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RELATIONSHIPS OF ENDRIN AND OTHER
CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON
COMPOUNDS TO WILDLIFE IN MONTANA
^ 1981-1982

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STATE DOCUMENTS COLLECTJON

JAN 2 3 1984

MONTANA STATE LIS, .ARY
1515 E. 6th AVE.

Helena, Montana 59620

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Wildlife Division

Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks

Helena, Montana

September 1983

MAR 9

MONTANA STATE LIBRARY

S 632.95 F2re 1983 c.1 Schladweiler
Relationships of endrin and other chlori

3 0864 00047218 6

THE CONSTITUTION
OF THE STATE OF MONTANA

Preamble

We the people of Montana are grateful to God for the quiet
beauty of our state, the grandeur of our mountains, the vastness
of our rolling plains, and desiring to improve the quality of life,
equality of opportunity and to secure the blessings of liberty for
this and future generations do ordain and establish this constitu*
tion.

Article 11
Bill of Rights

Section 3. Inalienable rights. All persons are born free and
have certain inalienable rights. They include the right to a clean
and healthful environment and the rights of pursuing life’s basic
necessities, enjoying and defending their lives and liberties, ac-
quiring, possessing and protecting property, and seeking their
safety, health and happiness in all lawful ways. In enjoying these
rights, all persons recognize corresponding responsibilities.

—Adopted by the People of Montana,

June 6, 1972.

RELATIONSHIPS OF ENDRIN AND OTHER CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON
COMPOUNDS TO WILDLIFE IN MONTANA, 1981-1982

Philip Schladweiler
and

John P. Weigand

Wildlife Division

Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks

Helena, Montana

with financial assistance from
Ducks Unlimited, Inc.

September 1983

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2016

https://archive.org/details/relationshipsofe1983schl

FOREWORD

The 1981 Endrin Issue in Montana involved the people and the
government agencies managing and promoting two of the state’s
most important resources - agriculture and wildlife. Through
all of the complex testimony, technical analyses, and conflicting
opinions since Montanans became aware of endrin contamination
during the spring of 198I, one central fact has been predominant
- the problem was consequential to the state’s largest industry
and Montana’s priceless wildlife resources.

This report outlines some of the events which led to, and
occurred during and following the extensive application of endrin
to grain fields during the spring of 198I in Montana. It also
presents information concerning residues of heptachlor,
heptachlor epoxide, PCB’s and other chlorinated hydrocarbon
compounds which were coincidentally detected in wildlife tissues
tested for endrin.

Eugene 0. Allen, Administrator
Wildlife Division

ABSTRACT

The chain of events which generated the 1981 Endrin Issue in
Montana began with an abnormally mild 1980-1981 winter, an early,
mild, dry spring in 198I, and the early widespread emergence of
army and pale western cutworms in eastern and central Montana.
The traditional insecticide for cutworm control since 1954 was
endrin. Endrin sales by pesticide dealers were sufficient to
treat at least 98,848 acres of small grains, principally winter
wheat. Because of different endrin application rates, unknown
volumes of endrin stored on farms and ranches, and other chemi-
cals used, the total acreage treated with all chemicals was
estimated to have approached 200,000 acres. Studies to evaluate
endrin impacts on local aquatic and terrestrial wildlife popula-
tions were largely negated because of delays in locating treated
fields. Concern for the welfare of humans and predatory wildlife
that might consume endrin-contaminated wildlife prompted col-
lecting and testing of 1,191 tissues from various wildlife spe-
cies. Endrin residue monitoring during late April 198I-
November 1982 involved principally fat, meat, liver, and brain
tissues from 4 species of big game, 5 of upland game birds, 13 of
small mammals, 12 of waterfowl, 6 of other aquatic and migratory
game birds, 6 of raptors, I3 of passerines, and several miscel-
laneous samples. Initial sampling during 1981-1982 was somewhat
at random, while later sampling was concentrated on known 198I
treated areas or those sites from which endr in-positive samples
had been collected earlier. Most of the high residues detected
were from known treated areas. Maximum endrin residues in fat
from those wildlife groups tested were: 0.53 a pronghorn,
22.9 ppm in a sharp-tailed grouse, 0.01 ppm in a cottontail
rabbit, 2.56 ppm in a ruddy duck, 0.64 ppm in a coot, 0.33 PPm in
a harrier, and 0.16 ppm in a horned lark. Field studies during
summer 1982 on the effects of chlorpy rifos, permethrin, and
endrin on wildlife showed permethrin was more efficacious than
the other compounds in controlling cutworms and, although it was
toxic to aquatic invertebrates it appeared to be the least toxic
to terrestrial wildlife. Maximum endrin levels in fat (ppm wet
weight) of animals collected in those studies were: 0.24 ppm in
a black-tailed prairie dog 4 1/2 weeks postspray, 3. 00 ppm in a
baldpate 4 1/2 weeks postspray, and 3.57 and 3. 03 ppm in prairie
horned larks 4-5 days and 2 weeks postspray, respectively. En-
drin poisoning of small mammals within 3-4 days postspray, and
relatively high endrin residues in fat of birds collected 4-5
days postspray indicated rapid assimilation of endrin by both
groups. Residues of I7 other chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds
involving 9 parent compounds and their isomers, were detected
and reported by a private laboratory that tested tissues (for
endrin) submitted from late 198I-I982 collections. Because of the
persistence of this group of compounds, it was not considered
unusual to detect low residue levels in wildlife samples. The
high residue levels that occasionally occurred were considered
unusual, and were of most concern. Maximum residues, on a wet
weight basis, of these compounds in fat samples were: 0.25 ppm

heptachlor in a harrier, 53.0 ppm heptachlor epoxide in a mourn-
ing dove, 50.1 ppm polychlorinated biphenyl in a blue-winged
teal, 0.82 ppm alpha -chlordane in a shoveler, 0.68 ppm gamma-
chlordane in a mallard, 0.37 PPni beta-nonachlor in an eared
grebe, 0.60 ppm t rans-nonachlor in a mourning dove, 2.23 PPi^
oxychlordane in a horned lark, 8.27 PP*^ DDT in a pintail, 1.00
ppm DDD in a white pelican, 33.7 PPni ODE in a harrier, 2.08 ppm
dieldrin in a red-tailed hawk, 3.95 Ppm hexachlorobenzene in a
vesper sparrow, 0.09 Ppm lindane in a great horned owl and a snow
bunting, 0.32 ppm benzene hexachloride in a long-eared owl, and
6.01 ppm mirex in a mallard. Maximum 1 2-k et oend r in residues
(0.96 ppm) occurred in the whole body of a deer mouse. Each
parent compound (endrin, heptachlor, polychlorinated biphenyl,
DDT, dieldin, hexachlorobenzene, benzene hexachloride, chlordane,
and mirex) and/or its metabolites was found in resident wildlife
in Montana indicating exposure is possible both within Montana as
well as outside the state. The significance of the frequencies
and levels of all residues detected are discussed as they relate
to the welfare of local wildlife populations and their potential
hazards to humans who eat insecticide-contaminated meat. Recom-
mendations for cancelling the use of the most toxic of these
persistent compounds, the use of safe and effective alternative
insect control methods, continued residue monitoring, and other
aspects of the initial issue are presented.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

These studies could not have been successfully undertaken
without the interest and participation by many Montana Department
of Fish, Wildlife and Parks employees. Personnel who contri-
buted significantly in the field included: M.A, Anderson, T.W.
Butts, D.A. Childress, A. Dood, A. A. Elser, F.G. Feist, D.L.
Flath, R.L. Furber, J.T. Herbert, B. Hildebrand, T.L. Hill, T.C,
Hinz, S.J, Knapp, D.A. Kohlmoos, J.W. Logan, N.S. Martin, H.
Nyberg, J.L. Ramsey, R. Schoening, R.P. Stoneberg, R.P. Stordahl,

J. Swenson, K. Walcheck, C.R. Watts, and H.J. Wentland. Assis-
tance in preparing specimens for residue analyses by laboratories
included many of the above individuals, plus R.C. McFarland, D.F.
Pac and D.F. Palmisciano. Mr. McFarland also coordinated initial
record keeping efforts and was instrumental in computerizing
residue data as they became available. Administrative support
was given by E.O, Allen, R.R. Fliger, R.L. Johnson, R.G. Marcoux,

K. G. Seaburg, N.A. Thoreson, and the Director, J.W. Flynn. G.R.
Phillips provided the aquatic wildlife segments and data in this
report .

We thank T.W. Mussehl for his early efforts in recognizing
the potential hazards to wildlife and humans, for advocating and
coordinating initial statewide sample collections, preparing and
shipping wildlife tissues to laboratories, and for his editorial
suggestions on this report.

J.D. Cada designed and conducted the telephone interview
survey of hunters to evaluate the level of hunter awareness of
pesticide contamination of game birds following 1982 hunting
seasons .

D. Sexton and T. Warren contributed the layout and
photographs for the front cover, and D, Bourquin and J. Lightbody
did the printing of the report.

The interest, support, and decisive actions by members of
the Montana Fish and Game Commission is gratefully acknowledged.

We especially acknowledge the cooperation of the private
landowners who permitted us to collect wildlife from their lands.

Recognition is given to D. Quist, Montana Department of
Agriculture, who catalogued specimens and assured direct delivery
to that department’s EPA-approved laboratory in Bozeman, Montana;

L. Torma and his staff of analytical chemists performed the
necessary residue analyses during 1981. G.A. Algard and O.G.
Bain were especially helpful in coordinating and participating in
field studies in 1982. W.G. McOmber (former Director) and G.L.
Gingery provided administrative support and information on loca-
tions of end rin-treated fields, and were instrumental in cancel-
ling the state registration of endrin for use on grasshoppers in
grainfields in the fall. The Montana Department of Agriculture
also provided financial support to help offset costs of preparing
this report.

Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences
personnel, under the directorship of J.J. Drynan, tested fish and
water samples for endrin residues, provided information on fed-
eral action levels for various pesticides in human food, and
interpreted pesticide residues found in wild game meat from human
health perspectives.

We greatly appreciated the extraordinary assistance provided
byR,L, Johnson, D.F. Hughes and their staff, HAZLETON-
RALTECH, INC. (Madison, WI,), via their explanations of analyti-
cal methodology used in testing for the various pesticide resi-
dues, their quality control during testing, and their close
communications during our studies. They also alerted us to the
occurrence of pesticide residues (besides endrin) in Montana’s
wildlife samples.

L.C. McEwen, Rocky Mountain Field Station, Patuxent Wildlife
Research Center (Ft, Collins, CO.), was extremely helpful in
guiding investigators to endrin-wildlife literature and in gener-
ating U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service support for testing mourning
dove, black bear, and fish samples for endrin residues in 1981.
He also participated in the 1982 field studies on the effects of
endrin, chlorpyr ifos, and permethrin on wildlife, and supervised
analyses of brain tissues for cholinesterase inhibition. Person-
nel on the Benton Lake, Bowdoin, and Medicine Lake National
Wildlife Refuges in central and eastern Montana collected and
submitted waterfowl samples for endrin residue analyses in 1981.
R.J. Hall, T.G. Lament, and W.L. Reichel, Patuxent Wildlife
Research Center, supervised residue analyses and provided results
from all of those samples. H.W. Miller, Central Flyway Represen-
tative, distributed pesticide residue data from migratory birds
among the states, which encouraged other states to collect and
test additional birds for pesticide residues.

The assistance of H, Spencer, Toxicologist, EPA (Washington,
D.C.) in interpreting the early endrin residues in game species
in 1981 as they related to implications to human health is
gratefully acknowledged. M.W, hammering and his staff, EPA
Regional Laboratory (Denver, CO.), also performed some of the
residue analyses from 198I wildlife tissues.

We gratefully acknowledge the intense interest and financial
support of Ducks Unlimited, Incorporated, and especially the
support of their Executive Director Dale Whitesell, for the
continued endrin monitoring effort through 1982.

The interest and understanding of the Federal Aid in
Wildlife Restoration Regional staff in Denver, Colorado, during
these studies is also acknowledged.

Typing of the manu'ript for publication was by R.L.
Slavinsky and L.M. Todd.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Foreword ii

Abstract lii

List of Tables ix

List of Figures xii

Introduction 1

Background Perspective 3

Wildlife 3

Aquatic . 3

Terrestrial 4

Resident 4

Migratory 8

Agriculture 15

Cutworms 17

Methods of Cutworm Control 20

Pesticide Registration 20

Endrin 20

Metabolites 21

Persistence in Soil 22

Wildlife Management Concerns 22

Aquatic 23

Terrestrial 24

Human Health Concerns 31

Study Areas and Methods 32

Monitoring 1981 Operational Endrin Spraying 32

Sample Collections 32

Collection Sites 33

Preparation of Samples for Testing 37

Analytical Procedures 38

Residue Reporting 39

Public Awareness Survey 39

1982 Alternative Insecticide-Wildlife Studies 40

Aquatic Bioassays 41

Terrestrial Surveys 41

Other Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Compounds 45

Results and Discussion 46

I98I-I982 Endrin Monitoring 46

Early Chronology of Events 46

Aquatic Wildlife 46

Terrestrial Wildlife 46

Resident 46

Migratory 54

Miscellaneous Samples 65

Consumption of Endrin by Wildife 65

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
(Continued )

£^e

Costs and Consequences of Endrin Usage 69

To Wildlife 69

To Hunting 69

To Wildlife Agencies 74

To Private Enterprise 75

To Agriculture 75

Absence of Wildlife Carcasses 77

Continued Registration of Endrin by the EPA 78

1982 Alternative Insecticide-Wildlife Studies 80

Aquatic Bioassays 82

Terrestrial Surveys 82

Endrin Studies......... 82

Chlorpyrifos Studies 90

Permethrin Studies 92

Comparative Efficacies of Tested Insecticides... 92

Other Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Compounds 94

Heptachlor and Heptachlor Epoxide 94

Resident Wildlife 96

Migratory Wildlife 98

Miscellaneous Samples.. 104

Discussion 104

Polychlorinated Biphenyls 113

Resident Wildlife 113

Migratory Wildlife 114

Miscellaneous Samples 122

Discussion 122

Chlordane Group 129

DDT Group.......... 133

D ield rin 139

Hex achlorobenzene 141

Lindane and Benzene Hexachloride 143

Mirex 145

Major Actions...... 147

Conclusions....... 149

Recommendations 157

Literature Cited..... 160

Appendix 177

viii

LIST OF TABLES

No . Page

1 Summary of statewide hunting statistics for deer 5

and pronghorn in Montana, 1976-1981.

2 Annual harvests of four species of upland game 7

birds in Montana, 1976-1981.

3 Waterfowl species, activities, and spring migra- 9

tion dates in Montana.

4 Median tolerance limits to fish, and application 23

rates necessary to reach those levels, of four
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides currently
used in Montana.

5 Acute toxicity of endrin to 12 species of fish 25

which occur in Montana.

6 Acute toxicity of endrin to 10 kinds of aquatic 26

invertebrates which occur in Montana.

7 Acute oral toxicity of endrin to birds and mam- 27

mals .

8 Endrin residues in fish from selected locations 49

in Montana during 1981.

9 Summary of endrin residues detected in tissues 52

of big game during monitoring of spring 198I
endrin applications.

10 Summary of endrin residues detected in tissues 53

of upland game birds during monitoring of spring

1981 endrin applications.

11 Summary of endrin and ketoendrin residues de- 55

tected in tissues of small mammals during moni-
toring of spring 198I endrin applications.

12 Summary of endrin residues detected in tissues 58

of waterfowl during monitoring of spring 1981
endrin applications.

13 Summary of endrin residues detected in tissues 61

of other aquatic birds and migratory game birds
during monitoring of spring 1981 endrin applica-
tions.

LIST OF TABLES
(Continued )

No . Page

14 Summary of endrin residues detected in tissues 63

of raptors during monitoring of spring 198I
endrin applications.

15 Summary of endrin residues detected in tissues 64

of passerine birds during monitoring of spring

1981 endrin applications.

16 Summary of endrin residues detected in miscel- 67

laneous samples during monitoring of spring 198I
endrin applications.

17 Amounts of end r in-contaminated vegetation/food 68

to be ingested to attain LD^q’s in four species

of Montana wildlife.

18 Summary of the numbers of resident and nonresi- 70

dent game bird hunting licenses issued in
Montana, 1976“-198l.

19 Summary of numbers of upland game bird hunters 71

afield, days hunted, and birds harvested in
Montana, 1976--1981.

20 Summary of numbers of federal waterfowl hunting 72

stamps sold, hunters afield, hunter days, and
waterfowl harvested in Montana, 1976-1981.

21 Revenues generated by the sale of game bird 75

hunting licenses to the Montana Department of

Fish, Wildlife and Parks, 1976-1981.

22 Summary of wheat acreages, yields, price per 77

bushel, and crop value in Montana, 1981.

23 Comparative toxicities of selected insecticides 8l

to wildlife.

24 Results of field bioassays using Daphnia magna 83

to monitor drift of aerially applied endrin and
permethr in .

25 Summary of endrin residues detected in tissues 84

of migratory wildlife at prespray and various
postspray intervals foJlowing 1982 endrin appli-
cations .

26 Summary of endrin residues detected in tissues 87

of resident wildlife at various postspray inter-
vals following 1982 endrin applications.

LIST OF TABLES
(Continued )

Page

Summary of heptachlor epoxide residues detected
in tissues of upland game birds in Montana,
1981-1982.

Summary of heptachlor epoxide residues detected
in tissues of small mammals in Montana, 198I-

1982.

Summary of heptachlor epoxide residues detected
in tissues of waterfowl in Montana, 1981-1982.

100

Summary of heptachlor epoxide residues detected
in tissues of other aquatic birds and migratory
game birds in Montana, 1981-1982.

102

Summary of heptachlor epoxide residues detected
in tissues of raptors in Montana, 198I-I982.

102

Summary of heptachlor epoxide residues detected
in tissues of passerine birds in Montana, 198I-

1982.

103

Summary of PCB residues detected in tissues of
small mammals in Montana, 1981-1982.

115

Summary of PCB residues detected in tissues of
waterfowl in Montana, 198I-I982.

116

Summary of PCB residues detected in tissues of
other aquatic birds and migratory game birds in
Montana, 1981-1982.

117

Summary of PCB residues detected in tissues of
raptors in Montana, 1981-1982.

120

Summary of PCB residues detected in tissues of
passerine birds in Montana, 198I-I982.

121

Summary of PCB residues detected in miscel-
laneous samples in Montana, 198I-I982.

123

Acute oral toxicities of PCB*s and three organo-
chlorine insecticides fed to 2-week old game
birds .

125

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LIST OF FIGURES

No. Page

1 Percentage distribution by state and province of 11

direct recoveries of Canada geese banded
(N=2,656) in Montana in summer.

2 Percentage distribution by state and province of 12

direct recoveries of mallards banded (N=1,594) in
Montana in summer.

3 Percentage distribution by state and province of 13

direct recoveries of pintails banded (N=670) in
Montana in summer.

4 Distribution of winter and spring wheat by county 16

in Montana, 1979.

5 Counties from which economic infestations of army 18

cutworm have been reported in small grains in
Montana, 1903-1982.

6 Counties from which economic infestations of pale 19

western cutworm have been reported in small
grains in Montana, 1915-1982,

7 Reservoir 1 in sagebrush-grassland at Site 1. 34

8 Reservoir 2 (Site 1) in sagebrush-grassland 34

with drainage from a nearby endrin-treated wheat

field .

9 Reservoir 3 (Site 1) in sagebrush-grassland 35

bordered by an endrin-treated wheat field.

10 Reservoir at Site 5 immediately below an endrin- 35

treated wheat field.

11 Permethrin-treatment study area near Vaughn. 42

12 Map of Lavina study area showing location of 43

various insecticide treatments.

13 Chronology of 198I endrin spraying and subsequent 47

events and endrin residues in vegetation and

wildlife in Montana.

14 Locations where fish were sampled for endrin 48

analyses in 198I.

xii

LIST OF FIGURES
(Continued )

Distribution of 1981-1982 sampling sites used to
monitor endrin residues in terrestrial wildlife in
Montana following 1981 endrin applications.

Reported acres of wheat treated with heptachlor
by county in Montana, 1981.

INTRODUCTION

A mild winter (1980-1981) followed by warm, dry spring
conditions throughout eastern Montana resulted in earlier than
normal activities of army and pale western cutworms. Agricultur-
alists have traditionally used endrin-^^, a persistent chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticide to combat those economically-damaging
pests. Montana Department of Agriculture (MDA) personnel indi-
cated in March 1981 that endrin might be applied on up to 275,000
acres of grainfields in eastern Montana that spring. Ultimate-
ly, about 200,000 acres were treated, at least half with endrin.

Endrin’s documented hazard to wildlife and affinity to fat
indicated that extensive spraying could seriously impact the
management of fish and wildlife. Belated information on
locations of endrin-treated fields precluded timely field studies
to determine immediate impacts on those resources. Because those
field assessments could not be conducted, endrin residues which
might persist in game meat and be consumed by hunters that fall
became a primary concern. Studies were necessarily limited to
postspray residue analyses of a wide variety of wildlife
beginning in late April 1981.

Initial objectives in monitoring endrin residues in Montana
wildlife tissues in 1981 were to document: (1) species which had

assimilated endrin, (2) levels of endrin which had accumulated,
and (3) persistence of endrin residues in those species. It was
oriented initially toward consumability of wildlife. In answer-
ing the public health questions the resulting data were also
significant because of possible impacts to animal welfare. This
included the following concerns:

1. most female mule deer, white-tailed deer, and pronghorn
were experiencing the last half of pregnancies; the
impacts of endrin on gestation physiology was unknown;

2. Hungarian partridge and sharptails were breeding and
initiating early nests in March and April; i.e. base
breeding populations and production from early nests
could be reduced;

3. pheasants were rebuilding fat reserves prior to breeding
in May, and could assimilate endrin which could adversely
impact base breeding populations; and

1/ Chemical nomenclature of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides
is given in Appendix A.

4. waterfowl and nongame and endangered species of birds
were migrating to and through Montana.

Detection of endrin in wildlife at levels that exceeded the
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) action levels for domestic
meats resulted in continued sampling at many of the same sites
through the fall of 1982. Objectives of the continued
collections were to:

1. determine persistence of endrin applied in 1981 in
wildlife tissues;

2. document endrin levels in resident and migratory wildlife
during breeding and rearing seasons; and

3. provide background data on endrin residues in wildlife in
the event that endrin would be applied again that fall
or in 1982.

Subsequent discovery of heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide,
known to be carcinogenic to humans, plus 15 other chlorinated
hydrocarbon compounds, including polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCB’s), in wildlife tissues generated additional concern.
Residue levels of those compounds, and their potential impacts on
Montana wildlife and on people who might consume those wildlife
are reported.

Recognizing the need for substitute methods of cutworm con-
trol if the use of endrin was terminated, the Montana Department
of Fish, Wildlife & Parks (MDFWP) and MDA implemented a field
study of the effects of chlorpyrifos and permethr in on cutworms
and wildlife. That study, which also utilized endrin as a "stan-
dard", was done during May-September 1982. Objectives of the
study were to determine: (1) the concentrations of insecticides

reaching the ground downwind from spray areas, (2) the biological
impacts of those insecticides on aquatic life at various downwind
intervals; (3) the efficacy of each compound in controlling
cutworms; (4) the impact of each compound on various species of
wildlife; and (5) levels of each compound assimilated by these
species in, and immediately adjacent to, treated areas.

This report summarizes the findings of the 198I-I982
monitoring and field studies and discusses implications to fish
and wildlife management, including human consumption of
contaminated wildlife.

BACKGROUND PERSPECTIVE

Wildlife

Montana is inhabited by 585 species of vertebrate wildlife
during one time or another each year. They include 8l species of
fish, 101 of mammals, 37I of birds, and 16 each of amphibians and
reptiles. Emphasis of the present studies involved those which
might reasonably be expected to contact endrin applied to
grainfields in 198I; they included 52 (645S) of the fish species,
61 (61%) of the mammals, 104 (28%) of the birds, 9 (56%) of the
amphibians, and 11 (69%) of the reptiles.

Wildlife is an important and cherished part of Montana's
heritage. It is a renewable and publicly-owned resource. Demand
for wildlife has traditionally been high, and that demand is
increasing; according to the MDFWP Wildlife Strategic Plan ap-
proximately 70% of all Montanans "use" wildlife, with half of
that demand accounted for by hunters (Mussehl et al. 1978).
Because 64% of Montana's land (excluding national parks and
Indian reservations) is privately owned, the relative abundance
of many wildlife species depends largely on the uses and manage-
ment practices employed on those lands. Expansion and intensifi-
cation of land uses which reduce the carrying capacity of wild-
life habitats have been identified as major wildlife management
problems (Mussehl et al. 1978). Part of that problem involves
the application of pesticides to crop and range lands.

These investigations address the agricultural use of endrin
and heptachlor to control cutworms and wireworms, respectively,
in cereal grains, primarily winter wheat. Chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides are noted for their persistence in the
environment, affinity for fat, and high toxicity. They have
historically caused negative effects to wildlife, and have been
implicated in threats to human health. Members of this chemical
family which have been banned include DDT, chlordane, dieldrin,
endrin (except on cotton west of Interstate 35, as a rodenticide
in orchards, as an avicide, and for cutworm control in cereal
grains), and heptachlor (other than as a seed dressing). Our
studies were aimed at some traditional agricultural chemicals
that were in the process of being replaced when discovery of
their elevated residues in Montana's wildlife precipitated public
concern .

Aquatic

Twenty-four game and 57 nongame fish species inhabit
Montana's lakes, reservoirs, rivers, and streams. All are depen-
dent on insects for food sometime during their life cycle; prey
species rely heavily on insects as food. Thirteen (54%) of the
game and 39 (68%) of the nongame species have a reasonable oppor-
tunity to contact endrin applied to grainfields. Only those

species which were tested for endrin residues will be discussed
in this report. Except for snapping turtles-^/ which are occa-
sionally eaten by humans, no other reptile or amphibian species
were tested for endrin residues.

Terrestrial

Big Game. Only 3 of Montana’s 12 big game species were con-
sidered to be susceptible to assimilation of endrin applied to
cultivated crops: mule deer, white-tailed deer, and pronghorn
antelope. Although generally not closely associated with culti-
vated fields, 2 black bears which were depredating beehives near
grain fields in southcentral Montana were also tested for endrin
residues .

Deer are the most sought after big game animals in the state
(Table 1), providing an annual average (1976-1981) of 899,000
hunting recreation days (firearms and archery seasons) to 145,000
hunters, and yielding a harvest of 66,000 animals per year.
Pronghorn are the third ranked ’big game species, providing an
annual average of 50,600 total hunting days for 19,600 hunters,
with a harvest of 14,400 animals.

Mule deer are widely distributed over Montana, occurring in
every county and at some time during the year on 119,380 mi^, or
about 91% of the state (excluding national parks and Indian
reservations). They inhabit the broken-f orested mountains, moun-
tain foothills, river breaks, and prairies. Because some foot-
hill and rangeland habitats have been converted to cultivated
grain and hay crops, mule deer could readily encounter endrin-
treated fields. Land ownership of mule deer range is 56% private,
3 S% public (i.e. federal), and 6% state school land; a higher
percentage of their range is in private ownership in the eastern
part of the state.

White-tailed deer occur on about 38,400 mi^, or 29% of
Montana (excluding national parks and Indian reservations). Land
ownership of their range is 65% private, 32% public, and 3%
state. In central and eastern Montana, 82-93% of whitetail
habitats are privately owned. Over 75% of the annual whitetail
harvest is estimated to come from private land. Whitetails
inhabit most drainages of Montana that have tree and/or shrub
cover, plus the heavy conif erous-f orested mountains and foothill
areas. Because of their close association with agricultural
areas in central and eastern Montana, whitetails were considered
the big game species most likely to contact endrin treatments.

2/ Common and scientific names of Montana wildlife mentioned in
the text are given in Appendix B.

Table 1. Summary of statewide hunting statistics for deer and pronghorn in
Montana, 1976-1981.

No. Licenses No. No. Animals % Hunter Days

Species Year or Permits Hunters^' Harvested-^/ Success Hunted-^/

F irearms Hunting

Deer

1976

127,813

114,849

43,291

811,179

1977

13^,665

120,798

54,143

834,423

1978

137,504

125,054

53,933

786,489

1979

149,513

140,230

64,270

907,971

1980

160,964

151,918

85,164

810,680

1981

161,527

154,068

89,003

844,617

Pronghorn

1976

27,167

23,273

17,298

69,819

1977

27,213

24,214

18,528

72, 642

1978

22,285

18,393

13,471

55,179

1979

16,811

14,170

10,039

28,340

1980

18,384

16,104

12,016

32,208

1981

22,188

18,973

14,954

37,946

Archery Hunting

Deer 1976

7,665

6,000

486

37,800

1977

9,110

7,143

826

118,572

1978

10,424

7,849

865

60,437

1979

11,325

12,096

850

83,264

1980

13,883

14,081

1,398

71,497

1981

15,407

14,725

1,512

90,752

Pronghorn 1976

474

1,516

1977

499

1,297

1978

347

1,145

1979

240

816

1980

366

1,098

1981

470

106

1,833

1/ Numbers given are point estimates projected from a sample of hunters
contacted each year about their hunting activities.

2J Numbers of archery licenses issued apply to deer and antelope.

Pronghorn are unique to North America, and occur naturally
only in the western states and provinces; core habitat for prong-
horn is sagebrush rangelands. Although they are now abundant,
unregulated harvesting of pronghorn during the settling of the
West, conversion of native rangelands to croplands, and intensive
grazing by domestic livestock combined to reduce pronghorn popu-
lations; currently they total only about 4% of their presettle-
ment numbers (Pyrah, in prep.). In continuous rangeland habitats
pronghorn would have little exposure to endrin applications.
Pronghorn inhabiting rangeland interspersed with grainfields
would have been susceptible to contact with endrin. Pronghorn
occur on about 61,200 mi2, or 47% of the state (excluding
national parks and Indian reservations). Land ownership of their
range is 75% private, 1 8% public, and 7% state school lands.

Upland Game Birds. Four of Montana's 9 hunted upland game
bird species occupy habitats which include grainfields, and
therefore could come in contact with endrin.

Hungarian partridge, introduced into Montana in the early
1900’s, currently have the widest distribution of any upland game
bird in the state. They occur over some 94,700 mi^, most of which
is in private ownership. Partridge are extremely closely asso-
ciated with grainfields; 95% of 1,448 partridge groups were
observed within 1/4 mi of grain in Teton County, 1969-1974
(Weigand 1980). Because of their close relationship with farm-
ing, partridge are the upland game bird species most likely to
encounter agricultural pesticides. The annual hunting harvest of
partridge (1976-1980) averaged 8l,800 birds (range, 46,400-
103,900), with the lowest harvest in 24 years being recorded in
1981 (Table 2).

The ring-necked pheasant, introduced into Montana in the
l 890’s, is the most popular upland game bird in the state. It
adapted to early agricultural practices, increased in numbers and
expanded its range through the mid-1940’s, and then declined
statewide to a current range of about 17,300 mi^. Most of the
state’s pheasant range is on private land. Pheasant hunting
harvests averaged 99,800 per year (range, 87,800-106,500) between
1976 and 1980 (Table 2).

Sharp-tailed grouse, a native species and Montana 's second
most popular upland game bird, inhabit about 83,000 mi^, or about

64% of the state. They live in prairie and foothill rangelands,
and have adapted, within limits, to the encroachment of culti-
vated grains. A major portion of their range is in private
ownership, although they also thrive on large tracts of public
(Bureau of Land Management, BLM) land. Sharptails were consid-
ered the second most likely upland game bird species to contact
endrin. Hunting hai’ve. > of sharptails averaged 105,200
annually between 1976 and i980 (range, 75,200-137,300, Table 2);
the 1981 harvest was the lowest since 1965.

Table 2. Annual harvests (rounded to the nearest 100) of four
species of upland game birds in Montana, 1976-1981.

Native

Species

Introduced

Species

Sharp-tailed Sage

Grouse Grouse

Ring -necked
Pheasant

Hungarian

Partridge

1976

137,300

50,800

87,800

103,900

1977

95,200

34,700

102,300

103,900

1978

96,300

43,600

102,200

93,000

1979

121,800

66,400

106,500

62, 100

1980

75,200

34,600

100,100

46,400

1981

56,000

26,700

98,900

29,900

5-yr .Avg.

(1976-1980)

105,200

46,000

99,800

81,800

% Change

1980 to 1981

-26

-23

-1

-36

% Change
Between 5-yr.
Average and
1981

-47

-42

-1

-63

Sage grouse, another native species, are one of Montana’s
most unique game birds and the largest grouse species in North
America. Like the pronghorn, sage grouse have evolved an almost
inseparable alliance with sagebrush communities, a characteristic
which makes sage grouse rather unadaptable to cultivated fields;
sage grouse will feed on forbs in grainfields. The species
inhabits about 50,000 mi^ in Montana with large portions of its
range in private and public [BLM and U.S. Forest Service (USFS)]
ownership. The annual hunting harvest (1976-1980) averaged 46,000
birds (range, 34,600-66,400, Table 2); the 1981 harvest was the
lowest in 23 years. Of the game birds considered here, sage
grouse are probably the least likely to contact endrin.

Two additional Montana upland game bird species, the chukar
partridge and Merriam’s wild turkey, may frequent grainfields
within their natural habitats. Neither species is native to
Montana and based on their limited range in the state, were not
considered to be at much risk of contacting endrin sprayed in
1981. Consequently, only 4 samples representing 3 turkeys were
tested for endrin residues.

Endrin uptake by these or other g round -dwel 1 ing bird species
can be by several routes: (1) direct contact with the feet,
scaley portions of the legs, and the skin around the eyes; (2)
ingestion of contaminated vegetation, insects, and soil; and (3)
preening of feathers.

Small mammals. Six of 10 furbearer and 5 of 6 predator
species were likely candidates for exposure to endrin. The
muskrat was the only furbearer tested for endrin residues; no
predators were tested.

Forty-seven (64%) of the 73 nongame mammal species in
Montana are likely to contact agriculturally-applied endrin.
These species are important as primary food sources for avian and
mammalian predators, and could pass ingested endrin and its
metabolites on to their predators. Species tested for endrin
residues in the current studies were black-tailed prairie dog,
cottontail rabbit, deer mouse, harvest mouse, house mouse, meadow
vole, pocket mouse, porcupine, Richardson’s ground squirrel,
thirteen-lined ground squirrel, and white-tailed jackrabbit.
Each of those species is primarily herbivorous, although several
occasionally eat insects.

Migratory

Waterfowl. At least 28 species of waterfowl migrate through
Montana, and 23 species are known to nest here (Table 3)- Nine-
teen (70%) of those species could have contacted endrin in
Montana during migration, nesting, or brood rearing.

Nesting sites include many of the wetlands occurring in
eastern Montana. An average of 118,100 wetlands occurred in the
Central Flyway portion of Montana south of the Missouri River
during 1974-1981 (Smith 1982). Those wetlands include natural
prairie potholes and artificial reservoirs. Most reservoirs,
constructed since the drought of the 1930’s, were intended for
use primarily by livestock; others were built as sources of
irrigation water, to prevent local flooding, and/or to be used
for warmwater fisheries. Rangelands adjacent to some reservoirs
have been plowed, and are now cultivated for grain or hay crops.
Treatment of those grain crops with endrin would likely result in
contamination of the pond and its surrounding environment.

The prevailing dry conditions of 1980-1981 resulted in
little or no water in many prairie wetlands. The 69,000 wetlands
estimated for the Central Flyway portion of Montana south of the
Missouri River in 1981 represents a 45/« reduction from the 1 974-
1980 average, and a 65^ reduction from the high (195,100) recor-
ded during this period (Sn:ith 1982). Subsequently, breeding
waterfowl either crowded onto existing water bodies for nesting,
remained at traditional sites as nonbreeders, or left those
areas to nest elsewhere. Because of the lack of restrictions on

Table 3. Waterfowl species, activities, and spring migration dates-^ in Montana.

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2/For spring 1978(Lorang 1979).

£/For spring, 1971-1972(Rundquist 1973) .

2/Ross geese migrate at approximately the same time as lesser snow/blue geese.
2/(Lati 1 ong )after Skaar (1980).

2/ Approximate from Bell rose (197G).

applying endrin on or near private wetlands, waterfowl remaining
at those sites could have been exposed to 198I endrin treatments.

Based on waterfowl breeding and production survey indexes,
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) estimated that Montana’s
1981 fall flight would be 1.8 million waterfowl, i.e, that many
birds were resident and/or produced in Montana in 198I (U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service 198I). Of that total, more than 1
million would migrate down the Central Flyway and 0.35 million
would travel down both the Pacific and Mississippi Flyways.
Those figures do not include additional millions of waterfowl
residing and produced in Canada and adjacent states which would
migrate through Montana that fall.

The potential distribution of end r in -contaminated waterfowl
available to hunters can be perceived from the direct recov-
eries of 3 species of waterfowl banded during the summer in
Montana. Those data showed that 45% of Canada geese banded in
Montana in summer were harvested by hunters the following fall in
Montana (Fig. 1); 17% were taken in Colorado, 14% in Idaho,
and 8% in New Mexico. When all direct recoveries were consid-
ered, hunters in 13 states and 2 provinces in 2 flyways harvested
Canada geese originating in Montana. Mallards banded in Montana
were harvested in 32 states and 4 provinces and in all 4 flyways,
with hunters in Montana, Nebraska, Idaho, Arkansas, and Colorado
being the primary ’’beneficiaries” (Fig. 2). Pintails from
Montana were taken in 29 states and 4 provinces and in all 4
flyways, with California, Texas, Montana, and Louisiana being the
primary recipients (Fig. 3)«

Other aquatic and migratory game birds. Species in this
group which were tested, and which migrate through/to and breed
in Montana include the common loon, coot, eared grebe, mourning
dove, white pelican, and Wilson’s snipe. Each species, except
the loon, has widespread distribution in the state, and 3 species
(coot, dove, snipe) are hunted and eaten by humans.

Raptors. Thirty-three species of hawks, owls, and eagles
occur in the many diverse habitats in Montana. Nineteen of those
are diurnal and 14 are nocturnal; 7 diurnal and 5 nocturnal
species could contact endrin. The importance of raptors, as well
as mammalian predators, is that they are generally at the peak of
food chains, like humans. Persistent toxic environmental contam-
inants, like endrin, are passed from prey to predator with poten-
tials for secondary poisoning, disrupted reproductive physiology,
and aberrant behavior' patterns of the predators. The present
studies included testing of the golden eagle, great horned owl,
harrier, kestrel, long-eared owl, and red-tailed hawk. Each of
those species migrates t' rough and breeds and winters (except
kestrels) in Montana. Eac species also includes small mammals
and/or birds in their diets.

Passerines. This group includes 156 passerine and 40 shore-
bird species, the majority of which migrate through or to, breed
in, and/or winter in Montana. Fifty-three (34%) of the pas-
serines and 14 (35%) of the shorebirds had a reasonable chance of
contacting endrin. Like small mammals, these birds are prey
primarily for raptors, although mammalian predators will also eat
them. Species included in the current studies which migrate
through/to and breed in Montana are chestnut-collared longspur,
cliff swallow, cowbird, horned lark, loggerhead shrike, McCown’s
longspur, meadowlark, red-winged blackbird, vesper sparrow,
white-crowned sparrow, and yellow-rumped warbler. Species which
migrate through/to and winter in Montana are the lapland longspur
and snow bunting; horned larks also winter in Montana. These
species represent a reasonable cross section of granivorous and
insectivorous species in Montana farmlands.

Endangered Species. Three species classified as endangered
by Montana Statute or the Federal Endangered Species Act could
have been impacted by the 1981 endrin applications in the state.

Whooping cranes occur in Montana primarily as casual mi-
grants. They belong to the main North American (i.e. the
Aransas-Wood Buffalo) flock. These cranes have been sighted in
Montana during 6 spring and 2 fall migrations during 1968-1977
(D.L. Flath unpub. data). The principal spring migration period
for Montana (45°-49° N. Lat.) is April 8-May 15; one report is
from May 30. Their average length of stay in Montana is 2 days
(range, 1-8 days).

While cranes are very marsh oriented, and eat semi-aquatic
forms like frogs, tadpoles, snakes, and crabs, and aquatic vege-
tation, they do utilize upland habitat extensively during migra-
tion. In spring they are attracted to summer fallow, hay mead-
ows, and grainfields where they feed heavily on adult and larval
insects, small mammals, and waste grain.

Peregrine falcons also occur in Montana primarily as mi-
grants, although they can be found here any time of the year. A
minimum of 23 historic eyries are known for Montana. Attempts to
reintroduce the species as nesters were initiated in 1981.
Areas of principal occurrence include the east slope of the Rocky
Mountains and the mountain ranges in the southern part of the
state. The main observation period is October and November.

Peregrines are predatory, with other birds (mostly pas-
serines, shorebirds, and waterfowl) being the main prey (Hickey
1 969). Organochlor in e insecticides are commonly credited with
the decline of peregrines nationwide (Hickey 1969). The poten-
tial for assimilation of endrin by peregrines is high because
they are at or near the top of their* food chain. Mortality can
result from acute exposure to endrin; chronic, sublethal levels
can impact reproduction through failure of the adults to incu-
bate eggs or to properly feed and care for young.

Bald eagles are present in Montana year round. At least 40
breeding territories occur in the state, large numbers pass
through during spring and fall migrations, and 450 or more over-
winter here (D.L. Flath unpub. data). Five breeding territories
are in southeastern Montana and 1 is along the east slope of the
Rockies. The main spring migration period is February and March;
nonbreeders may be encountered through April. Based on available
data (Harmata 1982), the migration route in the east occurs be-
tween 2 gently converging lines bounded by the Bighorn and
Powder Rivers in the south and the towns of Saco and Opheim in
the North; Fort Peck Reservoir and the C.M, Russell National
Wildlife Refuge are included in their entirety.

These eagles feed primarily on fish, and will concentrate in
large numbers where dead, dying or otherwise vulnerable fish are
available (eg. southwest side of Glacier National Park in fall).
Foods of secondary importance are dead or "crippled" ducks,
rabbits, and other mammals; mammals may be eaten in the form of
carrion .

Miscellaneous Samples

Samples included here are not readily assignable to another
group. Sediment was tested to document persistence of endrin in
aquatic habitats. All other samples (2 each of barley, wheat,
cutworms, and snapping turtle fat, and 1 of snails) are
additional potential sources of endrin contamination for wildlife
and/or for humans.

Agriculture

Agriculture is Montanans primary economic industry. Farms
and ranches occupy 62 million of the state's 93 million acres of
land, resulting in Montana’s ranking as the second largest agri-
cultural state in the nation (Montana Crop and Livestock Re-
porting Service 1982). Although numbers of farms in 1980
(23,800) had decreased 36% since 1950 (37»200), the size of each
farm increased by 49% during the same period. Improved farming
technology, including the use of pesticides, has contributed to
increased farming efficiency.

A total of 7.66 million acres was seeded to small grains in
Montana in 1981 (Montana Crop and Livestock Reporting Service
1982). Wheat comprised 77% (6.04 million) of that acreage and
winter wheat was 45% (2.7 million) of the total wheat acreage.
The distribution of winter and spring wheat production by county
is illustrated in Fig. 4.

Fij^ure 4. Distribution of winter and spring vdieat by county in Montana
1979 Cfontana Agricultural Statistics 1980:34).

WINTER WHEAT

1979 Production

SPRING WHEAT EXCLUDING DURUM

1979 Production

Cutworms

Two species of economically damaging cutworms (Family
Noctuidae, Order Lepidoptera) occur in Montana: the army
cutworm, Euxoa auxiliaris (Grote) and the pale western cutworm,
Agrostis orthogonia Morrison. Both species inhabit dryland areas
(ranges and cultivated crops), produce 1 generation per year, and
rarely reach local densities sufficient to cause severe economic
losses to grain during 2 consecutive years. Conditions that
promote good survival and high spring populations are a dry July
followed by a wet fall. Their remaining biological characteris-
tics are quite different, which in turn affects the effectiveness
of various control methods.

Army cutworms overwinter as larvae and pupate during late
April-early May. Adults are active for a brief period following
emergence and then aestivate until fall, when they again emerge,
mate, and lay eggs. Eggs are laid in loose soil and hatch in
about 10 days. Larvae are active, nocturnal surface feeders.

Pale western cutworms overwinter as eggs, hatch in late
spring and then burrow even deeper into the soil. Further larval
development and pupation occurs underground. Adults emerge in
late September, mate, and lay eggs; again, loose soil is
preferred for egg deposition. The larvae are primarily
subterranean feeders.

There have been 38 "economic infestations" of army cutworms
in Montana during 1903-1982 and 30 of pale western cutworms,
1915-1982 (O.G. Bain pers. comm.). Apparently every county east
of the Continental Divide (except Daniels, Garfield, and Meagher)
has experienced such an outbreak of army cutworms (Fig. 5); 6
counties west of the Divide have also been impacted. Similarly,
heavy occurrences of pale western cutworms have appeared in most
eastern Montana counties (Fig. 6).

The occurrence of army cutworms in 198I was officially
confirmed by MDA entomologist O.G. Bain, about 11 March. The
species was found in winter wheat, alfalfa, pasture, and native
rangeland in southeastern and southcentral Montana. Pale western
cutworms were later identified in southcentral and northcentral
Montana. Because of the value of grain crops, extensive cutworm
reduction efforts, primarily using endrin, began by 1 March;
most endrin was applied by 20 April. Early projections from the
MDA indicated that as many as 275,000 acres of grain would be
treated with endrin (S. Baril pers. comm.). Pesticide dealer
sales records later suggested that the total acreage treated with
all chemicals in 198I approximated 200,000 acres; a minimum of
98,848-123,560 acres were treated with endrin. The number of
additional acres treated with endrin stored on farms and used
during I98I remains unknown.

Figure 5. Comties from v^ich economic infestations of army cutworm have been reported in small
grains in Montana, 1903-1982 (Ifontana Department of Agriculture).

»«iirr

tigure 6. Counti0s from 'vfrLch, Gconomic infestations of pale western cutworm have been reported in small
grains in Ibntana, 1915-1982 C Montana Department of Agriculture) .

Methods of Cutworm Control

The first settlers to break Montana’s prairie sod to culti-
vate grain at the turn of the 19th Century had few chemical
weapons for combating outbreaks of cutworm (Cooley and Parker
1916). A poisoned bran mash, using Paris green (copper
acetoarsenite), scattered over- greening fields in spring or
placed in furrows in those fields was one of the first cutworm
treatments. Toxaphene and dieldrin, 2 other chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides, came into widespread use on Montana
crop and range lands in the early 1950’s; dieldrin was especially
effective on pale western cutworms. Toxaphene performed
erratically under cool spring conditions, so when endrin
(persistent and effective in a variety of weather conditions) was
introduced in 1954 it almost immediately became the cutworm
insecticide of choice. Endrin remained the preferred cutworm
insecticide through 1981 (Montana Department of Agriculture
1981), and endrin is the only insecticide registered by EPA to
combat pale western cutworms. Because of the efficacy of the
other 2 compounds, endrin probably had limited use for rangeland
grasshopper control.

Pesticide Registration

Endrin was registered for cutworm and grasshopper control in
cereal grains in the Great Plains by the USDA in 1951. It has
been recommended for control of cutworms in cereal grains in
Montana since 1954 by the Montana Cooperative Extension Service
(Montana Insect Pests, 1953-1954). Because of its hazard to
wildlife and the environment, the use of endrin on agricultural
crops east of the Mississippi River was banned by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1979; it continued to be
registered for use in grainfields in western states (Federal
Register 1979).

Montana statutes require state registration of any pesticide
registered by the EPA [Sec. 80-8-20 1 (3), MCA] and distributed,
sold, or transported in Montana. State registration may be more
restrictive than EPA’s, up to and including cancellation. Label
restrictions by both the EPA and MDA do not permit aerial appli-
cation of endrin within 0.25 i , or ground application within
0.125 mi, of public waters; no such protection zone is afforded
private ponds or reservoirs.

