentiferous lead. The iron ore
is found in a white saccharine altered limestone, principally in the eastern
portion of the range. The iron mines, in the valleys and gorges transverse
to the Val d'Ussat, have been worked for centuries, and still employ a large
number of miners ; but the copper and lead mines are abandoned.
"On the other hand, the quantity of zinc ores, and especially calamine,
yielded by the mines near Santander, within the last two or three years
[previous to 1859], has been very great. I may also mention, that a
remarkable deposit of rock salt, consisting of two vast masses, one of which
measures 250 yards by 130 yards, exists on the side of the mountain of
Cardona, and is still worked.
" French geologists formerlj^ maintained that the Pyreneau range rose ct
VII seid jet ; but recent investigation shows that, notwithstanding the
general unity and simplicity of its structure, six, if not seven, systems of
dislocation, each chronologically distinct, may be made out.
" In great mountain chains, the lower elevations are commonly composed
of secondary and transition formations, through which the granite pierces,
and forms the highest mountain peaks. In the Pyrenean system, however,
the case is different ; for the highest peaks of the chain are composed of
marine calcareous beds, the organic remains of which are pronounced by
eminent geologists, including Sir Charles Lyell, to be equivalent to our
chalk and green sand period. Recently, however, it has been discovered
that the most modern of the Pyreneau rocks contain the same description
of Eocine fossils as those found at Biaritz.
" Solemn thoughts fill the mind when we reflect that the proud peaks of
the Marbore and Mont Perdu are studded with shells which once lived in
the depths of the ocean. Looking wonderingly at them, w^e seem to hear
the words, — ' Where wast thou when I laid the foundation of the earth ?
and declare if thou hast understanding V
*' The dislocations in the Pyrenean system are intimately connected with
the thermal springs ; and as these form a prominent feature in the physical
geography of these mountains, and possess high scientific importance, some
account of the peculiar phenomena which they exhibit may not be un-
acceptable.
" Their number, as they * spring through the veins of the mountains,' is ex-
traordinary, no less than 253 being known ; and there is a great and almost
romantic interest in the fact, that they have for many centuries been cease-
lessly pouring forth an almost unvarying quantity of water, for the most
part of a high temperature, in some cases approaching ebulition. Remark-
able, too, is the fact, that these waters, rising through vast earth and rock
masses, imdergo no change in their solid or gaseous composition. The
same mineral water medicines, furnished in inexhaustible supplies centuries
ago to our forefathers, still flows without change or stint."
There follow some disquisitions on thernal springs, which I omit as not so
germane to the subject of reboisement. After these he goes on to say, —
" The Pyrenean valleys are much lower than the Alpine ; few being more
than 2,000 feet above the level of the sea^ whereas those in the Alps are
288 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
rarely less than double that height. Thus the mountains in the Pyrenees,
when seen from the valleys, frequently assume a more imposing appearance
than those in Switzerland of higher elevation.
'* In the valleys and on the slopes of the lower mountains a great
quantity of Lombardy poplars flourish ; as we ascend, Spanish chestnuts,
oak, hazel, mountain ash, alder, sycamore, and magnificent birch trees
abound. Higher still, we come to the grand dark pine forests which form a
prominent feature in the Western Pyrenees.
'' The Pyrenean forests are classified as follows : —
" Imperial forests, . . . 129,440h.
" Communal forests, . . . 115,796h.
" Private forests, . . . 123,000h.
" Total, . 368,236h.
" There is, indeed, every reason to believe that the greater portion of the
Western and Central Pyrenees were formerly covered by forests. In
Bigorre many places were called forum lignum^ and Roman writers allude
frequently to the thickly wooded state of these mountains. As late as 1670
the royal forests were estimated to cover 174, 300 hectares, of which, before
the close of that century, 51,300 hectares were destroyed by fire. Com-
munal forests are those, however, which have suffered most from reckless
cutting and general mismanagement. In the early part of this century
there were 31 saw-mills in the commune of St Gaudens, at which trees
were cut, abstracted, according to the Government report, from the royal
forests. These mills are now suppressed.
" The Pyrenean pines are a variety of the innus sylvestris, frequently
attaining a great size, though not so thick in the bole as the graceful stone
pine. This tree never forms forests in the Pyrenees, and is only met with
in isolated groups. The peasants have a reverence for the stone pine, or
rather for tlie kernel. When this is ripe and split, the cotyledons roughly
resemble a hand, which they call ' la main de Dieu^ and believe that by
swallowing the kernels in odd numbers, as one, three, five, fevers and other
maladies are cured.
'* Tiie streams — not turbid like those in Switzerland, but clear and bright —
gush from every hollow, and water every valley, and impart an exquisitely
bright verdure to the lower lands, nourishing at the same time an almost
endless variety of lovely flowers. These are not, however, confined to the
valleys, for, like all mountainous districts, the flora of the Pyrenees present
an epitome of the vegetation from the equator to the poles ; and botanists
may like to be informed that in the valleys around the Cangou, and on
that mountain, a very large proportion of the flora of the Pyrenees may be
found. Two botanists collected in this district, during three days in June,
5,500 specimens."
Entering the Pyrenees by tlie Val-d'Ossau, about ton millcs from Pau,
he thus describes the scene : — "Adieu, now, to level roads, for we are on
the spurs of the Pyrenees, ascending fiist, as you may see by the rapidity
with which the Gave-de-Gabas flows past from the rocky mountain, far
above where the streams arc born. Oh, the beauty of the Pyrenean rivers !
Unpolluted by alluvial soil, they retain, throughout their bounding couise,
crystalline purity, reflecting as they flow varied hues from sky, scar, and
wood, studded with moss-clad rocks, and fringed by lovely flowers. The
DEPARTMENT OF THE PYRENEES. 289
road nms parallel to the brawling stream, retreating occasionally from the
bank into the recesses of magnificent birch and chestnut woods.
" Few places are more singularly situated than Eaux-Bonnes. Viewed
from a distance, you are puzzled to understand how the houses can find
standing room in the wedge-like ravine containing them, and your surprise
will not be lessened when you reach the smart little town. Fancy a section
of a bustling Paris street, peopled by a curious mixture of gaily-dressed
women, black-robed priests, prosaic bourgeois, Spanish and French peasants
— the former wrapped in capacious brow^n cloaks, the latter wearing the
picturesque bcrret, — cavalcades dashing to and fro, lumbering charrettes,
and big oxen, and you have Eaux-Bonnes.
** Once housed, I set out for a ramble, unheeding the numerous offers
fi.'om guides to conduct me to the Cascades. Indeed you cannot go wrong,
for walks, zig-zagging up the nrountains, through the woods, lead to various
points of view. The most picturesque fall is the Valantin, which sweeps
dowxi amidst great rocks in a very striking manner. But the remarkable
features of the walks around Eaux-Bonnes are the mountain forms, — parti-
cularly that of the Pic de Ger, — the dark pines and the patriarchal beeches.
The huge roots of these trees assume the most fantastic shapes vying with
the branches in length and thickness ; you might imagine that the trees
had been half torn from the earth by titanic force, and that the roots were
writhing in agony.
'* About half-a-mile from Les Eaux-chaudes, the Gave is crossed by Le
Pont d'Eufer, an undeserved name, as there is nothing infernal about the
structure. It leads, however, to wonderful scenery ; a short way beyond,
the Pic-du-Midi Ossau appears with its twin summits — a magnificent object
towering over a crowd of mountains. Cascades stream down the precipices j
and on passing the hamlet of Goust you plunge into a dark pine forest,
which continues to Gabas. This is the last village in France, scarcely
meriting that name, and consists of but half-a-dozen houses, whose inhabi-
tants live by the traffiic carried on between France and Spain. Nearly
20,000 mules pass the frontier annually."
The traveller describes his journey from Louvie to Lestelle, as made partly
across a plain covered with maize, by a road frequently boi'dered by vines
hanging in festoons from apple to cherry trees, and entering Lestelle,
charmingly situated at the entrance to the valley of Lourdes, by a bold
single arch-bridge spanning the Gave de Pan, here a soft blue stream, the
crown of the bridge mantled with ivy hanging in long pendants below the
arch — and the entire structure, with its back-ground of wooded hills, being
highly picturesque. " Shortly after leaving Lestelle (says he) we enter the
department of Les Hautes Pyrenees, and are again in mountain land; the
valley now contracts, the hills are higher, and we see on a precipitous rock
the old castle of Lourdes. Around this war raged long and fiercely. The
Saracens, driven from the plains of Poictiers, took shelter beneath its walls
from the victorious sword of Charles Martel; and our own history records how
long and bravely English soldiers struggled to hold this, our last possession
in the south of France.
" Beyond Lourde the scenery becomes baiTcn and mountainous, which,
however unpleasing, has the effect of heightening by contrast the exquisite
beauty of the valley of Argelcz, declared to be, and justly, the paradise of the
Pyrenees ; and if a combination of swelling hills, crowned by forest-clad
mountains, clear flowing waters, deep green pasture, varied crops, orchards,
2l
290 DEVASTATIONa AND RESTORATIONS.
picturesque villages, and a great number of churches and ruined castles,
can bo said to constitute an earthly paradise, the Val d'Argelez has these
in perfection.
**At Pierrefitte the road bifurcates ; that to the right leads to the Cauterets,
and the left to Luz. The Pic-du-Midi-de-Viscos, a bold mountain, rising
7030 feet above the sea, divides the two gorges through which the roads
are carried. The entire distance from Pierrefitte to Cauterets, five miles,
presents a succession of wild mountain scenery, which, thanks to the road .
engineer, you are enabled to see to great advantage as you journey along.
Beneath beetling buttresses glowing with lichens, — over the foaming Gave,
— now surmounting seemingly impassable rocks, and then plunging deep into
the gorge — your wonder increases as you proceed, until a turn of the defile
discloses Cauterets."
It is a peculiar feature of nearly all the Pyrenean brunnens to be nearly
buried in ravines. Cauterets is overhung by mountains w^hich almost meet,
leaving only a small triangular-shaped piece of ground on which the houses
are built. The vicinity of Cauterets abounds with subjects for the land-
scape painter ; but more to our purpose is the account given of the scenery
enjoyed on an excursion to the Lac de Gaube, said to be one of the most
interesting excursions to be made in the Pyrenees. Leaving Cauterets,
the path, after a little way, leads to a point where the mountains s^em to
close, and the path winds up the defile of the Marcadaou, among huge
boulders by the side of the foaming Gave. One spring after another is
passed ] that of Le Bois is the highest. " And here (says our traveller) I
came upon a group of Spaniards, wrapped in their mantas ; five stalwart
fellows, with huge legs and feet cased in rough hempen sandals. They
were drinking the water with much gravity ; presenting a great contrast in
this respect to the French, who gulp the nasty stuff amidst music and
laughter.
" Now, however, you bid farewell to the springs and their votaries, and
the scenery changes. The trees relieve the wrinkled face of the granite
precipices ; the Gave plunges down the gorge in a series of cascades ; one, the
Cerizet, is of great beauty ; and the mountains on either side tower to a
prodigious height, crowned by peaks. Higher still, you enter a pine forest,
which clothes the summit of the lofty mountains — every ledge is fringed
with pines, and only where the rocks are actually vertical are they bare.
J rode slowly through the forest, being animated frequently by the exquisite
views appearing between the pines. These, steeped frequently in the
glowing prismatic hues of minature rainbows, formed by the water-falls — the
underwood, matted by lovely creepers, shaded by even lovelier flowers — the
trees, sturdier and more varied as the elevation increases — occasional
glimpses seen through their branches of the peaks far above — such arc the
features of the ride to the Pont d'Espagnc, six miles from Cauterets.
**This bridge, leading to the Marcadaou Pass into Spain, is a frail-looking
structure of rough pines, thrown across a deep gullcy, down which thunder
the waters from the Lac de Gaube, and the snows and glaciers of the
Marcadaou. The torrents, leaping together from the precipice, meet in
mid-air, and plunge roaring and foaming down the gorge. Compared to
the falls in Switzerland, these in tlic Pyrenees are diminutive, but the
setting of the Pyrenean cataracts is, in my opinion, more pictures(pie. The
rocks amidst which the water falls are invariably massive, and the vcgeta
tion displays a luxuriance unknown in more northern Helvetia. The Pont
DEPARTMENT OP THE PYRENEES. 291
d'Espagiie water-fall has, moreover, the grand features of magnificent moun-
tain scenery — pine forests on the one hand, on the other bare precipices,
above which you will probably see eagles wheeling in great circles."
Beyond this there was yet another water-fall. " From a small grassy
plateau, you see the Gave rushing out of the Lac de Gaube, descend in a
bold unbroken heap down a lofty precipice; but though the fall is
unquestionably fine, it does not possess the interest of the double fall of the
Pont d'Espagne, which has the advantage of a far greater abundance of
water.
" The path from this point to the Lac de Gaube, above three miles, is
wretched, being carried over fallen trees and great roots, among huge rocks,
and frequently through swampy ground. At length, after a long climb, I
emerged on a plateau, and saw a tiny sheet of turquoise-hued water, —
" ' A lofty precipice in front,
A silent tarn below.'
The Lac de Gaube, though only two miles and a half in circumference, is
yet the largest lake in the Pyrenees. What it lacks in extent is, however,
in some measure compensated for by depth, for the sounding line shows
that it is 425 feet deep in the centre. The mountains around the lake are
bare, except where seamed by lines of straggling pines torn by the
avalanches which plunge down in the spring. The centre of the picture is
entirely filled by the noble Vignemale, 11,000 feet high robed with snow
and streaked by glaciers ; mists were curling up and wreathing the head of
this grand mountain while I gazed upon it — now settling like a pall upon its
crest, and now rent by blasts, disclosing the snowy heights and blue
glaciers. The sublimity of the scene is greatly heightened by the absence
of all cultivation.
" Long before the Lac de Gaube is reached you exchange the glowing
warmth of Cauterets for a chilly temperature, and at the elevation of the
lake, nearly 6000 feet above the sea, vegetation is confined to stunted
pines and mountain flora."
From Cauterets Mr Weld proceeded to Luz. Writing of the journey
from Pierrefitte, he says, — '' On reaching Pierrefitte the road turns to the
right, and you immediately enter the grand gorge through which the Gave-
de-Pau descends from the mountains above Gavarnie. This defile is, if
possible, finer than that between Pierrefitte and Cauterets, the mountain
walls are closer and higher, frequently appearing to overlap each other ;
the woods are darker, and the torrent, which you cross over single-arched
bridges no less than seven times, makes perpetual music, chaffing over its
rocky bed. The present road is can-ied along a succession of shelves,
overhanging the Gave, at a great height ; very much lower, however, than
the old road, the dizzy elevation of which may be seen by the remains of
the Pont d'Enfers, which hangs 300 feet above the present structm-e. On
our way up the gorge we met large flocks of guats, and droves of gaily
caparisoned mules, which had left Spain but two days before. Picturesque
animals are these goats and mules ; they are in such excellent keeping
with the scenery ; and all along the border-land between France and Spain
you meet them, often in places where you wonder they find foot-hold.
" A short distance from Luz the mountain walls recede, agriculture
reappears, and in the midst of a small triangular plain stands the small
town. It would be difficult to find a lovlier, or apparently more desirable
spot for a residence, and yet frequent floods during winter compel the
292 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
inhabitants to remove to higher habitations, consisting of mere huts
erected to meet immediate requirements.
** Pleasant rambles lie around Luz. Three valleys invite you to wander
— one leading to Pierrefitte, another in which St Sauveur is situated, and
the third opening to Gavarnie. The la si: two are watered by rivers which
meet at Luz and flow down the Pierrefitte gorge.
" Luz was formerly the chief to>vn of the district, comprehending the
adjacent mountains, and the three valleys from which they arise. The
district formed a small republic. Laws were enacted, and the registers
were kept by tallies, called totchoux, meaning cut sticks. This custom being
unknown to an official who was sent from Paris to Luz at the close of the
last century, on the part of the Government, he desired that the registers
of the commune might be brought to him, and was not a little surprised to
hear that a man was waiting outside his house with the registers in
question, in the form of two waggon-loads of totchoux. Primitive simplicity !
And, although many governments ha /e ruled Luz since the talley days, the
people of her valleys continue rude and simple."
From Luz he took a morning scroll befo"e breakfast to St Sauveur.
" The situation of this place (says he) is very remarkable : the little town
of one street, standing upon a shelf of slaty limestone, overhanging the blue
Gave, and commanding views of the valley of Bareges, or Lavedan, the
entrance of the Val Bastan, and the Pas des Echelles, leading to Gavarnie."
In the afternoon he ascended the Pic de Bergous, a Pic ascended by many
visitors, which, though rising 6916 feet above the level of the sea, is but a
pigmy among the giant summits which form the crest between France and
Spain. It is (says Weld) to the Pyrenees what the Eigi Kulm is to Switzer-
land. " The lower slopes of the Pic are cultivated ; for in this southern
clime, elevations which in more northern latitudes would be clothed with
heath, yield crops of golden corn. Above this cultivated zone the path
winds among a great variety of trees, and above them it zig-zags up the
cone of the peak. Herdsmen's huts, at this elevation, dot the mountain
sides, fragile structures, which looL. as if a storm blast would uproot, and
send them reeling down the steep. The climb near the summit is rather
tough, but my pony made light work of it, and in about three hours from
the time that I had left Luz he was cropping the herbage on the top of the
Pic. Not a cloud obscui^ed the panoramic view, which embraces a multi-
tude of mountain masses. The Brdche de Roland is seen distinctly,
appearing like a tiny notch in a mighty wall. To the left rose the snowy
summits of the Marbor6, Tremouse, and Mont Perdu ; on the right the
Vignemale, streaked with glaciers ; and to the north-east the grand rugged
Pic du Midi De Bigorre. These are the giants towering over a host of
cones and pinnacles, furrowed and riven by winter storms ; and the picture
is filled up by dark dells, p .rplo glens, green valleys, and gleaming
streams, winding through pastures, corn-fields, and woods, which at this
elevation seemed like a rich mosaic."
From Luz several other interesting excursions were made, the natural
scenery and interesting incidents of which are all described with graphic
power. In one of these, an excursion to the Brcclic de Roland, he passed
through the Cerque de Tremouse, Iks description of which I require to site
to give to my readers a definite idea of the cerques or ouUs, or basins, of the
Pyrenees, to which reference has been made ; and I shrink, as I would from
an act of vivisection, from attempting to extract it from the setting in which
DEPARTMENT OF THE PYRENEES. 293
it occurs, and yet tho whole of this it is impossible for mo to give. In a
preliminary statement is given tho following, fts a brief sketch of the leading
features of tho Brt'che : — " On the west flank of the gigantic Mont Perdu
rises Mont Marbord, consisting of a scries of colossal steps or ledges, from
the highest of which a huge stone wall stretches to the west, from 400 to
600 feet high, in most places absolutely vertical. This vast natural wall
forms the crest of the Pyrenees at this part of the chain, and divides France
from Spain. In the middle of the natural barrier is a gap, which seen
from a distance appears a tiny indentation, but which is in reality a mag-
nificent and colossal portal, 134 feet wide and 370 feet high.
** Near GMre, which is about half-way to Gavarnie, the mouth of the Val
d'H^as is seen, one of the wildest and the most savage of the valleys of the
Pyi'enees. Close to G^dre a grand view of the Br^che is obtained, making
you wonder from its locality, high amidst the eternal snow-covered Tours
de Marbor6, how you are to reach it. At G^dre, the Marbor6 disappears ;
but there is an almost over-abundance of grand scenery in the mountains
towering to the right and left of that elevation, while there gorges are
noisy with foaming cascades which swell the ton'ent. Close to these
cascades — so close that they seem on the point of being swept away — are
mills, not much larger than sentry-boxes, one above the other. These mills
are of very primitive machinery, closely resembling that of the old hand-mills,
but they grind the corn, and what more could the best mill in Europe do 1
" Beyond GMre, you come upon a singularly grand and savage scene,
called the Peyrada, or Chaos. It consists of an eboidement, or slip, of vast
masses of gneiss, which have fallen from the precipitous sides of Mount
Coum^lie, and so vast and great is the ruin that you would suppose an
entire mountain had been shivered to supply the blocks which lie around
in grand confusion. The path winds as if it were perplexed how to find an
issue from the rocky labyrinth ; and the blocks are so huge that my
herculean guide seemed a mere pigmy among them.
*' The mountains increase in majesty as Gavarnie is approached j the
Vignemale, with its glaciers, to the west, and the Pimen^ to the east,
ranging among the loftiest. The morning continued highly favourable for
our expedition ; the mountain summits stood cloudlessly out against the
deep-blue sky, crowned by myriads of soaring peaks, and pinnacles frosted
with glittering snow. The path, about half-way between Gavarnie and the
cerque, is carried over the torrent by two terribly narrow planks, without
any manner of railing. Over this frail bridge, not three feet wide, my
guide, greatly to my astonishment, rode his pony ; and as my steed mani-
fested no asinine disinclination to follow, but, on the contraiy, evidently
regarded the proceeding as nothing extraordinary, I slackened the bridle,
pressed my knees a little closer to the saddle, and committed myself to my
fate. The torrent rushed and roared some twenty feet beneath, but my
pony was proof against these things ; and what would have tried the nerves
of many pedestrians was so familiar to him that he passed steadily over
the narrow causeway as if it had been a broad highway.
" The passage of the torrent issuing from the cerque was the last feat of
our horses; for after a brisk canter we dismounted in the arena of the
amphitheatre, and turned the animals loose to graze.
" To render the first impression of the cerque, or oule, more impressive
a small projecting wall of rock masks the entry to the gigantic amphi-
theatre. This passed, the end of the world seems gained, for a vast barrier
294 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
of rocks rises semicircularly before you to the height of between 1000 and
2000 feet. This gigantic wall is divided by three or four stei)s or ledges,
each supporting a glacier from which stream cascades. That to the left, as
you face the cerque, is 1266 feet high, and has the reputation of being the
loftiest water-fall in Europe. The summit of this wonderful amphitheatre
is covered by perpetual ice and snow, resting on the crests of the Cylindre,
10,500 feet high. The base of this fine mountain is embedded in a huge
glacier, which gives birth to the high fall. Adjoining the Cylindre rises
the Tours de Marbore, forming gigantic spurs of Mont Perdu. Stunted
lichens alone vary the ruggedness of the vast semicircle of rocks, and the
only sound breaking the stillness is that of the streaming cascades.
" The floor of the cirque consists of chaotic masses of debris. Immedi-
ately under the base of the precipice are large heaps of snow, beneath
which the waters of the cascades flow, like the torrents spanned by the
Alpine snow-bridges.
" You are unable to take in the sublime spectacle at once, so over-
powering are its features ; and gazing at the walls of the huge cerque,
seamed by the rushing cascades, you fancy they are about to fall and crush
you beneath their ruins.
" Within a few yards of the last water-fall on your right hand, the ascent
to the Br^che is made. Without a guide the precise spot would be exceed-
ingly difiicult to find ; and from the forbidding nature of the precipice, few
would be bold enough to make the essay unadvised. It is literally a
natural rock ladder, and is the only spot throughout the wide sweep of the
cirque aff'ording a means of ascent. The rugged strata, here nearly vertical,
aff'ord slight foot and hand hold ; but there are places where the precipices
are smooth, and you are puzzled to find a coigne of vantage. Here a steady
head is necessary, as occasionally you have nothing between you and the
bottom of the precipice but a thin shelf of rock on which you are standing.
" As we ascended new wonders were revealed, — precipices, cascades, and
glaciers, alternating with wreaths of snow.
" The top of the great water-fall was still above us ; and you have a very
good idea of the altitude of the cascade, when, after more than an hour's
ascent, you are still beneath the level of the glacier whence it is supplied.
