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UNIVERSITY  OF 

CALIFORNIA 

SAN  DIefcO 


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fi-A/ 


vyv/- 


THE    ANTIQUARY'S    BOOKS 

GENERAL  EDITOR:   J.  CHARLES  COX,  LL  D.,   F.S.A. 


REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 
IN   ENGLAND 


REMAINS  OF  THE 

PREHISTORIC    AGE 

IN   ENGLAND 


BERTRAM    C:"^  a!""wINDLE 


Sc.D.,   LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.S.A.,  M.R.I. A. 

PRESIDENT   AND   PROFESSOR    OF    ARCH.IiOLOGV,    UNIVERSITY   COLLEGE,    CORK 


ILLUSTRATED    BY   EDITH    MARY    WINDLE 


SECOXD   EDITION,    RE\TSED 


AIETHUEN   &  CO. 

36    ESSEX    STREET    W.C. 

LONDON 


First  IhihlisJied July  IQ04 

Secomi  Editioti,  Revised    .         .         ■     Dece»ibe>- igog 


TO 

THE    ILLUSTRATOR   OF   THIS   VOLUME 

IT    IS    DEDICATED 

WITH    MUCH    AFFECTION 

BY    HER    HUSBAND 


CONTENTS 


PACE 

Preface  .  .  .  ...      xiii 

CHAPTER    I 
Introductory— Divisions  of  the  Prehistoric  Period  .         i 

CHAPTER    n 
Stone  Implements — Method  of  Manufacture        .         .       i8 

CHAPTER    HI 
Stone  Implements — Eoliths — Pal^oliths  .  .         .       40 

List  of  Caves  in  England  and  Wales  .         .       61 

List  of  Localities  where  River-Drift  Implements 
have  been  Found  .  .  .         .       61 

CHAPTER    IV 

Stone    Implements  —  Neolithic  Types  —  Overlap  with 

Metal      .  .  .  ...       65 

CHAPTER   V 
The  Metallic  Age— Copper — Bronze  .  .         .       88 

List  of  Hoards  of  Bronze  Implements  .         .     104 

CHAPTER   VI 

Bone  Implements— Engravings,  Carvings,  and  Art  of 

Primitive  Man — Ornaments  .  .         .     107 

List  of  Cup-and-Ring  Markings  in  England  .     127 

a  2  vii 


viii     REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 
CHAPTER   VII 

PACE 

Places  of  Burial — Barkows  Loxc.  and  Round     .         .128 


List  of  Barrows 


153 


CHAPTER   VIII 

Megalithic  Remains — Dolmens — Cists  —  Circles  — Align- 
ments— Menihirion                .                 ...  174 
List  of  Dolmens       ...                      .  195 
List  of  Other  Megalithic  Remains     .             .  197 

CHAPTER    IX 

Earthworks  — Camps — Dykes          .  ...  205 

List  of  Pre-Roman  Earthworks  .             .         .  224 

List  of  Dykes           .                 ,  ...  252 

CHAPTER    X 

Early  Places   of    Habitation  —  Pit-dwellings  —  Hut- 
circles  —  Souterrains  —  Dene -HOLES  —  Beehive 
Houses  —  Pile-dwellings  —  Crannoges  —  Terra- 
mare         .  .  .  ...     255 

List  of  Villages      .  .  ...     274 

CHAPTER    XI 
The  Late  Celtic  or  Early  Iron  Age         .  .         .     282 

CHAPTER    XII 
Physical  Remains  of  Prehistoric  Man       .  .         .     301 

Appendix — List  of  Museums  Containing  Objects  dealt 

WITH  IN  THIS  Book  .  .  .         -313 

Index  .  .  .  ...     318 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


14. 

15- 
16. 

17- 
18. 

19- 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 

24. 

25' 


Stonehenge  [A/r/icco/o^ia']  .  .  .    Frontispiece 

Scandinavian  Dagger  [W.] 

Flint  Knife,  Egyptian  (from  a  specimen  in  the 

W.  Macgregor) 
PalKolithic  Implement,  from  Abbeville  [W.] 
Palceolithic  Implement,  from  Caversham  [W.] 
Paloeolith,  Chert,  from  Broom  [U.B.] 
Glass  Arrow-head  and  Implements  used  in  its 

Australians     . 
Method  of  manufacture  of  Glass  Arrow-head 
and  7  from  photos  kindly  provided  by  H.  B 
Flint  Flaking  by  percussion 
Flint  Flaking  by  pressure  (8  and  9  from  Holmes's  Stone  Implements  of 

the  Potomac)  .  .  .     ■ 

Eoliths,  Alderbury  [W.]    . 
Abraded  Flint  (W.  G.  Smith's  oldest  type)  [W 
PalKolith,  Flint  (Broom)  [U.B.] 
Palceolith,  St.  Acheul  [U.B.] 
Implement  free  from   flakes  (right)  and  with 

Caddington  (by  kind  permission  of  Mr.  W. 
Mammoth,  wall  of  grotto  of  Combarelles  (aft 

pologie) 
Scrapers  [W.]     . 

Rough  Stone  Celt,  Cissbury  [W.]     . 
Polished  Celt,  Irish  [W.]  . 
Polished  Celt,  Irish  LW.]  . 
Rough  Chisel-shaped  Celt,  Dewlish  [W.] 
Chisel-shaped  Celts  [U.B.] 

Flint  Implement.     Large  scraper  or  small  grubbing  tool  [W.] 
Handled   Celt,    Irish   [by  permission  from  Journal  of  Roy.    Soc.   of 

Antiqs.  of  Ireland\ 
Small  Stone  Celts,  Swiss  [W.] 
Flint  Adze,  Thames  at  Chertsey  [W.] 


collection  of  the  Rev 


manufacture  by  nativ 

by  native  Australian  (6 
Ifour,  Esq.,  M.A.) 


flakes  reattached, 
G.  Smith) 
r  a  figure  in  L  ^Aiithro 


19 

20 
21 
26 
31 

33 

34 
36 

37 
41 

47 
49 
50 

52 

55 
58 
69 
71 
71 
72 
72 
73 

74 
75 
75 


REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 


HG. 


f  Rev.  R.  Gatty] 


fiom  Journal  of  Roy. 


26.  Knives,  flat-backed  ami  tanged,  Newhaven,  Sussex  [U.B.] 

27.  Curved  Knife-like  flint  implement  [U.B.] 

28.  Double  Concave  and  Ordinary  Scrapers,  Icklingham  [W.] 

29.  "  Button"  Scraper,  Lakenheath  [W.] 

30.  Scrapers,  Mas  d'Azil  (after  a  figure  in  I.'  Aiithropologie)  . 

31.  Double  Concave  Scraper  and  Saw  [W.] 

32.  Flint  Arrow-heads,  Aberdeenshire  [W.] 

33.  Arrow-heads  [W.]  .... 

34.  Arrow-heads  [U.B.]  .... 

35.  Flint  Arrow-head  embedded  in  human  lumbar  vertebra  (after  a  figure 

in  U Anthropologic) 

36.  Borer  and  Fabricator,  Avebury  [W.] 

37.  Pigmy  Implements  [W.,  and  from  collection  o 

38.  Spindle  Whorls  [U.B.]      . 

39.  Flat  Bronze  Celt  [W.] 

40.  Bronze  PalstafT[W.] 

41.  Bronze  Palstaff[W.] 

42.  Looped  and  socketed  bronze  Celt  [W.] 

43.  Bronze  Dagger  with  handle  [by  permission 

Soc.  of  Antiqs.  of  Ireland] 

44.  Bronze  Spearhead,  Wrekin  [W.] 

45.  Bronze  Sickle,  Swiss  Lake  Village  [W.] 

46.  Harpoons  of  horn,  French  (after  a  figure  in  L'Anthropologie) 

47.  Dress-fastener,  La  Madelaine  (from  cast) 

48.  Bison  and  Man  engraved  on  reindeer-horn  (from  cast)     . 

49.  Horses'  heads  carved  in  round  on  bone  (after  a  figure  in  U Anthro 

pologie) 

50.  Reindeer  engraved  on  stone,  St.  Marcel  (after  a  figure  in  UAnthro 

pologie)  ..... 

51.  Dagger  of  reindeer-horn  (from  cast) 

52.  Neolithic  and  bronze  ornamentation  (various  sources) 

53.  Cup-and-Ring  markings,  Berwick     . 

54.  Jet  Necklace  (after  a  figure  in  Bateman's  Ten  Years'  Digging) 

55.  Plans  of  Long  Barrows  \_A)-ch(£ologia'] 

56.  Entrance  to  Long  Barrow,  Uley  \^Archceologia'\ 

57.  Entrance  to  Long  Barrow,  West  Kennett  [^Archceologia'] 

58.  Restoration  of  Long  Barrow,  West  Kennett  [Archcrologia] 

59.  Section  of  Barrow  with  successive  interments  .  .  . 

60.  Skeletons  of  woman  and  child  from  Round  Barrow  (by  kind  per 

mission  of  W.  G.  Smith) 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


XI 


FIG. 

6i. 
62. 

63. 

64. 

65. 

66. 
67. 
6S. 
69. 
70. 

71- 

72. 

73- 

74- 
75- 
76. 

77- 
78. 

79- 
80. 
81. 
82. 

83- 
84. 
85. 
86. 

87. 
88. 

89. 

90. 

91. 
92. 

93- 


Cinerary  Urn,  Durrington 

Cinerary  Urn,  Woodyates 

Incense  Cup,  Winterbourne  Stoke     . 

Incense  Cup,  grape  pattern  (61-64  after  figures  in  Devizes  Museum 

Catalogue) 
Dolmen,  "Devil's  Den,"  near  Marlborough 
Dolmen,  Bodowr,  Anglesea 

Double  Dolmen,  Plas  Newydd,  Anglesea  (65-67  from  photos  by  autlior) 
Plan  of  Stonehenge  l^Arckcuologia] 
Plan  of  Avebury  {ArcJuio/ogia] 

Plan  of  Stone  Circles  at  Stanton  Drew  [Archceologia] 
Menhir,  "King's  Stone"  at  Rollright  (from  photo  by  author) 
Menhir,  Woeful  Dane's  Bottom  (from  photo  by  author)  . 
Camp  on  Bredon  Hill 

•Entrances  to  Maiden  Castle,  Dorset 

British  Camp,  Herefordshire  Beacon 

Plan  of  British  Camp,  Herefordshire  Beacon 

Plan  of  Yarnbury  Castle,  Wilts 

Cambridgeshire  Dykes 

Ideal  section  of  Pit-dwelling 

Plan  of  part  of  Woodcuts  Village  (after  plan  in 

Dene-holes         ... 

Perforated  Stone  Hammer  [U.B.]     . 

Late  Celtic  ornament  {Air/usologia'] 

Late  Celtic  ornament  [Arclueo/ogia] 

Late  Celtic  Sword  \_Arch(Tologia\       .   , 

Late  Celtic  Sheath  [Arckaologia] 

Late  Celtic  Bronze  Shield 

Late  Celtic  Brooch  [Proc.  Soc.  Antiqs.) 

Part  of  Bronze  Torque  (after  a  figure  in  Allie' 

Lore  of  Worcestershire  . 
Dolichocephalic  Skull 

Brachycephalic  Skull  (90  and  91,  from  photos  l)y  Dr.  W.  Wright) 
Curves  of  vaults  of  various  skulls      .  .  .  . 


PAGE 

151 
151 
152 

•52 
176 
176 
177 
187 
189 
190 
'93 
I9t 
213 
216 

217 
218 
219 
223 
258 
Y\\.\.-'KwQx^  Excavations)  261 
267 
282 
291 
292 
294 
294 
297 
299 
Antiquities  and  Folk 


303 
307 


The  figures  taken  from  Archvologia  and  Proc.   Soc.  Antiqs.  are  reproduced 
by  kind  permission  of  the  Council. 
[W.]  from  author's  collection. 
[U.B.]  from  Museum  of  University  of  Birmingham. 


PREFACE 

THE  object  of  this  book  is  to  give  an  account  of 
tiie  material  relics  of  the  Prehistoric  period  still 
to  be  seen  in  this  country,  and  to  that  object  the 
writer  has  endeavoured  to  adhere  as  closely  as  possible. 
To  lay  before  his  readers  facts  rather  than  theories  has 
been  the  end  always  kept  in  view,  and  this  not  merely 
because  space  is  limited  and  materials  are  many.  There 
has  been  a  vast  amount  of  theory-spinning  in  connection 
with  the  early  epochs  of  which  this  book  treats,  theory- 
spinning,  in  part  not  merely  permissible  but  even  neces- 
sary, but  in  part  wholly  superfluous.  To  judge  from  the 
accounts  of  Palaeolithic  Man  which  occur  in  some  books 
on  Prehistoric  Archaeology,  it  might  be  supposed  that 
the  writers  had  enjoyed  the  privileges  possessed  by 
Mr.  Peter  Ibbetson  and  the  Duchess  of  Towers,  and  had 
dreamed  themselves  backwards  so  as  to  have  actually  seen 
and  studied  the  men  of  whom  they  write — so  closely  are 
the  habits,  the  appearance,  and  even  the  speech  of  our 
very  remote  ancestors  described  and  descanted  upon.  To 
the  scholar  such  discourses  are  of  little  moment.  He  is 
able  to  sift  out  the  valuable  portions  of  such  books,  when 
they  possess  any,  from  the  valueless.  But  to  the  general 
reader  it  is  otherwise.  He  is  not  to  be  supposed  to  be 
capable  of  knowing  which  statements  are  facts  and  which 
surmises.  To  dispense  with  theorising,  as  hinted  above, 
in  such  a  subject  as  this  would  be  impossible,  even  if  it 
were  desirable  ;  nor  has  the  attempt  been  made.  But  so 
far  as  is  possible  theory  has  been  set  aside  for  facts,  and 


I 


x\v    REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 

at  least  the  reader  has  been  warned  when  he  is  treading 
upon  doubtful  ground. 

It  is  the  intention  of  the  series,  of  which  this  book  forms 
a  part,  that  the  antiquities  described  should  be  those  of 
England,  and  here  again,  as  far  as  may  be,  the  plan 
indicated  has  been  acted  upon.  But  it  would  be  impos- 
sible to  write  an  adequate  account  of  prehistoric  objects 
confined  entirely  to  this  island,  still  more  to  the  southern 
part  of  it  only.  It  has  been  necessary  to  allude  to  other 
parts  of  the  world,  and  notably  to  France,  for  without 
the  French  discoveries,  a  clear  and  consecutive  account 
of  the  various  epochs  of  the  Prehistoric  period  would  be 
impracticable.  As  far  as  possible,  however,  the  objects 
described  have  been  taken  from  English  sources,  and  the 
lists  at  the  ends  of  the  chapters  have  been  confined  en- 
tirely to  objects  found  in  the  counties  of  England. 

Perhaps  it  may  be  permissible  and  even  advisable  to 
say  a  word  at  this  point  about  these  lists.  They  are 
strictly  "Trial-Lists,"  and  though  very  great  pains  have 
been  taken  to  make  them  accurate  and  complete,  no  one 
can  be  better  aware  than  their  author  that,  from  the 
nature  of  things,  they  must  necessarily  suffer  from  sins  of 
commission  and  omission.  In  the  body  of  the  book  the 
author  has  tried  as  far  as  possible  to  describe  objects 
which  he  has  himself  seen  and  studied,  but  it  is  obviously 
impossible  for  any  one  person  to  have  seen  and  checked 
all  the  places  mentioned  in  the  lists.  The  lists  have  been 
compiled  from  the  Ordnance  Map,  from  Murray's  and 
other  County  Handbooks,  from  Proceedings  of  various 
societies,  and  from  other  sources.  After  much  considera- 
tion, and  acting  on  the  advice  of  competent  authorities, 
it  has  been  decided  that  the  lists  shall  appear,  and  it  is 
hoped  that  they  may  be  at  least  useful  as  a  basis  for  a 
more  perfect  compilation  in  the  future. 

The  author  must  not  forget  to  acknowledge  the  help 


PREFACE  XV 

which  he  has  received  in  compilinc^  these  lists  from  his 
brother  local  secretaries  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 
Some  of  these  gentlemen  apparently  did  not  receive  any 
of  the  several  letters  addressed  to  them,  since  no  reply 
could  be  obtained  from  them,  but  by  the  large  majority 
most  kindly  help  was  at  once  and  willingly  given.  The 
author  can  only  hope  that  he  may  be  able  some  day  to 
repay  in  kind  the  assistance  for  which  he  is  most  truly 
grateful.  In  addition  to  these  local  experts,  various  lists 
have  been  looked  through  by  Canon  Greenwell,  Mr. 
Gowland,  Mr.  I.  Chalkley  Gould,  to  whom  the  author's 
thanks  are  due  and  are  here  expressed.  He  has  also  to 
thank  his  friends.  Professor  Haddon,  f.r.s.,  Mr.  Henry 
Balfour,  Baron  A.  von  Hiigel,  Dr.  Blackmore,  Mr.  St. 
John  Hope,  Mr.  Gowland,  and  the  Rev.  R.  A.  Gatty,  for 
advice  of  various  kinds.  And  he  must  express  his  ac- 
knowledgments to  those  societies  and  individuals  who 
have  allowed  the  reproduction  of  drawings  from  their 
proceedings  of  works. 

The  author  desired,  as  far  as  possible,  to  have  a  new  set 
of  illustrations  and  not  to  repeat  the  figures  which  have 
done  duty  so  frequently  in  other  books  on  the  subject. 
That  all  the  figures  should  be  absolutely  new  was  im- 
possible, but  a  large  number  are,  and  all  have  been  drawn 
or  redrawn  by  the  author's  wife.  To  enumerate  the 
sources  from  which  information  has  been  obtained  for 
the  purposes  of  this  book  would  be  an  impossible  task 
here,  and  it  is  hoped  that  it  has  been  rendered  unneces- 
sary by  the  copious  references  to  the  literature  which  have 
been  given  throughout. 

B.  C.  A.  W. 

Maids  Cross,  Solihull 


NOTE 

An  asterisk  prefixed  to  any  name  in  the 
lists  indicates  that  the  place  is  one  of  special 
importance. 


PREFACE   TO    THE    SECOND    EDITION 

A  SECOND  edition  of  this  work  having  been  called 
for,  I  have  endeavoured  to  incorporate  in  it  not 
only  various  observations  and  discoveries  which 
have  been  made  public  since  the  first  appearance  of  this 
work,  but  also  the  numerous  corrections  and  additions, 
chiefly  in  the  Trial-Lists,  which  I  owe  to  the  kindness  of 
many  correspondents,  mostly  unknown  to  me,  and  to 
whom  I  desire  hereby  to  return  my  thanks.  The  last 
chapter,  being  avowedly  a  mere  sketch  of  a  subject 
which  might  easily  form  a  volume  in  itself,  would  have 
been  omitted  but  that  my  valued  friend  Dr.  William 
Wright,  F.S.A.,  whose  knowledge  of  Physical  Anthrop- 
ology is  so  great  and  so  well  known,  came  to  my 
assistance  and  enabled  me  still  to  include  it  as  an  outline 
of  what  is  known  on  this  matter  at  the  present  day.  My 
acknowledgments  to  him  for  his  kindness  are  but  poorly 
given  in  this  statement.  May  I  beg  that  correspondents 
will  continue  to  extend  to  me  the  kindness  which  they 
have  shown  in  the  past,  and  will  send  any  corrections 
or  suggestions  which  may  occur  to  them  ? 

B.  C.  A.  W. 

University  College,  Cork 
September  22nd,  1909 


REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC 
AGE    IN   ENGLAND 


CHAPTER   I 

INTRODUCTORY— DIVISIONS    OF   THE 
PREHISTORIC    PERIOD 

THOUGH  the  intention  of  this  book  is  rather  to 
describe  the  various  classes  of  objects  connected 
with  the  Prehistoric  era,  than  to  give  a  continuous 
description  of  that  period,  it  is  clear  that  some  prefatory- 
account  of  the  epochs  into  which  the  time  with  which  we 
are  dealing  has  been  divided,  and  of  the  objects  character- 
istic of  each,  must  be  submitted  to  the  reader  before  the 
special  task  of  the  book  is  attacked.  And  this  account 
again  will  itself  require  to  be  prefaced  by  some  notice  of 
the  geological  history  of  the  later  periods  of  the  world's 
history  in  which  the  presence  of  man  may  either  be 
proved,  or,  though  at  present  unproved,  may  be  looked 
for  as  possible.  In  considering  the  problems  presented 
by  inquiries  into  prehistoric  archaeology,  one  must  never 
forget  that  many  of  them,  and  especially  those  connected 
with  the  earlier  periods,  are  almost  exclusively  geological 
in  their  nature,  and  can  only  be  solved  on  geological 
lines.  Hence  in  deciding  such  a  question  as  that,  for 
example,  of  the  nature  and  date  of  eoliths,  there  are  two 
distinct  matters  for  discussion.     First  as  to  the  artificial 

B 


2       REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

or  natural  character  of  the  objects,  which  is  a  point  to 
be  decided  by  a  prehistoric  archaeologist,  experienced 
in  comparing  flints  worked  by  man  with  others  whose 
fractures  and  facets  are  the  product  of  purely  natural 
forces.  But  after  this  is  determined,  there  is  a  second 
matter  for  discussion — the  age  of  the  gravels  in  which  the 
implements  are  found  ;  and  this  is,  of  course,  a  purely 
geological  problem,  and  must  be  solved  by  a  geologist, 
or,  at  least,  on  geological  principles. 

Geological  time  is  divided  into  Paleozoic,  Mesozoic, 
and  Cainozoic  periods,  the  first-named  being  the  most 
ancient.  With  this  great  period,  and  w^ith  the  Mesozoic 
which  succeeded  it,  we  have  no  concern  in  this  book, 
nor  need  their  subdivisions  here  be  mentioned.  At  the 
Cainozoic  period  we  must  look  a  little  more  closely.  It  is 
subdivided  into  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  eras,  and  each 
of  these  has  further  subdivisions,  which  may  be  set  out 
as  follows: — 

Tertiary  (commencing  with  the  oldest  beds): 
Eocene. 
Oligocene. 

Miocene  (unrepresented  in  Britain). 
Pliocene. 

Quaternary : 

Pleistocene.      Terrestrial,    Alluvial,    Estuarine,    Marine, 

and  Glacial  Beds  of  Palaeolithic  Age. 
Recent.       Terrestrial,    Alluvial,    Estuarine,    and    Marine 
Beds  of  Neolithic,   Bronze,   Iron,   and  Historic  Ages. 

Over  the  consideration  of  the  two  older  divisions  of  the 
Tertiary  period  we  need  not  linger,  for,  so  far,  no  sugges- 
tion that  man  existed  during  their  continuance  has  been 
made.  The  earliest  objects  which  have  been  attributed  to 
him  have  been  found  in  miocene  deposits,  and  without, 
for  the  moment,  considering  whether  these  objects  are 
really  what  they  have  been  claimed  to  be,   we  will  take 


INTRODUCTORY  :^ 

up  the  geological  story  at  this  point.  The  Miocene  period 
appears  to  have  been  one  of  a  somewhat  tropical  charac- 
ter, since  the  nearest  representatives  of  many  of  its  most 
characteristic  plants  are  to  be  found  in  India  and  in 
Australia.  During  the  Pliocene  period  these  conditions 
gradually  altered,  the  flora,  from  which  the  characteristic 
palms  of  the  previous  age  have  disappeared,  indicating  a 
more  temperate  climate.  To  this  succeeded,  in  the  Pleis- 
tocene age,  alternating  periods  of  Arctic  cold  and  of  more 
genial  weather,  to  which  the  name  of  the  Glacial  epoch 
has  been  assigned.  During  the  Arctic  parts  of  this  period 
Britain,  then,  and  in  the  preceding  epoch,  connected  with 
the  rest  of  the  continent  of  Europe  by  dry  land,  was 
covered  in  large  part  with  huge  glaciers,  whose  traces,  in 
the  shape  of  erratic  blocks,  moraines,  and  other  evidences 
of  ice-action,  are  still  to  be  seen  in  many  parts  of  the 
island.  But  the  course  of  events,  so  far  as  the  subject- 
matter  of  this  book  is  affected  by  geological  considerations, 
may  be  set  down  in  tabular  form,  as  summarised  from 
Woodward's  Geology  of  England  and  Wales.  As  before, 
the  table  commences  with  the  older  period,  and  gradually 
conducts  us  to  the  present. 
Pliocene  : 

At  the  end  of  this  period,   when  the  Cromer  Forest  and 
Norwich  Crag-  Series  were  laid  down,  there  were  in- 
dications of  approaching  cold. 
Pleistocene  : 

The  history  of  this  the  earlier  division  of  the  Quaternary 
period  has  been  subdivided  by  geologists  into  the 
following  periods : — 

(a)  Elevation  of  the  land   with  severe  glacial  conditions. 

The  earliest  boulder  clays  deposited. 

(b)  Submergence  of  considerable  areas  and  deposition  of 

marine  sands  and  gravels,  such  as  the  shelly  sands 
and  gravels  of  Moel  Tryfan,  Macclesfield,  Blackpool, 
etc. 