Endrin

Endrin is a chlorinated hydrocarbon compound which has been
used extensively in the United States as an avicide, insecticide,
and rodenticide. It is soid as a technical grade product, con-
taining not less than 92% active ingredient (Brooks 1974a); field
formulations contain 19.5 or 19.7% active ingredient. Its use as

a pesticide began in 1951 and increased throughout the 1950's and
1960's.

Endrin and other similar pesticides apparently enter aquatic
systems directly as drift, or indirectly on suspended material in
runoff. Much of this suspended material is organic matter, and
when filtered out of the water may show residue levels 10,000 to
20,000 times as great as in the filtrate (Keith 1 966). In envi-
ronments with invertebrates, they appear to incorporate residues
from organic matter into food chains; high residues are not
deposited with sediments on pond bottoms. Where no invertebrates
are present, residues remain in suspended material and are depos-
ited in sediments or on aquatic plants (Keith 1966). Thus,
organic materials and invertebrates are important factors in
determining the fate and involvement of insecticides in aquatic
environments. Animals utilizing aquatic invertebrates, or sub-
merged vegetation in environments having few invertebrates, might
be seriously exposed to insecticides in the diet.

Metabolites

Under the influence of sunlight, endrin applied to plants
converts to a half-cage ketone (Korte 1972:4-5). However, at the
time of that study, neither compound had been detected in the
atmosphere. Although Korte isolated a A-l<eto -endrin in crystal-
line form from the surface of cotton plants grown in the green-
house, he also found that 96% of end r in-C ^ ^ had evaporated or
been transpired by the plants. He concluded that the largest
amounts of pesticide generally did not remain in plants and soil,
but were introduced into the atmosphere. Conversely, Menzie
(1974:22) found that 33% of radio-activated endrin applied to
upper leaf surfaces of cotton plants remained 12 weeks after
application .

Translocation of endrin, and/or its metabolites, into plants
has been documented, Korte (1972:10-18) reported that very
little radio-activated endrin was absorbed through the plant
cuticulum, but that large amounts were found in the soil, very
little was in the roots, and large amounts occurred in the plant
stalks. He also found that the main portion of keto-endrin is
very hydrophilic and concentration of this metabolite was highest
in the stalks and leaves. Menzie (1974) revealed that 26% of
radioactive endrin applied to upper leaf surfaces was found on
and in the leaves, and about 41% occurred in other plant parts
and in the soil; at least 5 products plus unchanged endrin were
found. Harris and Sans (1969, in Egan 1972:149) reported that
beets, carrots, potatoes, corn, oats, and alfalfa can derive
endrin from soils.

In mammals, metabolism of endrin apparently differs between
species. Korte (1972:10-11) found rabbits given radio-activated
endrin excreted 4 endrin metabolites, 3 of which contained
hydroxy groups but only one of which was considered to be hydro-
philic. None of those metabolites were structured the same as

A-keto-end r in , an endrin metabolite of plants. In rats, however,
Korte (1972:10-11) found that radio-activated endrin was metabo-
lized to one hydrophilic metabolite. Later, Henzie (1974:21)
reported that rats metabolized endrin to at least 3 compounds;
keto-endrin (in tissues and urine) and 2 monohydroxy lated endrin
analogs (in feces), Stickel et al. (1979a) stated that "the
important and highly toxic metabolite 12 -keto-endrin" had been
found in rodents but not in birds. Bedford et al. (1975a) repor-
ted that 1 2-keto-end r in was 5 times more toxic than endrin to
rats, and that 0.3 ppm in the brain was lethal.

Although Korte (1972:11) was able to demonstrate the forma-
tion of 1 hydrophilic endrin metabolite in the liver of rats, he
could not identify it by mass spectrum or gas chromatogram be-
cause it decomposed above temperatures in the 120-140°C range.
Apparently part of this procedural problem has been overcome, and
at least one endrin metabolite can now be quantified from animal
flesh (K. Kissler pers. comm.). In summary, it is apparent that
endrin is metabolized better by animals than by plants.

Persistence in Soil

Wildlife is exposed directly to endrin at the time of its
application, but also indirectly for months later via endrin and
its metabolites in soils and plants. Studies (reported in
Pimentel 1971:44) have shown that endrin persists in soils for
extended periods of time, although at reduced concentrations.
Nash and Woolson ( 1 967) found that endrin applied at 25 Ppm to
soil persisted at 505J of its applied rate for 12 years; in sandy
loam soil, 41% of endrin applied at 100 ppm remained 14 years
later. Persistence in Montana soils may vary from that reported
in these studies.

Wildlife Management Concerns

The ensuing discussion points out the reasons for the
concern expressed for wi Id life when it became known that endrin
was being extensively used in Montana in 1961.

According to Carson (1962:27), "It [endrin] is 15 times as
poisonous as DDT to mammals, 30 times as poisonous to fish, and
about 300 times as poisonous to some birds." Because of its high
acute toxicity to a wide variety of invertebrates and verte-
brates, and its persistence in the environment, the use of endrin
subsided especially after its registration for use in cotton
fields in the south was cancelled (Environmental Protection
Agency 1978:133)- Nonetheless, an estimated 400,000 pounds were
produced in 1978.

A recent EPA draft report (Environmental Protection Agency
1980b) summarized 115 incidents involving endrin (45) or endrin
in association with other pesticides (70) during a 15-year

period, 1 966-1 980. Sixty-two of the cases dealt with fish (38
species involved), 21 with humans, I7 with domestic animals, 10
with the general environment, and 5 with wildlife (23 species).
A majority of the incidents (84 of the 115) were associated with
agricultural uses of endrin. Only 1 of 28 endrin-only and 1 of
56 endrin plus other pesticides incidents were attributed to
misuse of the compounds. This report advises that although not
all cases were confirmed as to whether or not pesticides were
involved, the absence of confirmation should not be interpreted
that they were not involved.

This single report suggests strongly that endrin is indeed
hazardous to a broad spectrum of vertebrates, including humans.
The low incidence of documented misuse of endrin further suggests
that most end r in-related problems are attributable to its
ordinary use.

Aquatic

Endrin is extremely toxic in very low quantities to aquatic
organisms. Endrin gained public recognition in the United States
when it was identified as the toxic agent responsible for massive
fish kills along the Atchafalaya and Mississippi Rivers in the
late 1950’s and early 1960’s (Graham 1970:97-102, Rowe et al.
1971), Endrin is considerably more toxic to fish than 3 other
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides used commonly in Montana
(Table 4).

Table 4. Median tolerance limits to fish, and application rate
necessary to reach those levels, of four chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides (from Rudd 1964:105) currently

used

in Montana.

Insecticide

96-hr TLm-1/
(parts per
billion )

Ounces per acre applied
surface of water 3 ft deep
reach TLm concentration

1 0
to

Endrin

0.6

0.0003

Toxaphene

3.5

0.002

Heptachlor

19.0

0.01

Lindane

1 0

0.04

J/ Median tolerance level.

The acute toxicity of endrin to fish varies through a rela-
tively narrow range (Table 5). Generally less than 1 ug/1 is
sufficient to result in mortality of 50^ of a fish population
under laboratory conditions. Test results also suggest that
coldwater fish species tend to be more sensitive to endrin
poisoning than warmwater species.

Endrin appears to be less toxic to aquatic invertebrates
than it is to fish (Table 6). However, stoneflies (Order
Plecoptera), an important food item for trout in Montana, seem to
be particularly sensitive to endrin poisoning.

Fish absorb endrin directly from their environment as well
as from eating endrin-contam inated foods. Bioconcentration of
endrin in fish is quite rapid (Jarvinen and Tyo 1978), and
concurrent appearance of endrin metabolites in their tissues in-
dicates endrin degradation within fish. Endrin bioconcentration
factors (the ratio of endrin in fish tissues to that in water)
for fathead minnows are 10,000 at 47 days (Mount and Putnicki
1966) and 7,000 after 300 days (Jarvinen and Tyo 1978). Similar
factors for channel catfish are 2,000 at 41 days and 1,640 after
44 days (Argyle et al. 1973). From this it appears that endrin
metabolism and excretion varies widely among fish species.

Bioconcentration of endrin also occurs in aquatic plants.
Four species of algae exposed to 1 ppm of endrin for 7 days under
test conditions exhibited bioconcentration factors of 140-220,
depending on the species (Vance and Drummond 1969, in Environmen-
tal Protection Agency 1980a:B-29).

Terrestrial

Endrin was the second most acutely toxic (orally) of 131
pesticides tested on young bobwhites (Colinus v irg in ianus ) ,
Japanese quail (Cotornix c. japonica), ring-necked pheasants, and
mallards (Harris and Eschmeyer 1976:26); it was the most toxic of
the organochlor ine compounds tested. Acute oral toxicities of
endrin to some bird and mammal species are listed in Table 7.

Endrin acts largely on the central nervous system of
vertebrates, although Hinshaw et al. (1966) also reported left
ventricular failure in dogs intravenously injected with endrin at
a dosage that resulted in approximately 75% mortality.

Organochlor ine pesticides are rapidly assimilated by both
birds and mammals, with residue levels in all tissues increasing
rapidly at the beginning of feeding trials, then gradually
approaching a plateau level representing an equilibrium between
intake and storage and excretion (Cummings et al. 1966, 1967;
Stickel 1973).

The most rigorous criteria for diagnosis of death due to
organochlor ine pesticide poisoning is the residue concentration
in the brain; these are generally similar for a given chemical

Table 5. Acute toxicity of endrin to 12 species of fish which
occur in Montana.

Stage-^^or

Water

LC^o/EC50'^^

Species

Wt. (gm)

Temp. (°C)

(ug/L)^

Black bullhead

1.5

1.1 (1.0- 1.3)^''

lotalurus rrjelas

Bluegill

1.5

0.6,1 ,(0.50-0.74)^/

Lepomis macrochirus

—

c:/

0.37-0.6p/

Brook trout

0.355-0.59-^/

Salvelinus fontindlis

Carp

0.32 (0.25-0.41 )-^/

Cyprinus carpio

0.32, (0.29-0. 35 )-3/
1.0^'

Channel Catfish

1.4

lotalurus punotatus

—

Coho salmon

0.27^/

Onaorhynchus kisutoh

—

0.76^/

Cutthroat trout

0.113-0.192^^

Salmo olarki

Fathead minnow

1.2

1.8 (1.053.0)-3''

0.40-0.99^^

Pimephales prometas

—

Largemouth bass

2.5

0.31 (0.25-0.39)-^^

Mvoropterus salmoides

Mosquitof ish

0.6

1.1 XQ.4-3.4)-^''
0.75^'

Gamhusia affinis

—

Rainbow trout

1.0

0.75,(0.64-0.88)^/

0.405-“/

Salmo gairdneri

Yellow Perch

0.15 (0.12-0.18)-3/

Perea flavescens

1/ F=Fingerling

2/ Lethal (or effective) concentration in water which results
in 50^5 mortality, expressed as micrograms/liter.

3/ Johnson and Finley (1980)

3/ Cope (1965)

3/ Macek et al. (1969)

3/ Post and Schroeder (1971)

3/ Katz and Chadwick (1961)

3/ Brungs and Bailey (1966, in Environmental Protection Agency
1980a)

Table 6. Acute toxicitv of endrin to 10 kinds of aquatic
invertebrates-^' which occur in Montana.

Species

Water 96-hr LC.q 95% Cl

Stage-^' Temp.(^C) (ug/L;

Cranef ly

Tipula sp.

Crayfish

Oroonectes nais
Falaemonetes
kadiakensis
Daphnids

Daphnia magna
Daphnia pulex
Simocephalus sp.

Dragonfly

Ischnura vent-icaZds

Mayflies

Baetis sp.

Eexagenia hiZineata

Scuds

Gammarus Zacustvis
Gammarus fasodatus

Seed Shrimp

Cyprddopsds vddua

Sowbug

AseZZus bvevdcaudus

Snipef ly

Atherdx vardegata

Stonef lies

Acroneupda sp.
CZaassenda sahuZosa
FteronaroeZZa badda
Pteronapoys
caZdfopndca

YCp

12 (7.3-18)

3.2|' (1.6-7. 5)
3.2-2' (1.8-5. 8)

20|' (13-30)
(35-58)

2.« (1.5-3. 8)

0.90 (0.57-1.'O
62 (41-95)

3.0 (2. 0-4. 5)
4.3 (3. 5-5. 2)

1.8^/

1.5 (0. 9-3.7)

M.6 (3. 1-6.8)

>0.18

0.08 (0.06-0.09)
0.54 (0.40-0.72)
0.25 (0.20-0.31)

1/ Johnson and Finley (1980)

2/ J=Juvenile, I.j=first instar, Igrearly instar, M = mature,
Nrnaiad, YC2=second year class
3/ Tested in hard water, 272 ppm as CaCOo
it/ 48-hr EC^q (i.e. effective concentration)

Table 7. Acute oral toxicity of endrin to birds and njamrrials.

Species

Sex

Age

Sample Purity

Toxicity, or

LD50 (mg/kg)

References

Birdg:

Sharp-tailed

Grouse

4 yr

96% technical

0.75-1.50

Tucker and Crabtree
1970:59

Pigeon

M & F

—

96% technical

2. 0-5.0

Tucker and Crabtree

Pheasant

3-4 mo

97% technical

1.78

(1.12-2.38)

Tucker and Crabtree

Mallard

Mammals:

10-13 mo

96% technical

5.64

(2.71-11.7)

Tucker and Crabtree

Rabbit

—

5.10

Pimentel 1971:52

Mule Deer

10 mo

—

6.25-12.5

Tucker and Crabtree
(unpublished)

Rat

—

Rudd 1964:20

Guinea Pig

—

10-36

Negherbon 1959 (in
Pimentel 1971:42)

Domestic Goat

12-24 mo

96% technical

25-50

Tucker and Crabtree
1970:59

across a wide range of bird and mammal species (Stickel 1 973)*
Among specimens found dead, 0.8 ppm or more of endrin in the
brain is diagnostic of death due to endrin poisoning, while 0.6
ppm or less generally indicates death from other causes. The
intervening zone is one in which both victims and survivors might
occur (Stickel et al, 1979a). Recent findings (Heinz and
Johnson I98I) suggest that these criteria do not apply to
collections of live specimens. They demonstrated that dieldrin,
and probably endrin and all other persistent organochlor ines ,
caused birds to enter into an irreversible starvation process at
brain residue levels averaging only half of the lethal concentra-
tion, and as low as 1-0-15% for highly sensitive individuals. The
birds ceased eating at clearly sublethal brain residue levels,
but in the process of weight loss, continued to mobilize the
chemical to the brain until lethal levels were reached. Thus,
collected specimens exhibiting no symptoms of poisoning and hav-
ing sublethal brain residues could actually be doomed.

Many cases of direct mortality of wildlife following field
applications of endrin are documented. The EPA listed 5 inci-
dents involving endrin (or endrin associated with other pesti-
cides) and wildlife in the U.S. during 1966-1980 (Environmental
Protection Agency 1980b), Mortalities of mammals included prong-
horn, deer (Odocoileus spp), opossum (Didelphis virginiana),
rabbit (sp. unk.), raccoon (Procyon lotor), and skunk (Mephitis
spp). Affected bird species included the bald eagle, black-
crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), great blue heron
(Ardea herodias), cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis), great egret
(Casmerodius albus), snowy egret (Leucophoyx thula), brown peli-
can (Pelecanus occ identalis), wild turkey (Meleagris spp), bob-
white, dove, Canada goose, bluebird (Sialia spp), blue jay
(Cyanocitta cristata), mockingbird (Mimus polyglotta), cardinal
(Richmondena cardinalis), white-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia
albicollis), and other sparrows.

In a study of the effects of endrin applied to Colorado
wheat fields for pale western cutworm control, McEwen et al.
(1972) reported no significant differences in numbers of birds
(49 species) between treated and untreated fields during the
first 12-14 days posttreatment. However, during the 2-7 week
posttreatment period there was a significant (P<0.01) reduction
in numbers of resident birds associated with treated fields; the
decrease was attributed to direct mortality and emigration. Four
species of mammals also died by direct endrin poisoning; jackrab-
bits were particularly sensitive.

Hunt and Keith (1962) reported that endrin applied to potato
fields at 9 ounces per acre resulted in the deaths of 20 pheasant
hens and 12 chicks. They also reported that 7 valley quail
(Lophortyx cal if orn icus ) were found dead in berry fields sprayed
with 0.3 pounds of endrin per acre. Endrin applied at 0.8 pound
per acre for meadow mouse control in dormant alfalfa resulted in
the deaths of 5 cackling geese (Branta canadensis minima), a
pheasant, a long-eared owl, and a killdeer (Charadrius vociferus)
(Keith 1963:52). Subsequently, 8 cackling geese, 7 pintails, and
7 wigeon were placed in cages in a treated field; within a week,
4 geese, 2 pintails, and 1 wigeon had died. All cackling geese,
white-fronted geese, and wigeon experimentally force-fed 5 mg/kg
endrin died within 3 hours; all those force-fed 2.5 mg/kg sur-
vived a 9-10 hr observation period.

Endrin applied to wheat for cutworm control, at the same
rate recommended for similar use in Montana, has resulted in
poisoning deaths of both mule and white-tailed deer, pronghorn,
and cattle (Anonymous 1968, Colorado Department of Agriculture
1968, Hepworth and Roby 1968, Environmental Protection Agency
1980b).

Although direct mortality of wildlife is a sometimes obvious
result of pesticide use, pesticide-induced population changes of
an ecologically significant nature can occur in the absence of
direct poisoning. Such changes may often go undetected; if
detected, the causes for such changes may not even be suspected.

Pesticide related causes for such changes could include reproduc-
tive impairment, increased neonatal mortality, and physiological
or behavioral changes that can affect survival. All of these
effects have been documented among birds and/or mammals experi-
mentally administered endrin.

End rin-caused reproductive impairment and increased neonatal
mortality have been reported by many workers. Pheasants were
given endrin at dietary concentrations of 0.5, 1, 2, or 10 ppm
during the reproductive period (DeWitt 1956), and hatchability
and survival of young hatched from eggs of hens at each level
were determined. All test birds receiving 10 ppm died; no
mortality occurred among the other groups of birds. Eggs pro-
duced by hens at both the 10 and 2 ppm levels showed reduced
hatchability, and chicks hatched from eggs of hens receiving 10
ppm suffered significantly higher mortality than controls (62% vs
5%) in their first 2 weeks of life. The latter result is some-
what academic since those hens would not have survived long
enough to have raised young. However, there may be field situ-
ations where a level between 2 and 10 ppm, or a gradually de-
creasing level, on vegetation is survived by some adults which
are nonetheless unable to raise young to independence.

Groups of quail receiving 1.0 ppm of endrin in their diet
during either the winter or reproductive period each suffered 25%
mortality (vs 6.25% for controls), and chicks from both groups
had significantly lower survival than controls (DeWitt 1956).
Quail dosed during only the winter period also produced fewer
eggs, the hatchability of which was less than those of controls
(70% vs 8^1%). There were no differences in these parameters
between controls and birds dosed only during the reproductive
period. Quail receiving 1.0 ppm of endrin in the diet during
both the winter and reproductive season experienced 60%
mortality, and no eggs were obtained from those birds (DeWitt
1956).

Endrin residue levels in eggs which result in impaired
reproduction are reported to be approximately 0.3 ppm and above
for the screech owl (Fleming et al. 1982), and approximately 0.5
ppm or more for the brown pelican (Blus 1982). The screech owls
of Fleming et al. (1982) received 0.75 Ppm of endrin in the diet,
and residues in eggs ranged from 0.12 to 0.46 ppm, with the first
egg being laid between 25 and 55 days after birds were started on
treated food. Eggs of domestic chickens receiving 0.25 Ppm of
endrin in the diet for 8 weeks contained endrin residues of 0.2-
0.31 ppm, while eggs of hens receiving 0.75 Ppm in the diet
contained 0.3-0.36 ppm. Eggs still contained 42-47% of these
levels 4 weeks after hens were returned to endrin-free diets
(Terriere et al. 1959). Clearly, dietary levels of 1 ppm or less
of endrin can result in residue levels in eggs which may result
in reduced reproduction.

Among mammals, significant parental mortality of deer mice
occurred at dietary levels of 2 ppm of endrin or more; parents
surviving concentrations of 4 ppm or more weaned significantly

fewer young (Morris 1968). Endrin at dietary levels of 5 ppm for
120 days, beginning 30 days before mating, resulted in signifi-
cant parental mortality and smaller litters among laboratory mice
(Good and Ware 1969). Groups of pregnant female hamsters and
mice given single oral doses of endrin (1/2 the LD^q) on day 7,
8, or 9 of pregnancy produced significantly greater numbers of
young with birth defects than did controls (Ottolenghi et al.
1974). Fetal mortality was also higher among treated groups of
both species, but the results were significant only for the
hamsters .

Snyder (1963, in Hathway and Amoroso 1972:228) reported
significant reductions in numbers of litters produced by meadow
voles 2 months after endrin was applied at 0. 6-2.0 pounds per
acre to bluegrass meadows.

Numbers of meadow voles declined significantly following
application of 0.5 Ib/A of endrin to an experimental grassland
plot (Morris 1970). Invasion of new individuals, which survived
well, allowed rapid population recovery. However, deer mouse
populations declined abruptly following application, and did not
recover during the next 2 years.

Barrett and Darnell (1967) presented evidence showing that
the lack of either lethal or sublethal effects on small mammals
(mice) still resulted in changes in the species composition of
these animals following treatment with dimethoate. They
postulated that the absence of any habitat effects other than an
abrupt decline in insect density following treatment, resulted in
the shift in small mammal composition from dominance by an
omnivore to dominance by a herbivore. Such a change in species
composition of small mammials could occur following use of other
insecticides, such as endrin, and would probably be viewed as
undesirable by farmers and ranchers.

Intravenous injections of endrin in pigeons produced visual
deficits (Revzin 1966). He concluded that the doses required to
produce such, perceptual deficits would be materially lower than
those necessary to produce grossly observable behavioral changes,
and that such deficits would probably reduce a bird’s ability to
avoid predators and compete for food.

Adult male bobwhite quail given 0.1 or 1.0 ppm endrin miade
36% to 139% more errors when their performiance was tested on non-
spatial discrimination reversal tasks (Kreitzer 198O). The prin-
cipal effect was impairment of the ability to react appropriately
to novel stimuli, with impairment increasing from problem to
problem at an exponential rate. This is significant because niost
natural stimuli (eg. appearance of a predator) are novel during
the first spring and summer of a wild bird’s life (Kreitzer
1980).

Human Health Concerns

Endrin has been documented as being teratogenic (i.e. causes
birth defects) in laboratory animals (Ottolenghi et al. 1973,
Federal Register 1979). The EPA has also recommended that expo-
sure to endrin should be avoided during pregnancy; additional
precautions must be taken and protective clothing worn by all
females working with endrin (Appendix C). Endrin has been found
to be a carcinogen (Reuber 1979), however, those findings were
not accepted by the EPA Cancer Assessment Committee. When
carcinogenic proof is accepted, a pesticide is generally removed
from use, although its use may continue depending on the level of
risk to humans.

Federal agencies have established an "action level" for
various pesticides in domestic meats which are to be sold for
public consumption. Pesticide residues above such levels result
in the embargo of the meat until further testing can be
performed. The action level for endrin in fat of domestic meats
is 0.3 ppm (lipid basis); there is no similar determination for
wild meat.

The World Health Organization has established, and the EPA
adopted, 0.0002 mg/kg as the "acceptable daily intake" (ADI)
level for endrin by humans. The ADI applies to chronic ingestion
during an individual's lifetime.

Since the first Montana hunting seasons to open in fall 1981
were those for grouse, partridge, and archery-big game, collect-
ing and testing of tissues for those species was implemented
first. Waterfowl testing for endrin was also emphasized as
those hunting seasons approached.

STUDY AREAS AND METHODS

Monitoring I98I Operational Endrin Spraying

Lack of precise knowledge of endrin application sites in
March and April 1981 precluded both (1) pre- and postspray
wildlife population studies, and (2) observing or collecting any
end r in-exposed wildlife until several weeks postspray. Chances
of finding sick or poisoned wildlife that long after endrin
spraying were considered remote. Data gathered during summer and
fall of 1981 would hopefully allow us to assess possible affects
on wildlife which may have occurred earlier that year. More
importantly, this effort could reveal potential secondary hazards
to wildlife and humans that might consume endrin-contaminated
wildlife .

Sample Collections
Aquatic

Two fish kills in Sunday Creek (Custer County) in south-
eastern Montana in March 198I prompted the collection and testing
of fish tissues for pesticide residues. The first fish kill
involved toxaphene and was not reported until the second, in-
volving endrin, occurred about 2 weeks later. Notification by MDA
that endrin was being applied extensively to grainfields east of
the Continental Divide resulted in subsequent collection and
testing of fish from 28 additional sites including 1 west of the
Divide.

Terrestrial

Big game animals were collected using center-fire rifles.
Birds were primarily collected with shotguns; a few were taken
with .22 rifles. Small mammals were obtained mostly by trapping,
although a few of the larger species were taken with shotguns
or .22. Most animals appeared and behaved normally prior to
being collected, except 3 animals reported as being sick (1 red-
tailed hawk, 1 golden eagle, and 1 mule deer), 1 duck found dead
of unknown causes, and a white pelican wounded by a small caliber
bullet .

A few road-killed animals were also sampled, including 2
deer, 2 great horned owls, 1 kestrel, and 1 sharp-tailed grouse.
The history of endrin exposure for these animals was unknown.

Wildlife collections were initiated in late April 198I.
Although some of these were from, or adjacent to, known endrin-
treated fields, others were from known untreated sites (a mile or
more from known treatment sites), or their exposure to endrin

was unknown. Additional collections were made periodically
through fall 1982 at a few sites from which positive endrin
samples were taken in 1981. Early 1981 collections were largely
at random; late 1981-1982 collections were not.

Collections in 1982 also included many samples obtained from
areas treated with endrin that spring as part of the study of
potential endrin alternatives and wildlife. These samples had
known spray histories, and therefore a precise postspray interval
could be assigned to each specimen. This allowed a better
assessment of the 1981 data where accurate spray history (dates,
actual sites, etc.) was not available.

Collection Sites

Areas from which terrestrial wildlife were collected for
testing following 1981 endrin applications included diverse habi-
tats over a wide area in Montana, principally east of the Conti-
nental Divide. The MDA selected several endrin-treated fields and
surrounding areas to monitor the fate of endrin in soils and
vegetation as early as 15 March 198I (Bain 1983).

Big game and upland game birds were generally obtained from
upland habitats. When endrin contamination of waterfowl also
became a major concern, areas containing standing bodies of water
became focal points for collections. Those sites served as col-
lecting areas throughout 198I and into fall 1982. Other aquatic
and migratory game birds, some upland game birds, and most pas-
serine birds and small mammals were also obtained at or near
those water areas.

Five sites, representative of those from which most wildlife
collections were obtained, are described below.

^te_J

This site is an area containing 4 small stock reservoirs and
is located about 11 mi northwest of Miles City (Custer County) in
southeastern Montana. The reservoirs occur on intermittent
streams in a grazed sagebrush-grassland habitat. Each reservoir
is used by ducks and Canada geese during spring and fall migra-
tions, as nesting areas in some years (except that geese do not
nest on the smallest reservoir), and for staging in late summer.

In 1981, Reservoir 1 (Fig. 7) covered about 1 A, was 4 ft
deep, and was about 0.25 mi from a sprayed winter wheat field.
The endrin-treated field was not upstream from the reservoir.
Reservoir 2 (Fig. 8), also about 1 A in size but only 6 in deep,
had an endrin-treated winter wheat field within 100 yd of its
margin, and also received runoff from this field. Reservoir 3
(Fig. 9) was the largest water body (4 A and 2 ft deep) and was
bordered by a large endrin-treated winter wheat field; endrin had
been sprayed from a ground vehicle, pond margins were sprayed.

Figure 7.

Reservoir 1

in sagebrush-grassland at Site 1.

Figure 8.

Reservoir 2 (Site 1) in sagebrush-grassland with drainage from
a nearby endri n-treated wheat field (lower left corner).

Figure 9.

Reservoir 3 (Site 1)
treated wheat field.

in sagebrush-grassl and bordered by an endrin-

Wmm

' ^Y' ^ '6 '

Figure 10.

Reservoir at Site b f'^mediately
field (right side of pnoto).

below an endri n-treated wheat

and there was undoubtedly endrin runoff into the reservoir. A
fourth reservoir (0.5 A, 1 ft deep) occurred within an endrin-
treated winter wheat field and probably received endrin directly
from the ground applications; this pond was used mostly by ducks
during spring m igra tion.

Site 2

South Sandstone Reservoir is 10 mi southwest of Baker (Fal-
lon County) in southeastern Montana. It includes 119 surface
acres and is approximately 6 ft deep. The surrounding area is
grass rangeland, with some deciduous shrubs at the upper end of
the reservoir, and little riparian vegetation along the shore-
line. The basin which drains into the reservoir includes about
40 mi2 and numerous end r in-treat ed grainfields (in I98I). Ducks
and Canada geese use the reservoir for the same purposes as the
reservoirs at Site 1, except that there is no nesting by Canada
geese at South Sandstone.

This site is located about 15 mi northwest of Glendive
(Dawson County) in extreme eastern Montana. The reservoir is at
the junction of several intermittent streams in moderately
grazed sagebrush-grass rangeland. Habitats above and below the
reservoir are more mesic than those at Sites 1 and 2, and are
characterized by deciduous trees and shrubs. Rangeland communi-
ties surround the reservoir, but a 600 A end r in - 1 r ea t ed wheat
field was within 100 yd of one side. In addition, much of the
basin below this reservoir has been converted to grainfields.

The reservoir covers about 3 surface acres, the water has a
maximum depth of 12-15 ft, and the shallow edges have well-
developed stands of bulrush and sedges. It is used by ducks and
Canada geese during spring and fall migrations, and for nesting
by ducks. End r in-c ontam inat ed birds collected here would have
probably contacted the endrin in nearby fields rather than from
aquatic life forms in the pond because treated fields were
downstream .

Site 4

Two reservoirs, representative of similar sites in Montana's
"Wheat Triangle", characterize this site 28 mi north of Great
Falls in Chouteau County (northcentral ) , Montana. The reservoirs
are about 1 mi apart and 2-2.5 mi from the Teton River. The
first reservoir, about I.5 A in size and 3-4 ft deep, is located
in a 2,800 A end r in-treat ed winter wheat field. It lies in an
inter mi ittent stream channel and the only native vegetation is
short grasses and forbs in an upstream swale and around the
edges. The other reservoir, about 12 A and up to 20 ft deep, is
in a grass-forb rangeland at the junction of 2 intermittent

streams, both of which drained the above, large wheat field; the
upper edge of one "arm” of the reservoir contacted that treated
field. The main part of the latter reservoir is within 0.25 mi
of that field, and the reservoir supports a rainbow trout fish-
ery. Neither reservoir is bordered by emergent vegetation. Both
reservoirs are used by migrating ducks and Canada geese, both are
used by nesting ducks, and a whistling swan and a common loon
were observed on the larger reservoir.

^te_5

This site included an irrigation and stock watering reser-
voir 3 mi northwest of Clyde Park (Park County) in southcentral
Montana (Fig. 10). The reservoir covers approximately acres
with a maximum depth of 6-8 ft. It is bordered in part by
willows, and emergent aquatic vegetation occurs in suitable loca-
tions. The reservoir is almost entirely surrounded by a field
that is used both as pasture and for hay production. Grain
fields occur within close proximity on 2 sides of this pond,
including 1 containing the upper part of the pond, and through
which the inlet stream runs. This latter field was sprayed with
endrin in 1981, while the spray history of the other field was
unknown. Endrin could have reached this reservoir through drift,
actual spraying of that portion within the treated field, or
runoff from the treated field.

Wildlife contact with endrin at any of these sites could
have been by 1 or more of the following routes: direct contact
at the time of spraying; in runoff water; and via the food chain
(i.e. feeding on terrestrial and/or aquatic invertebrates,
aquatic vegetation, or vegetation in treated fields).

Preparation of Samples for Testing

Fish collected for endrin analysis were wrapped in aluminum
foil and frozen as soon as possible after collection. Prepara-
tion for analysis consisted of filleting the edible portions (to
remove bones and scales) and removing slices (approximately 2 cm
thick) from the anterior, mid, and posterior sections. Endrin
analyses were completed by the analytical laboratory of the
Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences (MDHES)
in Helena.

Terrestrial

Most specimens were kept whole, wrapped in foil, and either
put on ice and brought to the MDFWP wildlife laboratory in
Bozeman, or frozen and transported to the lab at a later time.
Big game and some other samples were processed (as above) by
field personnel and transported to this lab.

Preparation of samples in the Bozeman lab included: logging
the specimens in and assigning them laboratory numbers; removing
appropriate tissue(s); wrapping in foil (with appropriate identi-
fication); and freezing. In many instances it was necessary to
combine tissues from 2 or more animals collected at the same time
and site in order to have enough material for testing. In other
instances more than one sample of the same tissue was removed
from an individual animal and each was submitted to a different
lab .

Tissue samples were prepared and forwarded to 1 of 4 lab-
oratories; 3 governmental (MDA-Bozeman, EPA-Denver, and FWS-
Patuxent), and 1 private (Hazleton-Raltech, I nc . -M ad i s on , Wis-
consin). Samples were hand delivered to MDA personnel for analy-
sis at their Bozeman lab, or shipped on dry ice to the other-
labs.

Analytical Procedures
Aquatic

Slices from each fish were combined, cooled, and ground in a
Hobart grinder prerinsed with acetone. Fish tissue was blended
with methyl cyanide; endrin was then partitioned into petroleum
ether, dried over anhydrous Na2S0i|, eluted through a florisil
column with 15^ ethyl ether/petroleum ether (Y/V). Endrin was
finally quantified in the resulting concentrate by electron cap-
ture gas chromatography (U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare, Food and Drug Administration 1972, Horwitz et al.
1975. )

Terrestrial

A variety of instrumentation and miethodology were employed
by the different labs to extract, cleanup, separate, and quantify
chlorinated hydrocarbon residues in samples submitted by the
MDFWP. All labs to which we submitted samples employ methods
approved by federal agencies (i.e. USDA, FDA, EPA) and/or the
Association of Official Analytical Chemists. However, methods
employed for fatty tissues, nonfatty tissues, water-, soils and
sediment, etc. all differ from one another. In addition, methods
for analysis of a given tissue (i.e fat) may vary at a given lab
depending on the size of the sample available. In the interest
of brevity, and also to avoid confusion and prevent errors in
methodology from being introduced, detailed information on
methodology employed by the various labs will not be presented
here. Persons wishing such details should contact those labs
directly .

Residue Reporting

Chemical residues in tissues were provided by each labora-
tory as either nondetectable (below some established level) or at
specific, calculated levels above the minimum detection level.
Reference to nondetectable levels in this report does not mean
that the compound was absent, but rather that analytical proce-
dures did not permit reliable calculations of minimal residues
that might have been present.

Detection levels varied between labs, between different tis-
sues tested at the same lab, and also within a given tissue at
the same lab; a very small sample results in a higher detection
level than a larger amount of the same tissue. Where more than
one detection level for a single tissue was reported, the higher
level is the one used in this report. Maximum detection levels
were 0.10 ppm for PCB's and 0.05 Ppm for all other compounds.

Residues may be reported on both an ”as received" or wet
weight basis, and/or a lipid weight basis. With the exception of
fat, residues are usually reported on a wet weight basis; i.e.,
based on the weight of the total sample tested. Although also
reported on a wet weight basis, residues in fat are most often
reported on a lipid weight basis; i.e., actual lipids are
extracted from the sample and the residues are based only on the
weight of the lipid fraction. When residues from the same sample
are reported both ways, those given on a lipid weight basis are
higher than those on a wet weight basis. Residues in most wild-
life tissues from Montana are reported on a wet weight basis.
The only residues reported on a lipid weight basis were from fat
samples obtained in early 1981 collections. All residues are
reported as parts per million (ppm).

Comparisons of our endrin residue data with federal action
levels and ADI’s established for domestic meats were submitted to
federal, state, and private health authorities, the hunting and
nonhunting public, and the Montana Fish and Game Commission for
evaluation. The MDFWP did not interpret endrin residues in wild
game meat and fat as they relate to human health, but relied on
human health experts for such interpretations. The MDFWP
followed similar procedures with compiling and analyzing residues
of other chlorinated hydrocarbons found in wildlife tissues.

Public Awareness Survey

The MDFWP conducted a telephone interview survey of a sample
of resident game bird license holders following 1982 hunting
seasons to measure (1) public awareness of potential pesticide
contamination of Montana upland game birds and waterfowl, and (2)
whether precautions regarding preparation and cooking of birds
were followed. The survey was part of the larger statewide
wildlife harvest survey. Names of 200 1982 resident bird license
buyers were randomly drawn for this survey. Respondents were

asked about their awareness of pesticide contamination of wild-
life, sources of information, whether or not they continued to
hunt, numbers of birds that had been or would be consumed, the
sex and age composition of household members, whether or not
pregnant or nursing women were included in the household, and
whether or not preparation and cooking procedures adopted by the
Montana Fish and Game Comimission had been followed (Appendix E).

1982 Alternative Insecticide-Wildlife Studies

In light of undesirable environmental consequences from
continued endrin treatment of small grains in Montana, the MDA
and MDFWP recognized the importance of replacing endrin with an
effective, yet environmentally less harmful, method of cutviorm
control. The 2 departments cooperated in a study of the effica-
cy, fate, and effects on wildlife of 2 potential alternative
chemicals in spring 1982, under more or less "operational" field
conditions. Endrin was also studied as a "standard" for compari-
son purposes. The EPA approved a Section I8 specific exemption
from registration for the use of an organophosphate, chlorpyrifos
(Lorsban), and a synthetic pyrethroid, permethrin (Ambush,
Pounce) for cutworm control in small grains in Montana in 1982.

The MDA received and verified reports of cutworm activity,
and enlisted the cooperation of private landowners in conducting
the studies on their lands. It was hoped that enough area in one
vicinity would permit the study of all 3 compounds in close
proximity to one another. Once candidate study areas were found,
the MDFWP was notified so that the potential for wildlife studies
could be evaluated prior to final study site selection.

Cutworm populations in 1982 were reduced, and their develop-
ment was delayed considerably, front 198I. Hence, the first study
area was not selected until 20 May, near Vaughn (Cascade County)
in northcentral Montana. A second area, near Shawmut (Wheatland
County) in central Montana, was evaluated on 25 May. A third
area, evaluated on 26 May, was north of Lavina (Golden Valley and
Musselshell Counties), also in central Montana. Although each
site was less than desirable for wildlife studies, timing of
insecticide applications for cutworm control dictated their
selection as study areas.

The first 2 study areas were relatively small, and only one
chemical treatment was applied to each. These included
permethrin (Ambush) on the plot near Vaughn, and chlorpyrifos on
the plot near Shawmut. Control plots were also studied near each
treatment plot. Because of the lar’ger area near Lavirja, all 3
chemical treatments (endrin, chlorpyrifos, and permethrin) were
applied in the same vicinity. Because the grower in this latter
area wanted to apply treatments as rapidly as possible, no pre-
spray wildlife population data were obtained and no control plot
was established.

Aquatic Bioassays

Pesticide drift was monitored in 2 field plots, one near
Vaughn (Fig. 11) that was sprayed with permethrin and a second
near Lavina (Fig. 12) that was sprayed with endrin. The chlorpy-
rifos plot near Shawmut was sprayed before monitoring equipment
could be put in place. Details of the application conditions and
equipment used are given in Appendix D. Biological monitoring
consisted of spacing beakers containing Daphnia magna at various
intervals downwind from the study plot, beginning in the spray
plot itself and moving downwind. Study intervals were 10, 35,
85, 185, 385, 585, 785, 985, and II85 ft outside the treatment
plot. Daphnia were counted and placed into 250 ml beakers filled
with about 200 ml well water immediately prior to spraying. Two
beakers, containing 5 daphnia each, were positioned at each
interval. Beakers were retrieved and daphnia mortality was
recorded in each treatment for each interval at 1, 2, M, 6, and
2^ hr intervals following insecticide application.

Spray drift in the area surrounding the study plots is being
estimated using the CGB Forest Spray Model of the USFS (Davis,
California). Unfortunately, a model coefficient used to describe
droplet evaporation was found to be in error and completion of
our analyses is pending correction of this deficiency.

Terrestrial Surveys

Small mammal and breeding bird censuses were conducted on
treated and adjacent untreated control plots whenever allowed by
prespray intervals. These included 1 plot adjacent to a
chlorpyr if os-treated area and its control plot, as well as 2
plots (1 in stubble and 1 in native grassland) adjacent to a
permethr in-treated area, and their control (1) plot. Bird
censuses were conducted on belt transects 450 yd long by 100 yd
wide (Mikol 1980). Transects were walked between 1/2 hr before
and 3 hrs after sunrise, when windspeeds did not exceed 10-12
mph. Censuses were conducted at least 3 times prior to spraying
on each transect; this was followed by at least 2 days postspray
”rest”, and then 3 additional censuses were made. Pre- and
postspray bird populations, expressed as birds/100 acres, were
estimated from transect data using the method of Balph et al.
(1977). Searches for bird nests were also conducted on and
adjacent to treatment and control transects, as well as around
treated plots which were not censused. All located nests were
visited periodically thereafter to determine their fate.

Small mammal traplines followed the centerline of each bird
transect and consisted of 46 stations spaced 10 yd apart, with 1
Sherman live trap at each station. The small mammal trapping
regime followed that for bird censuses. All captured specimens
were individually marked by toe clipping and released at their
capture site. Estimates of pre- and postspray small mammal
populations were made using Chapman’s modification of the
Petersen-Lincoln index (White et al. 1982), The deer mouse was

Pemethrin Treated Area

Dov/nwind Drift aJid Aquatic
Impact Transect

Figure 11.

Permethrin treatment study area near Vaughn.

Figure 12.
treatments .

Lj Chlorpyrifos Treated Areas

Permethrin Treated Areas

Untreated Rangeland

Downwind Drift and Aquatic
Impact Transect

Map of Lavina study area showlns location of various insecticide

L'X

the only small mammal species which occurred on all study plots
and in any nun^bers. Therefore, small mammal population estimates
are based solely on this species. As a crude check on effects of
these chemicals on small mammal populations, the percentage of
marked individuals present at the end of the prespray trapping
period that were subsequently captured in the postspray trapping
period was calculated for each treated and control area.

Because chlorpyrifos belongs to a group of chemicals
(organophosphates) which act by blocking action of the enzyme
cholinesterase, small birds (horned larks and McCown’s longspurs)
were collected from, and adjacent to, chlorpyrif os-treated areas
at various intervals following spraying to determine brain cho-
linesterase (ChE) levels. Control specimens of the same species
were obtained from the same areas prior to spraying or from
untreated rangeland >1 mi from sprayed fields. All specimens
were field tagged, wrapped in aluminum foil and immediately
placed in insulated containers with solid CO2 and air expressed
to the Denver Wildlife Research Center. Specimens were stored at
-70°C in an ultra-cold freezer until processed, at which time
they were thawed, brain tissues were excised, and ChE activity
was determined using the colorimetric method of Ellman et al.
(1961) as modified by Hill and Fleming (1982). Brains damiaged by
shot pellets were not analyzed. Depression of ChE activity in
birds from treated areas was expressed as a percentage of normal
in control specimiens.

Food habits of horned larks and McCown’s longspurs collected
for ChE analysis were determined by excising the forestomach and
miuscular stomach, removing, and weighing the contents. Stomach
contents were then sorted into animal, plant, and mineral
material, and each group was visually estimated as a proportion
of the total stomach contents. Random samples of sorted
materials were weighed as a check on the estimates. Only animal
and plant portions (adjusted to 100^ of the samiple) of the
stomach contents were utilized to determine food habits.

Brain ChE activity data were analyzed by 1-way ANOVA and
means were separated with Duncan’s new multiple range test, while
food habits mean values, and small mammal and breeding bird
population estimates were compared by Students t-tests (Steel and
Torrie 1980). Statistical significance is based on the 5%
probability level unless stated otherwise.

Feeding trials have shown very low acute oral toxicity of
permethrin to both birds and mammals. Therefore, no dir'ect
mortality was expected, and no collection of samples to test for
residues was attempted.

Collections of birds and larger species of small mammals, as
well as lab and analytical procedures were the same as in 198I.

other Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Compounds

The private lab reported detectable levels of other chlori-
nated hydrocarbons, including PCB's, in addition to endrin. De-
tection of heptachlor, and its major metabolite heptachlor epox-
ide, became a concern because of their toxicity to wildlife and
documented carcinogenicity. Although four pheasants were col-
lected in fall 1982 specifically to test for heptachlor com-
pounds, most samples were collected to test for endrin and not
for other compounds. Therefore, test results represent random,
baseline (or background) levels of contamination of Montana wild-
life for those chemicals. Additionally, since the majority of
1981 samples were tested at labs that reported only endrin resi-
dues, results for other compounds include far fewer samples.
Analytical procedures for these compounds were the same as for
endrin.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

I98I-I982 Endrin Monitoring
Early Chronology of Events

The MDFWP first learned of anticipated endrin use in late
February 1981, when Union Carbide Company requested a special
local need registration for use of carbaryl to control armyworms
in cereal grains, MDFWP responded with, (1) support of the
request, (2) opposition to the use of chlorinated hydrocarbons,
and (3) a request to be informed when and where endrin was to be
applied .

A fish die-off was reported in Sunday Creek, in Custer
County in late March (Fig. 13)* It was learned later that this
was the second such fish kill in this stream, the first having
occurred about 2 weeks earlier. Samples of dead fish from the
site (tested by the MDA) confirmed the presence of endrin and of
toxaphene .

Due to Montana’s pesticide reporting system, locations of
end r in-treated fields remained unknown until several weeks after
spraying was completed. This precluded collection of pretreatment
and immediate posttreatment wildlife population data as well as
conducting searches for wildlife carcasses. However, direct
mortality of wildlife exposed to freshly sprayed endrin cannot be
ruled out; residues on vegetation following I98I spraying were
high enough for direct mortality of birds (Heath et al. 1972b) to
have occurred.

Aquatic Wildlife

Fish were collected from 29 sites in Montana in I98I, pri-
marily from the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers and their tribu-
taries (Fig. 14), Endrin was present at detectable levels in 237^
of the 75 fish samples tested (Table 8). None of the detectable
residues exceeded FDA's action levels for endrin in fish; the
highest concentration was 0.04 ppm (wet weight) in 2 composite
samples of several species from Sunday Creek (site 4, Fig. 14).
Although endrin occurred at low levels in fish, the time interval
between fish die-offs and our sampling would have permitted
elimination of most endrin from surviving fish.

Terrestrial Wildlife
Resid ent

Although 1 sharp-tailed grouse and 1 pheasant were collected
in April and May 198I, respectively, most initial sampling and

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13. Chronology of 1981 endrin spraying and subsequent events and endrin residues in vegetation and wildlife in
(vegetation data provided by the MDA)

Locations where fish were sampled for endrin analyses in 1981. Numbers correspond to those
in Table 8.

Table 8. Endrin residues in fish from selected locations in J^fontana during
1981.

Site No. and
Location

1 Yellowstone R. ,
downstream fran
Intake diversion

2 So. Sandstone Res.

3 O' Fallon Creek

4 Yellowstone R. ,
mouth of Sunday
Creek

5 Yellowstone R. ,
mouth of Tongue R.

6 Tongue R. , at
12 Mile Dam

7 Tongue R. , at SH
diversion dam

8 Tongue R. Res.

9 Broadview Pond

10 Shields R. , at
Clyde Pk. Bridge

11 Shields R. , at Cliad-
bourne diversion

12 Yellowstone R. ,
near Mill Creek

13 Missouri R. at
Sprole

Species

No.