About two hours were occupied in surmounting the first series of precipices,
and then we left the high mountain pastures, called by the peasants
Malhada de Serrades, where goats pick up a scanty subsistence, and entered
the snow-fields. Our course now lay through a very steep gulley filled with
snow ; up this we scrambled, taking advantage of the hardness of the snow
to make it our path. Above us rose tremendous precipices, terminating in
jagged peaks, on which my guide, with his practised eye, discovered numerous
izzards, I saw them extremely well through my telescope, balanced like
aerial creatures on the giddy heights, one of their number evidently acting
as sentinel. Their attitudes were very gracelul, all being ready at a
moment's warning from their watchful leader to bound from crag to crag, or
descend i)recipicc« untrodden by the foot of man.
" We now fairly lost sight of tlic cerque, and were in the midst of snow
and glaciers, at a steep incline of about 40''. The climbing of this slojDe
was most fatiguing to me, as the frozen snow was very slippery, and I
retrograded nearly as often as I advanced. Tliis part of the ascent occupied
about an hour. My guide now turned to tlie left, for the purpose of crossing
a glacier, so highly inclined that it cannot be ascended in a direct line. The
DEPARTMENT OF THE TYUENEES. 295
passage of this glacier, beyond which lies the Br6chc, is by far the most
dangerous part of the undertaking. At the place where we encountered the
ice the breadth of the glacier may be about 400 yards, but throughout, the
inclination of the smooth polished ice is such that a false step might prove
fatal ; for beneath are grim precipices."
Here our traveller had a fall, the effects of which might have been
serious. But, says he, " bracing my nerves, I resumed my slippery walk,
taking care to hold my guide's hand, and resting occasionally. During one
of these pauses a dull sound fell on my ear, and looking in the direction
from whence the noise proceeded, I saw a grand snow-fall streaming from
one of the ledges of the Marbor6. Down it plunged with increasing roar,
as the white mass loosened and gathered the snow in its course; but, before
reaching the ledge below, a tourmeiite, or sudden gust of wind, caught the
snow-fall and sent the scattered fragments whirling high in the air. The
effect was extremely grand. This phenomenon is called in the Pyrenees
La Lid de vent, in contradistinction to La Lid de terre ; the snow in the first
instance being, as I have described, borne upwards, sometimes whelming
unfortunate mountaineers ; while in the other case the snow descends, like
the Swiss avalanche, into the valleys.
" At length I had the inexpressible satisfaction of achieving the passage
of this formidable glacier. The rest of the climb was comparatively easy,
though the steepness of the ascent, and the slippery nature of the footing,
were trying enough. But all sense of fatigue forsook me when the huge
portal — the tiny notch as seen from the valley near Gedre- -yawned in all
its stern magnificence before me. The spectacle was a reward for all my
toil ; and I felt that I would have willingly endured even greater fatigue
to make acquaintance with such a scene as now met my astonished gaze.
" Eager to attain the limit of my undertaking I hastened onwards, and
with beating heart soon stood within the jaws of the mighty portal, through
which roared the rushing wind. A step more and I was in Spain. Smooth
glaciers slope away on each side of the wall ; but opposite the Brfeche, the
action of the sun and force of the wind, here rarely at rest, through the
great rock-rent, have tortured the ice and frozen snow into wierd forms,
leaving the rock entirely bare.
" A wild world of barren mountains appears to the south ; these inTthe
foreground being covered with snow, the more distant looming hazily over
the plains of Aragon. With a powerful telescope, Saragosa, it is said, may
be seen if the atmosphere be clear ; but although my glass was good, and
the weather favourable, I could not discern it.
" Towards France the scene is softer. Mountains are there too, sky-
piled ; but also forests, the homes of wolves and bears, emerald vales,
silver streams, and gleaming lakes. But how hope to portray the mighty
phenomena of mountains and rocky pinnacles, —
' Dark, heaviog, boundless, endless, and sublime ;
The image of eternity, — the throne of the Invisible ! '
*' The wall, however, here about 600 feet high and 800 feet thick, is the
great feature of the scene. Besides the Br^che de Roland, there is another
opening in the wall to the west, called the Fausse Breche. The precipices
and glaciers between this and the Taillon, a lofty mountain which rises west
of the false Breche, are very grand ; but the proportions of the gap are
ranch inferior to those of the grand Br6che.
** The walls on either side of this Breche are rendered still more imposing
296 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
by being dominated by the Marebor6, the towers of which seem like a
gigantic citadel protecting the approaches ; and the similitude to a huge
fortification is increased by the circumstance, that at each extremity of the
wall, and close to the Br^che, is a hole which fancy suggests might have
been pierced for titanic cannon."
Such are the High Pyrenees, and such, at this point, is the boundary
between France and Spain.
The Br^che has had associated with it the name of Roland the brave
Paladin, who, according to the legend, mounted on his war-horse in hot
pursuit of the Moors, clove with one blow of his trusty sword a passage
through this mighty wall.
It may be these pages will come under the eye of some who may be
ready to say, as did the disciples of our Lord that had indignation within
themselves, — Wherefore this waste ; pages filled with pictures, and these
not pictures by the author, but pictures by another 1 I read in my Bible,
a soft answer turneth away wrath ; and I reply, that this volume has been
prepared, primarily, for readers in our colonial territories, most of whom
live far from cities, and libraries, and bookseller's shops, to whom it is
desirable that some idea of the country in which the works under consider-
ation are being executed ; and this I could do only by giving in full the
graphic sketches I wished to cite. The physical geography of the Pyreeens
is very difi'erent from that of the Alps and the C6vennes, and I deemed it
proper that this should be shown. And being prevented by occurences,
over which I had no control, from availing myself of the facilities for my
visiting and seeing for myself the works of reboiseiyient, and the localities in
which they are carried on, referred to in the preface, I could only do this
in the words of another.
In the High Pyrenees are several p^rimetres in which are carried on
works of reboisement. One of these is at Lourdes, another is at Bareges, the
famous watering-place, in the region now described. And on the day after
his ascent of the Breche, Mr Weld made an excursion to Bar6ges, which,
says he, if not the most picturesque, is by far the most celebrated of the
Pyrenean brunnens.
The road lies through the Val Bastan, continually ascending by the side of
the Gave of that name, which is one of the most riotous and desolating torrents
in the Pyrenees. Even in summer the Gave de Bastan is a very noisy water-
course ; though you would not imagine, from the variety of lovely flowers
gemming its banks, that the valley is yearly devastated by the floods which
pour down from the surrounding mountains after heavy rains. About a
couple of miles from Luz the valley contracts, and the vegetation is con-
fined to shrubs, among which the common box is very conspicuous. This
shrub is extremely common throughout the Pyrenees, flourishing on the
ledges of precipices, where it might be thought impossible for any plant
even to live. In such localities it never grows beyond the dimensions of a
shrub, but there arc places in the Pyrenees in which in attains to those of
a tree. Of Bareges, he writes : — " Nothing but dire necessity would tempt
you to stay at Bar6ges more than a few hours ; for, independently of its
situation, whicli has scarcely a redeeming feature, almost every one you
meet is crippled, wounded, or in other respects diseased in body, and unlovely
in appearance.
DEPARTMENT OP THE PYRENEES. 297
" The ground on which tho permanent houses of Barc'-gos stand is so
limited in extent, that they aro necessarily few in number, and although
erected in tho most eligible locality, aro perpetually subject to tho risk of
being ovorwliclmcd by ebonlcmcnts from tho mountain which rises precipi-
tously immediately behind them, or swept away by tho torrent before them.
Buttresses of great strength prop these buildings, but even with this pro-
tection they aro occasionally seriously injured, and a few years ago were
nearly annihilated by the bursting of the Lac d'Oncet, on tho slopes of the
Pic du Midi.
** The mountains impending over Bareges are composed almost entirely
of clay slate, coated by vast alluvial deposits, which frequently descend in
the form of mud avalanches. This soil is highly unfavourable to vegetation.
Even the hardy pine cannot thrive at Bardges, and a few straggling trees
above the town aro so stunted that they look, on the scared face of nature,
like the result of an abortive attempt to grow a beard on that of man.
''Bareges in summer consists of numerous temporary wood tenements,
which far out-number the permanent houses, and afford accommodation to
the visitors. Many of them are devoted to purposes of trade, and the name
and business of the shop-keepers are announced on stripes of red cloth hung
over the door. The articles sold are for the most part exceedingly trashy ;
but the traders doubtless know their customers' wants, and the depth of
their purses. I asked the price of ' barege,' not, by the way, made here, but
at Bagneres, and found it to be actually dearer than you can buy it in
London ; however, the shopkeeper was quite willing to bargain. These
wood structures are set up in the beginning of April, care being taken to
plant them at a respectful distance from the torrent ; and at the end of the
season they are taken down, and stowed away until the following spring.
Thus the population of Bareges in winter, when the anow is fifteen feet
deep, does not amount to above more than fifty persons, whereas in the
height of the season it frequently exceeds 2000."
Of the works of reboisement the following is the account given in 1869: —
" The valley of Bareges is, strictly speaking, only a narrow gorge enclosed
between two links of a chain of high mountains, with abrupt slopes, and tooth-
like crests. It takes its departure from the Col do Tourmalet, to issue on
the valley of Luz, following in so doing, from east to west, a direction almost
parallel to the central chain of the Pyrenees.
" The altitude of the Col is 2122 metres, that of Luz 710 metres ; there
is reckoned between these points a distance of 17,730 metres; the average
slope of the thalweg may then be given as nearly 8 in the 100.
" The torrent of the Bastan rolls its waters at the bottom of the valley
on a bed of granitic rock, torn from the flanks of the mountain. On the
left bank an imperial road goes up to Bareges, whence goes a carriage road,
of recent construction, which leads by the Col de Tourmalet to Bagneres-de-
Bigorre — the last is only passable during four or five months of the year.
" Five communes — Esterre, Viella, Viey, Sers, and Betpouey — compose
the valley of Bareges, and constitute what is called the Vic-de-Labatsus,
the vast undivided pasture lands of which are exploited in part by the
inhabitants, in part by strangers.
" The general aspect of the country is that of all mountain lands from
which the improvidence of man has caused the forests to disappear — it is
bare and sad. From whatever side it is contemplated, there meets the eye
2m
298 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
scarcely anything but clean shaven mountains, the flanks of which are
furrowed by numerous ravines, which go on digging themselves year by
year ; in winter the snow is heaped up, and holds the country exposed to
formidable avalanches ; in summer every storm of rain transforms them into
ton'ents, the dejection of which collect in heaps at the foot of the valley,
lay waste the meadows, and obstruct the roads.
" The spot most seriously threatened is the burgh town of Bareges, a
hamlet of the commune of Betpouey, situated 6500 m^res from Luz, at
an elevation of 1232 metres above the level of the sea.
*' It is generally known that Bareges has within its bounds sulphurous
springs, which are justly renowned, and to which come numerous patients
in quest of a remedy for their sufferings. The valley people have erected
there baths of a monumental appearance ; the Minister of War has caused
to be erected an extensive and beautiful military hospital; and a civil
hospice has recently been erected.
" These are the only important erections which can be spoken of. A.t
Bareges the dwelling-houses have nothing of the comfort and elegance seen
at most of the fashionable hot-springs. Hotels and private houses have a
poor and pitiful aspect, which need not excite surprise, if one considers for
a moment that the shock of an avalanche may destroy from the foundation,
and lay in heaps, an edifice erected at great expense. Bareges, moreover,
is during the winter inhabited only by some forest-guards, and a few
individuals left in charge of the public and private buildings. The thermal
season lasts from the 1st of June to the 30th September ; when that is
over, all the tradesmen, and others, who depend on visitors and their
requirements for a livelihood, hasten to close up carefully their dwellings,
ban'icade the doors and windows with planks and beams, and make off for
the plains. And one peculiarity is to be noted — all the shops erected in the
vicinity of the military hospital are wooden erections, set up in spring and
taken down in autumn, lest an avalanche should come and carry them away.
" It appears as if every moment were spent in Bareges in the considera-
tion of means of protecting the place against the action of the snow and of
the waters, and thus does it appear to have been long.
"Thus in 1594 the Conseils of the valley interdicted the felling of trees
there.
" On the 6th May 1732 a resolution of the Council of State made it
expressly forbidden, under pain of corporal punishment, to cut or lay waste
the trees and woods which surround the hamlet of Bareges, and protected
it against ravines.
" A decree of the SOth Prairial an XII. renewed these prohibitions, and
charged the prefect to propose to the Government any measures which he
might believe would bo useful to prevent the formation of ravines and
avalanches.
"On the 22nd February 1815, a resolution of the prefect of the High
Pyrenees, approved by the Minister of the Interior, determined the measures
to be taken to prove infractions of the decree, and to put an end to them.
"In 1839 M. de Verdal, captain of military engineers at Lourdcs, \)Y0-
posed to construct in the ravine of Thcil — that which threatened, more
particularly, the hospital and the baths — a system of stone dikes.
** About the same time. Major Itiet, of the 5th Regiment of Chasseurs ct
Cheval, devoted his leisure to the study of the same subject, and submitted
a measure deserving of consideration, in which ho gavo an exposition of the
DEPARTMENT OF THE PYRENEES. 299
means of securing the height of Bar6ge8 by the help of stoccadoes of stone,
or dry stone dikes consolidated by being filled up behind with earth.
*' in fine, in 18-43, the Departments of War, of the Interior, and of
Agriculture and Commerce, brought about the meeting of a special com-
mission, called Commission des Avalanches, charged to consider the localities,
and formulate such propositions as might relate to the matter. Unhappily,
projects, resolutions, and regulations were passed, but never applied, and
they remained in the state of a dead letter.
"In 1859, the Emperor was sojourning at the waters of Saint-Sauveur.
He visited Bareges ; with his own eyes he took the measure of the danger
which threatened this important thermal station, and determined to
exercise it.
" The efifect of this resolution was soon felt. On 31st August 1859 there
met, summoned by the Emperor, a commission composed of the prefect of
the department, of the ingenieurs en chef des pants et chaussees and of mines,
of the commandant of military engineers, of the syndic of the valley, of the
sub-prefect of Argel^s, and of the inspector of forests. It w^as perceived,
after a thorough discussion, that i'eboiseme^it was the only means of com-
bating the evil, save indispensable artificial w^orks to be executed under the
corps of military engineers, to guarantee the hospital from the attacks of
the ravine Theil.
"The work was begun in 1860 as soon as the ground could be reached ;
and on the 22nd August the same year was prepared a detailed project —
prepared with a view, on the one hand, of replanting the mountain of
Lacgrand ; and, on the other, of arresting the dejections of the Rielut, a
ravine, the effects of which will be afterwards described.
" Finally, on the 1 1th May were commenced the sowings, and before the
heat of summer had come to interrupt them, they had been carried over an
area of 47 hectares.
" But it was necessary to regulate the execution of the works, both as
regards the law and regulations, and as regards the interest of the commune
and of the individual holders of property along the banks. The requisite
formalities were duly observed ; and an imperial decree of the 21st February
1863 declared of public utility rehoisement to be effected on 280 hectares of
land situated on the territory of the commune of Sers and Betpouey.
" It remains to considered what has been done since, against what
difficulties it has been necessary to contend, and to what extent it has been
found practicable to surmount them.
"I. — The imperial decree of 1863 ruled the area to be rewooded as 280
hectares 38 ares, but it was in point of fact 302 hectares 32 ares, of which
232 hectares 87 ares belonged to the canton Lacgrand, and 64 hectares 45
ares to the canton Ayre.
" It was in the canton Lacgrand that the first works were undertaken ;
and therefore attention will first be given to these districts.
''The mountain Lacgrand is situated in front of Bareges, on the right
bank of the Bastan, with a southern exposure. The crest of it terminates
in the peak Capes at an altitude of 2400 metres. Three principal ravines
furrow the slope : the ravine Midaou, which debouches below Bareges ; the
ravine Theil, which menaces the central portion ; aud the ravine Aygunave
coming down a little above the town. All these bring down avalanches :
the ravine Theil is the most formidable in this respect.
SOO DEVASTATIONS AND BESTORATIONS.
"The entire length of this is about 1200 metres, the fall varies from 6
to 6 in 10 j it is surmounted by a vast funnel, with precipitous \\'alls, which
crowns the peak Midaou. Through the configuration of the valley the
north-west wind rushes into it with violence, heaps up the snow in a con-
siderable quantity in the funnel which terminates the ravine, and faci-
litates thus the formation of avalanches sufficiently powerful to expose
to the most serious danger the hospital, the baths, and the neighbouring
erections.
" It is the military engineers who have charge of the works to be exe-
cuted in the bed of the torrent, with a view to the creation of an immediate and
permanent obstacle to the descent of the snow, in anticipation that the reboise-
ment will produce the results which we have a right to expect. For the
barrages constructed with hurdles, &c., — first tried, and broken down in the
first winter — there have been substituted high and strong stoccadoes in
solid masonry.
" With regard to the forest agents, they, as has just been stated, put hand
to work in the month of May 1861, and they sowed in the spring and in
the autumn 140 hectares of ground with seeds of the larch, the Norway fir,
the Corsican pine, and the Austrian pine.
" The year 1862 was devoted entirely to works of maintenance.
" The new works resumed in 1863 consisted of sowing acorns and seeds of
the Austrian pine on 38 hectares and 54 ares, so that at the close of the
year they had operated on 178 hectares 54 ares — that is to say, on the
whole of the portion of the perim^tre capable of cultivation, the remainder
being only an agglomeration of bare rocks, entirely stripped of vegetable
earth.
" In 1864, 1865, 1866, the reclothing of the ground, consisting in sowings
and plantings of the different kinds, were carried on on the Mountain Lac-
grand. Nothing was done in 1867, 1868, 1869, the available resources
having to be spent on other spots.
." The area of the ground belonging to the canton Ayr^, if we deduct the
denuded rocks, is reduced to about 50 hectares, which overhang the orifice
of the ravine Rieulet, with a northern exposure, in front of the communal
wood of the Trouguet, the only block of forest which exists in the country.
The mean altitude of this canton is 1800 metres; as is the case with
Lacgrand, schist and chalk constitute the mineral basis of the soil, with
this difference, that the northern slope is characterised by blocks of granite,
sometimes scattered, sometimes lying together in considerable masses.
"In 1862 and 1863 they had sown the whole canton with seeds of
Norway fir, the Austrian pine, the Corsican pine, the Mugho or dwarf pine,
the alder, and the birch.
" In 1866 the work was resumed in the form of works of maintenance,
and this on a scale which showed the insucccss of the first experiment j
they consisted of sowings of the Mugho or dwarf pine, and in the planting
of 274,000 plants of the Austrian pine, the Mugho, the beech, the birch,
and the acacia. Some replanting remained to be accomplished in 1867,
1868, and 1869. These works consisted almost entirely of plantings of
the Mugho.
" If now it be asked, what have been the results definitely attained, it
will be found : —
'' On the mountain Lacgrand 81 hectares have been completely rewoodcd
in seven distinct blocks, viz : —
DEPARTMENT OP THE PYRENEES. 301
" 30 Hectares of oak mixed with larch and Austrian pine.
" 9 Hectares of oak and Austrian pine.
** 5 Hectares of Scotch fir, beech, and oak.
"14 Hectares of Mugho, larch, Norway fir, and Austrian pine.
"13 Hectares of Mugho, larch, Austrian pine, and Corsican pine.
" 4 Hectares of Austrian pine and Mugho.
" 5 Hectares of Norway fir.
" The remainder of the ground capable of cultivation shows no complete
block, but scattered clumps and trees of different kinds, which may be esti-
mated to cover about a fifth part of the whole of the area, which may be 1 9
hectares 54 ares.
" The portion wooded may be, to what remains still bare, as 100 to 78 ;
or, in simple terms, four-ninths of the p^rim^tre remains to be rewooded.
" Passing from the mountain of Lacgrand to that of Ayr6, it may be
stated, that in this canton 40 hectares have been completely rewooded, viz. :
"10 Hectares of Corsican pine, in a promising condition.
"15 Hectares of Mugho.
" 5 Hectares of mixed trees — beech, birch, Austrian pine, larch,
and Mugho.
Now, as the total area — with the deduction of works — is reduced to about
80 hectares, it may be admitted that the wooded portions are, to the por-
tions still bare, as 4 to 5.
" Though still incomplete, these results are remarkable. They show
that the agents entrusted with the direction of the works have not rested
satisfied with the accomplishment of any thing short of their task. They
have surmounted, indeed, difficulties by no means inconsiderable, which it
may be well to pass in review.
" From the first there was the altitude of the perim^tres, the enormous
quantities of snow which covered them for six months in the year, the ex-
treme cold whieh prevails there in winter, and the heats which suddenly
succeed this. Then, in the commencement of the enterprise, the whole
staff of agents, brigadiers, guards, workmen, &c., had to be formed. And,
in fine, there had to be resolved two questions of the greatest importance :
the selection of the kind of trees, and the mode of restocking the waste
lands with these.
" There was the selection of kinds of trees : they could not confine
themselves to those which almost exclusively grow in the country — the
beech and the silver fir. Both the one and other of these adapted them-
selves badly, during the first years of growth, to the slopes, completely
bare or subjected to late frosts, which the sun dried up in July and August,
to say nothing of the summer preceding, and the check to vegetation which
would thus be given. It was a matter of necessity to proceed by way of
trials — like groping in the dark.
"Then, should they sow or plant? At first, the plans were very
defective here. Then, from theoretic considerations, the arguments in
favour of sowing greatly preponderated, and a great many good agents
deprecated planting as being more exjDensive and less likely to prove
efficient than sowino-.
o
" Without taking up this question in the abstract, it may be enough to
affirm that, in so far as Bareges is concerned, experience has decided in
favour of planting. This is a necessary consequence of the climatal
condition of the country. In point of fact, towards the end of October, or
302 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
in the course of November, the snow invades the p^rim^res, and does not
disappear in general till the end of April, or in the course of May. From
the time that the soil is thus made accessible to atmospheric agencies,
vegetation takes on the character of activity which is peculiar to
mountainous regions. Let seeds of good quality be then sown, they will
spring up speedily, satisfactorily, and in such a way as to give rise to the
greatest expectations. But then comes a hot and dry summer (and this is
what is generally the case in the valley of Bareges) ; the vegetable layer
of soil, wanting compactness and depth, dries up under the action of the
solar rays ; the young rootlets which creep along near the surface of the soil
infallibly perish ; and it may happen that, with the exception that in streaks
of deeper earth in which moisture has been retained, before the end of
autumn there remains scarcely a trace of sowings executed with all
imaginable care. To this the oak is an exception, but it is such an excep-
tion as may be said to confirm the rule, as it is known to every one that
the acorn committed to the earth developes its radicle in the form of a long
taproot, which buries itself to a sufficient depth in the soil, not to be
affected by drought to the same degree as young resinous trees.
" To the instruction yielded by past years may be superadded that
yielded still, every day ; for the work of reboisement is being now carried on
in the perimetre of Sers and Betpouey, contiguous to that of Bareges.
There also, some partial losses, now repaired, have taught the agents the
best course to follow in order that from this time forward it may be easy to
complete, with certain prospects of success, those portions of the perimetre
of Bareges which are still in the state of gaps in the work.
" The rules proved by experience to be necessary to follow are these : —
" 1. — Excepting for the oak, to give the preference to planting, and only
to sow in exceptional circumstances.
" 2. — To give up planting or sowing in spring, the season being too far
advanced before the perimetres become accessible.
" 3. — In the more elevated parts, to prefer the Mugho or dwarf pine to
all other trees. It can withstand much — it developes itself slowly but
surely — while the heat of the summer causes the Norway pine to perish ;
as for the larches, generally long and slender, the weight of the snow lays
them and deforms them. In lower-lying parts, to mingle the Mugho with
the Austrian pine, and with the Scotch fir to the south. In fine, to employ
the oak at the base of the p6rimetre of Lacgrand.