4       REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 

(c)  Elevation  of  land,  accompanied  by  intense  glacial  con- 

ditions, with  great  ice-sheets  formed  by  confluent 
glaciers,  extending  over  large  tracts  of  country. 

(d)  Britain  continental,  with  climate  changing  from  intense 

cold  to  temperate  and  genial.  Arctic  and  southern 
mammalia,  mammoth,  rhinoceros,  hyaena,  etc.,  visit 
Britain,  according  as  climatal  conditions  become 
suited  to  their  needs.  Plateau  gravels  (in  part)  and 
raised  beaches  (in  part)  formed.  Mammaliferous 
gravels.     PalcFolithic  impleyncnts. 

(e)  Severe  glacial  conditions,  with  glaciers  and  coast-ice, 

affecting  more  particularly  Scotland,  Wales,  and 
the  northern  districts  of  England. 

(f)  Retreat  of  the  ice,  and  periods  of  small  local  glaciers 

on  the  higher  mountain  regions,  when  Britain  was 
probably  isolated,  and  land  of  less  extent  than  now. 
Recent  : 

(g)  Britain  again  becomes  continental.  Summer  and  winter 
temperatures  more  excessive  than  now.  Age  of 
great  forests.  Incoming  of  recent  fauna.  Raised 
beaches  (in  part),  river  gravels,  and  some  cave 
deposits  belong  to  this  period. 

(h)  Depression  bringing  about  final  insulation  of  Britain. 
Climate  humid.  Decay  of  forests  and  growth  of 
peat-mosses.  Modern  beaches  and  marine  deposits 
(Burtle  beds,  etc.),  blown  sand,  etc.,  submerged 
forests, 
(i)  The  present. 

(During  the  whole  of  the  recent  period  Neolithic  and 
other  evidences  of  Man's  presence  are  discoverable.) 

In  addition  to  the  notes  in  the  table  above  as  to  the 
mammals  of  the  different  periods,  a  few  further  observa- 
tions must  be  made,  and  for  this  reason.  The  age  of 
implements  made  by  man  has  often  to  be  determined, 
indeed  in  many  cases  can  only  be  determined,  by  a 
consideration  of  the  objects  with  which  they  have  been 
discovered.     Amongst  these  the  most  important  are  the 


INTRODUCTORY  5 

teeth  and  bones  of  extinct  mammals.  If,  for  example, 
undoubted  implements  can  be  shown  to  have  been  found 
in  undisturbed  strata  with  the  teeth  and  other  relics  of 
a  given  species  of  elephant,  then,  if  we  know  the  relative 
date  of  the  elephant  in  question,  we  can  assign  a  period 
for  the  implements  found  with  its  remains.  During  the 
epoch  which  the  table  covers  there  was,  as  will  be  noticed, 
an  earlier  period  during  which  large  mammals,  now  extinct, 
formed  an  important  part  of  the  fauna.  To  this  suc- 
ceeded a  later  period  when,  the  larger  mammals  having 
died  out,  the  fauna  was  characterised  by  animals  similar 
to,  indeed  for  the  most  part  identical  with,  those  of  the 
present  day.  In  France  the  earlier  part  of  the  first  period 
was  specially  characterised  by  the  mammoth,  the  later  by 
the  reindeer.  To  be  a  little  more  specific,  the  following 
list  of  the  more  important  mammals  may  be  added  : — 

In  the  latest  Pliocene  period  the  remains  of  three  species 
of  elephant  are  to  be  met  with,  namely — 

Elephns  meridionalis, 
,,       aiitiquiis. 
,,       primigcnius  var.  (rare). 

With  these  existed  a  hippopotamus  (//.  amph{hins\  a 
rhinoceros  (i?.  etntsciis),  and  horse,  deer,  hyasna  (//. 
crocuta,  var.  spelaeiis),  and  the  glutton. 

In  the  Pleistocene  period  two  elephants  are  found,  viz. — 

Elephas  antiquus,  the  straigflit-tusked   or  early 
elephant. 
,,        primigcnius,  the  mammoth. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  E.  meridionalis,  met  with  in  the 
earlier  period,  has  now  disappeared  from  the  fauna.  In 
addition  to  the  elephants  were  two  species  of  rhinoceros — 

RJiitioceros  fic/iorhiniis,  the  woolly. 

,,  Icptorhinus,  the  small-nosed. 


6      REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

And  there  were  also  the  cave-lion  and  cave-bear,  the 
sabre-toothed  lion  {Machaifodus  latidens)^  the  leopard, 
lynx,  glutton,  and  cave-hyasna.  All  these  are  now 
extinct,  at  least  in  this  country,  but  of  the  following,  also 
met  with  in  the  period  under  consideration,  all  have  been 
met  with  in  recent  deposits,  and  some  exist  at  the  present 
day  amongst  our  native  fauna.  The  horse,  urus  {Bos 
primigenius)^  roe-deer,  red-deer  and  reindeer,  the  Irish 
elk,  wild  boar,  brown  bear,  fox,  wolf,  wild  cat,  otter, 
badger,  etc. 

With  these  prefatory  remarks  of  a  geological  character, 
we  may  now  pass  to  the  consideration  of  the  important 
question — When  did  Man  first  make  his  appearance?  It 
is  a  question  which  cannot  be  answered  with  any  certainty 
at  present,  since  there  is  much  difference  of  opinion  on 
the  point  amongst  scientific  men.  It  is  not  wonderful 
that  such  should  be  the  case  when  it  is  considered  that 
the  decision  rests  upon  the  nature  of  certain  very  rude 
stone  implements.  Are  these  the  work  of  man,  or  are 
they  shaped  by  natural  forces?  Such  is  the  question 
which  has  to  be  answered  when  dealing  with  the  point 
now  under  consideration.  Nor  is  the  determination  an 
easy  matter  from  the  very  nature  of  things.  The  stone 
implement  in  its  first  inception  was  doubtless  nothing 
more  than  a  conveniently  shaped  natural  stone.  The 
Semangs,  a  tribe  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  use  no  other 
stone  implements  than  these  to  the  present  day,  and  find 
them  when  supplemented  by  fragments  of  shell,  of  wood, 
or  of  bamboo,  sufficient  for  their  simple  needs.  To 
identify  stone  implements  of  the  Prehistoric  period  be- 
longing to  this  category  is  almost,  if  not  absolutely, 
impossible.  And  the  first  touches  applied  to  such  imple- 
ments, in  order  to  render  them  a  little  handier  to  grasp 
or  more  efficacious  as  weapons  or  tools,  must  necessarily 
have  been  slight,  and  with  difficulty  distinguishable  from 


INTRODUCTORY  7 

the  operations  of  nature.  But,  with  all  allowances  of 
this  kind,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  verdict  of  the 
scientific  world  is,  so  far,  decidedly  opposed  to  the 
acceptance  as  genuine  works  of  the  hand  of  man  of 
the  flints  discovered  by  the  Abbe  Bourgeois  at  Thenay 
(Loire-et-Cher)  in  miocene  beds,  or  by  M.  Ribeira  in 
strata  of  the  same  period  at  Otta  in  Spain.  For  the 
present,  then,  we  must  seek  a  later  period  for  the  advent 
of  man. 

To  many  observers  the  first  undeniable  implements 
are  those  known  as  eoliths,  to  which  full  consideration 
will  be  given  in  a  later  chapter.  It  is  true  that  some 
eminent  authorities  still  refuse  to  concede  that  these 
objects  are  anything  else  but  the  product  of  nature  ; 
but  there  is  a  considerable  weight  of  opinion  on  the 
side  of  those  who  accept  these  flints  as  genuine  arte- 
facts. 

But  when  this  point  is  cleared  up,  the  whole  ques- 
tion is  not  settled.  Granted  that  they  are  the  work  of 
man's  hands,  there  is  still  some  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the  age  of  the  gravels  in  which  they  have  been 
found,  some  authorities  assigning  them  to  the  Pliocene, 
others  to  the  Pleistocene  period. 

The  Rev.  F.  Smith  ^  has  recently  described  a  number 
of  implements,  which  he  believes  to  be  of  human 
manufacture,  which  are  inter-  or  pre-glacial  and  bear 
in  many  cases  the  marks  of  glaciation.  Still  it  must 
be  admitted  that  much  doubt  still  exists  as  to  the 
date  of  the  advent  of  man.  No  person,  at  any  rate, 
would  hesitate  to  go  as  far  as  Lord  Avebury  has 
gone  in  the  summing-up  of  the  subject  which  he 
gives, '^  though  some  would  claim  that  the  earlier  period 


*  The  Stone  Ages  in  North  Britain  and  Ireland,  1909. 
^  Scenery  of  England,  p.  82. 


8      REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 

there  alluded  to  is  not  merely  probable,  but  actually 
proved. 

"Whether,"  writes  the  author  just  mentioned,  "man 
existed  in  Britain  before  the  Glacial  period,  or  during 
the  inter-Glacial  periods  of  a  more  genial  climate,  there 
is  still  some  difference  of  opinion,  though  it  seems 
probable ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  he  was 
here  soon  after  the  final  disappearance  of  glacial  con- 
ditions, and  coexisted  with  the  mammoth,  the  woolly- 
haired  rhinoceros,  the  hippopotamus,  the  musk-sheep, 
the  gigantic  Irish  elk,  the  great  bear,  and  the  cave- 
lion." 

Let  us  leave  the  question  of  eoliths  for  the  time,  and 
grant,  for  the  sake  of  argument,  that  they  are  to  be 
accepted.  Starting  with  them,  the  periods  of  Pre- 
historic time,  with  certain  characteristics  of  each,  may 
be  shown  in  tabular  form,  the  table  being,  in  almost 
every  particular,  identical  with  one  drawn  up  by 
Fischer,  on  the  basis  of  the  observations  of  Piette^ 
(see  opposite  page). 

It  will  now  be  necessary  somewhat  to  develop  the 
information  contained  in  this  table,  and  first  of  all  it 
should  be  made  quite  clear  that  when  the  Palaeolithic, 
or  Neolithic,  or  Bronze  periods  are  spoken  of,  all  that  is 
implied  is  that  certain  phases,  or  stages,  characterised  by 
these  names   have  been   passed   through,  apparently  by 

^  L' AntJiropologie ,  vol.  vii.  p.  633.  Piette's  even  more  recent  classifica- 
tion may  be  found  in  Zetitralbl.  f.  Anthrop.  Ethn.  u.  Urgeschichte,  1901, 
p.  65.  It  is  perhaps  well  to  point  out  that  there  are  many  classifications 
and  divisions  of  the  Prehistoric  period,  and  will  probably  be  many  more, 
each  marking  a  fresh  stage  in  our  knowledge.  That  which  is  given 
above  will  serve  to  indicate  the  main  chain  of  events,  however  much  it  may 
require  subsequent  emendation  in  details.  N.  B. — The  attention  of  the 
reader  is  particularly  called  to  the  sketch  of  Hoernes'  classification,  given 
on  p.  56. 


INTRODUCTORY 


Era. 


Period. 


Epoch. 


f 


2  2- 

Cl,  C    ^  ' 
_Qj    as  12  ■ 


Passage.  Homo — Elephas  antiquus — E.  mcriili 
onalis — E.  primigenius.  rrobably  Pliocene 
Eoliths.  ? 


Ji 


s 

S' 


CheUeaii.  E.  antiquus  predominant.  Implements 
mostly  oval,  with  a  cutting  edge  at  the  point. 
Body  thick  after  the  shape  of  an  almond  or 
peach  stone. 


'  Mousterian. 
E.  primigenius. 
Rh.  tichorhinus. 
Ursus  spelKus. 


Transition.       E.    primigenius 
and  E.  antiquus 

Mousterian  properly  so-called. 
Points  and  scrapers. 


o  / 

«  \ 

K 

H 

Z 

< 


r  "1      cs  u  j3 


Papal i an, 
or  equidian, 
or  ivory. 


Rounded  sculptures. 


1 


Bas-reliefs. 


Champ-leve&  simple 
gravings. 


Cervidian. 
Present  fauna 
with  reindeer  in 
S.  of  France. 


'Reindeer.     Simple  grav- 
ings.     Harpoons  of 
reindeer  horn. 
Needles. 


V  O 


Red  Deer.  Simple  grav- 
ings. Needles.  Har- 
poons of  reindeer 
and  stag's  horns. 


O 


Asylian.    C.  elaphus.    Coloured  Pebbles.     Rein- 
deer emigrating  north.  !^ 

Shells.     Strong  vegetation. 


Polished  stone  celts. 


J       s 


-{  Bronze,  with  overlap  of  polished  stone. 
\Early  Iron,  with  overlap  of  bronze. 


lo     REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

many,  perhaps  by  most,  of  the  races  of  the  world.  Com- 
paratively few  of  the  types  of  implements  made  during 
the  stone  period  afford  us  conclusive  evidence  as  to  the 
period  in  it  to  which  they  belong.  Moreover,  stone 
implements  continued  to  be  manufactured  long  after 
bronze  was  known,  indeed,  for  certain  purposes  stone  is 
still  utilised  in  all  countries  for  the  manufacture  of  imple- 
ments. The  objects  characteristic  of  the  different  periods 
are  only  the  dominant  features,  at  given  moments,  in  a 
continual  stream  of  progress.  And  the  course  of  this 
stream  has  neither  been  identical  nor  synchronous  in 
different  countries,  not  even  in  the  countries  of  what  we 
now  know  as  Europe.  To  take  an  extreme  example : 
many,  if  not  most,  of  the  primitive  races,  when  discovered 
for  the  first  time  by  white  men,  have  been  found  to  be  still 
employing  stone  implements  and  ignorant  of  the  use 
of  metal.  Thus  they  are  dwellers  in  a  Stone  Age,  a  phase 
of  development  from  which  their  discoverers  had  long 
emerged.  And  so  in  earlier  times  it  must  not  be  sup- 
posed that  the  whole  of  Europe  emerged  at  the  same  time 
from  the  Stone  Age  and  entered  that  of  metal.  The  dis- 
covery of  bronze,  or  the  earlier  discovery  of  copper,  once 
made,  spread,  probably  slowly,  from  one,  or  perhaps — for 
there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  discovery  may  not 
have  been  independently  arrived  at  in  various  places — from 
several  points,  into  regions  previously  unacquainted  with 
the  use  of  metals.  Hence  we  shall  be  expressing  the 
point  more  clearly  if  w^e  say  that,  so  far  as  we  know,  all 
races  have  gone  through  a  stage  of  civilisation  during 
which  the  use  of  metal  was  unknown.  This  we  call  the 
Stone  Age,  and  it  is  customary  to  divide  it  into  tw^o  main 
portions  or  periods — Palaeolithic  and  Neolithic.  The  im- 
plements of  the  earlier  period  are  found  either  in  the  old 
gravels  of  rivers — the  river-drift  implements — or  in  caverns. 
Of  the  two  the  river-drift  have  been  generally  supposed  to 


INTRODUCTORY  it 

be  the  earlier  in  date,  but  this  is  a  point  which  cannot  be 
considered  to  be  finally  settled.  The  neolithic  implements 
present  many  types  unknown  in  the  earlier  period,  though 
there  are  others  which  are  common  to  both.  They  are, 
however,  surface  implements,  and  are  not  found  in  river- 
drifts.  They  may,  of  course,  be  found  in  caves,  just  as 
much  more  modern  objects  may,  but  when  this  is  the 
case,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  description  shortly  to  be 
given  of  Kent's  Hole  and  other  caves,  the  palccolithic 
are  separated  from  the  neolithic  implements,  and  lie  in 
different  strata.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  during  the 
Stone  Age  implements  were  made  of  nothing  but  stone. 
No  doubt,  throughout  all  the  history  of  the  human  race, 
man  has  made  implements  of  wood  and  other  substances. 
But  stone  is,  of  all  these  materials,  the  least  perishable, 
hence  the  fact  that  we  have  so  many  more  relics  of  this 
class  than  of  any  other.  But  the  caverns  of  the  Palaeolithic 
period,  and  particularly  the  relics  of  the  later  parts  of  this 
epoch,  often  called  in  France  the  Magdalenian  epoch, 
show  us  that  man  had  become  an  expert  in  fashioning 
implements  of  bone  and  in  adorning  them  with  ornament- 
ation. This  is  the  Glyptic  period  of  the  table  on  page  9. 
It  has  been  commonly  assumed  that  in  Britain  at  least, 
and  indeed  in  Europe,  there  was  a  great  and  unbridged 
gap  between  the  older  and  the  newer  ages  of  stone.  That 
there  must  have  been  a  continuity  somewhere  was,  of 
course,  conceded,  but  it  was  claimed  that  in  this  part  of 
the  world  there  was  no  evidence  of  any  such  link,  and 
that  the  neolithic  civilisation  was  of  a  kind  wholly  different, 
and  not  even  derived  from  the  palaeolithic  civilisation 
of  the  same  district.  Recent  discoveries  in  France  seem, 
however,  to  show  conclusively  that  the  continuity  between 
the  two  ages  is  distinctly  traceable  in  that  country.  It  will 
be  well  to  devote  a  little  consideration  to  this  matter, 
since  the   facts    to    be    related    have   come   under   notice 


12     REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

in  quite  recent  years,  and  have  as  yet  scarcely  made 
their  way  into  English  text-books.  The  most  important 
researches  are  those  which  have  been  carried  out  by 
M.  Piette  in  a  cave  or  grotto  known  as  Mas  d'Azil,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river  Arise,  in  Ariege. 

The  layers  found  in  this  place,  taken  in  historical  order, 
are  as  follows  : — 

(i.)  Gravel  and  mud  with  charcoal,  traces  of  hearths  and 

bones, 
(ii.)  Black    archa;ological    layer.       Flints    of    magdalenian 
type.      Bone  implements,  including"  needles  and  har- 
poons.     Belongs   to   the  last   part   of  the   Cervidian 
epoch, 
(iii.)  A  layer  of  sand  indicating-  an  inundation  or  inundations, 
(iv.)  Black  archaeological  layer,  belonging  to  the  last  part 
of    the    reindeer    epoch.       Bone    harpoons    and    en- 
g-ravings.       Flint   implements   of   magdalenian  type. 
With  these  are  found  small  round  scrapers  (see  Fig. 
30)  and  fine  knife-shaped  implements,  the  precursors 
of  those  of  a  later  time, 
(v.)  A  further  layer  of  sand  resembling  (iii.)  and  due  to  a 

similar  cause, 
(vi.)  Red  layer  owing  its  colour  to  masses  of  peroxide  of 
iron.  Reindeer  remains  absent,  but  many  stags' 
horns.  Harpoons  made  from  them.  Pierced  stags' 
teeth.  Magdalenian  implements  of  flint  and  other 
implements  like  those  in  the  fourth  la3'er.  Small 
pebbles,  polished  at  one  end,  which  may  have  been 
employed  as  chisels  or  cutting  instruments, 
(vli.)  Bed  containing-  many  shells  of  Helix  neynoralis.  Per- 
forated harpoons  of  stag's  horn.  Flint  implements 
like  those  of  the  last  layer  and  other  varieties.  This 
layer  corresponds  to  the  kitchen-middens  of  other 
parts  of  the  world. 
(viii.)  Black  muddy  layer  containing  obvious  neolithic  imple- 
ments and  fragments  of  pottery,  and  at  its  more 
superficial  layers  masses  of  verdigris,  showing  the 
Bronze  Age  to  have  been  in  existence. 


INTRODUCTORY  13 

Here  there  seems  to  be  a  clear  transition  from  one 
period  to  the  other,  but  it  must  be  admitted  that  to  some 
this  is  not  evident.  Boyd  Dawkins/  for  example,  con- 
siders that  ** there  is  no  proof  of  transition  in  this  sequence, 
but  of  mixture."  When,  however,  the  subject  of  bone 
implements  comes  to  be  dealt  with,  the  facts  to  be  brought 
forward  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  harpoons  will 
add  further  testimony  to  the  fact  that  here  may  be  seen 
the  transition  era  between  the  different  periods  of  the 
Stone  Age.  Piette-  teaches  that  the  period  of  transition 
which  succeeded  the  Glacial  epoch  commenced  when  the 
modern  fauna  began  to  replace  the  ancient,  which  was  on 
its  way  to  extinction,  i.e.^  after  what  he  calls  the  Equidian 
epoch.  This  period  of  transition  he  divides  into  three 
phases,  (i.)  The  Cervidian,  during  which  the  reindeer 
continued  to  occupy  the  land  and  the  old  industries  of 
the  earlier  periods  were  still  in  vogue;  (ii.)  the  Asylian 
(named  from  the  grotto  described  above).  The  reindeer 
had  disappeared,  and  the  art  of  graving  and  sculpture 
had  been  forgotten.  Man  now  took  to  colouring  the 
curious  pebbles,  to  be  described  in  a  later  chapter,  (iii.) 
The  shell  period  {coqiiilliere),  a  time  of  rich  vegetation. 
Amongst  the  relics  of  this  time  large  numbers  of  snail- 
shells  are  found.  This  period  has  also  been  called  Cam- 
pignian,  from  Campigny,  a  place  where  somewhat  similar, 
but  less  striking,  results  have  been  obtained  by  d'Ault  du 
Mesnil  and  others.  By  Laville-' the  term  ^^  couches  infm- 
neolithiqiies'''  has  been  applied  to  the  beds  belonging  to 
this  period  of  transition,  which  he  has  studied  in  the 
district  of  the  Seine.  Here  he  has  found  (i.)  a  Chelleo- 
Mousterian  (early  Palceolithic)  layer,  which  some  might 
describe  as  purely  Chellean  ;  (ii.)  A  Mousterio-Magda- 
lenian   layer.      In   neither  of  these  has  any  fragment  of 

^  Man,  1903,  p.  59.  -  L'Antliropologie,  vii.  388. 

3  Bull,  et  Mdm.  de  la  Soc.  d'Ayithropologle  de  Paris,  ser.  v.  t.  ii.  p.  206, 


14     REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 

pottery  been  found,  but  in  the  latter  was  discovered  an 
axe-head  of  almost  neolithic  form.  The  next  two  layers 
(iii.  and  iv.)  are  those  which  he  calls  infra-neolithic,  since 
they  lie  between  i.  and  ii.,  which  all  would  admit  to  be 
palaeolithic,  and  two  further  layers  (v.  and  vi.)  which  are 
equally  undoubtedly  neolithic.  Further  observations,  less 
conclusive  in  their  nature,  have  been  made  by  Boule^  in 
connection  with  objects  found  in  and  on  the  shores  of 
Lake  Karar  in  Algeria.  Such  being  some  of  the  evidence 
for  the  existence  of  a  Mesolithic  period  in  France,  one 
may  ask,  Is  there  anything  of  a  similar  nature  in  this 
island?  Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  bridge  over 
the  supposed  gap  here,  but  so  far,  it  must  be  admitted, 
without  complete  success.  The  late  General  Pitt-Rivers^ 
in  his  account  of  his  excavations  at  Cissbury  raised  the 
question  as  to  whether  the  objects  there  discovered  might 
be  looked  upon  as  a  transition  between  the  paleolithic 
and  neolithic  types.  But  these  implements  may  quite 
well  be  merely  celts  in  the  middle  stage  of  manufacture 
(see  p.  69),  in  fact,  this  is  the  general  opinion  as  to  their 
nature.  Brown^  considers  that  he  has  been  able  to  establish 
the  continuity  of  the  various  periods  as  a  result  of  his 
observations  at  East  Dean  and  elsewhere.  He  classifies 
stone  implements  as  follows:  (i.)  Eoliths. —  Roughly 
hewn  pebbles  and  nodules  and  naturally  broken  stones 
showing  work,  with  thick  ochreous  patina  found  on  the 
plateaux  of  the  chalk  and  other  districts  in  beds  uncon- 
nected with  the  present  valley  drainage,  (ii.)  Palceoliths. 
— Implements  from  the  higher  river-drift  of  the  present 
valleys,  and  such  as  from  their  forms  are  of  the  same  age, 
but  are  found  in  the  oldest  breccia  deposit  of  some  lime- 
stone caverns.     These  implements  are  made  from  nodules, 

^  L' Anthropologic,  t.  xi.  p.  i. 

^  ArchcFologia,  xlii. 

*  Journal  of  the  Anthropological  Institute,  xxii.  p.  66. 