Samples

Endrin (iL!g/g,
wet tissue')

Cioldeye

11/

<0.002

Sauger

<0.002

Shovelnose sturgeon

0.003

Black bullhead

<0.002

Northern pike

0.011

V/alleye

0.002, .004

Yellow perch

<0.002

Goldeye

0.029

Channel catfish

<0.002

Drum

<0.002

Goldeye

11/

<0.002

Sauger

<0.002

Caiposite of several

0.03, 0.04,

species

0.04

Burbot

11/

<0.002

Goldeye

<0.002

Walleye

<0.002

Channel catfish

Cioldeye

<0.002 (2)

Sauger

<0.002, .005

anallmouth bass

<0.002

Sauger

<0.002

Smallmouth bass

.007

White crappie

<0.002

Rainbov/ trout

<0.002

VJhite crappie

11/

<0.002

Brown trout

<0.002

Brown trout

<0.002

Brown trout

<0.005

(4)

Mountain whitefish

<0.005

.014

(2)

Sauger

<0.002

A 9

Table 8, Continued

Site No. and
Location

Species

No.

Samples

Endrin (^g/g,
wet tissue)

14 Middle Fk. of

Cioldeye

<0.002

Poplar R,

Northern pike

<0.002

Walleye

<0.002

15 E. Fk. of Poplar R.

Northern pike

<0.002

16 Redwater River

Northern pike

<0.002, .002

1.7 Ft . Peck Res . , near

Northern pike

<0.002

So. Fk. Duck Creek

18 Ft. Peck Res.

Buffalo

0.002

Cioldeye

0.003

Northern pike

<0.002

19 Medicine Lake Nat'l

Northern pike

0.002

Wildlife Refuge

20 Nelson Res .

Northern pike

<0.002

21 Fresno Res .

Lake whitefish

<0.002

rforthern pike

<0.002

Walleye

<0.002

22 Tiber Res .

Channel catfish

<0.002

Northern pike

<0.002

23 Marias River

Burbot

<0.002

vVhitefish

24 Teton River

Coldeye

<0.002

25 Lake Francis

Northern pike

<0.002

26 Cochrane Res .

Brown trout

<0.002

27 See Site 4

Rainbow trout

.003

(Pp. 36-37)

28 Missouri R. , at

Brown trout

<0.002 (2)

Toston

29 Clark Fork River

Rainbow trout

<0.002 (6)

below Missoula

^'/hitefish

<0.002 (5)

U Composite sample of several fish.

2/ Analytical problens; no results obtained.

testing of resident wildlife for endrin residues involved big
game species.

Big Game. A limited number of early test results revealed
that big game, except for 1 pronghorn, contained either undetect-
able or relatively low levels of endrin in their fat. Additional
big game fat samples obtained sporadically through July 1982,
plus other tissues sampled (liver, meat, and brain), also showed
little or no endrin accumulation in those species (Table 9). The
low frequency of endrin residues was attributed to several fac-
tors: wheat fields are not prime big game habitat (with the
possible exception of when they are the only green vegetation
available); many of the samples tested did not come from known
sprayed areas; 5-6 weeks elapsed between treatments and collec-
tion of earliest samples; and, endrin is eliminated rapidly from
vertebrates, especially mammals (Brooks 1974a).

Upland Game Birds. Limited early test results from
partridge, turkey, pheasant, and sage grouse showed undetectable
or low levels of endrin in fat samples. Additional samples of
fat and other tissues collected from those species on an
intermittent basis through October 1982 gave similar results
(Table 10).

Most early sharp-tailed grouse fat samples also contained
relatively low endrin residue levels. However, 3 samples had
residue levels exceeding the USDA’s action level. This precipi-
tated additional sampling of upland birds, with emphasis on
sharptails, which continued through early fall 1982, and in-
cluded other tissues as well as fat (Table 10). An EPA toxi-
cologist was asked for his opinion regarding human consumption of
birds containing residues of this magnitude. He concluded that
although the endrin action level had been exceeded in several
instances, human ADI levels for endrin were within safe limits if
certain precautions, such as removing and discarding the skin and
fat, were followed. Based on those recommendations the Montana
Fish and Game Commission decided to allow the upland game bird
and big game archery seasons to proceed as scheduled. They
further cautioned grouse and partridge hunters to remove and
discard the skin, internal organs, and fat from harvested birds
and to limit consumption (Appendix F).

Although fat samples from the sharptail collected in April
1981 (reportedly 7 weeks following endrin treatment) were submit-
ted to 2 labs, one did not analyze their sample, and the second
sample was lost in a lab accident. Another fat sample was sub-
mitted, but it was October, well after the Fish and Game Commis-
sion's decision on bird seasons was made, before the results
(22.9 ppm endrin) were received. Endrin residues in other
tissues of this bird were; meat, 0.75 Ppm; brain, 0.30 ppm; and
crop contents, 2.54 ppm. Endrin residues in this sharptail's
crop contents were over 3 times greater than dietary levels (0.75
ppm) found to impair reproduction of screech owls (Otus asio)

o W
3 3 m P
O O ri- 3
t-* h-' (Ti *0
C C O

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ft) (t H- W

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3 s.

Table 10. Summary of endrin residues detected in tissues of uoland eame tirds durine PK>nitorine of sprin" 1981 endrin applications.

H rH tH

lO tH ^

o o o
o o o

iO \Q O

O) c5 CO LO
05 d d d 05

csi

I i
I I

CO O O O tH O

o o o o

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o o o o

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o o o o

'-•jo] u c
rrr+J a; -H T3

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+-> >

rt 0) -H
Pm S i-J

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iH iH eg

rH 05 05

fH iH

rH 05

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00 00

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0) > O) Q.

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0^ o

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1 H rH

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fa ^

bp P

£ o w

■

^ a
< <

0 ol

p ^ fp

•H

t_.

a (X

: ^

-nTwTnl -5i>nl

Includes one bird tested at two different labs.
Includes two birds each tested at two different labs.

(Fleming et al. 1982). Residues in the meat of this bird ap-
proached the highest carcass, or whole body, residues in owls
tested after being on this diet for up to 83 days. This sugges-
ted that even if no direct mortality occurred (see later dis-
cussion), reduced population levels of sharptails could have
occurred through reduced production of young.

Three sharptail fat samples (two 2-bird composite samples
and one 4-bird composite sample) from birds taken less than a
month before the opening of the 198I hunting season had endrin
residues of 0.3 (the USDA action level) to 0.53 PPni endrin.
Meat samples from the 3 pools of birds were all positive for
endrin (0.00 1 7-0.003 ppm) as was the single liver sample tested
(0.05 ppm). A single sharptail taken in September, during the
grouse hunting season, had 2.02 ppm endrin in its fat.

These data showed that at least some sharptails contained
high endrin residues for 5-6 months following endrin spraying,
with a few greatly exceeding the USDA action level during the
hunting season. They also indicated that the Fish and Game
Commission’s precautions to upland bird hunters were warranted.
Possibly greater restrictions could have been imposed (at least
for sharptails) if the data had been available at the time they
made their decision.

Small Mammals. Testing of resident wildlife samples was
expanded to include small mammals in fall 1981. Samples were
obtained primarily from sites where other species with
detectable endrin residues had been taken earlier. Sampling
continued periodically through May 1982. Most samples were
tested for 1 2-ketoend r in as well as endrin, PCB’s, and other
chlorinated hydrocarbons.

Five to 13 months had elapsed between spraying and sam-
pling, and may be the reason that residue levels of both endrin
and/or 1 2-ketoend r in in these samples were undetectable or at low
levels (Table 11). It is significant that both endrin and
ketoendrin were present in the tissues of a few small mammals for
over 1 year following spraying, thus providing a long-term source
of contamination for predatory birds and mammals.

Migratory

A great number of wildlife species spend only a part of the
year within Montana’s borders. While many of these are consumed
by humans, the greatest proportion of them are not. All of these
species are important because they are food for predators or are
predatory in nature. Endrin contamination of predators is of
concern because those species are at or near the top of often
complex food chains, a position also held by humans. Thus,
predators often serve as early indicators of problems with
environmental contamination that ultimately concern man.

Table 11. Sunnarv of endrin and ketoendrin residues detected in tissues of snail niairmals during monitoring of sorintr 1981 endrin applications.

• -H 0)
K W >

c a

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o o o o o

tT cm o o

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Pocket Nfouse Nov 1981

analyzed for ketoendrin residues.

Cfl P

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Table 11. Continued

Waterfowl. Initial collections of waterfowl, in late August
1981, included 8 Canada geese and 1 blue-w inged teal, all from
Custer County. Results from the first 6 geese collected (range
O.28-O.55 ppm) were near or exceeded the USDA’s action level for
endrin. After reviewing those results, the same EPA toxicologist
consulted about residues in upland birds warned that due to the
fatty nature of waterfowl, ADI levels for endrin would be ex-
ceeded significantly, and he expressed strong concern for humans
eating those waterfowl. Acting upon that expert opinion, the
MDFWP immediately expanded its collecting and testing of water-
fowl .

Test results through September 1981 showed that 16 fat
samples (10 Canada goose and 6 duck) contained endrin above the
USDA action level. A variety of other tissues from those birds
were also analyzed for endrin and other contaminants, including
samples analyzed following cooking, to see if that process al-
tered residue levels. Both cooked meat and drippings had endrin
residues similar to those of raw meat and fat taken from the same
bird prior to cooking. This agrees with findings of Ritchey et
al. (1972) who reported that endrin residues were not decreased
by cooking. Results of all endrin residue tests on waterfowl
through fall 1982 are shown in Table 12.

Since many Montana waterfowl hunters and their families eat
considerable quantities of waterfowl meat, the highest endrin
levels in early samples from each of 5 waterfowl species were
used to calculate potential endrin ingestion levels by humans
(Appendix G). The ingestion levels were then compared to the ADI
for endrin, and indicated that consumption of ducks and geese
containing high endrin levels would exceed the ADI, especially if
fat was consumed.

The MDFWP again requested opinions of EPA and USDA
toxicologists, independent toxicologists, and state health
authorities concerning potential hazards to humans eating endrin-
contaminated waterfowl. Resulting opinions were divided
(Appendix H), and the Fish and Game Commission allowed the 198I
waterfowl hunting season to proceed as scheduled, except that the
opening of the Canada goose season in 8 southeastern counties was
delayed 6 weeks. It was hoped this delay would permit local
birds to move south and/or mingle with migrant birds from Canada,
thus reducing the probability of hunters getting contaminated
birds. The Commission also extended the following cautions;
remove and discard fat and skin; cook skinned birds on a rack and
discard the drippings; do not stuff birds; pregnant and nursing
women should not consume waterfowl; and, consumption of waterfowl
should be limited to no more than 1 duck or 1 pound of goose meat
per week, nor more than 6 ducks or 6 pounds of goose meat per
year for adults, and half of this rate for children. Materials
emphasizing those cautionary measures were distributed to hun-
ting and fishing license dealers and others throughout the state
to be posted in conspicuous places.

Table 12. Suirnarv of encirin residues detected in tissues of waterfov/l durinrr 'tonitorinc of sorina: 1981 endi in api)iic;xt ions .

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Endrin Elesidues (PFM)

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Limited testing of waterfowl was continued through fall
1982, Fat samples of waterfowl collected during spring-fall 1982
included 67 from known 198I endrin sprayed areas and 62 from
other areas. Some of the latter areas were known to be untreated
in 1981, while the 198I spray history of the others was unknown.
Seventy-six percent of the fat samples from known 198I endrin-
treated areas had detectable endrin residues, while only 165& of
those from other areas were positive for endrin. During the 1982
hunting season, 16 waterfowl fat samples were obtained from an
area whose 198I spray history was unknown; 7 of those contained
endrin, including one mallard at 0.63 PPni (wet weight). If this
area is considered as a probable 198I endrin treatment site, 95/^
of the total spring-fall 1982 waterfowl fat samples that con-
tained endrin were from known or probable 198I endrin spray
areas .

The above data indicated that most 1982 endrin-contaminated
waterfowl in Montana were exposed locally, although adult birds
may also have been exposed elsewhere. Many of the positive
summer 1982 samples came from flightless young, further support-
ing a hypothesis of local endrin availability. Highest endrin
residues (ppm) found in waterfowl fat in spring 1982 were: bald-
pate, 0.58; mallard, 0.32; and pintail, 0.32; summer and fall
samples included Canada goose, 0.13; green-winged teal, 0.20;
mallard, 0.63; ruddy duck, I.31 and 2.56. These data clearly
suggested that individuals of several species of waterfowl con-
tained endrin residues above the USDA action level for well over
a year after application, including a few in the second hunting
season following spraying. Endrin residues in young Montana ducks
in 1982 established its continued presence in aquatic environ-
ments more than 1 year postspray.

Other Aquatic Birds and Migratory Game Birds. Limited sam-
pling revealed endrin in 5 of 6 species; only Wilson’s snipe
lacked detectable endrin in fat samples. Results from all
samples (Table 13) showed that many bird species associated with
wetlands and agricultural areas treated with endrin contained
endrin residues for at least 12-16 months following application.
Endrin was available to migratory bird hunters in other states as
well as in Montana.

Raptors. The earliest raptor collections from known endrin-
treated areas included 3 great horned owls taken in November
1981. Other November 198I raptors sampled (1 red-tailed hawk and
1 golden eagle) were sick or injured birds turned in to MDFWP
personnel and had no known history of endrin exposure. Horned
owls sampled in December 198I and January 1 982, and a kestrel
from July 1 982 were road kills and also had no known history of
endrin exposure. With one exception (a horned owl with 0.01
ppm endrin in its fat), endrin residues were not detected in
those samples (4 fat and 1 brain) from unsprayed areas.

■8

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Eight of 10 raptors taken from, or adjacent to, known
endrin-treated areas contained endrin residues in their fat
(Table 14). Most of those samples were obtained at least 1 year
after spraying, and the maximum endrin residue level found was
0.33 PPrn in 3 female harrier. Eggs from this harrier and a
long-eared owl (fatrO.07 ppm endrin) each contained <0.01 ppm
endrin .

Passerines, The only spring 1981 passerine bird sample
tested (a composite fat sample from 1 cowbird and 2 robins) came
from an area with no known history of endrin use, and no detect-
able endrin was found. Three passerine species were collected
from 1981 endrin-treated areas in November 198I. However, 2
species (lapland longspur and snow bunting) were migrants which
nest far to the north but winter in Montana. Six samples tested
from those 2 species were all negative for endrin residues (Table
15). Horned larks were the only locally breeding passerine
species to be tested in 198I. Both fat samples, 1 of 2 whole
body samples, and 0 of 2 brain samples contained detectable
endrin residues.

A small number of samples from each of several breeding
passerine species collected in April-May 1982, a full year after
endrin spraying, were tested. Several species, including horned
lark, white-crowned sparrow, meadowlark, chestnut-collared long-
spur, and McCown’s longspur had 1 or more tissues which tested
positive for endrin, although at low levels (Table 15). Those
birds, along with the small mammals discussed previously, would
provide a source of endrin contaminated food for predators for
well over a year following endrin application.

Endangered Species, No evidence of mortality of these spe-
cies due to 1981 endrin applications was obtained. The rarity of
each species in Montana, the lack of timely information about
specific treatment sites, and the lack of tissues needed for
residue testing (i.e. it was not in the best interest of species
welfare to kill individual birds, and no animals dying of other
causes were available to test) all contributed to this lack of
information.

However, the biology and ecology of whooping cranes, pere-
grine falcons, and bald eagles indicates that they were poten-
tially subject to exposure by the 198I endrin applications.
Their occurrence in the state and feeding habits strongly suggest
that individuals in each species could have been exposed to
endrin; the only basic requirement was utilization of endrin-
treated sites within a month or so after treatment. The species
most likely to be exposed would have been the whooping crane,
followed by bald eagles b'- peregrine falcons. Recent (1975-1977)
documented endrin poisoniii_, of bald eagles (Kaiser et al. 198O)
supported the concern expressed for this and other endangered
species in Montana.

Table 14. Simtiary of endrin residues detected in tissues of raptors during; rionitoring of spring 1981 endrin applications.

gig

O '
^ '

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Saniples were submitted to one (or rwjre) of four analytical laboratories.

Detection limits varied between laboratories, and between tissues tested at I he s:uix
Fat fr<»n one cfw/bird and tuo robins cxjmbined to make this sample.

^ i

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Residue test results indicated widespread endrin
contamination of terrestrial wildlife following 1981 endrin
spraying. The MDFWP subsequently sampled terrestrial wildlife at
151 sites in 26 counties. Positive fat samples were obtained at
46 of these sites in 12 counties (Fig. 15).

Miscellaneous Samples

A variety of other samples, mostly related to aquatic
habitats, were tested in an attempt to identify sources of conta-
mination for wildlife or test other animals eaten by humans
(Table 16). A much larger number of grain, soil, vegetation, and
other samples were collected and tested by the MDA. Available
data from both MDFWP and MDA suggested 2 possible routes by which
waterfowl were contaminated with endrin: living and feeding in
contaminated aquatic habitats; and feeding on contaminated grain
(including newly growing green shoots) in treated fields. In the
latter case, the birds may or may not spend a large part of the
day in uncontaminated areas.

Two of the 3 sites at which positive sediment samples were
obtained in fall 1981 were sampled again in May and July 1 982 and
no endrin was found in sediment at that time. Although endrin
apparently persists for several months in some pond sediments, it
may not persist in that medium as long as it does in some others
(eg. soil). Birds collected from one of the ponds (at the same
time the July 1982 sediment sample was obtained) had high endrin
residues; 2 ruddy ducks had 1.31 and 2.56 ppm in their fat and a
juvenile coot had 0.32 ppm in its fat. Those birds were undoubt-
edly obtaining endrin from the pond environment, probably through
eating contaminated aquatic plants and/or invertebrates. Unfor-
tunately none of the latter organisms were tested for endrin so
the actual route(s) involved remain unknown.

Because water is not a good indicator of pesticide contami-
nation of ponds only 1 water sample was analyzed. The above data
suggest that pond sediments, although retaining residues for some
time after exposure, may not be a good indicator of endrin conta-
mination either. This agrees with Keith's (1966, see earlier
discussion) findings that where invertebrates are present pesti-
cide residues are largely incorporated into food chains dependent
on invertebrates, rather than being deposited with sediments.
Future studies should sample sediment, along with submerged aqua-
tic plants and invertebrates, at intervals following exposure to
endrin in order to establish the relationships between residue
levels in each.

Consumption of Endrin by Wildlife

Due to the lack of inforntatjon concern j ng tjnjr>g and loca-
tion of endrin applications, tiie poteritia.l for wildlife to con-
sume lethal aniourits of endrin was indirect] y assessed (see Fig.
13 ai^d Table I7). Actual endrin residues on vegetation from 198I

Montana following 1981

H- O
D H-
W
rt
r-i
H*
CT"

rr
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P

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(O.

ft)

H-

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ft)

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i-i

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MONTANA

Tahifi Ifi. SiimtTiarv of endrin residues detected in niscellaneous samoles durine ''onitorimr of sorine 1931 endrin applications.

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les

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rioJi^i

Table I7. Amounts of end r in -c on t a m in a t ed vegetation/food to be
ingested to attain End r in -LD ^ in four species of
Montana wildlife.

Sharp-tailed Mule

Mallard

Pheasant

Grouse

Deer

Sex

F emale

F em.ale

Age

10-13 mos

3-4 mos -1/

4 y rs

2-5 yrs

Body

Wt: lbs

2.4

1.5

125

1.09

0.68

56.8

Acute

Oral

ED 50

(mg /kg)

5.64

1.78

0.75-1.50

6.25-12.5

Ounces of End r in-Con taminated Vegetation to be

Ingested to Attain LD^q

Endrin Content Sharp-tailed Mule

(ppm) Mallard Pheasant Grouse Deer

0.45^/

396

-t

0 1

1 1

>1,700^/

•

15.2

6.4-12.8**

279-559

8.6^1/

5.0*

2. 1-4.2*

91-182

17.7-^'^

12.2

2.7*

1 .0-2.0*

44-88

18.9^/

11.5

2.3*

0.95-1.9*

24.0-^/

9.0

1.8*

0.75-1.5*

33-65

* Sufficient intake in 1 day to attain the ED^q

** Sufficient intake in 2 days to attain the LD50
JL/ Pheasants this age are approximately adult size
2/ Found in wheat plants 4 weeks postspray (MDA)

3/ Food weights for mule deer are in pounds

3/ Minimum and maximum found in wheat plants 2 weeks postspray
(MDA)

3/ Minimum and maximum found in wheat plants 2 days postspray
(MDA)

3/ Found in range grass 2 weeks postspray (MDA)

treatment sites (from MDA sampling) and acute oral toxicities for
adult animals of 4 species (Tucker and Crabtree 1970) were used
in the assessment. Daily food intake was assumed to be a minimum
of 4 oz for adult mallards, pheasants, and sharp-tailed grouse
(cf. Keith 1 963, Burrage and Saha 1 972), and 4 lb (dry weight)
for adult mule deer in summer (Wallmo 1981:115).

Sharptails and pheasants could have eaten enough endrin-
contaminated wheat (8.6 ppm) in 1 or 2 days to have resulted in
mortality (Table 17); wheat with end r in residues of this magni-
tude was available for up to 2 weeks postspray. Mallards could
have consumed sufficient highly contaminated wheat (17. 7 ppm)
during 3 days to result in mortality. Daily ingestion of similar
levels (1.0 mg/kg) of endrin were fatal to most wigeon within 5
days (Keith 1963). Mule deer probably did not eat enough to
cause mortality, unless the highest end rin-conten t food (24.0
ppm) was available for several days, in which case it is assumed
that 10-12 pounds (fresh weight) is eaten daily. Poisoning deaths
of mule and white-tailed deer, antelope, and cattle have occurred
following endrin treatment of wheat at the same application rates
as recommended for cutworms in Montana (Anonymous 1968, Colorado
Department of Agriculture 1968, Hepworth and Roby 1968,
Environmental Protection Agency 1980b).

Costs and Consequences of Endrin Usage
To Wildlife

Recommended application rates for endrin and the levels of
endrin residues found on vegetation, in the contents of bird
crops, and in the tissues of pheasants, sharptails, and several
waterfowl suggest that wildlife mortalities occurred during the
spring of 1981. The extent of those mortalities and the
consequences to respective local wildlife populations remain
unknown .

To Hunting

Although other variables (eg. a general economic recession,
increased gasoline prices, etc.) could have influenced the
purchase of bird hunting licenses, hunter participation, and
related expenditures in 1981, most costs and hunter reactions
discussed below are attributable to endrin contamination of game
meat .

License Sales, Hunter Participation, and Harvests. Game bird
hunting license sales in Montana in 1981 were down 15-17^& from
previous years (Table 18). Numbers of resident licenses de-
creased from 1980 to 1981 more than those for nonresidents,
probably because residents were exposed to more frequent news
reports concerning endrin in game birds (upland as well as water-
fowl) within the state. Game bird hunting license sales in 1982

Table l8. Summary of the numbers of resident and nonresident
game bird hunting licenses issued in Montana, 1976-
1981 .

License

Year

Resident-^/

Non-

Resident-^/

Total

1976

62,493

3,432

65,925

1977

67,817

3,200

71,017

1978

66,951

3,151

70,102

1979

67,408

3,431

70,839

1980

67,109

2,638

69,747

1981

55,482

2,458

57,940

1976-1980

Average

66,355

3,170

69,526

% Change

1980 to 1981

-17

-7

-15

% Change
Between 5-yr
avg & 1981

- 1 6

-22

-17

Includes sportsman, bird-adult and bird-youth

license .

Includes bird

and b ird -f ish

licenses during

1976-1979, but

bird license only during 1980

-1981.

(64,

93O) increased

12% from 1981

but remained 7%

below the 1976-

1980 average. Resident and nonresident license sales in 1982
were 61,723 and 3>207 respectively.

Numbers of upland game bird hunters afield in 198I were 29%
fewer than in the previous 5 years (Table 19). The hunting
participation rate by license buyers also declined; the 5-year
participation average was 76% compared to 74% in 198O and 65% in

1981 (from Tables 18 and 19). Hunters hunted 37% fewer days in
1981 compared to 198O and 39% fewer than the 5-year average. The
decrease in total upland game birds harvested from 1980 to 198I
(20%) and from the 5-year average (57%) also reflected the low
participation. Decline in harvests of all 3 major upland bird
groups in 198I suggested that hunters did not differentiate
between species that occupied habitats subject to endrin treat-
ments (prairie grouse and farmland exotics) and habitats with
little chance of endrin exposure (forest grouse).

Table 19. Summary of numbers of upland gam.e bird hunters afield, days hunted, and
birds harvested in Montana, 1976-1981.

Years

No. upland-^
Bird Hunters
Afield

Prairie

Grouse^/

Upland Birds Harvested-^/

Forest Farmland

Grouse^ Exotics^

Total

Days

Hunted

1976

50,597

188,156

107,999

193,242

489,397

360,663

1977

1978

53,170

129,938

131,989

208,042

469,969

363,777

51,222

139,869

137,340

197,832

475,041

349,314

1979

57,313

188,179

191,305

170,886

550,370

426,879

1980

51,756

109,813

75,088

147,352

332,253

354,413

1981

37,459

82,706

53,817

129,905

266,428

224,707

1976-1980

Average

52,811

151,191

128,744

183,470

463,405

371,009

% Change

1980 to 1981

1 -28

-25

-28

-12

-20

-37

% Change
Between 5-yr
avg & 1981 -29

-45

-58

-29

-57

-39

1/ Numbers

given are point

estimates obtained

from annual

wildlife

harvest

surveys.

2J Includes sage grouse and sharp-tailed grouse.

3/ Includes blue grouse, ruffed grouse, and Franklin’s grouse.
3/ Includes pheasant, Hungarian partridge, and chukar partridge.

Numbers of upland game bird hunters afield during 1982
(36,595) approximated those in 1981, but were 31% fewer than the
I976-I98O average. They harvested 4% fewer birds than in 198I
and 45% fewer than the 1976-1980 average. Harvests of prairie
grouse and farmland exotic species declined from 198I to 1982
(15% and 3% respectively), while those for forest grouse
increased 11%. Hunters spent more time hunting in 1982 than in
1981 (+ 14%), but 31% less than the 1976-1980 average.

Waterfowl hunting was impacted more severely than hunting of
other species in Montana in I98I. Sales of waterfowl hunting
stamps decreased 22-27% from previous years (Table 20). Partici-
pation in hunting declined from a 5-year average of 79% to 56%
for duck hunters in Montana and from 56% to 35% for goose
hunters. Numbers of hunters afield decreased 43-48% in 198I from
prior years. In 198I, total days hunted dropped 37-49% and
waterfowl harvested decreased 12-40% from previous years. Num-
bers of ducks harvested in 198I decreased 40%, while numbers of
geese harvested declined 12%, from the previous 5 year
average.

Table 20. Summary of numbers of federal waterfowl hunting stamps
sold, hunters afield, hunter days, and waterfowl
harvested in Montana, 1976-1981.

No. Hun t e r s-1/ Tota 1 Days^^ N o . W a t e r f o w 1-^
Year Stamps Afield Hunted Harvested

Ducks

Geese

Ducks

Geese

Ducks

Geese

1976

30,114

23,680

13,950

148,237

69,750

215, 249

13,406

1977

29,858

23,403

13,597

140,650

69,073

217,023

14,635

1978

SOjitOI

21,832

12,517

126,625

152,689

69,958

206,703

14,443

1979

28,504

24,868

14,667

76,268

245,061

19,620

1980

27,446

21 , 284
12,043

13,976

157,655

82,506

208,153

17,257

1981

21,336

7,568

80,091

46,540

130,735

14,010

1976-

1980

Avg.

29,265

23,013

13,741

145,171

73,511

218,438

15,872

% Change

1980

1981

-22

-43

-46

-49

-44

-37

-19

% Change
between 5 yr

avg &

1981

-27

-48

-45

-37

-40

-12

1/ Numbers given are point estimates projected from a portion of
hunters who purchased game bird licenses each year.

Public Awareness Survey, Most (98%) of the 162 resident game
bird license holders interviewed following 1982 hunting seasons
were aware that upland game birds and waterfowl could have been
contaminated with pesticides in 1982. Survey results are summa-
rized below; detailed results are in Appendix E.

Major sources of public awareness were newspapers (73% of
the respondents), television (46%), and radio (33%); word of
mouth (15%), license dealers (7%), and other (7%) comprised the
remaining sources of inform.a t ion .

The survey revealed that 73% of respondents were concerned
to some degree about pesticide contamination of upland game
birds, while 26% were not worried at all. Thirty-four percent of
the licensees did not hunt upland birds, and 30% of those made
that decision because of pesticide contamination.

The 76 surveyed households consumed an average of 6.7 birds
per household. An additional 2.2 birds per household were frozen
or otherwise preserved for future consumption. Within those

households, five women were pregnant or nursing and 1 of each
ate upland game birds in 1982.

People in 74 (97%) of the 76 responding households indicated
birds were skinned prior to cooking, 73 (96%) had removed body
fat from the birds, 70 (92%) did not eat any d r ess ing /s tu f f ing ,
and 61 (805&) stated that drippings from cooked birds were discar-
ded .

Seventy-seven percent of the 157 respondents expressed con-
cern for pesticide contamination of waterfowl. Two-thirds did
not hunt waterfowl and 30% of those made that decision because of
the potential presence of pesticides.

The 38 households surveyed consumed and/or had preserved an
average of 8.4 ducks and 1.0 goose per household. In those
household's, three women were pregnant or nursing (1 had been
pregnant and then was also nursing her baby) and each consumed
waterf owl .

People in 27 (62%) of 33 households who ate waterfowl from
1982 hunting seasons indicated they skinned the birds, 29 (87^)
removed the body fat before cooking, 33 (100^) discarded the
stuffing/dressing, and 28 (6b%) discarded the drippings after
cooking .

The telephone interview survey revealed an extremely high
level of hunter awareness of pesticide contamination of game
birds in 1982. Most hunters probably became aware of that
contamination prior to 1981 hunting seasons, and the survey, fol-
lowing 1982 seasons, may have reflected cumulative or residual
awareness from the prior year. Nonetheless, awareness was at a
high level in 1 982, which will probably continue for the next
several years.

Most hunters obtained their information on pesticide conta-
mination from the news media. Informational bulletins by the
MDFWP were primarily released in I98I, while the survey contacted
hunters 16 months later. Regardless of the source of informa-
tion, 875^ of the 158 respondents thought they were adequately
informed on this issue.

Slightly more concern was expressed for pesticide contamina-
tion of waterfowl than upland game birds; that could be due to
the delayed opening of the 198I goose season in southeastern
Montana and to the fattier nature of waterfowl flesh compared to
that of upland fowl. Although 30% of the respondents indicated
they did not hunt either upland birds or waterfowl because of
potential contamination problems, twice as many hunted upland
birds in 1982 as hunted waterfowl. Additional other hunters in
both groups could have quit hunting altogether in 198I and/or
1982 because of potential pesticide contamination of birds, and
were therefore unavailable for the 1982 surveys.

To Wildlife Agencies

Study Costs.' The 198I Endrin Issue in Montana was expensive
for the MDFWP because of the direct expenses involved in obtain-
ing and testing wildlife tissues for pesticide residues, and
compiling and reporting test results. Initial attempts to docu-
ment endrin residues in wildlife (July-Oc tober I98I) cost
$96,192. The continued endrin monitoring effort through the
summer of 1982 cost an additional, estimated $74,321. Subsequent
field studies of the effects of endrin and 2 alternative insecti-
cides on wildlife, plus the expanded wildlife collections and
testing for heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide and other chemical
residues resulted in an estimated $53i158 in expenses. Final
data analyses and report preparation cost about $38,289* Total
direct expense to the department was a minimum, estimated
$261,960.

Hunting License Income Losses. Game bird hunting license
revenues in 198I were $50,1 90 less than in 198O (-15%) and
$81,324 less than the 1976-1980 annual average (-22%) (Table 21).
Those losses were considered minimums because of a significant
increase (60%) in numbers of resident sportsmen licenses sold
between 1980 and 1981. Because the MDFWP received $1.96 from
federal aid in wildlife restoration funds for each license sold,
the MDFWP lost an additional $23,142 from reduced license sales
between 1980 and 198I.

Total license revenues in 1 982 were $33> 822 less than the
1976-1980 annual average. An additional $9,441 was lost in 1982
due to reduced federal aid matching funds, resulting in a 2-year
(I98I and 1982) total revenue loss of $116,595.

In addition to the money spent and income lost by the MDFWP,
the time devoted to researching and informing others about this
issue replaced time and efforts needed to implement the routine
wildlife program of the state. No monetary value could be
assigned to those lost data and efforts.

Federal waterfowl hunting stamp sales in Montana decreased
22% between 1980 and 198I and 27% from the previous 5-year av-
erage to 1981 (Table 20). At $7.50 per hunting stamp, the fed-
eral government lost $45,825 - $59,467 in income. The FWS also
experienced direct expenditures from this issue through collect-
ing waterfowl in 1981, by testing those and other wildlife tis-
sues for pesticide residues, and by participating in the 1982
field studies in Montana.

Table 21. Revenues generated by the sale of game bird hunting
licenses to the Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife
and Parks, 1976-1981.

Resident License

Nonresident

Total

Year

Revenue

License Revenue-^/

Revenue

1976

$241,056

$137,320

$379,385

1977

262,563

115,200

377,763

1978

259,344

114,410

373,754

1979

261,468

121,950

383,418

1980

260,522

79,140

339,662

1981

215,732

73,740

289,472

1976-1980

Average

$256,991

$113,604

$370,796

Revenue

change 198O
to 1981

-$44,790

-$ 5,400

-$50,190

Revenue change
between 5-yr
avg & 1981

-$44,159

-$39,864

-$81,324

1/ Includes the bird ($30) license, plus the bird-fish license
during 1976-1979, but bird license only during 1980-1981.

To Private Enterprise

Although comments were received from several sporting goods
dealers concerning reduced sales of firearms and ammunition in
1981, no attempt was m.ade to survey those dealers about monetary
losses. Phillips (1981) estimated that daily hunter expenditures
(excluding license costs) for upland game bird (excluding turkey)
and waterfowl hunting in Wyoming were $32.32 for residents and
$53*71 for nonresidents in 198O. Utilizing that value for re-
duced resident hunter days in Montana, private enterprise lost a
projected $3*0 million from waterfowlers plus $4.7 million from
upland game bird hunters in 198I. If nonresident hunters had
been included, the total loss would have exceeded $8 million. A
majority of this economic loss was borne by merchants in the
eastern two-thirds of Montana.

To Agriculture

Although this subject will be addressed in detail by the
MDA, a preliminary evaluation of the economic benefits, and
costs, to Montana’s agricultural community is presented. In this

discussion we recognize that individual growers may be severely
impacted and will bear the entire financial loss due to cutworm
outbreaks in their grainfields.

The 1981 wheat crop in Montana was valued at $637.5 million
(Table 22). The projected value for the yield from the estimated
minimum 98,848 acres treated with endrin that year, assuming the
entire acreage was winter wheat and the yield from that acreage
would have been totally elimjinated by cutworms (yields are usu-
ally not reduced to this extent), was slightly more than $12.6
million. The estimated yield value from the maximum estimated
123»560 acres treated with endrin, and the same assumptions,
would have been about $15.8 million. Those estimates represented
4-5% of the value of the winter wheat crop in Montana in 198I and
2-2.5% of the value of the total wheat crop. The inclusion of
livestock and other crop yields would have further reduced the
percentage of Montana’s agricultural economy that was impacted.

Other costs incurred by farmers and ranchers included the loss
of livestock grazing in stubble fields which had been treated
with endrin. Although endrin label restrictions include
prohibitions against such grazing, as well as feeding threshings
from treated fields to livestock, many farmers and ranchers in
southeastern Montana expressed concern about those regulations.
Because endrin residues have been found on vegetation for more
than 1 year postspray (O.G. Bain, pers. comm.), the MDA recom-
mends no livestock grazing of stubble fields for a minimum of 1
year after endrin treatment.

Many rural landowners have stock ponds which also host
warmwater and trout fisheries, thereby providing recreation and
food to farmers, ranchers, their friends, and the general public.
When such ponds are privately owned, the buffer zone restrictions
for endrin application do not apply and endrin could have been
applied to pond edges, or even to pond surfaces, causing losses
of aquatic species.

Other subtle, or indirect, costs may be borne by farmers and
ranchers. Broad-spectrum insecticides, like endrin, applied to
control one pest species also kill other insects, including
beneficial species such as bees, and parasites and predators.
In time the effects of the insecticide subside and populations of
predators do not recover as rapidly as those of the pest species
(ICIATI 1977 in Pimentel and Edwards 1982). This sets the stage
for another potential pest species outbreak.

Application of certain chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides
can result in increased nutrient loads in plants (Cole et al.
1968). While this may appear beneficial to the farmer, elevated
nutrient levels attract additional insect species, the females of
which mi ay lay even more eggs than normal (Oka and Pimentel 1974).
Thus, females of potential pest species are aided in reproductive
efforts, to the detriment: of the farmer.

Table 22. Summary of wheat acreages, yields, price per bushel, and crop
value in Montana, 1981.^

Winter

Spring

Durum

Totals

Wheat

No. Acres
Planted

2,700,000

2,850,000

490,000

6,040,000

No. Acres
Harvested

2,550,000

2,790,000

480,000

5,820,000

Avg. Yield Per
Acre (bu)

29.7

Total Yield
(bu)

89,250,000

72,540,000

11,040,000

172,830,000

Avg. Price

$3.65

$3.75

$3.60

$3.69

Crop Value

$325,762,500

$272,025,000

$39,7^^,000

$637,531,500

y From Montana Crop and Livestock Reporting Service 1982.

The sum total of these and other relationships can be
included in the broad problem of pesticide stress on farm and
range lands (Pimentel and Edwards 1982). All of those relation-
ships must be considered when evaluating the true costs and
benefits of pesticide usage by Montana's farmers and ranchers.

Absence of Wildlife Carcasses

The public, and especially agriculturalists, often commented
on the apparent absence of wildlife carcasses in or near endrin-
treated fields in 1981; that absence was interpreted by some to
mean that endrin applications resulted in little or no mortality
of wildlife. Several factors, individually or collectively, con-
tributed to that impression:

(1) an inadequate pesticide reporting system in 198I pre-

cluded the MDFWP from conducting searches for carcasses
when they would have been apparent (i.e. 3-14 days

following treatment);

(2) intoxicated or sick animals may seek dense cover in
which to hide;

(3) carcasses of small birds and mammals do not remain
intact under natural conditions for more than a few days

(i.e. they are consumed or carried off by predators and
scavengers, Rosene and Lay 1963);

(4) carcasses, except those of larger birds and mammals,
may go unnoticed; this would be especially true for
young birds and mammals in their nests;

(5) unless observers suspect pesticide poisoning, the cause
of death of occasional wildlife found might be incor-
rectly attributed to parasites, diseases, accidents,
etc ;

(6) rodents and predatory ma'mmals and birds are commonly
viewed as pests by agriculturalists; deaths of those
species would generally not be reported to a wildlife
agency .

Those reasons for lack of wildlife carcasses being found
following endrin applications are generally supported by the
Environmental Protection Agency (1978). In discussing the im-
pacts of endrin on endangered species (eg. brown pelican), the
Environmental Protection Agency (1978:35) rejected Velsicol’s
rebuttal that a pelican die-off was a "small, isolated, and one-
time" occurrence. The EPA contended that the odds of finding a
dead brown pelican in the wild were remote, and that the lack of
such observations over a 3-year period were not grounds to con-
clude that additional deaths had not occurred.

Wildlife biologists, hunters, and farmers would be most
likely to observe the direct and indirect effects of endrin
applications via drastic, or even subtle but prolonged , declines
in resident upland game bird populations. However, without
knowledge of locations and timing of endrin treatments, and
without verification of endrin residues in those species, popula-
tion declines could be attributed to a variety of other causes
(eg. overhunting, predation). Because economically damaging
populations of cutworms occur in Montana wheat fields every 2-3
years (Environmental Protection Agency 1978:26), farmland game
birds, including waterfowl, have been exposed to endrin with
considerable frequency.

Continued Registration of Endrin by the EPA

Montanans also voiced concern about the relationship of the
27-year history of endrin use in the state vs. the "sudden"
concern for endrin in 1981. Part of the answer lies in the
dependency of the MDFWP on prompt, voluntary reports by private
citizens about fish or wildlife die-offs. Initial field
investigations in the 1981 Endrin Issue were prompted by such a
report of a fish die-off in Sunday Creek (Custer County) in March
1981. However, most insecticides are applied when the general
public and hunters are not recreating on farm and range lands;
fishermen are afield but unless fish mortality is obvious at
fishing sites, they have no apparent reason for concern.

The Environmental Protection Agency (1978:19) indicated
similar problems in repoYting incidents involving pesticides and
wildlife. Their nationwlide Pesticide Episode Reporting System
(PERS) reports are incompiete for 2 reasons: it "relies on volun-

tary reporting by private parties to either state agencies or to
the EPA concerning pesticide-related kills", and "it does not
include all of the incidents which are reported at the state
level." The EPA expects "only a nominal amount of the total
numbers of inc idents...to be both observed and reported to either
state or federal authorities." Thus, when private citizens do
not report wildlife casualty incidents, no record exists for it,
and no cumulative record can be evaluated periodically for poten-
tial problems.

In its Rebuttable Presumption Against Registration (RPAR) of
endrin during the late 1970’s, the EPA recognized some of the
hazards of endrin to wildlife and people who eat wildlife
(Environmental Protection Agency 1978). The following are exam-
ples of specific concerns:

(1) The EPA admitted (P. 60), "there is some risk to bald
eagles which may be poisoned by consuming moribund and
dead fish associated with the use on small grains."

(2) They stated (Pp. 138-139), "...several State registra-
tions for grasshopper control on wheat and non-crop land
were received by the Agency in 1978. Velsicol’s labels
for these new registrations impose 1/M-mile distance
restrictions from bodies of water and habitation for
humans and domestic animals. Such restrictions
virtually preclude excessive human exposure, but the
Agency is concerned with possible hazards to wildlife
that may consume contaminated insects and with residues
that may exist in game birds consumed by humans." (em-
phasis added by current authors).

In its conclusions (P.145), however, the EPA stated, "Pri-
vate ponds are intentionally excluded from the [1/4-mile] re-
striction but are to,.be protected by the label precaution ’Appli-
cation within 200 yards of ponds may result in fish kills.’ ’’ In
the EPA’s opinion, growers should have the option of choosing
between fish and wheat when both are owned by the same indi-
vidual .

In Montana, however, the fish are not necessarily "owned" by
the property owner. Many fish ponds (i.e reservoirs) on private
property are stocked with fish reared in MDFWP and FWS hatch-
eries; i.e. public funds are used to breed and rear the fish for
those ponds. Killing those fish with endrin negates any intended
public or private benefits from expenditure of those public
funds. While private landowners reserve the right to spray or
not spray endrin over their ponds, the fish are public property
and the public has the right to fish those ponds. If the land-
owner elects to spray endrin on or within 0.25 mi of the pond, or
if fish die from endrin application, the pond must be posted

against all fishing for a minimum of 6 months (12 months if a
fish kill results) (Appendix C). Anyone catching and eating
end rin-contaminated fish is exposed to any inherent health haz-
ards; the EPA recognized that endrin residues in fish could pose
teratogenic risks to humans. Further, terrestrial wildlife (eg.
waterfowl, upland game birds), which are also public resources,
have been shown by our studies to assimilate endrin applied to
small grain fields. They probably obtained the endrin by eating
invertebrates and vegetation in and/or near such ponds.
Resulting endrin residues in their tissues are available to
people eating those species.

One aspect of wildlife biology omitted from the endrin-RPAR
process was the critical role of insects, including cutworms and
grasshoppers, in the food habits of game and nongame birds.
Cutworms were found in the crop of a sharp-tailed grouse in the
current studies and insects generally are significant components
in the diets of pheasants (Weigand and Janson 1976), Hungarian
partridge (Weigand 1980), sharptails (Yde 1977), sage grouse
(Wallestad 1975), Merriam's turkey (Jonas 1966), a variety of
ducks and geese (Bellrose 1976), and passerine birds (Feist 1968,
Best 1970). In fact, Janda (1959) in central Bohemia reported
that insects comprised 80-95% of Hungarian partridge chick diets
during their first 3 weeks of life. As a corollary to this
finding, Potts (1970) in Great Britain found that partridge
chicks died when deprived of insects in their diets. Although
the EPA’s final action on endrin was to cancel its use for con-
trol of all small grain insect pests other than army and pale
western cutworms in all states, and grasshoppers in Montana only,
endrin is a broad spectrum insecticide and its use on grain
fields poses a direct threat to the welfare of birds inhabiting
those fields.

1982 Alternative Insecticide-Wildlife Study

The use of alternative method s of cutworm, control received
increased attention after the 198I Endrin Issue. Because of
endrin's persistence in the environment and its toxicity to fish
and wildlife, the use of such alternative methods of cutworm
control has been encouraged. Alternative method s might include
changes in farming practices which incorporate non-chemical pro-
cedures as well as the use of other, less hazardous insecticides.
At least 9 potential alternative cutworm insecticides which are
less toxic than endrin to wildlife exist (Table 23). Of these,
acephate, carbaryl, fenvalerate, and permethrin seem to be the
least toxic to terrestrial wildlife; acephate, carbaryl, dylox,
and lannate are the least toxic to fish.

Table 23. 3a;parative toxicities of selected insecticides to v/ildlife (chemicals are listed in order of
toxicity - most toxic first to least toxic last).

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Aquatic Bioassays

No attempt was made to calculate LC^q, for the field
bioassays because test organisms were dead in all of the
treatments after 24 hours.

Under prevailing test conditions endrin was lethal to
daphnia within 2 hours for at least 1,185 feet downwind from the
test plot (Table 24). The endrin label stipulates that applica-
tion sites must be at least 0.25 mi (1,320 ft) from public wa-
ters that support fish life. These findings illustrated that
endrin can drift considerable distances downwind from an applica-
tion site and have a toxic influence even where correct
application procedures were followed and wind conditions were
within recommended limits. Our results suggested that endrin
label requirements do not ensure protection of organisms in
waters near spray areas.

Permethrin was also toxic for a considerable distance down-
wind from the spray area, but mortalities occurred more slowly
than with endrin (Table 24). Wind velocity was much lower during
the permethrin application, and pesticide drift was expectedly
more limited. Lower air and water temperatures during that early
morning application may have been responsible for the delayed
toxicity. Rapid diurnal changes in water temperature during the
24-hour period following these tests were probably stressful to
the organisms and may have contributed to mortalities. Field
tests of this kind do not offer the opportunities for controlling
test conditions that are available in a laboratory environment.

These results do not necessarily indicate that the toxic
influence of endrin extends a greater distance downwind than that
of permethrin. Permethrin is also known to have a high acute
toxicity to aquatic organisms. Moreover, test conditions during
endrin spraying were more favorable for pesticide drift. Never-
theless, results indicated that label requirements do not protect
aquatic life under all conditions.

Terrestrial Surveys

Endrin Studies

The time between selection of the endrin treatment area and
actual application did not allow prespray wildlife population
studies. A few ducks and horned larks were collected before
spraying and tested for chlorinated hydrocarbon residues. All
prespray birds tested had little or no endrin present in the
samples tested (Table 25).

Because we were ad vised not to enter endrin-treated fields
for the first few days following spraying, searches for potential
mortalities in treated fields were not conducted until 3 days
following application. A deer mouse suspected of being affected

Table 24. Results of field bioassays using Daphnia magna to monitor
drift of aerially applied endrin and permethrin.

Chemical

Distance downwind
from plot
(ft)

Percent mortality at
time intervals after
Oh Ih 2h 4h

various
spraying
6h 24h

Permethrin

in plot

100

(ambush)

100

185

100

385

100

585

100

785

100

985

100

1185

—

100

Endrin

in plot

100

185

100

385

100

585

100

785

100

985

100

1185

100

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A fieure oreceded by < equals the detection limit for that sample.

by endrin was hand caught on the day following endrin application
during a search for bird nests immediately adjacent to a treated
field. Two dead deer mice were found during searches of a
treated field on the third day following spraying. A dead horned
lark was found by MDA personnel in a treated field on this same
day. A black-tailed prairie dog was hand caught 4 days after
spraying on the edge of an end r in-treated field which contained a
small prairie dog town.