" 4. — To employ as much as possible trees of only three years' growth, or
even of two years' age ; at a greater age their taking root is very uncertain.
" 5. — In fine, so to arrange always that the plants, taken from the
central nursery at Luz, shall all be planted within forty-eight hours at most
after their extraction. This precaution is essential in gorges where prevail,
especially in autumn, south winds, the effects of whicli are hurtful to the
young plants.
*' By proceeding thus the plantations already created will be completed
without fail. This will now be done if it do not prove needful before all
to push on actively the works of Sers and Betpouey, in such a way as to
counteract the attempts made to put a stop to the execution of them.
" The question may be raised, when once the rtboiscDient of Bareges shall
have been happily completed, may we reckon foi the future on a fine stock
of trees? This (juestion it would be rash to unswcr definitely at present. It
may legitimately be doubted whether at such altitudes vegetation will ever
DEPARTMENT OP THE PYRENEES. 303
show a lofty growth ; but in any case the object aimed at will be constantly
attained : an end will be put to the scourges of ravines ; the occurrence of
avalanches from the quarters rewooded will bo stopped ; and, in fine,
Bareges will be delivered from the dangers which threaten it.
" At the present moment, guarding against optimist estimates which may
not be fully warranted, it is difficult to determine exactly the results
obtained, or to determine to what extent the first works, and to what
extent the works of the military engineering corps, have contributed to
securing these results. As a matter of fact, while the last two winters
have witnessed the fall of a considerable quantity of snow, no serious accident
has occurred. Instead of formidable avalanches, the ravine Theil has only
given some successive smooth snow-slips, which have slid into the bed of the
Basan, and have come to lie on the north facade of the military hospital
without occasioning the least damage. One of these snow-slips, more
considerable than the others, temporarily obstructed the bed of the torrent,
the waters of which cleared for themselves a passage across the only street
in Bareges, inundating some cellars, and some rooms on the ground-floor,
but only occasioning altogether trifling damages.
" A fact to be noted is the action on the regime of the waters exercised
by the prohibition of pasturage on the p6rim^tres. From the time that the
flocks ceased to come on these there has been developed naturally a mass of
herbaceous and of ligneous plants, which constitute a true natural gazonne-
ment. These plants supply to the soil a precious covering ; they arrest a
portion of the snow which the winds blow towards the ravine ; their roots
envelope the vegetable soil in a powerful net-work which keeps it in its
place; in fine, at the time of the melting of the snow, and at the time of
great storms of rain, they divide the waters, and by so doing retard their
flow. Perhaps we ought to see, in this prohibition of parcoiu's, one of the
causes why Bareges had no avalanches in 1867 and 1868. In any case, it
would be a grave error to cramp the vegetation by uprooting, and by incon-
siderate clearings. Such like operations should be limited to suppressing
plants, the shade or the immediate contact of which might be adverse to the
growth of the young plants.
" II. — There is to the south, in front of Bareges, a small communal
forest stocked with beeches and silver fir, which is situated on the base of
the mountain of Ayi'6. It is at the summit of this wood that the ravine
Rieulet takes its birth, and in about a straight line it makes for the imperial
road, near the entrance to the town.
*' The formation of this ravine is of recent date ; according to the local
tradition, the origin of it does not date further back than sixty years ago at
most ; it is, moreover, within half-a-century that the Rieulet must have
taken such a development as to occasion disquietude.
" It is composed of an open abyss, in the form of a funnel, in magnitude
about 100 metres at its orifice, the precipitous walls of which show exposed
the rocks which constitute the mineral basis of the mountain. On leaving
this funnel, the waters, in making for themselves a way, have opened up a
large and deep bed of exceedingly steep fall, cut up in diff'erent directions
by precipitous perpendicular falls. The slopes of this ravine have a height
exceeding 25 metres in some places ; they are formed of transported earth
successively subdivided, in which are lodged enormous blocks of granite.
In summer, when the drought is continuous, these eai-ths acquire a con-
304 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
sistence and hardness which gives to them the appearance of a cement.
But when there comes a storm of rain, or continuous rain, which softens
the earth, then follows a phenomenon of which it is difficult to form a
correct idea unless it have been witnessed. At a definite moment the trans-
ported earth becomes semi-fluid, suddenly puts itself in motion, and
chano-ed into a thick, blackish mud, descends in a compact mass towards
the bottom of the valley, carrying off in its course the blocks which it held
suspended. These, striking against each other, roll on with a dull, con-
tinuous sound, somewhat like that of thunder — a sound familiar to the
inhabitants of Bareges, who, hearing it from afar, hasten to see pass what
they call the Barranqiie. In an instant the imperial road — flooded, covered
with mud and debris, and stopped up with large blocks of granite — becomes
impassable for carriages and for beasts of burden, and sometimes for foot
passengers. And at the same time the adjacent meadows are covered with
sand and stone from the one end to the other.
"For some years past — thanks to the works executed by the Forest Admini-
stration in the bed of the ravine — the dejections of the Rieulet have become
reduced to a very trifling amount ; and all devastation, even the most trifling,
would have ceased entirely if there did not exist, between the road and the
limit of the forest soil, some hectares of land which it was considered should
be left at the free disposal of the municipal authorities. It is from this
come, under the impulse of waters, the few blocks which still land on the
imperial road.
" On the Administratioti des Fonts et Ckaussees devolves the charge of
clearino* the way. A few hours of a few workmen will from this time for-
ward suffice for this work. The average annual expense, which was 3500
francs, has been reduced to 700 francs, a sum destined to be still further
decreased.
*' It is by means of dry-stone barrages that the Rieulet has been bridled.
The first of those erected at the head of the ravine were not of strength
sufficient to withstand for a lengthened time the action of the waters ; un-
dermined at the base and at the sides, this ended in their fall, and they
have not been re-erected, because it would have been necessary every year
to renew the underworks, and because, moreover, there have subsequently
been erected others sufficient to maintain their position against all that
may occur.
"In 1861, 1862, and 1863, a beginning was made to open at the summit
of the Rieulet large and deep cuttings, to stop up the entrance of the ravine,
and turn away the waters of the rainfall.
" At the same time, they consolidated the ground by means of turfed
terraces, and wooden stakes and hurdles ; they lowered tlie sides of the
ravine in the more abrubt slopes ; they tried, moreover, to plant there cut-
ting's of willow and of alder, but all imaginable care has failed to cause
these cutting to sprout in a soil which becomes desiccated and hardened to
a great depth.
"It was in 1861 that the erection of barrages was commenced. Under-
taken and continued without interruption from that time onward, there are
now of these fifteen, exclusive of those the abandonment of which has been
determined. The total cubic contents of them is about 4300 metres,
" As all of these arc similar, and difl'cr only in dimensions, it will suffice
to describe briefly the strongest of them, that known as barrage No. 4.
" Begun in 1867, it was finished in 1869.
DEPARTMENT OF THE PVRENEE«. 305
"Its thickness is 4 metres, its height 14 metres, its length at the middle
28 metres — in all 1568 cubic metres.
" Encased, in the base and tlie two sides, in the calcareous rocks, in which
by mining there was dug a ceep groove, it is protected against undermining,
so much to be feared for works of this kind. It is composed exclusively of
large blocks of granite, laid in successive courses without any mortar, but
dressed and put in their places with minute care. Its form, slightly convex,
gives it more solidity to withstand the shocks and the pressure of the earth
coming from above. In fine, they have dug or left large open sluices for
the flow of the water.
" A similar barrage, known as No. 5, has been begun in 1869 ; it may be
completed next year [1871] ; and it will complete the system of defence for
the imperial road and neighbouring properties.
" When the Ilieulet is in movement, the mass of its dejection is divided
and retained by the barrages ; the water and the sand alone escape by the
open sluices; the solid materials heap themselves up behind the walls,
and these give birth to extensive horizontal platforms on which are
stopped the blocks detached from the summit of the ravine, which for-
merly came down without hindrance to the imperial road like veritable
projectiles.
" At the commencement of the works nobody in the country believed
they would be successful. To undertake to restrain the Rieulet was, they
would say, an impossibility. To-day the most incredulous are constrained
to yield to the force of evidence.
" III. — To complete the description of the perimetre of Bareges it is
proper that mention should be made of the opening of a forest road, which,
setting out from the civil hospice, goes up by a series of lacets, of a pretty
gentle slope, to the base of the peak of Ayre. It is of a total length of
11,782 metres; sustaining walls line it where the mobility of the slope
might create fears, and the roadway is in such a state of solidity that the
expense necessary for its maintenance will be very small.
" The formation of this road was indispensable that they might come with
beasts of burden to the origin of the ravine Rieulet, or to the extremity of
the canton Ayr^, for works connected with the perimetre of Bareges as well
as for those which were connected with the perimetres of Sers and
Betpouey. Undertaken in its lower part in the course of the year 1862, it
reached in the year following a development of 8100 metres ; repaired and
consolidated since then, it w^as finished in 1868.
" Apart from its utility in regard to the works, the 7-oute dJAyre is a real
benefit to the bathers who frequent Bareges, a benefit greatly appreciated
by them and by the whole of the intelligent portion of the population.
There is not, indeed, in the locality other place of promenade than a level
alley along the front of the houses of the town, devoid both of shade and
shelter. Now the forest road stretches for nearly 8 kilometres across the
communal forest, sheltered from wind and sun in running through the midst
of massive blocks of beech co-mingled with silver pine, which give a smiling
aspect to the road, which being moreover frequented by a great many of
the bathers, the presence of these gives to it a character of great animation.
The more vigorous get on horseback to the peak d'Ayre whence they see
the valley of Luz, that of Lians and the glaciers which crown the Neouvielle.
Those who cannot undertake so long an ascent, content themselves with
2n
306 DEVAtiTATiOM to AMD iiEtoXuKATiUISfc).
making shorter tours, and find, if necessary, a sheltered resting-place in the
little nursery adjoining the road, ^Yhere they are hospitably welcomed.
" IV. Having thus enumerated all the works accomplished up to this time
in the perimetre of Bareges, it only remains to be stated how the works were
received at first, what o]3position was made to them, what complete change
his since been produced in the spirit of the people, and what have been the
causes of this change.
" At first the works encountered in the Administrative inquests and in
the Municipal Councils an absolute and determined opposition, which
showed itself first in silent or avowed combinations, then by daily acts of
malevolence, and, in fine, in a hostile demonstration made at Viella, quite
near to Bareges, in the form of an assemblage who stopped by main force
the works begun shortly before.
" In consequence of these doings the authorities issued the revocation of
a mayor who had been connected with them.
" Subsequently, evil-disposed men, who kept unknown, destroyed alto-
gether the nursery at Bareges, burned the barracks which had just been
erected there, and smashed with stones the door of the house inhabited by
the forest brigadier.
" In fine, on the night of the 10th March 1867, fire was set to the sow-
ings of oak on Lacgrand at fourteen different points at once.
" On this last proceeding the judicial authorities took action. The chief
of the Court of Lourdes hastened promptly to the spots, with the forest
agents, and caused to be arrested some inhabitants against whom there was
grave presumptive evidence.
" In default of positive proofs, the prosecutions had to be abandoned ;
but the firmness displayed by the imperial prosecutor had sufficed to
inspire the inhabitants with respect for the law and the works. Besides,
it must be acknowledged, these acts of vandalism had raised in the country
a feeling of disapprobation of such a nature as to bring the malevolent to
reflection. Meanwhile, the employment at Bareges of an auxiliary brigade
had the eff'ect of keeping them in order ; and no second attempt of the
same kind has been made since.
'' But if in these circumstances it was necessary to give proof of energy,
and in like circumstances it may be proper to do likewise, it is proper that
rigour should only be used in cases of absolute necessity.
" Thoroughly imbued with this idea, the agent charged with the direction
of the works has endeavoured to maintain, in his relations with the inhabi-
tants of the valley, the kindest consideration. All their objections and
complaints have been listened to with attention, and calmly discussed ; and
none of them which could be met with compliance, without serious incon-
venience, have been withstood. The forest guards have been invitingly
counselled to avoid all irritating remark or proposal, and all irritating dis-
cussion. As the local brigadier, naturally active and moreover devoted in
the prosecution of the enterprise, could not, face to face with the population,
give up an aggressive style of procedure, his removal to a distance has been
applied for and granted.
'* By degrees, pacification of the people has come about ; all physical
violence has ceased ; tliere no longer occurs eitlier open resistance or
threateuings, or more slight offences; the inhabitants look with satisfaction
on Ihc works whi( 'i arc being ])r()s('cuted. 'V\\c work of rcfujiscmcnf counts
now but a limited number of opponents in the country, and these, doubtless.
DEPARTMENT OP L'aUDE, 307
will finish by rallying themselves with tlio suppoiUrsof the measure, when
enlightened by expcrienee <tf the benefits it brings."
It may bo more than one of my readers may now be almost willing to
thank me for having bronght them to the scene of these operations by the
route I have done, in the pleasant company of such a tourist as Mr Weld.
But our errand accomplished, it would be pleasant, but apart from our pur-
pose, to accompau}^ him further ; and, thanking him for all his details, here
he and we must part. I found myself just now heaving a sigh at the
thought that the description of the country seen by him, in his descent to
Toulouse, must not be touched. Nor his details of what was seen by him
in a journey thence through the department of Ari^ge, and the Eastern Pro-
vinces. May we never meet a less pleasant compagnon de voyage ! We
may journey long and not meet with a better, sharing not our passion, but
not less interested than we in the natural scenery to which it leads us.
In the department of the Lower Pyrenees, operations are carried on in
three p^rim^tres ; and in the Western Pyrenees, in the perimetre of La Tet,
covering an area of nearly 5000 hectares.
Sect. XI. — Department of VAiide.
In the region of the Pyrenees are comprised, not only the departments of
the High and the Low and the Western Pyrenees, but also the departments
of Aude and Ariege, in which are carried on works of reboisement. Of two
perimetres in the former — those of I'Argent-Double, comprising 2842 hect.,
and of the Rialesse, comprising 1080 hect. — in monographs are given
special reports. Again selecting one, I take at hap-hazard the monograph
on the former : —
" This perimetre lies in three communes of the canton of Peyriac-
Minervois, arrondissement of Carcassonne : they are those of Caunes, Citou,
and Lespinassiere.
"It was decreed of public utility on the 22nd April 1863.
" L'Argent-Double takes its rise in the territory of Lespinassiere, at the
bottom of a valley closely confined, running east and west, and the crests
of which constitutes the boundaries of the departments of Aude and of
Herault.
" From its origin to the end of the perimetres, this mountain stream
receives a great many affluents, of extemely irregular delivery, which take
their rise in the three communes of Lespinassiere, Citou, and Caunes.
Besides, it receives, on the territory of Caunes, a considerable affluent called
the Ruisseau du CroSy which takes its rise in the commune of Felines-
d'Hautpool (Herault), and flows along and across the perimetre before its
junction with I'Argent-Double. Nothing has been done in the commune of
Felines-d'Hautpool to regulate the flow of this mountain stream. The moun-
tains in which it takes its rise are all of them in a bare state, or a state of
grievous destruction. It would be desirable that rehoisements were executed
on the territory of this commune, to secure in time coming the advantages
expected from the works being executed in the Aude.
" The actual pdrim^tre comprises the steepest slopes, and the most devoid
of soil, of the valleys of I'Argent-Double, and of those of the affluents
situated in the department of I'Aude.
308 DEVASTATIONS AND RESTORATIONS.
" The highest altitudes are of 934 and 1022 metres, in the commune of
Lespinassi^re ; and the lowest, of 413 and 754 mHres, in the commune of
Caunes.
" The climate is dry and hot, the valley being a southern rent of the
Montagne-Noire. In general, there is no rain in summer, but when
storms of rain come. When these are violent, the havock caused by the
I'Argent-Double is considerable. Sometimes there is no rain for many
months, and all vegetation is stopped in its growth, if it be not altogether
destroyed.
" This has been the case in 1869, in which there has not been a rain-fall
in storms of rain, or otherwise, penetrating the cultivated soil to more than
three centimetres, or an inch and a quarter, since the month of April. This
long continued drought has given a terrible blow to the replanting of years
preceding, and is being hurtful also to the works of the autumn of 1869,
for it does not allow of the works being carried on economically, nor of
planting being employed there when this mode of operation is admissible.
"The prolongation of these droughts in summer, and the severity of the
frosts in winter, cause that in this p6rim6tre sowings be practised generally,
and plantings only exceptionally.
" The soil is very variable. At the highest summits of the mountain in
the communes of Citou and Lespinassiere, it consists almost entirely of
micaceous schists, easily disintegrated, and still more easily flooded into
ravines ; the earthy residua of this kind of rock are dry and much under
the influence of the smallest thread of water. As fast as the ravines thus
created go on lengthening, the carrying off" the hills goes on extending
with rapidity, and earth, stones, and every thing are swept away into the
tide of the principal streams, and often thrown out upon the cultivated
grounds situated on their borders.
'' In one part of the territory of Citou, and in the greater part of that of
Caunes, the soil is argillaceous-limestone, or calcareous clay of little depths
tufted with innumerable calcarious shelves. There the floods have scarcely
any debris to sweep away : the work of destruction has been almost com-
pleted.
" This p^rim^tre comprises private lands, communal lands, and dominal
lands. These have been derived from the old Benedictine convent of
Caunes, and amount to 420 hectares, 306 hectares 76 ares of which oiJy
are comprised in the pdrimfetre.
" The division of the lands, according to proprietorship, may be summed
up thus : —
( Dominal lands,
*' Caunes, . . . . < Communal do,,
( Private do.,
" Citou / Communal lands,
' ' * ' * ( Private do.,
a T • •), f Communal lands,
" Lespmassiere, . . s -n • i. i
^ ( Private do..
Total, .... 2842u. 02a.
*' Eehoisement has been carried out only on the lands belonging to the
State and to communes. The commune of Lespinassi6re erected the works
by aid of a subvention of 60 per cent, guaranteed by the State ; the t\\o
other communes have left the expense of the execution of tlie work to be
met entirely by the State.
306h.
76a.
178h.
06a.
371h.
14a.
360h.
89a.
783h.
88a.
657h.
03a.
184h.
26a.
DEPARTMENT OF l'aUDE. 309
" Gazonneme7it has been employed on no part, as neither the land nor
the climate permitted of this.
" During the preparatory inquests, and at the beginning of the opera-
tion, the Administration was sustained in the enterprise by the whole of
the more enlightened part of the population, and also by that portion of
the lower classes who derived no personal benefit from the communal pro-
perty ; but it was violently opposed by the proprietors of flocks, who con-
stituted the minority of the population. The disposition of these began
to improve from the time that indemnities for the deprivation of pasturage
were granted to the communes ; and everybody, even those who were once
the most opposed, have become convinced of the utility of rehoisement.
" The efficacy of the barrages has been generally acknowledged, and
many private proprietors have constructed them at their own expense on
those parts of their properties which they wished to retain for culture.
Notwithstanding these facts, it is the case, that few of the inhabitants
consent to carry out the work of rehoisements and harrages on the lands
comprised within the perim^tre. They wish to retain their lands as pastur-
age, as the communal lands escape from this.
" To complete, then, the work on the perimetre, it is absolutely necessary
to acquire by degrees the required lands belonging to private proprietors ,
and to continue the grants of indemnities for deprivation of pasturage.
" These indemnities are based on an average of 4 francs per hectare
received in Citou and Lespinassi^re, and of 2 fr. 70 cents, at Cannes.
"The work done up to the 31st Dec. 1868 may be reported thus, over
the whole extent of the perimetre : —
"Rehoisement of 224h. 11-50a. dominal, 199h. 25a. communal, and 2h.
80.60a. of private lands — in all, 426h. 17.10a.
" Pruning of plants scattered over the communal and dominal lands.
*' Preparation of 5000 layers of beech.
" Construction of 932 rustic harrages of dry stone.
" Construction of 175 meters of enclosing walls.
" Opening up of 5330 metres of path.
" The rehoisements were made principally by sowings. The kinds of trees
employed up to this time were, according to the altitude and the soil, the
green oak, the hard oak, the chestnut, the Aleppo pine, the Mugho, and
the Atlas cedar.
" When plantations could be made, use was made of the hard oak, the
chestnut, the ailanthus, the ash, the Mugho, and the beech. Of the Mugho
employed in 1867 in the commune of Lespinassiere, to the number of
50,000, almost all were uprooted by a continuous frost, which lasted from
the month of December 1867, to the 1st April 1868. These hard frosts,
followed in the month of April by heat, which was considerable, prevented the
principal plantations being made in the spring, which is a serious matter,
on account of the facility with which the schistoze soils are heaved up.
When it does not freeze much in the months of February and March plant-
ing can be effected ; but the grants not being available at this season, nor
the seed to hand, it is necessary to renew the whole in autumn.
This course of procedure has been followed since the commencement in
1864, and has not given very bad results, notwithstanding the deplorable
atmospheric circumstances to which the young plants had to submit. Tlie
excessive heat of summer is the cause of the princij)al failures in success.
The year 1869 may be cited as having been particularly disastrous. There
310 DEVASTATIONS AT^D RESTORATIONS.
had not fallen a single penetrating shower in the territoiT- of Cannes and
over half of Citou from the month of April to this time (20th November).
A considerable dessication was the result, but as each /)0i?(?^ sown has still
living plants there is no occasion to renew the greater part of these sowings.
A dominal lot in Cannes, however, replanted in 1865 with green oak, has
been burned up to the roots by the drought, on from 20 to 22 hectares.
In deducting these from the 426 hectares in all, it may be considered that
there has succeeded perfectly and is now in good condition about 400
hectares, for there is little probability that they will have to withstand now
droughts like that of this year, which they have stood pretty well. Certain
sowings suffered in 1866 from very violent storms of hail, but they have
been completely restored
" Since 1868 this perimfetre has had a nursery of which 50 ares only have
at this time been sown. This will suffice for the wants of the district, as
sowings are almost always the only mode practicable in i-ehoisement here.
" The expenses have been pretty high, on account of the nature of the
soil, which is very stony. Every poi^f^ had moreover to be wrought to a con-
siderable depth, that the roots of the young plants might reach as soon as
possible a depth such as would protect them from drought.
" This method of preparing the soil is indispensable with this view ; un-
fortunately it contributes to the striping of the plants at the roots in hard
frosts. To combat as much as possible this scourge the root of the young-
plant is surrounded with stones of a greater or less size.
" The total expense incurred to the 31st December 1868, inclusive of the
value of all that has been supplied, amounts to 43,264 fr. 28 ct., which has
arisen thus — including the priming and preparation of layers in rehoise-
ment : —
Works oi rehoisemenf, ... ... ... Fr. 41,937 13
Construction of barrages, ... ... ... 418 45
„ of paths, 735 70
„ of walls, ... ... ... 123
Fr. 43,264 28
" These sums may be divided according to the ownership of the property
on which they have been spent, thus : —
" The whole of the works executed on dominal
lands have cost - - - - Fr. 25,825
*' Works on communal lands executed at the ex-
pense of the State,
" Amount of subvention of all kinds granted to the
Commune of Lcspinassi6rcs,
" Subventions granted to private proprietors, ■
" Iir'hoi.sejnent effected on private property at the
cost of the State, - - -
''' Total ns above, - - Fr. 43,264 28
" The re-planting effected in the p^riml'tre of rArgent-Double have not yet
been able to exercise a considerable infiueucc on tlic regime of tliis affluent
of the Aude, for they do not occupy more tlian a seventli part of the area.