INTRODUCTORY  15 

and,  as  may  be  gathered  from  their  form,  were  generally 
used  in  the  hand,  without  haft,  (iii.)  Mesoliihic. — Imple- 
ments which  from  their  form,  and  in  many  cases  from  the 
character  of  the  deposit  in  which  they  are  found,  appear 
to  be  of  an  intermediate  age,  between  the  Paleolithic  and 
Neolithic  periods.  The  implements  are  of  flat  pear-shape, 
or  of  more  decided  axe-form.  There  is  no  implement 
with  unworked  butt.  The  implements  are  made  from 
flakes  struck  off  nodules  taken  directly  from  the  chalk. 
(iv.)  Neolithic. — Implements  of  polished  stone  or  delicately 
flaked.  A  further  description  of  mesolithic  implements 
is  given  by  Worthington  Smith,  to  whose  pages^  the 
reader  in  search  of  additional  information  may  be  referred. 
In  Ireland,  Knowles^  claims  identity  between  certain  neo- 
lithic implements  found  in  White  Park  Bay,  County 
Antrim,  and  the  palseolithic  types  of  France.  His  idea 
is  that  they  may  have  been  fabricated  by  tribes  travelling 
northwards  in  the  wake  of  the  reindeer,  which  was  desert- 
ing the  southern  parts  of  Europe,  and  that  these  tribes 
continued  to  make  paleolithic  implements  whilst  little  by 
little  becoming  influenced  by  neolithic  civilisation.  "  I 
am  convinced,"  he  writes,  "that  a  good  contingent  of 
those  tribes  who  used  the  Mousterian  and  Solutrian " 
(both  paleolithic)  "types  of  implements  came  to  the 
British  area,  and  that  the  best  examples  of  their  art  and 
skill  are  to  be  found  among  the  flint  implements  of  the 
North  of  Ireland. "2  In  Scotland  discoveries  have  been 
made  at  the  MacArthur  Cave  near  Oban,  which  seem  to 
point  to  a  period  of  transition  being  traceable  there.  In 
this  cave  on  the  bed-rock  was  a  layer  of  gravel.  Above 
this  was  a  shell-bed  with  flint  scrapers,  and  many  bone 
implements.  Amongst  these  were  flattened  harpoons, 
double-barbed,   and  some  perforated   like  those  of   Mas 

'  Man,  the  Pritnceval  Savage,  p.  299. 
^  Proc.  Royal  Soc.  of  Antiqtiarics  of  Ireland,  vii.  p.  i. 
•'  P'or  a  further  paper  on  the  older  series  of  Irish  Flint  Implements  see 
Nina  F.  Layard,  Man,  No.  54,  1909. 


i6     REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 

d'Azil  and  Reilhac  (Lot).  This  was  probably  a  layer 
of  transition  type.  Specimens  from  this  cave  are  in  the 
National  Museum  of  Antiquities  in  Edinburgh,  and  no 
one  examining  them  can  doubt  the  identity  of  the  type 
of  the  harpoons  with  those  mentioned.  Fig.  46  might 
well  have  been  drawn  from  one  of  the  Scotch  examples. 
Above  it  was  another  layer  of  gravel,  surmounted  by  an 
upper  shell-bed  of  the  kitchen-midden  type,  above  which 
again  was  humus. 

Similar  finds  have  been  made  at  a  rock-shelter  at 
Druimvargie,  near  Oban,  and  at  Oronsay.^  To  sum  up. 
Many  are  convinced  that  the  period  of  transition  has  been 
demonstrated,  at  least  in  France  ;  others  still  remain  un- 
convinced. Most  persons  would  hesitate  to  claim  that  it 
had  been  shown  to  exist  in  these  islands,  though  there  is 
at  least  some  evidence  for  it  ;  and  one  may  hope  and  even 
expect  that  before  long  this  will  become  more  convincing 
in  the  light  of  future  discoveries.  Considerable  space  has 
been  given  to  this  point  because  it  is  one  of  great  contro- 
versial interest  at  the  present  moment.  Much  less  space 
will  be  required  to  finish  the  remaining  points  of  a  pre- 
liminary nature.  No  one  doubts  that  the  knowledge  of 
bronze,  probably,  in  some  parts  of  the  world,  preceded 
by  a  period  when  pure  copper  was  used,  became  diffused 
amongst  the  same  peoples  as  those  who  made  the  neolithic 
implements.  Here  there  is  no  trace  of  a  hiatus  ;  indeed, 
on  the  contrary,  there  is  abundant  evidence  of  a  very 
extensive  overlap,  for  some  of  the  most  highly  finished 

^  Further  papers  on  this  subject,  which  cannot  be  dealt  with  here,  are 
Boyd-Da.v>'kins,  Journal  of  Antliropological  Institute,  xxiii.  242,  who  does  not 
think  that  the  progress  of  discovery  has  yet  bridged  over  the  abyss  separat- 
ing' the  Paleolithic  age  of  the  Pleistocene  period  from  the  Neolithic  age  of 
the  Prehistoric  period  in  any  part  of  the  world  ;  Woldrich,  L Anthropologie, 
1.  488,  "Caves  of  Cracovia  ;  James,  Journal  of  Atithropological  Institute, 
i.  50.  Cf.  also  ib.  p.  321  ;  Laville,  C.  R.,  Cong.  Internat.  d'Anth.  etdArch., 
1903,  201  ;  Capitan,  ib.  p.  206. 


INTRODUCTORY  17 

implements  of  stone,  the  perforated  and  polished  axe- 
heads,  and  perhaps  also  the  finer  arrow-heads,  were  made, 
and  perhaps  only  made,  at  a  time  when  bronze  was  being 
forged.  Bronze  arrow-heads  are  almost  unknown  in  this 
country,  their  place  having  apparently  been  taken  by 
cheaper  substitutes  in  stone.  Similarly  the  bronze  gradu- 
ally faded  into  the  early  iron  period,  both  metals  being 
used  side  by  side  at  the  same  time,  as  indeed,  for  their 
diverse  purposes,  they  are  at  the  present  day.  The 
theories  as  to  the  discovery  of  bronze  and  other  matters 
of  a  general  character  untouched  upon  in  this  chapter  will 
be  dealt  with  in  later  parts  of  the  book. 


CHAPTER   II 
STONE   IMPLEMENTS— METHOD  OF  MANUFACTURE 

DURING  a  large  part  of  the  Stone  Age,  and  the 
entire  of  the  Bronze  and  of  the  Iron,  implements 
were  made  of  other  materials  than  that  from  which 
each  period  receives  its  name.  But  as  the  materials  which 
give  their  names  to  the  several  eras  were  those  which 
dominated  the  manufactures  of  each,  it  will  be  well  to 
deal  with  them  before  passing  to  the  consideration  of  any 
of  the  other  objects  associated  with  the  Prehistoric  period. 
Moreover,  there  is  another  reason,  namely,  that  the  dating 
— the  relative  dating,  of  course — of  such  things  as  earth- 
works and  tumuli  depends  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  stone, 
bronze,  or  iron  objects  which  have  been  found  in  them. 
In  fact,  the  question  of  stone  implements  is  one  which 
underlies  all  the  problems  of  early  archceology,  and  a 
knowledge  of  it  is  essential  to  all  who  would  study  and 
understand  the  early  history  of  our  race,  and,  indeed,  it 
may  be  said,  the  history  of  all  races  in  their  primitive 
condition.  There  is  one  other  piece  of  knowledge  which 
is  of  almost  equal  value,  and  that  is,  a  knowledge  of  the 
age  of  different  kinds  of  pottery,  and  for  estimating  the 
period  of  the  larger  relics  of  the  later  Prehistoric  period, 
such  as  earthworks,  this  knowledge  is  invaluable.  But 
pottery  was  not  invented  until  after  the  end  of  the  older 
stone  period  in  Europe  ;  at  least,  if  it  was  there  are  no 
frasrments  which  have  come  down  to  us.  Hence  for  the 
earlier  portions  of  the  history  of  man  we  are  dependent 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS 


19 


upon  a  knowledge  of  stone  implements.  The  present 
chapter  will  be  devoted  to  the  consideration  of  certain 
questions  connected  with  the  manufacture  of  stone  imple- 
ments, the  varieties  of  which  will  be  dealt  with  in  the 
next. 

How  are  Stone  Implements  to  be  recognised 
as  the  work  of  Man  ? 
In  the  case  of  many  forms  there  can  be  no  reasonable 
doubt  as  to  the  nature  of  the  implement. 
For  example,  no  one  would  argue  that  a 
grindstone  or  a  mill-stone,  both  of  them 
stone  implements  of  the  present  time,  or  a 
stone  mortar,  made  by  a  North  American 
Indian  at  a  distant  date,  were  objects 
fashioned  merely  by  nature's  art.  Nor 
could  such  finely  worked  tools  as  the  Scan- 
dinavian dagger  shown  in  Fig.  i,  or  the 
Egyptian  knife  (Fig.  2),  be  mistaken  for 
anything  else  but  what  they  are — the  work 
of  highly  skilled  artists  in  the  handling  of 
stone.  Nor,  finally,  would  anyone  suppose 
that  the  different  kinds  of  arrow-heads, 
some  of  which  are  shown  in  Figs.  32,  33, 
34,  were  natural  forms.  It  is  true  that 
sagittiform  chips  are  common  enough  in 
some  parts  of  the  country.  There  are 
quantities  of  them,  for  example,  in  the 
gravels  of  the  Warwickshire  Avon,  into 
which  they  have  been  washed  from  the 
glacial  drift  of  the  eastern  side  of  the 
county,  and  some  of  these  have  from  time 
to  time  been  put  forward  as  true  arrow- 
heads. But  the  trained  eye  could  never 
be  deceived  by  the  resemblance — it  is  only  '"'•  ' 

...  ,   ,  ,  ,  ,  FLINT  DACOliR 

a  slight  resemblance — between   these  and  Danish  (3) 


20     REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 


the  genuine  works  of  man's  hands.  In  all  the  cases  cited 
above,  and  in  many  others  of  which  mention  will  be  made 
in  later  pages,  no  person  whose  atten- 
tion had  ever  been  drawn  to  the  sub- 
ject could  for  a  moment  feel  any  doubt 
as  to  the  artificial  character  of  the 
object.  But  it  is  not  so  in  every  in- 
stance. In  fact,  it  is  only  in  compara- 
tively recent  years  that  any  of  these 
flint  implements  have  been  noticed, 
and  the  ultimate  recognition  of  the 
earlier  forms  has  only  been  accom- 
plished after  a  length  of  time  and  a 
somewhat  heated  controversy.  As  far 
as  is  known,  the  earliest  example 
discovered  and  recorded  is  an  ex- 
ceedingly interesting  specimen  of  the 
palccolithic  type,  which  is  now  to  be 
seen  in  the  British  Museum  (Case  105, 
Prehistoric  Department),  which  was 
described  in  the  Sloane  Catalogue 
as  "A  British  weapon  found,  with 
elephant's  tooth,  opposite  to  Black 
Mary's,  near  Grayes  Inn  Lane."  This 
specimen  appears  to  have  been  dis- 
covered at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  was  preserved — one  may 
say   by   accident — down    to   a   period 


when  its  nature  and  significance  were 


FIG.    2 

FLINT    KNIFE 

Egyptian  (I) 


appreciated. 

In   Dugdale's  History  of  Warwick- 
shire^  and  in   Frere's  account  of  his 
discoveries   at    Hoxne   (1797),    stone   implements   are  re- 
cognised as  having   been   the  weapons   of  a  people  un- 
acquainted with  the  use  of  metals.     But  it  was  not  until 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS 


21 


Boucher  de  Perthes  made  his  classical  discoveries  at 
Abbeville  that  the  attention  of  scientihc  men  was  really 
drawn  to  the  subject  and  search  made  for  similar  objects 
in  other  places.  In  Fig.  3  an  example  of  one  of  the 
flints  found  at  Abbeville  in  1861  is  represented,  and  it  is 
perhaps  not  astonishing  that 
when  the  discovery  was  first 
made  public  there  were  many 
who  refused  assent  to  the  con- 
clusions of  the  discoverer.  In 
time,  as  we  know,  opposition 
was  worn  down,  and  no  one 
now  doubts  that  these  and 
many  thousands  of  similar 
implements  which  have  been 
found  elsewhere  are  genuine 
products  of  man's  industry. 
History  seems  to  be  repeating 
itself  in  the  case  of  the  so-called 
eoliths.  These  objects,  which 
have  only  come  under  discus- 
sion within  recent  years,  are 
still  regarded  as  natural  forms 
by  some  authorities  of  the 
greatest  eminence,  though  year 
by  year  more  and  more  persons 

are  becoming  convinced  that  the  claims  put  forward  in 
favour  of  their  artificial  character  are  just.  As  regards 
flakes  and  other  objects  which  cannot  be  given  any 
definite  name  as  implements>  there  are  several  points  to 
be  noticed.  Taking,  first  of  all,  those  made  of  flint,  it 
may  be  pointed  out  that  every  fragment  of  flint  in  a 
non-flint  district,  unless  it  has  been  brought  there  as 
gravel  or  in  some  other  accidental  manner  at  a  later  date, 
was  probably  brought  there  by  Neolithic  Man,  and  will 


FIG.    3.       I'AL/^.OI.ITil 
Abbeville  Q) 


22     REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 

generally  show  signs  of  having  been  worked  by  him. 
For  example,  all  over  the  Cotswolds,  which  are  oolitic  in 
geological  character,  flint  flakes  of  various  sizes  as  well 
as  arrow-heads  and  other  implements  are  to  be  found. 
All  of  these  are  neolithic  in  nature,  and  in  such  a  country 
the  eye  of  the  observer  can  hardly  fail  to  be  caught  by  the 
sight  of  fragments  of  flint  in  freshly-ploughed  fields  and 
elsewhere,  because  of  the  absence  of  this  stone  from  the 
natural  formations  of  the  district.  In  districts  where  flint 
occurs  naturally,  as  a  part  of  the  chalk  or  as  part  of  the 
drift,  and  in  river  gravels,  as  it  does  in  some  districts  of 
Warwickshire,  it  is  less  easy  to  distinguish  the  artificial 
from  the  natural  fragments,  and  in  all  cases  some  definite 
rules  must  be  known  in  order  that  an  artificially-worked 
flint  may  be  distinguished  from  a  natural  form.  Now  (i.) 
in  detaching  a  flake  from  a  lump  of  flint  by  means  of  a 
blow,  the  operator  will  require  a  tolerably  flat  surface  on 
which  to  strike  if  his  action  is  to  be  eftective,  and  the 
striking  stone  is  not  to  slip  upon  that  which  is  struck 
without  detaching  a  flake  from  it.  Hence  at  the  end  of 
the  flake  where  the  blow  has  been  given  there  will  be 
seen  a  small  portion  of  the  original  flat  surface  which 
received  the  impact,  (ii.)  In  the  next  place,  when  a  flake 
is  detached,  by  means  of  a  blow,  from  a  piece  of  flint, 
especially  if  resting  on  the  hand  or  on  some  elastic  pad, 
the  plane  of  fracture  between  the  two  is  not  flat,  but  at  the 
end  nearest  the  place  where  the  blow  was  struck  there  will 
be  seen  on  the  surface  of  the  flake  a  rounded  elevation 
known  as  the  "  bulb  of  percussion."  To  this  will  natur- 
ally correspond  a  depression  on  the  surface  of  the  block 
from  which  the  flake  has  been  detached.  This  bulb  is 
due  to  the  elastic  nature  of  the  flint,  and  its  method  of 
production   is  fully  described   by  Sir  John  Evans. ^     He 

Ancient  Sto7ie  Implements,  p.  273. 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS  23 

says,  "If  a  blow  from  a  spherical-ended  hammer  be  de- 
livered at  right  angles  on  a  large  flat  surface  of  flint,  the 
part  struck  is  only  a  minute  portion  of  the  surface,  which 
may  be  represented  by  a  circle  of  very  small  diameter. 
If  flint  were  malleable,  instead  of  being  slightly  elastic,  a 
dent  would  be  produced  at  the  spot ;  but  being  elastic, 
this  small  circle  is  driven  slightly  inward  into  the  body  of 
the  flint,  and  the  result  is  that  a  circular  fissure  is  pro- 
duced between  that  part  of  the  flint  which  is  condensed 
for  the  moment  by  the  blow,  and  that  part  which  is  left 
untouched.  As  each  particle  in  the  small  circle  on  which 
the  hammer  impinges  may  be  considered  to  rest  on  more 
than  one  particle,  it  is  evident  that  a  circular  fissure,  as  it 
descends  into  the  body  of  the  flint,  will  have  a  tendency 
to  enlarge  in  diameter,  so  that  the  piece  of  flint  it  includes 
will  be  of  conical  form,  the  small  circle  struck  by  the 
hammer  forming  the  slightly  truncated  apex.  ...  If  the 
blow  be  administered  near  the  edge,  instead  of  in  the 
middle  of  the  surface  of  the  block,  a  somewhat  similar 
effect  will  be  produced,  but  the  cone  in  that  case  will  be 
imperfect,  as  a  splinter  of  flint  will  be  struck  off,  the 
fissure  probably  running  along  the  line  of  least  resist- 
ance." The  bulb  of  percussion  may  almost  be  looked 
upon  as  a  hall-mark  of  human  work.  Almost  but  not 
quite,  for  it  is  obvious  that  it  may  be  produced  by  any 
kind  of  suitable  blow,  and  such  a  blow  might  conceivably 
be  given  by  a  piece  of  stone  falling  from  a  height,  for 
example,  from  the  face  of  a  cliff,  upon  a  flat  piece  of  flint 
lying  on  the  sand  below.  But  (iii.)  if  the  flake  shows  on 
the  opposite  side  to  that  which  bears  the  bulb  marks  of 
the  detachment  of  other  flakes,  in  the  shape  of  ribs  indi- 
cating the  lines  of  separation,  then  its  artificial  character 
may  be  said  to  have  been  established.  In  districts  where 
flint  does  not  occur  and  where  some  other  hard  kind  of 
stone,  e.g.  quartzite,    has  been  employed  for  the  manu- 


24     REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 

facture  of  implements,  the  recognition  of  artificial  flakes 
is  much  more  difficult  and  may  be  impossible.  Here 
there  is  no  bulb  of  percussion  to  help,  and  the  flakes  may 
be  the  result  of  frost  or  other  natural  agencies  and  not  of 
man's  handiwork.  But  in  the  case  of  flint  flakes  the  flat 
top,  the  bulb  on  one  side  and  the  ribs  on  the  other,  should 
be  looked  for.  The  characteristics  of  more  definite  imple- 
ments will  be  dealt  with  in  later  chapters. 

How  were  the  Flints  procured  ? 
It  is  probable  that  in  many  cases  mere  surface  flints 
were  picked  up  and  worked  as  far  as  possible,  but  there  is 
abundant  evidence  that  prehistoric  man  had  discovered, 
what  the  Brandon  flint-knapper  still  knows,  that  flints 
from  the  depths  of  the  earth  can  be  more  satisfactorily 
manipulated  than  those  from  the  surface,  and  that  those 
of  a  particular  layer  may  be  better  than  others  found 
above  or  below  them.  In  fact,  at  Brandon  itself  there  are 
extensive  traces  of  ancient  quarrying  for  flints  at  the  place 
known  as  Grime's  Graves.  These  quarries  were  investi- 
gated by  Canon  Greenwell,^  who  found  that  there  were 
more  than  250  pits,  representing  the  shafts  of  quarries. 
That  which  he  examined  was  28  feet  in  diameter  at  its 
mouth,  and  39  feet  in  depth.  The  first  13  feet  of  the  shaft 
was  through  sand,  below  which  the  chalk  was  reached. 
The  shaft  then  passed  through  a  layer  of  flints,  whose 
quality  did  not  satisfy  the  excavators,  until  it  reached 
another  stratum,  known  nowadays  as  the  "floor-stone," 
and  used  for  the  manufacture  of  gun-flints.  In  order  to 
follow  up  this  layer,  galleries,  3  feet  6  inches  in  height, 
were  made  in  the  chalk,  picks  formed  from  the  antlers  of 
the  red-deer  being  used  for  this  purpose.  The  marks 
of  these  implements,  as  also  of  the  cuts  made  by  the  edge 
of  an  axe  of  basalt,  were  clearly  seen  in  the  galleries,  in 

1  Juurn.  Eihnol.  Soc,  N.S.,  ii.  p.  419. 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS  25 

which  were  also  found  rude  cups  of  chalk,  which  had 
apparently  served  the  miners  as  lamps  during  their  opera- 
tions. Similar  quarries  were  discovered  by  Pitt-Rivers  at 
Cissbury,  and  others  have  been  found  at  Spiennes,  in 
Belgium,  in  France,  Egypt  (Seton-Karr),  and  in  other 
places. 

How  can  we  know  the  uses  of  the  implements  ? 
It  must  be  admitted  that  in  a  certain  number  of  cases  we 
have  to  guess  at  the  use  which  was  made  of  a  given  imple- 
ment, but  in  a  surprisingly  greater  number  there  is  no 
reason  at  all  for  doubt.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  implements  of  the  early  man  of  this  continent 
closely  resemble  the  tools  now,  or  lately,  made  and  used 
by  savage  races.  Thus  the  arrow-heads  of  stone  made 
during  the  Neolithic  and  Bronze  periods  are  the  fellows 
of  stone  arrow-heads  made  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and 
leave  no  doubt  as  to  what  they  were  intended  for.  A 
similar  statement  might  be  made  about  stone  axes,  par- 
ticularly those  of  a  polished  type,  and,  with  perhaps  some 
reservations,  as  to  the  implements  which  we  speak  of  as 
scrapers  and  knives.  Again,  it  has  to  be  remembered 
that  in  many  cases  a  given  implement  was  not  used  for 
one  purpose  alone.  It  would  be  difficult  to  mention  the 
various  uses  to  which  a  sailor  or  a  boy  applies  his  pocket- 
knife;  and,  similarly,  some  at  least  of  the  stone  implements 
must  have  been  contrived  to  play  a  double  part,  or  even 
several  parts.  Thus,  for  example,  it  is  not  difficult  to  see 
that  the  palaeolithic  implement  represented  in  Fig.  4  may 
have  been  a  weapon,  a  knife  for  skinning  animals,  an 
ordinary  scraper  by  which  the  skin  when  removed  was 
cleaned,  and  a  concave  scraper  by  which  meat  was  removed 
from  the  bones,  or  sticks  rounded  and  smoothed. 


26     REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC    AGE 

How  can  we  tell  their  periods  ? 

Some  indication  as  to  the  manner  in  which  information 
of  this  character  is  arrived  at  has  been  given  in  the  previous 
chapter,  and  more  will  be  given  in  those  which  are  to  follow. 
But  a  few  points  may  here  be  dwelt  upon.  And  first  it 
should  be  mentioned  that  the  locus  is  far  more  important 


FIG.    4.       PAT.,i;OLn'H 
Caversham  (j) 

than  the  shape  or  form  in  determining  the  relative  date  of 
an  implement.  To  make  this  matter  clearer,  let  us  consider 
one  or  two  cases.  Near  Torquay  there  is  a  celebrated  cavern 
known  as  Kent's  Hole  or  Cavern,  which  was  first  brought 
into  notice,  early  in  the  last  century,  by  the  Rev.  R. 
McEnery,  a  Catholic  priest,  and  was  afterwards  fully  ex- 
plored under  the  direction  of  the  late  Mr.  Pengelly,  whose 
name  will  always  be  associated  with  the  discoveries  made 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS  27 

therein.  Put  as  briefly  as  possible,  the  following  layers 
were  discovered  in  this  cav^e,  the  order  iz-iven  beincf  that 
of  their  discovery,  i.e.,  the  most  recent  are  first  men- 
tioned : — 

(i.)  Blocks  of  limestone  from  a  few  pounds  to  one  hundred 
tons,  which  had  fallen  from  the  roof. 

(ii.)  The  Black  Mould.  Composed  almost  entirely  of  de- 
cayed vegetable  matter,  and  from  three  inches  to  one 
foot  in  depth.  This  layer  contained  Roman  and  pre- 
Roman  pottery,  bronze  implements,  and  others  of 
stone  and  bronze. 

(iii.)  A  floor  of  stalagmite  from  three  inches  to  five  feet  in 
thickness. 

(iv.)  The  Black  Band.  Found  in  only  one  part  of  the  cave. 
This  consisted  of  charred  wood  and  was  four  inches 
in  depth. 

(v.)  The  Cave  Earth.     A  light  red  loam. 

In  (iii.),  (iv.),  and  (v.)  were  found  bones  of  the 
mammoth,  rhinoceros,  cave-lion,  and  cave-bear, 
flint  flakes,  and  nuclei,  and  bone  implements. 

(vi.)  A  second  stalagmitic  floor,  twelve  feet  thick  in  places, 
containing  bones  of  the  cave-bear. 

(vii.)  The  Breccia,  a  dark-red  sandy  deposit,  free  from  lime- 
stone, containing  bones  of  the  cave-bear,  and  rude 
flint  and  chert  implements. 