Two bird species (burrowing owl, Speotyto cunicularia, and
mountain plover, Eupoda montana) normally associated with prairie
dog towns and listed as being species of special interest or
concern in Montana (Flath 1981), were seen in this prairie dog
town 4 days after spraying. No subsequent observations of these
species occurred on or near this prairie dog town, despite
considerable time spent there collecting prairie dogs and small
bird specimens for residue testing. Whether that absence indi-
cated poisoning deaths of those species or emigration from the
area is unknown.

A dead skunk was found on a trail adjacent to an endrin-
treated field 2 weeks after spraying; it was not there 10 days
previously, but was too decomposed to provide suitable material
for sampling or assessing the cause of death. Searches of
end r in-treated fields on this same date revealed no other sick or
dead animals, although 2 sites where small birds had been eaten
were found. Field notes from this date indicate that bird
activity was notably reduced in end r in-treated fields when com-
pared to adjacent untreated areas or fields treated with
permethrin or chlorpy rif os. Three live deer mice were noted in
end r in-treated fields during these searches. Similarly, McEwen
et al. (1972) found no significant differences in numbers of
birds for the first 12-14 days postspray; during 2-7 weeks post-
spray, however, a significant (p<0.01) decrease in birds around
sprayed fields was noted.

Resident wildlife tested for endrin residues were deer
mouse, black-tailed prairie dog, white-tailed jackrabbit, and
cottontail rabbit. Most were tested for both endrin and 12-
ketoendrin in addition to other chlorinated hydrocarbons. Most
residue levels presented from here on are reported as ppm on a
fresh, or wet-weight basis; a few are on a lipid-weight basis.

Residue testing for endrin and 1 2-k et oend r in (Table 26)
indicated that the 2 deer mice found dead had been poisoned by
endrin, and that the hand-caught deer mouse and prairie dog were
suffering from endrin intoxication. In the case of the prairie
dog, endrin residues (brain r 0.71 Ppm, liver = 3.32 ppm) sugges-
ted that it may have been near death. Apparently healthy resi-
dent wildlife collected on or adjacent to end r in-treated areas at
various postspray intervals all had endrin and 1 2-k etoend r in
residues at much lower levels than those found in dead or intoxi-
cated animals. Whether only unaffected or mildly affected ani-
mals were trappable remains unknown; similarly, we do not know

Table 26. Su rnry of endrin residues detected in tissues of resident wildlife at vario’uc ixjstspruy interv'als folloiving 1982 endrin applicatioas.

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Each whole body sarrple includes only one animal, number of animals included in individual samples of other tissues in parentheses.
Most jackrabbit samples were not tested for ketoendrin.

A figure preceded by < equals the detection limit for that sample.

whether or not trapping adequately sampled all segments of the
populations under study.

The absence of detectable 1 2-ketoend r in residues in prairie
dogs and 2 species of rabbits suggested that those species do not
produce that particular metabolite. This generally agreed with
the findings of Bedford et al. (1 975b) who detected only trace
amounts of 1 2-ketoendrin in the domestic rabbit. These findings
also suggested that those species do not need to be analyzed for
that compound in future studies.

Laboratory studies of the effects of endrin on deer mice
have shown that significant parental mortality occurred at levels
of 2 ppm or more in the diet and that surviving parents receiving
concentrations of 4 ppm or more weaned significantly fewer young
(Morris 1968). Similarly, endrin has resulted in significant
parental mortality and smaller litters (Good and Ware 1969), as
well as birth defects (Ottolenghi et al. 1973), among laboratory
mice. Results of those studies suggested that population losses
of deer mice (and probably other species as well), other than the
direct poisoning noted, occurred during our studies. However,
the lack of prespray population information precluded assessing
the magnitude or consequences of such losses. McEwen et al.
(1972) reported that 4 species of mammals succumbed to direct
endrin poisoning during similar studies in Colorado, with
jackrabbits being particularly sensitive. Larger mammals,
including cattle, deer, and pronghorn, have also been victimized
by endrin (Anonymous 1968, Colorado Department of Agriculture
1968, Hepworth and Roby 1968, Environmental Protection Agency
1980b).

Several ducks, 2 harriers, and a variety of small birds
were collected on or near end r in-treated fields at various post-
spray intervals and tested for endrin and other residues. The
dead horned lark found in a treated field 3 days postspray con-
tained no chlorinated hydrocarbon residues; its cause of death
remains unknown.

All postspray small birds were collected from, or within 250
yd of, treated fields, as were 1 of the harriers and all ducks
taken 5 1/2 weeks postspray or before. The second harrier was
taken approximately 0.3 nii from the nearest end r in-treated field,
while the 14 1/2 week postspray duck collections were made at
distances of 0.4 to 1.75 mi from the nearest treated fields.

Birds collected within or around end rin-t reated fields
showed an immediate uptake and accumulation of endrin in various
tissues (Table 25). Elevated endrin concentrations remained for
at least 5 1/2 weeks in all birds sampled, and much longer for
harriers. Based on residue levels in fat at 4 1/2 and 5 1/2
weeks postspray, endrin in ducks within treated areas probably
remained at elevated levels (compared to prespray samples) for
some time after this. Harriers contained higher endrin residues
than any of their potential prey species sampled at the same
time .

Eggs renioved from the oviducts of 2 female horned larks at 2
and 4 1/2 weeks postspray contained 1.10 and 0.15 Ppm endrin,
respectively. The higher level is well above estimated critical
endrin residue levels which, if exceeded, caused reproductive
impairment in screech owls (-0.3 ppm, Fleming et al. 1982) and
brown pelicans (-0.5 Ppm, Blus 1982). Those levels suggested
that small birds, which were breeding on end r in-treated areas,
may have experienced reduced production even if no direct endrin
poisoning occurred. However, direct poisoning probably did
occur, as indicated by 2 whole body samples of horned larks that
had endrin concentrations (wet weight) greater than those in
birds found dead in similar studies in Colorado (McEwen et al.
1972).

Endrin residues in the 2 horned lark egg samples were ap-
proximately 31% and 63% of the endrin levels found in the fat of
the birds from which the eggs were taken. Assuming that endrin
residues in waterfowl eggs also approximated 30-65% of residue
levels in female parent fat, and that residue levels in eggs
which result in impaired reproduction were on the order of 0.5
ppm, endrin levels that approached or exceeded the critical level
would have occurred in eggs of waterfowl residing in endrin-
treated areas for several weeks following spraying. Under these
circumstances, production would suffer even if no direct endrin
poisoning occurred.

Several miscellaneous samples were obtained at various post-
spray intervals, including: 2 cutworm samples taken 5 days
postspray; 1 sediment sample at 5 1/2 weeks and 5 samples at 7
1/2 weeks postspray; and 2 barley samples (seeds removed from
heads of standing grain missed during harvest) taken 14 1/2 weeks
postspray. All sediment samples, both barley samples, and 1 of
the cutworm samples contained <0.005 Ppm endrin. The second
cutworm sample had 1.06 ppm endrin which is within the range
(0.4-5. 7 ppm) of residues found in insects up to 10 days post-
spray by McEwen et al. (1972). Other dead or dying insects
frequently noted at the time the cutworms were collected included
grasshoppers and crickets. Because a high percentage of the
horned larks and McCown’s longspurs collected up to 16 days
postspray in chlorpyrifos treated fields (Appendix I) contained
cutworm larvae in their stomachs, the mode of endrin contamina-
tion for small birds seems obvious. Since food containing over 1
ppm endrin existed for at least 5 days following spraying, direct
poisoning of those species was likely, especially if nestlings
were being fed contaminated insects.

Chlorpyrifos Studies

The time between study site selection and spray application
was too short to allow conducting prespray wildlife population
surveys on one of the chlorpy r if os-treated areas. Prespray small
mammal surveys were completed on the second chlorpyrifos plot but
unfavorable weather precluded obtaining prespray bird data.

A few nests of small birds were found on, or adjacent to,
chlorpy r ifos-treated areas prior to spraying. Periodic checking
of those nests for up to 16 days postspray indicated no abnormal
mortality compared to nests located on nearby, untreated control
areas .

No de£id or visibly intoxicated birds were noted during the
course of collecting small birds for brain ChE analysis. No
systematic carcass searches or specific toxicity or behavioral
observations were made.

Brain cholinesterase tests on horned larks (M=54), collected
at various postspray intervals, indicated that cholinesterase
activity in 2 individuals approached lethal levels. This
included 1 bird at inhibition 3 days postspray and another at
42% 9 days postspray. Criteria of Ludke et al. (1975) indicated
that ^50% depression in dead birds suggests death caused by an
anti-ChE agent. Limited postspray sampling of McCown’s longspurs
indicated no birds with brain cholinesterase activity reduced
more than 19% (Appendix J).

Ninety-five percent or more of the horned larks and McCown’s
longspurs collected 3 days postspray contained cutworm larvae in
their stomachs. This figure declined to 71% at 9-16 days
postspray, compared to 27% or less for control specimens, some of
which were taken >1 mi from treated fields (Appendix I). The
decrease in both cutworms and total insects at increasing
postspray intervals was not unexpected because availability of
insects on treatment areas would increase immediately after
spraying, with a gradual decline and approach to levels found in
controls .

Birds appear capable of detecting the presence of pesticides
on food items (Bennett and Prince 1981, Hill 1972, Ridsdale and
Granett 1969), ard respond by selecting untreated foods (if
available) or reducing food intake. Pheasants given only
lorsban-treated food reduced their intake by more than 90%, and
stopped feeding after the 1st or 2nd day of testing (Bennett and
Prince 1981). Reduced egg production among pheasants has been
found to result from reduced food consumption (Stromborg 1977).

Because our chlorpy r if os-treated areas were small (maximum
of 40 acres), they did not encompass total home ranges of
individual birds, enabling them to spend varying amounts of time
in untreated areas. Large scale (i.e. block) spraying of
chlorpyrifos would encompass the entire home range of a large
number of individuals of many bird species. Some direct bird
mortality would be expected following such extensive
applications, and sublethal concentrations could cause indirect
affects by effectively reducing available foods. Despite these
drawbacks and its moderate oral toxicity to birds (Table 23),
chlorpyrifos applied at 6-8 oz/A was registered as an alternative
to endrin for cutworm control in cereal grains in Canada in 1977
(McDonald 1981).

Results of small mammal trapping on chlorpyrifos treatment
and control plots showed no changes attributable to treatment.
Postspray population estimates increased on both areas over
prespray estimates (20% on the treatment and 18% on the control).
No significant differences occurred between pre- and postspray
populations on either area. Postspray recaptures of animals
marked prior to spraying included 64% of those present on the
treatment plot and 71% of those on the control.

Permethrin Studies

Pre- and postspray surveys of breeding bird and sm-a].l
mammal populations on the control and 2 treatment plots gave
variable results, partly because the prespray estim. ates on the
stubble treatment were significantly different than those on the
other 2 plots. Therefore, comparisons between plots would be
invalid for both birds and mammals.

Estimates of bird populations on all 3 plots declined
between pre- and postspray sampling periods. Declines amounted
to 24% and 48% on treatment plots and 31/^ the control. These
declines were not unexpected since 3 weeks elapsed between the
start of those surveys and their completion. Vegetation growth
on all plots over this time decreased bird visibility. Concur-
rently, many female birds began incubating during the latter part
of the period, and breeding activities of males were declining in
intensity. Analysis of breeding bird population data showed no
significant differences between pre- and postspray bird popula-
tion levels on any of the plots.

Changes in small mammal populations varied, with 1 treatment
and the control plot showing declines, while the second treatment
plot showed an increase in population between pre- and postspray
trapping periods. However, none of the postspray population
estimates differed significantly from prespray estimates on the
same area. Fifty-four percent of the marked animals present on
the control area at the end of the prespray trapping period were
subsequently recaptured during postspray trapping. Similar
figures for the 2 treatment plots were 59% and 60%.

Comparative Efficacies of Tested Insecticides

Permethrin has been tested against a number of noctuid
lepidopterans in greenhouse and/or experimental test plots.
These have included several different crops plus endrin and/or
chlorpyrifos and other chemicals for comparative studies (Harris
et al. 1978, Broadley and Rossiter 1979> Cheng 198O).

Oral toxicity tests with cutworms showed that permethrin was
more toxic than endrin, whereas chlorpyrifos was 2-4 times less
toxic (McDonald 1979). In subsequent greenhouse tests on barley,
permethrin at 2-4 oz/A gave control comparable to endrin at 4
oz/A, while chlorpyrifos required 8 oz/A to produce similar

results. Permethrin was more effective and chlorpyrifos was less
effective than endrin when applied to^bare soil at comparable
rates. Microplot tests on barley confirmed the effectiveness of
permethrin for army cutworm control at 2 oz/A.

McDonald (1981) found that oral toxicity of permethrin to
pale western cutworms equalled that of endrin, and that both were
3-M times more toxic than chlorpyrifos. Permethrin was 1M-17
times more toxic than endrin and chlorpyrifos as a contact
poison. In comparing oral versus contact toxicities for these
chemicals, permethrin was over twice as effective as a contact
poison; endrin was 8 times, and chlorpyrifos was over 2 times,
less toxic by contact than as oral poisons.

Permethrin sprayed on wheat plants or bare soil in
greenhouse trials at 1 oz/A was as effective on pale western
cutworms as endrin at 4 oz and chlorpyrifos at 8 oz/A.
Permethrin applied to bare soil at 4 oz/A gave significantly
better control than either endrin at 4 oz or chlorpyrifos at 8
oz/A (McDonald 1981).

In small plot field tests on existing populations of pale
western cutworms in winter wheat, DePew (1980) reported that
permethrin at 1.6 oz/A gave the best results at 7 days
posttreatment, and was significantly better than other treatments
tested. Permethrin at 0.8 oz/A ranked second in effectiveness,
but did not differ significantly froni endrin (3.2 oz/A).
Permethrin plots had the fewest cutworms 14 days posttreatment
with no significant differences between the 2 rates. Endrin (3.2
oz/A) did not differ significantly from permethrj. n at 0.8 oz/A,
but gave less control.

Preliminary results from 1982 Montana field tests (supplied
by the MDA) showed promising results were obtained with
permethrin. Where endrin, chlopyrifos, and permethrin were
applied to separate plots on the same area, endrin (4 oz/A) and
chlorpyrifos (16 oz/A) each reduced cutworm populations by 75^5,
whereas permethrin (1.6 oz/A) resulted in an 85% reduction.

Two major concerns of grain producers and others in 1981-
1982, against widespread acceptance of permethrin and/or
chlorpyrifos over endrin, were the unknown efficacy against
cutworms under normal cropping conditions and higher chemical
costs/A. The above data all suggested that permethrin may be
superior to either endrin or chlorpyrifos for cutworm control in
Montana cereal grains. The cost factor in spring I983 also
favored use of permethrin ($5. 00/A) over endrin ($6. 00/A) and
chlorpyrifos ($8. 35/A at 16 oz/A rate) (O.G. Bain pers. comm.).

One disadvantage may remain before replacement of endrin
with permethrin for cutworm control in cereal grains in Montana.
That is that, although it is far less hazardous to terrestrial
wildlife than either endrin or chlorpyrifos, permethrin is rela-
tively toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms; it is still 3
to 4 times less toxic to these organisms than endrin.

Limited data suggest that permethrin residues on crops
disappear within a few weeks (Harris et al. 19?8). Permethrin’s
persistence on vegetation, and in wildlife, should be ascertained
so that replacement of endrin by this or another suitable alter-
native can be accomplished as soon as possible. Unfortunately,
EPA sponsored studies of the affects of endrin and potential
alternatives on wildlife initiated in March 1983 in Montana did
not include permethrin. Knowledge of permethrin’s persistence in
wildlife tissues would be extremely valuable because of reports
that it may be carcinogenic (Marshall 1982). No decision
regarding carcinogenicity has been made as of this date.

Other Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Compounds

Laboratory results reporting residues of other chlorinated
hydrocarbon compounds in Montana wildlife generated additional
concern for the welfare of that wildlife, and humans that might
consume them. Documented deleterious effects of some of those
compounds are well known, while those of others are not. Also,
the synergistic, or combined effects of 2 or more of those com-
pounds with one another, or with other environmental pollutants
are largely unknown. Residues of those compounds, and their
documented and potential hazards, are discussed in detail for
heptachlor and polychlorinated biphenyls, and to a lesser extent
for the remaining compounds. No fish or aquatic invertebrates
were tested for any of these compounds.

Heptachlor and Heptachlor Epoxide

Heptachlor is used extensively in Montana as a preplanting
seed treatment to protect seed grain and emerging plants fr'om
damage by wireworms. Pesticide dealer records provided by the
MDA showed that more than 177,000 acres could have been treated
with heptachlor in 198I (Fig. 16).

Heptachlor changes rapidly to its epoxide in soils (Gannon
and Bigger 1958), on plants (Gannon and Decker 1958), and in most
other living organisms (Brooks 197^a)» Heptachlor epoxide (HE) is
stable (Brooks 197^b), and is more persistent (Gannon and Bigger
1958) and considerably more toxic than the parent material (Rudd
and Genelly 1956, Radeleff 1964). Heptachlor epoxide is the
compound normally found in animal tissues, although occasionally
both may be found.

Heptachlor typically contains chlordane-related compounds
such as alpha- (cis) chlordane, gamma- (trans) chlordane and
nonachlor as byproducts of its manufacture or contaminants
(Brooks 1974a, Blus et al. 1979, Stickel et al. 1979b). Both
alpha- and gamma-chlordane are oxidized in animals to form oxy-
chlordane, which is stored in fat (Brooks 1 974a). Any of these
chlordane compounds m.ay occur as a result of heptachlor use and
not necessarily from exposure to chlordane. On the other hand,
chlordane is a mixture of chlorinated hydrocarbons consisting

Figure 16. Reported acres of wheat treated with heptachlor by
county in Montana, 1981. (A total of 177,873 A
were treated, from the ]VDA, 16 Septanber 1982).

primarily of alpha- and gamma-chlordane isomers, plus other
closely related compounds, including heptachlor. Although hep-
tachlor and HE found in Montana wildlife could have resulted from
exposure to chlordane rather than heptachlor, chlordane has not
been registered for agricultural use in Montana in recent years.
Therefore, residues of heptachlor and HE in Montana wildlife
probably came from local heptachlor exposure, or exposure to
heptachlor and/or chlordane outside Montana. Oxychlordane and
other chlordane-related compounds in our samples will be
discussed in more detail later.

Resident Wildlife

Big Game. Residue test results indicated that only 2 of the
12 big game animals tested (11 fat and 1 brain sample) contained
detectable levels of HE; none were above the USDA action level of
0.3 ppm in fat of domestic meats. Big game samples positive for
HE included fat of a pronghorn collected in October 1981 in
Rosebud County (0.01 ppm), and fat of a white-tailed deer taken
in November 1981 in Fallon County (0.17 PPm). Numbers of samples
tested for heptachlor and HE were too small to draw any conclu-
sions regarding either uptake, accumulation, and impacts on those
species, or potential hazards to humans from eating various
tissues of those species.

Upland Game Birds. Fifteen of 56 upland game bird fat
samples tested contained detectable levels of HE, including those
from 8 pheasants and 7 sharp-tailed grouse (Table 27). Pheasants
positive for HE were collected in Cascade, Dawson and Fallon
Counties, while positive sharptails came from Chouteau, Custer,
Dawson, Fallon, and Richland Counties. Pesticide dealer records
indicated heptachlor sales in only one of those counties
(Chouteau) in 1981 (Fig. 16).

Three of 15 upland bird fat samples positive for HE (2
sharptails and 1 pheasant) exceeded the USDA’s action level. The
sharptails were collected in mid-September 1981 in Dawson and
Fallon Counties, while the pheasant was taken in Cascade County
in October 1982, adjacent to a field that had been seeded approx-
imately ^ weeks earlier. In each instance the bird was taken
within 3 days of the opening of the hunting season for the spe-
cies involved.

Additional upland bird tissues tested for heptachlor and HE
included 2 meat samples, and one each of Ifver, brain, food, and
egg. The only detectable HE residue in those samples was 0.02
ppm in a pheasant egg collected in Dawson County in May 1982.

Small Mammals. Test results suggested rather widespread HE
contamination of small mammals (67% of species and 14% of all

Table 27. Summary of heptachlor epoxide residues detected in tissues of upland game birds in Montana,
1981-1982.

ro O

o o

1 — !

o in

o o

1 — 1

•H

1 — 1

4-1

rH m o
o o m

1 — I I — I
O 1 — I

o o o

o o

I— I <r m CM
O O rH o

rH m o^
o o o

o o o o

O O

O O 00

O O O

^ c
o o

iH "H I — I
(U 4-1 0)

pa a >
0) o

• 4-1 1-4

O <U
2 Q

00 o

1 — I

vD CM iH iH

•H

1 — 1
(U

1 — I

I — 1

( — 1

T—\

I— 1

1 — 1

■ o

•

4-1

P T3

p cu
e p

4-1

CC3 CO

•H

CU3 (U

! 1

4-1 -H 03

4->

03 03 O

CU 5-4 O

S P P

1 — 1

CM 1 — 1 p

;z:

•H

<)■

•H

P-I

r — 1

! 1

(Tv

<J\

CJ^

(3v

I — 1

1 — 1

4-1

I — 1

CTi

>, 00

C3V

03 C3^

CJv

C/3

1 — 1

S P

1 — 1

5-:

5-1

5-4 4-1

5-4

p a

:z:

<3 O

IZi

4-1

•H

5-1

•H

5-4

•H

5-1

1 — 1

5-4

5-1

•H

5-4

5-1

C/3

4-1

CJ3

samples tested), despite the small sample size for most species
(Table 28).

Although deer mice constituted over 56% of the total samples
tested, the percentage of deer mouse samples positive for HE was
almost identical to that of all the other samples combined (13.8%
vs 13.5%). This suggested that the deer mouse is probably repre-
sentative of HE contamination in small mammals in general. Be-
cause deer mice constituted a majority of the samples, it was not
surprising that maximum residue levels found in individual deer
mouse tissues were higher than in corresponding tissues of other
species (Table 28). The results also indicated a continual
supply of HE was available in the small mammal portion of the
food supply of predators.

Because small mammal sampling for HE was restricted to the
1982 endrin test site, or to 5 locations where endrin had been
found in other species in 198I, positive small mammal samples
were obtained from only 6 locations in 4 counties. However, HE
was found in samples from every location tested, further indica-
ting widespread HE contamination of small mammals in Montana.

Migratory Wildlife

Waterfowl. Nearly 55% of all the waterfowl samples tested
contained HE, and included all species tested except the
whistling swan (Table 29). The lack of HE residues in 4 swans
sampled was not unexpected since they were fall migrants stopping
in Montana after leaving their breeding grounds on the tundra to
the north (Bellrose 1976).

Over 56% (IO7 of I89) of the waterfowl fat samples tested
were positive for HE. Thirteen samples (nearly 7% of all fat
samples) collected in spring and summer 1982 exceeded the USDA
action level. Those included 4 baldpates from Chouteau, Mussel-
shell, and Powder River Counties; 1 gadwall, 1 green-winged teal,
and 1 mallard from Chouteau County; 3 pintails from Chouteau and
Custer Counties; 2 ruddy ducks from Park County; and 1 shoveler
from Custer County, The maximum HE residue level was 47. 1 ppm in
a male mallard from Chouteau County; it was also positive for
heptachlor .

Additional waterfowl tissues which were positive for HE
included 7 oT 13 meat, 2 of 9 food, 4 of 9 brain, 3 of 3 ogg>

0 of 1 cooked meat samples. Maximum HE residues included: meat,
1.33 PPrn; food, 0.06 ppm (also contained heptachlor); brain, 0.75
ppm; and egg, 6.98 ppm. Maximum HE levels in meat, food, and
brain samples were from the Chouteau County mallard that had 47.1
ppm in its fat. The highest residue found in eggs was from a 2-
egg composite sample from the same vicinity in Chouteau County,

Table 23. ;')U!TcnarY of hoiJtacliJ.or otxj.xide rosiducn dctoctiK! in tlssuo.s of s.iall i '.aiii ia] s in ‘lontana, 1931-1 ‘r,.’

Detectable' Residues (ppn)

Species

Period

Sfimfxled

No.

Aniarils

No. Samples
Tested

Detection

£>evel

tto. Below
lietection
Ijevel

fJumlx?r

revels

Black-tailed

June-Auq 1982

Prairie Docj

6 Brain

0.01

4 Liver

0.005

0.008, 0.006

5 Fat

0.01

0.28, 0.02

Cottontail

Jan 1982

Rabbit

Sept 1982

2 Fat

0.01

1 Brain

0.005

1 Liver

0.005

Deer Mouse

New 1981

124

Apr-Sept 1982

77 tJhole Body

0.01

63i/

0.005, 0.010, 0.022,

0.088, 0.190, 0.200,

4.30, 4.63

43 Brain

0.01

0.02, 0.03, 0.08, 0.,

0.89, 1.99

42 Liver

0.01

0.022, 0.04, 30.40

3 Babryos

0.005

1.31

1 Newborn

0.005

Harvest

Nov 1981

.^louse

May 1982

6 Whole Body

0.005

2 Brain

0.01

2 Liver

0.01

House Mouse

Nov 1981

3 l4hole Bcdy

0.005

1 Brain

0.01

1 Liver

0.01

Meadow Vole

Nov 1981

Apr -May 1982

11 Whole Body

0.005

0.054

5 Brain

0.01

5 Liver

0.01

Pocket Mouse

Nov 1981

1 Whole Body

0.005

0.033

Porcupine

May 1982

1 Fat

0.01

Prairie Vole

Nov 1981

3 Vfliole Body

0.005

0.039, 0.040

1 Brain

0.01

1 Liver

0.01

Ricliardson' s

Apr 1982

Ground

3 Brain

0.01

Squirrel

3 Liver

0.005

3 Fat

0.01

1 Food

0.005

Thi r tec; n- 1 i ned

May 1982

Ground

2 Brain

0.01

5V:iuirrel

2 Liver

0.01

0.014

2 Fat

0.01

1 Food

0.005

'.•/bite- tailed

Apr-^^y 1982

dackrabbi t

July 1982

5 Fat

0.01

0.02, 0.02, 0.06

3 Brain

0.005

3 Liverr

0.005

0.012, o.oor

'2-ketoendrin, dielcb'in and K'

H's Ix’ciin.se of |»).s.si bio infeiTiai

032,

49,

Table 29. Sumiary of heptachlor cix)xide residuois detected in tis.sues of \^aterfov;l in Montana, 1981-1982.

Detectable Residues (pi3t>)jy

No. Below

Period No. No. Samples Detection Detection Number Levels

Species Sampled Animals Tested level Level

Canada

Aug-S^t 1981

Goose

Nov-Dec 1981

33 Fat

0.01

0.01, 0.02, 0.02, 0.02, 0.02

March-May 1982

0.03, 0.04, 0.04, 0.05, 0.09

July-Aug 1982

1 Brain

0.01

Oct 1982 ■

1 Meat

0.01

1 Food

0.01

1 Egg

0.01

Whistling

Oct-Nov 1982

Svan

4 Fat

0.01

Baldpate/

Sept-Nov 1981

Wigeon

Apr-May 1982

21 Fat

0.01

0.01, 0.01, 0.02, 0.02, 0.03,

July-Sept 1982

0.04, 0.08, 0.08, 0.10, 0.10,

0.22, 0.30, 0.43, 0.63, 14.00

3 Brain

0.01

0.18

1 Meat

0.005

0.520

2 Food

0.005

Blue-winged Sept 1981

Teal

May 1982

17 Fat

0.01

0.01, 0.01, 0.01, 0.01, 0.02,

July-Sept 1982

0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.04, 0.07,

0.10

1 Meat

0.005

2 Food

0.005

Gadwall

Sept-Nov 1981

June-Aug 1982

21 Fat

0.01

0.01, 0.01, 0.01, 0.01, 0.02,

Oct 1982

0.02, 0.02, 0.02, 0.03, 0.03,

0.03, 0.03, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07,

0.14, 0.24, 0.41

1 Meat

0.005

Green-winged Oct 1981

Teal

Apr-May 1982

5 Fat

0.01

0.03, 2.02

Sept-Oct 1982

1 Brain

0.005

1 Meat

0.005

1 Food

0.005

Mallard

Sept-Nov !ISE1

55 Fat-/

Feb 1982

0.01

27-/

0.01, 0.01, 0.01, 0.01, 0.01,

^^-May 1982

0.01, 0.01, 0.01, 0.01, 0.02,

July-Oct 1982

0.02, 0.02, 0.02, 0.02, 0.02,

0.02, 0.02, 0.03, 0.03, 0.04,

0.04, 0.04, 0.08, 0.08, 0.11,

0.12, 0.15, 47.102/

1 Brain

0.005

0.75

4 Meat

0.005

0.18, 1.33

1 Food

0.005

0.061^

2 Egg

0.01

0.02, 6.98

1 Cooked Meat

0.01

Pintail

^r-May 1982

July 1982

12 Fat

0.01

0.02, 0.03, 0.77, 2.49, 4.75

Sept-rOct 1982

3 Brain

0.005

0.033, 0.086

3 Meat

0.005

0.054, 0.067, 0.13

2 Food

0.005

0.007

Ring-necked Oct 1981

Duck

Apr 1982

4 Fat

0.01

0.01, 0.01, 0.01

Sept 1982

Ruddy Duck

Oct 1981

July 1982

3 Fat

0.01

0.02, 0.35, 0.41

Lesser Scaup Oct 1981

Apr 1982

9 Fat

0.01

0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05,

Aug 1982

0.07, 0.08, 0.10

Oct 1982

Shoveler

Oct 1981

Apr-May 1982

5 Fat

0.01

0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.34

Aug 1982

1 Meat

0.005

0.008

i/ Primarily wet weight basis, but includes a fev.' expressed on a lipid weight basis.

2/ Also contained unchanged heptachlor.

3/ 55 fat samples tested for most chanicals. lirceptions iurc: DDT and COD = 54 sanples; endrin, dieldrin and

DDE = 56 samples.

100

other Aquatic Birds and Migratory Game Birds. Over 907^ of
the fat samples from other species associated with aquatic
habitats contained detectable levels of HE, although at low
levels (Table 30). Every site from which these species were
collected (5 sites in 5 counties) had birds with HE residues.
Although the number of both sites s am pled and samples tested
were small, the results, when considered along withthose for
waterfowl, indicated widespread HE contamination of wetland
habitats in Montana.

Two of 5 mourning dove fat samples tested were positive for
HE (Table 30). One had only minor amounts of HE present, while
the other, a bird taken in Fallon County in May 1 982, had 53.0
ppm in its fat. The whole body (or carcass), brain, and food
(crop contents) of this bird contained 2.60, 1.62 and 0.08 ppm
HE, respectively. No unchanged heptachlor was detected in any
dove sample.

Raptors. Fifteen of 16 raptor fat samples tested contained
HE, including 8 at levels in excess of 0.5 Ppm and one that also
contained 0.25 Ppm unchanged heptachlor (Table 31)» Other raptor
tissue samples positive for HE included 1 brain (0.21 ppm) and 2
egg samples (0.08 and 0.64 ppm); 1 food sample lacked detectable
HE residues. Raptor samples that tested positive for HE
represented 6 species collected at 10 sites in 6 different coun-
ties. Although limited, those results also indicated widespread
HE contamination in Montana.

Passerines. Over one-third of all the passerine bird sam-
ples tested following endrin spraying in 1981 contained HE resi-
dues (Table 32). The red-winged blackbird (collected in Dawson
County in May 1982) was the only species not having detectable HE
residues in at least one of its tissues. Maximum HE residues in
passerine bird species included: whole body, 1.26; brain, 0.52;
fat, 25.00; egg, 0.41; and food, none detected.

Like the small mammals, most of the passerine birds were
collected from the 1 982 endrin study site, or a few locations
where positive endrin samples had been obtained in 1981. There-
fore, testing for HE residues included samples from only 7 sites
in 5 counties. HE was detected in samples from each of those
sites .

A number of small bird species that form part of the normal
prey of peregrine falcons were sampled at 5 potential peregrine
reintroduction sites in Montana in June and July 198O. Whole
body samples of individual birds, or pools of 5-12 birds each,
were tested for organochlorine pesticides and PCB’s by the FWS.
Samples included 201 birds of 8 species, from all 5 sites, which
weretested in 20 pools. An additional 30 birds representing 3
species and 3 sites (1 species/site) were tested individually.
Data from these tests (DeWeese, FWS, unpublished data) are brief-
ly summarized here.

101

Table 30.

Suntnar^’ of heptaclilor epoxide residues detected in tissues of other aquatic birds and migratory game
birds in Montana, 1981-1982.

Detectable Residues

(PP")

Species

Period Sanpled

No.

Animals

No . Samples
Tested

Detection

Level

No. Delcw
Detection
Level

Number

Levels

Ccmron

Loon

April 1982

1 Fat

0.01

0.10

Coot

Oct-Nov 1981
April 1982
July 1982

13 Fat

0.01

0.01,

0.02,

0.10

0.01

0.02

, 0.02,
, 0.03,

0.02, 0.02,
0.03, 0.07,

Eared

Grebe

April 1982
Sept 1982

5 Fat

0.01

0.02,

0.02

, 0.03,

0.04, 0.08

Mouring

Dove

Aug 1981

May 1982
July-Aug 1982

5 Fat
1 Meat
1 Whole Body
1 Brain
1 Food

0.01

0.005

0.05

0.01

0.01, 53.00

2.60

1.62

0.08

White

Pelican Aug 1982

1 Fat

0.01

0.14

Wilson's

Snipe Nov 1981

1 Fat

0.01

0.02

Table 31. Summary of heptachlor epoxide residues detected in tissues of raptors in Itintana, 1881-1932.

Species

Period Sampled

No.

Animals

No . Samples
Tested

Detection

Level

No. Below
Detection
Level

Detectable Residues (ppm)
Number Levels

Golden

Eagle

Nov 1981

1 Fat

0.01

0.70

Great-Homed

Owl

Nov 1981-Jan 1982

5 Fat

0.01

0.04, 0.10, 0.11, 0.61

Harrier (Marsh Hawk)

Miay 1982

Aug-Sept 1982

5 Fat

0.01

0.52i^', 0.75, 0.99, 1.52,

19.30

1 Food

0.01

1 E^g

0.01

0.64

Kestrel

Apr 1982

July 1982

1 Fat

0.01

0.25

1 Brain

0.005

0.210

Long -eared

Owl

Apr-May 1982

2 Fat

0.01

0.05, 0.11

1 Egg

0.01

0.08

Red-tailad

Hav^

Nov 1981

Apr 1982

2 Fat

0.01

0.13, 1.20

ly Also contained unchanged heptaclilor.

102

Table 32. SuiTiiary of heptachlor epoxide residues detected in tissues of passerine birds in .’tintana, 1981-1982.

Species

Period No.

Sampled Animals

No. Samples Detection
Tested • Level

Detectable Residues (ppm, wet weight)

No. Below

Detection Number Levels
Level

Chestnut-

Apr 1982

collared

2 Whole Body

0.005

0.130

Long spur

1 Brain

0.01

Cliff Swallow

July 1982

3 Whole Body

0.005

0.007, 0.008, 0.010

1 Brain

0.005

3 Fat

0.01

0.06, 0.11, 0.19

Cowbird

May 1982

1 Fat

0.01

0.02

Horned Lark

Nov 1931

Apr-Sept 1982

53 Whole Bodyi-^ 0.005

0.005, 0.005, 0.005, 0.007, 0.010,

0.010, 0.010, 0.016, 0.110, 0.110,

0.450, 0.900, 1.260

27 Brain

0.01

0.005, 0.02, 0.23, 0.25

27 Fat

0.01

0.01, 0.02, 0.02, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04

0.06, 0.06, 0.06, 0.07, 0.09, 0.12

0.96, 1.63, 15.00

3 Egg

0.005

0.020, 0.041

Lapland

Nov 1981

Long spur

1 Whole Body

0.005

Loggerhead

May 1982

Shrike

1 Brain

0.01

1 Fat

0.01

■ 0

0.24

McCown's

Apr 1982

Long spur

Sept 1982

6 Whole Body

0.005

0.490

3 Brain

0.01

0.09

2 Fat

0.01

Meadowlark

Apr -May 1982

Sept 1982

4 Brain

0.01

4 Fat

0.01

0.02, 0.17

rted-v.l med

Mav 1982

Blackbird

1 Brain

0.01

1 Fat

0.01

“

Snow Bunting

Nov 1981

2 Whole Body

0.005

1 Brain

0.01

1 Fat

0.01

0.02

1 Food

0.005

Vesper Sparrow /^r 1982

July-Sept 1982

10 Whole Body

0.005

0.005, 0.013, 0.059

2 Brain

0.01

0.01, 0.52

2 Fat

0.01

0.11

Wh i te-crowned

May 1982

Sparrcw

3 Whole Body

0.005

1 Brain

0.01

2 Fat

0.01

0.01, 25.00

Yellow-rumped

May 1982

Warbler

1 Whole Body

0.005

0.049

1/ Two others were tested for only endrin, dieldrin and PCB's because of possible internal contamination.

103

Positive samples, sample sites, and HE residues in individ-
ually tested birds included: 9 of 11 killdeer from Toole/Liberty
Counties (0.05-2.22 ppm); 1 of 8 Brewers blackbirds from
Carbon/Stillwater Counties (0.15 Ppm); and 8 of 11 tree swallows
from Gallatin/Park Counties (0.06-0.55 Ppm).

Species tested in pools, and pools tested per species,
included; mourning dove, 4; cliff swallow, 4; killdeer, 3; mead-
owlark, 3; robin, 2; eastern kingbird, 2; spotted sandpiper, 1;
and red-winged blackbird, 1. No spotted sandpiper, robin, or
eastern kingbird pools contained HE residues. One pool of each
of the other species tested contained HE as follows; mourning
dove, 3.08 ppm; cliff swallow, 0.13 PPii'*; killdeer, 0.07 PPni;
meadowlark, 0.05 Ppm; and red-winged blackbird, 0.36 ppm. Pools
positive for HE came from Toole/Liberty Counties (mourning dove,
cliff swallow and red-winged blackbird) and Carbon/Stillwater
Counties (killdeer and meadowlark). No HE was detected in pools
tested from Lewis and Clark/Broadwater, Petroleum/Garfield, or
Gallatin/Park Counties.

The 3 sample sites with positive HE residues appeared to
represent 3 different situations regarding wildlife contamina-
tion. The Carbon/Stillwater County area showed fairly widespread,
but low level contamination, compared to the Toole/Liberty County
area which had widespread contamination at often very high
levels. Both situations probably represented local HE contamina-
tion of wildlife. The Gallatin/Park County sample site showed a
moderate level of HE contamination in one species, but no HE in 3
others. This was a high mountain sample site far removed from
any cultivated areas, suggesting that tree swallows were con-
taminated elsewhere, probably on their wintering grounds.

Miscellaneous Samples

All of these samples (8 sediment, 2 each of barley, cut-
worm, snapping turtle fat, wheat, and 1 of snails) were collected
on or near 198I or 1 982 endrin treated areas, and only 1 of the
17 samples tested had detectable levels of HE (0.01 ppm). That
was a sample of several whole snails collected from a pond in
Chouteau County, and indicated at least one mode of contamination
for those species that include snails or other aquatic inverte-
brates in their diet.

Discussion

Unchanged heptachlor residues in animal tissues indicate
recent ingestion. Its absence, however, does not rule this out
since contaminated food sources may contain only the epoxide.
The half life of heptachlor, when worked into the soil, is 7-12
years (Brooks 1974b).

The detection of heptachlor and HE in Montana wildlife
caused concern for 2 reasons; their toxicity to wildlife (see

104

below); and their documented carcinogenicity in experimental
laboratory animals (Train 1975, Environmental Protection Agency
1976, Federal Register 1976).

Toxicity of heptachlor and HE to wildlife is well documen-
ted, beginning in the late 1950’s (Clawson and Baker 1959, Rosene
et al. 1961, Ferguson 1964, Rosene 1965, Stickel et al. 1965,
Kreitzer and Spann 1968). Most of those earlier studies dealt
with fairly high heptachlor application rates and cannot be
related to the situation under which heptachlor is used in
Montana. However, recent studies in Oregon revealed that hepta-
chlor seed treatments, at the same rate applied in Montana, were
the causative factor in poisoning deaths of pheasants, black-
billed magpies, California quail, Canada geese, and a golden
eagle; HE residues in eggs of Canada geese also caused lowered
reproductive success of this species (Blus et al. 1979). A
subsequent study in that area further established that American
kestrels were accumulating HE residues in eggs and body tissues
at levels which reduced reproductive success and caused some
adult mortality (Henny et al., in press). In a companion study,
Henny et al. (in prep.) reported 3 additional golden eagles and a
rough-legged hawk poisoned by HE, and HE residues were found in
eggs of 5 species of hawks and 4 of 5 species of owls sampled.
The data in the latter study was too limited to determine whether
residue levels in eggs were high enough to cause reproductive
failures among the several species tested.

The greatest amount of available data on HE levels in wild-
life has come from samples tested as part of the National Pesti-
cide Monitoring Program initiated in the mid-1960’s. Terrestrial
wildlife periodically sampled under this program include mallards
and black ducks, starlings, and bald eagles from throughout the
United States (Johnson et al. 1967).

Montana big game samples tested for HE were limited in
number, and showed a relatively low incidence of occurrence and
relatively low residue levels. Greenwood et al. (1967) found no
detectable HE in 47 fat samples of South Dakota mule and white-
tailed deer, pronghorn, or elk (Cervus elaphus). However, later
studies found HE in the fat of 55% of 45 pronghorns, and in all
13 mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) tested from South Dakota
(Moore et al. 1968, Boddicker et al. 1971).

At the time our samples were collected the only registered
use of heptachlor was as a seed dressing. It had previously been
used more widely, including for rangeland grasshopper control,
which would have led to more widespread contamination of big game
habitats than seed treatments. Heptachlor and HE are present in
small amounts in wheat plants grown from heptachlor treated seed
(Burrage and Saha 1967). These plants, plus treated seed spilled
or left exposed during planting, would constitute the major
source of contamination for Montana big game. Big game would not
be expected to eat much treated grain because it would seldom be
available in large quantities. Therefore, plants growing from
treated seed would be the primary source of HE, but at very low

105

levels. This would explain the low residue levels we found in the
few big game animals tested for HE,

Residues of HE occurred in over one-fourth of the upland
bird samples tested from Montana. Most residues were relatively
low, but a few exceeded action levels. Linder and Dahlgren
(1970) and Anderson et al, (1970) found HE residues in tissues of
approximately 70% and 75% of South Dakota and Illinois pheasants
tested, respectively. Fifty to 90% of the pheasant eggs tested
in various studies have contained HE (Greenberg and Edwards 1970,
Johnson et al. 1970, and Linder and Dahlgren 1970). The same
sources of contamination exist for upland birds as big game, but
because they are highly granivorous, birds probably obtain most
of their HE from treated grain. Higher residues on seeds would
account for the occasional high residue levels found in bird
tissues .

No studies that sampled large numbers of small mammals were
located, so the significance of our findings, in terms of effects
on those species, is unknown. Because small mammals are not
highly mobile, our results do indicate widespread contamination
of Montana habitats, and a potential impact on predators consum-
ing HE-contaminated species.

Species categorized as other aquatic or migratory game birds
will not be treated separately here. The discussion for
waterfowl and passerines should be applicable to those other
species as well.

Results from duck wings tested in the National Pesticide
Monitoring Program (each sample consisted of a 25-wing pool from
1 state) have not been presented by individual states, and gener-
ally have not included levels found in individual pools. Further,
residue levels in individual birds are not reported. Nonethe-
less, HE occurred in most or all samples from the 1 969-1 970 and
1972-1973 hunting seasons (Heath and Hill 1974, White and Heath
1976).

While more recent duck wing samples have shown a declining
frequency of occurrence of HE (White 1979b, Cain 1981), those
from 1 979-1 980 still included 30% and 23% positive for HE in the
Central and Pacific Flyways, respectively. Data from 1981-1982
showed a further decline in the incidence of HE in Central Flyway
samples, but an increase in the mean concentration level (FWS
unpublished data). Pacific Flyway data (1981-1982) was incom-
plete, but the incidence of HE (20%) was similar to that in 1979-
1980. One of the two 198I-I982 duck wing samples from the Cen-
tral Flyway portion of Montana was positive for HE, while 6
samples from the Pacific Flyway portion contained no detectable
HE residues.

Besides the frequency of occurrence of HE, several differ-
ences occurred between the fall 198I-I982 duck wing samples and
our spring-fall 1982 samples (different tissues sampled, indi-
vidual birds versus pools, and different reporting bases). Thus,

106

comparisons between them would be only conjectural at this time.
However, those data further documented widespread HE contamina-
tion in Montana.

Some waterfowl species which rarely venture onto land (e.g.
ruddy duck) had elevated HE levels in summer, suggesting contami-
nation of aquatic environments, probably by runoff from nearby
fields sown with treated seed.

Vermeer and Reynolds (1 970) reported up to 0.9 Ppm HE (wet
weight) in mallard eggs (10 eggs per sample) from southern
Saskatchewan, far below the maximum level (6.98 ppm) we found in
mallard eggs. Overall, they reported HE residues in 40 of 41 egg
samples representing 7 species of aquatic birds from Alberta,
Saskatchewan and Manitoba.

Starlings have been sampled periodically from 4 Montana
sites as part of the National Pesticide Monitoring Program; sites
included areas in eastern, southcentral, and western Montana.
Although reporting levels varied between sampling periods, most
Montana starling samples (normally 10 whole bodies pooled to-
gether, occasionally fewer birds) contained small amounts of HE
(Martin 1969, Martin and Nickerson 1972, Nickerson and Barbehenn
1975, White 1976 and 1979a)* Variations in HE residues between
sampling periods at the same sites in Montana were not consis-
tently in one direction. The reporting level in the last samp-
ling period (1976) was higher than in most previous periods,
making it difficult to detect whether HE residues were increasing
or decreasing at 2 sample sites. Residue levels at 1 of the 2
remaining sites were higher in 1976 than in any previous year,
while those at the other were lower.

The starling data generally agree with our current passer-
ine data in that both showed widespread availability of hepta-
chlor/HE in Montana. Recently tested whole body samples of
Montana birds, both individuals and pools, had significantly
higher HE residues than any of the Montana starling pools. Those
residues were apparently obtained locally. High residues could
impact locally breeding populations of those raptor species which
include a high percentage of passerine birds in their diets.

Carcasses of bald eagles, including only a few from Montana,
have been tested for contaminants since 1964 (Reichel et al.
1 969i Mulhern et al. 1970, Belisle et al. 1972, Cromartie et al.
1 975, Prouty et al. 1 977, Kaiser et al. I 960). Overall, 555&
of the bald eagles tested have been positive for HE (range of 38-
79/S between sample periods). Maximum residues (wet weight) found
in 3 sampling periods during 1 964-1 970, were 0.8 ppm or less,
while maximum residues reported from 3 sampling periods during
1971-1977 ranged from 2.0 to 5*5 ppm. Although there was no
consistent trend between sampling periods, the continued high
frequency of occurrence, and high carcass residues of HE in some
eagles, reflect the widespread environmental contamination by
this compound. This is in general agreement with our findings on
HE residues in raptors.

107

The occurrence of HE in both raptor egg samples we tested
(0.08 and 0.64 ppm) closely agreed with results obtained from
Montana raptor eggs tested by Seidensticker and Reynolds (1971).
They reported HE residues in all eggs tested (5 red-tailed hawk
and 3 great horned owl) at levels of 0.02-0.80 ppm.

Effects on Wildlife. Effects of organochlor ine insecticides
can range from inconspicuous and subtle changes, such as in
behavior, to conspicuous and often dramatic die-offs of larger
vertebrates .

Direct mortality is the most obvious of several potential
effects of pesticides on wildlife. While die-offs of fish and
some other aquatic species are fairly obvious, direct mortality
of terrestrial wildlife is difficult to detect, even through
searches, unless it involves rather heavy losses (Rosene and Lay
1963).