NevertlielesH it has been nscertaiued, sifter the storms of rain which came
on in 1865 and 1866, that tlie harraqn^ had retained fxreat (|uantities of earth
14,089
03
3,157
30
50
75
155
rum.U' tUMMuN ON UEJJOISEMENT, 311
and stones, and that the potets dug on tho flanka of precipitous mountains
liad also retained in like manner a considerable proportion of materials,
acting individually as a miilliliule of small barnKjes."
Besides these and similar operations carried on extensively in the depart-
ments named, similar operations have been carried on in different localities in
the region of tho Vosges and of Mount Jura ; but enough, if not more than
enough, has been brought forward to enable tho student of Hydrology — or
the student of Forest-JScience — to compare the present with the past.
CuAP. VI. — Local Feeling and Public Opinion in Regard
TO Reboisement.
Again and again in the preceding pages have indications of a strong local
feeling against the prosecution of the enterprise appeared, with indications
of these having subsided, and in some cases, — and these not few — given
place to feelings of satisfaction and of a disposition to help forward the
work. This appears to have been the case everywhere in so far as those
who were more immediately affected by the operations — landed proprietors,
and the communal population — have made themselves heard.
It may be attributed, perhaps, in part to prejudice, but apart from
this, (1) to the operations interfering with long-accustomed usages, and even
w^ith the livelihood of many who saw and knew and felt their immediate
eftects, but did not see, and could not foresee, the benefits which were to
follow ; (2) to the sincere desire of the Government to avoid all private
wrong in seeking to secure a public good, and their making this manifest in
their legislation in regard to the matter; (3) to the Administration and
their agents endeavouring, and that successfully, to act with the meekness
of wisdom, fixing not their attention on the passionate expression of oppo-
sition, but endeavouring to find out the irritating grievance, and acting in a
conciliating spirit, and taking proper measures to get this redressed ; and
(4) to the adaptation of the means employed to eft'ect the end desired.
I consider it of some importance that the successive phases of local feel-
ing and of public opinion in the localities in which these operations were
carried on should come under the attention of legislators, and of practical
men, who may be led to adopt similar works of reboisement and gazonnementy
or modifications of them required by local circumstances, as means of
counteracting similar evils elsewhere. Opposition in any such case may
be anticipated, and it may be that the opposition will not be without good
cause; but if the means be equally adapted to accomplish the end desio-ned,
and that end equally desirable, if the same meekness and forbearance be
maintained by those entrusted with the direction and prosecution of the
enterprise, and the same enlightened legislation characterise the enactments
upon which the enterprise is based and by which it is regulated, the same
or a similar issue of the opposition may be anticipated. If any of these be
laiking it may be otherwise; and I know not which of them is of most
importance. x\Iy aim and desire has been limited to showing what has been
done in France, and in w^hat circumstances and with what results this was
done, and to supply, in so far as this can thus be done, information which
may be utilised by those who may be called upon, or may feel themselves
otherwise moved, to endeavour to counteract similar evils now or at any
time hereafter.
312 LOCAL FEELING AND PUBLIC OPINION
Local feeling has been frequently refeiTed to. Public opinion in con-
nection with local feeling may be learned from the record of deliberative
councils in the districts in which the operations were being carried on, and
these show it to have been in accordance with what I have stated in regard
to local feeling.
It was in the High Alps that these works of rehoisement and gazomiement
were most urgently called for ; it is in that Department and those imme-
diately adjacent that the works have been most extensively carried on ; and
the populations there have not been reticent of their opinions, nor have
they failed to secure that these should be heard.
M, Cezanne, writing at the close of the first decennial period of these
operations, and after the interruption which had been caused by the war,
says, — " It is interesting to read now, in the proceedings of the Conseil
G6n6ral of the High Alps, the reflection of the diff'erent states of feeling
and public opinion in the Department. In the Session of 1860 the prefect
announced the law ^:>02i?" la mise en valeur or improvement of communal
lands ; and for the rehoisement of the mountains the Conseil General voted a
suhvention of 500 francs.
"In Session of 1861 a report was given of what had been done. The
Conseil voted 1200 francs.
"In the Session of 1862 it appeared that in regard to tiventy-five pro-
posals there had been fulfilled the legal formalities required. These
embraced 60,000 hectares, on 6800 of which rehoisement was to be begun
immediately; on 790 gazonnement was to be carried out; and 13,533 to be
put in defends, or conserved by the temporary prohibition of pasturing and
passage. The Conseil voted a subvention of 3000 francs. ^^
" But the mischief had begun to manifest itself. The agents of the Waters
and Forests and the Engineers had co-operated with zeal. The reports
read to the Conseil gave evidence of a lively faith, but the Conseil itself
received these communications coldly, and it was felt that the opposition,
thus far kept down, would not be long in bursting forth in flame. The
prefect replied to the objections that it was impossible to reduce them to
words, but that it was felt that they were in the wind. . . They had, it ap-
peared, pictured to themselves the forest agents as ogy'es ready some day to
devour both shepherd and sheep. . . The nature of the opposition showed
itself clearly ; it was the mountain versus the plain. . . . Let an
example suffice. The proposed extinction of the torrents of Sapet and of
Devezet was submitted to discussion in these communes : Ancelle and Saint-
Leger on the mountain, and Labatie-Neuve on the plain. The prefect re-
ports on this matter in these terms : " Called to give their counsel, the
representatives of the commune of Ancelle formally announced that their
vote was against the proposal. The Chief of the Commission des Rehoise-
ment, M. Costa de Bastelica, who took part officially at the sederunt at my
desire, in order that we might be in the best possible position for supplying
the information which miglit be needed, astonished at a refusal for which a
motive could scarcely be imagined, asked permission to speak, and called
attention to the circumstance that the measure affected Ancelle scarcely at
all, but the Commission, on the other hand, has had in view to preserve a
whole valley. Nothing was done : the vote was negative. The represen-
tatives of the commune of Saint-Leger were next called, and gave the same
negative vote. * But,' said some to them, ' you are only consulted on account
of an interest which is very indirect, through your interest in a portion
IN REGARD TO REB0I8EMENT. 313
of tho land taken as a whole. Would you please explain what is tlie ground
of your opposition to the execution of a project the utihty of which it is
impossible to dispute 1 ' Reply : * The torrent passes far below our place,
and cannot do us any harm.' * But this little hill of undivided territory
has been already subjected to the forest regime 1 ' Reply : ' Yes, but the
Forest Administration allow us the run of it; this will be prohibited to-
morrow if sowing is carried out on it or on the felled wood.* It was now
the turn of the delegates of Labatie-Neuve. These praised highly the
project, and protested energetically against what they called the selfishness
of their neighbours. They showed over and over again, from different
aspects of the subject, what there would be unjust and cruel in leaving
much longer whole communes situated on the lower parts of the torrents
exposed to disasters every day, when in reality it would occasion no appre-
ciable damage to Ancelle and to Saint-Leger. The efforts of the delegates
from Labatie were powerless to obtain the least concession. They were
two against four, and a majority was obtained only by support lent by the
Counsellor-General, the Counsellor of the Arrondissement, and the other
permanent members of the Commission."
The quotation is given from the formal report on Comptes rendus du
Conseil General des Haiites-Alps, Session 1862, and M. Cezanne remarks —
" This little life-portraiture is full of instruction. Who now will question
that the intervention of the State, so strongly urged by Surell, was neces-
sary 1 "
In the Session of 1863 twenty-six new proposals were submitted. The
Commission of the General Conseil opposed to them the mournful com-
plaints of the communes. The prefect, pre-occupied doubtless by the
political state of the country and approaching elections, showed himself
much less firm than he did the year preceding. The Conseil voted, how-
ever, again 3000 francs, but demanded at the same time the revision of the
law, and the stipulation of a previous payment of indemnity for the com-
munes deprived of their pastures.
In the Session of 1864 the reports of the prefect maintained a prudential
silence on the subject of rehoisement. It spoke of everything but this, the
one most important matter affecting the district. The Commission of the
Conseil was less reserved. The Commission of the Conseil confirmed the
unanimous protests of the peasants. There had been violent outbreaks in
the environs of Embrun, the intervention of the military had been deemed
necessary, and from the plain had been seen the mountain flashing with
light reflected by the bayonets. The Conseil demanded as extensive an
application as possible of the law of 8th June 1864, — that is to say, of the
substitution of gazonnement for hoisement, of grass for trees, and a liberal
distribution of indemnities; and at the same time it considered it duty,
while doing this, to reduce the subvention from 3000 francs to 500.
In the month of November the imperial decree enforcing the law of 8th
June was issued.
In 1865 the success of the first works began to bear fruit, — the reaction
had begun. In the General Conseil of the High Alps the prefect again
brought up the question of rehoisement, which for two years he had, from
prudential considerations, avoided or touched on slightly. The Commission
of the Conseil made it the subject of a long report, m which they extolled
the benefits of " that law which people had cursed, when they ought to have
2o
314 LOCAL FEELING AND PUBLIC OPINION
blessed it." The Conseil called for the prompt execution of the works, cast
blame on the conduct of the Conservator of the Forests, who had taken up
his residence at Gap, while by a decree of the Emperor he was required
to reside at Valence. From this report it appears that two communes —
but two only — had demanded the indemnities to which they were entitled,
and reflected on the tardiness of others to profit by a law so advantageous.
In the Session of 1866 it was reported that a newly-appointed Conserva-
tor, M. Sequinard, had fixed his residence at Gap, that his enlightened
experience and benevolent firmness had gained for him the complete
sympathy of the Conseil, that the service of rehoisement discharged its
functions in a satisfactory manner, that the works carried out in 1865 gave
the following results : —
Extent Reboisee, - - - 664 Hectares.
„ Regazonnee, - - - 3400 „
Number of baronages constructed, - 2797 „
Length of clayonnages, or barriers of
hurdles, - - . . 26,500 „
Length of barrages vivants, - - 22,267 „
„ Drains cut, - - 727 „
„ Eoads, - - - 12,695
On which had been expended 103,196 francs.
But the Conseil passed a vote that the indemnities to the communes
should be oUigatoires et non facultatifs, imperative and not simply permis-
sible, and that proprietors who may have re-planted their grounds with
trees should be released from having to reimburse to the State the advances
which shall have been made to them ; and ultimately the Conseil voted a
credit of 500 francs.
The opposition may be supposed to have been factious and the demands
unreasonable, but they were not altogether so. M. Sequinard, the Con-
servator of .Forests in the district says, in one of the reports made by
him about this time, that they were not. After stating what were the
requirements of the enterprise, he goes on to say : " The basis of material
operations having been determined, it is proper to enquire who in equity
should bear the expense of the work.
'' The laws of 1860 and 1864 have laid down on this subject rules which
do not satisfy the population of the mountains, and which have made them
in many communes very hostile. They consider that the extinction of the
torrents, being demanded by the general interests, ought to be executed
entirely at the expense of the State, as are all other works pertaining to the
public interest, such as canals, roads, &c. They find it unjust that nothing-
should be required of the wealthy populations of the valleys, to protect
whom is the prime object of the regeneration of the mountains, and that,
discounting the profit of which they have by degrees been deprived, they
should withdraw from this useful operation. Further still, they believe that
they have a right to indemnity for the trouble which the extinction of
torrents will necessarily occasion them in their habits of life and in their
means of livelihood."
It is impossible, says M. Sequinard, to withhold an acknowledgment
that these allegations are not without foundation. Then, after having
made some reservations suggested by the immoderate use of the pasturage,
an abuse which, tending to the ruin of the mountains, is the primary cause
IN REGARD TO REBOISEMENT. 315
of tho inundations which como, with brief intervals, to desolate the valleys,
and after having established with true sagacity that the legislation of 18G0
and 186 4 was not responsible for this, — having given to the communes,
under the form of subventions, the amounts necessary for the consolidation
of the ground in ravines, — he concludes thus : " In view of the preceding
considerations, the Conservator asks to be authorised on his next official
circuit to promise to the communes interested that in future the State will
undertake the charge of all the works which the extinction of torrents im-
peratively demand, will indemnify in a just degree the communes which
shall have suffered thereby, and will aid those which shall labour seriously
at the rehoisement of their mountains, on condition that the communal lands
shall he i^laced under the regime of the Forest Administration.^^
Of M. Soquinard's qualifications for his office as Conservator of Forests in
the High Alps the highest testimony is borne by those who know him. M.
Cezanne writes : " It is in the reports of M. Sequinard that we must look
for what may be called the philosophy of these operations. The extinction
of torrents is now a science, and its principles are deduced by M. Sequinard
in explicit and substantial theorems."
" If," says M. Sequinard, ** hoisement be the only means of extino-uish-
ing torrents, it is not indispensable everywhere to fix and consolidate the
soil. It is nature that teaches us that, except in the cases of landslips and
rents and of some few spots, the ground will consolidate itself if it be pro-
tected against the abuse of pasturage. So, the extinction of torrents re-
quires only (1) that the ravines be replanted with trees; (2) that the
pasturage be brought under regulation ; and (3) that the most exposed
spots, principally at the head of ravines, should be strengthened by partial
hoisement, trees of high growth being selected, so as to interfere as little as
possible with the use of the pasturage.
" In ravines copsewood is of more efifect than forest trees, from the diffi-
culty of getting out the produce ; high trees cover the soil only imper-
fectly, and they protect it less manifestly than young close coppice in a
state of brush.
^'-^" " Trees of small dimensions do tempt to trespass, but planted in horizontal
strips the wider apart the steeper the declivity, the young trees promote,
by the freshness and moisture which they maintain, the growth between the
strips of herbaceous plants, which after a few years may be depastured,
which is essential to the prosperity of a pastoral country. Moreover, in
almost all the localities the people feed the cattle in winter with the leaves
and young shoots cut green in the beginning of September.
" Thus all interests are secured, (1) by replanting the ravines in alternate
strips with broad-leaved trees, which shoot readily again from the stump, and
which may be exploited in a brief rotation — which conditions are fulfilled
by acacias, elms, ashes, maples, and les hois hlancs, [a designation applied
conventionally to woods of inferior quality and of a soft contexture,
irrespective of colour, as alders, elders, poplars, and willows]. (2) By
gazonnement of the ground between the strips; but it is not enough to fill up
actual gaps, it is necessary to prevent the formation of others.
" The abuse or immoderate use of pasturage being the main cause of dis-
integration of the soil, it becomes of essential importance to regulate this.
It is a weighty and imperative duty for the communal proprietors to do
this. In point of fact, if the communes be proprietors, the successive genera-
tions have only the usufruct of the ground, and they should act the part of
316 LOCAL FEELING AND PUBLIC OPINION
a good father of a family — that is to say, be improving and not destroying
the heritage ; and it pertains to the prefectoral authority — their tutor —
to regulate their enjoyment of the usufruct ; the abuse of this, then, is not
permitted, and ought to be withstood energetically."
In the Session of 1867 the Commission of the General Conseil of the
High Alps reported with graceful expressions the efficacious and productive
impulse which had been given to the service by M. Sequinard, and reported
thus of the work : " Experience has spoken, and if we decree to-day, or
have already decreed, the regeneration of the mountains, the success of this
great work is henceforward a matter of certainty. Results almost beyond what
were expected obtained on many spots permit us to reckon absolutely on
the final result. They permit us to foretell from the present the day
when, with means for adequate action being given, our grand slopes shall
be regenerated, the ground on steep declivities shall be consolidated, and
the main torrents which desolate our Alps shall be extinguished, or at least
repressed.
" The ruling principle from this time forward in the operations of the
Commission des Rehoisements is the substitution, wherever it may be prac-
ticable, of regazonnement for rehoisement. Gazonnement cannot fail to
ameliorate in a not distant future the lot of the pastoral populations, while
hoisement would deprive them for an age of the enjoyment of lands on which
it might be adopted with the most marked success." The Conseil voted a
subvention of 500 francs.
In the Session of 1868 the report of the prefect established that "the
work of rehoisement and gazonnement was making year by year great pro-
gress in the department, and that wheresoever works of this kind had been
undertaken the population of the localities, being enlightened in regard to
the design and object of the operations, and in regard to the means by
which this was being accomplished, had shown themselves satisfied."
And as for the Commission of the Conseil, their report rose to the height
(5f a lyric in praise of the undertaking. The Chief of the Service de Re-
hoisement, M. Costa de Bastelica, had said in a report : " Come see, and you
will be satisfied and pleased." The Commissioners were taken to the
p6rim6tre of the Sapet, and reporting to the Conseil of this visit they ex-
pressed themselves thus : —
" As for your Commission, the same who had seen the works in this
p^rimfetre in their embryotic state, they know not whether most to praise
the admirable harmonious bearing which is characteristic of the works as a
whole, or the marvellous results already obtained. . . . Thus are we able to
say with the same faith which animates our noble Conservator, ' After
such a baptism, the success obtained gives lis the hope that henceforward the
work of the consolidation and of the regeneration of the mountains is assm'ed.
We are certain that we shall save our country, if you second our endeavours,
and if we receive sufficient credits.^ " The Conseil raised the subvention from
600 to 1000 francs.
In this same Session of 1868 there were presented to the Conseil a good
many projects of extinction to be executed in the environs of Brian 9on.
These were the first projects submitted for consideration in this part of the
de])artmcut ; ho the local opposition was very keen.
" In accordance with the apprehensions with which the p6rim6trcs of
Chagncs, Vachorcs, and Saint-Marthc, &c., at present in full course of being
restored, had been decried with all the violence of a passion by the popula-
IN REGARD TO REBOISEMENT. 317
tions of the localities aflectod by these, the population and the municipal
councils of the communes of Cervi^rs, of Brian(;on, and of MonCtier, together
with the council of the arrondisscment of lirianc^on, protested against the
approval of these new p6rim6tres."
The Co)ii7nissio)i considered that the resistance was not justified, and the
Conseil ivithout hesitation approved the projected schemes.
In addition to the expression of such views and sentiments by the Conseil
General des llautes Alpes, many other General Conseils 1 ave given expres-
sion to views and sentiments of a corresponding character, and in the
Session of 1871 many of them gave expression to their sympathy with the
enterprise.
In that year the General Conseil of the High ^ Ips renewed the expres-
sion of its sympathy in the work of the regeneration of the mountains.
In the General Conseil of the Department of the Loire, at their sederunt
of the 27th October 1871, the Commission reported : —
" The rehoisenient of our mountains, so necessary to prevent great in-
undations, and still more necessary to secure in the future valuable
resources to our great coal basin, is going on slowly but steadily. Already
272-i hectares have been replanted. The total expense of these i^eboice-
ments has risen to 390,000 francs.
"The department has contributed of this sum 29,000 francs ; proprietors,
114,000 francs j the State, 245,000 francs. The sub-inspector of the forests
expects that numerous works of re&oise??ie?i^ will be executed in 1872; he
earnestly prays the General Conseil to continue in the budget the usual
allocation. Your Commission shares the desires of that official. They pro-
pose that you should pass a vote in the following terms : — The General
Conseil, recognising the fact that it is in the highest degree for the public
interest to encourage the rehoisement of the mountain, vote the credit of
3800 francs, as asked by the sub-inspector of the forests, for the service of
rehoisement in the department of the Loire."
In the General Conseil of the department of the Lower Alps, at their
sederunt of the 3rd November 1871, it was reported : —
" The rehoisement and the gazonnement of the mountains have received,
within the last few years, a lively impulse in our parts. With a view to
giving to this service, the importance of which cannot have escaped you, a
new impulse, and to obtain for our district that share to which her position
gives her a title of the credit opened in the budget of the State, which the
Assembly maintains at 1,500,000 francs, the Commission desires to express
to you their satisfaction with the zeal and intelligence of the agents of all
grades with a view to their encouragement, and ask of you to adopt a
resolution in the following terms :-^
" Considering (1) that the regeneration of the mountains by rehoisement and
gazonnement is for the valleys of the department a vital question, affecting and
determining their very being ; and that this measure affects beyond this the
general interest, as seen from a point of view higher and vaster still than that,
which is already so important, of the inundations in the lower regions of
the rivers ; (2) that the works executed in the first decade, provided for
by the law of 28th July 1860, present at this moment results which one
could scarcely have dared to expect in regard to the protection of the roads,
as well as in regard to the extinction of torrents ; that these works, con-
centered very properly during the first period of trial on a surface which,
318 LOCAL FEELING AND PUBLIC OPINION
relatively to the state of ruin in which the greater part of the high moun-
tains find themselves, was somewhat restricted, ought from this time
forward to receive great extension, in order to the protection of almost all
the valleys menaced; (3) That the department of the Lower Alps is, beyond
contradiction, one of those most devastated by torrents, the ravages of
which are increasing every year, in consequence of the denudation of the
unstable soil on the enormous slopes of the high mountains ; (4) that,
despite its public resources, the department has never ceased to take part
in the work undertaken, and has constantly supplied an important
subvention."
The General Conseil, wishing to give anew a testimony of sympathetic
concurrence with the service de reboisement, granted for the operations of
1870 a sum of 2500 francs, and passed the following resolutions : —
" 1. That the credits to be opened, in continuation or renewal of
those granted in accordance with Art. 14 of the law of 28th July 1860, and
6th June 1864, be voted for a new period of ten years. That these credits
be raised to a greater amount, and one more conformed to the importance
now established of the results to be obtained, and already obtained, from
those useful works.
'* 2. That indemnities to be granted for temporary deprivation of pasturage
be largely allowed to the communes which shall demand them, in such a
way as to give entire satisfaction to the interests injured.
*•' 3. That the State purchase the wooded lands which may come to be
alienated by communes, wherever the acquisition of these may be made to
come in aid of the work of reboisement.
" 4. That to the service de reboisement et gazonnement be granted credits
sufficient to ensure the prompt execution and large development of the
works pertaining to this useful service.
" The Conseil, unanimously adopting the flattering words of the spokesman
for the agents of reboisement^ and the resolution which he submits to the
assembly, carries those resolutions by acclamation."
These recent testimonies, says M. C6zanne, writing in 1872, are of high
import; they demonstrate the true and deep interest attaching to this work,
since at a very recent day, after the terrible events which have sown our
soil with such ruins, the population calls instantly for the immediate
resumption of the fruitful works of the Forest Administration, and enable
us to form an opinion in regard to what were originally and what are now
the feelings of the population in the localities interested in these operations.
This signal conversion may be attributed, without doubt, to the character
of the work itself; but the prudent and judicious conduct of the Forest
Administration, its increasing regard to local interests, and the good wages
which it has caused to be paid in the villages, have contributed largely to
this success. And he remarks, that the Forest Administration has always
had the honour and the happiness to bo directed by eminent men devoted
to the public good.
After MM. Forcado do la Roquette and Vicaire, M. Far6, struck with the
importance of this question of reboisement, and the magnitude of the benefit
it might effect, devoted himself with zeal to the work ; and in the most
remote gorges of the Alps the peasants have seen him, as Director-General,
studying the sores of the mountain, and prescribing the remedy.
M. Far6, in closing his report of operations in 1867 and 1868, remarks, —
" If the experience acquired by a practice of nearly ten years' continuance
IN RBGARD TO RBB0I8EMENT. 319
has made us acquainted with difficulties of which no suspicion was enter-
tained at the outset, it has also caused many fears to disappear.
" The populations, formerly hostile, now examine and discuss our works,
the progress of which they have followed with marked interest. The inter-
vention of the Administration is in general accepted without resistance,
even by those whose habits of life have to submit to a temporary violent
restraint.
*' The special commissions called to give advice on the projects almost
always approve them, which testifies to the good spirit by which are
animated the forest agents charged with the preparation of them.
" But the task so difficult which the Forest Admistration then undertook,
when everything had to be created in connection with rehoisement — agents,
science, and means of accomplishing it — would have been impracticable but
for the enlightened and devoted support of the General Conseils.