Now  supposing,  as  was  the  case  here,  that  there  has 
been  no  disturbance  of  these  objects,  but  that  they  occupy 
the  position  in  which  they  were  first  placed,  then  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  implements  in  the  Breccia  are 
older  than  those  above  the  second  stalagmitic  floor,  and 
these  again  than  those  in  the  Black  Mould.  Where  there 
is  undisturbed  stratification  there  is  satisfactory  evidence 
of  difference  of  age,  and  when  we  find  a  certain  type 
characteristic  of  low  strata  in  various  places  we  may 
begin,   but  cautiously,  to  associate  with  the  same  period 


28     REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 

other  implements  of  similar  character  not  found  in  relation 
of  strata  but  by  themselves.  But  we  must  be  quite  clear 
that  we  have  to  do  with  undisturbed  strata,  and  must  also 
bear  in  mind  that  extraordinary  disturbances  have  taken 
place  even  in  caverns  as  the  result  of  floods.  McKenny 
Hughes  has  given  a  vivid  description  of  a  flood  on  Ingle- 
borough  which  he  himself  witnessed,  and  of  the  results 
which  it  produced  in  the  caves  and  their  floors.  *'  Under- 
ground passages,"  he  says,  "high  above  the  present 
water-channels,  were  swept  clean  by  the  body  of  water 
forced  through  them  under  enormous  pressure.  Caves 
that  had  been  sealed  up  for  years  with  barriers  of  stalag- 
mite, which  one  would  have  thought  might  have  defied  the 
rush  of  any  flood,  were  burst  open.  Most  of  this  debris — 
all,  in  fact,  that  was  moved  by  the  first  rush  of  water— was 
carried  down  the  valley.  Some  remained  about  the  mouth 
and  some  in  embayed  corners  in  the  caves.  Here  we  saw 
fragments  of  stalagmitic  floors,  mixed  up  with  debris 
washed  in  from  the  swallow-holes  above.  Some  might 
have  seen  here  evidence  that,  after  the  cave  had  been 
formed  and  occupied  and  gently  filled  with  earth  and 
coated  and  partitioned  by  stalactite  and  stalagmite,  there 
came  an  age  of  flood — perhaps  of  submergence — when 
the  old  deposits  were  re-sorted,  the  old  floors  broken  up, 
and  that  the  cave  then  entered  upon  another  phase  of  its 
history.  How  different  the  facts  !  It  was  all  over  in  three 
hours."  Another  caution  must  be  offered  in  connection 
with  the  facility  with  which  small  objects  are  able  to  work 
their  way  down  through  heat-cracks  in  the  earth,  through 
mice-holes  and  other  burrows,  and  through  the  pipes  left 
by  the  decay  of  roots.  In  all  cases  of  juxtaposition  of 
strange  objects  these  points  should  be  borne  in  mind, 
and,  if  possible,  a  search  made,  to  see  if  the  contiguity 
of  the  objects  can  be  accounted  for  in  any  of  these  ways. 
To  take  another  case.     Let  us  suppose  that  bronze  and 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS  29 

stone  Implements  are  found  together  in  an  undisturbed 
tumulus  :  is  this  any  evidence  that  they  were  made  at  the 
same  time  ?  Not  the  least,  for  the  stone  implement  may 
have  been  a  treasured  heirloom  laid  with  some  specially 
respected  or  beloved  dead  one,  or  it  may  have  been  placed 
there  from  superstitious  motives,  on  account  of  its  anti- 
quity. Such  a  collocation  only  tells  us  that  the  tumulus 
was  not  earlier  than  the  bronze  period.  It  is  on  other 
evidence  that  we  have  to  rely  for  the  statement  that  stone 
implements  continued  to  be  made  during  the  bronze  period. 
For  example  :  if  we  find  with  bronze  or  copper  remains 
not  merely  flint  implements  but  also  cores  and  chips  and 
all  the  evidences  of  manufacture,  then  we  may  reasonably 
conclude  that  the  two  forms  of  manufacture  were  proceed- 
ing at  the  same  time.  Or,  again,  we  reason  that  stone 
arrow-heads  were  used  and  made  during  the  bronze  period 
from  the  facts  that  they  are  constantly  associated  with  inter- 
ments of  that  character,  and  that  bronze  arrow-heads  are 
objects  almost  unknown.  The  reason  for  this  is  not  far 
to  seek  ;  the  arrow-head  was  a  thing  very  likely  to  be  lost, 
and  it  was  much  cheaper  to  lose  one  of  stone  than  one  of 
the  far  more  valuable  metal. 

A  further  indication  as  to  period  is  the  character  of  the 
implement.  Compare  the  eoliths  in  Fig.  10  with  the  Scan- 
dinavian dagger  in  Fig.  i.  The  probability  is  that  the 
dagger  is  much  later  than  the  other  object,  the  probability, 
that  is,  from  the  shape  alone.  But  from  this  point  of  view 
we  have  no  real  indication,  for  the  two  might  quite  well 
have  been  made  at  the  same  time,  one  by  a  tyro,  the  other 
by  a  skilled  artist ;  one  for  a  temporary  use,  with  the  idea 
that  it  would  be  immediately  thrown  away,  and  need  have 
no  particular  labour  wasted  over  it,  the  other  with  the 
intention  of  becoming  the  treasured  possession  of  some 
connoisseur  of  the  period.  Hence  undisturbed  position 
in  strata,  or  in  connection  with  the  remains  of  animals 


so    REMAINS   OF  THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 

extinct  after  a  definite  geological  period,  are  good  indica- 
tions of  date.  Indications  from  position  require  to  be 
checked  by  a  careful  examination  of  the  strata  with  a 
view  to  ascertaining  whether  they  have  been  disturbed  or 
not,  and  indications  from  shape,  except  in  certain  direc- 
tions, which  will  be  mentioned  in  later  chapters,  must  be 
dealt  with  in  a  cautious  manner.^ 

Of  what  kinds  of  stone  are  the  implements  made  ? 

Of  a  very  great  variety,  must  be  the  answer  to  this 
question.  For  choice,  in  this  country,  flint,  as  being  a 
hard  stone,  yet  one  easily  worked  and  capable  of  being 
fashioned  into  many  useful  implements.  It  is  clear  that  it 
was  carried  from  places  where  it  naturally  occurred  to  other 
districts,  either  in  a  worked  or  unworked  condition.  Hence 
it  may  actually  have  been  an  article  of  commerce  at  a  very 
early  period.  Where  flint  was  unattainable  some  other 
hard  stone  was  employed,  for  example,  quartzite.  A 
palaeolithic  implement  of  this  substance  was  found  in  the 
gravels  of  the  Rea,  near  Birmingham,  by  the  late  Mr. 
Landon,  and  other  implements  of  the  same  kind  have 
been  found  in  the  caves  at  Creswell  Crags.  Of  smaller 
implements  of  the  same  kind  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Moore 
of  Tutnal  may  be  mentioned  an  arrow-head,  which  is  very 
neatly  made  from  a  split  pebble  of  quartzite,  one  of  the 
myriads  of  this  kind  found  in  the  western  drift  all  round 
Birmingham.  In  parts  of  England  where  that  substance 
is  found,  chert  is  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  imple- 
ments, and  large  worked  fragments  (see  Fig.  5)  have  been 
found  in  quantities  in  the  Broom  gravel  pit  (Dorset),  as 
well  as  other  implements  of  flint. 

Serpentine,  greenstone,  diorite,  chalcedony,  and  jasper, 
are  amongst  the  kinds  of  stone  utilised  in  different  parts 
of  the  world,  and  to  these,  amongst  many  other  varieties 
of  rock,  may  be  added  that  very  beautiful  substance,  jade. 

1  For  the  value  of  mineral  condition  in  determining  the  relative  ag-e  of  stone 
implements  see  a  paper  by  S.  H.  Warren,  Geol.  Mag.,  Dec.  iv.  ix,  453,  p.  97. 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS 


31 


No  implements  of  this  nature  have,  I  believe,  been  found 
in  Britain,  but  many  have  been  discovered  on  the 
Continent.     Dr.    Munro^   estimates    that   in   all    Europe 


FIG.    5.      PAL.-EOI.ITH,    CHERT 
Broom  (5) 


500  to  600  worked  objects  in  nephrite,  300  to  400  in  jadeite, 
and  about  200  in  chloromelanite  have  been  discovered.  In 
the  station  of  Murach,  on  Lake  Constance  alone,  nearly 

^  Lake  Divcllings  of  Europe. 


32     REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 

500  implements  have  been  found  with  154  cliips  and  sawn 
fragments,  whilst  the  stations  on  this  lake  have  altogether 
supplied  more  than  1,000  jade  implements.  Implements 
of  this  substance  have  also  been  found  in  Moravia  and 
Hungary.^  There  has  been  a  considerable  discussion  as 
to  the  source  of  the  jade,  since  it  was  supposed  that  this 
mineral  did  not  occur  in  Europe.  Rudler,'-  having  in- 
vestigated the  matter,  admits  that  the  known  occurrences 
of  nephrite  and  jadeite  in  Europe  are  as  yet  very  limited. 
He  points  out,  however,  that  discoveries  of  these  minerals 
have  occasionally  been  made  in  Europe  and  America, 
thus  proving  that  the  substances  are  not  so  limited 
geographically  as  was  formerly  supposed.  He  thinks  it 
probable  that,  if  searched  for,  they  will  be  found  among 
the  metamorphic  rocks  of  Europe,  and  concludes  that  the 
balance  of  evidence  is  in  favour  of  the  view  that  jade  is 
indigenous  in  the  countries  where  the  implements  have 
been  found.  A  further  discussion  of  the  question,  par- 
ticularly as  it  relates  to  America,  will  be  found  in  Wilson's 
work  on  Preliistoric  ArL^  Of  course,  as  has  already  been 
hinted,  materials  have  at  an  early  period  been  brought 
from  one  part  of  the  Continent  to  another.  I  have  myself 
a  knife-shaped  implement  apparently  of  the  beeswax  flint 
of  Pressigny,  in  France,  which  was  found  in  a  Swiss 
Lake  Village. 

Before  leaving  this  part  of  the  subject  it  may  be  noted, 
in  confirmation  of  the  statement  already  made,  that  primitive 
man  adapts  the  materials  at  hand  to  his  necessities,  that 
various  other  substances  have  been  used  instead  of  stone 
in  different  parts  of  the  world  for  purposes  for  which  stone 
has  been  used  elsewhere.  Thus  the  inhabitants  of  the  New 
Hebrides  make  axe-heads  of  the  hinge-part  of  the  shell  of 

'  L' Anthropologic ,  i.  104. 

"Journal  of  Anthropological  Society,  ser.  i.  xx.  332. 

^  Published  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  p.  455. 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS 


33 


tridacna,  a  huge  bivalve,  which  resemble  closely  the  stone 
celts  of  the  polished  stone  period  in  Ireland  and  elsewhere. 
The  natives  of  Australia  make  admirable  arrow-heads  out 
of  glass  bottles,  and  also  out  of  the  insulators  of  telegraph 
wires.  Indeed,  it  is  said  that  they  are  so  fond  of  the 
latter,  and  have  caused  so  much  inconvenience  by  annex- 
ing them,  that  it  has  been  found  wise  to  leave  a  number  of 
fragments  of  broken 
bottles  at  the  bottom 
of  the  telegraph  poles, 
in  order  to  provide  the 
material  which  would 
otherwise  be  sought  at 
its  summit.  Specimens 
of  arrow  -  heads  made 
from  both  of  these 
materials  may  be  seen 
in  the  Pitt-Rivers 
Museum  at  Oxford, 
and  with  them  the 
simple  tools  by  which 
they  were  worked.  Fig. 

6  shows  an  arrow-head 
of  glass  and  the  imple- 
ments with  which  it 
was    made,    and    Fig. 

7  the    hands    of    the 

Australian  in  the  act  of  making  it.  These  points  are 
mentioned  to  illustrate  the  statement  that  prehistoric  man, 
in  all  probability,  had  other  implements  than  those  of 
stone,  some  of  which,  being  of  a  more  perishable  nature, 
have  not  survived  until  the  present  day.  This  would  not 
apply  to  such  things  as  shells,  but  to  objects  of  wood,  and 
perhaps  of  some  other  materials. 


FIG.    6 

GLASS   ARROW-HEAD  AND   IMPLEMENTS    USED 

IN    ITS    MANUFACTURE 

BY   NATIVE   AUSTRALIANS 


34     REMAINS    OF   THE    PREHISTORIC    AGE 

How  were  the  Stones  worked? 
This  is  a  large  question,  and  those  desirous  of  fuller 
information  than  can  be  given  here  may  be  referred  to  the 
early  chapters  of  Sir  John  Evans'  work  on  Ancient  Stone 
Implements.'^  Some  statement  of  the  various  processes 
of  which  we  have  knowledge  must,  however,  be  made, 
and  we  may  commence  with  some  observations  by  Holmes,^ 
who  has  made  a  special   study  of   the  subject.      "The 


FIG.    7 

METHOD   OF   MANUFACTURE   OF   GLASS   ARROW-HEAD 

BY   NATIVE   AUSTRALIAN 

shaping  processes,"  he  writes,  "  by  means  of  which  stone 
was  made  to  assume  artificial  forms  adapted  to  human 
needs,  are  varied  and  ingenious,  and  their  mastery  is  of 
the  greatest  importance  to  all  primitive  peoples.  These 
processes  are  distinguished  by  such  terms  as  breaking, 
flaking,  cutting,  drilling,  scraping,  pecking,  grinding, 
and  polishing.  All  are  purely  mechanical  ;  none  are 
chemical,  save  a  possible  use  of  fire  to  induce  changes 

^  An  exhaustive  account  of  the  instances  of  manufacture  of  flint  imple- 
ments recorded  amongst  savage  people,  with  references,  is  given  by  Coffey, 
Proc.  Royal  Soc.  of  Antiquaries  of  Ireland,  igo8,  p.  l6o.  See  also  North 
Queensland  Ethnography,  Bulletin  No.  7,  "  Domestic  Implements,  Arts,  and 
Manufactures,"  by  Walter  E.  Roth. 

2  "  Stone  Implements  of  the  Potomac.  Chesapeake  Tidewater  Province." 
Fifteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  American  Bureau  of  Ethnology. 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS  35 

in  the  rock  in  some  parts  of  the  quarry  work.  A  wide 
range  of  operations  is  represented,  and  these  may  be 
conveniently  arranged  in  four  groups:  (i.)  fracturing^ 
represented  by  the  terms  breaking,  flaking,  and  chipping  ; 
(ii.)  incising,  including  cutting,  picking,  and  scraping  ; 
(iii.)  batterings  including  such  acts  as  bruising,  pecking, 
and  hammering  ;  (iv.)  abradings  as  in  rubbing,  drilling, 
boring,  sawing,  and  polishing.  These  acts  are  employed 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  stone  or  the  results  desired  ; 
as,  for  example,  fracture  is  employed  where  the  stone  to 
be  shaped  is  brittle  like  flint,  jasper,  or  quartz  ;  incision  is 
employed  where  the  stone  is  relatively  soft,  such  as  soap- 
stone,  serpentine,  and  the  like  ;  battering  is  applied  to 
tough  materials,  capable  of  resisting  the  shocks  of  per- 
cussion, like  granitic  rocks  and  many  of  the  eruptives. 
Nearly  all  varieties  are  capable  of  being  shaped  by  grind- 
ing and  rubbing."  Certain  of  these  processes,  especially 
in  relation  to  British  implements,  must  now  be  considered 
a  little  more  closely.  Chipping  is  the  process  of  removing 
fragments  from  a  piece  of  flint  by  blows  given  with  another 
stone.  It  is  obvious  that  the  operation  may  have  one  of 
two  ends  in  view.  The  object  may  be  to  dress  a  stone 
weapon,  that  is,  to  shape  the  central  mass  of  the  selected 
piece  of  stone  into  an  implement,  the  flakes  knocked  off 
being  worthless,  or  at  least  of  secondary  importance.  By 
such  processes  were  produced  the  palaeolithic  implements, 
and,  generally  speaking,  the  class  of  implements  known 
as  celts.  Or,  on  the  other  hand,  the  object  may  have 
been  to  detach  flakes  from  the  central  mass,  which  flakes 
would  afterwards,  either  as  they  were  detached,  or  after 
secondary  working,  be  utilisable  as  implements.  Here 
the  central  mass,  or  "core,"  is  the  worthless,  or  com- 
paratively worthless,  portion  of  the  original  stone.  Fig.  8 
from  Holmes'  paper  illustrates  the  first  process  in  the 
operation   of  shaping   a   pebble.      The    process    in   con- 


36     REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 


nection  with  a  piece  of  flint  would  not  be  quite  the  same, 
and  has  already  been  indicated  in  connection  with  the 
bulb  of  percussion.  It  is  obvious  that  instead  of  striking 
the  stone  to  be  shaped  with  another,  the  same  result  may 
in  some  cases  have  been  attained  by  striking  the  stone 
to  be  shaped  against  another  lump  of  stone.  Or  again, 
where  it  was  desired  to  remove  very  small  flakes,  a  punch 
of  some  kind  may  have  been  employed  between  the  stone 
to  be  shaped  and  the  hammer. 
Flaking  is  a  process  which  is 
allied  to  chipping,  but  the 
term  is  perhaps  better  con- 
fined to  the  finer  work,  which 
may  have  been  executed  by 
pressure  or  by  nipping  off 
fragments  of  the  stone  to  be 
worked.  The  Scandinavian 
implement  (Fig.  i),  or  the 
Egyptian  (Fig.  2),  must  first 
have  been  roughed  out  of 
masses  of  flint  by  the  method 
of  chipping.  Then  when  the 
desired  shape  had  been  arrived 
at,  the  further  elaboration  was 
obtained  by  a  more  delicate 
process.  At  least,  this  seems 
probable,  for,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  we  do  not  know  how 
this  extremely  beautiful  "  ripple-flaking"  was  produced. 

A  few  instances  of  how  flaking  by  pressure  has  been 
executed  by  primitive  races  will  show  how  the  same 
process  may  have  been  carried  out  in  prehistoric  times. 
The  Esquimaux  flake  their  arrows  by  means  of  an  in- 
strument with  a  handle  of  fossil  ivory  and  a  tongue  or 
blade  made  of  a  slip  from  the  horn  of  a  reindeer  and 
inserted  in  it.     The  piece  of  chert  from  which  the  arrow- 


FIG.    8 

FLINT    FLAKING   BY    PERCUSSION 
Holmes 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS 


37 


head  is  to  be  made  is  placed  on  a  block  of  wood  in  which 
a  spoon-shaped  cavity  is  cut.  Then  the  flaker  is  pressed 
gently  along  the  edge  of  the  stone,  alternately  on  either 
side  and  in  a  vertical  direction.  By  this  means  fragments 
are  removed  until  the  desired  shape  of  the  head  is  attained. 
Fig.  9  from  Holmes'  paper  will  explain  the  process  of 
removing  splinters  by  pressure  in  a  less  elaborate  manner 
than  that  just  described.  It  is  possible  that  some  of  the 
implements  afterwards  to  be  mentioned  under  the  name 
of  ''fabricators"  may 
have  been  used  for 
purposes  of  pressure- 
flaking,  though  in 
more  recent  times  an 
instrument  more  elas- 
tic in  its  character 
seems  to  have  been 
employed.  Such  tools 
may  quite  well  have 
been  utilised  also  by 
prehistoric  man. 

Pressure  properly 
applied  is  able  to  de- 
tach quite  large  flakes 
from  a  central  core  of 

hard  stone  like  obsidian.  The  beautiful  flakes  of  this  sub- 
stance, said  to  have  been  used  for  sacrificial  purposes  in 
Mexico,  seem  to  have  been  thus  produced.  Sir  John  Evans 
quotes  a  description  of  this  operation  from  Torquemada, 
which  may  here  be  reproduced.  "One  of  these  Indian 
workmen  sits  down  upon  the  ground  and  takes  a  piece  of  this 
black  stone,  about  eight  inches  long,  or  rather  more,  and 
as  thick  as  one's  leg,  or  rather  less,  and  cylindrical  ;  they 
have  a  stick  as  large  as  the  shaft  of  a  lance,  and  three 
cubits  or  more  in  length  ;  and  at  the  end  of  it  they  fasten 


FIG.    9 

FLINT    FLAKING    BY    PRESSURE 
Holmes 


38     REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 

firmly  another  piece  of  wood  eight  inches  long,  to  give 
more  weight  to  this  part ;  then,  pressing  their  naked  feet 
together,  they  hold  the  stone  as  with  a  pair  of  pincers 
or  the  vice  of  a  carpenter's  bench.  They  take  the  stick 
(which  is  cut  off  smooth  at  the  end)  with  both  hands,  and 
set  it  well  home  against  the  edge  of  the  front  of  the  stone, 
which  is  also  cut  smooth  in  that  part ;  and  then  they  press 
it  against  their  breast,  and  with  the  force  of  the  pressure 
there  flies  off  a  knife,  with  its  point  and  edge  on  each 
side,  as  neatly  as  if  one  were  to  make  them  of  a  turnip 
with  a  sharp  knife,  or  of  iron  in  the  fire."  Finally  the 
glass  and  earthenware  arrows  made  by  the  native  Aus- 
tralians are  worked  with  a  pebble,  and  the  fine  tooling 
is  efi'ected  by  nipping  off  bits  from  the  edge  with  the 
aid  of  a  notch  in  the  broken  shank-bone  of  a  sheep.  This 
process  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  7,  which  is  taken  from  a 
drawing  in  the  Pitt-Rivers  Museum,  made  on  the  spot 
from  observation  of  the  workman  at  his  task.  It  may 
be  added  that  many  experiments  have  been  made  in  recent 
times  on  methods  of  flaking  and  otherwise  working  flint 
by  Sir  John  Evans  and  others,  and  will  be  found  de- 
scribed in  his  book.  Flint  Jack's  forgeries,  generally 
rather  rude  in  character,  are  tolerably  well  known,  whilst 
the  more  artistic  efforts  of  a  modern  Brandon  workman 
may  be  seen  in  various  museums,  and  the  work  of  the 
present  curator  of  the  Pitt-Rivers  Museum,  could  he  have 
had  the  use  of  his  present  tools,  would  have  won  him  a 
high  place  amongst  prehistoric  artificers. 

Grinding  and  polishing  were  effected  upon  fixed,  and 
not  rotatory,  stones,  and  the  rubbing  was  done  lengthwise, 
as  the  striation  shows.  Smviug  seems  to  have  been  rarely 
practised  in  this  country,  but  has  been  used  in  the  case 
of  Swiss  and  other  axe-heads,  perhaps  with  a  flint  flake. 
Possibly  sand  and  water  may  also  have  been  used  in  the 
operation.    Or  strips  of  wood  or  bone  may  have  been  used 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS  39 

with  sand.  Borings  Sir  John  Evans  thinks,  was  carried  out 
in  various  ways:  (i.)  By  chiselHng,  or  picking  with  a  sharp 
stone,  (ii.)  By  grinding  with  a  soHd  grinder,  probably  of 
wood,  (iii.)  By  grinding  with  a  tubular  grinder,  probably 
of  ox-horn,  (iv.)  By  drilling  with  a  stone  drill,  (v.)  By 
drilling  with  a  metallic  drill.  With  regard  to  the  use  of 
these  processes  at  different  periods.  Dr.  Blackmore  says  : 
"  Eoliths  are  hacked,  palceoliths  are  chipped,  and  neoliths 
are  flaked.  Hacking,  chipping,  and  flaking  are  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  three  stone  periods."  And  Sir  John  Evans 
sums  up  his  account  of  the  different  processes  by  saying  : 

"(i)  In  the  Palceolithic,  River-gravel, or  Drift  period  im- 
plements were  fashioned  by  chipping  only,  and  not  ground 
or  polished.  The  material  used  in  Europe  was,  moreover, 
as  far  as  at  present  known,  mainly  flint,  chert,  or  quartzite. 

"(2)  In  the  Reindeer  or  Cavern  period  of  Central  France, 
though  grinding  was  almost,  if  not  quite,  unused,  except 
in  finishing  bone  instruments,  yet  greater  skill  in  flaking 
flint  and  in  working  up  flakes  into  serviceable  tools  was 
exhibited.  In  some  places,  as  at  Laugerie-Haute,  surface 
chipping  is  found  on  the  flint  arrow-heads,  and  cup-shaped 
recesses  have  been  worked  in  other  hard  stones  than  flint, 
though  no  other  stones  have  been  used  for  cutting  purposes. 

''(3)  In  the  Neolithic,  or  Surface  Stone  period  of  Western 
Europe,  other  materials  besides  flint  were  largely  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  hatchets  ;  grinding  at  the  edge  and  on 
the  surface  was  generally  practised,  and  the  art  of  flaking 
flint  by  pressure  from  the  edge  was  probably  known.  The 
stone  axes,  at  least  in  Britain,  were  rarely  perforated. 

"(4)  In  the  Bronze  period  such  stone  implements,  with 
the  exception  of  mere  flakes  and  scrapers,  as  remained  in 
use  were,  as  a  rule,  highly  finished,  many  of  the  axes  being 
perforated  and  of  graceful  form,  and  some  of  the  flint 
arrow-heads  evincing  the  highest  degree  of  manual  skill." 