Use of heptachlor, aldrin, and dieldrin as seed dressings on
spring-sown cereal grains led to widespread casualties of birds
[wood pigeons (Columba palumbus), Hungarian partridge, pheasants,
and other species] in the United Kingdom in the late 1950’s.
There was also circumstantial evidence of secondary poisoning of
foxes (Vulpes spp.), badgers (Meles spp.), and farm dogs and cats
(Turtle et al. 1963). That mortality resulted in the banning of
those chemicals as seed treatments on spring-sown grains in 1962.
The Netherlands imposed a similar ban on the use of those chemi-
cals in 1 968. This ban was extended to also include fall-sown
grains following widespread mortality of raptors in the winter of
1968-1969 (cf Environmental Protection Agency 1976, Blus et al.
1979).

The major use of heptachlor in North America in recent years
has been as a seed treatment. Feeding trials in Canada, with
heptachlor and lindane treated seed given to pheasants, revealed
that ingestion of as few as 5 seeds per day for 15 days led to
unacceptable HE residues in the body fat (Burrage and Saha 1972).
Based on those findings, they recommended that the use of hepta-
chlor as a seed dressing be discontinued and replaced with lin-
dane, which appeared less hazardous to seed-eating birds.

Another recommendation to ban the use of heptachlor as a
seed dressing (along with aldrin, and to take effect on 1 January
1974) resulted from findings of significantly increased residues
of those chemicals in seed-eating birds and mammals in the
prairie provinces of Canada. Those prey species were considered
the major source of HE residues found in eggs of the prairie
falcon (maximum of 7.04 ppm) and merlin (maximum of 4.63 PP>^)
(Fyfe 1973 from EPA 1976). Heptachlor epoxide has also been
implicated in direct mortality of these 2 species of raptors
(Fyfe et al. 1 969, Henny et al. 1 976).

Results of Oregon studies showing direct mortality of many
species of birds, including upland game birds, waterfowl, and

108

raptors, from the use of heptachlor as a seed treatment were
briefly reviewed earlier. There are no known instances of direct
mortality attributable to the use of heptachlor in Montana.
However, documented wildlife mortality following similar use in a
number of other areas, coupled with residue levels found in
several species of Montana birds and small mammals, suggested
that such losses have probably occurred on a small scale in at
least some areas of the state, especially among raptors.

Another potentially lethal aspect of heptachlor use was
reported by Heinz and Johnson (1981). They demonstrated that
dieldrin, and possibly other organochlor ine pesticides, caused
birds to enter into an irreversible starvation process which
ended in death. Residue levels in brains that averaged about half
the lethal concentration, and as low as 10-15% in highly sensi-
tive individuals, caused cowbirds to stop eating, mobilize
dieldrin to the brain and die. Thus, living animals that are
collected and analyzed may have all the appearances (physical and
from residue levels) of healthy specimens and yet be lethally
affected. If this holds true for HE, some of our deer mouse and
mourning dove specimens could have been at or near those levels.
Because few brains were sampled from most groups of animals,
other species having high HE levels in fat may have contained
potentially dangerous levels in brains as well.

The EPA gave notice of its intent to cancel all registered
uses of heptachlor and chlordane in November 197^ (Federal
Register 1976). Cancellation subsequently began on 1 September
1982. In addition, existing stocks of heptachlor formulated
prior to 2 June 1982 could be used until exhausted. The MDA
estimated in summer 1982 that a 3-year supply of heptachlor
existed in a several state area that included Montana. Approxi-
mately 3 times as many acres in Montana are seeded with lindane-
treated seed as compared to heptachlor-treated seed; approximate-
ly 177,000 acres were seeded with the latter in Montana in 198I.
Thus, widespread HE contamination found in Montana wildlife in
I98I-I982 is expected to continue for several more years.

Sublethal effects of HE are considered here to include
delayed mortality precipitated by other factors, increased neona-
tal mortality of offspring of contaminated parents, reduced
reproductive performance, and changes (behavioral, physiological,
etc.) which might predispose animals to mortality from other,
often more obvious, causes.

Stress-induced delayed mortality from dietary levels of
pesticides not immediately lethal, or long after exposure to the
chemical has been terminated, has been widely documented.
Mortality associated with food deprivation and weight loss,
following termination of dietary DDT dosage of house sparrows,
was reported by Bernard (1963)» He also suggested that birds
might store sublethal pesticide residues in body fat for some
length of time, eventually succuiribing when those reserves were
utilized .

109

Van Velzen et al. (1972) included DDT in the diet of
cowbirds for 13 days, then returned them to clean feed. Treated
birds were subsequently subjected to food restriction resulting
in weight loss, which resulted in typical DDT poisoning up to 4
months after treatment. Stickel (1965) reported disturbance-
induced mortality of DDT-dosed cowbirds for at least 4 weeks
after dosage ceased.

Response of rats in acute oral dosing experiments was also
increased by disturbance, while protecting them from disturbance
delayed or diminished the response (Deichman et al. 1950, in
Stickel 1965). Mortality of cold-stressed rats was more rapid
among DDT-dosed animals than untreated controls (de Freitas et
al. 1 969 ).

Van Velzen et al. (1972) and Stickel (1973) reviewed sev-
eral additional studies which reported similar mortality among
several species of birds, as well as rats and laboratory mice,
that was associated with weight loss during or at some time after
the termination of dosing.

These and other studies suggested that any stress-induced
mobilization of body fat reserves may result in similar mortality
among animals with normally sublethal residue levels, or at some
time after exposure has occurred. Additional stress factors
could include migration, cold weather, reproduction, disease,
injury, and others. Mortality associated with reproduction and
molt has been reported for DDE-dosed kestrels (Porter and
Wiemeyer 1972), while coturnix quail fed DDT for 6 months with no
mortality and then stressed by artificially reduced day length,
accompanied by molt and presumed weight loss, suffered
substantial niortality (Stickel and Rhodes 1970). Similarly, a
wild, HE poisoned merlin was hypothesized to have mobilized fat
reserves during fall migration, resulting in its death (Henny et
al. 1976).

The above suggests that mortality far removed from the site
of pesticide application in time and/or space, can occur. Such
mortality, if detected at all, would not normally be associated
with the underlying cause of death.

Although most of the studies reported here have involved DDT
or its metabolites, the same mechanism would be involved with
most other organochlorine insecticides which are also highly
lipophilic, including HE.

Reduced reproductive performance can result from failure in
any part of the reproductive process prior to independence of the
young and their recruitment into the population; this includes
neonatal mortality. Cummings et al. (1966, 1967) studied the
accumulation and loss of pesticides in eggs and other tissues of
laying hens. They fed a combination of DDT, lindane, heptachlor
epoxide, dieldrin, and endrin at levels of 0.05, 0.15, and 0.45
ppm for 14 weeks, followed by untreated feed for 30 days. Within
3 days after pesticide feeding began residues of all chemicals

110

appeared in eggs. Residue levels of all chemicals in eggs, fat,
muscle, and liver increased sharply at the start of the feeding
trials, followed by a gradual approach to an approximate plateau.
However , residues of HE in fat may not have been maximized by the
end of the 14 week feeding period. HE and dieldrin plateaued in
eggs at approximately the levels in feed; levels in fat plateaued
at about 10 times that in feed. Residues in eggs and other body
tissues showed a continual decline after the birds were returned
to clean feed. However, in only 1 case (lindane in eggs at the
0.05 level) had residues in eggs or fat returned to the back-
ground level within the 30-day withdrawal period. Muscle and
liver residues were more variable; some chemicals did not appear
above background levels in muscle, while the decline in livers
did not permit a reliable estimate of the rate of decline.

Sauter and Steele (1972) fed clean feed to groups of
chickens for 10 weeks, then switched them to diets containing
DDT, diazinon, lindane or malathion at 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 ppm for
an additional 10 weeks. Egg production for all test groups
declined from pretest levels. Eggs from treated groups and a
control group were incubated beginning on the third day of
treatment and at weekly intervals thereafter. Hatchability was
significantly reduced below that of controls for all treatments
except malathion at 0.1 ppm. Embryonic mortality in the first 7
days of incubation was significantly higher than controls for all
levels of DDT, 1,0 and 10.0 ppm lindane, and 10.0 ppm malathion
and diazinon. Embryonic death in days 8-21 increased in all
groups but 0.1 ppm malathion.

Because heptachlor is more toxic (has a lower LC^q) than any
of these compounds to bobwhite quail, pheasants ana mallards
(Heath et al. 1972b) and is an organochlor ine insecticide, it and
HE would probably act in a similar fashion. Blus et al.(l 979),
in Oregon, found that HE residues in eggs of Canada geese were
correlated with nest success. Success was high (95%) in nests
having sample eggs with 1.0 ppm or less of HE, declining to only
20% in nests with eggs that contained 10.0 ppm or more.

In a subsequent investigation in the same area, Henny et al.
(in press) determined that kestrels were more sensitive to HE
residues in eggs than Canada geese. Reduced productivity of
kestrels occurred when I.5 ppm or more of HE was present in eggs.
Total failures of kestrel nesting were due to failure of clutches
of eggs to hatch and complete mortality of broods during the
first week. Since goslings leave the nest shortly after hatch-
ing, some complete mortality of goose broods due to HE contami-
nation could have gone undetected by Blus et al. (1979), and
their nest success figures must be regarded as absolute maximums.
The level of HE found in one of our mallard egg samples (6.98 ppm
wet weight, 2-egg composite sample) was in the range (5.1-10.0
ppm) which resulted in only 67% nest success (Blus et al.
1979).

Long-term feeding of heptachlor to rats resulted in a strik-
ing reduction in litter size in successive generations as well as

significant neonatal mortality, especially in the first 24-48
hours (Mestitzova 1967). She also reported an increased inci-
dence of cataracts of the lens in both the offspring and the
parent rats.

The preceding review suggested that heptachlor seed treat-
ment has resulted in decreased reproductive performance by birds
(at least among waterfowl and raptors) in portions of Montana.
Some small mammal species could have been similarly affected.

Stadelman et al. (1965) orally dosed groups of chickens with
DDT, dieldrin, lindane, and heptachlor for 5 days at levels
approximating 10-15 Ppm in the diet. Fat and eggs of those
groups of birds were tested at 1, 5, 10, 17, and 26 weeks follow-
ing the end of treatment. Peak HE levels occurred in fat at 1
week, and in eggs at 5 weeks, postt reat men t. Residues of HE
persisted in both fat and eggs through the entire 26 week post-
treatment duration of their study. Thus, low HE residues found
in eggs do not necessarily indicate recent exposure to hepta-
chlor and/or HE; birds contaminated in October and November,
following fall seeding, could retain HE residues in fat and pass
it on to eggs at least into April and May. However, high levels
of HE in eggs would indicate recent ingestion.

Other sublethal effects of pesticide exposure affecting
survival of wildlife have been documented for many organochlor ine
insecticides. These include mild neurological disorders (Hill et
al. 1971)» behavioral changes (Baxter et al. 1969> James and
Davis 1965, McEwen and Brown 1966, and others), visual deficits
(Revzin 1966), impaired reflex conditions (Friend and Trainer
1970a) and others.

Reduced wariness, decreased mobility, or delayed migratory
movements related to one or more of the above could result in
mortality from a variety of factors. Prey animals that do not
respond quickly and correctly to predators are more likely to be
captured than those not so affected. On the other hand, preda-
tors could be affected sufficiently so that their efficiency at
capturing prey was reduced to the point that they could no longer
maintain themselves.

Hypersensitivity and exaggerated response to sudden stimuli,
such as noise or movement, are often the earliest observable
symptoms of exposure to organochlor ine insecticides (Radeleff
1964). Such responses could predispose wildlife to predation, or
result in a negative energy balance leading to death.

Another ultimately lethal effect of sublethal exposure to
organochlorine insecticides is suppression of the immune
response as reported by Friend and Trainer (1970a). They found
that mallard ducklings with sublethal levels of DDT or dieldrin
suffered 6 to 9 times greater mortality than untreated controls
when challenged with duck hepatitis virus.

112

If detected at all, wildlife mortality resulting from any of
the above factors would probably be attributed to the proximal
cause, with the true nature of the underlying causal factor going
unsuspected .

Effects on Humans. The relationship of heptachlor and HE to
human health will be only briefly reviewed. Vie have relied on an
EPA report (Environmental Protection Agency 1976) for most of the
information discussed here.

Market basket surveys from fiscal years 1 973 197^
indicated HE commonly occurred in dairy products and meat, fish,
and poultry.

Studies of human tissues from many areas of the world
indicate widespread distribution of HE, including residues
in fetuses, demonstrating transferral across placental membranes.
Numerous studies have also detected HE in human milk samples from
widely scattered areas of the world.

Potential carcinogenicity of heptachlor and HE has been
covered in sor.ie detail, including discussion of the relationship
between carcinogenicity in mice versus that in humans (Federal
Register 1976). Available data indicate that technical grade
heptachlor is carcinogenic in laboratory animals (En v i ronniental
Protection Agency 1976) and therefore probably in humans as well.
While the EPA did not foresee either acute or teratogenic hazards
resulting from people eating Montana’s HE-contaminated game
birds, they feel that potentially chronic liver effects and
carcinogenic risks could result from ingestion of such b.irds
(undated corresp., E.L, Johnson, Director of EPA Office of
Pesticide Programs to G.L. Gingery, MDA). This letter further
states that because HE is carcinogenic, the concept of ADI’s no
longer applies to this compound.

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB's)

PCB residue levels were also found durjng tests for residues
of endrin and other chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds in wildlife
tissues during 198l~1982. PCB levels varied between species,
between groups of species, and with the kinds of tissues. All
were obtained in ppm on a wet weight basis. The USDA action
level for PCB’s in domestic meats is 5.0 ppm on a lipid weight
basis .

Resident Wildlife

Big Game. None of the fat samples from 5 pronghorns, 2 mule
deer, or 4 white-tailed deer contained detectable levels of PCB’s
during August 198l-July 1982. No detectable PCB was found in the

113

single brain sample from a male fawn white-tailed deer. Detec-
tion levels for all big game tissues were 0.10 ppm. The limited
sampling for these species precluded any conclusions concerning
PCB-contamination of big game.

Upland Game Birds. Only the fat from an adult female sharp-
tailed grouse collected in Richland County in July 1982 contained
detectable PCB; that sample contained 0.14 ppm, whereas the PCB
detection limit for all tissues was 0.10 ppm. Although sharp-
tailed grouse (33 fat, 2 meat, 1 brain, and 1 food) and pheasants
(16 fat and 1 egg) were represented reasonably well in the samp-
ling process, Hungarian partridge (6 fat), sage grouse (1 fat),
and Merriam turkey (1 liver) were not, and no conclusion was made
concerning their relationships to PCB’s.

Small Mammals. Varying combinations of whole bodies, fat,
brain, and liver tissues, plus food (contents of cheek pouches)
and a few embryos from 12 species of small mammals were tested
for PCB's. With the exception of some deer mice and a black-
tailed prairie dog, PCB residues did not exceed detection limits
(Table 33). PCB's were detected in both sexes, and in subadults
as well as adults, in whole bodies of deer mice.

Each of the mice positive for PCB was taken as part of the
1982 alternative insecticide-wildlife field studies in Golden
Valley and Musselshell Counties. Each month, except February,
March, and October was represented in the sampling.

The single black-tailed prairie dog, with 0.036 ppm PCB in
its brain, was a juvenile male that was hand-caught while
exhibiting symptoms of endrin intoxication.

Waterfowl. Only 1 fat sample from Canada geese (N=33) and
none of the fat from 4 whistling swans contained detectable PCB
residues. However, each of the 10 duck species yielding tissues
for testing, except ruddy duck, contained detectable PCB's.
Forty of 154 fat, 2 of 8 brain, 2 of 12 meat, and 2 of 8 food
samples yielded detectable PCB residues (Table 34). Contents of
2 eggs, and the single cooked meat sample lacked detectable
PCB's.

Generally, duck species which feed primarily in aquatic
environments reflected higher frequency of PCB contamination in
their fat than did species which also feed in grainfields. The
highest PCB residue in fat was 50.10 ppm from an adult male blue-
winged teal taken in Dawson County in May 1982 (Table 34); blue-
winged teal were the field/aquatic species with the highest
percentage of PCB contaminated tissues (41% of 17 samples).

114

Tflble 33. Svrrnarv of PCB residues detected in tis.sues of stviII riaTvil.'; in Montana, 19ul-19n2.

Species

Period

Sanpled

No.

Anijnals

tto.

Sanples

Tested

Detection

Level

No . Below
Detection
Level

Detectable Residues (ppm)— ^
No . Levels

Black-tailed

Jme-Aug

' 5 fat

0.01

Prairie Dog

1982

6 brain

0.01

0.036

4 liver

0.01

—

Cottontail

Jan, Sept

2 fat

0.10

Rabbit

1982

1 brain

0.01

—

1 liver

0.01

—

Deer Mouse

Nov 1981

124

77 whole

0.05

0.10, 0.56, 0.5S,

Aj)r-Sept 1982

43 brain

0.10

0.71, 0.18

42 liver

0.10

0.062, 0.22

3 embryo

0.05

1 newborn

0.05

House Mouse

Nov 1981

3 whole

0.05

1 brain

0.10

—

1 liver

0.10

Harvest Mouse

Nov 1981

6 whole

0.05

2 brain

0.10

2 liver

0.10

—

Meadow Vole

I'lov 1981

11 whole

0.05

Apr-May 1982

5 brain

0.10

5 liver

0.10

—

Pocket Mouse

tov 1981

1 whole

0.05

—

Porcupine

May 1982

1 fat

0.10

—

Prairie Vole

Nov. 1981

3 wiiole

0.05

—

1 brain

0.10

—

1 liver

0.10

Richardson's

Apr 1982

3 fat

0.10

—

Ground Squirrel

3 brain

0.10

3 liver

0.10

—

1 food

0.05

—

Thirteen- lined

May 1982

2 fat

0.10

Ground Squirrel

2 brain

0.10

2 liver

0.10

—

1 food

0.05

VMte- tailed

Apr, May,

5 fat

0.10

—

Jackrabbit

July 1982

3 brain

0.05

3 liver

0.05

—

y Primarily wet weight basis, but a few may be expressed on a lipid basis.

115

T^hle 34.

;ir.T.uu"v of PCC residues detected in tissues of waterfox-.’l in iontana, 13C1-19C2.

Species

No. wo. lie low . .
Period Ho. Sanples Detection Detection Detectable Residues (ppir.J-
Sampled Birds Tested Level Level No'. Levels

Canada Goose

Aug- Sept 1981

33 fat

0.10

0.13

Nov-Dec 1981

1 meat

0.10

Mar-May 1982

1 brain

0.05

July-Aug 1982

1 egg

0.10

—

Oct 1982

1 food

0.10

—

Whistling Swan

Oct 1982

4 fat

0.10

—

Baldpate/

Sept-Nov 1981

21 fat

0.10

0.15, 0.23, 0.29

Wigeon

Apr-Aug 1982

1 meat

0.01

—

3 brain

0.10

—

2 food

0.01

0.053

Blue-winged

Sept 1981

17 fat

0.10

0.15, 0.24, 0.50,0.73,

Teal

May 1982

0.77, 0.84, 50.10

July-Sept 1982

1 meat

0.10

0.94

2 food

0.10

—

Gadwall

Sept-Nov 1981

21 fat

0.10

0.28, 0.73, 2.41

June-Aug 1982

1 meat

0.05

Oct 1982

Green-winged

Oct 1981

5 fat

0.10

0.23, 0.93

Teal

Apr-May 1982

1 meat

0.10

—

Oct 1982

1 brain

0.05

0.053

1 food

0.05

0.075

Mallard

Sept-ttov 1981

56 fat

0.10

0.12, 0.15, 0.16, 0.22,

Feb 1932

0.30, 0.56, 0.56, 0.67,

Apr-May 1982

0.80, 0.B4, 3.37, 4.44,

July-Oct 1982

5.82

4 meat

0.10

1 cooked meat

0.10

—

1 brain

0.05

.053

1 food

0.05

2 egg

0.10

—

Pintail

Apr-May 1982

12 fat

0.10

0.21, 0.39, 0.52

July 1982

' 3 meat

0.10

Sept-Oct 1982

3 brain

0.05

—

2 food

0.05

— —

Ring-necked

Oct 1981

4 fat

0.10

0.15

Duck

Apr, Sept 1982

Ruddy Duck

Oct 1981

3 fat

0.10

—

July 1982

Lesser Scaup

Oct 1981

9 fat

0.10

0.18, 0.18, 0.19, 2.91

Apr, Aug,

Oct 1982

Shoveler

Oct 1981

5 fat

0.10

0.20, 0.26, 3.36, 14.40

Apr-May 1982

1 meat

0.10

0.76

1/ Primarily wet wei^t basis, but a f®«7 may be on a lipid basis.

116

PCB residues in fat of adult ducks suggested that sources of
PCB's occurred outside, as well as within, the state. Five of 8
adults with the highest levels were taken in the spring (2.91-
50.10 ppm, April-May 1982); 1 each were also obtained in summer
(2.41 ppm, June 1 982), fall (4.44 ppm, October 1981), and winter
(5.82 ppm, February 1982). Those ducks could have obtained
PCB’s on their wintering areas, along spring/fall migration
routes, and/or on nesting areas.

Ten of 12 spring -collected ducks with detectable PCB resi-
dues in their fat were males. Male ducks tend to follow their
mates during spring migration (i.e. males can be hatched and
reared in one state/flyway and breed in other states/fly ways each
of their adult years) and their source of PCB contamination would
be difficult to delineate. Female ducks tend to return to their
natal areas each year for nesting, so their source of PCB con-
tamination would be more limited but still difficult to identify.

In summer (June-August), all sex-age classes were represen-
ted in the 17 duck fat samples having detectable PCB residues,
indicating that the source of at least some PCB’s was local.
Although adults had higher PCB levels in fat (avg. 0.27 PPm;
range, 0.15-2.41 ppm, N=11) than juveniles (avg. 0.19 Ppm; range
0.12-0.20 ppm, N=6), PCB presence in juveniles was a positive
indication of local sources of PCB’s. Three of the juveniles
(lesser scaup) were taken as flightless young from a pond in
(ihouteau County. Because ducks positive for PCB’s were obtained
in 8 different counties in eastern Montana, PCB availiability was
apparently widespread.

Fat samples from 10 ducks which contained detectable PCB
residues in fall (September-October ) indicated that regardless of
the source of PCB’s, the compound was present in ducks about to
migrate south from Montana. Those fat samples were obtained from
4 duck species and from 6 widespread counties in the Central
Flyway portion of the state. Each sex-age class, except adult
females, was represented in the PCB-contaminated samples. None
of the detected PCB residues in fall exceeded the 5.0 ppm action
level established by the USDA.

One of 2 adult male mallards obtained in winter (February
1982) contained 5.82 ppm PCB in its fat. While numbers of
samples from ducks for all seasons were relatively small, the
occurrence of PCB’s during each season indicates PCB contamina-
tion is a year-round occurrence in Montana. Thus, at least 10
species of ducks inhabiting Montana at one time or another each
year are exposed to documented or potential hazards imposed by
PCB’s.

Other Aquatic Birds and Migratory Game Birds. Three species
which rely heavily on aquatic vertebrates (eg. fish) for food
revealed high levels of PCB’s in their fat (Table 35). Four
eared grebes and the loon taken in April in Chouteau County
exhibited levels in excess of 1.0 ppm PCB. The single white

117

V Primarily wet weight basis , but a few may be on a lipid basis .

t— '
CO

I I

I—*

V£)

I> F I>

t-* ^ I-*

v>o c: VO
CX) P 00

K)^ I—*

l-h

t-h ct 3
O li m

O pj 03
P R* rt

s-s?

I—*

O O O O O

• • • • •

I-* M M O I-*
O O O Ui O

I— * I— * H-* I— * 4>

O O O O I— '

CjO

I I I I

I I o

I—'

4:>

^ •

•

VO CO
O-
4^

^ o

l-J
f-* VO
VO 00
CO (— >
ho

I—*

C-n

118

Table 35. Sumnary of PCB residues detected in tissues of other aquatic birds and misratorv same birds
Montana, 1981-1982. ^

pelican, obtained as a live, but emaciated casualty of a bullet
wound, also contained significant PCB’s in its fat.

Coot, which are primarily aquatic vegetation feeders, exhib-
ited a low frequency of PCB contamination in their fat. The
terrestrial mourning dove was also relatively free of detectable
PCB’s, although an adult female collected in July from Richland
County did have 0.28 ppm in her fat.

Raptors. This group of predatory birds, at the peak of its
trophic food pyramid, exhibited the highest frequency of PCB
contamination of all wildlife sampled (Table 36); it was second
only to waterfowl in maximum levels of PCB's detected. Each
raptor species tested migrates to or through, breeds in, and
winters (except kestrels) in Montana. Main food items include
small mammals, birds and insects. Positive specimens were taken
from 5 of 6 Montana counties sampled.

The 2 highest levels of PCB’s in fat occurred in a great
horned owl (24.8 ppm) and a golden eagle (14.7 ppm) obtained in
early winter (Nov. -Dec.). Two juvenile harriers in late summer
(Aug. -Sept.) contained detectable PCB residues (0.67 I.36

ppm). The single detectable PCB residue in brain was found in
an adult female kestrel in July. Those specimens indicate a
probable local source of PCB's,

Long-eared owls taken in April and May containing 1.10 and
2.20 ppm PCB in their fat, suggested some PCB's were brought into
Montana from out-of-state sources.

Passerines. Tissue samples from 13 passerine species col-
lected during November 1 98I -September 1982 were tested for PCB
residues. Tissues totaled 83 whole bodies, 44 fat, 42 brain, 1
crop contents/food items, and the contents of 3 eggs. Detectable
levels of PCB’s were reported from 4 whole body (55&), 12 fat
(27%), and 2 brain (5%) samples (Table 37).

Horned larks accounted for the largest number of positive
samples, including 2 of 9 fat samples, 2 of 3 whole bodies, and
both brain samples which contained detectable PCB's. Composite
samples composed of tissues of 2 adult females collected in
Fallon County in May 1982 contained 0.42 ppm PCB in fat and 0.19
ppm in brains. A second adult female, also taken in Fallon
County in May 1 982, but over 20 miles from those noted above, had
0.25 ppm PCB in her fat. The other 3 horned lark samples posi-
tive for PCB were taken in Musselshell County in June-July 1982
during field studies involving alternative cutworm insecticides.
These included whole bodies of an adult male (O.83 ppm) and an
adult female (1.68 ppm), and a composite sample of 3 adult female
brains (0.24 ppm).

Horned larks are both resident and migratory in Montana. The
presence of PCB's in horned larks indicated that local sources of

119

^ SB P

H-

h-*

ft)

'eg

o ho

•^5

eg 2

CO Pj

1 03

P3 <

83 fD

cov:

B 1

*0 H*

1— * M

Xi M

t-* fD

1— ■ o

O O

rt VO

VO O

(D CL

00 00

ho M

t— *

1— * hO

1-*

hO 1— •

H- 2

ti O

M ho

M M

M M Ln

1-*

H CO
fD S

l-h

q" Hi

^ l-h Ml

l-h

03 3
rt^ 2

8§ ft

hi 83

tfo O 03
00 O rt

fD M O

03 rt

CL fD •

o o

O O O

♦

•

f8 fD

1-*

1-* 1-*

M M M

< o

o o

Ln o

O O O

fD rt
M H-

MO O M

I— ' o

O O CO

1 M

O 1

1 1 o

1 •

1 1 •

•

-p'

•

•u

fD O
rt •

O bd
CD rt fD
I— * H- M

Q 9
rJ s:

§
fD
I —
CO

H-

120

36. SuTT.iarv of PCD residues detected in tissues of raptors in I'fontam, 1981-1932.

Table yi. Sunrary of PCB residues detected in tissues of passerine birds in ftontana, 1981-1082.

Species

Period

Saipled

Ito.

Birds

No.

Sanples

Tested

Detection

Level

No. Below
Detection
Level

Detectable Residues (ppm)— ^

~w. ^ —

Chestnut-

Apr 1982

2 vdiole

0.05

collared

1 brain

0.10

—

Longspur

Cliff Swallow

July 1982

3 fat

0.10

0.32, 0.36,0.74

3 whole

0.05

0.06

1 brain

0.05

—

Cowbird

1982

1 fat

0.10

0.56

Homed Lark

l-fav 1981

27 fat

0.10

0.25,0.42

Apr-Sept 1982

55 whole

0.05

0.83,1.68

brain

0.10

0.19,0.24 .

3 egg

0.05

—

Lapland Longspur Nov 1981

1 whole

0.05

—

Loggerhead

May 1982

1 fat

0.10

1.24

Shrike

1 brain

0.10

McCown's

Apr 1982

2 fat

0.10

—

Longspur

Sept 1982

6 whole

0.05

—

3 brain

0.10

Meadowlark

Apr-May 1982

4 fat

0.10

0.35,0.40,0.67

Sept 1982

4 brain

0.10

—

Red-wlxiged

May 1982

1 fat

0.10

—

Blackbird

1 brain

0.10

Snow Bunting

Nov 1981

1 fat

o.ib

0.66

2 vdiole

0.05

—

1 brain

0.10

—

1 food

0.05

Vesper Sparrow

May 1982

2 fat

0.10

0.54

July-Sept 1982

10 whole

0.05

2 brain

0.10

White-crowned

May 1982

2 fat

0.10

—

Sparrow

3 whole

0.10

1 brain

0.10

■■

Yellow-rmped

May 1982

1 whole

0.10

0.22

Warbler

1/ Primarily wet weight basis , but a few may be on a lipid basis .

121

those compounds were available. Because their primary foods are
seeds, fruits, and insects, detection of PCB in horned lark
tissues in spring and summer suggests the source is insects.

Although there was only limited collecting of 12 other
passerine species, PCB’s were detected in 7 of those. The high-
est PCB residue detected in passerines was 1.24 ppm in fat of an
adult loggerhead shrike taken in May 1982 in Dawson County. This
species is migratory and also breeds in Montana, and principal
dietary items include small mammals and birds, and large insects.
The high level of PCB found in this bird suggested that PCB's
were obtained in its wintering area, or while enroute to Montana.

Cliff swallows were subject to notable PCB intake. Each of
3 adult females collected contained detectable PCB’s in their
fat, while 1 also had it in her whole body. A composite sample
consisting of the brains of these 3 birds contained no detectable
PCB residues.

PCB residues detected in fat samples of covjbird (1 of 1
tested), snow bunting (1 of 2), vesper sparrow (1 of 2), and
meadowlark (3 of 4), and in the single carcass of a y e 1 1 ow -ru mp ed
warbler, suggested widespread availability of those compounds to
a variety of other passerine species.

Miscellaneous Samples

One of 2 cutworm samples obtained in June 1982 from the
alternative insecticide-wildlife study area in Golden Valley
County contained 0.36 ppm PCB (Table 38), a significant finding
since the cutworms would require immediate access to the compound
for it to appear in their bodies. Either PCB’s would have had to
have been present as a relatively stable component in the soil,
or applied recently to soils and vegetation or onto the cutworms
themselves .

Discussion

Polychlorinated biphenyls are a group of synthetic chlori-
nated hydrocarbons with 189 theoretically different chemical
arrangements of the chlorine atoms; only 102 arrangements have
been identified (Dustman et al. 1971). They are manufactured,
primarily by Monsanto Company, as Aroclor 1221, 1232, 1242, 1248,
1254, 1260, 1262, and 1268; the last two digits reflect the
chlorine percentage in the compound. Physically, PCB’s are ther-
moplastic, non-drying, remain stable during long heating at
150'^C (302°F), and are electrical non-conductors (Reynolds 1969).
Chemically they behave like DDT in that they are poorly soluble
in water, readily soluble in fats, concentrate in animal fats,
and increase through trophic levels in food chains (Heath et al
1972a).

122

Table 38. Sirrnary of PC8 residues detected in miscellaneous saTioles in ■Montana, 1981-1982.

4-)

^ Pi
a P

Ph ^

•rH

r~-l

■s

■p

—I

5 P

o o

•rH 1 — I
0 -U 0)

^ o >

0) Q)
• P hJ
O 0)

3 Q

*1“ I
P

•H

1 •

CD !

1 •
1 o

a rH o o

o o

rH rH

o o

d d

a a

0 a

P 2

H a

0 o

a 7 a

1 1

t—i

1 — 1 "iH

,cd

000

1 — 1 P CO

Q s,

a 0

^ 14

rH 1 — 1

CM CM

r-H

CXD

C7^

CTN

1 — 1

I — 1

D CM

C0^

0 CM

1 — 1

a 00

r-H

1 00

-CON

P <0\

123

PCB's are sold as liquids, resins, and solids (ReynoJds
1969). They have many industrial uses: as plasticizers in elec-
trical insulators and impregnators; as grinding and cutting oils,
hydraulic fluids, and high-temperature lubricants; in marine
anti-fouling paints; as protective coatings, such as waxes, in
cardboard cartons; as sealers in water-proofing compounds and
putty; as dust abaters in detergents; as binders in asphaJ, tjc
materials; in printing inks; and, as adhesives (Reynolds 1969,
Dustman et al. 1971, Heath et al, 1 972a). They have been used
industrially in large amounts since the 1930’s (Heath et al.
1972a). Although general inferences have been made that indus-
trial uses of PCB’s have been responsible for global contamina-
tion of environments via waste discharges and incineration of
products containing PCB’s, such uses do not totally explain the
presence of PCB’s in local rural environments, such as those in
Montana .

PCB’s are also known for their ability to ’’trap” and hold
other volatile ingredients, including pesticides, thereby in-
creasing their residual activity (Reynolds 1969)- Insecticides
which have been combined with PCB’s for prolonged killing activ-
ity include lindane, chlordane, and benzene hex achlor id e. Such
use may be the source of local PCB contamination in Montana.

Relationships to Wildlife. The highest PCB residues detected
in Montana were apparently not sufficient to result in acute
toxicity levels in upland game birds (Dahlgren and Linder 1971,
Heath et al. 1972a, 1972b; Bagley and Cromartie 1973), waterfowl
(Heath et al. 1972a, Custer and Heinz 1980), other aquatic birds
(Anderson and Hickey 1976), or raptors (McLane and Hughes 1980).
Generally, endrin has been shown to be 100 times niore toxic,
dieldrin 10 times, and DDT only 4 times more toxic than PCB’s to
pheasants, bob white quail, and mallards (Table 39). However,
birds have exhibited varying degrees of sensitivity to PCB’s.

Breeding mallards were generally unresponsive to different
levels of PCB’s in their diets. Those fed 150 ppm Aroclor 1242
showed arithmetic increases in numbers of infertile eggs, embryo
mortality in eggs 2 weeks old until hatching, and a decrease in
the mean number of eggs hatched per clutch; there was no statis-
tically significant difference between the respective mieans of
the controls and experimental birds (Hazletine and Prouty 1980).
Adult hens experienced no differences in time required to lay
each clutch in this feeding regime, but did have significantly
depressed weights after 6, 8, and 12 weeks on the diet. In an-
other mallard study (Custer and Heinz 1980), feeding breeding
hens a 25 Ppm Aroclor 1254 diet revealed simiJ. ar results, plus
there was no effect on clutch size nor on laying behavior of the
hens. The latter study reported an increase in egg fertility.
The authors concluded that there was no reproductive impairriient
by PCB’s at that dietary level in wild m. allards; carcasses of
males at the end of the study contained 64.2 ppm PCB and females
had 55.3 Ppm.

124

Table 39. Acute oral toxicities of PCB’s and three organochlor ine
insecticides fed to 2-week old game birds (adapted from
Heath et al, 1972b).

LC50-I/ (ppm in

diet)

Chemical

Mallard

Pheasant

Bobwhite

PCB-2/

1975-3180

1090-3150

605-3000

DDT

1870

310

610

Dieldrin

185

End rin

J/ Expected

to produce 50%

mortality in 8

days (5 days on treated

diet plus
2/ Includes

3 days on untreated diet).
Aroclor 1232, 1242, 124'8, 1254

, 1260, and 1262.

Mallards fed PCB’s have shown increased susceptibility to
disease. Friend and Trainer (1970b) reported that 10-day old
ducklings fed 25, 50, or 100 ppm PCB’s in diets were almost twice
as susceptible to duck hepatitis virus (65%), a virulent water-
fowl disease, as control ducklings (no PCB’s, 35%). Mortality
due to the disease was 14% for the controls compared to 35-44%
for ducklings fed PCB’s. PCB-treated ducklings also exhibited
disease symptoms 8-16 hours earlier than the controls, i.e. the
virus experienced a shorter incubation period.

Terrestrial game birds responded differently than waterfowl
to PCB's; studies with pheasants are illustrative. All 11-week
old pheasants died within 6 days after being given a single
capsule containing 210 mg Aroclor 1254; they stopped eating after
the first day, were inactive and experienced tremors the second
day, had additional tremors, and then became comatose before
death (Dahlgren et al. 1972a). Levels of PCB in those birds were
320-770 ppm (wet weight) in the brain, 390-3,900 ppm in the
liver, and 51-290 ppm in muscle. The authors believed that 30O-
400 ppm PCB in the brain indicated a lethal level. The same
study showed that diets containing 20 mg PCB given every 3.5 days
resulted in 100% mortality within 54 days whereas a similarly
timed feeding of 10 mg caused 100% mortality in I79 days. Pheas-
ants dying of PCB poisoning had smaller hearts and very small
spleens due to lymphocyte depletion.

Pheasants appear to absorb PCB’s rapidly and retain them
over extended periods of time (Dahlgren et al. 197I). Hens with
2, 20, or 200 ppm Aroclor 1 254 injected into breast muscle ab-
sorbed 9^±7% of that compound within 12 hours, after which PCB
levels declined; however, 40.5% of PCB remained 28 days after
initial injection. It appeared that the higher the PCB dosage.

125

the higher the level of PCB retention. That study also showed
that laying hens excreted PCB in eggs (average of 4.2 mg per
egg) and in their feces (4.0 mg during a 28-day period).

In a later study, Dahlgren et al. (1972b) found that
stressed pheasant hens (alternately starved for 2-3 days and then
fed for 2 days, after being given 50 mg PCB by capsule at differ-
ent time intervals) died with about 200 ppm PCB in the brain.
Stress related to temporary food shortages and severe weather
could occur naturally during severe winters in Montana.

A 50 mg Aroclor 1254 dose (capsule) given each week to
pheasant hens during laying significantly reduced egg production
(Dahlgren et el 1971). wo statistically significant change
occurred in hatchability although there was an arithmetic reduc-
tion as PCB’s accumulated; there was no change in eggshell thick-
ness. Behavior of chicks hatched from those eggs was signi-
ficantly impaired: 24% (vs. 8% for controls) made w rong decisions
when confronted with the shallow-deep cliff test, and 3S% (vs.
21% for controls) made no decision in the allotted time period.

Other biological actions which reflect chronic debilities
due to exposure to PCB’s include aberrant behavioral patterns and
adverse physiologic changes. Peakall and Peakall (1973) reported
that embryonic mortality of ring doves (Streptopelia risoria) was
greatly increased in eggs incubated by parents which had been
given 10 ppm Aroclor 1254 in their diets. Part of that mortality
was attributed to inattentiveness of tlie parents during
incubation .

Ring doves fed 1, 10 or 100 ppm Aroclor 1254 exhibited a
depletion of dopam. ine and norepinephrine (Heinz et al. 1980).
Dopamine is one of several hormones which help prevent motor
dysfunctions by neutralizing acetylcholine released during nerve
reactions, like muscle contractions. Norepinephrine helps main-
tain the steady state of the body (eg. blood pressure, heart
rate, insulin release). The 100 ppm PCB diet also resulted in
depressed hematocrit.

Aroclor 1 254 fed at 100 ppm in the diets of coturnix quail
for 12 weeks resulted in significantly increased activity of 5
body enzymes, while blood hematocrit and hemaglobin concentra-
tions decreased significantly (Dieter 1974). Increased liver
weights were noted, and irreversible liver damage ultimately
occurred when high concentrations of PCB’s, DDE, and mercuric
chloride accumulated.

Juvenile herring gulls (Larus argentatus), fed a diet of
fish containing about 3 mg/kg PCB, continued to decrease in PCB’s
until after fledging; then there was a temporary dynamic equi-
librium which was followed by a buildup of fat and PCB’s in
winter (Anderson and Hickey 1976). Maximum body burdens of PCB’s
were reached in juvenile and adult birds (adults were fed the

126

same diet) when winter fat deposits declined prior to the breed-
ing season. After that decline, PCB’s again returned to dynamic
equilibrium.

McLane and Hughes (1980) found no detectable effect of a
diet containing 3.0 ppm Aroclor 1248 on the reproduction of
screech owls. However, PCB's were transferred from parents to
eggs to hatchlings, and 2 of the downy young died 1-4 days after
hatching; their carcasses contained 4.14 and 4.54 ppm PCB. The
authors thought the PCB diet given represented a mid-zone in PCB
residues in eggs and carcasses when compared with wild birds.

Mammals appear to be more sensitive than birds to PCB’s.
Studies with guinea pigs and rabbits suggested that single, oral
doses (4 mg/kg) passed unabsorbed through the intestines (Smith
1931, in Savage 1971), whereas 2 oral doses (69 rng of 42%
chlorine biphenyl) given 1 week apart caused mortality (Miller
1944, in Savage 1971)» Rats fed 0.05 g of 65% chlorinated
biphenyl per animal every other day exhibited a 50% mortality
rate (Bennett et al. 1 938, in Savage 1971).

Two of four bats fed diets containing 10 ppm Aroclor 1254
died during a 37-day period; PCB levels in their brains were
about 20 ppm (Clark and Prouty 1977). However, PCB levels in fat
of the bats had to reach 60-90 pprn before it was measurable in
the brain. PCB levels also tended to be higher in the fat of
males than in females. Earlier research had revealed that PCB's
were transferred across the placenta (Clark and LaMont 1976),
hence pregnancy provided a simultaneous PCB-purging mechanism for
females and a source of pre-parturition contamination for pro-
geny. That study also showed that PCB’s were passed from mother
to offspring during lactation/nursing. Further, PCB’s in adult
females declined linearly with increasing age, but the decline
stopped at 4 ug and then began increasing again.

Mink appear to be significantly more sensitive than the
aforementioned mammals to PCB exposure. Fish diets containing 30
ppm PCB killed all adults and 10 ppm killed 5 of 6 adults
(Aulerich et al. 1 973, in Stendell 1976). Adults on 5 Ppm and 10
ppm diets failed to reproduce, while 1 ppm caused reduced repro-
duction. In a second study (Platanow and Karstad 1973), a diet
of beef containing 3.57 Ppm PCB killed all breeding mink and a
0.64 ppm diet killed several adults; only 1 of 12 adult females
fed the latter diet produced young and her 3 kits died the day
after birth.

Based on the above information, only limited interpretation
could be made about PCB levels found in deer mice and the black-
tailed prairie dog in Montana. None of those individuals appar-
ently contained sufficient PCB's to result in mortality. However,
PCB residues in those species clearly indicated that there was a
local source, and that mink or other mustelids could obtain
potentially hazardous PCB levels from their prey.

127

The principal hazard of PCB's to some forms of wildlife in
Montana appears to be highly altered physiologic processes rather
than acute, oral toxicity. Those changes result from chronic
exposure to low or moderate concentrations of PCB in diets and
could generate abnormal behavior patterns and increased suscepti-
bility to predation and/or disease.

It is apparent from our test results that PCB's are
available in Montana, and that migratory birds are also
assimilating PCB's on their wintering areas and/or along spring
migration routes to Montana. It is equally apparent that Montana
PCB sources are available year round. The most likely PCB
sources in Montana are in pesticide carriers and in oil products
(eg. hydraulic fluids, lubricants, and those used in dust abate-
ment and surfacing of roads). Incineration of materials contain-
ing PCB's (eg. newspapers, cardboard boxes, paints, oil products,
plastics) in Montana or in the region upwind also could result in
aerial transport and subsequent deposition in Montana.

Relationships to Human Health. Problems involving the
potential for PCB contamination of human foods are not new to
Montana. During fall 1979» a transformer containing PCB cooling
fluids ruptured at the Pierce Packing Company in Billings,
releasing an estimated 200 gallons of the toxic chemical which
eventually contaminated about 1,9 million pounds of meat meal
used for animal feed (Montana Department of Agriculture et al.
undated). Subsequent testing of meat and egg samples resulted in
the destruction of about 449,000 dozen eggs, 290,000 chickens,
149 turkeys, 347 ducks, 5,970 swine, and 714,260 lb of feed and
meal. This incident involved 3 state and 2 federal agencies;
disposal actions impacted 114 different feed companies and
livestock producers, and numerous individuals in 19 states and 2
foreign countries became involved. More than $97,000 in
unbudgeted funds were spent by Montana state agencies during that
incident .

While the PCB issue in 1979 apparently did not involve
contamination of wildlife meat to be consumed by people, the
current findings do involve that meat, especially from waterfowl.
The USDA's action level of 5.0 ppm PCB in domiestic meat was
exceeded in only 3 of 154 fat samples front waterfowl normally
consumed by hunters. However, 11 of 12 species contained PCB in
their fat, indicating most edible waterfowl species were contami-
nated with PCB, and one fat specimen (from a blue-winged teal)
contained 10 times (50.1 ppm) the USDA's action level for PCB.
PCB's characteristic affinity for fat, and environmental accumu-
lation and persistence, indicate that there is cause for concern
in Montana and elsewhere regarding PCB contamination of wild
waterfowl which are eaten by people.

128

Chlordane Group

This is a highly complex group (Stickel et al. 1 979b) but
the limited scope of this study allows it to be covered in only a
cursory fashion. As pointed out earlier, chlordane is a mixture
of chlorinated hydrocarbons (primarily alpha- and gamma-
chlordane, plus other related compounds including heptachlor),
with the 2 primary constituents oxidizing to form oxychlordane in
animals. Chlordane-related compounds identified in our samples
included alpha- and gamma-chlordane, oxychlordane, and trans- and
cis— (beta) nonachlor. Most residues of those compounds in
Montana wildlife probably originated from heptachlor use, primar-
ily in Montana but also in other states. Migratory wildlife
could also obtain these compounds as a result of chlordane use in
other states.

Oxychlordane is probably the most important compound because
of both its greater frequency of occurrence in tissues sampled,
and its toxicity. Residues in brains of birds fed oxychlordane in
the diet approached lethality near 5 ppm, which is less than
lethal HE levels in brains of birds fed heptachlor-treated diets
(Stickel et al, 1979b). Lethal brain levels of these 2 compounds
in birds on chlord ane-t reated feed were each only 2%% of those
concentrations, suggesting an additive effect of these 2 along
with other chlordane compounds (Stickel et al. 1979b). In the
remainder of this report the numbers of animals and samples
tested per species for each compound are the same as reported for
HE in Tables 27-32.

Resident Wildlife

Oxychlordane was the only chlordane-related compound found
in resident wildlife, and did not occur in the limited big game
samples (11 fat and 1 brain) tested.

Among upland birds, only sharp-tailed grouse, and possibly
pheasants, were adequately sampled. Oxychlordane occurred in 9%
(5 of 56) of the upland bird fat samples tested. However, it was
found only in pheasants, where it occurred in 31% of the birds
whose fat was tested. Residues were low, averaging 0.04 ppm
(range 0.01-0.09 Ppm). Oxychlordane was not found in any of the
other limited tissue samples tested (2 meat and 1 each of brain,
liver, egg, and food) from upland birds.

Only 1 of 12 small mammal species tested (the deer mouse)
was considered to have been adequately sampled for chlorinated
hydrocarbons. It was also the only species found to contain
oxychlordane, which was present in all tissues tested except the
single sample of newborn young. Deer mouse tissues positive for
oxychlordane included 1 of 3 embryo, 2 of 42 liver, 3 of 43
brain, and 3 of 77 whole body samples. Residue levels (ppm)
included: embryo, 0.20; liver, 0.02 and 4.20; brain, 0.07-0.20;
and whole body, 0.354-0.488.

129

The high liver residue was in a composite sample taken from
2 adult males trapped at the same location and on the same date,
and also contained 30.4 ppm HE. Whether those residues represent
similar levels in both animals, or higher residues in one than
the other is unknown. If the latter is the case, the immediate
consequences for individuals in the population would be greater.
Also, the significance of liver residues of this magnitude are
unknown .