" Not only have these assemblies examined with lively interest, and sup-
ported by their advice the projects which have been submitted to them, but
what is more, a great many of them have given their co-operation in the
work of rehoisement. The money voted by them for this purpose amounted
in 1868 to 62,600 francs, and in 1867 to 67,U4 francs 77 cents. These
sums may be small in comparison with the whole expense incurred, but
they acquire no small importance from the terms in which they have been
voted."
And a similar appreciation of the importance of the work has been
manifested in the National Assembly. The late wars interrupted operations,
and entailed a reduction in the pecuniary provision for the prosecution of
the works, as the resumption of operations. But confidence in the work was
undiminished.
In the National Assembly, at the sederunt of 27th June 1871, M. Eugene
Tallon, deputy of Puy-de-D6m6, laid on the table, in name of a sub-
commission of agricultural works, a report treating specially of the Regene-
ration des Montagnes undertaken in execution of the laws of 1860 and 1864.
It related more particularly to the regions of the central plateau of France.
The following is the conclusion of the report —
'' FiEST Peopositiox, Rhision of the Laiv of 28th July 1860.
" The Commission, determined by the considerations which have been
stated, submit the recommendation that in the renewal of the law of 28th
July 1860 there should be introduced into it the following modifications : —
"1. To suppress compulsory rehoisevient, or le rehoisement ohligatoire, on
communal lands or lauds belonging to private parties, and only to admit it
exceptionally on communal lands in virtue of a decision of the General
Conseil, given after investigation, and on advice of the municipal conseils
of the communes interested.
** 2. To maintain the grants of subvention, in money or in kind, and of
indemnities for the benefit of communes and of private proprietors who
shall consent to submit their lands to the Forest regime.
" 3. To give priority to works oi gazonnementj and to carry out these every-
where where it shall be possible to do so.
" 4. To modify the composition of the commissions charged with determin-
ing the perim^tres of the lands for which subventions are granted ; to leave to
General Conseils the choice of members of these commissions, which shall
be principally composed of agriculturists ; and in the case of communal
320 POSITION AND PROSPECTS OF THE ENTERPRISE.
lands, to submit, after previous formal inquiry, to General Conseils for
approval the fixing of p^rim^tres.
"5. To raise the amount of subventions, and to transform them in part
into reductions on the entire amount of imposts in favour of proprietors of
wooded lands.
" 6. To insure the direct payment of indemnities for pasturage to the
dispossessed parties using these, by payments made to each of these according
to the return of personal estate prepared by the Forest Administration and
approved by the General Conseils.
" Second Proposition, Modification of the Budget sid>mitted.
" To maintain in the budget a credit of 3,500,000 francs, allotted for
works of forest roads, boisement, and gazonnement.
" Third Proposition, Modification of the Ministerial Organisation.
" To transfer the general direction of the forests from the Ministry of
Finance to the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce.
" To transfer in consequence to the Ministry of Agriculture the credits
connected with the General Direction of Forests relating to them.
" Such are the reforms which a careful study of the legislation, combined
with an equal solicitude for the general interest of the country and respect
for private property, have determined the Commission on Public Works to
submit to the National Assembly.
*' The first proposition will be presented as a parliamentary initiation.
We express the desire that ere long it will take the form of a law which will
give legitimate satisfaction to the protests of the populations interested.
" With regard to the two other propositions, we ask at present that
they be transmitted to the special commissions on the organisation of the
public service and on budgets." And it was ordered accordingly.
Such proceedings in General Conseils and in the National Assembly may
be considered a fair indication of public opinion in regard to the enterprise,
and indicative of its being in accordance with the conclusions to which
those more immediately afi'ected by these operations, which were being carried
on or had been completed, had been brought by what they had seen and
experienced of the results.
Chap. VII. — Present Position and Prospects of the Enterprise.
It has been intimated above that a chapter of the history of this enter-
prise was closed with the commencement of the war in 1870. By the
present position and prospects of the enterprise I understand the state of
the enterprise in which operations have been resumed after the interruption
thereby occasioned.
The monographs in regard to different p6rim6tres in different depart-
ments of each of the three regions in which the more important of the
operations have been carried on, which have been given, may suffice to give
a definite idea of the state of the works. The proceedings of General Con-
seils and of the National Assembly, and the statement by M. C6zannc which
have been cited in the latter part of the preceding chapter, show tho spirit
in wliich the work has been resumed.
The enterprise is great, and it lias been resumed witli crippled means, but
not with less sanguine expectations of success. Of the magnitude of the
rORlTION AND rROSPP^OTS OP THE ENTERPRISE. 821
evil against which they arc contending some idea may be formed from
accounts which have appeared in English journals of inundations which
have in the course of the current year occasioned great loss of life and pro-
perty in France.
As the men engaged are mainly engaged in attacking the evil at its
source, their reports relate chiefly to the evil as it presents itself in the
mountains and in the underlying valleys, or on the verge of the plain upon
which they debouche, undermining fields and covering fertile fields with the
detritus, undermining houses and covering the sites of villages at a lower
elevation with the debris ; but the evil stops not there, and in such inunda-
tions as have been referred to tlie evil is seen in another form. These
inundations, it is reported, surpass any which have occurred since the
operations of reboisement and gazonnement were commenced, and they have
been spoken of at the meeting of the British Association for the advancement
of science, held this year at Bristol, as supplying evidence that these opera-
tions have been proved to have been in vain. It is not thus that they are
looked upon by those who are conversant with what has been effected. It
has been stated that from the first, 140 years was the time reckoned neces-
sary for the accomplishment of the work, and of these only fourteen, or a
tenth of the whole, have yet passed ; and though the most urgent cases
were attended to first, it may be assumed that not much more than a tithe
of the work has been executed, leaving all in confident expectation of " a
good time coming."
Such has been the expectation of those engaged in the work from the
first, and such it still is. With M. Surell the future was a tabula rasa.
Of what would be he had while prosecuting his study no indication ; but
he saw what would be, if things were left to themselves, and he saw what
might be, if his suggestions were followed up by others carrying out in
practice what with him, situated as he was, could only be words, and
counsels, and warnings, and admonitions, and entreaties, — " Leaves, nothing
but leaves ! "
Of what might be he then wrote thus : " It would be easy to draw a
fascinating sketch by combining in one picture the numberless benefits
which would flow from the execution of these works. We should have the
Department of the Alps brought back as from the gi-ave, her features
entirely renovated, and prosperity succeeding everywhere to desolations and
ruins, these fearful beds of dejection concealed under waving harvests, and
majestic woods hanging on these revers which are to-day crumbling and
emaciated. We should have the mountains in three zones, rising one above
another to different heights, the various products of which would be for the
country a triple source of wealth : the lower zone, comprising the valleys
and the brows of the lower mountains, would be reserved exclusively for
cultivation ; higher, where the slopes begin to be steeper, the ungrateful
soil and the cold air would display a girdle of thick mountains, which would
follow the undulations of the chain rising upward towards the crests ; and
there, in fine, would commence the pastoral meadows, undulating plateaux
carpeted with green sward, where numberless flocks and herds had now be-
come innocuous. The forests grown thus on the most mobile portions of the
mountains, between the cultivated ground of the base and the impending
rocks of the summit, would serve as boulevards to the valleys, and would
protect them against the fall of the upper portions. The inhabitants would
enjoy at one and the same time the advantage of cultivated fields, of forests,
2p
322 rOSlTloN AND PUOSPKCTS OF THE ENTERPRISE.
and of flocks. Each of these products, wisely confined to the region which
suits it, would leave a free field to the adjoining product. The flocks would
no longer trespass on the cultivated fields, nor the cultivated fields encroach
upon the forests ; and the territory, thus utilised in its various parts, would
yield all it can yield.
" Without speaking of the happy change which these new forests might
introduce into the climate, might we not reckon, on good grounds, on the
reappearance of a great number of springs which the felling of the woods
have caused to dry up, and which the restoration of these would most
probably bring to light again. These springs would spread around them
fertility and freshness ; whilst the waters of the torrents, become tranquil,
would furnish to agriculture fertilising slime and moisture in abundance,
to industrial works force of inexhaustible power, which doubtless w^ould then
excite astonishment that it was allowed so long to run to waste without
benefit to man.
" The destruction of torrents and of ravines, and the general stability
of the ground, would allow of good district roads being opened at little
expense. These roads, at present expensive and constantly torn up,
rendered more solid and increased in number, would carry life into the
deepest recesses of the mountains. They would even facilitate in many
quarters the working of lands which the inconvenience of communication
often renders difficult, and sometimes impracticable.
" Then, also, there would be nothing to hinder the multiplication, at little
expense, of works of irrigation. At present one cannot resort to these im-
portant works without trembling on account of the difiiculties, sometimes
insurmountable, presented by the courses of torrents ; and when at last
these obstacles are overcome, one sees rise given to new difficulties through
the extreme want of cohesion in the soil. The storms, in carrying away the
ground, cut up the channels ; the friable revers across which it flows allow
the water to filter away until they dry up ; and the crumbling down of the
grounds fills up the canals. These difficulties experienced in the construction,
in the cleaning, and in the maintenance of them, are such that they have
often occasioned a recoil from the execution of canals likely to be most
useful. From the day that these drawbacks shall be taken away these
works will no longer present any difficulty, nor will they be of costly
execution, and they might be easily spread over all parts of the territory.
" Easy communications, combined with the presence of forests, of water-
courses, and of mineral riches which are shut up in the bowels of the
mountains, will attract thither industrial operations which hitherto have
never found there a home. This will give employment during the winter,
and will retain there the population which generally deserts the country at
that time of year. On the other hand, the increase of the products of the
soil, in diff'using here more case, will relieve the inhabitants from the
necessity of seeking a livelihood elsewhere. Thus will come to an end the
wretched custom of emigration, which disperses fixmilics from their domestic
hearths, and condemns them to an unpleasant wandering and solitary life.
"The State, in this transformation, will have seen lier roads improved,
the maintenance of thein becorao more easy and more perfect, and their
creation more economical ; there will be gained a very extensive area of
taxable lands, and of fine forests in i)roximity to its harbours. In fine, the
Treasury will reap that increase of revenue which always follows the pro-
sperity and numerical increase of population."
POSITION AND PROSPECTS OP THK ENTERPRI8K. ^2:^
And with loving fervour he pleads with eloquence the cause of the Higii-
lander as the cause of the community, showing that if one member suft'ers
the whole body suffers with it. The results have justified his anticipations.
" Lo ! former scenes, predicted once,
Conspicuous rise to view ;
And future scenes, predicted now,
Shall be accomplish'd too."
Everywhere, so far as it is known to me, the results obtained have been
such as to warrant the victors to prepare even now to raise the shout of
triumph. Meanwhile they are labouring to complete and to perfect their
work ; but, looking on the future in the light of the present, they foresee
what is coming, and rejoice in all the confidence of hope.
M. Cezanne, in concluding his sequel to the treatise of Surell, writes : —
'' In fine, an epoch of reparation begins, and, thanks to the labours of the
eminent authors whose names have been presented to us in the preceding
pages, the coming generation may hope to see the definitive decline of the
torrential era."
And writing of the present, after describing the formation of lines of
plantations on the terrace-like banks of herges vives, or herges vivants, and
speaking of the astonishment of visitors on seeing, pointing heavenward,
the verdant shoots of the elm, the maple, and the acacia, growing on the
dry schists, and of the walnut and the oak on the dry and solid buttresses,
while the alder, the poplar, the ash, the osier, and the white willow of the
Alps grow on the more moist depths of the ravines, he goes on to say : " These
works, so ingenious in their very simplicity, form a network of horizontal
lines, like to the alleys of a garden. The green edgings and linings develope
themselves amongs the innumerable sinuosities of the Combes, embracing,
from the rocky bed of the torrents to the very summit of the mountain
crests, those ravines which were but lately inaccessible, and presented an
aspect full of horror.
" One on seeing what has been done understands immediately how such a
combination should be effectual ; eveiy liquid molecule, so to speak, is
seized individually, the thin sheet of water flowing downwards is retarded
in its course by a thousand thirsty little plants, by the lines of cultivated
herbage, and by the hedges of shrubs and trees ; it is compelled to tariy
for a little on each terrace to slake the thirst of the gTound, and when it
reaches the lower end of a furrow it spreads itself out on the flattened bed
there prepared for it, stopped at every barrage, it loses its vital force on eveiy
hand, and finally, from resting-place to resting-place, and from descent to
descent, it an-ives, after a thousand retardations, and still limpid, in the
channel which conveys it on to the river."
" 'The violence of torrents is occasioned by the combination of an infinitude
of elements infinitely minute, and the system of extinction consists in ex-
tinguishing each of these elements without neglecting one ; it is an accumu-
lation of infinitesimal littles. The secondary ravines are blocked, the
minute ramifications are intercepted, the lesser flanks are filled up ; and,
finally, there are spread over the smface of the soil, in order completely to
diffuse them, the innumerable thread lets, divided and subdivided, like the
fibres of a root, which are manifestly the root of the evil.'
" These are the statements of Surell. But there is one of the precepts of
the master which it is right it should be known has not been carried out,
and the visitor who sees so many precautions taken against drought, who
324 POSITION AND PROSPECTS OF THE ENTERPRISE.
hears the workmen and the foremen crying out for rain as their most
efficient helper, may be astonished to see in the bed of the torrent a
stream of water going to lose itself in the river without any one attempting
to use it for irrigation. And yet amongst these terraces, some formed with
a gentle slope might have been formed, at little expense, into irrigating
runnels. It seems that the difficulties experienced in fixing the moist
parts of hills have inspired exaggerated dread of the accidents which water
might produce, and the local inconvenience has caused to be forgotten the
more general and more important advantages referred to. It is, however,
necessary to guard against prejudging in a question of such delicacy : ex-
perience alone can decide whether the irrigation of hills be advantageous or
hurtful, and therefore it is matter of regret that that experience has not
been catechised on this point of primary importance in any of the p^ri-
m^tres."
At the end of 1869 there had been spent upon the High Alps alone
1,074,136 francs 57 centimes, more than a tenth of the 10,500,000 francs
allotted for the whole work. So large share of the funds at command
having been allocated by the Administration for works in this department
shows how serious the evil had become in that district. The total area of
the surface given up to the Administration in the High Alps amounts to
85,962 hectares, spread over 13 perimetres ; 16,903 hectares have given
occasion for works of restoration, hoisemeiit, oy gazonnement ; 13,460 hectares
have been only interdicted to flocks and left to a natural gazonnement.
Now, over against the expense incurred must be set the benefits which
have thence resulted. But with the feeling that these are considerable, it is
difficult, says M. Cezanne, to represent thern in figures.
M. Gentil, ingenieur en chef des 2^onts et chcmssees in the High Alps, writes :
— '' The aspect of the mountain has been suddenly changed ; the soil has
acquired such stability that the violent storms of rain in 1868, which have
brought such disasters on the High Alps, have been innocuous on the
regenerated p^rird^tres.
" The mountain has in a short time become productive ; there, where a
sheep could scarcely live destroying all, are now to be seen an abundant
herbage fit for the scythe.
" This mode of mise en valeur — one may say, of culture — is remarkable
in this, that it furnishes to the population the very thing which they need,
and furnishes this to them with little delay. The population of the High
Alps are essentially a pastoral people; what is required by them is provision
for the support of flocks ; this they find in these p6rim6trcs — be it in the
herbage which shall be mown — be it in the leaves of the ash trees and the
elm trees planted on the levelled terraces ; and further, the acacia will
yield soon wood which will be employed in the culture of the vine.
"M. Sequinard has sought above all, in the creation of vegetation, to
satisfy the actual and immediate wants of the inhabitants ; in acting so, ho
has secured the concurrence and support of the populations, who can very
well comprehend that, in a not distant future, they will find, thanks to the
Forest Administration, important and more abundant resources for tho
feeding of cattle. These populations were, on the contrary, openly hostile
when they feared they might have to submit indefinitely to 'the prohibition
of depasturing, in a remote hope of forests which might be enjoyed by some
future generation, and these forests tho growth of which was considered very
POSITION AND PROSPECTS OF THE ENTERPRISE. 325
uncertain, and very problematical — and not unreasonably so, for the
attempts to rear them made previously had all proved abortive.
'* In running over the p6rim6tros in course of restoration, it mny be seen
how much the soil has been changed for the better, and consolidated ; one
may, without being accused of entertaining Utopian dreams, foresee that soon
some portions may be brought under cultivation, and brought by attention
and irrigation into the condition of natural meadows.
'' In consequence of the consolidation of the soil, and of vegetation, the
torrential characters so well described by M. Surell have disappeared. The
waters, even in time of rain, are less terrible, and are better fitted for use in
irrigation. This has been testified by all the proprietors who make use of
the waters of torrents in the irrigation of their lands.
" There are no longer sudden and violent floods ; and the waters on
reaching the cones of dejection are no longer charged with solid materials,
and they naturally dig out for themselves a passage through these deposits.
In taking up and carrying further the materials brought there, they un-
cover stones of great size, and these form a fixed and solid bed. The
shiftings of the bed of the current are less formidable, and less dangerous ;
and at little expense the proprietors of lands on the banks can protect their
property from injurious eff'ects of these.
" But it is befitting that I should give cases and figures. I shall, there-
fore, cite definite facts which relate to our roads, or to our undertakings.
" At Sainte-Marthe [as has been stated by others] thei^e was discussed, in
1861-1862, a proposed erection of a dike on the cone of dejection on the
left bank of the torrent. This dike, estimated to cost about 40,000 francs,
had as its design to protect the imperial road No. 94 and the properties on
the river bank against invasion by the torrent. These works would have
been in reality but a temporary remedy ; the dike would have been, after
some years, buried under the dejections of the torrent. To-day, the torrent
of Sainte-Marthe is completely extinguished ; nothing now comes down
from the mountain. The 2^T02)rietors and the engineers no longer think about
dikes ; simple fencing ivalls sii-ffice to protect the lands on the river hank.
" The torrent of Pals, in the commune of Rizoul, traversed the depart-
mental road No. 4, and the imperial road No. 94. In 1865, I brought
under discussion a project of works to enclose this torrent with dikes, to fix
the bed of it thus, and to conduct it in a straight line to Guil, thus avoiding
the imperial road No. 94 — it would have cost at least 25,000 francs. Since
that time the basin of reception has been restored and consolidated, the
torrent is extinct, the change of bed has become unnecessary, it is only
requisite now to construct on road No. 94 an aqueduct for the passage of
the waters of the Pals ; a work costing 1000 francs has sufiiced here when
there was being anticipated an expense of more than 25,000 francs.
" The torrent of Rioubourdoux, near Savines, was one of excessive
violence ; it carried away a great deal of material, and the establishment
of a bridge for the passage of the imperial road No. 94 was considered as a
difficult and dubious undertaking ; the passage of the cone of Rioubourdoux
was also an uncovered one, interrupted at every rain and every storm.
The Forest Administration has mis en defends the basin of reception, and
has commenced works of consolidation. The regime of the torrent has
been modified ; it has been possible, without very great expense, to fix
definitively the bed upon the cone, and to construct a bridge. The waters
no longer bring down material from the mountain.
326 POSITION AND PROSPECTS OF THE ENTERPRISE.
" The expense of the construction of the road, of the fixation of the bed
by dikes, and of the creation of a bridge, has been about 40,000 francs ;
the enquiries made formerly led to the estimate of the expense of the works
to be 60,000 francs. The change in the regime of the torrent has rendered
jyracticable the execution of definitive ivorks, and, moreover, has cdloioed these
ivorl's to he executed at less expense.
" These three cases specially concern our roads ; they are the only ones I
can specify, giving details and figures. The other perimfetres operated on
by the Forest Administration are distant from roads, and do not relate to
these so particularly, consequently I cannot give figures, but I have not the
shadow of a doubt that they have had analogous results.
" Be that as it may, the cases I have cited are in my opinion very
striking, and suppl}" one means of measuring the advantages gained. As
for the advantages by which lands situated near to the cones profit, these
are immense. Not only are the proprietors relieved from the construction
of expensive, and, at best, precarious dikes and embankments, but their
property, having no longer the risk of being suddenly buried under gravel,
takes a definite value, and cultivation is carried on with the assured hope
of being followed by a harvest. This security is itself a very great benefit ;
the proprietor, counting on the futui-e, will not dream of expatriating him-
self, as numbers have done.
" The successive extinction of the great torrents which threw themselves
upon the principal valleys will lead, inevitably, to a marked amelioration in
the regime of those water-courses, and this amelioration will extend to a
lower level of the river's course.
" It appears to be established, or at least it is the opinion of the inhabi-
tants, that the waters coming from the restored p^rimetres are less subject
to sudden variations in their delivery, and channels of irrigation connected
with them are fed in a more regular manner. It appears to me to be both
natural and probable that it should be so ; but I cannot in regard to this
give any definite numbers. I cannot adduce any experiment, or conclusive
and testing observation. I confine myself to repeating what has been told
to me, and what I believe to be true.
" At the close of 1867, for 81,012 hectares which had been restored and con-
solidated, M. Sequinard estimated the expense to have been 4,113,000 francs.
These figures are taken from the Annuaire des Hcmtes-Alpes for 1869. The
mean expense, then, would be about 50 francs per hectare ; but I always
make this reservation, that the expense varies very much with the p6ri-
jn^tres — in some it rises as high as 100 francs, in others it falls so low as
30 francs per hectare ; this depends on the nature of the soil, on the state
of dcsintegration, &c., &c.
" In the High Alps the total area to be restored is about 200,000 hect.
(that is I believe the number given in 1840 by M. Surcll); the expense for the
whole department, then, will be 10 millions at the most, and 8 millions at
the least — taking the above stated mean, and taking into account that the
works will cost in the futui-e, by reason of the experience acquired, less
than was provided at the commencement of the operation.
" In 1840 M. Surell estimated the whole expense at 6 millions (100,000
francs per annum for sixty years). The difference is accounted for if it be
considered that, within these thirty years, labour has become more scarce
and higher priced.
" I ou"ht to mention, in fine, that the system adopted by M. Sequinard
POSITION AND rRt)SriX'TS OF THK KN TKHriUSK. 327
<nvcs, after some years, appreciable products which it would be right to take
futo account. These successive benefits will be considerable ; and they
would have no existence if it were arranged to create only forests, and
plantations of forest trees.
" The expenditure of 8 or 10 millions may appear to be enormous ; but I
do not believe it to be out of proportion with the results. M. SurcU has
demonstrated this most explicitly ; and I have nothing to add to what he
has said. But one may go a little further ; I am certain that in five years
the perimetres, by their herbage and their wood, will yield revenues which,
added to the savings, and the benefits resulting from the transformation of
the regime of the torrents and of the water-courses, will cover by far the
greater part of the expense of restoration."
Thus far, M. Gentil. M. Cezanne adds, — " After such testimony it is not
left open to us to doubt that the operation is good, for it seems to satisfy
everybody — the Administration, the professional men employed, and the
populations." In another connection he remarks that — " The object and
design of the enterprise was not, what has been called for by some students
of forest science, to carry out reboisemenfs everywhere, and to re-establish
the ancient forest domains of France ; but the enterprise was confined to a
measure to curb and master torrential rivers, and thus protect at once the
mountains which these were attacking, and the plains which they were
devastating by inundations.
" The mountains in general, and in particular those of the High Alps,
are essentially pastoral lands ; flocks are the sole source of wealth for the
inhabitants — they are the life of the country ; the pasturage required to be
extended, not curtailed. Such were the views of M. Surell. And on the
same mountains, gazonnement has been carried out in some situations, and
rehoisement or hoisement in others.