CHAPTER   III 
STONE    IMPLEMENTS— EOLITHS— PAL^OLITHS 

IN  the  opinion  of  some,  though,  it  must  be  admitted, 
not  of  all,  competent  to  pronounce  an  opinion  upon 
stone  implements,  the  oldest  objects  of  this  character 
are  those  known  as  eoliths.  These  objects,  having  been 
originally  found  on  the  chalk  plateau  of  Kent,  are  some- 
times also  called  plateau  implements,  but  the  name  which 
has  been  set  at  the  head  of  this  chapter  is  that  which  they 
usually  receive,  and  that  which  will  be  adhered  to  in  this 
book.  In  the  case  at  the  Blackmore  Museum  containing 
the  fine  series  of  these  objects  they  are  defined  as  "  stones 
having  evidence  of  use  and  often  shaped  by  use  ;  all 
showing  human  intelligence  in  the  selection  of  suitable 
size  and  form."  This  definition,  framed  so  as  to  include 
even  the  rudest  forms,  must  now  be  somewhat  developed. 
In  the  first  place,  then,  as  mentioned  in  the  last  chapter, 
eoliths  are  hacked,  not  chipped,  still  less  flaked.  That 
is,  the  splinters  and  fragments  which  were  removed  from 
the  stones  were  removed  by  men  who  were  not  familiar 
with  the  peculiar  property  possessed  by  flints  of  fracturing 
in  thin  flakes  if  the  proper  direction  be  given  and  the  right 
amount  of  force  applied  to  the  blow.  The  trimming  given 
to  the  implements  is  very  slight.  It  has  generally  been 
made  on  the  edges  of  rude  natural  flints  taken  from  an  old 
flint  drift.  The  secondary  fragments  removed  for  pur- 
poses of  trimming  have  been  taken  off  perpendicularly  to 

40 


EOLITHS,    PAL^OLITHS 


41 


the  plane  surfaces  of  the  stone,  and  have  the  appearance 
of  having  been  hacked  off,  perhaps  by  means  of  the  small 
hammer-stones  found  with  other  varieties  of  eoliths. 
These  last- mentioned  forms  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of 


FIG.    10.       EOi.irus 
Alderlniry  (J) 

the  simpler  kind  of  eolith,  which  was  really  a  natural 
stone  used  for  certain  purposes  and  showing  signs  of 
having  so  been  used.  Of  these  Sir  J.  Prestvvich^  has 
written  :    ''  Besides  the  implements  of  definite  patterns, 

^  Journal  of  Anthwp.  Inst.,  xxi.  246. 


42     REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

there  is  a  larg-e,  probably  the  larger,  number  which, 
though  not  the  result  of  chance,  show  no  special  design. 
Amongst  these  are  the  natural  flints  which  have  been 
selected  for  use  as  the  hammer  or  trimming  stones,  the 
result  being  that  the  flint  has  become  chipped  at  the  ends 
or  round  the  sides  undesignedly,  but  still  in  a  manner 
that  could  not  have  resulted  from  natural  wear.  In  a 
similar  way,  some  are  roughened  at  the  end  like  the  large 
pebbles  or  balls  used  at  a  later  Neolithic  period,  exhibiting 
patches  of  rough  abraded  surface,  the  result  of  repeated 
blows."  Again,  these  stones  are  almost  invariably  stained 
a  deep  warm,  brown  colour,  in  this  respect  resembling 
the  flints  of  the  drift  in  which  they  are  found.  This  colour 
spreads  over  the  worked  as  well  as  the  unworked  parts, 
though  it  may  be  lighter  in  shade  on  the  former  than  on 
the  latter.  Signs  of  considerable  wear  are  not  wanting 
in  the  rounding  and  blunting  of  the  working  edges,  a 
result,  evidently,  of  much  rolling  and  knocking  about. 

Considering  their  extreme  rudeness,  it  is  perhaps  not 
surprising  that  considerable  doubt  and  even  much  scepti- 
cism has  been  shown  as  to  their  being  genuine  works 
of  the  hands  of  man.  This  point  must  now  be  considered. 
In  the  first  place  it  will  be  admitted  by  all  that  one  would 
expect  the  earliest  tools  used  by  man  to  be  either  natural 
objects  or  a  very  slight  advance  upon  such  objects.  This 
is  not  a  description  which  could  be  applied  to  the  imple- 
ments of  palaeolithic  type.  Mr.  Bell^  well  says:  "The 
palaeolithic  implement  is,  on  the  face  of  it,  a  very  advanced 
and  artistic  production.  Neither  in  shape  nor  in  work- 
manship does  it  show  any  indications  of  a  prentice  hand, 
and  far  from  being  the  firstborn  of  human  tools,  must  re- 
present the  last  stage  in  a  long  series  of  artistic  develop- 
ment."    But   though   this    is   true   enough,    it    does    not 

^  Journal  of  Anthrop.  Inst.,  xxiii.  2G6. 


EOLITHS,    PAL^OLITHS  43 

follow  that  in  the  eoliths  we  have  these  early  rude  imple- 
ments. Their  recognition  depends  mainly  on  the  fact 
that  they  present  a  definite  series  of  simple  but  well- 
defined  types.  If  one  found  here  and  there  a  stone  shaped 
as  eoliths  are  shaped,  it  might  be  difficult  to  claim  for  it 
that  it  was  the  work  of  man's  hands,  but  when  large 
numbers  are  discovered,  belonging,  as  will  shortly  be 
shown,  to  one  or  another  of  several  simple  but  very 
clearly  marked  types,  it  becomes  more  difficult  to  enter- 
tain any  hesitation  as  to  their  real  nature.  But  a  long 
series  must  be  examined,  such  a  series  as  is  exhibited 
at  the  Natural  History  Museum,  South  Kensington,  or, 
better  still,  such  a  series  as  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Blackmore 
Museum.  Having  examined  these,  the  hill  at  Alderbury, 
close  by,  should  be  ascended,  and  the  implements  sought 
out  in  situ. 

When  a  series  such  as  that  just  mentioned  is  examined 
it  becomes  clear  that  two  special  objects  seem  to  have  been 
in  the  mind  of  the  manufacturers.  In  many  cases  the  idea 
has  been  to  work  in  the  side  of  the  implement  a  semi- 
circular notch,  looking,  as  one  describer  has  put  it,  like  a 
piece  bitten  out  of  a  slice  of  cake  (see  Fig.  10).  The  result 
attained  is  similar  to  that  achieved  by  the  makers  of  the 
"  hollow  "  or  concave  scraper  of  the  Neolithic  time.  The 
appearance  of  the  notch  in  all  implements  of  this  type  is 
wonderfully  similar,  a  fact  which  alone  renders  it  im- 
probable that  it  could  have  been  otherwise  formed  than 
by  the  hands  of  man.  Moreover,  the  same  notch  may  be 
found  worked  in  similar  manner  in  other  materials  than 
flint,  e.g.  greensand.  The  same  notch  may  also  be  found 
in  palaeolithic  implements  (see  Fig.  4),  where  it  seems  to 
have  fulfilled  some  purpose  secondary  to  the  main  purpose 
of  the  implement,  just  as  a  button-hook,  for  example,  may 
be  added  to  a  pocket-knife,  the  main  object  of  which  is  to 
provide  its  owner  with  an  implement  of  a  cutting  nature. 


44     REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

A  hollow,  notched  implement  of  the  kind  mentioned  was 
evidently,  whatever  may  have  been  its  purpose,  for  as  to 
this  we  can  only  make  guesses,  a  very  useful  tool  in  the 
estimation  of  primitive  man.  In  the  eolithic  type  we  seem 
to  possess  the  earliest  form  yet  known.  It  was  handed 
down  in  the  paleolithic  implement,  when  man  had  learnt 
to  do  better  things  than  merely  hack  stone.  And  finally 
it  developed  into  the  concave  scrapers  of  the  neolithic 
form,  of  which,  perhaps,  the  most  remarkable  are  the 
exceedingly  thin  and  delicate  examples  found  in  Ireland. 
In  other  cases  the  idea  of  the  artificer  has  been  to  work  the 
implement  for  a  point,  a  boring-tool  being  perhaps  in  his 
mind  (see  Fig.  lo).  Sometimes  the  point  has  been  the  sole 
object,  but  more  often  motives  of  economy  in  time  seem  to 
have  led  to  its  combination  with  the  hollow — again  the  old 
story  of  the  pocket-knife.  These  notches  were  sometimes 
arranged  (as  in  Fig.  lo)  on  either  side  of  a  long  pointed 
implement,  or  on  the  broad  side  of  a  piece  of  flint,  with  a 
comparatively  small  point  between  them,  the  whole  outline 
then  resembling  that  of  a  Cupid's  bow  or  ^~'.  The 
former  of  these  is  the  double-edged  scraper,  the  latter, 
the  bow-scraper  of  the  South  Kensington  classification. 
Besides  these,  the  most  common  forms,  there  are  other 
types  of  eoliths,  such  as  hammer-stones  and  punches, 
bruised  at  the  place  where  they  have  been  used  for  pecking 
fragments  off  other  pieces  of  flint.  There  is  also  a  beak- 
shaped  scraper  or  pick,  and  other  forms  included  in  the 
collection  at  South  Kensington  are  broad  flakes  with 
trimmed  edges,  pointed  implements  of  the  spear-head 
form,  and  ovoid  Abbeville  types.  As  already  mentioned, 
there  is  still  a  doubt  as  to  the  geological  position  of  these 
implements,  for  unfortunately,  so  far,  no  fossils,  shells, 
bones,  or  teeth  have  been  discovered  in  the  gravels  con- 
taining them.  By  many,  perhaps  by  most  geologists, 
the   gravels   have   been   assigned   to   the    Pliocene  age. 


EOLITHS,    PALyEOLITHS  45 

but   others    refuse    to    place    them    later    than    the   mid- 
Pleistocene  period. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  since  the  first  edition  of  this  book 
appeared  the  question  of  eoliths  has  become  in  any  way- 
more  settled.  Boule,^  who  has  always  disbelieved  in 
eoliths  as  arte-facts,  has  described  a  number  of  chipped 
flints  closely  resembling  eoliths  in  their  character,  which 
are  produced  by  a  machine  possessing  two  sets  of  inter- 
locking iron  teeth,  used  at  Mantes  for  the  purpose  of 
crushing  up  chalk  (in  which  flints  are  embedded)  for 
manufacturing  cement.  This  observation  clearly  shows 
that  eolith-like  flints  can  be  produced  without  any  inten- 
tion of  forming  implements.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
scarcely  seems  a  proof,  as  Boule  and  others  assert,  that 
all  eoliths  are  produced  by  natural  means,  since  the 
clashing  of  two  sets  of  iron  teeth  in  the  machine  is  hardly 
comparable  with  any  operation  of  nature,  and,  after  all, 
not  altogether  unlike  those  hacking  processes  by  which 
eoliths  are  supposed  to  have  been  produced.  A  more 
important  observation  is  that  of  Mr.  Worthington  Smith,- 
who  has  shown  that  flakes  extremely  like  those  detached 
from  eoliths  may  also  be  detached  by  and  pressure  ex- 
ercised by  small  pebbles  in  a  bed  of  drift  clay.  S.  H. 
Warren^  has  also  published  a  long  and  important  paper 
on  the  ''Origin  of  Eolithic  Flints"  by  land  causes,  espe- 
cially by  the  foundering  of  drifts,  in  which  he  concludes 
that  we  may  have  eoliths  of  any  age  and  that  they  may 
be  battered  by  concussion  or  chipped  by  percussion.  The 
chippings  may  be  the  work  of  water  abrasion  in  a  swift 
stream,  or  by  pressure  in  the  soil,  or  by  wave  action,  the 
drag  of  ice,  and  the  wear  and  tear  on  the  surface  ground. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  number  of  other  authorities,  includ- 
ing the  Rev.  H.  G.  O.  Kendall,*  still  retain  a  thorough 

'  n Anthropologie,  1905,  257.  ^  Man,  1907,  60. 

^  Journ,  Anthropological  Inst.,  vol.  viii.  337.  ■*  Man,  1907,  53. 


46     REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 

belief  in    eoliths   as  arte-facts.      The   question  therefore 
must  be  regarded  as  still  absolutely  unsettled.^ 

Palseoliths. — As  to  the  genuineness  of  objects  of  this 
class  no  person  entertains  any  doubt,  so  that  words  need 
not  be  wasted  in  proving  that  they  are  of  human  manu- 
facture. They  fall  into  two  categories,  not  from  their 
shape  so  much  as  from  the  places  in  which  they  are 
found,  namely,  River-drift  and  Cave  implements.  As 
there  seems  some  probability,  though  the  question  is 
by  no  means  settled,  that  the  former  may  be  the  older, 
it  will  be  well  to  commence  with  them.  As  their  name 
implies,  they  are  found  in  gravels  deposited  by  rivers, 
and  by  rivers  too,  forming  parts  of  the  present  drainage 
system  of  the  country,  though  often  at  a  very  much 
higher  level  than  the  existing  stream.  The  distance  of 
the  higher  gravels  from  the  stream  by  which  they  were 
originally  deposited  is  some  measure  of  the  time  which 
has  elapsed  since  the  gravels  were  laid  down  and  the 
implements  washed  into  them.  That  the  implements 
have  been  in  the  gravels  from  the  time  of  their  original 
deposition  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  they  and  the  un- 
worked  flints  amongst  which  they  are  discovered  are 
stained  in  a  similar  manner.     Moreover,  the  surfaces  of 

1  In  addition  the  following-  may  be  consulted  on  the  subject  of  eoliths : 
Prestvvich,  Controverted  Questions  of  Geology^  1S95  ;  ih.  Journ.  of  Anthrop. 
Soc,  xxi.  246;  Harrison,  ib.  ib.  263;  Jones,  R.,  ib.  ser.  ii.,  i.  53;  ib. 
Natural  Science,  v.  32;  Bullen,  Victoria  Inst.  Trans.,  June  18,  1900;  ib. 
Geol.  Mag.,  Dec.  iv.  vol.  x.  no.  465  (with  full  bibliography);  Darbishire 
Mem.  and  Proc.  Manchester  Lit.  and  Phil.  Soc.  1901-2  ;  Kennard,  Natural 
Science,  1898,  34.  For  the  discovery  of  similar  implements  near  Pretoria, 
South  Africa,  see  'L€\i\\.,  Journ.  of  Afithrop.  Soc,  s.  ii.,  i.  258.  See  also 
MacCurdy,  Man,  1906,  28;  Obermaier,  Arch.  f.  Anthrop.,  1906,  75;  Ober- 
maier,  corr.  Blatt.  d.  Dts.  Ges.  f.  Anthrop.  Ethn.  u.  Urges.,  May,  1905, 
pp.  50,  63,  108,  in  which  will  be  found  a  full  account  of  the  discussion  of  the 
eolith  question  by  German  authorities  ;  Deecke-Greifswald,  ib.  April,  1905. 
See  also  the  discussion  in  Rice  Holmes'  Aiicient  Britain,  p.  26. 


EOLITHS,    PAL^OLITHS 


47 


what 


the  flint  tools  have  often  been  greatly  worn,  all  the  sharp- 
ness having  been  taken  off  the  chipped  portions  by  rolling 
in  water  with  other  stones,  gravel,  sand,  and  other 
materials.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with 
Worthington  Smith  calls 
the  most  ancient  imple- 
ments (see  Fig.  ii).  A 
caveat  must  be  put  in, 
however,  as  to  regarding 
these  abraded  implements 
as  the  oldest,  for  a  more 
ancient  implement  may 
have  a  fresher  look,  if  by 
chance  it  has  been  sub- 
jected to  less  rolling  about 
than  its  younger  brother. 
But  allowing,  as  is  highly 
probable,  that  these  are 
the  oldest  implements,  what 
is  their  character?  They 
fall  into  two  classes,  classes 
to  which,  by  the  way,  most 
palceolithic  implements  be- 
long, the  pick-shaped  and 
the  ovate.  The  former  class 
consists  of  implements  with 

a  broad,  heavy,  usually  unworked  butt  or  base,  more 
or  less  comfortably  held  in  the  hand,  for  it  seems  that 
these  implements  were  not  hafted,  but  used  as  we  now 
see  them.  From  this  butt  the  tool  tapers  to  a  more  or 
less  elegantly  shaped  point.  In  Fig.  12  there  is  an 
example  of  a  very  beautifully  shaped  implement  of  this 
kind  from  the  Broom  pit.  It  is  of  the  pick-variety,  but 
is  so  sharply  trimmed  that  it  was  probably  intended  to  act 
also,  if  not  primarily,  as  a  knife.     The  implements  of  the 


(w, 


FIG.   II.      ABRADED   FLINT 

G.  smith's  "oldest  type") 

Farnham  (}) 


48     REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

most  ancient  type  resemble  this  in  general  outline,  but  are 
clumsier  and,  of  course,  much  more  abraded  than  this 
example.  The  ovate  or  rude  oval  form,  of  which  an 
example  of  the  abraded  type  is  shown  in  Fig.  ii,  is 
trimmed  all  round  to  an  edge,  and  has  no  untrimmed 
butt,  nor  is  it  provided  with  a  special  pointed  extremity. 
These  oldest  implements,  says  Mr.  Smith,  "are  known  at 
once  by  their  great  amount  of  abrasion,  their  grey-brown, 
deep  brown-ochreous,  or  chocolate  colour,  and  their  rude 
make."  They  had,  he  thinks,  already  attained  enormous 
antiquity  at  the  time  when  tools  of  lesser  age  were  made 
and  deposited  in  the  same  river  gravels  in  which  these 
older  ones  are  now  found.  Speaking  of  a  much  abraded, 
dull,  and  deeply  ochreous  implement  found  near  Canter- 
bury, he  says  that  there  are  chips  upon  it  made  at  the 
time  when  the  implementiferous  gravels  of  Canterbury 
were  laid  down,  which  chipped  parts  are  lustrous  and  non- 
ochreous.  He  also  believes  that  the  eoliths  of  Ightham 
are  no  older  than  this  class  of  implement,  so  that  perhaps 
they  may  have  been  constructed  at  the  same  time.  But  at 
present  we  can  do  little  but  surmise  about  the  earliest  tools, 
since  there  remain  so  many  problems  unsolved  in  connec- 
tion with  them.  The  other  implements  from  the  River- 
drift,  those,  that  is,  of  a  later  period  perhaps,  and  certainly 
of  less  abraded  character  and  non-ochreous  patination, 
may  be  divided  into  the  following  groups,  though  the 
order  in  which  they  are  placed  does  not  in  any  way  indi- 
cate any  sequence  or  relation  of  age. 

(i.)  Flakes,  which  may  or  may  not  show  some  traces  of 
chipping  at  the  edges.  These  may  be  {a)  external,  i.e., 
the  first  chips  struck  off  a  block  of  flint,  showing,  there- 
fore, the  crust  on  one  side ;  {b)  ridged,  of  triangular 
section,  extremely  rare ;  (c)  flat,  commoner  than  the 
last ;  this  variety  presents  generally  shorter,  thicker, 
and  broader  examples  than  the  later   or  surface  period  ; 


EOLITHS,    PAL^OLITHS 


49 


{d)  polygonal,  the  commonest  variety.  Flakes  of  all 
kinds  seem  to  have  been  used  for  cutting  and  scraping 
purposes.  Some  flakes  have  been  provided  with  a 
serrated  edge,  reminding  one  of  the  flint  saws  of  the  later 
age,  and  probably  intended  for  a  similar  purpose.^ 

(ii.)  Scrapers.  Implements  in  which  the  end  or  the  side 
has  been  trimmed  to  a  bevelled  edge,  generally  semi- 
circular when  the  work  is  at  the 
end  of  the  implement.  These 
tools,  which  are  amongst  the 
commonest  in  the  neolithic  series, 
are  rare  in  the  River-drift,  though 
they  are  met  with  amongst  the 
objects  found  in  the  caves. 

(iii.)  The  pointed  or  pear- 
shaped  picks,  of  which  mention 
has  already  been  made  (see 
Figs.    12  and   13). 

(iv.)  Ovate  or  sharp-rimmed 
implements.  These  are 
found  of  all  sizes,  from 
comparatively  small  im- 
plements to  the  large  flat 
objects  of  the  Broom  type 
(see  Fig.  5).  It  is  a 
curious  point  about  these 
that  if  they  are  held  up 
so  that  the  edge  can  be 
examined  it  will  be  found 
to  present  a  sinuous  out- 
line instead  of  a  straight 
one.  This  sinuosity  is  so 
arranged  as  to  give  the 
outline  the  form  of  a  long 
s,   but   reversed,    thus  }, 


PAL^EOLITH,    FLINT 
Broom  (§) 


'  Man,  1903,  156. 


50     REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 


the  process  of  manufacture  the  stone  has  been  so  shaped 
as  to  resemble  somewhat  the  twisted  paddle  of  a  screw- 
propeller.  It  was  at  one  time  thought  that  there  was 
some  purpose  in  this  peculiar  conformation,  but  it  seems 
probable   that   it  was   simply  the  result  of   the  method 

adopted  of  chipping  the  stone, 
and  had  no  other  significance. 
In  the  case  of  some  pal£Eoliths 
recently  discovered  at  Ipswich,^ 
it  is  stated  that  a  fine  oval  im- 
plement shows  signs  of  having 
been  worked  for  hafting,  as 
also  does  a  smaller  chisel- 
shaped  form.  This  is  unusual, 
for,  so  far,  the  evidence  seems 
to  point  to  the  tools  of  this 
period  having  been  used  in  the 
hand  and  withouthafts.  Pigmy 
implements  of  the  Palceolithic 
period,  or  Palaeolithic  micro- 
liths,  have  been  described  and 
figured  by  Rev.  H.  G.  O. 
Kendall-  and  also  by  Miss 
Layard  at  the  British  Associa- 
tion meeting  in  Cambridge 
in  1904.  Similar  tools  have 
been  found  on  the  Continent. 
Although  the  implements 
now  under  discussion  are 
called  River-drift,  and  are  found  in  river  gravels,  it  is 
quite  clear  that  they  have  been  washed  down  into  their 
present  positions,  and  did  not  originate  there.  There 
seem  to  have  been  regular  manufactories  of  these  imple- 
ments, and  one  of  them  has  been  most  carefully  investigated 
and  described  by  Mr.  Worthington  Smith. ^     The  palaeo- 


FIG.    13.       PAL.EOLITH 
St.  Acheul  (5) 


*  Nature,  May  22,  1902.       -  Alan,  1908,  53.       ^  Man,  the  Primceval  Savage. 


EOLITHS,    PAL^OLITHS  51 

lithic  workshop  in  question  was  situated  at  Caddington, 
near  Dunstable.  It  lay  by  the  side  of  a  pool  or  lake  on  a 
chalk  hill,  covered  with  brick-earth,  and  its  level  was  from 
four  to  thirteen  feet  below  the  modern  surface,  /.c,  that 
amount  of  soil  had  been  deposited  since  the  period  when 
some  tribe  of  early  inhabitants  of  this  country  sat  down  by 
the  pool  to  make  weapons  and  tools  for  themselves  out  of 
flint.  Chalk-with-flints,  red  clay-with-flints,  and  boulder- 
clay  were  in  their  neighbourhood  on  higher  ground,  which 
has  now  been  worn  away  and  has  disappeared. 

At  certain  spots  in  the  neighbourhood  of  this  pool  and 
others  flints  were  manufactured  into  implements.  *' It 
is  at  these  spots,"  says  Mr.  Smith,  "that  the  sharp  thin 
flakes  occur  in  hundreds,  together  with  implements  finished 
and  unfinished.  It  is  curious  that  perhaps  only  some  four 
or  five  yards  off,  and  on  the  same  old  land  surface,  not 
a  single  worked  stone  or  flake  can  be  found."  The  old 
land  surface  is  naturally  represented  by  a  line  in  a  section 
of  the  brick  clay,  in  the  midst  of  which  it  is  placed,  and  it 
appears  that  this  particular  band  has  long  been  known 
and  avoided  by  the  men  engaged  in  getting  the  clay,  not 
merely  because  the  stones  injure  the  bricks  if  included  in 
them,  but  quite  as  much  because  they  dread  the  thin  keen- 
edged  artificially  struck  flakes,  which  suddenly  cut  their 
fingers  down  to  the  bone.  Here  we  have  to  do  with  the 
product  as  it  was  turned  out,  and  as  keen  and  sharp  as 
the  day  it  was  made,  not  worn  and  rolled  by  the  action  of 
water.  By  dint  of  unwearied  patience  and  great  labour 
Mr.  Smith  was  able  to  prove  to  a  demonstration  that  the 
spot  which  he  was  examining  was  the  genuine  manufac- 
tory, for  he  was  able  to  piece  together  the  fragments 
which  had  been  chipped  off  by  the  original  workmen  and 
restore  the  block  either  wholly  or  entirely  to  its  first  state. 
An  example  of  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  14,  which  Mr.  Smith 
has  kindly  permitted  me  to  reproduce.     The  figure  on  the 


52     REMAINS   OF   TllH    PRl- HISTORIC    AGE 

right  shows  the  finished  implement,  that  on  the  left  the 
pieces  which  were  removed  in  its  construction.  In  this 
figure,  then,  we  get  the  appearance  of  the  block  before  its 
artificer  had  begun  to  work  upon  it.    In  one  of  his  attempts 


FIG.   14 
IMPLEMENT    FREE    FROM    FLAKES    (RIGHT)    AND   WITH    FLAKES    REATTACHED, 
THE    HEAVY    LINES    SHOWING    THE    REATTACHED    FRAGMENTS    (W.    G.    SMITH) 

Caddinglon  (J) 

at  piecing  together  Mr.  Smith  constructed  what  one  might 
perhaps  call  a  shell  of  flint  with  a  central  cavity,  the 
materials  of  which  he  had  not  discovered.  Into  this  cavity 
liquid  plaster-of-Paris  was  poured.  The  cast  thus  ob- 
tained presented  all  the  features  of  a  core,  and  represented 
the  missing  mass  of  flint  perhaps  transported  from  Cad- 
dington  to  some  other  part  of  the  country.  Another 
interesting  example  of  a  palaeolithic  workshop  floor  has 
been  found  near  Ealing,  and  extends  over  an  area  of  about 
forty  feet  square.^ 

^  Proc.  Soc.  Antiquaries,  s.  ii.,  xi.  211. 