All samples positive for oxychlordane also contained HE,
with the exception of one liver sample (0.02 ppm oxychlordane).
This was a November-trapped (composite of 2 adult males) sample
from an area seeded to winter wheat at least a year earlier.
Thus, that residue probably represented the remainder of formerly
higher residues which would be expected when treated seeds, or
green plants growing from them, were available as food. Finding
oxychlordane without HE also being present is probably related to
the fact that oxychlordane is more persistent than HE. Estimated
half-lives in birds were 63 and 29 days for oxychlordane and HE,
respectively (Stickel et al. 1 979b). The often high HE and oxy-
chlordane residues, in the absence of other chlordane-related
compounds, points to heptachlor as the source of the HE and
oxychlordane in these samples.

Waterfowl. Waterfowl tissues tested included 1 89 fat, 9
brain, 13 meat, 1 cooked meat, 9 food, and 3 egg samples. The
only tissue which was negative for all 5 chlordane related
compounds was cooked meat. Among other tissues tested, oxychlor-
dane occurred in 26 7^ of fat and 317 of meat samples, and in 1 of
9 brain, and 2 of 3 egg samples. No oxychlordane was detected in
food samples.

Mean oxychlordane residues, and the range in residue levels
in fat and meat samples, were 0.10 ppm (0.01-1.65), and O.OI7 ppm
(0.005-0.04), respectively. Oxychlordane residues in egg samiples
were 0.01 and 0.25 ppni, both were composite samples of 2 mal-
lard eggs. The single brain sample positive for oxychlordane
contained 0,018 ppm, and was from an adult male mallard from
Chouteau County that also contained the highest oxychlordane
levels recorded in fat and meat. Food, removed from that bird was
negative for oxychlordane, but contained heptachlor and HE, indi-
cating that heptachlor was the source of the oxychlordane (and
other chlordane-related compounds) found in that bird. This also
indicated a local source of contamination.

Alpha-chlordane residues were found in 4 fat, 5 brain, 3
meat, and 1 egg sample, mostly at low levels. Three fat samples
contained 0.51 to 0.82 ppm. The higher residue was from the
mallard mentioned above, while the other 2 were from a baldpate
from Chouteau County and a shoveler taken in Custer County. The
baldpate had 14.00 ppm HE, again suggesting heptachlor as the

130

source, and probably from the same local source as the mallard.
The ratio of HE to oxychlordane (Blus et al, 1983) in the shove-
ler suggested chlordane as the source of these compounds and it
was probably obtained in some other state. These were also the
only birds having elevated levels of one or more of the remaining
chlordane compounds (gamma-chlordane, and trans- and beta-
nonachlor) in their fat.

Gamma-chlordane was detected in 3 fat, 1 brain, 1 food, and
1 egg sample. With the exception of 2 fat samples (0.54 and 0.68
ppm), all contained relatively low levels.

Trans-nonachlor occurred in 9 fat samples (3 at 0.22-0.49
ppm), 2 meat, and 1 egg sample. Beta-nonachlor was detected in
waterfowl only in fat (3 samples, all 0.20 ppm or less).

Other Aquatic Birds and Migratory Game Birds. Among the 6
species considered here, there were 26 fat and 1 each of whole
body, meat, brain, and food samples tested. No individual spe-
cies was considered to be adequately sampled. Among the various
tissues tested, meat and food were negative for chlordane com-
pounds, while only oxychlordane (0.04 ppm) was found in the
brain. The single whole body sample tested (a mourning dove)
contained oxychlordane, alpha- and gamma-chlordane , and trans-
nonachlor, all at <0.07 ppm. That sample also contained a small
amount (0.046 ppm) of compound E, a constituent of technical"
chlordane, indicating exposure to this chemical. However, the
occurrence of relatively high HE residues in this sample (2.60
ppm), as well as in the brain (1.62 ppm), fat (53.00 ppm), and
food (O.O8 ppm) suggested heptachlor was the major, and also
local, source of chlordane compounds found in this bird.

Fourteen of the fat samples tested contained oxychlordane, 6
had beta-nonachlor, 2 had trans-nonachlor; alpha- and gamma-
chlordane each occurred in 1 sample. All compounds occurred at
<0.30 ppm with the exception of oxychlordane in an eared grebe
(0.40 ppm) and a mourning dove (1.04 ppm), and beta-nonachlor
(O.37 ppm) in an eared grebe.

Chlordane compounds in these birds appeared to result large-
ly from heptachlor exposure. Source of exposure was local in at
least some cases, such as the food sample, or where flightless
young were involved. Other birds could have been exposed locally
and/or during migration, or in wintering areas.

Raptors. The single brain sample tested contained <0.08 ppm
of both oxychlordane and alpha-chlord ane, while no chlordane-
related compounds were found in food (1) or egg (2) samples.

Fat samples included 15 that were positive for oxychlordane,
10 for trans-nonachlor, 5 for beta-nonachlor, and 1 for alpha-
chlordane. No gamma-chlordane was detected in fat. Residues of
all compounds in fat were <0.30 ppm except for oxychlordane in 4

131

samples which ranged from 0.37 to 2.08 ppm. The source of chlor-
dane compounds in raptors is less clear than in other wildlife
groups tested.

Passerines. Thirteen passerine species were tested for
chlordane compounds, but only the horned lark was adequately
sampled. Samples tested (all species) included 8l whole body,
44 fat, 42 brain, 3 egg, and 1 food. Food and egg samples did
not contain detectable levels of any chlordane compounds. Oxy~
chlordane occurred in minor amounts in 2 brain samples (0.04 and
0.0 9 ppm).

Two chlordane compounds were found in whole body samples of
passerines, including oxychlordane in 13 samples and trans-
nonachlor in 1. All but one of the chlordane-related residues in
whole body samples were less than 0.30 ppm, and the exception
(oxychlordane in a horned lark) amounted to only 0.39 ppm.

Passerine fat samples tested included 23 that had detectable
levels of oxychlordane, 13 that contained trans-nonachlor , 2 that
had beta-nonachlor , and 1 each with alpha- and gamma-chlordane.
Fat samples with residues exceeding 0.30 ppm included oxychlor-
dane in 2 horned larks, (0.3^» 2.23 PPm) and oxychlordane
(0.61 ppm), beta-chlordane (0.62 ppm) and trans-nonachlor (0.32),
all in the same white-crowned sparrow sample.

Based on the compounds and residue levels found in individ-
ual samples, it appears that most chlordane-related residues
found in passerines resulted from heptachlor use. The occur-
rence of HE residues in many additional samples that lacked other
chlordane-related compounds supports this hypothesis. All
passerine birds sampled are migratory to some degree, and could
have obtained these residues locally and/or at any point during
migration .

Miscellaneous Samples

No chlordane-related compounds were detected in any of the
17 miscellaneous samples tested.

Discussion

Chlordane is less toxic to several species of birds than
many other chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides (Heath et al.
19?2b), and has only recently been implicated in direct mortality
of wildlife (Blus et al. 1 983). The only registered use for
chlordane since 1980 has been subterranean application for ter-
mite control (Blus et al. 1983). Chlordane-related compounds
found in our samples appeared to originate largely from
heptachlor use, suggesting that residues of those compounds
should be declining in incidence and magnitude as heptachlor use
is phased out. However, since oxychlordane and HE together have

132

an additive lethal affect at considerably lower levels than
either alone (Stickel et al. 1 979b), the potential for at least
subacute poisoning and sublethal affects on Montana wildlife will
remain for some time.

DDT Group

The major metabolites and/or components of technical DDT,
and the only ones detected in our samples, are DDD and DDE. Both
are formed by most living organisms (Brooks 1974b). All metabo-
lites of DDT identified in insects are much less acutely toxic
than DDT, except that DDD is more toxic to certain lepidopterous
and mosquito larvae (Brooks 1974b). DDD has also been used as an
insecticide to some extent because of that toxicity. DDE is more
prevalent in the environment, including wildlife, than either DDT
or DDD.

Due to its universal environmental distribution and slow
degradation, few if any wild birds were free of DDE 10 years ago
(Stickel 1973). Large scale forest spraying with DDT in Montana
ended in 1 964. Since the banning of DDT for most uses in the
United States at the end of 1972 (see below), frequency and
magnitude of DDE residues have declined. However, it is still
frequently found in most large samples of wildlife species.

£esident_Wlldlife

No detectable DDD residues occurred in any resident wildlife
samples tested. One fat sample from each group of resident
wildlife had detectable levels of DDT. These included a white-
tailed deer (0.29 Ppm) and a pheasant (0.06 ppm) from the same
site in Fallon County, plus a jackrabbit (0.09 Ppm) from
Musselshell County.

DDE residues were found in 3 of 11 big game fat samples
tested. The highest level (0.19 Ppm) occurred in the white-
tailed deer that also contained DDT. A mule deer and a prong-
horn, taken at separate sites in Richland County, each had 0.01
ppm DDE in their fat. No DDE was found in the only big game
brain tested.

Upland bird samples positive for DDE included 17 of 56 fat,
and the only egg sample (from a pheasant) tested. DDE was found
in fat of 3 Hungarian partridge, 3 pheasants, and 11 sharp-
tailed grouse; the maximum level recorded was 0.12 ppm in the
pheasant that also contained DDT in its fat. All other upland
bird tissues lacked DDE residues (2 meat, and 1 each of brain,
liver, and fat). Birds positive for DDE represented a minimum of
7 sites in 5 counties.

Small mammal species that had at least one tissue sample
positive for DDE included the deer mouse, harvest mouse, meadow
vole, prairie dog, 13-lined ground squirrel, cottontail rabbit.

133

and jackrabbit. The number of tissue samples positive for DDE
were: 23 of 97 whole body; 19 of 6? brain; 19 of 64 liver; and 6
of 18 fat samples. Three additional tissues tested (2 food, 3
embryo, and 1 newborn) had no DDE present.

DDE residue levels in positive small mammal samples were
quite low. Average residues in positive tissues were: whole

body, 0.014 (range, 0.005-0.037 ppm); brain, 0.065 (0.006-0.33
ppm); liver, 0.020 (0.005-0.1 20 ppm); and fat, 0.03 (0.009-0.06
ppm). Positive DDE samples were obtained at all sites at which
small mammals were collected.

Five of 12 small mammal species tested were negative for
DDE. Species, and number of tissue samples lacking DDE included:
house mouse, 3 whole body, 1 brain, and 1 liver; pocket mouse, 1
whole body; porcupine, 1 fat; prairie vole, 3 whole body, 1
brain, and 1 liver; and Richardson’s ground squirrel, 3 each of
brain, liver, and fat, and 1 food sample.

Migratory Wildlife

Waterfowl. Residues of DDT occurred in waterfowl samples as
follows: fat, 24 of 189; brain, 2 of 9; meat, 2 of 13; and egg,
1 of 3* DDT was detected in 9 food or 1 cooked meat sample

tested from waterfowl. Residue levels of DDT in most tissues
were low, but 3 fat samples from birds collected in April 1982
contained 3*20, 6.01, and 8.27 Ppm. The highest level was re-
corded from a pintail taken in Chouteau County; the others were
both mallards, one taken at the same site as the pintail, and the
second collected in Dawson County.

DDD was detected in 8 fat, 3 meat, and one brain sample from
waterfowl tested. All other tissues were negative for this
compound. The maximum level found in any tissue (fat) was 0.41
ppm.

Eighty-five percent of all waterfowl samples, including
every type of tissue tested, contained detectable levels of DDE.
These included 172 fat, 9 meat, 5 brain, 3 food, 3 egg, and 1
cooked meat sample. One egg (1.55 Ppm) and 24 fat samples
contained over 1 ppm of DDE. The number of fat samples that
exceeded 1 ppm, and maximum levels found, by species, were: 5

blue-winged teal (6.37 PPm); 2 baldpates (2.59 Ppm); 1 gadwall
(2.41 ppm); 2 green-winged teal (23.20 ppm); 5 mallards (23.60
ppm); 3 pintails (9.48 ppm); 1 ring-necked duck (4.46 Ppm); 2
ruddy ducks (3.51 ppm); 1 scaup (3*91 PPm); and 2 shovelers

(13*00 ppm ).

Most elevated residue levels of this group of compounds were
found in spring and early summer samples. This, and the
relatively low levels of DDT and its metabolites in resident
wildlife suggested that those compounds were obtained largely
outside of Montana.

134

other Aquatic Birds and Migratory Game Birds. Residues of
DDT and DDD were found only in fat samples of these birds. DDT
occurred in 4 fat samples, including 1 each of common loon, eared
grebe, mourning dove, and white pelican, with a maximum of 0.14
ppm in the loon. The pelican fat sample was the only one found
to contain DDD (1.00 ppm).

Detectable DDE residues occurred in the mourning dove whole
body sample (0.009 Ppm), and in all fat samples tested. The
remaining samples (1 each of meat, brain, and food) were negative
for this compound. The average DDE residue in the 26 fat samples
was 2.43 ppm, and 8 contained residues that exceeded 1 ppm.
These included 2 coots (1.06 and I.77 ppm), 4 eared grebes (4.00-
14.00 ppm), 1 white pelican (11.00 ppm), and 1 common loon (11.50
ppm).

Raptors. Residues of DDT occurred in 5 fat samples,
including 3 from great horned owls and 1 each from red-tailed
hawk and kestrel. The maximum level recorded was 0.29 Ppm in a
kestrel taken in late April 1982 in Dawson County. DDD occurred
in only 1 fat sample, 0.17 PPm being found in a red-tailed hawk
also taken in late April 1982 in Dawson County. Both undoubtedly
obtained those residues prior to arrival in Montana. Remaining
raptor tissues contained no detectable residues of either DDT or
DDD.

Residues of DDE occurred in every raptor sample tested (16
fat, 2 egg, 1 food, and 1 brain). Maximum DDE levels found in
fat by species included; long-eared owl, 1.15 Ppm; red-tailed
hawk, 1.49 ppm; kestrel, 6.33 PPm; great horned owl, 15.10 ppm;
golden eagle, 24.30 ppm; and harrier, 33. 70 ppm.

Passerines. The only passerine tissue tested that did not
contain residues of the DDT complex was a food sample (i.e. crop
contents) from 2 adult male snow buntings. Three horned lark egg
samples were negative for DDT and DDD, but all contained low
levels of DDE (0.030-0.042 ppm).

DDT occurred in only 3 passerine whole body samples. All
were horned larks, and the maximum level found was 0.10 ppm.
Four brain samples contained DDT at 0.03 PPm or less, including 3
horned larks and 1 vesper sparrow, DDT also occurred in 2 of 44
fat samples, including a cowbird (0.28 ppm) and a white-crowned
sparrow (O.7I PPm). Both were taken in early May 1 982, in the
same general vicinity in Dawson County. As recently arrived
migrants, they undoubtedly obtained most, if not all, of their
DDT outside of Montana.

DDD occurred in only 2 fat samples (the cowbird and white-
crowned sparrow noted above), and 1 brain sample (the vesper
sparrow that also had DDT in its brain). The maximum DDD level
found (O.35 ppm) occurred in fat of the white-crowned sparrow.

135

Among other passerine tissues sampled, DDE occurred in 63 of
8l whole body, 22 of 42 brain, and 42 of 44 fat samples tested.
Highest DDE levels in whole body samples included 0.66 ppm in a
yellow -rumped warbler, 0.77 PPm in a cliff swallow, and 2.45 Ppm
in a white-crowned sparrow.

Brains of 8 species (of 10 tested) had detectable DDE resi-
dues. Only the snow bunting and red-winged blackbird (1 sample
each) contained no DDE in their brains. The maximum DDE brain
level recorded (0.26 ppm) was in a horned lark.

Passerine fat samples positive for DDE had an average of
1.16 ppm (range, 0.02-1 2.00 ppm). Nine exceeded 1 ppm, includ-
ing: 1 cowbird, 3.27 ppm; 1 loggerhead shrike, 6.80 ppm; 2
meadowlarks, 1.22 and 2.05 Ppm; 2 white-crowned sparrows, 3»69
and 12.00 ppm; and 3 cliff swallows, 3«13-7»22 ppm. All of the
cowbird, shrike, white-crowned sparrow, and cliff swallow, and
half of the meadowlark fat samples tested contained over 1 ppm of
DDE. None of the horned lark fat samples positive for DDE (26 of
27 tested) had more than 0.60 ppm. The reason for this differ-
ence between species is probably related to the degree to which
locally breeding birds make long distance migrations to areas in
which DDT may still be used.

Miscellaneous Samples

Only 2 samples in this group contained residues of the DDT
complex. No DDT or DDD were detected, while DDE occurred in 1
sediment (0.014 ppm), and 1 snapping turtle fat (0.005 Ppm)
sample .

Discussion

DDT was the first and most widely used organochlorine
insecticide. Because the scientific literature concerning the
relationships between the DDT group and wildlife is so extensive,
we are providing only an overview of those relationships as they
might apply in Montana.

Although direct mortality of wildlife following spraying of
DDT for forest insect control was documented as early as 1945
(Hotchkiss and Bough 19^6), and insect resistance to DDT was
first noted in 1946 (Brooks 1974b), production and use of DDT
mushroomed following World War II. The United States alone
produced over 145 million pounds of DDT in 1958, and global
production was estimated at 250 million pounds annually (Rudd
1964: 61 ) .

B i o a c c u m u 1 a t i o n of chlorinated hydrocarbons, whereby
relatively minute amounts applied to an ecosystem are accumulated
at ever increasing amounts at each upward step in a food chain,
was first demonstrated by Hunt and Bischoff (I960). They
reported that DDD, applied for gnat control at a rate that

136

resulted in 0.02 ppm in water, resulted in chronic DDD poisoning
of western grebes, which died with up to 1,600 ppm of DDD in
their fat. Among the potential prey of grebes, it was found that
smaller fish accumulated less DDD than larger specimens of the
same species, and that plankton feeders accumulated less than
carnivorous species of the same size.

Although direct poisoning occurs at high dosages, bioaccumu-
lation is the underlying factor leading to most problems that
wildlife ultimately experience with DDT and other chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides and/or their metabolites.

The discovery that DDE caused thinning of eggshells of many
species of birds revealed one of the more serious affects of DDT
and its metabolites on wildlife. DDD has not been implicated in
this phenomenon, while DDT produces thinning only after lengthy
exposure, after which DDE is probably involved (Stickel 1973).
Further, DDE is more persistent in birds than DDT or DDD. The
half life of DDE is 250 days in the pigeon (Columba livia),
compared to 28 and 24 days for DDT and DDD, respectively (Stickel
1973, Brooks 1974b). That persistence accounts for DDE being
present in a high percentage of the recent Montana wildlife
samples tested, while DDT and DDD are encountered much less
frequently .

In retrospect, the first evidence of eggshell thinning was
an increased incidence of broken or missing eggs among British
peregrine falcons during 1949-1956. It was subsequently demon-
strated that a significant decrease in eggshell weight of the
peregrine in Great Britain began in 1947 or 1948; the same pheno-
menon was also reported for North American peregrines and later
for many other species (cf. Peakall 1 976). In the early 1 960’s
pesticides were hypothesized to be the cause of this problem
since it did not manifest itself until after chlorinated hydro-
carbon insecticides were widely used (see Hickey 1969). Subse-
quent experimental laboratory studies established that DDE caused
substantial shell thinning among ducks, owls, and hawks (Stickel
1973)» Conversely, chickens are highly resistant to this affect
(Cecil et al. 1 972).

Statistical studies of field collected eggs, comparing shell
thickness with residues in their contents, have supported the
implication of DDE as the agent responsible for eggshell thinning
(Stickel 1 973)* Those studies also found that flesh- and fish-
eating birds were the most affected, with susceptibility to shell
thinning varying greatly among the various groups of birds.
Peakall (1976) reported that the most sensitive of the bird
orders studied were the Pelecaniformes (pelicans, cormorants),
Ciconiformes (herons, storks), Falconiformes (hawks, falcons,
eagles, osprey), and Strigiformes (owls). Least sensitive orders
included Galliformes (grouse, pheasant, turkey, chicken) and
Passeriformes ("song birds" and their relatives). Differences in
sensitivity to eggshell thinning among these groups of birds
appear to be physiologically based (Stickel 1973).

137

Severe shell thinning has been correlated with reproductive
failure and population declines (including local and regional
extinctions) in some bird species, notably among peregrine fal-
cons and brown pelicans (Peakall 1976, Blus 1982). Lowered
productivity of brown pelicans (Blus 1982) was primarily due to
eggshell deficiencies, embryotox ic ity , and mortality or aberrant
behavior of recently hatched young. DDE has the potential of
inducing all of those effects, whereas most other organochlo-
rines usually act through the last two (Blus 1982). He also
further reported that 3 PPm (fresh wet weight) DDE in brown
pelican eggs was associated with substantially impaired reproduc-
tive success, while 4 ppm resulted in total reproductive failure.
Peregrine eggs fail to hatch at approximately 15-20 ppm (wet
weight) DDE (Peakall et al. 1975), while the minimum effect
levels for prairie falcons and merlins were approximately 2 and 6
ppm, respectively (Fyfe et al. 1 976a). In the latter study DDE
at approximately 12.5 Ppm (wet weight) caused reproductive fail-
ure in prairie falcons.

Accidental breakage during the course of normal incubation
appears to be the major mechanism through which thin-shelled eggs
are lost from nests, although aberrant behavior of the adult
(Hickey 1969, Peakall 1976) may also be involved. Minor thin-
ning of eggshells occurs naturally as developing embryos extract
material from the shell (Vanderstoep and Richards 1971, Kreitzer
1972). This might cause enough additional thinning to result in
breakage of some eggs late in incubation. An additional source
of mortality caused by eggshell deficiencies was observed by
Nelson (1976). He reported that apparently thin-shelled eggs were
further weakened when pipping began, resulting in the shell
fracturing and flaking off. The intact shell membrane then dried
and toughened, trapping the emerging chick.

It has also been reported that increasing DDE contamination
significantly decreased nest defense behavior by wild merlins
(Fyfe et al. 1976a).

Based largely on evidence that DDE-caused eggshell thinning
was responsible for population declines in many birds, DDT use in
the United States was banned after 31 December 1972 (Sherman
1977)* Use of DDT was severely restricted in Canada in 1969
(Newton 1976).

A number of exemptions for "emergency" use of DDT have been
granted since the use of DDT was banned in the United States.
Some 426,000 acres of forest in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington
were sprayed in 197^ Toi" control of the tussock moth; 112,000
acres were sprayed to control pea leaf weevil in the dry pea crop
in Idaho and Washington during 1973 and 1974; 4,000 pounds of DDT
were dusted into rodent holes in Colorado in 1976 to destroy
fleas that might transmit plague; and other lesser uses have
occurred (Sherman 1977).

Despite the relatively minor legal use of DDT in the United
States in recent years, DDT is still used in other countries.

138

Although firm figures are not available, indications are that
global use of DDT is not declining, but merely shifting southward
(Peakall 1976). During 1972-197^ ai'i average of over 55 million
pounds of DDT (1005^ basis) was exported from the United States
annually (Sherman 1977). The large foreign use, plus any illegal
use in the United States, is probably the major source of the
residues of DDT and its metabolites found in migratory wildlife
in Montana. However, the presence of DDT in some Montana resident
wildlife as much as 10 years after it was banned indicates that
some DDT has been locally available in recent years.

While some populations of birds have shown improved repro-
ductive success following reduced use of DDT, some highly contam-
inated populations remain. For example, arctic breeding North
American peregrines which winter in Central and South America
were rapidly declining in 1975 (Fyfe et al. 1976b), with some
suggesting they might be passing into extinction in the wild
(Peakall 1976). Birds poisoned by DDT and/or its metabolites
were still being found in the United States at least 4 years
after the ban went into effect (Ohlendorf et al. 1979).

Results of residue tests conducted on potential peregrine
prey species in Montana further show that, despite being banned
in the U.S., we cannot assume that DDT or its metabolites are not
present in migratory wildlife. Whole body samples of every
individual of 3 species tested in 1980 (8 Brewer’s blackbirds, 11
killdeer, and 11 tree swallows) contained DDE. The average (and
range in) residue levels by species and area of collection were:
Brewer’s blackbirds from Carbon and Stillwater counties, 5.50 ppm
(0.16-32.86 ppm); killdeer from Toole and Liberty counties, 8. 30
ppm (0.43-19.56 ppm); and tree swallows from Gallatin and Park
counties, 35.60 ppm (5.70-101.72 ppm) (DeWeese, FWS, unpublished
data). These residues are more ominous since they occurred in
whole body rather than fat samples, and are expressed on a wet
weight, and not a lipid weight, basis. Undoubtedly any raptors
feeding heavily on birds contaminated at the level of the tree
swallows would experience reproductive problems.

D ield rin

Dieldrin is highly toxic to wildlife, ranking only behind
endrin, and in most cases aldrin, in toxicity among organochlor-
ine insecticides tested (Heath et al. 1972b). Although dieldrin
is used as an insecticide, much of the dieldrin residues found in
wildlife results from the use of aldrin, which rapidly converts
to dieldrin (Stickel 1973).

Resident Wildlife

Dieldrin was not detected in any of the big game samples (11
fat and 1 brain) tested. Upland game bird samples included 12 of
56 fat, 1 of 2 meat, and 1 of 1 brain sample that contained
detectable dieldrin; no dieldrin was found in single samples of

139

egg, food, and liver tested. All positive samples contained only
small amounts of dieldrin, with a maximum concentration of 0.05
ppm. Positive samples were obtained from a minimum of 8 loca-
tions in 5 counties.

Among small mammals, dieldrin occurred in brain (5 of 67),
liver (10 of 64), and fat (2 of 18) samples, but was not found in
whole body (101), embryo (3), newborn (1), or food (2) samples.
The maximum dieldrin level found in positive samples was 0.10 ppm
in a liver. Positive small mammal samples were obtained at a
majority of the collection sites.

Migratory Wildlife

Dieldrin residues occurred with greater frequency, and at
higher maximum levels, in migratory wildlife collected in Montana
than in resident species.

The single cooked meat sample was the only waterfowl tissue
tested which contained no dieldrin. With the exception of fat,
waterfowl tissues contained low concentrations of dieldrin (0.0?
ppm or less). These included 5 of 9 brain, 6 of 13 meat, 2 of 9
food, and 2 of 3 egg samples. Waterfowl fat samples included 95
(of 190 tested) which contained detectable dieldrin residues.
Only 2 of these exceeded the USDA action level of 0.3 ppm, a
mallard taken in February 1982 in Chouteau County (0.53 PPm), and
a shoveler taken in late April 1982 in Park County (0.31 ppm).

Dieldrin occurred in 18 of 26 fat samples tested from other
aquatic birds and migratory game birds. It was not detected in
single samples of meat, whole body, brain, or food tested. Maxi-
mum dieldrin residues in fat (0.26 ppm) occurred in an eared
grebe and a white pelican. Two other grebes and a common loon
had dieldrin levels of 0.20 ppm or more.

Eleven of 16 fat samples from raptors had detectable
dieldrin, while egg (2), brain (1), and food (1) samples con-
tained none. Maximum residues in 4 fat samples by species were:
golden eagle, 0.88 ppm; great horned owl, 0.77 PPm; harrier, 1.17
ppm; and red-tailed hawk, 2.08 ppm.

Positive dieldrin samples from passerines included 8 of 8l
whole body, 4 of 42 brain, and 25 of 44 fat samples tested.
Highest levels occurred in fat, with a maximum concentration of
0.18 ppm in a horned lark. Dieldrin was not detected in passer-
ine food (1) or egg (3) samples.

Miscellaneous Samples

Dieldrin was not detected in any of the miscellaneous
samples .

140

Discussion

Dieldrin has all of the negative characteristics of other
organochlorine insecticides, including high toxicity, persist-
ence, and affinity for fatty tissues. With the exception of
eggshell thinning, most of the deleterious effects of other
organochlorine insecticides also apply to dieldrin.

Numerous cases of dieldrin poisoning of wildlife, plus
other undesirable features, led to the banning of aldrin and
dieldrin use in the United States effective 1 October 197^i
although the sale and use of existing stocks remained legal
(Clark et al. 1978). Documented cases of dieldrin poisoning of
wildlife include deaths of at least 3 endangered species: the
bald eagle (Prouty et al. 1977, Kaiser et al. 198O), peregrine
falcon (Reichel et al. 197^), and gray bat (Clark et al. 1978,
1980). Aldrin was the source of the dieldrin contamination in at
least the latter species.

Levels of dieldrin contamination found in Montana wi Id life
were below those considered hazardous. All of the elevated diel-
drin residues occurred in migratory species, notably raptors.
Those findings suggested that dieldrin residues in our samples
were obtained, for the most part, outside of Montana, and that
banning the use of aldrin and dieldrin in the U. S. has probably
resulted in reduced losses of wildlife in recent years. Presence
of dieldrin residues above the FDA action level nearly 8 years
after its use was banned further demonstrates that residues of
such highly persistent chemicals will remain for years after they
are no longer used.

Hexachlorobenzene

Hex achlorobenzene (HCB) is used as a fungicide, and is an
environmental contaminant (Yang et al. 1978). According to the
MDA, HCB occurs as a component of at least 2 fungicides used as
preplanting seed treatments in Montana.

Resident Wildlife

Residues of HCB were detected only in fat samples of big
game (2 of 11) and upland game birds (10 of 56) tested. All
other tissues of these groups were negative for this compound.
The maximum HCB residue found in big game and upland birds was
0.02 ppm.

Among small mammals tested, HCB occurred in the following
tissue samples; whole body, 4 of 97; brain, 2 of 67; liver, 4 of
64; and fat, 2 of 18. Maximum residues in small mammals occur-
red in brain samples of a harvest mouse (0.11 ppm) and a deer
mouse (0.16 ppm). Food (2), embryo (3), and newborn (1) small
mammal samples were negative for HCB.

141

Overall, HCB residues were detected in resident wildlife
representing at least 8 separate sites in 5 counties.

Migratory Wildlife

Positive waterfowl tissues included ^14 of 189 fat, 3 of 9
brain, and 2 of 3 meat samples tested. Most residues were quite
low, with maximums (all in fat) of 0.18 ppm in a mallard, and
0.40 and 0.88 ppm in 2 green-winged teal. The whistling swan and
ring-necked duck were the only species which contained no HCB in
their fat (4 samples each). Food (9), egg (3), and cooked meat
(1) samples from waterfowl were negative for HCB.

Residues of HCB were detected in other aquatic birds and
migratory game birds in 1 of 1 whole body and 11 of 26 fat
samples tested, with highest levels (0.20 ppm) occurring in fat.
Although HCB was detected in fat of every species sampled, eared
grebes appeared to be more heavily contaminated than the others.
Each of 5 individual eared grebes tested had HCB residues, and 4
of these had the highest levels (0.10-0.20 ppm) found in fat from
this group. Single samples of brain, meat, and food of this
group were negative for HCB.

Although raptor collections included only a few individuals
of a few species, every species tested contained detectable HCB
in at least 1 tissue. A single food sample was the only raptor
tissue tested which contained no HCB residues. HCB occurred in
the only brain, 1 of 2 egg, and 12 of 16 fat samples from rap-
tors. Concentrations in brain (0.044 ppm) and egg (0.02 ppm)
were quite low, as were most residues in fat. Elevated HCB
residues in raptor fat included: harrier, 0.75 Ppm; and great
horned owl, 0.26 and 0.92 ppm.

All passerine tissues tested, except a single food sample,
contained HCB residues. These included: whole body, 4 of 8l;
brain, 2 of 42; fat, 20 of 44; and egg, 2 of 3. HCB residues
were generally low, with only 2 samples having elevated levels.
These were a whole body (1.03 PPm), and a fat sample (3.95 PPm),
which both involved the same juvenile male vesper sparrow. There
was not enough, fat on this bird to constitute a sample by itself,
so it was combined with fat from another bird (an adult male
having no detectable HCB in its whole body) taken at the same
time and place. Most, if not all, of the HCB detected was proba-
bly attributable to the 1 bird. Since this was a juvenile bird
taken in mid-August, it undoubtedly obtained its HCB within
Montana. However, grain fields adjacent to where this bird was
collected were unharvested at that time, and there was no ob-
vious source of treated seed available in the general vicinity.

Miscellaneous Samples

No HCB was detected in any of the miscellaneous samples.

142

Discussion

Hansen et al. (1978) cited studies with chickens showing
that although HCB had a low acute toxicity, prolonged exposure
resulted in a variety of ill effects; concentrations of up to 100
ppm in feed resulted in marked residue accumulation but produced
no notable ill effects. Among mammals, HCB was one of the least
acutely and subacutely toxic of several pesticides tested on
voles, with laboratory rats and mice being somewhat more sensi-
tive (Cholakis et al. 1 980). Offspring of adult mink fed 5 Ppm
HCB experienced poor survival (Rush et al. 1983). Although long-
term storage in fat, and slow elimination from animals
characterize HCB, the limited information found regarding its
potential toxicity to wildlife indicated that residues in our
samples posed little or no hazard to Montana wildlife.

Lindane and Benzene Hexachloride

Lindane (the common name of the gamma isomer of benzene
hexachloride) is unique among the 3 main structural groups of
organochlorine insecticides since it is the only highly insecti-
cidal representative of its group (Brooks 1974a). Because of its
relatively high volatility and fumigant action, lindane is well
suited as a soil insecticide, and is widely used as a seed treat-
ment. In Montana lindane is used mainly as a preplanting seed
treatment on cereal grains.

Of the several other isomers of benzene hexachloride (BHC)
only alpha-BHC was found with some frequency in our samples,
while the beta isomer occurred only once. Alpha-BHC will simply
be called BHC in this evaluation.

Resident Wildlife

Lindane residues occurred in 2, and BHC residues in 3, fat
samples from big game animals. Maximum residues in fat were 0.02
ppm for lindane and 0.05 Ppm for BHC. The single brain tested
was negative for both compounds.

Upland bird tissues positive for lindane included 9 of 56
fat and the only egg sample tested. The maximum lindane concen-
tration found in upland birds was 0.02 ppm in fat of 2 sharp-
tailed grouse. Lindane was not detected in meat (2), brain (1),
food (1), or liver (1) samples from upland birds.

Detectable BHC residues in upland birds were found in 18
fat, 1 of 2 meat, and the only brain sample tested. Maximum BHC
levels occurred in a sharp-tailed grouse fat sample (0.15 ppm).
Tests of single samples of egg, food, and brain were negative for
BHC.

Lindane was found in 2 samples each of whole body, brain,
and fat from small mammals. Maximum residues occurred in a deer

143

mouse brain (0.11 ppm). No lindane was detected in liver, food,
embryo, or newborn samples.

BHC was more widespread in small mammals than lindane, being
found in 1 of 97 whole body, 11 of 6? brain, 7 of 64 liver, and 4
of 18 fat samples. The highest BHC concentration (O.O7 ppm) was
found in fat of a black-tailed prairie dog. Food (2), embryo (3),
and newborn (1) samples contained no BHC.

Migratory Wildlife

Seven fat and 2 egg samples were the only waterfowl tissues
which had detectable lindane residues; the maximum lindane resi-
due was 0.04 in the fat of a baldpate. No lindane was found in
brain, meat, cooked meat, or food.

Residues of BHC occurred in 1 brain and 25 fat samples from
waterfowl, while all meat, cooked meat, food, and egg samples
were negative for this compound. Mo BHC residues in waterfowl
exceeded 0.06 ppm.

Lindane was not detected in any of the other aquatic bird
and migratory game bird samples, while BHC occurred in 5 fat
samples, with a maximum of 0.20 ppm found in a white pelican.

Detectable lindane occurred in 2 of 16 raptor fat (0.03 and
0.09 ppm), and 1 of 2 egg (0.02 ppm) samples. Single food and
brain samples were negative for lindane.

Nine raptor fat samples were positive for BHC, with none
detected in any other raptor tissue. With one exception (0.32
ppm in a long-eared owl), all BHC residues in raptor fat were
0.06 ppm or less.

The only passerine tissue which lacked detectable residues
of both lindane and BHC was the single food sample. Lindane was
found in 1 whole body, 1 egg, 2 brain, and 4 fat samples; BHC
occurred in 1 whole body, 2 egg, 13 brain, and 15 fat samples.
Maximum levels of each compound (0.09 Ppm) were found in fat
samples of a snow bunting (lindane) and a horned lark (BHC).

Miscellaneous Samples

The only miscellaneous sample positive for either lindane or
BHC was a composite of several whole snails that contained 0.01
ppm of lindane.

Discussion

Small amounts of alpha-BHC are formed as the major transfor-
mation product of the other BHC isomers; it is also metabolized
more slowly by animals than lindane (Brooks 1974a). Thus, the

144

BHC detected in our samples probably had its source in lindane,
even in those cases where BHC occurred in the absence of lindane.
The acute oral toxicity of BHC is much lower than that of lindane
(Brooks 1974b), so it does not seem likely that the low levels
found in our samples would be hazardous to wildlife.

Compared with most organochlorines, lindane is outstanding
for its speed of action and high acute toxicity to insects as a
stomach, contact, or fumigant poison. With few exceptions, lin-
dane has a lower lethal dietary toxicity to young bobwhite quail,
Japanese quail, pheasants, and mallards than most of the commonly
used organochlorine insecticides (Heath et al. 1972b).

Even though lindane is an organochlorine, with many of the
negative characteristics of those compounds, its use as a seed
treatment appears to be less hazardous to wildlife and humans
that might consume them than other organochlorines, such as
heptachlor. Factors which favor seed treatment with lindane,
rather than other organochlorines, include: it is applied to
seed at only half the rate of heptachlor (Blus et al. 1 979); it
has a lower oral toxicity (Heath et al. 1972b); it is less per-
sistent in the soil (Brooks 1974b); it is rapidly metabolized in
animals (Brooks 1974b, Burrage and Saha 1972, Cummings et al.
1966, Stadelman et al.1965); it may repel granivorous animals
(Schneider 1965); and, residue concentrations are reduced by some
cooking methods (Ritchey et al. 1972). These factors should not
preclude the use of even less environmentally damaging chemicals
for seed treatment as they becom.e available in the future.

Maximum lindane residues found in Montana wildlife were only
a fraction of the USDA action level, and do not appear to pose a
hazard to either wildlife or humans.

According to the MDA, approximately 3 times as many acres in
Montana are planted with lindane-treated seed as with heptachlor-
treated seed. Despite this much greater usage, lindane generally
occurred at a much lower frequency and at considerably lower
residue levels in our samples than HE, Because use of lindane as
a seed treatment apparently does not result in wildlife losses,
whereas other organochlorine insecticides have, lindane is pre-
ferred for this use.

Mirex

Mirex has been used primarily as a stomach poison in baits
employed against ants (Brooks 1974a); it has little contact
insecticidal activity.

Resident Wildlife

The only mirex residues detected in resident wildlife (0.01
ppm) occurred in fat of a Hungarian partridge taken in April 1982
in Dawson County.

145

Migratory Wildlife

Six fat and 1 meat sample from waterfowl contained mirex,
with brain, cooked meat, food, and egg samples being negative.
The positive meat sample had 0.02 ppm, while 4 of 6 positive fat
samples contained 0.10 ppm or more. The maximum mirex residue
(6.01 ppm) was detected in a Dawson County mallard collected in
April 1982.

Mirex residues were found in only 2 fat samples from other
aquatic birds and migratory game birds: 0.02 ppm in a common loon
and 0.07 PPiii eared grebe. Both were collected in Chouteau

County in April 1982.

Residues of mirex were detected in 4 of the 6 raptor species
sampled, but only in fat (9 of the 16) samples. These included 1
golden eagle (0.47 ppm), 1 kestrel (0.12 ppm), 2 red-tailed hawks
(0.07 0.37 ppm), and 5 great horned owls (0.04-0.44 ppm).

Mirex was detected in only 1 passerine sample, that being
found in the fat of a cliff swallow (0.13 PPm).

Miscellaneous Samples

None of these samples contained detectable mirex residues.

Discussion

The most widespread use of mirex has been for control of the
imported fire ant in the southeastern United States, where a
common treatment involved 3 applications of I.7 grams (0.06 oz)
of mirex per acre over an 18 - month period (Stickel et al. 1973)»
Despite those low application rates, fat samples of insectivorous
birds collected 1 year after application contained up to 104 ppm
(wet weight) mirex (Baetcke et al. 1972).

Toxicity of mirex to mammals was reported to be approximate-
ly half that of chlordane (Brooks 197^b), although Stickel et al.
(1973) cited other studies indicating that relatively low dietary
levels of mirex have serious effects on some species.

Mirex was formerly (but is not currently) recommended for
harvester ant control in Montana. Recommended application rates
were 3»^ grams per acre, not to exceed 1 application in any 2-
month period, or 3 applications in any 12 month period (Montana
Cooperative Extension Service 1975). Because mirex is excep-
tionally stable, with a half-life of nearly 7 months in birds
(Stickel et al. 1973)» its recent use in Montana could account
for the minor residue present in the Hungarian partridge. How-
ever, it appears that nearly all mirex residues found in our
samples were obtained outside of Montana. Based on the conclu-
sions of Stickel et al. ( 1 973)> the residue levels found, it

146

does not appear that mirex is a hazard to Montana wildlife or
people eating them.

MAJOR ACTIONS

Several major actions, at the state and national levels,
resulted from 198I endrin applications in Montana. The first was
increased awareness by technical personnel of the documented and
potential hazards of endrin to Montana’s fish and wildlife re-
sources, and to consumers of those resources.

As a result of that awareness, at least 2 professional
wildlife groups enacted resolutions calling for the immediate and
permanent termination of the use of endrin (Appendix K and L),
One of those groups included strychnine in its resolution while
the other included heptachlor. Both groups supported concurrent
research efforts to develop alternative methods of pest control.
The Central and Pacific Flyway Councils adopted resolutions, at
annual meetings in March 1982, which encouraged the development
and implementation of effective and economical alternative con-
trols for cutworms which minimize hazards to wildlife (Appendix
M).

The second, and perhaps most significant, action was
increased public awareness about pesticides. Consumption of
pesticide-contaminated game meat became a primary concern during
the fall of 198I; the endrin issue was selected by the news media
as the number 2 news story in Montana that year (Appendix N),
That awareness carried through 1982 and resulted in demands by
the public for better safeguards for the use of pesticides in
general (Appendix 0).

A third action involved the decision by the Montana Fish and
Game Commission to delay the opening of the 198I goose season in
8 southeastern counties for 6 weeks (Appendix P). For the first
time since its establishment in 1901, the Commission delayed the
opening of a hunting season because of pesticide-contamination of
game animals. The Commission also issued precautionary state-
ments on trimming of fat, cooking procedures, and limitations on
consumption of sharptails, partridge, and waterfowl in 198I, 1982
and 1983. Similar advisories had been issued by previous Commis-
sions concerning DDT residues in forest grouse in the early
1960’s, and mercury in farmland game birds in 1969.

Fourth, the Governor of Montana appointed a 12-member Citi-
zens Pesticide Advisory Council in November 198I, with equal
representation from agriculture, the pesticide industry, the
medical profession, and wildlife interests. The general purpose
of that Council was to study and make recommendations to the
Director of the MDA on specific pesticide problems in Montana;
two of those pesticides were endrin and strychnine. The Council
also evaluated the Montana Pesticide Act, rules adopted to

147

implement the Act, and the pesticide registration, enforcement,
monitoring, and certification programs in the state. After two
2-day sessions, the Council recommended a series of more
restrictive pesticide regulations, the following of which were
adopted by the MDA after public hearings:

1. the registration of endrin for grasshopper control in
grain fields was cancelled;

2. the addition of a requirement that any use of endrin by

a permitted farm applicator be reported to MDA within 7
days of such use;

3. commercial applicators and pesticide dealers must submit
monthly, rather than annual, reports of pesticide sales.

The 1981 endrin issue in Montana was also largely
responsible for the collective request by 4 national conservation
organizations (National Audubon Society, Environmental Defense
Fund, National Wildlife Federation, and Izaak Walton League of
America) for cancellation of all registrations of endrin by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Appendix Q).

In March 1983» the Montana Fish and Game Commission adopted
a resolution (Appendix R) requesting governmental pesticide
regulatory agencies to authorize and recommend environmentally
safe and less persistent alternatives to chlorinated
hydrocarbons. They also supported research efforts to evaluate
the effectiveness of those alternatives and the immediate
phaseout of the persistent compounds when the alternatives become
available .

The most recent action was the agreement by the EPA to fund
a cooperative field study of the effects of endrin and
chlorpyrifos on waterfowl, upland game birds, and perhaps
passerine birds. That study, by the MDA and Brigham Young
University personnel, was conducted in March-July I983 in Fergus
County, Montana.

148

CONCLUSIONS

1981 Endrin Monitoring

Endrin and toxaphene treatments in March 198I each resulted
in a documented fish kill in southeastern Montana, These events
generated concern for fish and other wildlife in other endrin-
treated areas of the state. Primary sampling emphasis following
1981 endrin applications in Montana concentrated on evaluation
of endrin residues in surviving or immigrant wildlife on and
around treated areas. Residue data from vegetation and wildlife
permitted assessing the impacts on local wildlife populations in
broad terms as well as providing data for evaluation of human
health concerns by authorities in that field.

Implications to Wildlife

Sufficient time elapsed between endrin treatment and subse-
quent random fish sampling at 29 sites statewide so that only 23%
of fish samples contained detectable endrin residues. The
presence of endrin in fish samples indicates endrin’s persistence
(at least short-term) in fish, even though the endrin may have
been diluted significantly in large bodies of standing water or
in flowing streams.

Early 1981 endrin applications resulted in widespread
assimilation by, and endrin-contamination of Montana wildlife.
Maximum endrin residues in fat samples of various wildlife groups
tested were: big game (N = 79), 0.53 PPi^ a pronghorn; upland
game birds (N=106), 22.9 pprn in a sharp-tailed grouse; small
mammals (Nr 1 8) , 0.01 ppm in a cottontail rabbit; waterfowl
(Nr291), 2.56 ppm in a ruddy duck; other aquatic birds and
migratory game birds (Nr33), 0.64 ppm in a coot; raptors (Nrl4),
0.33 PPni in a harrier; and passerines (Nrl4), 0.16 ppm in a
horned lark. Maximum endrin residues detected in tissues other
than fat included 0.75 Ppm in the meat of a sharp-tailed grouse,
0.30 ppm in the brain of a sharptail, 0.14 ppm in the liver of a
ground squirrel, 0.03 PPni in the whole body of a deer mouse, 2.54
ppm in the crop contents of a sharptail, and 0.01 ppm in a
mallard egg.

While endrin residues were .relatively low in most resident
wildlife species, they did occur in a variety of species and were
especially notable in sharp-tailed grouse; 55% of all sharptail
samples (27 of 54 fat, 6 of 9 meat, 2 of 2 liver, 1 of 1 brain,
and 1 of 1 food) contained endrin. Because of their limited
mobility, we conclude that resident wildlife obtained their
endrin residues locally.

149

The apparent absence of high endrin residues in farmland
game birds, such as the pheasant and Hungarian partridge, was
attributed to one or more of the following factors: limited use
of newly growing wheat by these species, mortality of individuals
exposed to endrin treatments and their subsequent unavailability
for sampling, sampling of individuals moving into treated areas
from surrounding untreated areas, and sampling of some
individuals from known or suspected untreated areas. Known
endrin toxicity to upland game birds closely associated with
croplands precluded much chance for their survival from direct
endrin exposure.

Detectable endrin residues in flightless juvenile ducks,
elevated endrin levels in many other species, and the continued
detection of endrin in these species at the same sites for over 1
year supports a conclusion of local endrin sources. Endrin
residues in nearly half (48%) of all samples from migratory birds
associated with aquatic habitats suggests endrin may also have
been obtained outside of Montana.

The frequency of occurrence of detectable endrin residues in
migratory birds usually associated with upland habitats (over 52%
of raptors and 35% of passerines, including mourning doves)
collected 7-8 months after endrin application also supports a
conclusion of Montana sources of endrin.

Endrin residues in sm.all mammals, upland game birds, and
migratory birds were, and may continue to be available for
ingestion by avian and mammalian pr’edators. Evaluation of the
effects of those residues, or of 1 2-ketoend r in residues, on those
species was not attempted.