'' The planting of woods promises a return at a period too remote to
allow of its being required of the existing generation, excepting in places in
which it is indispensable as a means of retaining the soil, and of allowing
the ulterior development of the turf; and the arrangements made by the
law of 1860 spread the work of rthoisement over a period of somewhere
about 140 years."
A reduced expenditure may, if not counteracted by an enlarged expendi-
ture, in more favourable circumstances, necessitate a prolongation of time
for the completion of the enterprise. In eveiy other respect the prospects
of the futui'e are as bright as ever.
328 CONCLUSION.
CONCLUSION.
It has been my desire and my endeavour, in preparing the statements
contained in the preceding pages, to supply such information as might enable
any student of hj^draulic engineering or of forest science to form an intelligent
idea of what has been done in France in carrying out works of rehoisement
and gazonnement, with a view to arresting and preventing the destructive
consequences and effects of torrents, and of the consequences and results
which have followed, and, in conclusion, I submit for the consideration of
any who may inhabit lands exposed to ravages of torrential floods, whether
like measures in like circumstances be likely to produce like effects. It
might be as imprudent to apply to some one case exactly the same measures
which have proved successful in someone or other of the cases which havebeen
brought under consideration as it would be for a nurse to follow in every
case in which her services might be required precisely the same course of
treatment which she saw followed with success in some one case for
which prescriptions and directions were given by a physician of renown.
Better do so, perhaps, than disregard altogether what she may then have
seen ; but it holds good in medicine as well as in law that the case being
altered that alters the case, and it holds good in the treatment of torrential
floods by o^ehoisement, as well as in medicine, that each particular case de-
mands particular consideration and a particular application of the general
principles to be followed in its treatment. We have found it laid down in
the treatises which we have laid under contribution that not only each
torrent but each affluent requires to be specially studied and to be specially
treated.
To distinguish things which differ is as necessary as to perceive the
analogies in which things agree. A rash generalisation, extending the
joroccss of induction — or what seems to be such — beyond the facts ascer-
tained, is to be deprecated ; but it is otherwise with deduction from what
is actually ascertained, and I speak advisedly when I say, that a prompt
and judicious application of measures which may be suggested by what has
been accomplished by rehoisement and gazonnement, in combination with
barrages, in France, might prevent much destruction of property and of life.
While the preceding pages have been passing through the press there
has occurred in France one of those periodical inundations which it is
sought to prevent, and which present a form of the evil with which the
inhabitants of newly-settled lands — for whom more especially I write — are
more familiar than they are with the form of the evil for which rehoisement
and gazonnement were previously employed as remedial measures ; and it
may be that to some of them, as to otliers, it may ap])car that this is an
indication that the measures have failed to produce the cliect that was
anticipated, and for which they have been employed ; and I feel as if my
work would be incomplete if I passed over this view of the case in silence.
There have been many inundations in France — as there have been else-
INUNDATION OP VALLEY OP GARRONNB. 329
where — in the course of th's year ; but the reference is to the inundation *
in the valley of the Garonne, which proved destructive to life and property
in many a town and village, and that to such an extent in and around
Toulouse as to awaken a tin-ill o" sympathy throughout the civilised world.
This inundation was attributed to a late fall of snow on the Pyrenees and
on the Cevennes having been followed by a long-continued heavy fall of
rain, and a warm westerly wind, which melted both the newly-fallen snow
and much which was lying there, and thus added to the rainfall what by
itself might have produced a torrential flood.
Great damage was done not only along the lower-lying lauds through
which the water flowed off" to the sea, but also in the high-lying lands on
which the flood originated.
In the Pyrenees the flood may be traced from Bagn^res de Bigorre down-
wards to the sea by the ravages of its waters. This town is in the region of
Bareges and the Breche de Roland, and the Pic-du-3Iidi. It has been
famous as a watering-place since the days of the Caesars. Twenty-seven
public springs bubble up within view of the town, one of which is so copious
as to turn a mill-wheel. From all of these the hot water rushes with force,
and there are lesser springs which supply baths in many of the houses.
As a place which is well known it supplies a good starting-point for our study.
Much of the water resulting from the fall of rain and the melting of the
snow in that region was carried ofi" by the Adour, which empties itself into
the sea at Bayonne. At Tarbes a large artillery foundry suff'ered much
from the inundation occasioned by the overflow of this river, and valuable
machinery for boring guns is said to have been hopelessly destroyed. There
and at other pKces along the channel of this river houses were undermined or
overthrown, and all growing crops were destroyed. Three villages close to the
railway from Tarbes to Toulouse — viz., Roques, Anterive, and Pinsanguel —
were reported to be literally annihilated. At Sarginnet all the houses were
inundated, several fields were washed away, and the bridge was demolished.
But more of the water produced by the rainfall and the melting of the
snow seems to have flowed away by the Garonne, which rises a little further
to the east, and following a much more lengthened course, flowing past
Bordeaux, is lost in the Gironde ere it reaches the sea ; and still more,
perhaps, was carried away by the Arri^ge, an affluent of the Garonne, rising
still further to the east : the Oriege (aurifera) as it was anciently called, on
account of the gold found in the detritus chiefly between Campiegnac andFoix,
the chief town of the department to which the same name has been given.
At Muret, on the Garonne, situated a little above the confluence of that
river and the Am^ge, the destruction of property was great. The suspension-
bridge was destroyed, and many houses wrecked. At Moulis, on the Tarn
and Garonne, the church fell. At Golfech only four houses and the church
were left standing. At Lamagistere many houses fell, and the bridge was
carried away.
At Verdun, on the Arriege, fifty houses were destroyed, and eighty lives
were lost, besides 500 head of cattle. Numerous are the notices of whole
villages having been washed away — or of one, or five, or twelve, or some
similar number of houses alone standing, and showing what was the site of
the village, while numerous bodies have been found.
At St Lizier three-fourths of the town were under water.
At Foix, with its picturesque castle, perched upon a rock, and charac-
terised by a lofty donjon tower, the destruction was considerable.
2(j
330 CONCLUSION.
But at Toulouse, situated below the confluence of these two rivers, the
destruction of life and property was such as to cause tha: to be scarcely
thought of, and it is with the name of this city that the inurdation has
become associated throughout the world, wherever it has been beard of.
Toulouse, like many other important cities situated on the banks of a
large rive-, may be said to be composed of two towns. It was in one of
these, the Faubourg St Cyprien, tha J the flood created the greatest destruc-
tion of life and property.
In one of the first telegrams received in England it was stated ; — ^* The
St Cyprien quarter of Toulojse is a perfect sepulchre. 215 bodies have
already been found. The wafers exceeded the usual height by nine metres,
or 20 feet, and the flooded quarters were for a long time inaccessible on
account of the extreme violence of the torrent. Several persons who
endeavoured to save life, including the Marquis d'Hautpoul, perished in the
attempt. There are upwards of 20,000 persons in Toulouse deprived of
all means of subsistence. The railway traffic around the town is inter-
rupted. The disasters in other parts of the south are equally great." And
subsequent communications confirmed all that was thus reported.
The Paris correspondent of the Times gave the foUowing particulars of
the commencement and progTess of the flood at Toulouse : — " Up to Wed-
nesday nobody had any idea that, owing to the heavy rains of the previous
week, the Garonne would overflow its banks with such rapidity. On
Tuesday the river indeed was unusually high, and some slight damage was
e:ipected, such as usually happens in winter when the snow melts, but h^d
fnybody suggested precautions against disaster these would have been
deemed quite unnecessary. On Wadnesday, however, the prospect
changed; the river became a torrent, and by 10 a.m. it reached the level
of the flood of 1855. It continued to rise, and measures were takon with
desperate ardour to hem in the waters, but the attempt was too late. They
invaded all the low-lying quarters of the town, and at 2 p.m. two of the
arches of one of the bridges and twenty houses were swept away, and the
swimming baths and lavatories moored to the banks were hurried down the
stream, dashing against the houses alongside in their course. At 5 p.m.
the water rose over the parapets protecting the populous quarter of St
Cyprien. In an hour later it was ten feet deep. Boats were hastily got
out to rescue the inmates of the falling houses, but several of them were
carried away by the current and dashed to pieces or swamped. Two boats,
manned by eight soldiers, were dashed agaiiist each other, and sank in a
pool formed by the gardens of the Civil Hospital. Out of Jiirty persons
on board only one woman was saved. Several persons who tried to escape
from the quarter on the left bank on horseback were carried away by the
flood and perished. In the evening tbe whole quai jcr of St Cyprien was
cut off" from the rest of the town, the three bridges being carried away. All
Wednesday night were to be heard the crash of liouscs and the cries of the
victims. On Thursday morning the whole population was in the streets,
all classes? vying with one another in their cttbrts to rescue the victims.
The town presented a heartrending spectacle; 5000 to GOOO poor
creatures, half-naked, bruised, and benumbed, were conducted on foot or
carried in vehicles or on litters to the military hospital ; many of them were
women leading their children by the hand. ]iy the afternoon the waters
had fallen six feet in St Cyprien, but both above and below Toulouse they
INUNDATION OP TOULOUSE. 331
extended liko an immense lake, dotted with the bodies of human beings
and animals, and with articles of furniture, while roofs of houses and
trees here and there appeared above the flood. At 4 p.m. the clergy of
St Nicholas went in procession to the Church de la Daurade to supplicate
the Virgin for mercy, and services were going on all day in all the churches.
About 100 corpses were discovered on Thursday and Friday, and were
buried, after being photograjjhed, by their friends. One of the victims was
M. Wohlfart, a retired major, who had entered a house to save two children,
when the walls fell in and buried him. Bodies were discovered in many
instances in alleys and gardens. Five victims composing one family were
fou^d in a first-floor room locked in an agonizing embrace, Those who
had escaped were to be seen stationed at the entrance of their ruined
tenements, and giving information as to their fellow occupiers. In the
belfry of St Nicholas Church 60 persons took refuge. The flood reached
the altar table, and not far off" a clerical student was searching all day
among the ruins of a large house for his parents and sister, listening
intently for any sound of life. All the granaries on the banks of the
river are destroyed, and the entire quarter may be said to have disap-
peared, for all the houses still standing are damaged or tottering. The
new Carmelite Church was flooded, a lady who was confessing being
drowned, while the confessor efl'ected his escape. The girls at a convent
school were rescued on Thursday. They had passed a dreadful night, going
up from storey to storey as the flood rose, and passing the t'me in prayer,
expecting every moment to be their last. The bodies of four women
were found, each with an infant in her arms. Another woman was found
by her dog. In one room ten victims were found, two of whom were still
breathing, and received the last sacraments before expiring. The older
houses, on account of the greater solidity of their walls, off'ered the
greatest resistance to the flood, and those supported by the old fortifications
were not carried away. Large numbers of persons have applied at the
Mairie for food and shelter. The troops rendered great service, displaying
the greatest courage and daring, and they have been warmly thanked by
the Municipality. The villages round Toulouse have suff"ered considerably,
and several persons perished.
*' It is announced that at Toulouse alone, 900 persons have perished,
and the outbreak of an epidemic is feared. The loss of life will never be
precisely known, for the Garonne has carried away many bodies, aid some
have been recovered in the costume of districts 20 leagues distant from
Toulouse. It is believed that 600 houses have been swept away in the
town, and 2000 in the environs. 1200 soldiers are still engaged in clearing
away the ruins, and only a fifth of the inundated buildings will be saved.
Water for drinking was distributed yesterday in the town, which had had
none since Wednesday."
" Nothing else," says a letter from Paris in the Daily News, "is talked
about or thought of here save the floods. Politics are completely
suspended. The lowest estimate of deaths is now 2000, and t'le rapid
swollen Garonne carries away, unsuspected, many dead bodies to distant
parts. At Toulouse the river rose 15 feet higher than during the great
flood of 1855. Typhus fever is feared. A terrible military measure is
proposed to prevent accidents in the crumbling suburbs of St Cyprien,
— viz., the complete destruction of the district by bombardmant."
A special telgram from Toulouse in the Standard^ dated Sunday,
832 CONCLUSION.
contained the following : — " The Garonne has now enbsided almost as
rapidly as it rose, and on gazing on the scene of ruin and destruction
the waters disclosed as they receded, it is difficult to realise that such an
amount of destruction could have been the work of a few hours. Readers
will, however, be able to form some notion of the nature of the calamity
if they will understand that St Cjprien, the ravaged suburb, stands with
regard to Toulouse very much as Southwark does to London. The Garonne
runs between Toulouse and St Cyprien, and on three sides hems in St
Cyprien in its bend, every part of the suburb being considerably below
the normal level of the river, from which it is protected by embankments.
On Thursday last, after several days' heavy rain, and receiving an influx of
water beyond all precedent from the mountain streams that feed it, it rose
upwards of eight metres, swept away the two suspension bridges, and
bursting over the embankments on the south side, gradually laid the
whole of the place under water. Many of the houses, being lath and
plaster, speedily collapsed under the rush of the waters. For nearly ten
hours it was impossible to afford assistance to the sufferers, and 35,000
men, women, and children were clambering out of the way of the waters.
The greater number were eventually saved through the pluck of the
garrison and the heroism of a few civilians, who, like the Marquis d'Haut-
poul, fell victims to their zeal. It is not known, and cannot be for some
time to come, how many bodies may be lying under the debris of the
shattered houses. One of the local papers talks of 15,000 victims. It is
probable that that number, and more, of artizans have lost their little
all, but the dead bodies as yet recovered may be stated at 310. The
site of the catastrophe just now is a scene of desolation, but it is not
picturesque. The soil being clay you have to wade in the streets knee-
deep in water, while now and then a wall totters and falls to the ground.
Soldiers in fatigue dress are busy clearing the ruins, but it will be a long
operation, and there is a rumour that dynamite will be resorted to. A
Strong detachment is stationed at the only bridge left standing, and no one
is allowed to go over but male inhabitants of the suburb, who are working
in seas of mud to try and save some of their goods and chattels from the
wreck, and these are provided with a special permission. The body of the
Marquis d'Hautpool was recovered this morning, a few miles down the
river. His funeral at six o'clock this afternoon was attended by all the
local notabilities. Toulouse is just now crammed to overflowing. From all
parts of the neighbourhood people are flocking in to inquire for missing
relatives and friends."
The correspondent of the Gaulois, writing on the 26th, said, — " The
Garonne has this morning again taken its normal course, but has unfortun-
ately committed more ravages in re-entering its bed than in quitting it.
The ground has so sunk under the influence of the waters that the few
houses which had resisted the inundation crumbled to pieces like houses of
cards. The ground is everywhere overhiid with a coat of slime. One sees
only ruins. Where there was a house, there is now a pit ; where there was
a street, one finds a shapeless mass, composed of pieces of walls, chimney
pots, bales of merchandise, broken marbles, and rubbish of every descrip-
tion, in the midst of which are discovered every other instant human
remains — pieces of flesh and crushed limbs." The correspondent had seen
between two stones a man's head horribly disfigured, and a little farther oi\
an arm separated from the trunk, and half buried in the mud.
INUNDATION OP TOULOUSE. 533
The Dehais published a description of the aspect of Toulouse •when the
inundation was at its height. The inhabitants assembled on the quays and
on the stone bridge, looking helplessly on the scene of desolation, and
following with terrified eyes the work of destruction. Property of all sorts
was being swept away by the angry waves — piles of timber, carts, heavy
planks, &c., were hurled against the piers of the bridge. Half-an-hour after
the precaution had been taken to close the bridge of Saint Pierre it gave
way with a crash, and it was followed by the baths and large public wash-
houses of Tournay and St Pierre. At last, as if all the elements were com-
bining against the unfortunate town, the large rolling mills of Bezacle were
discovered to be in flames ; while another fire broke out at Port Garandin
in a house that was entirely cut off from any chance of succour. The
manufactories at Bezacle and in the Rue des Amidonnius were abondoned
on the water rushing into them, and were of course greatly damaged. On
the Quai de Tonnes the rise of the water was so rapid that many families
could only be rescued by means of the windows. The tug-boat stationed at
St Pierre was carried away by the force of the current, and was capsized.
Four or five persons were on board at the time, and as the vessel was borne
away they uttered cries of despair.
The special correspondent of the Times, writing from Toulouse on the
Monday night, thus described the devastation in Toulouse : — " Nothing can
present a greater contrast than the north and south sides of the river at
Toulouse — the one with its usual aspect undisturbed, and its inhabitants
pursuing their ordinary avocations ; the other, like a place which has been
bombarded. The Faubourg St Cyprien is, in fact, a town of itself, and is to
the upper part of Toulouse what the Surrey side of the Thames is to the
Middlesex shores. The quarter is densely peopled, or rather had 25,000
inhabitants, most of them of the working classes, though outside the town
walls are villas and cottages belonging to wealthier people. Through the
quarter ran avenues of trees, and around it were fields of corn and market
gardens. To describe what St Cyprien is now is almost impossible. It is
a town of ruins. The Garonne is now running in its natural bed, but all
over the inundated quarter are pools of water and rank river mud ; trees
are uprooted, gardens are mere swamps, and streets half-dried water-courses,
wnth here and there great cracks and yawning gaps. In some places the
houses are heaps of rubbish, in others the walls are left standing, with
pictures or articles of attire hanging on them. In one street through
which I passed only three houses were left standing, and this is probably
the case in a dozen other thoroughfares. Everywhere gangs of soldiers
were at work demolishing walls, collecting furniture, and making the roads
passable, while the owners of the ruins were, some helping with a resolute
fury, others sitting on beds and mattresses gazing vaguely at the rubbigh
which represents their homes. Some of the more energetic families were
picnicing and cooking their midday meals in the desolate gardens, the
women bright if not cheerful, the children playing about as if nothing bad
happened. The despondent were just the contrary, the women sitting with
their faces buried in their hands, and the boys and girls lying huddled
together among the broken beams and heaps of plaster. The roadsides were
lined with all kinds of articles, from four-post bedsteads down to blankets
and bonnets ; and in several places the small shopkeepers were drying, or
rather attempting to dry, in the sun their stock in trade. Outside the
barriers the scene is the same, with the addition of large swamps, which
334 CONCLUSION.
were once vineyards and cornfields, and of little piles of gaily-painted boards,
once forming portions of summer-houses. The town wall itself, a solid
line of concrete, has in one place been thrown down quite flat, end a little
farther on two gi'eat beams, at least 30 ft. long, have completely barred one
of the gateways. Nothing, however, shows the force of the flood so much
as the ruins of the suspension bridge. Nearly half the bridge itself has
been firmly and securely laid by the water on the bank, where, indeed, I at
fir3: mistook it for a landing stage. Only one bridge is now standing —
viz., the old stone one at St Pierre. Had it been carried away, the losses
oix the St Cyprien side would have been even more terrible than they were."
Beiow Toulouse, between that city and Agen, the Garonne receives the
waters of the Tarn, coming from the department of Loz6re and the. moun-
tains to the south, and along the course of this river there were similar
devastations. At Mount-Auban the water rose 40 inches above what it did
in 1835, which w^as the highest flood of the century, and all the farms
around were destroyed. At Moissac, near Mount-Auban, the destruc-
tion was fearful, and the river was found to have definitively forsaken its
former bed, and to flow four kilometres away in an ancient chanrel. Castel-
Sarrasin, between the Tarn and the Garonne, was gutted entirely, and the
number of victims was supposed to be about a hundred ; and similar were
the accounts which flowed in from all parts of the devastated region. Every-
where were dead bodies being found, or seen drifting down the stream.
Below Agen the Garonne receives the waters of the Lot, coming from the
northern part of Lozere, and the district between the Tarn and the Lot had
the same tale to tell.
At Bordeaux the river was not overflowed, but it brought down trees,
hay, animals, and several dead bodies. An incident more touching than
terrible occurred. An infant in a cradle, supposed to have come some dis-
tance, and £ outing down towards the sea, was saved.
Such was the inundation of the valley of the Garonne. I have spoken of
it as a form of the evil which it is sought to remedy with which the inhabi-
tants of newly-settled lands are more familiar than they are with the form
of the evil in the mountains for w^hicli rehoisement and gazonnement were
primarily employed as remedial measures. Illustrations crowd upon me.
I confine myself to a selection from those supplied by the history of the
Colony of the Cape of Good Hope, being with them well acquainted.
C-ptain Hall, in his Manual of SoiUh African Geography, says (p. 95), —
*' In G'^e':vt and Little Namaqualand, the Kalihari Desert, and the whole of
the rc^ioa situated on the southern slope of the Nieuwcvcld and Roggeveld
Mountains, whole years may elapse without the phenomenon of a running
stream, and yet the magnitude of the dry water-courses of the Bufi'alo,
Hartebcest, and Gup or Borradaile River, all tributaries of the Orange, show
how imn enso must be the torrents that sometimes sweep along them.
Tie writ: of this has seen the bed of the Great Fish River perfectly dry,
ard with'n twenty-four hours a torrent thirty feet deep and several hundred
feet wide was roaring through it. In February 1848 the Kat River sud-
denly rose upwards of fifty feet in the course of a few hours, sweeping
seventeen feet above the roadway of a stone bi'idgc at Fort Beaufort,
supposed to have been built high enough to leave a clear waterway to the
highest flood ever before remembered. The Gamtoos, Gauritz, and all the
other rivers draining the Karroo, arc also subject to very sudden rises,
SOUTH AFHIOAN FL00D8. 335
although generally but dry water channels. The periodical rains falling in
the mountains near its sources, between September and March, also swell
the Orange River to a great extent, ard large poi Lions of land along its
banks are then inundated."
In an official report which I made to the Government of the Colony in
1864, it is stated : — " I liave seen the Tarka, the Fish River, the Keiskam-
ma, and the Buffalo in their might. I have crossed the bed of the first-
mentioned in a box suspended from a rope stretching from trees on the
opjx)site banks, while the river torrent was tearing along below, twenty-two
feel deep, as ascertained by measurement, where forty-eight hours before the
depth was only eighteen inches. I have been told by a gentleman who had
given special attention to the subject, of the mean rise of a number of rivers
in the same district being twenty-eight feet ; I have been told by the same
gentleman of a maximum rise of sixty feet ; and I have gone over the
scene of devastation occasioned by the sudden rise of a river to a height of
seventy feet above its usual level."
The case referred to occurred in the vicinity of Hankey, on the Gamptoos
river and its affluent, the Klein Riviere, on the 1st of October, 1867 ; and
by the inundation thereby occasioned the promising village of that name,
one of the mo^t promising of the institutions for the conversion and civili-
zation of the natives of South Africa, was reduced to a heap of ruins. It
•was the residcxice of a people remarkable for their m^fortunes and for their
enterprise. In 1830 they formed a water-course several miles in length
over a very difficult country, for the purpose of leading out a small river
upon their garden ground. The work was twice completed and twice de-
stroyed by floods. A few years before the occurrence of this inundation a
still bolder scheme was projected and carried out with complete success by
the missionary, William Philip. Thi« was the excavation of a tunnel through
a hard sandstone ridge which separated a reach of the Gamptoos river itself
from a considerable extent of excellent ground near them, half surrounded
by one of its bends, through which a copious stream, with a fall sufficient :o
work machinery, as well as to irrigate the soil, had just begun to flow w4ien
their friend and guide was snatched from them in the prime of his life and
usefulness.
This tunnel I have visited — I know of no work of the kind in the
colony except itself; and I have learned that it subsequently received a
corresponding extension by the brother of the projector-, the missionary
now in charge of the station, w^ho, with the men on the station as workmen,
has carried the surplus supply from the tunnel under the river at a lower
point, and brought it up on the further side to irrigate lands lying below
the level whence the waters are obtained, but co ""siderably above the level
of the river there. In accordance with the energy manifested by this
people in the execution of such w'orks, and with bke perseverance, they had
continued to devote all the time and labou. they could spare from the
occupations by which they support their families to public improvments, to
buildings, and to the extension of cultivation in the shape of gardens and
cornfields, when this terrible flood again devastated their lands, destroyed
their dwellings, and I may say decimated their numbers.