EOLITHS,    PAL^OLITHS  53 

Cave  Implements. — The  cave  is  such  a  natural  habita- 
tion, ready-made  for  the  occupation  of  man,  that  it  is  in 
no  way  surprising  that  we  should  find  so  many  relics 
of  the  past  races  of  this  and  other  countries  in  them. 
Sometimes  these  grottoes  are  true  caverns  or  recesses  in 
limestone  produced  by  a  river  outside  or  by  the  action 
of  subterranean  streams,  in  which  cases  long  winding 
galleries  may  have  been  formed,  an  intricate  system  of 
chambers  being  the  result.  Or  it  may  be  that  the  natural 
agencies  of  water  and  frost  have  wasted  away  the  lower 
and  perhaps  softer  strata  of  a  cliff,  leaving  those  above 
to  overhang  the  ground.  Such  rock-shelters,  as  they 
have  been  called,  in  order  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
cave  proper,  could  obviously  be  with  ease  converted  into 
a  place  of  habitation  for  man,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
were  so  utilised,  as  in  the  case  of  Bruniquel  in  France. 
Although  the  term  cave-implements  is  now  being  applied 
to  objects  belonging  to  the  older  stone  period,  it  must 
not  be  supposed  that  the  caves  were  only  places  of  habita- 
tion at  that  time.  On  the  contrary,  as  has  already  been 
shown  in  the  cases  of  Kent's  Cavern  and  the  grotto  of 
Mas  d'Azil,  successive  layers  of  objects  have  been  found 
showing  that  successive  generations,  if  not  races,  have 
made  a  home  within  their  walls.  At  times  it  is  possible 
that  these  races  may  have  been  separated  from  one  another 
by  long  intervals.  We  can  lay  little  stress  upon  the 
rapidity  of  the  deposition  of  stalagmite,  as  affording  a 
geological  or  archceological  clock,  since  conditions  of 
various  kinds  may  accelerate  or  retard  the  process.  At 
Kent's  Cavern  one  "  Robert  Hedges  of  Ireland  "  inscribed 
his  name  with  the  date  1688.  The  carving,  when  first 
discovered  by  Mr.  McEnery  in  1825,  was  "glazed  over 
and  partly  effaced."  At  the  present  time  there  is  about 
^\jth  of  an  inch  of  stalagmite  over  it.  At  this  rate  of 
progress  it  would  take  about  4,000  years  to  form  an  inch, 


54     REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 

and  in  parts  of  tlu-  cavern  the  stalagmite  floor,  one  of 
two  floors,  is  twelve  feet  thick.  On  the  other  hand, 
Professor  McKenny  Hughes  says  that  "when  the  great 
storm  of  1S72  broke  up  the  floors  at  the  mouth  of  Ingle- 
borough  Cavern  I  saw  modern  ginger-beer  bottles  which 
had  been  buried  a  foot  deep  in  the  stalagmite."  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  Boyd  Dawkins  found  that  from  1845-1877 
the  stalagmite  had  increased  at  the  rate  of  y^j"  per 
annum.  But  at  the  most  rapid  rate  of  progress  one 
must  allow  that  a  very  long  period  must  have  been 
covered  by  the  time  necessary  for  the  construction  of 
the  floors  of  Kent's  Cavern,  in  other  cases  the  occupa- 
tion may  well  have  been  more  continuous,  as  at  Mas 
d'Azil,  where  the  continuity  seems  to  have  been  mainly 
broken  by  occasional  inundations  of  the  neighbouring 
river,  inundations  which  may  have  driven  from  their 
abode  its  inhabitants  but  for  a  comparatively  short  time, 
perhaps  even  only  a  few  days. 

The  walls  of  some  European  caves  have  been  decorated 
in  Palaeolithic  times  with  illustrations  of  the  animals  of 
the  period.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  of  these  is  the 
cave  of  La  Mouthe  in  the  Dordogne,  France,^  where 
hearths  of  different  periods,  Palseolithic  and  Neolithic, 
have  been  discovered.  Here  are  seven  designs  or  panels 
representing  (i)  the  bison,  Bos  prisciis,  \vith  a  much  ex- 
aggerated hump  ;  (2)  ox  ;  (3)  reindeer ;  (4)  wild  goat  ; 
(5)  mammoth  ;  (6  and  7)  horses.  In  this  cavern  was  also 
found  a  lamp  of  red  sandstone,  on  which  was  a  well- 
executed  head  of  a  goat.  The  annexed  drawing  (Fig.  15) 
of  the  mammoth  is  an  example  from  the  walls  of  the 
cave  of  Combarelles,'^  w^here  there  are  no  less  than  109 
figures  representing  other  kinds  of  animals.    Other  caves 

'  L' Anthropologic.,  viii.  592;  ix.  596;  xii.  670.  Bull,  ei  Mdm.  Soc.  d'An- 
throp.  de  Paris,  ser.  v.  t.  iv.  191. 

'■^  Bull,  et  Mihn.  Soc.  d' Anihrop.  dc  Paris,  ser.  v.  t.  iii.  527. 


EOLITHS,    PAL^OLITHS 


55 


with  pictures  on  the  walls  are  those  of  Pair-non-Pair 
(Bordeaux),  Chabot  (Ardoche),  Font-de-Gaume,  Les 
Eyzies,  BernifoP  (Dordogne),  and  Altamira-  (Spain). 
No  objects  of  this  kind  have  as  yet  been  found  in  any 
cavern  in  these  islands.  The  caves  having  been  inhabited 
by  so  many  generations  of  people,   if  not  by  different 


FIG.    15.       MAMMOTH 
Wall  of  grotto  of  Combarelles  (I) 


peoples,  it  will  be  understood  that  a  great  variety  of 
objects  has  been  discovered  within  them,  belonging  to 
the  Paleolithic,  Neolithic,  and  later  periods,  in  fact,  in 
the  case  of  the  Victoria  Cave  at  Settle,  down  to  the 
time  when  the  native  Britons  fled  before  the  face  of 
the  invading  Saxon  hordes.  The  sequence  of  objects 
in  the  caves  being  much  more  complete  in  France 
than  in  this  country,  it  will  be  better  to  deal  with  it  first, 
and  then   give  a  few    notes   respecting   our   own   caves 


^  L'Anthrop.,  xv.  61. 


-  lb.  ib.  625. 


56     REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

and  their  contents.  According  to  the  classification  of 
M.  de  Mortillet,^  somewhat  modified  in  that  given  on 
p.  9,  the  Chellean  period  comes  first.  This  is  not  a 
period,  however,  belonging  to  the  cave-series,  but  to 
that  of  the  river-drift.  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
Acheulean   period  from  the  place  St.  Acheul.     Leaving 

'  It  is  a  little  difficult  to  choose  amongst  the  numerous  and  constantly 
varyingf  classifications  proposed  by  different  authorities,  and  that  of 
Mortillet  has  been  selected  and  adhered  to  because,  up  to  now,  it  is  the 
most  generally  used  and  the  best  known.  However,  mention  must  be  made 
of  the  important  classification  suggested  by  Hoernes.  This  classification  is 
as  follow  : — * 

I.  First  Glacial  Period.     (Pliocene,  Geikie.) 

(a)  First  Inter-Glacial.  Chelleo-Mousterien,  Tropical  fauna,  Elephas 
antiquus,  Rhinoceros  Merckii.  Human  beings  living  in  the  open  air,  some- 
times in  grottos.  Stone  implements  large  and  coarse ;  types  of  Chelles, 
St.  Acheul,  and  Moustier. 

II.  Second  Glacial  Period. 

{b)  Second  Inter-Glacial.  Solutrean.  Mildlclimate.  The  fauna  has  lost 
the  tropical  animals.  Mammoths  and  Rhinoceros  tichorinus  are  numerous  ; 
the  horse  is  common.  Reindeer,  stag,  and  bison  are  still  rare.  In  the 
caverns  live  the  lion,  bear,  hyena,  wolf,  and  fox.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  period  the  Proboscideans  and  Carnivora  become  more  numerous,  and 
the  bear  disappears.  The  human  race  is  African,  and,  as  we  know  them 
by  ivory  statuettes,  negroid  and  steatopygous.  Their  skeletons  are  of  the 
type  known  as  that  of  Grimaldi.  Stone  implements  are  finer  than  those  of 
the  preceding  epoch,  sometimes  very  fine.  Man  sculptured  on  bone  and 
ivory  and  executed  perfect  figurines.  He  lived  in  caverns,  the  walls  of 
which  he  decorated  with  pictures  of  animals. 

III.  Third  Glacial  Period.  Disappearance  of  more  ancient  fauna  and 
development  of  Arctic  fauna  (reindeer,  etc.). 

(c)  Third  Inter-Glacial.  The  epoch  of  reindeer  or  Magdalenian  in  the 
whole  of  Europe,  followed  in  Western  Europe  by  the  epoch  of  the  stag 
(Asylian).  The  Magdalenian  period  is  the  epoch  described  by  previous 
writers  under  the  same  name. 

IV.  Fourth  Glacial  Period.  Arisian  {dtage  coquillier)  in  the  south  of 
France  and  hiatus  in  the  rest  of  Europe. 

{d)   Post-Glacial,  Neolithic, 

*  Hoernes,  Dcr  diluviaU  Mensch  in  Europa,  Vienna,  1903.     See  L'Anthro/>olo^ie,  xv.  195. 


EOLITHS,   PAL^OLITHS  57 

this  aside  the  first  cave-period  is  that  of  Le  Mousticr, 
the  Mousterian  era.  The  cavern  from  which  this  period 
takes  its  name  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  V^zere, 
and  about  ninety  feet  above  its  present  level.  The  climate 
during  this  period  was  cold  and  damp,  and  the  mammoth, 
the  woolly  rhinoceros,  the  cave-bear,  and  the  musk-sheep 
or  ox,  were  the  characteristic  animals  of  the  fauna.  The 
implements  are  worked  on  one  side  only  into  choppers  or 
side-scrapers.  On  the  opposite  side  to  the  cutting-edge 
part  of  the  crust  is  retained  for  the  purpose  of  ensuring 
a  firm  grip.  Pointed  implements  wrought  into  shapes 
something  like  spear-heads  are  also  found.  Instruments 
of  bone  are  almost  entirely  wanting. 

The  Solutrean  period  owes  its  name  to  the  rock-shelter 
at  Solutre  (Saone-et-Loire),  a  settlement  on  a  plateau  at 
the  base  of  a  limestone  escarpment,  by  which  it  was  to 
some  extent  sheltered.  Laugerie  Haute,  by  some  con- 
sidered to  afford  more  typical  examples  of  the  work  of  the 
period  which  certainly  underlie  a  deposit  of  Madelainean 
date,  and  Cro-Magnon,  celebrated  for  the  skeletons  there 
discovered  in  1868,  are  other  settlements  belonging  to  this 
period.  The  climate  seems  to  have  been  mild  and  dry. 
The  horse  existed  in  large  herds,  hence  the  term  equidian 
sometimes  given  to  this  period,  though  not  co-terminous 
with  it  ;  the  reindeer  and  the  mammoth  were  also  amongst 
the  fauna,  but  the  rhinoceros  had  disappeared.  The 
characteristic  implements  are  lozenge  and  leaf-shaped 
heads,  delicately  chipped,  and  closely  resembling  arrow- 
heads, which  perhaps  may  be  their  real  nature,  also  lance- 
heads  or  daggers  chipped  on  both  surfaces.  The  working 
in  stone  reveals  a  great  advance  upon  that  of  the  preceding 
period.  There  is  also  a  great  improvement  in  the  con- 
struction of  objects  of  bone  and  horn,  but  this  will  be 
dealt  with  separately  when  the  objects  made  of  these 
materials  are  considered  by  themselves.    A  bridge  between 


58     REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 


this  period  and  the  next  seems  to  be  afforded  by  the  cave  of 
Les  Eyzies,  in  the  Dordogne,  where  Madelainean  harpoons 
made  of  reindeer  horn  outnumber  the  implements  of  stone. 
The  Madelainean  period  itself  receives  its  name  from 
the  cave  of  La  Madelaine,  in  the  Dordogne.  The 
climate  during  this  period  was  cold  and  dry,  and  there  was 
a  great  development  of  the  northern  fauna,  particularly 
the  reindeer,  after  which  animal  the  era  has  sometimes 
been  called.  It  forms  the  earlier  part  of  the  Cervidian 
epoch  of   Piette's  table.     The  mammoth  became  extinct 


FIG.    l6.       SCRAPERS,    LONG 
I.  Avebury.     a.  French.     3.  Icklingham 

during  this  time.  It  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  great 
epoch  of  work  in  horn  and  bone.  These  will  be  fully 
dealt  with  in  a  later  chapter.  As  far  as  stone  implements 
are  concerned,  the  examples  do  not  show  as  high  a  pitch 
of  skill  or  workmanship  as  those  of  the  Solutrean  time. 
Perhaps  this  may  have  been  because  the  facility  with 
which  the  softer  materials  of  horn  and  bone  were  worked 
tempted  man  to  decline  the  more  arduous  task  of  shaping 
stone  to  the  lance-heads  and  other  forms  of  the  earlier 
date.  That  it  was  an  earlier  date  there  can  be  no  doubt, 
for,  as  mentioned  above,  Solutrean  objects  underlie  those 
of  the  Madelainean  time  at  Laugerie  Haute.     The  rock- 


EOLITHS,   PAL^OLITHS  59 

shelters  at  Laugerie  Basse  and  Bruniquel  also  belong"  to 
this  period.  The  stone  implements  include  flakes  and 
long  scrapers  (see  Fig.  i6^  for  the  type),  pebbles  with 
depressions  in  them  of  a  mortar-like  character,  hammer- 
stones  and  in  some  cases  flint  saws.  Side-scrapers  are 
rare  and  leaf-shaped  blades  are  entirely  absent.  From  the 
later  Madelainean  period  in  which  the  antlers  of  red  deer 
to  some  extent  replaced  the  horns  of  the  reindeer  as 
material  for  the  manufacture  of  harpoons  and  other 
implements  we  arrive  at  the  Asylian  epoch,  called  after 
the  grotto  of  Mas  d'Azil,  which  is  regarded  by  many 
as  a  true  transition  era  between  Palceolithic  and  Neolithic 
times.  As  this  grotto  has  already  been  dealt  with  in  the 
first  chapter,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  touch  further  on 
the  subject  here. 

Of  English  caves  the  most  celebrated  is  Kent's  Cavern, 
to  which  sufficient  allusion  has  already  been  made.  Others 
in  Devonshire  are  at  Brixham  and  Newbury.  The  Cress- 
well  caves  (Robin  Hood,  Church-Hole,  and  Pin-Hole)  in 
Derbyshire  are  also  of  great  interest.  Under  a  layer  of 
stalagmite  up  to  a  foot  in  thickness  is  an  upper  bed 
containing  quartzite  implements  of  a  somewhat  similar 
character  to  that  discovered  at  Saltley  in  the  gravels  of 
the  river  Rea.  Flint  and  ironstone  tools  have  also  been 
found,  with  implements  of  bone  of  various  kinds,  and 
an  incised  head  of  a  horse  with  a  hog-mane,  the  only 
work  of  art  of  the  madelainean  type  found  in  England. 
In  this  layer  are  bones  of  the  woolly  rhinoceros,  reindeer, 
lion,  hyaena,  hippopotamus,  etc.  The  lowest  bed,  which 
is  three  feet  thick,  and  consists  of  red  sand  and  clay, 
contained  implements  of  Acheulian  type  associated  here, 
as  elsewhere,  with  bones  of  the  reindeer,  woolly  rhinoceros, 
mammoth,  hysena,  and  horse.^ 

^  For  fuller  information  on  the  subject  of  caves,  Boyd-Dawkins'  Cave- 
Hunting  should  be  consulted,  also  the  following- :  Report  of  the  Comviittee 
of  the  Royal  and  Geological  Societies  on  Brixham  Cave;  L' Anthropologic, 
xii. ,  p.  130,  list  of  French  caves;  Keane,  Ethnology,  p.  78. 


6o     REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

In  Europe  traces  of  palaeolithic  man  have  been  found 
outside  England,  in  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Belgium, 
Germany,  Austria,  and  Italy.  His  relics  have  not  been 
discovered  in  those  countries  which  did  not  become  habit- 
able until  after  the  retreat  of  the  glaciers,  thus  no  traces 
have  been  discovered  in  Scandinavia,  nor  in  the  Alpine 
districts,  nor  in  the  greater  part  of  North  Germany. 
Outside  Europe  remains  belonging  to  this  class  have 
been  found  in  the  quaternary  strata  of  North  Africa 
(Algiers  and  Egypt),  in  India  (Deccan),  and,  according 
to  some,  in  Western  North  America,  though  there  is  still 
some  doubt  as  to  the  age  to  which  these  last  implements 
really  belong.  In  South  Africa  (Swaziland)  implements 
have  been  found  in  river-gravels,  very  much  of  the  same 
kind  as  those  discovered  at  Broom,  and  probably  palaeo- 
lithic.^ A  list  of  river -drift  implement  localities  in 
England,  arranged  according  to  counties,  is  given  at  the 
end  of  this  chapter.  In  Evans'  book  most  of  the  same 
places  will  be  found  arranged  according  to  the  river 
systems  to  which  they  belong.  In  the  Prehistoric  Room 
at  the  British  Museum  there  is  a  large  map  of  England, 
on  which  the  localities  both  of  cave  and  river-drift  imple- 
ments are  marked  by  pins,  a  most  instructive  demonstra- 
tion of  the  subject  which  should  be  carefully  examined. 
Attention  should  also  be  called  to  the  truly  admirable 
Guide  to  the  Antiquities  of  the  Stone  Age  hi  the  Depart- 
7iient  of  British  and  Mediaeval  Antiquities  in  the  British 
Museum,  published  by  the  Trustees.  The  learner  who 
takes  this  book  in  his  hand  and  studies  the  cases  contain- 
ing the  specimens  which  it  describes  will  have  little 
difficulty  in  gaining  a  good  idea  of  the  objects  belonging 
to  this  and  the  later  stone  periods. 

^  R.  Jones,  Journ.  oj  Anthrop,  Soc,  N.S.,  i.  p.  48. 


EOLITHS,    PAL^OLITHS 


6i 


LIST   OF   CAVES    IN    ENGLAND   AND   WALES 


Devonshire. — Brixham,  Windmill  Hill  Cavern. 
Happaway  Cavern. 
Newbury,  Tor  Br3'an  Cave  (also  neolithic  objects,  see  Proc. 

Soc,  Antiq.,  s.  ii.,  viii.  249). 
Plymouth,  Cattedovvn  Cave  (in  which  human  remains  of 

Perthi  -  Chwareu    type    have    been   found.      Cf.    Worth, 

Trans.  Devon.  Assoc,  for  Advt.  of  Sci.,  1887,  ^i^-  419)- 
Torquay,  Kent's  Hole  {Trans.  Devon.  Assoc. y  ii.  469;  iii. 

191  ;  iv.  467). 

Monmouth. — King  Arthur's  Cave,  near  Whitchurch,  Ross. 

Somerset. — Cheddar  (neolithic  and  late  Celtic  objects  in  Cough's 
Cavern). 
Wookey  Hole,  near  Wells.     Palaeolithic. 

Derbyshire. — Cresswell  Crags. 

Yorkshire. — Settle,  Victoria  Cave  (palaeolithic  and  late  Celtic 
objects). 
Skipton,  Lotherdale  Cave.     Palaeolithic. 

Wales. — Cae-Gwyn,  Vale  of  Clwyd  {Quart,  fonrn.  Geol.  Soc, 
1888,  112). 


Cefn,  near  S.  Asaph. 
Coygan,    S.    Caermarthen- 

shire. 
Ffynnon  Beuno. 


Long  Hole,  Cower. 
Moyles   Mouth,  Oyle  Cave, 

Pembroke. 
Pont  Newydd. 


LIST   OF   LOCALITIES    WHERE    RIVER-DRIFT 
IMPLEMENTS    HAVE    BEEN    FOUND 


Bedfordshire — 

Biddenham,  near  Bedford. 
Biggleswade. 

Bossington,  near  Leighton 
Buzzard. 
*Caddington(W.  Sm\ih,Man 
the  PrimcEval  Savage). 
Cardington. 


Dallow  Farm,  near  Luton. 
Harrowden. 
Henlow. 
Honey  Hill. 

Houghton  Regis,  near  Dun- 
stable. 
Kempston. 
Leagrave  Marsh,  near  Luton. 


Buckinghamshire. — Great  Missenden. 


62     REMAINS   OF   THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 

Berkshire — ^ 

Grovelands,  near  Reading. 
Pier's  Green. 


Ruscombe,  near  Twyford. 
Cambridgeshire — 

Barnwell. 

Cambridge. 

Chatteris. 
Devonshire 

Colyton. 

Dorsetshire. — Devvlish. 

Hawkchurch. 
Essex — 

Abberton,  near  Colchester. 

Ardleigh,  near  Colchester. 

Barking,  St.Swithin's  Farm. 

Barking,  Wallend. 

Dovercourt,  near  Harwich. 

Felstead,  North  End  Place. 

Farmstead,    Lake's    Farm, 
Cramshall  Lane.         [ter. 

Lexden  Park,  near  Colches- 

Leyton,  Grove  Green  Lane. 
Hampshire. — Barton. 

Bournemouth.         [ampton. 

Hillhead,  9  N.E.  of  South- 
IsLE  OF  Wight. — Bembridge. 

Foreland. 


Sonning. 

Wallingford. 

Wokingfham. 


Chesterton. 
Kennett. 
SwafFham  Fen. 
*Broom,  near  Axminster. 

I     Kentisbere,  near  Collumpton. 


Wimborne  Minster. 


Quendon. 

St.  Osyth's,  near  Colchester. 

Shoeburyness. 

Stanway,  near  Lexden. 

Stratford. 

Walton-on-the-Naze. 

West  Bergholt  (several  of 
these  discovered  by  H.  G. 
Laver,  Esq.,  and  commu- 
nicated to  me). 

Lee  on  the  Solent. 
Southampton  Common. 

Sea  View. 


West  High  Down,  near  Freshwater  Bay  {Geol,  Mag.y  Dec. 
iv.,  vii.  406). 
Hertfordshire — 


Abbot's  Langley. 

Ayot  St.  Peter. 

Barton  Green. 

Bayford. 

Bedmond. 

Bengeo. 

Bishop's  Stortford. 

Fisher's  Green,  Stevenage. 


Flamstead    End,   near  Ches- 

Harpenden.  [hunt. 

Hemel  Hempstead,  near. 

Hertford. 

Hitchin. 

Ickleford,  near  Hitchin. 

Ippollitts. 

Kenworth,  Mount  Pleasant. 


^  For  implements  in  Thames  Valley  between  Reading  and  Maidenhead 
see  Mati,  1904,  ix. 


EOLITHS, 

Hertfordshire  (contd.) — 


PAL^OLITHS 


63 


Kiiebworth. 

North    Mimms,    south    of 

Hatfield. 
Stocking:  Pelham. 


Ware. 
Watford. 
Welwyn. 
Wheathampstead. 


Huntingdonshire. — Abbot's  Ripton. 


Elton,  near  Oundle. 

Hartford,  near  Hunting'don. 
Kent — 

Aylesford. 

Bishopstone. 

Canterbury,  near. 

Chatham. 

Chatham,  Otterham  Quay. 

Chilham. 

Crayford  Station. 

Currie  Farm. 

Erith. 

Folkestone. 

Gillingham,  near  Chatham. 

Gravesend. 

Greenhythe. 

Green  Street  Green. 

Heme  Bay. 

Horton  Kirby. 

Ightham. 
Lincolnshire — 

Lincoln,  near. 
Middlesex —  [here. 

Acton,  various  places  near 

Dawley,  West  Drayton. 

Ealing-  Dean. 

Enfield,  Bush  Hill  Park. 

Enfield,  Forty  Hill. 

Gunnersbury. 

Hackney  Downs,  near 
Shacklewell. 

Hanwell. 

Highbury  New  Park,  near 
Stoke  Newington. 

London.  (Implements  have 
been  found  in  the   City, 


Little    Orton, 
borouofh. 


near    Peter- 


Knock  Hall  Lane. 

Limpsfield. 

Lullingstone. 

Marden. 

Northfleet. 

Ospringe,  near  Faversham. 

Reculver. 

Reculver,  Wear  Farm. 

St.  Mary  Hoo. 

Stoke. 

Studwell. 

Swale  Cliff". 

Swanscombe  (yl/««,  1903,  155). 