The occurrence of endrin residues in wildlife during the
summer, fall, and winter of 1981, and even through the summer of
1982 at some sites, suggests that either endrin persists in the
environment (eg. soil or pond sediments) for at least 15 months
in eastern Montana, or detectable endrin residues persist in
wildlife tissues for a similar time period. Based on the semi-
arid, continental climate and high clay content of soil, the
semi-closed pond ecosystems in eastern Montana, and the limited
information concerning elimination of endrin from animals, we
conclude that endrin's environmental persistence results in its
prolonged availability to wildlife in Montana.

The magnitude of Montana’s contribution to endrin
contamination of international migratory bird populations in 198I
was not assessed in these studies. Such an evaluation would have
encompassed knowledge of: the extent and amounts of endrin usage
on a state-by-state basis; knowledge of bird population levels,
characteristics, and habitats for selected species; testing of
individual birds from treated and untreated sites; and the
testing of individual birds during the various seasons and in
many states and provinces.

150

Implications to Wildlife Management

The total impact of 198I endrin applications on local
wildlife populations in Montana will remain unknown. Annual
losses of wildlife to endrin (or any other spring-applied pesti-
cide) are largely in addition to natural mortality, and occur
when population levels are at annual lows.

Significant direct costs for these studies (approximately
$262,000) were borne by the MDFWP, and thus by Montana hunters.
In addition to these costs, the MDFWP experienced an estimated
minimum loss of $116,000 in reduced license sales and federal aid
funding during 1981 and 1982. The funds, and time, involved in
those studies were unbudgeted and therefore represent losses in
other important wildlife management and research activities.

Surveys indicated a significant proportion (9855) of 1982
resident game bird license buyers in Montana were aware of poten-
tial pesticide contamination of wildlife. One-third of this
group did not hunt upland game birds and two-thirds did not hunt
waterfowl in 1982; 3055 of each group indicated their reason for
not hunting was possible pesticide contamination of game meat.
Those proportions, and the numbers of hunters they represent, are
considered minimums because we do not know exactly how many
individuals who normally purchase hunting licenses did not do so
in 1982 and therefore were unavailable for the telephone survey.
More than 90% of those that did hunt in 1982 indicated that the
warnings about preparing and cooking game birds were heeded.

Although the endrin label warns (1) that it is toxic to
fish and wildlife, (2) to keep it out of lakes, ponds, and
streams, (3) not to contaminate water by cleaning of equipment or
disposal of wastes, and (4) not to apply it where runoff is
likely to occur, we conclude that endrin label restrictions do
not adequately protect fish and wildlife. The repeated occur-
rence of endrin residues in wildlife tissues at the same sites
for up to 15 months post-application shows that those restric-
tions are ineffective in preventing such contamination.

Implications to Human Health

The recent endrin issue is the third instance in which
Montanan’s have been warned of potential hazards from consuming
pesticide-contaminated wildlife; others have included DDT
residues in forest wildlife in the mid-1960’s and mercury in
farmland game birds in 1969-1970. Since the 1981 endrin issue in
Montana involved migratory as well as resident wildlife, it
generated concern for human c on su m ab i 1 i t y of pesticide-
contaminated wildlife in other states as well as at the national
level. In each case where consumability of wildlife has been in
question, the lack of established tolerance levels, action
levels, or ADI’s for wild meat was at the heart of that concern,
and the MDFWP was forced to rely on opinions of federal and state
health experts for evaluating those concerns. We conclude that

151

the Fish and Game Commission would be in a much better position
to quickly and decisively respond to such situations if action
levels were established for pesticide residues in wild game meat.

Endrin residues in some upland game birds and waterfowl were
sufficiently high to justify concern by the MDFWP for ingestion
of those residues by people, and for the precautionary warnings
issued by the Montana Fish and Game Commission about preparing
and cooking those birds. Endrin residues in of all sharp-
tailed grouse samples (27^5 of the end r in-pos i t i v e samples)
exceeded USDA action levels for domestic meats. Action levels
were also exceeded in 7^ of all waterfowl samples. Although many
of the samples were taken in the summer, endrin residues in those
species just prior to and during fall hunting seasons also
exceeded the action levels. The federal government would embargo
domestic meats contaminated with similar endrin levels, and not
allow it to be sold for public consumption.

The delayed opening of the 198I Canada goose hunting season
in southeastern Montana was the strongest action taken by a
Montana Fish and Game Commission in reaction to pesticide
contamination of wildlife. That action alerted hunters and the
general public to the seriousness of endrin contamination of
waterfowl in Montana. While the Commission’s cautionary warnings
to Montana hunters are not new, they also are not traditional,
and apparently discouraged many from hunting. We conclude that
significant losses of hunter opportunity and traditional values
occur when hunters are forced to alter their habits to avoid
ingesting potentially hazardous chemicals.

1982 Alternative Insecticide-Wildlife Study

Aquatic

Aerially applied endrin was lethal to all test organisms
within 2 hours for at least 1,185 feet downwind from the test
plot. We conclude that it would be harmful to aquatic organisms
beyond the 1/4 mi (1,320 ft) buffer zone around public waters
stipulated by label restrictions.

Permethrin was toxic to test organisms for a considerable
distance downwind from the treated area, but mortality figures
were confused by weather factors. Toxicity of chlorpyrifos to
aquatic organisms was not tested. Based solely on toxicity to
fish, chlorpyrifos and permethrin are preferable to endrin, while
chlorpyrifos may be preferable to permethrin where the potential
for contamination of water exists.

Terrestrial

Small mammal mortality was documented shortly after 1982
endrin spraying. Test results indicated that similar losses may

152

have been experienced by small birds inhabiting end r in -treated
areas. The magnitude and extent of those losses are unknown.

Residue data indicated that reproduction of small birds and
mammals was probably impaired by endrin applications. Limited
data suggested that waterfowl may have been similarly affected.

Brain chlorinesterase levels in small birds collected at
intervals following chlorpyrifos applications indicated some
possible losses of small birds on these areas.

In contrast to endrin and chlorpyrifos, permethrin did not
appear to adversely affect terrestrial wildlife where all 3
were applied in the same vicinity. In conclusion, our studies
indicate that, from the standpoint of terrestrial wildlife,
permethrin is preferred over endrin or chlorpyrifos for control
of cutworms. Whether permethrin’s safety regarding terrestrial
wildlife outweighs its potentially greater hazard to aquatic
wildlife where there is a possibility for contamination of water
bodies is probably best determined on a case-by-case basis.

Other Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Compounds

Detectable residues of I7 other organochlor ine compounds in
Montana wildlife tissues suggested that wildlife did assimilate
a variety of hazardous substances introduced into their environ-
ment. The number of species and habitats involved indicates that
sources of some of these compounds are indeed widespread. These
conclusions are supported by the following maximum residues found
in the fat of various migratory and resident wildlife species:
0.25 pptn heptachlor in a harrier, 53.0 ppm HE in a mourning dove,
50.1 ppm PCB in a blue-winged teal, 0.82 ppm alpha-chlordane in a
shoveler, 0.68 ppm gamma-chlordane in a mallard, 0.37 PPni beta-
nonachlor in an eared grebe, 0.60 ppm t rans-nonachlor in a
mourning dove, 2.23 PPi^ oxychlordane in a horned lark, 8.27 PPni
DDT in a pintail, 1.00 ppm DDD in a white pelican, 33.7 PPtii DDE
in a harrier, 2.08 ppm dieldrin in a red-tailed hawk, 3.95 ppm
HCB in a vesper sparrow, 0.09 Ppm lindane in a great horned owl
and a snow bunting, 0.32 ppm BHC in a long-eared owl, and 6.01
ppm mirex in a mallard.

The detection of at least 13 0 rg an oc hlo r in e compounds in a
single mallard in April suggests that some contaminants are
obtained outside of Montana. Elevated levels of individual
compounds (eg. 47.10 ppm HE and 23.60 ppm DDE) support that
suggestion. However, detectable levels of 8 parent
organochlor ine compounds (endrin, heptachlor, PCB’s, DDT,
dieldrin, HCB, BHC, and mirex) in resident wildlife indicates
that Montana contributes to the nationwide contamination of wild-
life with each of those compounds and their isomers/metabolites.

153

Heptachlor

Treatment of cereal grain seed with heptachlor (- 177,000 A
in 1981) has led to widespread heptachlor epoxide contamination
of Montana wildlife. Over one-fourth of all upland game bird
samples contained detectable HE residues, and 5% of those resi-
dues exceeded FDA action levels. HE residues were found in small
mammals from every sample site. A large percentage of samples
(3^-90^) from migratory bird groups contained detectable HE,
including several individuals that exceeded 10 ppm in their fat.

Test results indicated that direct mortality of wildlife,
especially raptors, probably has resulted from heptachlor use in
Montana. Those data also suggested that impaired reproduction
has occurred in some bird groups (eg. waterfowl, raptors) and
small mammals.

Lindane

Despite the widespread use of lindane (- 450,000 A in 198I)
in Montana, less than 5% of all samples tested contained lindane
(maximum of 16% of upland game birds). Maximum lindane residues
(0.11 ppm in the brain of a deer mouse) do not appear to pose
problems to wildlife or to humans that might consume lindane-
contaminated game. We conclude that from a wildlife standpoint
lindane is much better than heptachlor as a seed treatment to
protect cereal grains from wireworms.

FOB’S

FOB residues were relatively widespread among migratory
species. Their presence in resident species indicated at least
some local exposure. FOB residues did not appear to occur at
acutely toxic levels in birds; since mink, and possibly other
mustelids are especially sensitive to FOB’S, the situation with
mammals was less clear. The principal hazard to both birds and
mammals appears to be adverse physiologic changes resulting from
chronic low-level dietary exposure.

Detectable FOB residues occurred in waterfowl year-round,
with maxi mums of 50.10 ppm in May, 2.41 ppm in June, 4.44 ppm in
October, and 5.82 ppm in February. The hazard to humans of
consuming waterfowl with FOB levels of this magnitude is unknown.

DDT

Detection of DDT in a few fat samples from resident wildlife
indicated recent availability of that compound in Montana, even
though its use in the United States has been banned since 1972.
DDE residues were detected in 27% of all resident wildlife
samples tested, which indicated either recent DDT use or DDE
persistence in the environment for nearly a decade after a major
reduction of the use of DDT.

154

Among migratory birds, passerines had the lowest frequency
of occurrence of DDT-complex residues, while raptors had the
highest. Waterfowl and other aquatic birds and migratory game
birds were intermediate, DDE was encountered most frequently
(76-100% frequency of occurrence among groups), followed by DDT
(5-25%) and DDD (2-5%).

Residues of the DDT group in Montana wildlife did not occur
at levels high enough to result in direct mortality. However,
frequencies of occurrence and elevated residue levels of DDE
detected in birds is of major concern. While eggshell thinning,
a phenomenon apparently peculiar to DDE, is not manifested
severely in upland game birds (gallinaceous birds), it does
significantly impact the reproduction of waterfowl and flesh- and
fish-eating birds, including several endangered species.

DDE-caused eggshell thinning has been responsible for
greatly reduced populations of bald eagles and peregrine falcons,
including extinction of peregrines as a nesting species east of
the Mississippi River. Other bird species have been similarly
affected. MDFWP surveys have determined that only about 40
nesting pairs of bald eagles exist in Montana, and the Department
is actively engaged in attempting to reestablish breeding
populations of peregrines through introduction of flightless
young hatched in captivity. Should these birds continue to
accumulate DDT and/or its metabolites, their fate may be no
different than the birds they were meant to replace, and costly
artificial augmentation of their populations would be required
indefinitely. The appearance of DDT group compounds in prey
species of eagles and peregrines justifies our concern for their
future welfare in Montana.

Dieldrin

Dieldrin occurred at relatively low frequencies in resident
wildlife samples (7% in small mammals and 22% in upland game
birds) and all were at low levels (0.18 ppm or less). Those data
indicated Montana sources of dieldrin for some wildlife
populations .

Twenty-two percent of the passerine bird samples and 49-60%
of all samples from other migratory birds contained detectable
dieldrin. While most samples had relatively low levels of
dieldrin, 2 ducks (1 each in winter and spring) had residues
exceeding USDA action levels. Raptors were the most heavily
contaminated wildlife group, with maximum dieldrin levels of
0.77-2.08 ppm in 4 species. Maximum dieldrin residues in Montana
wildlife were below those considered hazardous to wildlife, and
were mostly obtained outside of the state.

Other Compounds

Although occasionally occurring at high levels and/or
frequencies, residues of hexachlorobenzene, benzene hexachloride,
mirex, and chlordane and its metabolites were quite low in

155

wildlife samples. Levels of these compounds do not appear to be
hazardous to either wildlife or humans.

The detection of residues of other chlorinated hydrocarbon
compounds expanded our concern for the effects of those compounds
on wildlife, and consum ability of wild meat. The latter was
especially pertinent because of the documented carcinogenicity of
heptachlor/HE and potential human afflictions caused by some of
the other compounds. Another remaining concern is the largely
unstudied and little understood potential for synergistic effects
of these compounds with one another, or with other groups of
insecticides (eg. organophosphates, carbamates), herbicides, or
other compounds such as heavy metals. As an example, the fat of
an adult male mallard collected in April 1982 contained a total
of 81.35 ppm of 13 different chlorinated hydrocarbons. It is
doubtful whether anyone can state with any degree of certainty
what the combined effects are on birds carrying such residue
burdens, or on predators (including humans) which might consume
them .

156

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. The manufacture and use of endrin and heptachlor should be
immediately and permanently terminated. The availability of
efficacious, alternative methods of cutworm and wireworm
control (including permethrin and lindane, respectively)
indicate that endrin and heptachlor and the hazards they
pose to wildlife and human health are no longer needed.

2. When a pesticide’s registration for use is cancelled for
human health or other reasons, all use of that pesticide
should be terminated immediately. Continued use of existing
inventories of such hazardous compounds promotes and abets
continued exposure of people and wildlife to the compound
for economic convenience. Continued use prolongs risks to
human health and disrupts state and federal wildlife
management programs. Cancellation actions should include
provisions for location, retrieval, and safe disposal of
existing inventories of the compound, and reimburse produc-
ers, dealers, and applicators for those inventories.

3. Additional field research into alternative methods of cut-
worm, wireworm, and other pest insect control is needed. A
20-year old Presidential Committee recommended (President’s
Science Advisory Committee 1963:21):

”In order to develop safer, more specific
controls of pests, it is recommended that
Government -sponsored programs continue to
shift their emphasis from research on broad-
spectrum chemicals to provide more support for
research on (a) Selectively toxic chemicals.

(b) Nonpers istent chemicals. (c ) Selective
methods of ^applicat ion. and (d ) Nonchemical
control methods such as the use of attractants
and the prevention of reproduction.”

Research on those alternatives should include:

a. developing and evaluating highly selective insecticides
(those which kill economically damaging species but not
the pest’s natural enemies or other nontarget
wildlife ) ;

b. developing and evaluating nonlethal control chemicals
(such as deterrents or behavioral modifiers which
interrupt mating cycles, oviposition, sociality,
dispersal, aggregation, etc.); and

c. evaluating crop rotations, trap or lure crops, tillage
practices, livestock grazing, and burning with respect
to their effects on pest insects.

157

4. A cooperative working group of technicians from the Montana
Departments of Agriculture; Fish, Wildlife and Parks; and
Health and Environmental Sciences should be established to:

a. review existing registered pesticides and their
potential impacts on environmental components and human
health and to identify suitable alternatives;

b. evaluate any new pesticide considered for first-time
registration in Montana;

c. initiate a pesticide reporting system that establishes
an "action plan" for addressing unforeseen problems
such as severe pest outbreaks or significant use of
pesticides that might impact wildlife or human health;

d. maintain close liaison with the Montana Agricultural
Experiment Station, the Cooperative Extension Service,
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the EPA,
concerning pesticide studies, registrations, and
research needs; and

e. develop and maintain close coordination on pesticide-
fish and wildlife-human health research efforts in
Montana .

5. Additional testing for residues of chlorinated hydrocarbons
in resident and migratory wildlife in Montana should be
implemented on a periodic basis (i.e. every 2-3 years).
That program is needed to determine when the current
warnings on consumption of wildlife can be lifted.

6. Action levels for pesticide residues hazardous to humans
should be established for wild game meat. Those guidelines
would have significant value to state health and wildlife
agencies in their decisions concerning the hunting, sale,
and consumption of fish and game.

7. The Environmental Protection Agency should accelerate its
efforts to eliminate sources of hazardous pesticides
available to wildlife and people.

8. The cautionary warnings established by the Montana Fish and
Game Commission for upland gamebirds and waterfowl in 1981
should be issued annually prior to the opening of those
respective hunting seasons until residue test results
reflect potential risks to human health from consuming those
species have subsided to safer levels. We further recommend
that bird hunters avoid hunting in the vicinity of any
croplands that have been treated with endrin or heptachlor.

158

9. The manufacture of DDT should be banned in the United States
as well as globally. The high residues and frequency of
occurrence of DDE in migratory birds in Montana indicates
that DDT is being used elsewhere in the United States or in
other North, Central, or. South American countries.

10. There should be efforts at the national level to establish
and fund a cooperative state-federal program to expand re-
search and monitoring efforts on pesticides and their
effects on agricultural production, human health, and wild-
life.

159

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Rept. No. EPA-560/6-75-004.

Stickel, L.F. 1973. Pesticide residues in birds and mammals.
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, and L.I. Rhodes. 1970. The thin eggshell problem. Pp.

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pp.

, W.H. Stickel, R.D. McArthur, and D.L. Hughes. 1 979b.

Chlordane in birds: a study of lethal residues and loss

rates. Pp. 387-396 In Toxicology and occupational medicine.
W.B. Deichmann, Organizer, Elsevier/North Holland, N.Y.

Stickel, W.H. 1965. Delayed mortality of DDT-dosed cowbirds in
relation to disturbance. P. I7 In Effects of pesticides on
fish and wildlife. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Circ. 226. 77

pp.

D.W. Hayne, and L.F. Stickel. 1965. Effects of
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_, J.A. Galyen, R.A. Dyrland, and D.L. Hughes. 1973.
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Pesticides and the environment; a continuing controversy.
Int.-Am. Conf. Tox. & Occup. Med., W.B. Deichmann, Ed.,
Intercontinental Medical Book Corp., N.Y.

174

, W.L. Reichel, and D.L, Hughes. 1 979a. Endrin in birds:

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Organizer, Elsevier/Holland, N.Y.

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Train, R.E. 1975. Registrations of pesticides containing
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Vanderstoep, J., and J.F. Richards. 1971. The changes in egg
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Wallestad, R. 1975. Life history and habitat requirements of
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175

Weigand, J.P. 1980. Ecology of the Hungarian partridge in north-
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history, ecology and management. Mont. Dept. Fish & Game,
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. 1979a. Nationwide residues of organochlorine compounds

in starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), 1976. Pest. Monit. J.
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. 1979b. Nationwide residues of organochlorine compounds

in wings of adult mallards and black ducks, 1976-77. Pest.
Monit. J. 13(1): 12-16.

, and R.G. Heath. 1976. Nationwide residues of organo-
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73. Pest. Monit. J. 9(4): 1 76-1 85.

White, G.C., D.R. Anderson, K.P. Burnham, and D.L. Otis. 1 982.
Capture-recapture and removal methods for sampling closed
populations. Los Alamos Natl. Lab., Publ. LA-8787-NERP.
235 pp.

Yang, R.S.H., K.A. Pittman, D.R. Rourke, and V.B. Stein. 1 978.
Pharmacokinetics and metabolism of hexachlorobenzene in the
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1083.

Yde, C.A. 1977. Distribution and movements of sharp-tailed grouse
during spring and summer in relation to rest-rotation
grazing. M.S. Thesis, Mont. St. Univ., Bozeman. 70 pp.

176

APPENDIX

\4 ‘ ,1,1

- ',V

: ■■ ,' •'it,. '

APPENDIX A

Chemical nomenclature of chlorinated hydrocarbon

compounds

detected in Montana wildlife tissues.

Common Name

Chemical Name

Alpha-chlordane

1-exo, 2-exo-4 ,5,6,7,8,8-octachlcro-3a,4,7,7a-tetrahydro-4,
7-methanoidene

Beta-nonachlor

. 1-exo, 2-exo, 3-exo-4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 8-nonachloro-2 , 3 , 2a , 4 , 7 , 7a-hexah vd ro- 4 ,
7-methanoindene

BHC

1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6-hexachlorocyclohexane

DDD

1 , l-dichloro-2 , 2-bis (p-ch lor op ho nyl ■> ethane

DDE

1 , l-dichloro-2 , 2-bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethylene

DDT

l,l,l-trichloro-2, 2-bis (p-chlorophenyl)ethane

Dleldrln

1,2,3,4,10, lO-hexachloro-exo-6 , 7- epoxy- 1 ,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahvdro-
4-endo , exo-5 , 8-dime thanonap thalene

Endrin

1,2,3,4,10, lO-hexachloro-6 , 7 -epoxy- 1 , 4 , 4a , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 8a-oc tahyd ro- ] ,
4-endo, endo- 5, 8-dime thanonap thalene

Gamma-chlordan

1-exo , 2-endo-4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 8-oc tachloro-3a ,4,7, 7a-te t rahydro- . , 7-
raethanoidene

HCB

Hexachlorobenzene

Heptachlor

l-exo-4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 8-heptachloro-3a ,4,7,7a-tetrahydro-4, 7-me t hanu idcnt

Heptachlor epoxide

l-exo-4 ,5,6,7,8,8-heptachloro-2, 3-endc- epoxy -3a , 4 , 7 , 7a- te t rahydro-- 4
7-methanoidane

12-ketoendrin

1,8,9,10,11 , ll-hexachlo^o-=4 , 5- exo-epoxy -2 , 3 - 7 , b-endo-2 , ] - 7 , H-erx-L—
tetracyclo [6 . 2 . 1 . 1 ’ .0 ’ ]dodec-9-en-12-one

Lindane

Comprised of not less than 99.5% of the pamma Isomer of BHC

Mirex

1,1a, 2, 2, 3, 3a, 4, 5, 5, 5a, 5b, 6-dodecachlcrcoc taliydro-1 , i , 4-nu_- 1 hano- j h-
cyclobuta [cd 3-pentalene

Oxychlordane

1-exo, 2- endo--'* ,5,6,7,8,8-octachloro-2, 3-exo-epoxv-2 , 3 , Ja , 4 , 7 , 7a-
hexahydro-4, 7-methanoindene

PCB (Polychlorinated
biphenyl)

Mixtures of chlorinated biphenyl compounds having various percent-
ages of chlorination

Toxaphene

Camphene chlorinated to 67-69% by weight and an average emplrlcaj
formula of

Trans-nonachlor

1-exo, 2-endo, 3-exo-4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 8-nonachloro-2 , 3 , 2 a, 4 , 7 , 7a-hexahydro-4
7-methanoindene

178

APPENDIX B

Common and scientific names of Montana wildlife

this report.

BIG OA’IE
Black Bear

Uvsus arc-tos
Mule Deei’

L'docoi Leuii heiv: onus
Pi'onghorn

Anzi looapya arwyiuana
White- Latled L)cei'

Odocoileus '.ngiriianus

ai.-\LL !-LA:'.!MU.S
Black-tailed m-airie IXig
L'nuc-rijs ludoviaianus
Cottontail Babbit

o./ Ivi lagus audubonii
Meei' M.oiuse

Pci'vnjsaus maniou la tns
!larvest Mouse

K^izhyodvnZoriijs meya lotis
Ikiuse Mouse

l’:u: r.uOi.ri<lu::

Meadow Vole

.'.'.‘erv tiw rcnnsyl.janic-u;

Millie

Muskrat

;c'.! tra z zbe thiaus
Pocket Mouse

dtii'og na Z'’u fas aia t us
Porcupine

rj'f • thizc‘n dorsatw!]

Ri chaixlson ' .s Ground Stiuirrel

SD‘V.KO’'h-''. lus vi.ohardsonii
Thirteen- lined Grotma Souirrel

Spermophi lus trideaemZ inea tus
White-tailed Jacltrabbit
Pepus tozmsen Hi

UPLAMU GAME BIRDS
Blue Grottse

Dendragapus obscums
Chukar Partridge

Aleotoris graeca
Frankl I n ' s / Spruce Grouse
Cana.chites aanadensis
Hungarian Partridcje
terdix perdix
Merriam's liirkey

Meleagris gallopavo
Ring- necked Pheasant

Phasiarms aolchicus
Ruffed Grouse

Bonasa ivnhellus
Sage Cii'ouse

Cen troaei’cus uvophas ianus
Sharp-tailed Grouse

Pediooetes phasionellus

WATUIO'wX
Trunpeter Swan

Cyjnus bucainitor
Whist 1 ing Swan

Cygnus aoliwldanus

Canada Ckxise

Bvanta aanadensis
Lesser Snow/Blue Goose
Anser oaemiesaens
Ross ’ Ckxsc

Ansey nossU
Vfliite-fronted Goose
Ansp^ n^-hifvons

'.Vhi te- fronted Go<ise
Anser- udirlj'r-ov.:'.

ilAIERFOi.t COlirLTJLD

Bal dpate/V/i ge<}n

A)i'.;.s amei-iaana
Blue-winged Teal
/lii.ia di.saor-s
Cinna.Ton Teal

/I na r> oya> lop t ’ ‘c,;

Oadwal 1

Anas str-eperu
Cl reen- w i nged Teal

Anas aarolinensis
Mallard

,'lnur pLa tp y-hgndfiyU'S
Pintail

/liras ac-uza
Shoveler

Anas ai-preaza
Wood Duck

Aix ojo/'oi,:

;iinerican Goldeneye

Biioepha la. olangu la
Barrow's Goldeneye

Buoepiv.i la is landiua
Htif f lehead

Buaepha la a Ibeo la
Canvasback

Aythu-a valisinenia
CoTTiion Merganser

’■tei-gus merganser
Harle<iuin Duck

Histrioniaus histrioniaus
Hooded Merganser

llergus auoullatus
Lesser Scaup

Aythya affinis
Red-breasted Merganser
Mergus serrator
Redhead

Aythya amerioana
Ring-necked Duck

Aythya aollaris
Ruddy Duck

Oxyura jaizaiaensis

On-ILR AQUATIC BIRDS .Alii >!IGR/lTOrh’
GA^IE BIRDS

Conrxjn Loon

'Javia imner

Coot

PuLiaa aj'ierdao.ra
Raro.\] Grebe

roaiaeps casvious
Kilideer

Chai-adrius vooiferus
Mourning Dove

Zenaidinxi maarow-a
Sixrttexl Sandpiper

Aictitis maaularia
White Pelican

Pe I eeanus erythrorhynchos
Wilson's Sni])o

Cai'C L la ga 1 1 Inago

mentioned in

RAPrais
Burrowing O.vl

Spec ty to ai'.niaular-zj.
Ck'lden Fagle

Aau l la aui-gsae to.’

Great Hoi'ned Owl

Bubc vi r.jir.ianus
Har-rier

Circus c-yansus
Kestrel

Falac svai-verius
Lung-eared Ovl
■\sio otus
Merlin

Fri loo ac lumbar: us
Prairie Falcon

Fa Ic "i mexicamis
Red- tailed Hawk

Fu tao Jojzaicens is
Ruig': 1 1- 1 egged Hawk
F'.ibeo lagovus

P;\SSERIin; OTOER BIRDS
Black-billed Magpie
Pica oica

Brewer's Blackbird

Fuphagv.s cyanocepha lu. •
Ch(;>;tnut-collared Longspui-
'■ 'a Lear ins ornatus
Cliff Swallow

Fciroahcl i .Ion uy rrho'-ota
Orwhird

Folothrus atev
Ecustern Kingbird

.'yranniiS tyrannus
Homed Lark

Erernophi La a Ipestri s
Lapland Longspur

Ca laarius lappenious
Loggerhead Shrike

Lt.’jiius Ludoviciamis
Me Gown's Longspur

iuiync'nopkanes mcaoDn ii
Meadowlark

.S turne I la neg lea ta
Mountain Plover
Supoda man tana
Red-winged Blackbird
Agel'.iius phoeniaeiis
Robin

r.irdus migra zorius
Sncf.-! Bunting

Fleet i-ophenax ni ja 1 1 s
Starling

Sturnus irulgaris
Tree Swallow

Iridcprocne bicolor
Vesper Swallcxv

Pooeaetes gramineus
Wliite-crowned Sparro^iJ
Zono trie hia Leuaop h.rys
Yellow-rtinped Warbler
Dendroiaa aoronata

HiDAMGERED SPECIES
Eald E^Te

Ha liaeetus leuaoaepha lus
Peregrine Falcon
Falao peregrinus
Whooping Crane
Grus amerioara

179

APPENDIX C

Manufacturer's Labels for Endrin

180

ACTIVE

INGREDIENTS:

'Endrin 19.7%

Xylene Range Aromatic
Solvent 74.5%

INERT

INGREDIENTS: 5.8%

TOTAL 100.0%

'Hexachloroepoxyoctahydro-endo

endo-dimethanonapthalene

ENDR

AGRICULTURAL INSECTICIDE

24(c) SPECIAL LOCAL NEED LABELING

CONTAINS 1.6 POUNDS ENDRIN PER GALLON

KEEP OUT OF THE REACH OF CHILDREN

SEE SIDE PANELS FOR STATEMENT OF PRACTICAL
TREATMENT AND ADDITIONAL PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENTS

EPA Reg. 876-153-AA

EPA Est. No. 876-TN-1

PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENTS

INFORMATION FOR PHYSICIANS

ENVlHONMENTAu HAZARDS

Hazards to Humans and Domestic Animals

DANGER

POISON

Poisonous if swallowed, inhaled or absorbed through

skin Do not breathe spray mist Do not get in eyes, on

skin or on clothing.

STATEMENT OF PRACTICAL TREATMENT

If on skin Remove by washing with soap and water Get
medical attention

If in eyes: Flush the eyes with clean waterfor 10 minutes
Get medical attention. '

If inhaled: Remove victim to fresh air. Transport im-
mediately to emergency treatment facility.

If swallowed and victim is conscious and not convulsing:
Call a physician immediately Give a glass
or two of water and induce vomijing by
touching back of throat with finger It is pre-
ferable to induce vomiting under medical
supervision or to use gastric lavage with a
cuffed endotracheal tube because of aspi-
ration hazard Remove victim immediately
to emergency treatment facilities.

If swallowed and victim is unconscious; Clear the upper
airway and if victim is not breathing, ad-
minister mouth-tcr-mouth resuscitation If
heart beat is absent, administer cardiac re-
suscitation Do not give anything by mouth
If convulsing, hold head back with |aw for-
ward to keep upper airway clear Transport
immediately to emergency treatment fa-
cility. maintaining clear airway and adminis-
tering artificial respiration.

Endrin is a CNS depressant and hepatotoxin. Toxic
dosage causes convulsions, respiratory depression,
and liver damage. Impaired respiration must be sup-
ported by oxygen given by mechanical ventilation.
Diazepam is useful in controlling convulsions. Intraven-
ous glucose and B vitamins help to protect the liver
There is no specific antidote. Do not give vegetable oils
or milk (which increase Gl absorption). Large amounts
of activated charcoal and saline laxatives help to limit Gl
absorption. Do not give adrenergic agents (myocardial
irritability). Excretion of endrin from the body may re-
quire days or weeks.

WORK SAFETY RULES

Wear clean synthetic gloves and a mask or a pesticide
respirator jointly approved by the Mining Enforcement
and Safety Administration (formerly the U.S Bureau of
Mines) and by the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health under the provisions of 30 CFR Part
II. Wash thoroughly with soap and water after handling
and before eating or smoking. Wear clean clothing daily.

Required Clothing For Female Workers

Female ground applicators, mixers and loaders and
flagpersons must wear long-sleeved shirts and long
pants made of a closely woven fabric, and wide-
brimmed hats. Mixers and loaders must also wear rub-
ber or synthetic rubber boots and aprons.

Warning to Female Workers

The United States Environmental Protection Agency
has determined that endrin causes birth detects in labo-
ratory animals. Exposure to endrin during pregnancy
should be avoided. Female workers must be sure to
wear all protective clothing and use all protective
equipment specified on this label In case of accidental
spills or other unusual exposure, cease work im-
mediately and follow directions for contact with endrin

RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDE

FOR RETAIL SALE TO AND USE ONLY BY CERTIFIED APPLICA-
TORS OR PERSONS UNDER THEIR DIRECT SUPERVISION AND
ONLY FOR THOSE USES COVERED BY THE CERTIFIED APPLI-
CATOR'S CERTIFICATION.

This pesticide is toxic to fish and wildlife. Birds and other
wildlife in treated areas may be killed. Keep out of lakes,
ponds, and streams. Do not contaminate water by clean-
ing of equipment or disposal of wastes. Do not apply
where runoff is likely to occur.

This pesticide is toxic to bees exposed to direct applica
tion. Application should be timed to coincide witi
periods of minimum bee activity, usually between lat'
evening and early morning.

STORAGE AND DISPOSAL

PROHIBITIONS

Do not contaminate water, food or feed by storage,
disposal or the cleaning of equipment. Open dumping is
prohibited,

PESTICIDE DISPOSAL

Pesticide, spray mixture or rinsate that cannot be used
or chemically reprocessed should be disposed of in a
landfill approved for pesticides or buried in a safe place
away from water supplies,

CONTAINER DISPOSAL

For less than 30 gallons: T riple rinse, and offer for recycl-
ing, reconditioning, or disposal in approved landfill, or
bury in a safe place.

For 30 gallons or larger: Reseal container and offer for
reconditioning OR triple rinse and offer for recycling,
reconditioning or disposal in an approved landfill, or bury
in a safe place.

GENERAL

Consult Federal, State or Local disposal authorities for
approved alternative procedures.

Procedures to Follow If Fish Kills
Occur or If Ponds Are Contaminated

In case of fish kills, fish must be collected promptly and
disposed of by burial Ponds in which fish kills have
occurred, and user-owned ponds exposed to endrin by
application at distances closer than otherwise prohib-
ited, must be posted with signs stating: "Contaminated:]
No Fishing ' Signs must remain for one year after a fish
kill has occurred or for six months after lesser contami-
nation unless laboratory analysis shows endrin residues
in the edible portion of fish to be less than 0.3 parts per
million (ppm).

PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL HAZARDS

Do Not Use. Pour, Spilf, or Store Near Heat or Open
Flame.

(continued on reverse side)

VELSICOL CHEMICAL CORPORATION

SP 255

341 East Ohio Street, Chicago, Illinois 6061 1

ULS 1180

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■■

ENDRifSI

EC-20

CLEAN

CROP®

«l3l4f

iPifsi

KEEP OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN

DANGER POISON

STOP' READ THE LABEL

CAN KILL YOU
NOT FOR HOME USE

See Side Panel for Statement of Practical Treatment and
Additional Precautionary Statements

NET CONTENTS U S. GALLON(S)

EPAREG. NO. 34704-1 1

183

PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENTS
HAZARDS TO HUMANS &
DOMESTIC ANIMALS

DANGER

Poisonous by Swallowing, Inhalation, or Skin Contact! Do not get in eyes, on
skin, or on clothing. Do not breath vapor or spray mist. Wear clean synthetic
rubber gloves and a mask or respirator jointly approved by the Mining
Enforcement and Safety Administration (formerly the U S Bureau of Mines)
and by the National Institute of Occupational ^fety and Health under the
provisions of 30 CFR Part II. Wash thoroughly with soap and water after
handling and before eating or smoking; wear clean clothing. Do not allow to
drift, or apply to areas occupied by unprotected humans or beneficial
animals. Do not contaminate feed and foodstuffs.

ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS

This product is toxic to fish and wildlife. Keep out of any body of water.

Birds feeding on treated areas may be killed.

This pesticide is toxic to bees exposed to direct application. Applications
should be timed to coincide with periods of minimum bee activity, usually
between late evening and early morning.

Do not apply when weather conditions favor drift from area treated.

Do not contaminate water by cleaning of equipment or disposal of wastes

STATEMENT OF PRACTICAL TREATMENT

If swallowed and victim is conscious and not convulsing:

Call a physician immediately. Give a glass or two of water and induce
vomiting by touching the back of throat with finger. It is preferable to induce
vomiting under medical supervision or to use gastric lavage with a cuffed
endotracheal tube because of aspiration hazard. Remove victim immediately
to emergency treatment facility.

If swallowed and victim is unconscious:

Clear the upper airway and administer mouth-to-mouth resuscitation If heart
beat is absent, administer cardiac resuscitation. Do not give anything by
mouth. If convulsing hold head back with jaw forward to keep upper airway
clear. Transport immediately to emergency treatment facility, maintaining
clear airway and administering artificial respiration.

If Inhaled: Remove victim to fresh air Apply artificial respiration if indicated
Get medical attention immediately

If on skin: Remove contaminated clothing and wash affected areas
thoroughly with soap and water Get medical attention immediately.

If In eyes: Flush eyes with water for at least 1 5 minutes Get medical i
attention immediately 1

In all cases of poisoning medical attention must be obtained immediately or !
victim may die. !

NOTE TO PHYSICIAN: Endrin is a CNS depressant and hepatotoxin. Toxic
dosage causes convulsions, respiratory depression, and liver damage
Impaired respiration must be supported by oxygen given by mechanical
ventilation. Diazepam is useful in controlling convulsions. Intravenous
glucose and B vitamins help to protect the liver There is no specific antidote
Do not give vegetable oils or milk (which increase Gl absorption). Large
amounts of activated charcoal help to limit Gl absorption Do not give
adrenergic agents (myocardial irritability). Excretion of endrin from the body
may require days or weeks. '

DIRECTIONS FOR USE !

It is a violation of Federal law to use this product in a manner inconsistent
with its labeling.

184

STORAGE AND DISPOSAL

PROHIBITIONS: Do not contamirfate water, food, or feed by storage or
disposal. Open dumping is prohibited.

PESTICIDE DISPOSAL: Pesticide, spray mixture, or rinsate that cannot be
used or chemically processed should be disposed of in a landfill, approved
for pesticides or buried in a safe place away from water supplies.
CONTAINER DISPOSAL: (a) Reseal container and offer for reconditioning,
or (b) Triple rinse (or equivalent) and; offer for recycling, reconditioning, or
disposal in approved landfill, or bury in a safe place.

GENERAL: Consult Federal, State or Local Disposal Authorities for
approved alternative procedures.

STORAGE: Flammable. Keep away from heat or open flame. Keep
container closed. Leaking packages should be removed to a safe place Do
not store below 0“F

REQUIRED CLOTHING FOR FEMALE WORKERS

Female ground applicators, mixers and loaders and flagpersons must wear
long-sleeved shirts and long pants made of a closely woven fabric, and wide-
brimmed hats Mixers and loaders must also wear rubber or synthetic rubber
boots and aprons.

WARNING TO FEMALE WORKERS

The United State Environmental Protection Agency has determined that
endrin causes birth defects in laboratory animals. Exposure to endrin during
pregnancy should be avoided. Female workers must be sure to wear all
protective clothing and use all protective equipment specified on this label. In
case of accidental spills or other unusual exposure, cease work immediately
and follow directions for contact with endrin.

EQUIPMENT

Ground application. — For use with boom-nozzle ground equipment. Appiyi
at not less than 5 gallons total mixture, water and chemical, per acre. Do not'
use nozzle liquid pressure at greater than 40 psi (pounds per square inch).i
Do not use cone nozzle size smaller than 0.1 6 gallons per minute (gpm) ati
40 psi such as type D2-25 or TX-10, or any other atomizer or nozzle giving
smaller drop size.

Aerial application. — Do not apply at less than one gallon total mixture of
water and chemical per acre. Do not operate nozzle smaller than 0.4 gallons
per minute (gpm) or fan angle greater than 65 degrees such as type 6504
Do not use any cone type nozzles smaller than 0 4 gpm nor whirl plate
smaller than no. 46 such as type 04-46 or any other atomizer or nozzle
giving smaller drop size. Do not release this material at greater than 10 ft.
height above the crop.

APPLICATION RESTRICTIONS

Do not apply this product within Va mile of human habitation.

Do not apply this product by air within % mile or by ground within '/, mile of
lakes, ponds or streams. Application may be made at distances closer to
ponds owned by the user but such application may result in excessive
contamination and fish kills

Do not apply when rainfall is imminent

Apply only when wind velocity is between 2 mph and 1 0 mph.

PROCEDURES TO BE FOLLOWED IF FISH KILLS
OCCUR OR IF PONDS ARE CONTAMINATED

In case of fish kills, fish must be collected promptly and disposed of by burial.
Ponds in which fish kills have occurred, and user-owned ponds exposed to
endrin by application at distances closer than otherwise prohibited, must be
posted with signs stating; "Contaminated; No Fishing " Signs must remain
for one year after a fish kill has occurred or for six months after lesser
contamination unless laboratory analysis shows endrin residues in the edible
portions of fish to be less than 0 3 part per million (ppm).

185

PESTS FOR WHICH THIS PRODUCT
MAY BE APPLIED

This product may be applied to control the following pests only; army
cutworm and pale western cutworm.

DO NOT USE IN UNDILUTED FORM.

To prepare the spray mixture, measure out the required amount of this
material and add it to the proper ami unt of water Mix thoroughly and apply,
agitating continuously. In cold weather this material may deposit a precipitate
in the container. Before mixing in this case, the material should be warmed
gently and agitated until redissolved Application should be made at the
recommended dosage per acre in sufficient water to provide uniform
coverage.

When applying this material by aii craft, mix the recommended amounts with
sufficient water to provide a minimum for 1 gallon of finished spray per acre.
Care should be taken that this material is not allowed to drift onto neighboring
crop or non-crop areas

OBSERVE INTERVAL BETWEEN LAST
APPLICATION AND HARVEST.

BARLEY, OATS, RYE, WHEAT Army Cutworms and Pale Western
Cutworms— APPLY A SINGLE APPLICATION using 1 to 1 V* pints per acre
when insects first appear DO NOT TREAT WITHIN 45 DAYS OF HARVEST
DO NOT GRAZE LIVESTOCK ON TREATED FORAGE DO NOT FEED
THRESHING TO LIVESTOCK.

DEALERS SHOULD SELL IN
ORIGINAL PACKAGES ONLY.

USAGE CAUTION; DO NOT ALLOW THIS MATERIAL TO DRIFT ONTO
NEIGHBORING CROP OR NON-CROP AREAS OR USE IN A MANNER OR
AT A TIME OTHER THAN IN ACCORDANCE WITH DIRECTIONS, BECAUSE
PLANT INJURY, EXCESSIVE RESIDUES OR OTHER UNDESIRABLE
RESULTS MAY OCCUR.

NOTICE

Platte Chemical Co., Inc., warrants that this material conforms to the
chemical description on the label and is reasonably tit for the purposes
referred to in the directions for use. This product is sold with the under-
standing that the buyer assumes all risks of use or handling which may result
in loss or damage which are beyond the control of the seller, such as
incompatibility with other products, the manner of its use or application, or
the presence of other products or materials in or on the soil or crop. Platte
Chemical Co., Inc. or any other seller, for any and all losses, injuries, or
damages resulting from the use or handling of this product shall be the
purchase price paid by the user or buyer for the quantity of this product
involved The buyer and all users are deemed to have accepted the terms of
this notice, which may not be varied by any verbal or written agreement

186

APPENDIX D

Details of conditions and equipment used during field experiments with
endrin, chlorpyrifos, and permethrin, May - June 1982.

Test Application Details

Parameter

Lavina

Shawmut

Vaughn

Aircraft Type

Grumman Super G
164A Ag. Cat,
Droop Tip Bi-
plane

Ag. Truck

Piper Pawnee

Nozzle Size

1046 DIO

DIO and 45

D6 and 45

Boom Pressure

(psi)

Flying Speed

105

120

(mph)

Release Height

(ft)

Swath Width

(ft).

Carrier

Xylene Solvent
or water

Water

Application Endrin=0.25

Rate ChlorpyrifosrO . 90

(lbs AI/A) Permethrin=0. 10

Chlorpyrifos=0.50

Permethrin=0.10

Air Temp (°F)

Wind Vel

5, gusting to 10

5-7

(mph)

Wind Direction

1 SSW

ENE

187

APPENDIX E

Results of public awareness survey concerning pesticide contamination of
Montana game birds, 1982.

Introduction Section

Sample Size Drawn = 200 bird license holders (Resident)

No. of People Surveyed r 162 (81 percent contact rate)

Question #1. Were you or any of your household aware that some game birds
were contaminated with pesticides and that certain
precautions were recommended to be taken in preparing them
for human consumption?

Response: 158 (98 percent) Yes

4 ( 2 percent) No

Question #2. How did you learn of this contamination?

Note: Respondents were allowed to acknowledge up to three

most significant choices.

Response: 115 (73 percent) Newspaper

72 (46 percent) Television
52 (33 percent) Radio
24 (15 percent) Word of Mouth
11(7 percent) License Dealer
11(7 percent) Other

Upland Ganie Bird Section

Question #1. How do you feel about pesticide-contaminated upland game
birds?

Response: 40 (25 percent) Greatly concerned

52 (33 percent) Moderately concerned
24 (15 percent) Slightly concerned
41 (26 percent) Not worried at all

Question #2. Did you or anyone in your household hunt upland game birds
this past season?

Response: 104 (66 percent) Yes

53 (34 percent) No

188

2(a) Did your knowledge of pesticide-contamination of
upland game birds affect your decision not to hunt
upland game birds this year?

Note; This question related only to those respondents who

did not hunt.

Response: 37 (7I percent) Not at all

4 ( 8 percent) Slightly

5 (10 percent) Significantly

6 (12 percent) Major reason
52

Comment: The sportsmen who learned of the pesticide

contamination prior to purchasing the 1982
Upland Game Bird License and chose not to
purchase the license because of the problem, are
not in this sample. Thus, holders who did not
hunt upland game birds because of the contamina-
tion were sportsmen who purchased a bird license
in combination with another license (i,e,
sportsman license) or had not sufficient informa-
tion at the time of purchase,

2(b) Were you given any upland game birds this year that
your household consumed or plans to consume?

Response: 2 ( 4 percent) Yes

50 (96 percent) No

Question #3, How many upland game birds harvested this year has your
household consumed?

Response;

Number of households consuming upland game birds (September 1 - December 3D*

# birds consumed per household

Total Average

Bird Species

10+

Hse-

Holds

Total

birds

# birds/
Hsehold

Mtn grouse

169

2,22

Farmland birds
Sharp-tailed

149

1,96

grouse

161

2,12

Sage grouse

_8Q

559

7.36

189

Question y/4. How many upland game birds harvested this year has your
household either frozen or otherwise preserved that will be
consumed this year?

Response:

Number of households with preserved upland game birds as of January 1, I983.

# birds preserved per household

Bird Species

10+

Total

Hse-

holds

Total

Birds

Av. # of

birds/

hsehold

Mtn grouse

0.70

Farmland birds
Sharp-tailed

0.79

grouse

0.39

Sage grouse

170

2.24

Question #5. Now I need to know the number of people in your household who
have eaten or will eat upland game birds this year?

Response:

Number of households with members eating upland game birds.

# people per household

Sex /Age of members

0 1

Average number/
household

Females/over 35

0.58

Males/over 13

1.69

Females/ 13-35

0.58

Males/0-12

0.49

Females/0-12

rL3a

3.68

Question #6. Between September 1 and December 31> were there any pregnant
women or nursing mothers in your household?

Response: 5 Nursing or pregnant

190

Question #7. Were any of the birds consumed by pregnant women or nursing
mothers?

Response; a. Pregnant 1 ( 1 percent) Yes

75 (99 percent) No

b. Nursing 1 ( 1 percent) Yes
75 (99 percent) No

Comment; These two positive responses were different people.

Question #8. The following questions relate to how the upland game birds
were prepared.

Response; a. Were the birds skinned?

7^ (97 percent) Yes
2(3 percent) No

b. Did you remove the fat from the body of the
bird?

73 (96 percent) Yes
3(4 percent) No

c. If the bird was stuffed, was the dressing
eaten?

6 ( 8 percent) Yes
70 (92 percent) No

d. Were the drippings discarded?

61 (80 percent) Yes
15 (20 percent) No

liaterfowl Section

Question #1. How do you feel about pesticide-contaminated waterfowl?