The valley inundated, more than three-fourths of which are the grounds
of the Institution, is somewhat tortuous, bearing some resemblance in shape
to a letter S with the body disproportionately expanded, between four and
five miles in length, with an average breadth of above a mile. At its lower
336 CONCLUSION.
extremity is a kind of gorge through which the river passes. Here the
waiters rose, from inability to escape as rapidly as they came, partly ap-
parently in consequence of some stoppage occasioned by the retention and
accumulation of detritus and debris carried thither by the waters ; and the
rise of the waters inundated all the land above to the same height though
not to the same depth. It was during the night that it reached and over-
whelmed the village. The house of the missionary and the chapel stand
on an elevated ground overlooking the plain, where dwelt the people. The
missionary, Mr Durant Philip, brother of the enterprising projector and
executor of the tunnel, and a man of like energy, — both of them sons of Dr
Philip, who, aided and sustained by the co-operation of his wife, had spent
health and wealth in befriending the Hottentots in a time of need, — the
missionary, roused at dead of night by cries of alarm, was for a moment
paralysed, nonplussed, brought to a stand. Nothing could save but a boat,
but the moorino- of the boat was by the river's bank, a mile away, now
covered fathoms deep by the rising flood, and all was dark around. But he
was brought to a stand only for a moment. Something must be done, and
done at once. Was there nothing to be had 1 No, nothing but a soap box !
The soap box was emptied in a trice. It would make at least the skeleton
of a boat. Deals were found or were wrenched from the floor. But nails !
Nails there were none of the size required or none to be found ; but there
was a gross of screws. Well, these must suffice. But it is weary work and
slow to screw these home, and they must be driven home with blows. With
all that willing hands and heaving hearts, and learning and intelligence and
skill could do, it was nearly night again before the boat so built could be
laurched, and all the while one and another and another were perishing.
The editor of the South African Commercial Advertiser, John Fairbairn,
a man still held in reputation amongst the benefactors of South Africa , in
writino- of the suff'erers who, not many months before — at that time rising
by ind'ustry and economy above their previous trials — had contributed £25
for the relief of the destitute Scotch and Irish suff'ering from the failure of
the potatoi crop through disease, a sum considered, with regard to their
numbers and wealth, or rather poverty, a grateful sacrifice equal to the
most liberal efforts of the rich, says,—" The descriptions of this great
calamity set in a most aff'ecting light, not only the sufferings, but the
character of the 2^eople, many of the incidents being most honourable to
human nature, while they show the force and power of religion, which can
neither be extinguished by the tortures of life, nor overcome by the terrors
of death. Immersed in a raging flood that was rapidly thinning their
numbers, these poor people, for the space of nearly twenty hours, exhibited
the most touching proofs of filial piety, conjugal affection, and faithful
friendship, with hope triumphing in the very moment of dissolution ; nor
does there appear to have been a single instance of courage failing, or of
despair undermining virtue."
All that is thus alleged is borne out by a touching narrative by one of
the Hottentots, which not only tells of what he and others suffered, but
brings tlie whole scene vividly before one acquainted with the locaHty as
I am. The following is a translation of the narrative as given to Mr Philip :
" On Friday night William Landman and others came to warn me that I
should come away ; and i would have done so, but my mother being a heavy
woman I felt unable to carry her so far, and that too in a pouring rain.
The water had never been known to rise so high as the spot on which I
INUNIiAI'lON OK IIANKKV. IJI^T
was, though it had been surrounded, and so I remained. William Land-
man persuaded the wives of William Smit and Philip Marais, and their
sisters and youngest brothers, to accompany him, but the brothers laughed
at his warnings, and even opposed the departure of their wives and sisters.
I passed the night between asleep and awake, till I heard the water pouring
over the dam sluit, then 1 began to fear danger. I ran immediately to the
road, and I saw it was still possible to escape if I could only get assistance
in carrying over my wnfe and mother. J. Jacobs, whose house stood on the
other side, was just then leaving with his family. So I roused the Smits,
but they only got up and sat by the fire talking. Returning to my house,
I roused Lucas and urged him to come and attempt to cross ; but he
answered, — ' Where should we go in the dark 1 Let us wait till daylight.
Even in the great flood, in Mr Kitchingman's time, this knoll was never
covered w^ith water.' When I went the second time the road was impass-
able, and the water was coming on towards Smit's house. I roused the
young men with this information, and we soon found we were surrounded
on all sides. We dragged chests and other things to the knoll, and carried
some of the fire with us. There we stood (six women and ten men), gazing
speechless at it and at one another. Lucas never spoke another word ; but
I never allowed my heart to fail me. It soon reached us and rose above
our waists. I then bound up a mat for my wife, and told her to keep it
across under her chest, and she would be able to keep her head above water
till help came. I then took up my mother and held her in my arms till I
could hold her no longer. She was the first carried away. Then Lucas
drifted aw^ay from us and sank at once.
^' About this time the three Smit's swam off, each pushing a chest before
him to keep himself up. The boy Karl Baan went from one to another,
now holding his mother up as he saw her sinking, then his little sister,
until they all sank. I now saw a roof floating towards us and resolved to
reach it. My wife had drifted away while I was holding my mother up, and
she had got the mat under one arm, instead of across her chest, so that she
just turned over and over with it, till she was carried out of my sight among*
the thorn trees. I now tried to reach the roof, but my strength was quite
spent ere I was half way. I turned over then upon my back, resolved to
keep myself afloat, paddling with my hands and feet, to let it reach me.
When I felt my chest recovered and my arms rested, I turned again upon
my face and found that the roof was within two strokes of me. L reached
it, but felt my legs so benumbed that I could not bend them to climb on
to it, and drawing myself up with my arms I writhed up my lower
extremities like a snake on to it. When I was on it I found that Karl and
Sarah Baan were following me, and not far off. Sarah was the nearest and
she called out, ' Help me, dear uncle ! ' I said, ' I have not power to help
you ; but don't strike so wildly ; be calm ; don't tire yourself, and pray God
to help you.' When she was only a little way off she sank, but came up
again some way lower down ; and Karl came now near the roof, and cried
as she had done before him, ' Help me, dear uncle ! ' I said the same thing,
but drawing a lath from the root, just as he rose from sinking once, I
pushed the end of it into his hand, and when he hud grasped it I drew him
up on to the roof beside me. The roof had floated towards Sarah, and she
was just sinking the second time when I placed the lath so that she just
seized it with her finger and thumb, and 1 drew her towards me and put
her on the roof.
2r
o36 CONCLUtSlON.
" At this time Lydia, old Lucas' wife, was floating on a mat about 30
yards from me, the only one that was left. She now commenced singing
the hymn, ' Jezus neemt de zondaars aan V Jesus receiveth sinners ; and when
she had sung it through, exclaiming " 0 Great God ! " she laid her head
down upon the mat as upon a pillow — and sunk. After I had reached the
roof, I saw that Smit had just reached the thorns (about 600 yards), and
Hendrik and William, his brothers, were following about 200 yards behind
him. Smit called out the names of his brothers, and urged them to come
on. They replied that they were coming. I then lost sight of Smit in the
thorns, and Hendrik and AVilliam soon after. I never heard them call
throughout the day. I had heard the hammering in the morning, and I
felt that they were doing something for us, but saw nothing of the rafts.
AVe were very numb from cold ; and, being resolved to abide by the roof,
even though it should go out to sea, I set about pulling out the thatch and
erecting a shelter against the rain and cold, under which the children might
creep, while I covered myself with a calfskin. We found some oranges and
meal. We ate the oranges but kept the meal. Our roof had now drifted fast
against the thorn trees. I continued calling for help throughout the ■A'hole
day, and told the children to do so when I was tired. I felt it must be a
boat you were making, as it took so long a time to make, for I heard the
hammering. The time passed by very heavily, but in the evening I heard,
in answer to one of our cries — 'Yes, help is now on the way to you.' I
then fell asleep, and was awoke by the call of Philip Bonnan and Daniel
Lucas, coming to our help. They came alongside after a little while, and
I wept with excitement at my deliverance. I thought as I sat upon that
roof of Noah saved in the ark ; but felt it was not because I was a righteous
man like Noah that God had saved me. I wondered why I had been saved
and others better than myself allowed to perish. I felt that God was send-
ing me like a letter to announce the circumstances in which the rest had
died, and I wonder still that the strong swimmers should have been taken,
and us, who were no swimmers, left."
The following account is given by Mr Philip of the next day's sequel to
these saddening events : —
" Oct. 3. When I rose this morning the first thing I observed was the
garden ground almost clear of water, and people walking in the valley which
had yesterday been one flood of water. In the distance the Gamtoos river
was still high ; but subsiding rapidly. The bodies of the three Smits had
been found not far from one another, just where the people fancied they had
seen them — quite dead.
In the course of the morning nine other bodies were found. Five or six
were lying close together on the knoll, and bringing our boat down upon a
waggon, we fetched them through. In the afternoon they were carried to
a grave on the side of a hill behind our house, and, wrapped in shrouds, —
twelve corpses at one burial, to be laid side by side in one grave. A number
of people from the other side of the river took advantage of the boat and
came to the funeral, so that when the bell had tolled and we commenced the
service a good number were present. It was God that was speaking, and
man's words were to be few, that he might the rather hear. Two had been
members of our church. Beginning with prayer, I then read the 3i)th
Psalm, and attempted to impress upon the hearers the utter vanity of
all mortal things, and the repose of the soul upon God as the only
imperishable possetision. There was much stifled sobbing and weeping;
INUNDATION OF IIANKEV. 3;3(J
but, the rain coming on, we were obliged to desist, and having again
prayed and sung, the bodies were laid in the grave, mats were laid
over them, and the earth closed over their heads. Dr Philip, who was
present, then concluded with a few solemn admonitions, and we dispersed."
In a paper cited in the Preface it is stated : '' I have before me details of
destructive effects of torrents which have occurred since Heft the colony in
the beginning of 1867. Towards the close of that year there occurred one
the damage occasioned by which to roads and to house property at Port
Elizabeth alone was estimated at from £25,000 to £30,000. Within a
year thereafter a similar destructive torrent occurred at Natal, in regard to
which it was stated that the damage done to public works alone was esti-
mated at £50,000, while the loss to private persons was estimated variously
at from £50,000 to £100,000. In the following year, 1869, a torrent in
the Western Provinces occasioned the fall of a railway bridge, which issued
in loss of life and loss of property, and personal injuries, for one case alone
of which the railway proprietors were prosecuted for damages amounting to
£5000. In Beaufort West a deluge of rain washed down the dam, and the
next year the towui was flooded by the waters of the Gamka; and in 1871,
Victoria West was visited with a similar disaster." The loss of property here
was great, and fifty-three dead bodies were recovered after the waters had
subsided. On the same day similar destructive effects were produced by the
fall of torrents of rain near Oudtshorn. In the following year, 1872, heavy
rains fell in all parts of the colony, and in Capetown they caused a flood
which for a time turned several of the streets into rivers, while many of
the houses and stores had water in them to the depth of four feet ; and
last year, 1874, still more disastrous effects were produced by torrential
floods. According to the report given by one of the colonial newspapers,
the daiuages done could not be estimated at much less than £300,000.
According to the report given by another the damage done to public works
alone was estimated at £350,000. From a statement made in Parliament
by the late Commissioner of Crown Lands and Public Works, I am led to
conclude that there must be some error in this latter statement ; but
in any case, evidence is given by the facts adduced that in South Africa
floods and inundations similar in character to that of this year in Lanquedoc
are not unknown. In a volume on the Hydrology of South Africa I have
given details of the effects of some of these floods, and of others, which,
like that here given of the inundation of Hankey, present considerable
similarity to those given of the inundations in France — only less destructive
of life and property than was this, because there was less of life and pro-
perty there to destroy.
In addition to what is there given, I may cite in illustration of what I
now affirm the following account, given in the Eastern Frovitice Heraldy of
the inundation of Port Elizabeth, in Nov. 1867 : —
" On Tuesday last there was a stiff south-easter on in the bay, and in the
course of the day and during the night a good deal of rain fell. Next day
the wind and sea showed no signs of abatement, and the steam-tug St Croix,
which had parted from her anchor, but was happily brought up by another
within one hundred yards of the rocks near the Bethel, seemed to be in
imminent danger. There was but one man on board, and he, poor fellow,
hung out an old handkerchief as a flag of distress. The Sailor's Friend
340 CONCLUSION.
noticed this signal, and bore down to him. This was not done without
some trouble, though, for the waves — swollen into huge masses, and tipped
with frothy foam — careered hither and thither in the most uncertain way
possible, so that it was difficult to know how to take them. Then the
sailors were almost blinded by the spray, which was driven before the wind
like drift-sand. But the Sailor's Friend — the pluckiest thing of its kind
afloat — served the St Croix with a warp, though she was floundering near
the breakers ; and then flew away like a bird before the wind. The one man
on board hauled with what strength he had until he secured the warp, and
the vessel, though tossing and heaving fearfully, was made secure. As,
however, it was not deemed prudent at this juncture to let the man remain
on board, the life-boat bore down to her and took him off. This little feat
was not unattended with danger either, for a cargo-boat, which had just
before broken from her moorings, was tossed from one wave to another
until it came within fifty yards of the life-boat, which was at this time near
the bows of the St Croix. For a moment both were lost in a trough of a
sea ; and when they were next seen the cargo-boat was within ten feet of
the bows of the life-boat ; suddenly, however, a huge wave took her by the
keel and hove her, as it seemed to us, right over the lifeboat — for, as they
rose on the crest of the next wave, the cargo-boat was seen just astern of
the lifeboat, which now sped as fast as stout hearts could ply their oars to
the Breakwater, which she reached in safety. The cargo-boat, which be-
longed to the Union Company, now dashed on till her progress was stopped
by the sea-wall. Here some three or four boatmen jumped aboard of her
and made her fast. One other cargo-boat, belonging to the Algoa Bay
Company, we believe, drifted ashore, but whether either of them sustained
much damage we have not heard. The events which we have been
chronicling took place on Wednesday morning ; and we may as well men-
tion that the roads generally, and the stores on the east side of Main Street
particularly, suffered to some considerable extent from the rains of the
previous night.
" But what had happened up to this time was as nothing to that which
was to follow. The leaden aspect of the sky all around betokened a storm of
a yet more violent character. But from what point of the compass it would
come no one could tell. But that it .would come seemed inevitable, and
what could be done in the way of clearing drains and making all secure was
done, not only by the municipality people, but by all who had property to
protect. Towards evening the wind veered more to the south-west, and
moaned in fitful gusts, as if impatient of restraint. The rain, which came
gently at first, increased by degrees until it fell down in sheets. This was
about nine o'clock, and all around was dark as Erebus. Presently the
lightning began to flash in vivid sheets, and the distant rumbling of
thunder, mingling with the roar of breakers on the shore, was enough to
make the stoutest heart shudder. There was not a house, probabl}^, in
the town that was proof against the inroads of the storm. How long would
it last 1 seemed an anxious question. Would the wind, which had now
increased to a gale, beat it down 1 There was a fierce conflict for the
mastery, but Ijotli held on with unabated violence. Asmidnight approached
the thunder and lightning ceased, but still that dismal hollow roar upon tlie
beach was heard mingling with the rushing, shrieking, howling storm, in
fearful chorus. At this time anxiety for the safety of the shipping was
intense. The Port-office people were on duty, but we fear had their services
INUNDATION OF PORT ELIZABETH. 341
been called into reqnisition, which happily they were not, tliey would have
been but of little avail owing to the fury of the tempest.
*' As the night wore on the storm seemed to increase in violence rather
than to abate its fury, and few people, we venture to say, had an hour's
repose throughout the night. Every one had his own particular grief thrust
suddenly upon his hands, and some had more than they could attend to.
It was a bus}^ melancholy time with all, and the worst of it was that the
storm raged with such fury that no one knew what misery it would bring
or how it would all end,
" Out at the South End, and more particularly in Rudolph Street, the
storm was playing fearful havoc. The rushing waters came on as a mighty
torrent from the rising ground beyond, and carried away pailings and
stoeps ; and then gathering force, ripped up the road, and drove the sand of
which it was composed before it in its onward course to the sea. It was a
fearful time for the poor residents here. Now that a gully had been opened
the waters from all the surrounding places seemed to find an egress down
this doomed street until the gull}'- assumed the dimensions of a river. First
one and then another house was undermined, and down it came with a
fearful crash into the seething bubbling stream, now some twenty feet wide
by eight and twelve feet deep. It might be supposed that the debris from
these disasters would dam up the stream. Not so, however. The rush of
waters, too powerful to be stayed, swept all impediments before it, or if
diverted for a moment only made the breach wider. The alarm, as we have
said, was intense, and this was increased by the darkness of the night. No
one could ensure an hour's security. The waters of this newly-made river,
which had been strong before, now became stronger, and took a wider range
in their course, and, as a consequence, house after house, to the number of
twenty, fell victims to its inroads. One poor child, named Harvey, ignorant
of the danger which threatened her, left her mother's house in search of
help, and, falling into the rushing torrent before the door, w as carried away
to the Harbour Board Bridge, where she was found some six hours after-
wards buried in the sand. It is difficult to depict the horror of the scene.
Here were poor houseless women and children — almost clotheless — running
about in the darkfor shelter; while stronghardy menwererunning hither and
thither with lanterns to render all the help they could ; and it is to the
credit of the occupants of all the houses left standing that they were thrown
open for the shelter of those who had been so suddenly and so fearfully
deprived of their homes.
" The street — as our readers will easily conceive from the above de-
scription— is a complete wreck, and the loss to the poor people, mostly
Malays, who had expended their means in erecting these houses for their
own occupation, will be something that will take them years to replace.
'' The tramway bridge erected by the Harbour Board at the foot of this
street was also carried away by the fury of the storm, while the bridge
which spans Baaken's River lost the southern buttress, and may be said
to be in a shaky condition.
" Before leaving the south side of the town, we must mention the fact
that Mrs Hayes and her child, a boy about seven years of age, had a
narrow escape. They were found buried beneath a wall in a most ex-
hausted state, and removed to the hospital. A man named Martin Devitt
also escaped, as it were by miracle. He had just left his stable, where
he had gone to see how his horse fared, when it fell in and killed the animal.
342 CONCLUSION.
" The road in South Union Street, opposite Mr Webster's house, is sadly
cut up. The gas pipes are laid bare, the holes in some places being
from six to eight feet deep. Then higher up, near Neslin Castle, there is
another immense hole, through which the water seems to have passed with
great force in front of a number of small cottages situated in a valley at
the back of the castle. But for the energy of one Gover, and some willing
hands he got around him to divert the current, the whole of these cottages,
in all human probability, would have been swept into the sea. There was
great distress here in the small hours of the night, and Gover took in
thirteen children and three women who were running about in the utmost
alarm in their night dresses. . . . We may say of Southend that wreck and
disaster was apparent on eveiy side — more, indeed, than we have had time
to inspect or have space to chronicle.
" Military Road, Castle Hill, White's Road, Donkin Street, Constitution
Hill, Russell Road, and, indeed, all the approaches to the hill, showed in
an especial degree the devastating effects of the storm. All the drains are
washed away, and the huge stones of which they were composed are
scattered about like pebbles, or thrown down into deep gullies, through
which the water rushed in its headlong course to the streets beneath.
White's Road, Constitution Hill, and Russell Road, look as if they had
been riven by an earthquake. This is no exaggeration. At the top of
White's Road, near Mr Buchanan's new house, the drain is washed away,
and just beyond there is a gully six feet deep, cut out by the fury of the
rushing waters. Then, below this, there are zig-zag cuts from four to five
feet deep, through which the water forced its course to the barrel drain
below. So great was the rush of the torrent here that the drain, becoming
surcharged, burst with a loud explosion, ripping up the road in all
directions, and nearly bringing down the wall near the theatre. The water
thus set free now careered on in its mad course, and burst through the
window into Messrs Anderson & Co.'s store, which was inundated to the
extent of nearly two feet. From top to bottom. White's Road is a complete
wreck, intersected as it is with holes and gullies varying from twelve to four
feet deep.
" Donkin Street, near the Mechanics' Institute, presents the appearance
of a huge ditch. The volume of water here must have been immense.
The Mechanics' Institute is cracked asunder, and but that Mr T. Griffiths
lent some planks, and Mr Macgregor shored it up, it would have fallen into
the ditch below. Next to the Mechanics' Institute is a shed in the occu-
pation of Mr Sherman, in which some iron is stored, and the shock of the
riven earth beside it brought down a portion of the wall. Then the water
from this quarter drove down such piles of earth into the passage near Mr
S. White's shop, and around the front door, that admission to the premises
was obtained with the utmost difficulty. The vaults of the Port Elizabeth
Bank were flooded, but beyond the inconvenience occasioned, the papers or
premises sustained no damnge. On the whole, however, though Donkin
Street has suffered much, it is not so badly damaged as White's Road. Con-
stitution Hill escaped comparidively scatheless.
" Not so, however, Russel Road. What has been said of White's Road
obtains here, Siive that the damage is even greater. It is a complete wreck
— so much so, indeed, that a man cannot pass through it on horseback, and
it is almost impracticable to pedestrians. The rush of waters here carried
away the walls enclosing Mr BowcH's cow-house, and hurled a stone 500 lbs.
INUNDATION C)l' TOUT KLIZAUIOTII. 343
weight some considerable distance The houses below Mr Powell's
were sliakeu to their foundations, and those in which Mr Archibald and Mr
Atkinson lived have been vacated because, in their present state, they are
untenantable. The road, from one end to tlie other, is a series of winding
rivers, varying from four to eight feet deep,
*' As may be imagined, the rush of water from all these approaches to
the Hill caused considerable damage to the houses and stores on either side
i»f the streets stretching from Market Square to the North End. The
premises right and left of Main Street, extending from Messrs Geard & Co.'s
to J. 0. Smith & Co.'s, suftered more or less severely, and great is the
destruction of property in some of the stores — especially in the cellars —
in which some had fine goods packed. Mr H. B. Christian was engaged
with seven men for hours damming up his lower store, or the loss there
would have been immense.
" From J. 0. Smith & Co.'s on the sea side, and Sherman & Co.'s on
the hill side, down to Mr Crage's place. Mason's Hotel, and Janion's, the
houses were mostly literally sw^amped ; and the heaps of rubble, sand, rags,
bones, turned out and piled up in the streets, showed to what an extent the
inhabitants must have suffered. Then, lower down. Bishop's (late StoUe's)
butcher's shop fell in with a crash. Between John Tee's place and Mr
Pearcey's the water came down like a cataract, driving before it huge stones
and rubble, and depositing it to the height of a good-sized mountain near
Mr Cunningham's. Rising to the height of some ten feet in Mr Farrell's
yard, the water burst through the window at the back, and this being
fortunately in a direct line with the passage leading to the street, it found
easy egress in a roaring torrent. Then, considerable damage was done to
the stoep near Mr John Geard's store, at the corner of Korsten Street. At
the upper end of Frederick Street, the back wall of Mr Walker's stable was
driven in, when a perfect mill-stream rushed beneath, making its way across
South Street, considerably damaging Mr Pearson's shop in its course. Mr
Pearson, with his wife and family, left the building during the night,
thinking that if they remained they would be washed out. From this point
the stream rushed on, hissing and roaring, down towards Solomon's Row,
entirely destroying the first and second houses on the right. Then, this
impediment removed, it rushed down the row, with the roar of a waterfall,
to the beach.
" Out towards Mr Dent's place the country had all the appearance of a
huge lake.
" Returning towards the Town-hall, we may state that the Market Square
is literally cut to pieces, and that a house belonging to Mr Inngs, situated
in Military Road, was knocked over wdth a fearful crash, the occupants nar-
rowly escaping with their lives.