Teynham  Station,  near. 

Thannington. 

Tweedale. 

Wickham,  near  Bromley. 

Skegness  {Man,  1907,  89). 

Gray's  hin  Lane,  Clerken- 
well,  London  Fields,  Dalston, 
Kingsland,  Homerton,  Hack- 
ney,Lower  Clapton, Stamford 
Hill,  Mildmay  Park,  South 
Hornsey,  Abney  Park  Ceme- 
tery ;  see  Smith,  "Primeval 
Savage,"  A^rt/«r^,  xxvii.  270, 
and  Ma7i,  1909,  56. 

Lower  Edmonton,  Rowan 
Tree  Farm,  and  other  locali- 
ties near. 

Mill  Hill,  near  Acton. 


64     REMAINS   OF   THE 

Norfolk — 

Feltwell,  Shrub  Hill. 
Norwich. 

Rushford,  Snare  Hill. 
South  Wootton. 

Oxford — 

Bagley  Wood,  near  Iffley. 
Broadwell. 
Caversham. 
Hinksey,  in  Thames. 

Suffolk — 
*Brandon  gravel-hill. 

Bungay  {Man,  igo8,  93). 

Bury  St.  Edmunds. 

Eriswell. 

Fornham  All  Saints. 

Higham,  Ballast  Pit,  G.  E.  R. 
near  Bury  St.  Edmunds. 
*Hoxne. 

Icklingham.  [1903,  41). 

Ipswich     {Jl.     Anth.     Inst., 

Surrey — 

Battersea  and  many  other 
localities  on  Thames,  for 
which  see  Evans,  p.  588. 

Farley  Heath. 

Farnham. 

Sussex — 
Brighton. 
Coates  Common. 
Fittleworth    Common    and 
Greatham. 

Warwickshire — Saltley. 

Wiltshire — 

Ashford  in  the  Water. 

Bemerton,  near  Salisbury. 

Breamore. 

Britford. 

Downton. 

Fisherton, 


PREHISTORIC   AGE 

Thetford,     Red     Hill,    and 

Whitehill. 
Weeting. 
West  Runton. 

Iffley. 
Ipsden. 

Marston  Ferry. 
Wolvercote. 

Maid's  Cross,  Lakenheath. 
Melford  Junction. 
*Mildenhall. 
Santon  Downham. 
Sicklesmere. 
Stutton. 
Sudbury. 
Westley. 
West  Stow. 


Frimley. 

Peasemarsh,  near  Guildford. 

Peperharow. 

Wracklesham. 


Friston  and  Crow  Link  Gap, 
near  Eastbourne. 


Knowle  Farm,  near  Saver- 
nake  {Man,  1906,  26,  55,  76) 
Lake. 

Milford  Hill. 
Pewsey. 
South  Newton. 


CHAPTER    IV 

STONE  liMPLEMENTS— NEOLITHIC  TYPES-OVERLAP 
WITH  METAL 

yiS  in  other  portions  of  the  Prehistoric  period,  so  in 
jt\_  connection  with  the  period  with  which  this  chapter 
is  concerned,  it  is  impossible  to  assign  any  date,  in 
an  ordinary  chronological  manner,  for  the  commencement 
of  the  Neolithic  period  in  this  country  or  elsewhere.  Most 
probably  there  is  no  such  date,  for  the  reason  that  there 
was  no  sharp  distinction  between  this  period  and  that 
which  preceded  it.  It  is  clear  that  the  introduction  of 
metal  is  a  definite  milestone  on  the  road  of  civilisation, 
but  the  acquisition  of  a  new  and  improved  method  of 
working  stone  can  scarcely  be  regarded  in  the  same  light. 
The  polishing  of  stone  was  a  distinct  advance,  but  the 
majority  of  the  implements  of  the  Neolithic  period  are  not 
polished.  Hence,  as  already  pointed  out,  it  is  not  always 
possible  with  safety  to  decide,  apart  from  its  place  of  dis- 
covery, whether  a  given  implement  is  palaeolithic  or 
neolithic,  that  is,  a  certain  range  of  implements,  for,  of 
course,  there  are  many  as  to  which  no  reasonable  doubt 
can  arise.  Scandinavia  is  a  country  which  so  far  has 
afforded  no  evidence  of  palaeolithic  implements,  so  that 
here  the  problem  is  somewhat  narrowed  down.  As  to  the 
date  of  the  appearance  of  man — in  the  neolithic  stage  of 
culture — in  this  part  of  the  world,  we  have  some  evi- 
dence, dim  and  doubtful,  it  is  true,  but  perhaps  a  shade 

F  65 


66     REMAINS  OF   THE   PREHISTORIC    AGE 

less  so  than  in  most  other  cases.  Denmark,  as  its  peat- 
mosses show,  has  had  four  distinct  periods  of  vegetation 
during  the  time  that  the  country  has  been  occupied  by 
man.  From  the  commencement  of  history  down  to  the 
present  day  the  beech  has  been  the  chief  tree  in  its 
forests.  Before  the  beech  the  pedunculated  oak  flourished. 
This  was  preceded  by  the  sessile  oak,  which  had  in  its 
turn  succeeded  the  Scotch  fir.  It  has  been  urged  that  a 
period  of  not  less  than  2,500  years  must  be  allowed  for 
the  rise,  progress,  and  decline  of  each  of  these  successive 
vegetations.  Here  we  enter  the  region  of  surmise,  for 
there  is  no  convincing  evidence  for  the  figure  above- 
mentioned.  Still  we  obtain  some  idea  of  the  number  of 
years  which  must  have  elapsed  since  men,  skilled  in  the 
skill  of  the  neolithic  stone-worker,  first  made  their  way 
into  the  Danish  peninsula.  Along  the  shores  of  its  coast 
are  found  great  heaps  of  shells,  chiefly  of  the  oyster,  the 
refuse  of  the  meals  of  an  early  race  of  inhabitants.  These 
mounds  or  kitchen-middens  (Kjokkenmoddings)  contain 
flint  implements  of  a  rude  character,  and  also  fragments 
of  pottery.  It  has  been  claimed  for  them  that  they  are 
relics  of  the  earliest  times  of  the  Neolithic  period,  and  if 
so,  they  may  be  compared  with  the  shell-layer  of  the  grotto 
of  Mas  d'Azil.  But  there  is  another  view,  that  the  heaps 
were  the  refuse  of  a  people,  in  a  very  backward  stage 
of  civilisation,  it  is  true,  but  not  necessarily  of  very  early 
date.  This  view  seems  to  gain  some  support  from  the  fact 
that  some  of  the  rude  implements  met  with  amongst  the 
rest  of  the  debris  actually  appear  to  have  been  made  from 
polished  objects.  This,  at  least,  is  clear,  that  the  imple- 
ments are  of  a  much  humbler  type  than  the  more  finished 
works  characteristic  of  a  part  of  the  Neolithic  period,  and 
particularly  in  the  same  part  of  the  world.  The  kitchen- 
middens  belong  to  a  stage  of  civilisation  still  existent  in 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  have  been  found  in  England  (Hast- 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS  67 

ings,  Ventnor,  Tenby,  on  the  Wash,  and  in  Devon 
and  Cornwall) ;  Scotland  (Oban,  Moray  Firth,  Loch 
Spynie) ;  Ireland  (Cork  Harbour ;  White  Park  Bay, 
County  Antrim  ;  Kinnegar  Strand,  Lough  Swilly  ;  and 
elsewhere).  They  have  also  been  met  with  in  France, 
Portugal,  Sardinia,  Florida,  Japan,  Chili,  Massachusetts, 
and  Georgia.  Everywhere  they  represent  a  stage  of 
civilisation  of  a  low  type,  where  shell-fish  formed  the  chief 
food-material  and  where  little  trouble  was  expended  on 
shaping  the  flint  implements,  which  are  not  much  altered 
from  the  flakes  originally  detached  from  the  central  core. 
Kitchen-middens,  then,  afford  no  safe  test  of  age.  They 
"cover  the  whole  field  from  Palaeolithic  to  modern  times, 
some  being  very  old,  others  still  in  progress,  so  that  each 
has  to  be  taken  on  its  merits."^  As  to  size,  Petroff'^ 
writes:  "  The  time  required  for  the  formation  of  a  so-called 
layer  of  kitchen  refuse  found  under  the  sites  of  Aleutian 
or  Innuit  (Eskimo)  dwellings,  I  am  inclined  to  think  less 
than  indicated  by  Mr.  Dall's  calculations.  Anybody  who 
has  watched  a  healthy  Innuit  family  in  the  process  of 
making  a  meal  on  the  luscious  echinus  or  sea-urchin, 
would  naturally  imagine  that  in  the  course  of  a  month 
they  might  pile  up  a  great  quantity  of  spinous  debris. 
Both  hands  are  kept  busy  conveying  the  sea-fruit  to  the 
capacious  mouth  ;  with  a  skilful  combined  action  of 
teeth  and  tongue  the  shell  is  cracked,  the  rich  contents 
extracted,  and  the  former  falls  rattling  to  the  ground  in  a 
continuous  shower  of  fragments  until  the  meal  is  concluded. 
A  family  of  three  or  four  adults,  and  perhaps  an  equal 
number  of  children,  will  leave  behind  them  a  shell  monu- 
ment of  their  voracity  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches  in  height 
after  a  single  meal.  .  .  .  The  heaps  of  refuse  created 
under  such  circumstances  during  a  single  season  were 
truly  astonishing  in  size.     They  will  surely  mislead  the 

^  Keane,  Ethnology,  p.  77.        ^  American  Naturalist,  July,  1882,  teste  Keane. 


68     REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

ingeMiious  calculator  of  the  antiquities  of  shell   heaps  a 
thousand  years  hence." 

Even  if  we  allow  that  the  flints  of  the  kitchen-middens 
are  the  earliest  objects  which  can  fairly  be  assigned  to  the 
Neolithic  or  surface  period,  we  cannot  any  further  continue 
a  consecutive  classification,  for  the  very  reason  that  the 
objects  which  we  have  to  classify  are  surface  objects  and 
not  found  in  strata  like  some  of  those  associated  with  the 
Palaeolithic  age.  It  is  perhaps  only  at  the  two  ends  that 
we  can  attempt  anything  like  a  relative  chronological 
arrangement.  The  kitchen-midden  implements  may  be 
the  earliest,  and  these  are  at  one  end.  Other  implements 
seem  to  have  been  made  solely,  or  perhaps  mostly,  after 
a  knowledge  of  bronze  had  diffused  itself,  and  that  is  the 
other  end.  For  the  rest,  the  only  method  of  classification 
is  by  types,  and  to  a  consideration  of  these  the  rest  of  this 
chapter  will  be  devoted. 

Celts. — ^Those  who  desire  to  study  the  very  curious  etymo- 
logy of  this  word  must  be  referred  to  the  pages  of  Sir  John 
Evans'  work  ;  for  us  here  it  will  be  sufficient  to  say  that 
the  term  connotes  an  axe-head,  whether  of  stone  or  bronze; 
and  this  being  the  most  important  and  characteristic  im- 
plement of  both  periods  will,  in  each  case,  first  receive 
attention.  In  the  case  of  the  stone  implement  there  is 
a  remarkable  similarity  of  type  in,  one  may  fairly  say, 
all  parts  of  the  world,  for  the  stone  axe-heads  of  America, 
Fiji,  New  Zealand,  and  Ireland,  are  many  of  them  of  almost 
identical  pattern,  and  are  clearly  fashioned  everywhere 
in  response  to  a  common  demand.  In  the  manufacture 
of  these  implements  in  this  country  there  were  evidently 
three  stages.  In  the  first  a  block  of  flint  or  other  hard 
stone  was  so  chipped  as  to  approximate  to  the  shape  at 
which  it  was  finally  intended  to  arrive,  blocked-out,  so  to 
speak.     Suppose  the  workman  to  have  been  dissatisfied 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS 


69 


with  his  product,  or  weary  of  hibour.  The  partly-finished 
tool  is  thrown  away  and  never  completed.  When  picked 
up  by  some  latter-day  archaeologist  such  an  object  may 
be  mistaken  for  a  very  rude  implement  or  even  for  one 
of  paleolithic  type,  for  there  is  a  considerable  resem- 
blance between  the  two  types.  Yet  it  may  be  an  imple- 
ment of  quite  a  late  date,  arch^eologically  speaking,  but 
an  implement  which  has  never  got  beyond  the  blocking- 
out  stage.  In  the  second  stage  finer  work  is  applied  to 
the  object  under  manufacture.  Smaller  pieces  are  removed 
from  it  by  careful  flaking,  perhaps  by  pressure,  until  it 
begins  to  assume  the  shape  and  characteristics  of  the 
neolithic  celt. 

In  Fig.  17  will  be  seen  an  example,  from  Cissbury, 
which  has  arrived  at  this  stage. 
Probably  it  was  a  final  stage  in 
many  cases,  perhaps  always  during 
the  earlier  part  of  the  Neolithic  time. 
A  man  pressed  for  time,  in  a  part 
of  the  country  where  food  was  hard 
to  get  and  the  strain  of  life  severe, 
may  well  have  contented  himself 
with  an  instrument  of  this  type,  even 
though  he  may  have  been  aware  that 
by  taking  more  time  and  expending 
more  labour  he  could  have  put  a 
handsome  polish  upon  his  tool,  and 
perhaps  made  it  a  more  useful  weapon. 
At  any  rate,  it  seems  highly  probable 
that  a  good  many  of  these  rough  {i.e.  Sj 
unpolished)  neolithic  celts  were  never  "■ 
intended  to  be  polished,  but  are  the 
finished  object,  not  a  mere  stage  in 
the  manufacture.  In  the  third  stage  fig.  17.  rough  stone  celt 
we  have  two  distinct  divisions— the  Cissbury  (j) 


70     REMAINS    OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

celts  polished  only  at  the  cutting  edge,  and  the  celts 
which  are  polished  all  over.  The  first  class  show  a 
desire  for  utility  alone,  the  second  for  beauty  as  well 
as  for  utility.  An  implement  carefully  sharpened  at  the 
edge  and  for  some  little  distance  behind  is  no  doubt  a 
better  cutting  tool  and  a  more  deadly  weapon  than  one 
which  is  rough  and  blunt.  But  one  cannot  see  that  the 
polishing  of  the  remainder  of  the  tool,  and  particularly  of 
that  part  of  it  which  is  to  be  hidden  in  the  haft,  is  of  any 
advantage,  and  if  this  way  of  looking  at  the  question  is  the 
right  one,  then  one  must  assign  the  additional  and  un- 
necessary polishing  to  the  love  of  art,  the  aesthetic  sense, 
which  awakens  in  man  when  the  excessive  pressure  of  the 
struggle  with  nature  has  been  to  some  small  extent  dimin- 
ished. The  finished  product  in  the  shape  of  a  neolithic 
celt  is  an  axe-shaped  implement,  polished  all  over.  As 
regards  the  finishing  of  the  edges,  there  are  two  distinct 
forms.  There  is  a  type  met  with  in  Denmark,  for  example, 
with  squared  edges,  and  there  is  another  type  met  with, 
for  example,  in  Ireland,  with  rounded  edges  (see  Figs. 
i8  and  19).  Both  these  types  are  met  with  in  England, 
and  possibly  it  may  turn  out  that  they  are  typical  of  two 
different  races.  Besides  the  ordinary  form  of  celt  with 
which  I  have  been  dealing  hitherto,  there  are  one  or  two 
other  types  of  which  some  mention  must  be  made.  The 
bored  celt  or  stone  hammer  (see  Fig.  83)  seems  to  have 
been  a  very  late  implement,  perhaps  unknown  until  after 
the  introduction  of  bronze.  The  utility  of  an  implement 
into  which  a  handle  was  inserted,  as  opposed  to  one  which 
was  inserted  into  a  handle,  may  have  been  suggested  to 
primitive  man  by  some  naturally  perforated  piece  of  stone. 
Judging  by  what  we  know  of  present-day  primitive  races, 
it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  an  idea  easily  arrived  at, 
or  perhaps  one  ought  to  say  an  idea  which  much  com- 
mends   itself   to   the   savage    mind.     In    the    Pitt-Rivers 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS 


7T 


Museum  at  Oxford  there  is  an  ordinary  iron  axe-head 
with  the  aperture  for  the  reception  of  the  helve  carefully 
hammered  up.  This  axe-head  was  traded  off  to  the  in- 
habitants of  New  Guinea.    The  man  into  whose  possession 


FIG.  i8 
POLISHED  STONE   CELT 
Irish  (J) 


FIG.   19 

POLISHED  STONE   CELT 

Irish  (J) 


it  came  evidently  thought  that  the  hole  in  the  head  was 
some  unaccountable  bit  of  foolishness,  for  he  first  carefully 
hammered  it  up  with  the  aid  of  a  couple  of  stones,  and 
then  proceeded  to  fit  his  new  weapon  into  a  wooden  haft, 
just  as  he  had  been  accustomed  to  do  with  his  old  stone 
implement.      Another   very  distinct   type   of  celt   is   the 


72 


REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 


chisel-shaped  (Fi^.  20),  of  which  are  found  the  three 
forms  or  stages  belonging  to  the  ordinary  celt,  the  rough- 
chipped  type,  the  type  chipped  at  the  cutting  edge  (Fig. 
21  ^),  and  the  type  polished  all  over 
(Fig,  21-).  It  is  useless  to  attempt  to 
speculate  as  to  the  use  of  these  imple- 
ments, but  they  exist  and  form  a  distinct 
class.  Another  implement  merging  into 
the  rough  celt  has  been  called  a  grub- 
bing-tool,    and    is    very   likely,    perhaps 


FIG.   20.       ROUGH   CHISEL- 
SHAPED   CELT 
Dewlish  (i) 


FIG.  21 
CHISEL-SHAPED  CELTS 
I.    Rough,    Newhaven, 
Sussex.     2.  Polished,  Ex- 
ceat,  Sussex  (j) 


amongst  other  purposes,  to  have  served  that  end.  One  of 
these  implements  is  shown  in  Fig.  22,  and  evidently  might 
have  been  used  to  kill  an  animal  or  to  injure  a  man,  quite 
as  well  as  to  grub  up  some  edible  root.     One  cannot  too 


STONE   IMPLEMENTS  73 

carefully  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  not  always  possible  to 
imagine  to  ourselves  the  exact  object  for  which  a  certain 
implement  was  made,  and  that  many  implements  must 
have  been  intended  to  have  been  put  to  a  variety  of  uses. 
Take  the  implement  shown  in  Fig.  22.  No  one  can  handle 
it  without  feeling  that  it  really  is  a  most  useful  tool  for 


FIG.   22 

FLINT    INSTRUMENT— LARGE   SCRAPER   OR   SMALL   GRUEBING-TOOL 
Tower  FiM,  Suffolk  (f) 

a  variety  of  purposes.  The  natural  shape  of  the  flint  has 
been  made  use  of  to  provide  a  boss  which  will  prevent 
the  hand  from  slipping,  and  the  cutting  edge  has  been 
carefully  flaked.  It  is  almost  as  hard  to  place  an  imple- 
ment of  this  kind  in  any  particular  category  as  it  is  to  say 
what  it  might  have  been  intended  for.  The  fact  is  that 
it  is  a  kind  of  general  utility  implement,  and  like  many 
others  which  w^e  find,  a  real  testimony  to  the  ingenuity  of 
the  man  who  made  it,  an  instrument  available  for  digging, 
for  scraping,  doubtless  for  many  other  useful  purposes. 

Unlike  the  palaeolithic  celts,  the  neolithic  celts  were 
intended  to  be  fitted  with  a  handle.  The  commonest 
method  of  achieving  this  seems  to  have  been  by  making 
a  hole  in  one  end  of  a  long  piece  of  wood,  through  which 
hole  the  'axe-head  was  thrust,  narrow  end  first.  That 
this    method    was   adopted    there   can    be    no   shadow-    of 


74     REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 


doubt,  for  though  in  the  bulk  of  cases  the  handles  have 
disappeared  from  decay,  yet  in  certain  instances,  such  as 
that  shown  in  Fig.  23,  they  remain  to  this  day.  Any 
person  looking  at  this  arrangement  with  a  mechanical 
eye  would  at  once  see  its  weak  point.  Every 
blow  on  the  edge  of  the  axe  will  tend  to  drive 
it  further  into  its  helve,  and  the  tendency  of 
this  process  must  be  to  split  the  wood  of 
which  the  latter  is  composed.  In  some  mea- 
sure this  might  have  been,  and  perhaps  was, 
guarded  against  by  wrapping  the  helve  with 
bands  of  hide  ;  but  in  the  Swiss  lake  villages 
there  was  another  plan  in  vogue.  An  inter- 
mediate socket  of  deer-horn  was  constructed, 
into  which  was  inserted  the  small  stone  axe- 
head.  The  horn  socket  was  then  inserted 
into  a  hole  at  the  end  of  the  helve.  The 
force  of  the  concussions  must  have  been 
considerably  diminished  by  this  method  be- 
fore it  reached  the  wooden  handle.  An 
example  of  a  stone  axe  fitted  into  its  horn 
socket  is  shown  in  Fig.  24,  and  beside  it  is 
one  of  the  small  axe-heads  which  were  em- 
ployed for  the  purpose. 

Another  form  of  celt  seems  from  its  curves 
to  have  been  used  more  like  an  adze  than 
an  axe,  and  the  fact  that  examples  of  this 
HANDLED  CELT  kind  arc  found  along  the  banks  of  the  Thames 
(Much  reduced)  Irish  j^g^y-  point  to  their  having  been  used,  as  Dr. 
Haddon  has  shown,  in  New  Guinea,  for  the  hollowing 
of  "dug-out"  canoes.  An  implement  of  this  type  is 
shown  in  Fig.  25,  and  one  can  well  imagine  that  it  may 
have  been  fixed  to  a  haft  much  as  the  New  Guinea  adzes 
now  are.  A  bough  is  removed  from  a  tree  with  a  portion 
of  the  trunk  adhering  to  it.     Thus  a  V-shaped  piece  of 


FIG.  23 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS 


^5 


wood  is  obtained,  one  limb  being  shorter  than  the  other, 
and  of  course  not  attached  to  it  at  so  acute  an  angle  as 
that  which  is  formed  by  the  two  limbs  of  the  letter.     To 


FIG.   24.       SMALL   STONE   CELTS 

I,    Set  in  reindeer-horn.     2.    Separate  stone  Celt  of  same  type 

Swiss  (3) 

the  shorter  limb  is  lashed  the  stone  head,  secured  in  its 
place  by  bindings  of  cane  and  vegetable  fibre,  materials 
which  would  have  probably  been  replaced  in  this  country 
by  strips  of  raw  hide.  The  longer  limb  forms  the  handle. 
Knives  and  knife-like  implements  naturally  formed  a 
large  part  of  the  output  of  the  flint  manufacturer,   and 


FIG.   25.       FLINT   ADZE    (SIDE    VIEW] 
Thames  at  Chertsey  (j) 


76     REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

were  of  the  most  diverse  types.  No  doubt  in  many 
instances  sharp  flakes  without  any  further  secondary  work 
fulfilled  admirably  many  of  the  purposes  for  which  a  knife 
is  required.  The  long,  keen  flakes  of  obsidian  made  in 
Mexico  are  said  to  have  been  used  for  sacrificial  purposes, 
and  are  certainly  sharp  enough  for  cutting  flesh.     But  the 


Fn.  26.     KNivKs  (flat-backed  and  tanged) 

Neuhaven,  Sussex  (5  linear) 


term  knife  as  used  here  is  applied  to  implements  whose 
secondary  working  seems  to  have  been  undertaken  for  the 
purpose  of  turning  them  into  tools  useful  for  cutting  and 
skinning  purposes.  Two  special  varieties  of  these  may 
first  be  dealt  with — the  broad-backed  and  the  naturally 
handled.  The  two  types  are  shown  in  Fig.  26.  The 
example  on  the  left  of  the  figure  belongs  to  the  flat-backed 
variety.     Such  an   implement  was  made  to  hold   in  the 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS 


77 


hand  with  the  forefinger  along  the  back.  Take  a  tool  of 
this  kind  in  the  hand  and  shift  it  into  different  positions, 
and  it  will  at  once  be  found  how  well  adapted  it  is  for  the 
purposes  mentioned  above.  When  held  in  this  manner 
the  sharp  cutting  edge  is  downwards,  and  so  arranged  as 
to  be  employed  to  the  best  advantage.  A  variety  of  this 
type  is  the  knife  met  with,  at  times  in  its  handle,  in  the 
Swiss  lake  villages.  Here  the  back  of  the  knife  was 
inserted  into  a  piece  of  wood  somewhat  longer  than  itself, 
and  was  secured  in  its  socket  by  asphalt.  The  result  was 
a  knife  comparable,  not  to  what  we  commonly  call  a  knife 
at  the  present  day,  but  to  the  scrapers  with  which  butchers 
may  be  seen  cleaning  their  blocks.  The  idea  of  this  kind 
of  knife  was  the  same  as  that  of  the  broad-backed  knife, 
only  that  one  was  intended  to  have  been  held  directly  in 
the  hand  whilst  the  other  possessed  a  wooden  handle. 