Response; 43 (27 percent) Greatly concerned

52 (33 percent) Moderately concerned
26 (17 percent) Slightly concerned
36 (23 percent) Not worried at all

191

Question #2. Did you or anyone in your household hunt waterfowl this past
season?

Reponse : 53 (34 percent) Yes

105 (66 percent) No

Note: The upland game bird license is a prerequisite to the

federal waterfowl stamp. It is likely that nearly all the
"no" respondents did not have a waterfowl stairjp.

2(a) Did your knowledge of pesticide contamination of
waterfowl affect your decision not to hunt waterfowl
this year?

Note; This question relates only to those respondents who
did not hunt.

Response; 73 (70 percent) Not at all
6 ( 6 percent) Slightly
7(7 percent) Significantly
18 (17 percent) Major reason

2(b) Were you given any ducks or geese this year that your
household consumed or plans to consume?

Response; 1 ( 1 percent) Yes
103 (99 percent) No

Question #3. How many ducks and geese harvested this year has your
household consumed?

Response;

Numbers of households consuming waterfowl (September 1 - December 31).

// birds consumed per household

Total Av. No.

Waterfowl House- Total birds/

Species 0 123456789 10+ holds birds hsehold

Ducks 11 4 8 4 0 0 2 0 1 1 7 38 256 6.74

Geese 26 6230010000 38 ,66

281 7.39

192

Question #4. How many wild ducks and geese harvested this year does your
household have either frozen or otherwise preserved that will
be consumed this year?

Response:

Number of households with preserved waterfowl.

birds preserved/household

Total

Av. # of

Waterfowl

House-

- Total

birds/

Species

0 1 2

3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10+

holds

birds

hsehold

Ducks

26 4 2

0 0 0

2 110 2

1.71

Geese

31 5 1

0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0

2.05

Question #5.

Now I need

1 to know

the number of people in

your household who

have eaten

or will

eat waterfowl this year.

Response:

Number of households with

1 members

eating waterfowl.

# people per household

Average

Sex/Age of Members

0 1

2 3 4 5

Number /household

Females/over

2 0 0 0

0.53

Males/over 13

8 2 2 2

1.66

Females/ 13-35

2 0 0 0

0.63

Males/0-12

10 0 0

0.32

Females/0-12

10 0 1

iL3il

3.48

Question #6. Between September 1 and December 31, were there any pregnant
women or nursing mothers in your household?

Response: 3 Nursing or pregnant

Question #7. Were any of the birds consumed by pregnant women or nursing
mothers?

Response: Pregnant 2(5 percent) Yes

36 (95 percent) No

Nursing 2 (5 percent) Yes

36 (95 percent) No

Question #8.

The following questions relate to how the ducks or geese
were prepared.

Response:

■ 1

Were the birds skinned?

27 (82 percent) Yes
6 (18 percent) No ^ ^

^Di(|’ you remove the' fat from the' body of the
iD'ird? ' ,

29 (87 percent) Yes
4 (13 percent) No

If the bird was stuffed, was the dressing
eaten?

0 Yes

33 (100 percent) No

Were the drippings discarded?

28 (85 percent) Yes
5 (15 percent) No

Question #9.

Do you feel you were adequately informed regarding pesticide
contamination in upland game birds and waterfowl?

Response:

137

(87 percent) Yes
(13 percent) No

194

APPENDIX F

Precautionary Poster Distributed to Hunting License

Dealers and Others Prior to 1981 Upland Game Bird
Hunting Seasons in Montana

HUNTERS

—CAUTION—

ENDRIN RESIDUE

MAY BE FOUND IN SOME SHARPTAILED
GROUSE AND PARTRIDGE.

1. REMOVE ALL FAT. COM MON AREAS O F

3. DISCARD ALL INTERNAL ORGANS.

4. EAT NO MORE THAN ONE BIRD EVERY OTHER
DAY.

For More Information Call Your Nearest Department of Fish, Wildlife
and Parks Regional Office.

MONTANA DEPARTMENT OF FISH, WILDLIFE AND PARKS

APPENDIX G

HUMAN INGESTION OF ENDRIN VIA CONTAMINATED WATERFOWL

- Worst Case Scenarios -

The World Health Organization has established and the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency has adopted 0.0002 mg/kg as the
acceptable daily intake (ADI) level for endrin by humans.

In calculating what levels of endrin could be ingested by humans,
the assumption is made that either 400 grams of meat (wet flesh)
or 400 grams of meat plus 50 grams of fat (wet flesh) would be
eaten in one day. Those amounts represent 14-16 ounces of flesh,
or about 1 pound.

Soecies

PPM Endrin in:

Endrin ingested

img/kgJ by ai_ . _

50_.lb.

(22.7 ke) child

J50_lb_(68.1_kg) Adult

Fat

Meat

Meat & Fat

Meat

Meat & Fat

Canada Goose

.52

.019

.00033

.00148

.00011

.00049

Mallard

1.35

(.0202)*

.00036

.00333

.00012

.00111

Gad wall

.32

(.0048)*

.00008

.00079

.00003

.00026

Wig eon

1.2

.005

.00009

.00273

.00003

.00092

Blue-winged

.88

.013

.00023

.00217

.00008

.00072

Teal

* No endrin test

conducted on

meat; based on

other

endrin

fat: meat

ratios

, the endrin in

meat was assumed to be

U5% in

fat

Montana Department of Fish,
Wildlife and Parks 9-24-81

197

APPENDIX H

Opinions on the Hazards to Humans Consuming
Endrin-Contaminated Wildlife

198

United States
Environmental Protection
Agency

Region 8
Suite 103
1860 Lincoln St.
Denver, CO. 80295

Colorado, Montana,

North Dakota,
South Dakota,
Utah, Wyoming

received

REF: 8M0

Mr. Jim Flynn, Director

Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks

1420 East Sixth Avenue

Helena, Montana 59620

Dear Mr. Flynn:

This morning Governor Schwinden asked me to inform you of the EPA's
position regarding the recent discovery of Endrin in certain game birds. I
wish to note that EPA's position on this matter is advisatory in nature and is
not our intention to interfere with the normal State decision-making process.

We feel there is no danger to public health posed by the consumption of
affected game birds. Danger to humans has been overstated due to misuse of
the allowable daily intake (ADI) figure for Endrin. Naturally, the public
should take reasonable precautions when consuming potentially contaminated
game birds. We recommend that the birds be skinned and the fat and entrails
discarded prior to the consumption of the birds.

I appreciate the complexity of this issue and would like to offer our
assistance. The EPA laboratory in Denver is available to assist with Endrin
analyses of birds, soil, water, etc. Please have your staff call Irv
Dickstein (303-837-4935) for details on our laboratory capabilities. Please
feel free to call if I can be of assistance.

Sxeven J/Durham
Regional 'Administrator

199

United States
Department of
Agriculture

Food Safety
and Quality
Service

Washington,

DC.

20250

Received

SEP 2 4 mi

^)IREC]0R’S OFFICE

5£P 2 1 1981

Mr. James W. Flynn, Director
Department of Fish, Wildlife apd Parks
Helena, Montana 56920

Dear Mr. Flynn:

I appreciate receiving your letter of September 11, 1981, concerning
the endrin levels in wild game birds in Montana. We both realize that
there is insufficient information available for you to answer all the
questions, I would ask to properly interpret the data. Therefore, my
reply to you will be divided into two parts. ’ The first giving you
disposition of the birds as if I were confronted with such a problem
in domestic fowl and secondly, ray thoughts on what the data may
indicate.

The disposition of the birds, using the current action level for
endrin of 0.3 ppm in fat would be to not accept the grouse or ducks
without further processing. The Canadian geese would be acceptable.
The ducks and grouse could be successfully further processed by
removal of skin, body fat and other triramable fat prior to cooking.

In essence, this is in agreement with your current recommendations on
grouse.

Looking at the data and making some assumptions, which you may be able
to verify. The grouse are non-migratory birds and can act as an
indice of local exposure. Therefore, the ducks sampled are probably
native wild ducks and the differences in fat level is due to the
differences in degree of exposure (ducks should be higher). The
Canadian geese are definitely migratory, and once removed from
exposure, should drop in level quickly (This is a function of
redistribution, not excreation. I just don't believe body balance
occurs in less than 3-4 weeks). Continued exposure may continue to
increase levels in the geese. They also may serve as a guide of what
to expect in ducks migrating from Canada.

Another little known fact, outside of analytical laboratories is that
heating fat in the rendering process over 100-110°C (212-230°F) will
cause a loss of chlorinated hydrocarbon residues. This can act as an
additional safety factor if the game is cooked on wire racks and kept
out of any grease drippings. This may help your home economists to
figure out ways to improve safety by cooking procedures.

200

Mr. James W. Flynn

The above information was essentially given to Mr. Stan Bradshaw on
September 18, by telephone. Naturally, I defer to the experts in the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as to the allowable degree of
human exposure.

Sincerely,

^r. John E. Spaulding, Director

Residue Evaluation and Surveillance Division

201

Sep

VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY

NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE 3 7 2 3 2

Telephone (615) 3 22-7 3 1 1

Cenler in Toxicology • Department of Biochemistry • School of Medicine • Station 17 • Direct phone 7 22 22t>t

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203

Rocky Mountain Poison Center

West 8th Rl Cherokee • Denver, Colorado 80204

Poison Inlormatron and Emergency, 30v3/G29 l123 • Administraiion 303/893 /' 774
Cokjrado Toll Free (Outside Metro Denver): 800/332 3073

September 22, 1981

Stan Bradshaw
Attorney

Montana State Fish and Game
Commission

Helena, Montana 56920
Dear Mr. Bradshaw:

This is in regard to endrin contamination of upland game birds. 1 will make refer-
ence to a 12 page report to the Fish and Game Commission of September 4, 1981
and to the letter from James W. Flynn to me dated September 11, 1981. 1 will also

make reference to the additional data provided on Canadian geese in terms of fat
and meat levels.

After considering all of the data provided me and reviewing what medical literature
exists as well as the extensive experience here at the Rocky Mountain Poison Center,
I would like to provide you with a number of recommendations:

1. At the levels measured of this pesticide, some of ducks and geese will
have sufficient endrin to provide greater than acceptable daily intake
levels of 0.0002 mg/kg. Calculations of ADI based on measured levels
are in regard to raw meat and fat. Since the EPA and the World Health
Organization agree with this, even in view of the enormous safety factor,
this is a level that we cannot recommend be exceeded.

2. If sufficient fat, which is the major storage depot is removed from some
of these birds, such as the Hungarian partridge, then the fat content
would be low enough not to exceed the ADI. The teratogen level, cal-
culated on meat would probably be exceeded, leading to a recommendation
that women in the 1st three months of pregnancy avoid these game

birds.

3. It is possible that cooking of these animals will remove most of the
contaminated tissue - the fat. Since most individuals cook these birds
at approximately 350°F and usually do this on a rack of some sort, most
of the fat would then be rendered from the bird. In order to take
advantage of this selective removal, we would suggest that the fat not
be utilized in the making of gravy. Additionally, we would suggest that

Unitod

way

A United Way Agency

204

Stan Bradshaw
September 22, 1981
Page 2

stuffing the animal not be performed, since stuffing would absorb some
of the fat and then be ingested. The skin is extremely high in fat
content and should be discarded. Internal organs, which are not gen-
erally ingested from these birds should also be discarded. The major
organ which should not be eaten is the liver. The heart and gizzard are
probably acceptable.

4. There is inconclusive evidence in the medical literature about how much
of the endrin would be absorbed and taken up into human tissue. There
have been several acute accidents after which little, if any, has been
found in the patient. There have also been several chronic exposures in
various endrin workers who have had little, if any, in the fat. Unfor-
tunately, there are also some cases in which the reverse has been true
and fairly high accumulations have been recorded.

5. The question of season to season accumulation in the fat of humans who
eat large quantities of these birds is of concern. Since the half-life of
endrin (time period in which half of that which is in the body is ex-
creted) is probably very long (several years or more) then accumulation
could potentially occur. This is probably not a problem if the ADI is
not exceeded. There have been some studies in animals showing shorter
half-lives, however, these articles were unavailable to me.

6. These pesticides are all highly concentrated in breast milk. Since this is
a major route of excretion, it should be made very clear that women
who are breast feeding infants absolutely, under no circumstances, must
ingest any part of these game birds. This is one area in which a very
strong statement should be made.

I spoke with representative of Velsicol, the major manufacturer of endrin in the
United States and asked him the effect of 350® heat on endrin. He told me that
there were studies on several other hydrocarbons of this family that showed major
reduction of residue following heating. This data has not been available for endrin.
We do know that 2 of the major breakdown products of endrin are the delta ketone
and the alcohol, both of which are much less active, at least acutely. It was his
opinion, although the experimental procedure has not been done, that some of the
endrin would be destroyed upon cooking and that the remainder would be in the
rendered fat. He agreed with me that these experiments should be carried out.
Preliminary data from Gary Gingery of the Montana Department of Agriculture has
demonstrated to difference pre and post cocking.

My opinion, in summary, is that occasional eaters of this wildlife, such as individuals
eating part of a goose for Thanksgiving and Christmas and perhaps 3 or 4 other
birds during the course of a year, should have essentially no risk, if they follow the
precautions as listed above. The only concern we would have would be with those
individuals who fill their freezers with these game birds and eat them on a con-
tinuous and heavy basis all year long.

205

Stan Bradshaw
September 22, 1981
Page 3

I have spoken to several people in the Department of Health and Environmental
Sciences and I think that we are in basic agreement concerning these issues.

If I can be of any further assistance to you, I would be pleased to do so.

Associate Professor of Pediatrics
Director, Rocky Mountain Poison Center

BHR:pb

206

DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

DIRECTOR S OFFICE

TED SCHWINDEN. GOVERNOR

— STATE OF MONTANA

(406)449-2544

August 27, 1981

COGSWlr.Ll tu lU.DINi. .

HELENA MONTANA 59620

i O

. I I

[ ,; . ■ I

James W. Flynn, Director
Dept, of Fish, Wildlife and Parks
Capitol Station
Helena, Montana 59620

Dear Jim:

Regards recommendations to hunters of Endrin-sprayed areas, the Department
of Health and Environmental Sciences, after consulting with various other
concerns, does promulgate the following:

1) If all samples are negative for Endrin, no precautions are needed by consumers
of game animals. This presumes that good sampling procedures were used

and that the laboratory results were accurate.

2) It is the recommendation of the Department of Health and Environmental
Sciences that all game species which have been shown to have Endrin fat
concentrations of 0.3 ppm or greater by laboratory analysis should not

be consumed. Those game species, with no detection of Endrin, from affected
areas would be consumable as the possibility of contamination is not likely
to occur.

I would recommend that continuing surveillance of Endrin in game continue
for the next two to three years in Endrin-sprayed areas, or at least until
micro or undetectable amounts are established to have occurred in game in
these areas and that the restrictions and warnings as outlined continue until
such is accomplished.

Thank you.

Yours truly,

/ ■ ' /
John J. Drynan, M.D.
Di rector

cc: James Glosser, DVM, Dept, of Livestock

Gordon McOmber, Dept, of Agriculture
Ron Marcoux, Dept, of Fish, Wildlife and Parks

207

AN iOUAL OPPOf^tUNITY BMPLOYER

l^cccnl news sicriC'S t3r»’twjj ii-vl- lit; ^ or. \.o

hitjbcr t)>8n accost cb3 <-' love,*}s of Ihc iCi-c-f Inwrin in

Bcme biids. Tbi'se accounts hnvG r-jch of

pt>tcr,tiisl lh;cats to >ioryn i'.talth and

,1 F-PA bftlievoe that these stories have, unfortunately *
been overly alarraist* The stories eu^yost that hurrt^ns nno
v;il;32ife are in imrr.inent Oenger of being poisened. EFA
bse^v^ves that this is not ^eRerally true. .

^.s.

‘ \ panger to hvu’.ssns nse been overstated due to nisuse of
- the ”al loveable daily inlnhe” (ADI) figure for PnOrin by the
press and sc*.iie jccal cfficials, EfA believes that proper

understanding of what an ht>l is will help place th.e current

,''' ■ > •

* .

rndrin "scare” into perspective.

2Vi setting eaie usage conditions i or 77*DterisiA,

fiour.d tcxicclogy principles call for dclGurinihg a ”no
effect IviVcV t-UvX/, the highest level oi exposure x^hich can

n«ve r,v;. sivVverue efx£:;:tfc) using nr.xri-alr; cbrcnically
si-ipcsed to a nstc-riiai. Cr.ee the Kn'L is eet, safe hnr»an —
-eApeture is B-&X by using a safety rrargin of IGO to set an
tZ'jl , The nP3 is the level of nato-rial in the dai ly diet
which is 100 tiroes less than the PbL arr.Qunt of r-aterlnl,
also ii’i the daily diet.

. ■ . : • . j- \

' . ■ , 208 '

th'3r< llic /»DI

•Vi

Zhvs, cr.e can ccn'i-JS’-C' pd: c cT a tc,'.icv;nt

and stiil be* we^l belcv %hc no cii'cct lovtri , ^.hat is \<b.y ii

safct.y factor is ue?d in eettinq an AP!i tc auavi'.&t

accidoitol si Buch as nay be b.ip; c^jin^ no-' with
Tnoriu »jna, else# to protect h.ypc r.s ens i yvc-plc.

Dr. Henry Spencer, a staff to>:ico’;ogist £t bPa hc-adquerlers,
has C3lci5.1atcd that ii a 60 lb chili3 to eat. all of one

bir'5 of the species that shows tb.e highest Endrin levels -
that the child v^oold conBvjTrie sn amount of r.r-drin aboist '20
pore than the fiDl but ntill 5 liincs lover than the
KEL, Ttleo, since this v^ould be a single exposurt?, the appropriate
singlt> exposurs l^BX, voold be higher th^in what i& appropriate
for daily ir.lane by a factor of 10-100- The outco-o is that
EFA believes that even if a child vveio- to erit c*-n entire tc-rjl
or in -there is little probability thni any would

occur. Br . Spencer’s calcuiet ions have been reviewed by
other ^igency cci o.nti st o for eccuificy. /adults, r.ince they
v^ei9h r-.ore than children would 5)0 ever. r.Ai’cr.

Cf ccurse, BP>. must rcc-Dsrj't^n-d agiiinv-t thir regular cr
frequent con jjumpt ion vX go:re birds with Ihi?- level of Vrulrin-
Adhercr.ee to estflblishcd ADI levels is scunl iind prudent —
risk renagenient \;hich tbiC LTA, cs a i-ublic hc.v'ih acency, —
belic'.'cs It is impertant to fester. r.FA is cooperstinn \;i*h
other federal and state agencies to try cinO ucloriune the

' 0

' ..V: f -

‘ *- 'Vf

.: •209

r -ic*

. A.

\ I >

fccorce Qi thC5C r,ni:ri}» level f iv- eui.'i-:;.

y.l Jx r-.iist else? poiut C'ol llv-t r-r . LL-.’iS .^o.SriSon, ^>-
recicriiil staff ic?:i col oni st v.'Cif; ej. parent. 3 y d1 c:l by

artiele-s w^ieh attribuicii to si&lc-rnts that chili3r<rr.
c»tie;9 3 single bird Ktighi brcer^c ill- In fcict., f?r .
v»E referring to the lowest singlG dose of b^dri)j feund to
prodoco nr»y ill effects in hunssns- Thnt doso, hovjtver i is'

40 tir:£rs Jugher than v?hat a sn-^tll child get froin

consesriDtion of one bird and 3 000 tieies h-igJicr them the ADI
for daily intnhe,

trhe issue of o&r^age to v?ildlifc- is- also, at this tirnc,
not Be alarriing as has been made Cui. 'Ih&re ie a slight
possibility that bc:t»g d\ic):B and geest* I'i-ii'-.t loecoTrsi intoxicate:
as thtyi?cgin to dra\: on fat. stoics over t).e '-•Inier r.c?>t)VB, —
Clair.s that eagles ‘^JriscT'onds.j’igered «prcics of birds rvight bs
ha:T;!cd are# st pre^ejil specoiative sir;oe \he rndrin rnsiones
hisVc' not been JT.eaeurcd. Djc»;b r.nd gc*uErt ere etrong th.e fattier
birds ^t\6 appear to he t he area of conce: n r^s opp:?scd to
grous&i eaqlos or other birds.

V.yh beliovcs that ti)e present Endrin sitn.''t.ion poyien
little dangei’, if any, to sor^.ecne \,ho night untnow: ng.ly — ,

cont--j.T;c an affected bird and poses low probability of danger,
to endangered cr protected specie^ . 2?h viii seek to deterr/ine

the causes of this abnomality in the icsidue levels of
tncirSn, which is the *ycr«t e*fect:\c arjainai cutworn.

APPENDIX I

Stomach contents of birds collected on or near chlorpyrifos-treated wheat
fields, 1982 (McEwen et al., in prep.).

Postspray

time

period

Percent

Volume

Percent stomachs in which Order was found

Total

insects

Seeds

Lep id-
op t era-1/

Coleop-

tera

Hymen -
optera3

Horned Larks

3 days

50.0

47.6

95.2

47.6

9-16 days

33.54/

65.0^/

70.9

60.5

10.4

60.4

Controls^

43.4

55.1

7.7

69.2

7.7

92.3

McCown’s Longspurs

3 days

70.36/

29.7.^/

100.0

75.0

25.0

9 days

64.0^

36. 02^/

71.4

100.0

42.9

57.1

Controls^

46.9

52.1

27.2

81.8

54.5

72.7

jy Lepidoptera were largely pale western cutworms. A few stomachs con-
tained army cutworms and/or other species of Lepidoptera (larvae and
adults) .

2J Orthoptera were grasshoppers and a few crickets.

3/ Hymenoptera were mostly ants.

ii/ Differs from controls (P<0.05) and from 3 days postspray (P<0.01).

3/ Part of the control specimens were collected on rangeland >1 mile distant
from wheat fields and part near the wheat fields prior to chlorpyrifos
application.

3/ Differs from controls (P<0.02).

U Differs from controls (P<0.05).

APPENDIX J

Brain cholinesterase activity in birds collected at intervals on or near
chlorpyrifos-treated wheat fields in Montana, 1982 (McEwen et al., in
prep . ) .

Posttreatment
interval (days)

Mean brain
ChE activity-!/
(Ajm/min/g)

S.D.

No. birds in-
hibited >20^

Horned Larks

13.53®

2.05

14. 24^

1.62

15.99'=

1.56

Control^

17.36^

1.31

McCown’s Longspurs

24.13

2.04

22.99

1.30

Control-8/

24.26

2.00

1/ Means followed by the same letter do not differ (P>0.05).

2J Seven control birds were collected prior to the spray application but
brains of 2 were not analyzed because of tissue damage from shot pel-
lets. Six controls were collected from rangeland in the postspray
interval but all brains were discarded; 2 because of shot damage and 4
because they may have been exposed to the chemical.

3/ Five birds were collected prior to the spray application and 6 were
collected from rangeland >1 mi from sprayed fields in the postspray
interval.

212

APPENDIX K

Resolution Adopted by The Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society,

5 February 1982.

RESOLUTION OF

THE WILDLIFE SOCIETY, MONTANA CHAPTER
PESTICIDE MANAGEMENT IN MONTANA

WHEREAS, the Montana Chapter of the Wildlife Society is a
nonprofit organization of professional wildlife biologists and
others dedicated to preserving Montana's wildlife resources and
their habitats; and

WHEREAS, this Chapter further recognizes that people, as
well as wildlife, are dependent on their environment and believes
that wildlife in its many forms is basic to the maintenance of a
quality existence for all Montanans; and

WHEREAS, all chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides, including
endrin, and strychnine are highly and acutely toxic to many forms
of wildlife and are, therefore, incompatible with the management
of wildlife resources in Montana; and

WHEREAS, the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides persist in
the environment for up to 12 years or more; and

WHEREAS, we recognize that agriculture needs effective and
species selective insecticides and their proper use in
controlling pest species;

NOW THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED that the Montana Chapter of
The Wildlife Society recommends;

(1) the immediate and permanent termination of the use of
all chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in Montana;

(2) the use of strychnine in Montana be limited to below
ground surface applications; and

(3) that, in order to provide agriculture with less
hazardous insect-pest control methods, the appropriate
state agencies expedite research efforts to evaluate the
effects of alternative control methods on wildlife
resources .

213

APPENDIX L

Resolution Adopted by The Wildlife Society Council

15 September 1982.

RESOLUTION ON THE FIELD USE
OF ENDRIN AND HEPTACHLOR

WHEREAS, The Wildlife Society is a nonprofit organization of
professional wildlife biologists, resource managers, and others dedicated
to managing and enhancing wildlife resources and their habitats; and

WHEREAS, The Wildlife Society recognizes that people, as well as
wildlife, are dependent on their environments and believes that wildlife in
its many forms is basic to the maintenance of a quality existence for all
people; and

WHEREAS, the chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides endrin and heptachlor
are highly and acutely toxic to many forms of wildlife and are, therefore,
incompatible with the management of wildlife resources; and

WHEREAS, field use of these chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides
disrupts ecosystems, and contaminated mobile species of wildlife transport
these pesticides far beyond the original sites of application; and

WHEREAS, endrin and heptachlor and their metabolites persist in the
environment 10 years and longer; and

WHEREAS, the position of The Wildlife Society in regard to toxic
chemical compounds is stated in Conservation Policies of The Wildlife
Society; and

WHEREAS, it is recognized that agriculture needs effective and species
selective methods to control damage to agricultural crops;

NOW THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED that The Wildlife Society recommends:

(1) the immediate and permanent termination of the field use of
endrin and heptachlor in the U.S, and other countries; and

(2) that appropriate governmental agencies increase the level of
research and development on alternative control methods,
including evaluation of their effects on wildlife populations and
their habitats, to provide agriculture with less hazardous damage
control methods.

21^

APPENDIX M

Resolution adopted by both the Central and Pacific Flyway
Councils, 28 March 1982.

WHEREAS, endrin, a chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide, has
repeatedly proven to be incompatible with Fish and Wildlife
resources and their management; and

WHEREAS, the widespread use of endrin to combat cutworms in
cereal grains in Montana in 1981 resulted in the contamination of
significant numbers of migratory waterfowl; and

WHEREAS, the endrin contamination of these waterfowl
threatened the health of public consumers of these waterfowl; and

WHEREAS, the threat to public health disrupted and
threatened the continuance of waterfowl hunting seasons in
Montana and other states and provinces in the Central and Pacific
Flyways in 198I;

NOW THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED, that the Pacific Flyway
Council encourages the pesticide industry, the EPA, agricultural
community and federal and state wildlife agencies to develop and
implement effective and economical alternative controls for
cutworms which minimize the hazards to wildlife and public
health .

215

APPENDIX N

News Media Rank End rin-Contamination of
as Number 2 News Story in Montana in

Wildlife

1981

216

APPENDIX N

Excerpted

from The Great Falls

Tribune,

27 December 1981.

Severance tax ruling
heads list of top 10

1981 state news stories

By JOHN KUGLIN

HELENA (AP) — Montana’s coal severance tax, worth
almost $75 million a year to the state’s treasury, withstood
a challenge in the U.S. Supreme Court during 1981. but its
future was clouded by continued congressional assaults as
the year drew to a close.

The Supreme Court’s ruling in the lawsuit by protesting
mining companies and coal-burning electric utilities was
voted Montana’s top news story of 1981. in a poll of Associ-
ated Press-member newspapers and broadcast stations.

The contamination of wildlife with the pesticide endnn.
which causes birth defects in laboratory animals, was se-
lected as the No. 2 story.

The other top 10 stories, in order, were;

3. Montana’s faltering economy.

4. The spring floods in areas of western Montana.

5. Gov. Ted Schwinden’s first year in office.

6. The Legislature’s regular and special sessions.

7. The confrontation over control of the Bighorn River
through the Crow Indian Reservation.

8. Oil and gas development.

9. Burlingtoh Northern’s efforts to abandon hundreds
of miles of railroad track and bypass small grain eleva-
tors.

10. The off-again. on-again plans to use the old Glasgow
-\ir Force Base as a detention center for aliens.

Endnn, an agricultural chemical that most Montanans
had never heard of. caused a pesticide horror story after it
was spraved on thousands of acres of grain fields to kill
cutworms.

The highiy-toxic member of the DDT family killed the
cutworms, but contaminated wildlife. In the confused
weeks that followed, the Fish and Game Commission re-
jected pleas from health officials to cancel the waterfowl
hunting .seasons. About half the hunters stayed home, any-
way.

Wildlife agencies in other states that share waterfowl
flyways with Montana also becamed alarmed, but followed
.Montana’s lead in allowing the hunting season to continue

The state Department of Agriculture, which oversees
pesticide use. obtained federal jaerrnission to use an alter
native cutworm pesticide, banned endrin for the rest of the
year and activated the state pesticide advisory council.

Hearings were scheduled for early next year on prnp^^-
sals to tighten pesticide regulations.

217

APPENDIX 0

Public Demands Better Control of
Potentially Dangerous Pesticides

218

APPENDIX 0

From Bozeman Daily Chronicle,

31 August 1982.

More pesticide control wanted

HELENA (AH) — Cunserv.iuonists,
health olficuls. and. citizens who said
they depend on wild game for their
meat called Monday for further govern-
ment action to control potentially
dangerous pesticides and yet to protect
Montana's valuable agricultural indus-
try.

The testimony was given before the
Legislature's Environmental Quality
Council, whose chairman. Rep. Dennis
Iverson. R-Whitlash, unofficially
pledged the future attention of the
council to the problem.

The public testimony followed pres-
entations by state wildlife, health and
agriculture officials concerning re-
cently discoverer! traces of the pesti-
cide heptachlor and continued presence
of the pesticide endrin in samples of
game birds in eastern Montana.

Tom Daubert of the Montana Envi-
ronmental Information Center in Hel-
ena said state and federal agencies
must make better information available
and take stronger steps to control
pesticides so that citizens no longer
have to fear becoming victims of a kind
of "Russian roulette"

Daubert reminded EQC members
that game bird hunting dropped by hall
last year in the wake of reports of
endrin contamination.

He said that experience, now compli-
cated with discovery of heptachlor
contamination, could be the "beginning
of the end of hunting in Montana '

Daubert said a continued or pro!
longed period of public ignorance or
misinformation about pesticide effects
III the food chain would also be
disastrous for agriculture if the indus-
try insists on "backing itself, into a
corner ■' on pesticide issues.

Daubert said the EQC. as an inde-
pendent agency of legislators and
citizens, is in the best portion to
analyze the adequacy of state agency
responses to pesticide use and abuse.

Will Selzer of the Lewis & Clark
County Health Department called for
legisUtkm at the state level establish-
ing an indemnity program which would
compensate farmeti and others if they
agree to give up their supplies of
il.iiigerous chemicals.

But Selzer said there also must be
Mi-w efforts to develop safe disposal
methods and sites for pesticides in
Monlana.

-\nd he asked why game bird hunting
oe-.iMHis in Montana have not been
ili;mdoiK'd ihiv vc.ir in light of recent

testing which showed new chemiciii
contamination and worsening of known
problems.

Ken Knudson. vice president of the
Montana Wildlife Federation, proposed
three steps which he said should be
taken by the government

First, he said, there should be a
direct appropriation of public funds to
help develop safe substitutes to endrin.
heptachlor and other pesticides danger-
ous to humans and wildlife

He said the HOC and executive
branch of stale government should
petition <he U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency to ban the use of endrin
and existing stocks of heptachlor in
Montana.

And he said this state should take the
lead in enlisting other states to
similarly petition the EPA so that
Montana will not simply have the
source of its problems coming from
elsewhere

Manufacture of heptachlor is being
banned by the EPA. effective Wednes-
day. but slate Agriculture Director W.
Gordon McOmber said Monday that
some $1 million worth of the chemical
remains in the inventory of Montana
based distributers which serve five
slates.

Selzer claimed that there was a
scramble to stockpile the chemical
after the Sept I ban on manufacture
was announced, but McOmber said he
could only s;K*culate whether that was
true.

Noel Rosetta of the Montana Audu-
bon Couruii suggested that the EQC
conduct studies on what he said has
been China s successful experience
with natural bmlogiral methods of p>est

control. Me said America's .fO-year
experience with toxic chemicals has
proven (hat it is not possible to
’bargain ’ with them in a safe manner

Dr. John Anderson, administrator of
the stale Health Services Division, said
that government surveys are needed to
determine whether sportsmen and
consumers heeded warnings last year
about how to cook and eat contami-
nated game birds. He said that if those
warnings were ignored as mere un-
founded hysteria, stronger measures
than warnings may be necessary.

Anderson said he was bothered by
the fact that the EPA has declared
heptachlor dangerous enough to ban its
further manufacture but has decided to

plies.

Wilbur Rehmann. former director 01
the Montana Wildlife Federation, said
sportsmen throughout the state remain
confused and concerned about the
safety of consuming game birds

He said wildlife officials shouUI
publicize better information before
hunting season so sportsmen becaus«-
hunters are now faced with th<
dilemma of eating potentially danger
ous substances or \nolating game law.'-
by discarding what they bag

Dick Fickler. who identified hini'-ri:
as a Missoula tree farmer, said hi
attended a pesticide ceriificanoi'
course and it was “a joke." He j^aid
instructors appeared not to take lh<^'r
own directions seriously.

219

APPENDIX P

Precautionary Poster
Others Prior to the
Showing Counties

Distributed to Hunting License Dealers and
1981 Waterfowl Hunting Season in Montana,
With Delayed Opening of Goose Hunting

220

WATERFOWL
* HUNTERS ‘

ENDRIN CONTAMINATED WATERFOWL

THIS MAP INDICATES WHERE YOU ARE MOST APT TO
ENCOUNTER ENDRIN-CONTAMfNATED WATERFOWL

ffTI HIGH POTENTIAL
' MODERATE POTENTIAL
□ LOW POTENTIAL

THESE COUNTIES CLOSED TO
HUNTING OF CANADIAN GEESE
UNTIL NOVEMBER 15, 1981:
RICHLAND, DAWSON, PRAIRIE,
WIBAUX, FALLON, CUSTER,
CARTER AND POWDER RIVER.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR COOKING^EATING WATERFOWL

1. Trim all fat and discard the skin and
internal organs. These items snould
be discarded in a manner which will
assure that they cannot be consumed
by humans or domestic or wild
animals.

2. Fully cook the skinned bird on a rack
and discard the drippings in the
same manner as fat, skin and organs.

3. Do not stuff birds.

4. Women who are pregnant or suspect

they are pregnant, and nursing
women should not consume
waterfowl.

5. No more than one duck or one pound
of goose meat per week nor more
than six ducks or six pounds of
goose meat per year should be
consumed by adults. Children’s
consumption should be limited to a
half pound or less of meat at same
intei'vals as those for adults.

221

APPENDIX Q

Request of 4 National Organizations to The Environmental
Protection Agency to Cancel All Registrations
for the Use of Endrin

222

NATIONAL WILDLIFE FEDERATION

1412 Sixteenth Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 202 — 797-6800

October 1, 1981

Distribution

D. Hair, Executive Vice President
RE: Endrin Action

The enclosed document was presented to the Environmental
Protection Agency on 29 September 1981, by the National Wildlife
Federation, the National Audubon Society, the Environmental
Defense Fund, and the Izaak Walton League of America. I believe
it will be of interest to you.

DISTRIBUTION

NWF Board and Staff
Montana Wildlife Federation
Colorado Wildlife Federation
Wyoming Wildlife Federation
South Dakota Wildlife Federation
Montana Dept, of Fish, Wildlife & Parks
S. D. Dept, of Game, Fish & Parks
Colorado Division of Wildlife
Wyoming Dept, of Game & Fish
U, S. Fish St Wildlife Service

MEMORANDUM
TO: See
FROM: Jay

223

MARCH 19-21, 1982 Marc Plaza Hotel, Milwaukee, Wisconsin

700% reclaimed paper

46th ANNUAL MEETING

National Audubon Society

NATIONAL CAPITAL OFFICE

645 PENNSYLVANIA AVENUE, S.E., WASHINGTON, D.C. 20003 (202) 547^9009

September 29, 1981

The Honorable Ann Gorsuch
Administrator
Environmental Protection
Agency

401 M Street , S.W.

Washington, D.C. 20460

Dear Ms. Gorsuch:

The National Audubon Society, the Environmental De-
fense Fund (EDF), the National Wildlife Federation, and the
Izaak Walton League of America hereby request the U.S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency to cancel all registrations of
endrin. Numerous incidents of endrin contamination of wildlife
and the environment as a result of legal applications in 1981
are only the most recent examples of serious problems presented
by the continued use of this pesticide.

On July 31, 1975 Audubon and EDF petitioned EPA to can-
cel all registrations of endrin. Official comments were sub-
sequently submitted to EPA throughout the rebuttable presumption
against registration (RPAR) process of evaluating risks of
uses of endrin from 1976-1979. In 1979 comments were submitted
on EPA's decision to cancel uses on cotton and to reregister
inter alia uses on small grains, grasshoppers and pine voles in
apple orchards.

In EPA's final decision to reregister most uses of endrin,
the following statement was made.

The Agency is aware that strict enforcement of
label restrictions may be impossible but believes
that, where its regulatory actions have been
reasonable, an adequate level of compliance can
be anticipated. Any substantial evidence that
misuse has become a common practice would provide
a basis for further regulatory action. (Position
Document at 57)

Since the 1979 final decision on endrin, there is new
substantial evidence that even under controlled circumstances,
contamination of the environment results from endrin applications

224

" page 2

A New York report on contamination of wildlife following the
1977 emergency spraying of endrin was not taken into considera-
tion at the time of EPA's review and final 1979 decision. The
documented results of spraying of endrin in Montana and several
other western states in 1981 also constitute new substantial
evidence of the inevitable contamination of wildlife from the
'legal application of this pesticide. All existing registrations
of endrin are therefore called into question.

•

Pine voles

Although EPA reregistered endrin for use against pine voles
in apple orchards, the state of New York refused, after litiga-
tion, to remove endrin from the list of prohibited pesticides.

The Supreme Court of the state of New York based its decision
of August 11, 1980 largely on a report by the New York State De-
partment of Agriculture and Markets on monitoring after an emer-
gency use of endrin for pine voles in 1977. The report was pub-
lished shortly after EPA's reregistration decision in 1979. The
author, Robert J. Mungari, disclosed that under certain soil con-
ditions, application of endrin resulted in 40JJ remaining up to
14 years after the application. (Report at 13)

In regard to effects on wildlife, the Mungari report con-
cluded at page 54 that:

Post-treatment concentrations of endrin residues on
grass and humus samples appear quite high. Wildlife
feeding on grasses and forbs, and/or drops could be
exposed to acutely toxic levels of endrin within a
relatively short time period. Snails and slugs as well
as earthworms and other invertebrates normally have a
tendency to concentrate pesticides within their bodies
above the existing levels of their surrounding medium.

These organisms become sources of secondary poisoning
to other wildlife organisms. Any animal accumulating
residues within its body represents a potential risk
to other wildlife forms that may directly or indirectly
utilize it as a food source. Sub-lethal concentrations
in pine voles or the gradual build up of resistance
within the target organisms will increase the risk of
contamination to predator species. Persistent pesticide
uptake in a large number and diversity of wildlife
species creates a dangerous reservoir of toxic materials
to scavenger and predator species.

Audubon and EDF brought the Mungari report to EPA ' s
attention in a January 17, 1979 letter. On August 19, 1980
Audubon and EDF requested EPA to reconsider use against the pine
vole in apple orchards, based on the New York Supreme Court
decision. The Mungari report and the court decisions constitute
substantial new evidence not available at the time of the final
EPA decision. EPA's review of the request is apparently still
underway. (See Exhibit A)

225

September 29, 1981
page 3

Small grains

The benefits of the use of endrin on small grains are
very small and the risks continue to be very high. A slight
eight percent of the U.S. wheat acreage receives any insect-
icide application annually so that small grains do not con-
stitute an enormous use of any pesticide, including endrin.
Moreover, EPA claimed that "market and consumer impacts are
expected to be negligible if endrin is cancelled for use on
wheat." (Position Document 2/3 at 87)

On the risk side, wildlife kills have been observed from
use of endrin on wheat (EPA Transcript of hearings, Kansas City,
Missouri, May 26, 1977), and on alfalfa in California (Position
Document 4 at 13). The spraying of one million acres of wheat
for army cutworms in Kansas and Oklahoma in 1976 resulted in
hundreds of reports of fish kills, dead bald eagles, livestock
kills, and the death of two prize greyhound dogs.

During the spring of 1981, 120,000 to 200,000 acres of
wheat lands in 30 or more Montana counties were legally sprayed
with endrin. (Exhibits B and C). The Montana Departments of
Agriculture, Fish, Wildlife and Parks, and Livestock predicted
the "application of endrin can be reasonably expected to cause
reductions in nontarget organisms." This prediction materialized
with an initial fish kill in Sunday Creek (Miles City, Montana),
in which the Department of Agriculture issued a violation citation
to the applicator, and rumored deaths of wildlife in the actual
areas sprayed. Also immediately, concern for the safety of en-
dangered whooping cranes was voiced by the U.S. Fish and V/ildlife
Service (Exhibit D).

As of May 11, 1981, the state of Montana intitiated a
program of monitoring the status of endrin (and toxaphene) re-
sidues at a limited number of sites. Copies of nine status re-
ports filed through the period of September 4, 1981 are attached
as Exhibits E-M. These status reports and Exhibit C document
endrin contamination of various species of upland birds, water-
fowl, and other organisms. It is especially important to point
out that numerous species of migratory birds, including several
that will be harvested for human consumption, were found to carry
unexpectedly high levels of endrin residues. The fact that
their normal fall migration takes these birds through many other
states and across international boundaries has focused attention
on Montana's use of endrin.

W. Gordon McOmber, the Director of the Montana Department
of Agriculture, recognized the dangers of endrin and on September
4, 1981, acting under state authority, issued an emergency rule
temporarily suspending all uses of endrin for any purpose (Exhi-
bit N). In the public notice on this rule, Mr. McOmber stated,

"It is the consensus of this department and the Department of
Fish, Wildlife and Parks that the introduction of more endrin
into the environment of game birds should be avoided, particu-
larly in view of the fact that acceptable substitutes are avail-

September 29, 1981
page 4

able" and further "... the department hereby finds that an
imminent emergency exists which threatens public health, safety
and welfare. . ." (Exhibit 0).

At an earlier date (August 27, 1981) the Montana Depart-
ment of Health and Environmental Sciences recommended surveillance
of endrin residues in "all game species" for a period of two to
three years and that restricitons and warnings be continued dur-
ing that period, or until the residue levels become "micro or
undetectable." (Exhibit P). The Montana Department of Fish,
Wildlife and Pa;*ks has issued warnings and had to consider clos-
ing some game harvest seasons. (Exhibit C).

While documentation is available from Montana, endrin
was also sprayed in Colorado, Wyoming, South Dakota, and perhaps
other western states. Reports should be reviewed from these
states as the fall migration continues and monitoring proceeds.

The 1981 spraying and its documented effects constitute
new substantial evidence of the unreasonable and continuing
adverse effects of endrin.

Grasshoppers

On May 1, 1981, Mr. McOmber temporarily suspended the use
of endrin for grasshopper control and imposed "more stringent
control over endrin uses still allowed" due to the existence of
an "imminent emergency" and threats to the "public health, safety
and welfare. . ." (Exhibit Q) . Treatment for grasshoppers is
frequently in solid blocks of very large size, which impose sig-
nificant short and long-term hazards for wildlife.

The hazards of endrin are well documented for use against
grasshoppers in wheat and less hazardous insecticides are avail-
able. In western states wild animals as large as deer were
poisoned by endrin following sraying on wheat. Incidents of
livestock killed by endrin sprayed at low rates on wheat have
been documented. Sheep have also died in convulsions from endrin
sprayed on wheat .

Use of endrin against grasshoppers is unnecessary and
should therefore be cancelled since acceptable substitutes are
available.

227

September 29, 1981
page 5

Additional problems

Tolerances, The current controversy over how much
endrin contaminated game meat, if any, persons may safely
consiime has brought out once again the fact that tolerances
or an exemption from tolerances have not been established
for endrin. (See Exhibit R). Endrin's use on small grains
are designated as "extended no-residue registrations" which
were to have been converted to registrations covered by to-
lerances after additional studies had been completed.

The reason tolerances had not been established was
that a "no-effect level" or acceptable daily intake (ADI) could
not be determined. In 1978 EPA apparently arrived at a tenta-
tive ADI for endrin based on the Joint Expert Committee on Pesti-
cide Residues use of the FAO/WHO no observable effect level for
endrin in the dog at 0.025 mg/kg/day. Thus the acceptable or
maximal daily intake for humans was established at 0.0002 mg/kg/
body weight /day. Additional testing is apparently necessary
to set finite tolerances or an official ADI.

Until that time, action levels allow residues in food.
Action levels, however, constitute merely an enforcement number
applied when no tolerances for a residue has been established,
but the presence of the residue poses a regulatory problem.

The number is the limit of how much of a contaminant will be
allowed in food before legal action is taken. The action level
for poultry is 0.3 ppm on an extracted fat basis, and 0.03 ppm
after all fat is removed. These levels are not safety levels .
Consuming waterfowl or other game meat with such levels is close
to, if not in excess of, what could be dangerous.

Metabolic fate in man. The problem of endrin 's metabolism
in man also remains unresolved, compounding the potential risk
endrin poses for persons ingesting even small ajnounts. The 1975
study by D. H. Hutson et. ("Detoxification and Bioactivation -

of Endrin in the Rat," Xenobotica, 5(11) ;697;714 . ) found that
a highly toxic metabolite, 12-ketoendrin , is produced in the rat,
and this endrin metabolite is lipophylic. EPA's decision to
reregister endrin for use on food is irresponsible considering
the critical question that remains on whether or not 12-ketoendrin
may occur in the adipose tissues of individuals exposed to endrin,
and such residues have never been looked for in man or other ani-
mals .

Conclusion

The hazards of endrin are and will continue to be well
documented as long as endrin remains available. Substantial
new evidence now exists to cancel remaining registrations. The
National Audubon Society, the Environmental Defense Fund, the

September 29, 1981
page 6

National Wildlife Federation, and The Izaak Walton League
of America therefore renew the 1975 petition that all
registrations of endrin be cancelled.

Sincerely yours,

Russell W. Peterson
President

National Audubon Society

950 Third Avenue

New York, New York 10022

William A. Butler
Vice President for Government
Relations and Counsel
National Audubon Society
645 Pennsylvania Ave., S.E.
Washington, D.C. 20003

Jay Hair
Executive Vice President
National Wildlife Federation
1412 Sixteenth Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20036

Pat Parenteau

Vice President for Resources
Conservation Department
National Wildlife Federation
1412 Sixteenth Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20036

r C' O

Michael Bean
Director

Wildlife Program
Environmental Defense Fund
1525 18th Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20036

■he Izaak Walton League of America
1800 North Kent Street
Suite 806

Arlington, Virginia 22209

229

APPENDIX R

RESOLUTION OF THE
MONTANA FISH AND GAME COMMISSION
MARCH 13, 1983

WHEREAS, the Montana Fish and Game Commission recognizes
that for as long as man has occupied this state, wildlife and
fish have been an integral part of human existence for reason of
recreation and sustenance, and

WHEREAS, today Montana’s wildlife and fish populations
continue to represent a major asset to this state, being highly
valued by the state’s residents and all Americans who recognize
the national significance of this resource, and

WHEREAS, agriculture is an important cornerstone in
Montana’s economy and as such is in need to exercise effective
control over crop-threatening insects, and

WHEREAS, agriculture and wildlife can exist in harmony if
safe, effective insect control chemicals are substituted for
persistent compounds like the chlorinated hydrocarbons,

NOW, THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED, that the Montana Fish and
Game Commission requests federal and state pesticide regulatory
agencies to authorize and recommend alternative pesticides that
are more environmentally safe and less persistent than the
chlorinated hydrocarbons which include endrin and heptachlor, and

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED, that the commission supports the
Environmental Protection Agency funding appropriate studies to
evaluate the effectiveness of alternative compounds for endrin
and other chlorinated hydrocarbons used in Montana and begin an
immediate phase-out of the highly persistent chlorinated
hydrocarbons when alternatives are available.

230

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