" Yesterday morning, we regret to say that a poor fellow, named Simon
Maddan, lost his life while endeavouring to recover some drift-wood near
Baaken's Bridge. He rushed into the stream, which did not appear more
than tW'O or three feet deep, and he must have been sucked up by the sand, for
he instantly disappeared, and his remains have not since been recovered. He
was a well-behaved hard-working man, and had been in the service of the
Harbour Board some eight years. A man called out to warn him of his
danger, but it was too late — he was already in the stream. He has left a
wife and five or six children totally unprovided for.
" The beach speaks with terrible eloquence of the roughness of the storm.
344 CONCLUSION.
As we have said, the large craft rode it bravely out, thanks to Providence,
their cables, and the stout holding ground of the bay. But a number of
small craft sunk at their moorings within the breakwater, having been
actually swamped by the force of the rain. Here is a list of them . . .
" Several persons had very narrow escapes, more perhaps than we know
of. The Rev. E. Pickering fell into the ravine formed by the current at
the top of White's Road, and after floundering about up to his neck in
water, managed to scramble out comparatively unhurt. The water broke
his fall, or he might have been killed where he fell. Then Messrs Amyot and
Thompson fell into a gully, and escaped with difficulty. Lieutenant Shaw,
86th, while passing from a friend's house to his cottage was suddenly
brought up by a flash of lightning, which revealed to him the awful fact
that, had he moved a step further, he would have fallen over a fearful pre-
cipice, and been dashed to pieces. Then Mr Suter, who was passing
up Russell Road to his home, just before the storm was at its height, was
knocked down by a huge stone, which was impelled from the Hill, and
nearly carried away by the volume of water which followed it ; and we hear
that, shortly after, Mr French, who lives in Russel Road, had to make his
escape with his family by the back window, such was the rush of the torrent
into his house. The escapes from almost certain death were truly mira-
culous. Those who happened to be out in the storm had to make their way
home waist deep in water, which poured down from the hills in all directions.
" Out at the Fishery the flood was immense. The Shark's River dam
was partly broken, and Lippert's dam was carried away, while the house
near it was stove in. . . .
" The damage to the roads and house property here is estimated at from
£25,000 to £30,000, while the injury to the stock and crops in the district,
it is feared, will be something distressing."
Such are forms of the evils with which the inhabitants of not a few
newly settled lands are familiar. It may be difficult, as is stated by a writer
in the Spectator on the inundations in the valley of the Garonne, for
Englishmen who have never quitted their own country to comprehend the
destruction such can inflict, and above all to realise the special horror — a
horror like that caused by an earthquake — which water can inspire in those
who suff'er from its ravages. England has been visited by terrible calami-
ties, like the floods in Morayshire, in August 1829, and the bursting of the
Sheffield reservoir, but even such calamities are of rare occurrence. Else-
where it is diff'erent. At the very time of the inundations in Lanquedoc
it was reported from Bohemia, Carinthia, South Tyrol, and Banot, that
similar inundations had occurred in these districts, with corresponding-
calamities — of railways being injured ; bridges, horses, and herds of cattle
carried away; houses totally destroyed; and men, women, and cliildren
drowned. According to one account, — " A thunderstorm, with hailstones,
caused temblc destruction in Buda-Pcsth. The hills and tlic roofs of the
houses were covered with ice two feet thick ; the torrents rushed into the
streets of Ofen. Five hundred persons are missing, and at least one hun-
dred have been drowned, or killed by the falling houses."
Next day it was reported, — " The disaster in Ofen is greater than was
feared. 120 corpses have been found, but many dead bodies have been
carried away by the Danube. Baron Bela Lipthay, a distinguished member
of the Conservative party, recently nominated deputy of Ofen, is missed."
INUNDATIONS IN PRANOE. 345
This was in the end of Juno, and tho autumn brought to the newspapers
numerous accounts of inundations in other parts of France, in various parts
of Enghmd, in America, in India, and elsewhere. It seemed as if tho
torrential era were giving place to a new era of inundation, and by some it
was rashly alleged that evidence was thus supplied of the failure of rehoise-
ment to accomplish the prevention of torrential floods. I say rashly alleged,
for all the official reports, issued with the sanction of the Government, of
which translations have been given in the preceding pages, with their
testimony in regard to facts accomplished, remain unaffected by any thing
which may have subsequently occurred ; and time ought to have been
allowed for reports to have reached us in regard to the results of the
surveys, and inspections, and reasonings by the professional men acting
under the Forest Administration of France. It is not for me, a foreigner,
led incidentally in the prosecution of other studies to give attention to the
subject, to rush into the field with my opinion, ere those who are profession-
ally engaged in the work, and those who are officially responsible for the
work, have reported, as I doubt not they will in due time, upon these
inundations in relation to the enterprise in which they are engaged. But
in the interests of those for whom I write I may again call attention to the
facts that 140 years were from the first reckoned necessary for the accom-
plishment of the work — vand of those only 14, or one-tenth of the period,
have elapsed — and, though the most urgent cases were attended to first, it
may be assumed that not much more than a tithe of the work has been
completed, and much of that — by far the most of it — in regions in which it
could not affect in any way the river-courses by which the inundations in
question were produced. And in connection with this I would call attention
to the facts reported by M. Laydecker, when Director-General of the Forest
Administration, in regard to what was observed in connection with devas-
tating floods which occurred in 1866, and cited at length in a previous part
of this compilation (ante p.p. 224-229) from which it appears that few, if
any, of the works then executed had been carried away ; that the effects
which had been produced by these works, in preventing disastrous conse-
quences from the floods, had been all that had been expected, and had been
more than was hoped or feared during the prevalence of the floods, or would
have been thought likely to have been the case had the coming of such
floods been foreseen, before they came, after the execution of the works was
completed.
And a corresponding report I expect to follow the survey of the works
after these disastrous inundations. I anticipate that that report will bear
that wherever works of rehoisement and gazonnement have been executed
properly, they have accomplished the object for which they were under-
taken ; that wherever nothing had been done, there the evil has been seen
in full force. Knowing what I do of the work, I consider it probable that,
had the works contemplated been executed in all the basins of reception
drained by the affluents of the inundating rivers, the inhabitants of
Toulouse and other places would have had timely warning to prepare for
the coming flood ; and this, instead of rushing headlong, tearing up and
carrying away all before it, might have taken fourteen days instead of four
to pass a given point in its course, prolonging the flood, but to a con-es-
ponding extent reducing its depth or height and force.
It may be felt as an objection that these are but conjectures ; let us then
346 CONCLUSION.
leave all conjectures whatever, take up the facts of the case and look at
these in the light of what is known.
The accounts given of inundations in South Africa may enable sufferers
from inundations elsewhere to identify the form of the evil with which they
are familiar, with the form of the evil seen in the late inundations in France,
these presenting them with an intermediate form having much in common
with both ; and the identification of this with the torrents of the Alps and
other mountain regions of France is not more difficult. Surell spoke from
the first of torrents and torrential rivers as essentially identical ; and the
evils calling for remedial measures, though varying in the degree of impor-
tance attached to them, have been the destruction of the mountains, the
covering up of fertile lands in the valleys with sterile detritus, and the
inundation of the plains beyond by the superabundant waters. In these
inundations we have one of the correlated effects. And it is in view of this
that I have proposed to look at the phenomena of this inundation in the
light of what has been ascertained in France in regard to torrential floods
and the means of extinguishing them.
The Alpine torrents are traced by Surell to two sources — the melting of
snow about the beginning of June, and storms of rain occurring about the
end of summer. The inundations in question have been occasioned by
similar causes, but by these operating simultaneously, and this in the
Cevennes and in the Pyrenees at the same time. In accordance with what
has been stated, when a basin drained by a river is covered with vegetation
the flow of the water is retarded, diffused, and protracted ; but when
mountains upon which the rain falls are devoid of vegetation, the rain
rushes off as does water on the roof of a house, — and thus was it here.
The Journal des Debats thus explains the phenomena of these inunda-
tions : —
" It is the chain of the Cevennes which causes these immense disorders.
Between the sources of the Loire and the H^rault the Cevennes are 3,700
feet high. All this surface is composed of granite impermeable to the
rains. The river waters rush over this ground with immense rapidity, but
do not enter it. The chief streams rising there are the Dour, the Ervieux,
the Ard^che, and the Gardon, affluents of the Rh6ne ; on the west, the Lot
and the Tarn, affluents of the Garonne ; on the north, the Loire and its
tributary the Allier; on the south, the H^rault. The Ard^che, whose
basin is only 2429 kilomHres, has enormous rises. At the bridge d'Arc the
stream rises to nineteen metres above the lowest level, and pours down at
a rate af 7000 cubic metres per second, almost as much as the Loire at
Tours. An equal violence is registered in the Dom', the Ervieux, the
Gardon, the Is6re, the Drdme, and the Durance. Since everything depends
on the rainfall, it is obviously impossible to calculate with certainty before-
hand. Every year the Cevennes cause vast * spates ' in the largest rivers
in France — the Rh6ne, the Loire, and the Garonne. All the streams of the
region are torrents. The southern part of the Cevennes, the Black Moun-
tain, and the Corbi^res exercise a great influence on the small Mediter-
ranean streams between the Rh6ne and the Pyrenees. A rain of 200
millimetres, which has no perceptible effect elsewhere, causes in these parts
a sudden flood."
In general the rains fall there in May, and being then comparatively cool,
they melt but little of the snoWi and flow away as they fall. But when they
INUNDATIONS IN PRANCE. 347
fall in Juno, as this year they did, they are somewhat tepid, and, falling
upon the snow, melt it rapidly, and the watery produce is added to the
rainfall ; thus two sources of flood are combined, and disastrous conse-
quences not unfrequently follow. And thus, as has been stated, was the
late flood produced. Persistent rains from the north-west fell upon the
Cevennes and the northern slope of the Pyrenees. This was preceded there
in some cases by a heavy fall of snow ; and there was over all the higher-
lying lands the snow which had fallen in the course of the winter. This
snow was dissolved ; all the tributaries of the Garonne were flooded simul-
taneously ; and we see the result.
In such a case time is everything. It may make all the difference be-
tween the loss of life and property and perfect safety to both, if a body of
water such as w^as here precipitated from the mountains shall rush past a
given point in four days or take fourteen for its flow — flowing in flood, but
never rising above the height of the containing banks. And it may make
a very great diff'erence, though not so great, if a flood and inundation come
suddenly in the night, without notice or warning, and if it come after twelve
or twenty four hours' notice of its coming.
Thus it is with floods in the Seine and in the Loire. Warning is given
by telegraph all along the course of these rivers that a flood is on its way,
and the inhabitants on their banks are prepared when it comes.
But this could not be done in the case of the late inundations. There
is an observatoiy at Pic-du-Midi, a spur of the Pyrenees, and it seems that
General de Nansouty, who commands there, would have been able to give
timely warning of the coming inundation had the observatory been in tele-
graphic communication with the threatened towns and villages, — at all events
along the course of the Adour. He did warn the people in the neighbour-
ing valley of Campan what was to be expected from a heavy fall of snow in
the mountains, which snow had suddenly commenced to melt under the
influence of the rain and westerly wind; and on the first appearance of danger,
on the night of the 22nd June, M. Beylac descended the mountain during
the most fearful weather to spread the alarm ; but the floods in all the
tributaries of the Garonne were so sudden that to give warning was impos-
sible. Had the hassins de reception of all these been wooded it would have
been otherwise, but they were to a great extent devoid of vegetation.
Very diff'erent had been the case had warning been given along the
course of the Garonne of the coming flood from one to twelve or twenty-
four hours before it reached the diff'erent towns and villages destroyed ; and
very diff'erent had been the case had the waters which swept along in a
torrential wave taken fourteen days to flow past any and every point on its
course ! It may be, that never would it have risen so high as to imperil a
single house, and that in consequence of the timely warning given not one
life would have been lost ! It is said by a writer I have quoted, — " If this
obsers'atory (that on the Pic-du-Midi), now isolated on the peak, were
bound to the plain by telegraph, the General might transmit to the ofi&cials
of the Ponts et Chaussees previsions of the last importance. In the same
manner a station should be made on the Corbi^res. As soon as the quan-
tity of rain falling on these cliff's became dangerous the authorities would
be warned." Yes ; but this, if combined with a complete reboisement and
gazonnement of the mountains, would give the longer time to prepare for
what was coming. And it may be asked. Why has this not been done 1
An answer is forthcoming, and that not the answer which might be ex-
348 CONCLUSION.
pected, that, as stated, " Between the sources of the Loire and the H6rault
the Ceveunes are 3,700 feet high. All this surface is composed of granite,
impermeable to the rain, and to plant such either with herbage or with
trees, is impossible ; " but the answer, that the work is being done as fast as
money and men and material can be found, and that already, previous to
this inundation, all that could be done up to that time had been accom-
plished. It is often easy to tell, after an event has occurred, how it might
have been prevented ; and it may be that had these inundations been fore-
seen, operations which would have to some extent modified or prevented
them would have been prosecuted with the vigour called forth by a race
ao-ainst time, in preference to some others which have not been ineffective,
but the execution of which might without series consequences have been
postponed ; or, at all hazards, grants on a scale of magnitude equalling or
exceeding those made previous to the war would have been made, and the
difference between these and the amounts actually granted spent exclusively
on the valleys and basins of reception drained by the upper waters and
affluents of the rivers by which such devastation has been wrought. The
legitimate use now to be made of such reasonings is, to prepare for the
future in accordance with the suggestions suggested by the past. And this,
I have no doubt, will be done.
The flood of 1875 has proved the most destructive and the most sudden
flood of the century; but though floods of such a magnitude are unfrequent in
the valley of the Garonne, scarcely do twenty years pass without the occurrence
of a flood of serious importance; and during this century so frequently and
regularly have they occurred at such an interval as to suggest as probable
the existence of some unknown meteorological law. To some it appears
that the periodicity involves a cycle of ten years rather than twenty.
The Journal des Dehats, writing of the late inundation, says, — " We lately
spoke of a probable law regulating the recurrence of rains and floods.
What matter whether it be quite correct or no 1 If experience prove it
true in the majority of cases, why should we not take it into consideration 1
All the engineers of the South know that very dry years correspond with
sudden deluges of rain, and consequent floods. The unusual dryness of
this year ought to have given warning. And the cycle of ten or twenty
years now come round should have set people on their guard. Such
empirical observations are too lightly disregarded. No hint should be
neglected when events of this gravity are at issue. There are memorable
dates of which the recollection should never be suffered to die. The cycle
appears to differ somewhat according to the region. Thus, for the Loire
and the Rhone, it seems to be a year later — '46, '56, '6Q, '76. Are the
banks of the Khone not in danger next year?"
Much interest attaches to the meteorological question involved. Here we
have to do mainly with the practical question raised, and the justification
of a considerable expenditure of money, of labour, and of thought, on
averting the disastrous consequences following a phenomenon which appears
to be, not the result of accidental coincidences, but of frequently recurring
coincidences, tha recurrence of which is apparently not only regulated but
insured with all Uie certainty attachinf> to phenomena occurring in con-
nection with the operation of physical laws.
Designs of certain measures to prevent such occurrences were proposed
after the last groat flood in 1855, but they wore pronounced too costly ; and
INUNDATIONS IN FRANCE. 349
now It is considered doubtful whether, what many considered the most obvious
expedient — the excavation of an overspill canal, specially designed to carry
ofl' surplus waters — would be either sufficient or possible.
" The arrival of the flood," says a writer in the Spectator^ " is so rapid,
the mass of water so vast, the formation of a lake in the low-lands between
the slopes and the bed of the river so instantaneous, that any canal it
might be possible to cut might, on the recurrence of the fatality, so to
speak, be drowned under the advancing wave, as the Garronne was itself. It
is thought that by greatly deepening the channel of the Garonne beyond the
confluence of the mountain streams aid might be aff*orded ; but that decree,
though most beneficial against an ordinary rise in the waters, would be
worthless against a flood of this kind ; while a dike, even if it could be con-
structed, would not be a safe reliance. A dike against ever-present water
may be a perfect defence ; but a dike against a flood w^hich comes in its
highest fury only once a century, and in a dangerous form only once in
twenty years, is pretty certain to be neglected. If the boats of a ship were
always required, they would always be ready ; but being wanted only in
extremity, even the fear of death, of ruin, and of lost reputation, does not
suffice to compel^ ship-captains to keep them in order. Planting the slopes
makes the channel deeper, and the rains more regular ; but the expedient
is a slow one, and requires determined attention, which even governments
in the end become unwilling to pay."
It may seem to have been so in France, but I believe it has been so more
in appearance than in reality.
The law of 1860 was enacted for 10 years. This period expired in 1870.
It was impossible to review it then, and the works of reboisement and
gazonnement, previously maintained by extraordinary budgets, then fell upon
the ordinary budget ; and for 1871 there was granted a credit for 3,500,000
francs, of which 1,500,000 francs were for hoisement and gazonnement ; and
the draft budget for 1872 reduced the 3,500,000 given under this head to
1,563,000 and the 1,500,000 allotted for gazonnement and reboisement to
763,000.
Such, writes M. Cezanne, is the sad consequence of war ! France is
reduced to augment the military expenses, which are ruinfous, and to
diminish the outlay on public works which are productive !
The war is now, it is true, a thing of the past ; but the eff'ects of the war
remain. There is still a war expenditure deemed necessary, and so neces-
sary that it is treated as a first claim upon the country, to which all
improvements must, excepting in so far as they are imperatively called for,
be deferred. And, as a consequence, we find not a million a year spent, as
before the war, on the work of reboisement.
But I am not aware of any one connected with the Administration, the
Government, or the Legislature, having lost faith in reboisement d^ndi gazonne-
ment as a means of counteracting the evil, though they have had to limit
operations in consequence of the demand made on them for money to meet
what w^ere considered more urgent claims. And as the inundations of 1855
led to practical efl'ort being given to the suggestions of Fabre and Surell, I
anticipate that the inundation of 1875 will, in the light of the results
obtained, lead directly or indirectly to the operation being resumed and
prosecuted as it was during the first decade of the work.
" In ordinary times," says the writer in the Spectator^ " the snow on the
heights of the Pyrenees melts gradually, and trickles down in hundreds of
350 CONCLUSION.
runlets over a granite soil, which absorbs nothing, to the larger streams which
fill the two rivers which unite a short distance from Toulouse into the Garonne,
and make the prosperity of the rich surrounding plain. When, however,
from any cause, the snow melts too rapidly, as is believed to have occurred
this year, the heat and rainfall having been both unusually great, and
lasting for three weeks on end, the channels cannot convey the water,
which rushes in broad torrents to the streams, which again, owing to some
config-uration of the soil, cannot convey away the unwonted mass of fluid.
The water collects into a lake, sometimes miles in length and breadth, and
forty feet deep, a veritable reservoir, and then bursts through the open
mouths left by the rivers into the valley of the Garonne, with as resistless a
force as the great Sheffield reservoir burst into the little vale below it.
The Garonne fills and fills until it overtops its lower bank, and then, as the
supply increases hourly, its sweep over the lower ground becomes as re-
sistless as that of a slow storm wave. The effect is not quite so severe
because of its gradual approach ; but the Garonne must have rushed over
St Cyprien, bringing a mass of water equal to that embraced in a reservoir
twenty miles long, by ten miles wide and thirty-eight feet deep. This year
heat, rainfall, and wind seem to have united, and on June 23rd the Garonne
was filled in an hour, and in six hours the upper valley had been turned
into a bursting lake, and a flood which, like an earthquake, makes its victims
think the laws of nature overturned, and that there is no help even in
heaven, came rushing towards the city. Within six hours of the first
alarm of an unusual rise in the water, the Garonne had swept away every
bridge of Toulouse except one, the old stone bridge of St John, and
flowing on in an unbroken rush into St Cyprien, rose above the streets so
rapidly that the terrified inhabitants were compelled to take refuge in the
upper stories. Scores of persons appear to have been strangled by the
flood, all the slaughterers in the great abattoir, for example, being killed at
once ; but the great loss of life arose from another cause, which recalled the
idea of earthquake to the wretched people. The rushing water felled the
weaker houses as giant shells would have done, and undermining the found-
ations of the stronger, till through one entire night houses were toppling
as in an earthquake, and the awful scenes at and around Cucuta, in New
Granada, on May 18th, when 16,000 persons perished at once by earth-
quake, were repeated in Lanquedoc. Escape of the house, once shook, was
of course hopeless. There were the walls above and the waters below, and
the stream outside in which a boat could scarcely live. Nearly 1000
persons are known to have been killed in St Cyprien alone by the falling
houses, trees, and monuments, or to have been drowned in escaping from
the upper stories, or capsized in boats which put out into the streets to
rescue the suff'erers, sometimes — to the credit of human nature be it spoken,
if not of human reason — with a priest on board to grant absolution to the
dying as they swept past. The villages beyond Toulouse, and presumable
on lower ground, were in some instances swept away bodily, the church in
one instance being the only building left standing, and in another a mill so
injured that it must be blown up. The ravages extended over 100 miles,
and at one time fears were entertained for Bourdcaux itself. The destruc-
tion of property is, of course, greater than that of life. Neither vineyards
nor houses can run away. The quarter of St Cpyrien, with its 30,000 people,
had, in the words of the official report, " catf^nl to exist" and its whole popu-
lation is houseless, without furniture, clothes, or food. In St Cyprien and
INUNDATIONS IN FRANCE. 351
the villages 100,000 pei'sons are supposed to be destitute. The crops over
hundreds of square railes are destroyed, and in many places the very ground
has been swept away. It is calculated that the actual loss in cash reaches
/o?/;- 7;h7//()??6' sterling, and that years must elapse before the suffering dis-
tricts can again resume their old appearance. According to another
estimate, the loss caused by the floods in the south of France will amount
to 300,000,000 francs, and it is estimated that 3000 persons have lost their
lives." It was reported that by the Government the loss was estimated at
three millions sterling. And subsequent reports have shown that it was
somewhat in excess of this amount.
Before this volume can come into the hands of many exposed to the
devastating effect of torrential floods, it may be known what the Forest
Administration of France will do in such circumstances. And, in anticipa-
tion of this, I would submit for the consideration of all interested in the
matter the expediency of giving careful consideration to the report expected,
and to the practicability and expediency of adopting similar measures.
It may seem to be impracticable to do so ; but what is impracticable for
one man to do may be quite practicable for another to accomplish ; and if
the thing be possible the impracticability may be only in appearance.
Buissonement may be practicable where hoisement is not, and gazonnement
where buissonement is not. I have been told of mountain crests of granite
upon which neither herbage, nor bush, nor tree can be grown, as if that
were a condition of things in which the measures adopted in France must
be inapplicable ; but the details given show that it is not the mountain
crest, but a lower-lying zone to which rehoisement is applied ; and that a
zone of forest extinguishes torrents formed above. I only know of one
form of impracticability before which I am silenced, the impracticability of
finding the money requisite for the execution of operations so extensive as
might be requisite to meet and counteract the evil in some given country
or locality. Where this is alleged I am silenced, but I am not convinced.
The only impracticability I know^ is that of convincing communities that
the outlay would be remunerative.
It does not, however, comport with my purpose to argue out this point.
My purpose was and is simply to report what has been done, what have been
the results. But I may, without departure from this, state that if the expense
of carrying out such operations be great, so also are the losses occasioned
by torrential floods such as they are employed to remedy. And the conserva-
tion and extension of forests, coppice woods, shrubbeiy, and herbage may
bring accessory benefits, increasing the comforts and amenities of life,
having a pecuniaiy value which might be reckoned an important offset
against the expense of such operations.
THE END.
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