The  naturally  handled  knife  is  shown  on  the  other  side 
of  Fig.  26.  This  tool  was  evidently  intended  to  be  held  by 
its  end  and  not  by  its  back.  Very  possibly  the  end  may 
have  been  wrapped  round  with  some  vegetable  fibre  or 
skin  wrapping,  for  in  Egyptian  knives  of  this  type  that 
method  has  been  observed.  Besides  these  two  forms, 
there  is  a  distinct  series  of  triangular  knives,  and  there 
are  others  not  conforming  to  any  of  these  types.  In 
further  illustration  of 
the  fact  that  primitive 
man  was  quite  ingeni- 
ous enough  to  turn  an 
unusually  shaped  stone 
to  a  particular  use, 
attention  may  be  called 
to  Fig.  27.  Here  is  an 
implement  made  from 

a    piece    of    flint    of    a      ^-urved  knife-likr  .flint 
curious  shape.     It  was  implement  (f) 


78     REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC    AGE 

originally  a  C-shaped  lump  of  stone.  The  hollow  part 
makes  a  most  excellent  hold  for  the  hand,  whilst  the 
sharply  trimmed  external  edge,  when  the  implement  is 
thus  grasped,  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  purpose  of 
removing  a  skin  from  an  animal. 


Scrapers. — After  skinning  an  animal  it  is  necessary  that 
the  fat  and  other  matters  adhering  to  the  inner  aspect  of  the 
hide  should  be  removed,  if  it  is  to  be  used  for  the  purposes 
of  a  garment  or  a  covering.  For  the  purpose  of  this  re- 
moval, neolithic  man  seems  to  have  manufactured  myriads 
of  implements,  which  we  call  scrapers.  In  fact,  these  are, 
perhaps,    the   commonest   of   all    the    implements   of   the 


FIG.   28.       DOUBLE   CONCAVE    (L.)    AND   ORDINARY    (R.)   SCRAPERS 
Icklingham  (J) 

period,  omitting  mere  flakes  which  show  us  secondary 
working.  Varying  though  they  do  in  shape  and  size, 
there  is  a  general  similarity  between  all  the  convex 
scrapers,  the  type  which  we  are  now  considering.  Each 
has  been  made  out  of  a  flake  detached  from  a  block  of 
flint.  The  surface  of  detachment,  with  its  bulb  of  per- 
cussion, has  been  left  untouched.  At  one  end,  or  it  may 
be  at  one  side  of  the  other,  a  bevelled  edge  has  been  pro- 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS 


79 


duced  by  secondary  flaking.  This  edge  is  generally  semi- 
circular in  its  outline.  Sometimes  the  scraper  is  long 
(Fig.  i6\  sometimes  broad  (Fig. 
28  R.),  the  two  forms  sometimes 
called  "finger"  and  "thumb" 
flints.  In  other  cases  (Figs.  29 
and  30)  the  scraper  is  round  and 
worked  along  the  greater  part  of 
its  border.  These  tiny  "button" 
scrapers  are  rather  a  puzzle,  for 
they  are  so  small  that  it  seems  (.- 
difficult  to  understand  how  they 
were  employed. 

It  is  obvious  that  they  w^ere  of  some  use,  otherwise  they 
would  not  have  been  manufactured  even  in  moderate 
numbers.  Again,  there  is  a  form  of  scraper  which  is 
bevelled  at  the  edge,  the  "side-scraper,"  a  less  common 


9.    "  BUITON  "  SCRAI'ER 
Lakenhealh  (il) 


FIG.   30.       SCRAPERS 
Mas  d'Azil  ({) 


variety  than  the  two  first  named.  Some  of  the  two 
commoner  forms  of  scraper,  being  of  considerable  size, 
may  probably  have  been  used  in  the  hand.  Others  may 
have  been  provided  with  a  handle,  for  the  Esquimaux, 
who  use  worked  pieces  of  stone  almost  identical  in 
character  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  skins,  insert  these 
tools  into  bone  handles.  The  concave,  or  as  it  is  some- 
times called,  "hollow"  scraper  (Figs.  28  l.  and  31  l.),  is 


So     REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 


quite  a  different  kind  of  tool.  Here  the  object  was  not  to 
clean  the  inside  of  a  skin,  but  to  shape  off  the  rough- 
nesses of  a  stick  so  as  to  convert  it  into  an  arrow-shaft — 
for  which  reason  this  kind  of  scraper  is  sometimes  called 


FIG.   31.       DOUBLE. CONCAVE   SCRAI'EK    (L.)    AND   SAW    (R.) 
I.   (L.)  Lakenheath.     2.   (R.)  Icklinghain  (5) 

a  ''shaft-maker" — or  to  round  an  implement  of  bone — 
a  needle,  or  a  borer — out  of  a  splinter  detached  from  the 
bone  of  some  large  animal.  Hence  in  this  class  of 
scraper  we  find  one  or  more  concave  notches  worked  out 
in  the  side  of  the  stone  or  at  its  end  ;  in  fact,  we  come 
back  to  the  same  implement  with  which  we  were  con- 
fronted amongst  eoliths  and  palccoliths,  but  vastly  better 
worked.  Some  of  the  most  delicate  of  these  implements 
found  in  Ireland  are  so  thin  and  fragile  that  one  wonders 
for  what  task  they  may  have  been  designed.  Similar 
examples  have  also  occurred  in  Scotland.  Ireland  pro- 
vides a  great  variety  of  the  ordinary  kind  of  scraper,  and 
Mr.  Knowles^  has  classified  them  as  follows:  (i.)  side- 
scrapers,   the   racloirs  of  the    French  ;    (ii.)   end-scrapers 


'  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Antiquaries  of  Ireland,  viii.  367. 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS 


8i 


divided  into  (a)  those  with  circular  curve,  (l?)  those  with 
eUiptical  curve,  (c)  oblique-ended,  (d)  broad  or  square- 
ended,  (e)  small-ended,  (f)  double-ended  ;  (iii.)  toothed. 
Figs.  28  and  31  l.  show  two  kinds  of  concave  scrapers, 
both  double,  but  in  one  case  the  two  hollows  are  at  oppo- 
site ends  of  the  implements  ;  in  the  other  they  are  side  by 
side. 

Arrow-heads  of  flint,  and  sometimes  of  other  hard 
stones,  are  objects  which  always  catch  the  eye  of  the 
public  in  a  collection  of  neolithic  implements,  on  account 
of  the  exquisite  skill  with  which  many  of  them  have  been 
turned  out.     These  implements  were  not  merely  manu- 


FIG.   32.      FLINT   ARROW-HEADS 
Aberdeenshire  (natural  size) 

factured  during  the  Stone  period,  but  found  a  market,  if 
it  may  so  be  phrased,  during  the  whole  of  the  Bronze 
Age,  and  perhaps  the  Iron  also.  Hence  we  find  them,  as 
will  be  pointed  out  in  a  later  chapter,  in  entombments 
belonging  to  the  Metallic  period.  Several  varieties  have 
been  recognised,  which  have  been  named  leaf-shaped, 
lozenge-shaped,  tanged,  tanged  and  barbed,  single- 
barbed  and  triangular.  The  characters  of  these  types 
will  be  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  representations  of 
them  in  Figs.  32-34.  Stone  arrow-heads  are,  of 
course,  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  Perhaps  the 
most  beautifully  finished  examples  are  those  which  were 
G 


82     REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

manufactured  in  Oregon  and  in  Prehistoric  Japan.  One 
can  hardly  doubt  that  the  prehistoric  arrow-heads  were 
fastened  on  to  their  shafts  in  the  same  manner  as  that 
which  we  know  to  have  been  adopted  by  savage  races  in 


FIG.   33.       ARROW-HEADS 
I.    Barbed,  Aberdeenshire.     2.    Tanged  and  barbed.     3.    Single-tanged  (j) 


modern  times.  The  head  is  secured  to  the  shaft  by  a 
lashing  of  strips  of  hide,  put  on  raw  and  then  allowed  to 
dry  in  the  sun.  The  result  is  a  shrinkage  which  binds 
head  and  shaft  together  wonderfully  firmly.  That  such 
a  head  with  a  strong  bow  behind  it  was  capable  of  doing 

effective  work  there  is  abun- 
dant evidence  of  the  char- 
acter afforded  by  Fig.  35. 
This  is  a  drawing  of  a 
human  lumbar  vertebra,  in 
which  is  embedded  a  flint 
arrow-head.  As  the  missile 
has  penetrated  the  front  of 
the  vertebra,  it  must  have 
pierced  through  the  whole 
of  the  abdomen,  wall  and 
viscera,  before  reaching  the 
vertebral  column  in  which 
it  has  so  firmly  fixed  itself. 


FIG.  34. 
I.    Irish.     2, 


I.ARGK   ARROW-HEADS 
Thames  at  Hammersmith  (j) 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS 


Saws  made  of  flint  are  recognisable  by  their  carefully- 
serrated  edge  (see  Fig.  31  R.).  These  also  seem  to  have 
been  made  after  the  age  of  metal  had  commenced.  Canon 
Greenwell  found  seventy-nine  of  thcso  implements  in  one 
barrow  opened  by  him- 
self.^ Borers,  drills,  pun- 
ches, 2i\-\d  fabricators ,  need 
no  very  lengthy  nor  pre- 
cise description,  si  nee  their 
purposes  are  fairly  well 
indicated  by  their  names, 
andtheirappearances  may 
be  learnt  from  Fig.  36. 
With  regard,  however,  to 
the  last-named  variety  of 
objects,  it  ought  perhaps 
to  be  stated  that  they  are  supposed  to  have  been  used  for 
the  purpose  of  making  the  finer  flaking  on  neolithic  im- 
plements (sec  p.  36).   Fig.  36  is  a  good  example  of  this  class. 


FIG.    35.       FLINT   ARROW-HEAD   EMBEDDED 

IN    HUMAN    LUMBAR   VERTEBRA 

Grotte  de  la  Tourrasse 


FIG.   36.       BORER    (L.)   AND    FABRICATOR   (R.) 
Avebury  ({) 

'  British  Barrows,  p.  262. 


84     REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC    AGE 


A 


A 


Pi^my  Implements  (Eig.   37)  form  an   interesting  class 

which  has  lately  attracted 
a  good  deal  of  attention. 
The  Rev.  R.  A.  Gattyi 
has  described  a  number 
of  varieties,  and  from  this 
paper  and  from  letters, 
which  he  has  been  good 
enough  to  send  me,  I  ex- 
tract the  following  points 
on  this  class  of  imple- 
ments. The  true  pigmy 
implements  met  with  on 
the  Vindhya  Hills,  in 
India,  and  in  England 
and  elsewhere,  seem  to 
fall  into  four  classes,  all 
of  which  are  exemplified 
in  Fig.  37.  These  with 
the  sizes  of  the  smallest 
examples  are  as  follows — 

r  in.      Scunthorpe   j^g  in. 


FIG.   37.       PIGMY    IMPLEMENTS 

Top  line,  Scunthorpe;  middle  line,  Vindhya 

Hills,   India;  lower  line,  Lakenheath  (j) 


Smallest  Crescent  . 
Scalene  .... 
Rounded  and  pointed 
Rhomboidal     . 


India 


1  0 

\  t5 


16 

16^ 


The  scalene  variety  is  the  same  as  that  called  ''trapeze" 
by  M.  de  Pierpont,  who  has  found  them  in  Belgium. 
Besides  these  genuine  pigmies  there  are  also  small  imple- 
ments such  as  the  tiny  arrow-head  shown  in  Fig.  37  (top 
line,  centre  object)  and  in  addition  to  this  variety  Mr.  Gatty 
has  also  found  tiny  scrapers,  convex  and  concave,  knives, 
chisels,  and  points  which  may  have  been  used  for  tipping 
blow  darts.     So  small  are  some  of  these  that  sixty-four 

^  Man,  F"eb. ,  1902. 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS  85 

circular  scrapers  have  been  found  which  tai<en  together 
weighed  less  than  half  an  ounce.  Of  the  so-called 
*'  Indian  "  varieties  the  remarkable  point  is  that  the  forms 
in  England  and  the  forms  in  India  are  identical,  a  fact 
which,  some  have  thought,  points  to  a  communication 
between  these  countries  at  a  very  early  period.  Others,  on 
the  contrary,  only  see  in  the  resemblance  a  common  result 
of  a  common  need.  The  cutting  edges  show  no  secondary 
work,  but  the  backs  have  in  all  instances  been  carefully 
retouched.  The  localities  in  which  they  have  so  far  been 
found  are  not  numerous  in  this  country,  but  where  they 
have  been  discovered  they  seem  to  exist  in  great  numbers, 
and  if  accompanied  by  other  implements — they  are  often 
found  quite  by  themselves — then  these  implements  seem 
to  belong  rather  to  early  than  late  types  of  neolithic 
manufacture.  Many  suggestions  have  been  put  forward 
as  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  constructed.  It  is 
thought  that  they  may  have  been  used  for  tattooing,  as 
barbs  for  arrows  or  harpoons,  for  arming  fish-gigs,  and  for 
other  purposes.  This  is  a  point  which  has  not  yet  been 
cleared  up,  and  perhaps  never  may  be  cleared  up,  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  group  is  a  genuine  and  very 
interesting  class  of  stone  implements.  In  England  Mr. 
Gatty  has  found  these  little  tools  in  North  Lincolnshire 
(Scunthorpe)  on  sand-dunes,  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Don, 
near  Bradfield.  Dr.  Colley  March  has  found  them  on  the 
Pennine  Range,  at  an  altitude  of  1,300  feet.  They  have 
also  been  found  at  Lakenheath.  As  to  the  identity  of  all 
these  and  their  belonging  to  the  so-called  Indian  classes 
there  is  no  doubt.  Implements  of  the  same  kind,  but 
perhaps  belonging  to  the  class  of  small  tools,  not  the 
Indian  varieties,  have  also  been  described  from  a 
kitchen-midden  near  Hastings,  and  from  sand-dunes  in 
Su'^olk.  Amongst  the  very  numerous  flint  implements 
foujid  at  the  Glenluce  Sands,    Wigtonshire,   and   at  the 


86     REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

Culbin  Sands,  El^in,  there  are  many  tiny  implements, 
borers,  scrapers,  etc. ,  but  only  a  few  of  these — and  perhaps 
these  accidentally — agree  in  shape  with  the  Indian  forms. 
In  France  they  have  been  discovered  at  Bruniquel  and  at 
Garancieres  (Seine  et  Loire),  and  have  been  divided  by 
M.  Thieullen  into  triangular  or  amygdaloid,  concave  cres- 
centic,  bevelled  beak,  cocked  hat,  disk,  slice  of  melon, 
knite,  piercer,  diamond,  cupola,  and  keel  shapes.  If  the 
classification  suggested  above  into  Indian  and  other 
varieties  be  adhered  to,  it  would  appear  that  the  French 
forms  embrace  both  categories. 

Instances  of  the  overlapping  of  the  latter  Stone  with  the 
Bronze  period  have  already  been  given  in  connection  with 
the  subject  of  bored-axes,  arrow-heads,  and  saws,  and 
a  few  more  observations  must  now  be  made  on  the  same 
point.  Professor  Ridgeway^  has  pointed  out  that  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  there  are  stone  axes 
which  undoubtedly  exhibit  in  the  shape  of  their  faces  the 
influence  of  those  made  of  metal,  and  he  suggests  that 
they  may  have  been  the  property  of  poor  men  who  could 
not  afford  the  more  expensive  metallic  article.  Instances 
of  the  same  kind  are  to  be  seen  elsewhere,  and  particularly 
in  the  so-called  ceremonial  axes,  made  for  show  or  for 
ritual  purposes,  and  not  for  use.  Some  of  these,  which  have 
been  found  in  Denmark,  are  ornamented  with  raised  lines, 
just  like  those  on  the  bronze  celts  which  they  imitate. 
They  are  provided  at  one  end,  not  at  the  centre,  with 
a  small  hole,  capable  of  receiving  quite  a  thin  stick. 
These  were  clearly  made  purely  for  show,  and  belong 
to  the  Bronze,  or,  perhaps,  even  to  the  early  Iron  Age. 
In  other  cases  they  are  made  of  a  stone  so  soft  as  to  prove 
that  no  serious  use  was  contemplated  when  they  were 
manufactured.  Bracers  are  flat  pieces  of  stone,  e.g. 
chlorite,  pierced  with  two  small  holes  at  either  end,  and 

^  Early  Age  of  Greece,  p.  295, 


STONE    IMPLEMENTS 


87 


are  supposed  to  have  been  worn  on  the  wrist  to  shield 
it  against  injury  from  the  bow-string  when  shooting 
arrows.  These  objects  may  belong  to  the  Neolithic  as  well 
as  to  the  Metallic  age.  Spindle-whorls,  sometimes  called 
Pixies'  grindstones,  used  for  winding  the  thread  in  the 
operations  of  spinning  (see  Fig.  38),  are  very  common 
objects,  belonging  not  merely,  if  at  all,  to  the  Stone  Age. 


FK;.   38.       SPINDLE   WHORLS   (}) 

Some  allusion  should  be  made  to  the  fact  that  in  some 
districts  many  varieties  of  implements  may  be  found, 
whilst  in  others  the  range  of  examples  is  much  more 
limited.  This  has  already  been  exemplified  in  the  case  of 
the  pigmy  implements,  generally  found  by  themselves, 
except  at  Lakenheath,  a  district  where  every  archaeological 
find,  from  pal^eoliths  to  objects  belonging  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  period,  has  been  made.  On  the  Cotswolds,  as 
Canon  Greenwell  points  out,  few,  if  any,  celts  have  been 
found,  though  many  arrow-heads  have  been  picked  up. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  Kent  and  Sussex,  and,  generally 
speaking,  in  the  district  south  of  the  Thames,  arrow-heads 
are  rare,  whilst  celts  are  met  with,  at  least  in  places,  in 
considerable  numbers. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE    METALLIC   AGE— COPPER— BRONZE 

THE  Italian  archaeologists  describe,  under  the  name 
of  the  ^neolithic  period,  an  epoch  when  copper,  in 
a  pure  and  unalloyed  condition,  and  stone  were  the 
materials  out  of  which  the  implements  of  the  time  were 
manufactured.  That  such  a  stage  was  passed  through,  at 
least,  in  some  parts  of  the  world,  there  seems  little  reason 
to  doubt,  though  it  was  probably  not  a  universal  ex- 
perience. In  his  account  of  interments  by  cremation  in 
Derbyshire,  Mr.  Jewitt^  states,  "  In  some  instances  I  have 
found  the  lead  ore,  which  occurs  in  veins  in  the  limestone 
formation  of  Derbyshire,  so  completely  smelted  with  the 
heat  that  it  has  run  into  the  crevices  among  the  soil  and 
loose  stones,  and  looks,  when  dug  out,  precisely  like 
straggling  roots  of  trees."  He  suggests  that  the  dis- 
covery of  lead  may  be  traced  to  this  accident,  and  one 
may  at  least  offer  the  conjecture  that  the  first  acquaintance 
of  man  with  copper  may  have  come  about  in  some  similar 
manner.  At  any  rate,  as  Mr.  Gowland  has  pointed  out,^ 
the  first  ores  found  by  man  would  be  those  off  the  surface 
of  the  crround  or  in  the  beds  of  streams.  These  would 
be  mostly  carbonates  or  oxides  of  the  metal,  even  if  at 
deeper  layers  they  presented  themselves  as  sulphides.  It 
seems   probable  that  copper  may  have   been   discovered 

^  Grave-7not(?ids  and  the  if  Contents,  p.  31. 
^  ArchcEologia,  Ivi.  267. 

8S 


THE    METALLIC   AGE  89 

independently  in  many  different  places  and  at  different 
dates,  though,  no  doubt,  there  were  instances  in  which 
the  knowledge  of  the  metal  was  introduced  to  people 
unacquainted  with  it  by  persons  of  another  district.  On 
the  date  of  the  making  of  such  a  discovery,  and  on  the 
character  of  the  ore  hit  upon,  hang  several  consequences. 
In  the  first  place,  the  earlier  the  discovery  of  the  metal  the 
shorter  the  Stone  Age  in  the  district.  Myres^  thinks  that 
Cyprus  was  the  first  place  in  the  Mediterranean  area  in 
which  copper  was  worked.  Hence  he  points  out  that  the 
Stone  Age  there  was  apparently  very  short,  and  that  the 
Copper  Age  was  contemporary  with  a  large  part  of  that 
of  stone  elsewhere.  The  copper  Cypriote  celts  are,  as  he 
shows,  plain,  unflanged,  and  of  shapes  like  those  of  stone, 
shapes  few  and  simple,  and  showing  little  change  of 
form  throughout  the  series.  Then,  again,  the  occurrence 
or  non-occurrence  of  a  copper  age  seems  to  depend  upon 
the  character  of  the  ore  found  in  any  given  district.  If  a 
pure  ore,  the  manufacture  of  objects  in  unmixed  copper 
may  be  expected  to  have  taken  place  before  bronze  makes 
its  appearance.  But  if  the  ore  is  one  in  which  copper 
exists  together  with  some  other  metal  capable  of  form- 
ing a  bronze  with  it,  then  the  stage  of  pure  copper 
implements  may  be  entirely  absent.  In  Cyprus  and 
Crete  the  metal  is  found  pure,  hence  the  first  celts 
there  are  of  copper,  which  can  be  hardened  by  hammer- 
ing in  an  unalloyed  condition.  A  copper  age  also 
existed  in  Spain^  and  in  Brittany,^  and  in  America* 
many  objects  of  wrought  copper  have  been  found, 
the  Lake  Superior  copper  mines  in  the  States  of 
Wisconsin  and  Michigan  appearing  to  have  been  the 
centre  of  manufacture.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Lake 
Superior  cutting  implements  of  a  form  similar  to  those 

^  Journal  Anthrop.  Inst.,  xxvii.   171.         ^  Siret,  L Anthropologic,  iii.  385. 
•^  L' Anthropologie,  xv.  394.  ■*  \\'ilsoii,  Prehistoric  Art,  499. 


Qo     REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

of  st(jne  were  made,  though  the  author  just  quoted  from 
does  not  lay  claim  to  the  existence  of  a  distinct  period  of 
copper  in  America. 

Coming  to  our  own  countries,  there  certainly  is  a 
distinct  series  of  copper  celts  in  Ireland,  as  has  been 
proved  by  Coffey,^  who  has,  moreover,  shown  that  there 
is  good  reason  for  believing  that  they  are  the  earliest 
forms,  and  not  produced  in  a  given  district  because  in 
that  district  there  was  a  lack  of  tin  or  other  metal 
suitable  for  forming  a  hard  alloy.  At  one  end  of  the 
series,  he  says,  are  rude  and  heavy  forms,  which  look 
backward  to  the  stone  axe,  at  the  other  forms  which 
approach  more  and  more  closely  the  early  bronze  celts. 
England  and  Scotland,  on  the  other  hand,  have  been 
thought  to  show  little  evidence  of  any  such  stage.  It 
has,  in  fact,  been  asserted  that  no  such  thing  as  a  pure 
copper  implement  has  been  found  in  this  country.  Coffey, 
however,  calls  attention  to  four  specimens  discovered  in 
England  and  the  same  number  in  Scotland.  Other  speci- 
mens found  in  barrows  have  turned  out  to  be  copper, 
though  formerly  thought  to  be  bronze,  but  it  must  be 
admitted  that  so  far  the  examples  in  this  island  proved 
to  be  pure  copper  are  rare.  Gowland  has  shown  that  the 
reason  of  this  is  that  in  England  copper  occurs  with  tin, 
just  as  in  Hungary  it  occurs  with  antimony,  either  of 
which  metals  can  be  used  to  make  a  hard  alloy  with  it. 
Hence  the  absence  of  a  pure  copper  age  in  those  countries. 
From  this  difference  in  the  ores  and  resulting  bronzes  it 
has  also  been  claimed  that  the  discovery  of  the  metal  was 
made  independently  in  a  number  of  different  countries. 
On  the  other  hand,  Sergi-  claims  that  the  knowledge 
originated  in  Cyprus  and  thence  spread  to  a  number  of 
the  countries  around  the  Mediterranean.      "In  1895,"  he 

'  Journ.  Anth.  Inst.,  ii.  206;  iv.  265.     See  also  a  paper  by  same  author 
on  "Copper  Halberds  in  Ireland,"  in  Pi-oc.  R.  I.  Acad.,  xxvii.   1908. 
-  Mediterranean  Race,  p.  278. 


THE    METALLIC   AGE  91 

writes,  "  I  had  already  written  that  the  origin  of  the  use 
of  metals  in  the  Mediterranean  may  be  found  in  Cyprus, 
the  island  of  copper  ;  thence  its  use  was  diffused  through 
other  Mediterranean  regions,  and  through  the  Black  Sea, 
and  thence  probably  by  the  Danube  into  Hungary.  To- 
day the  fact  that  Cyprus  was  the  centre  of  diffusion  of 
copper  and  then  of  bronze  throughout  the  Mediterranean 
and  Europe  generally,  seems  confirmed  by  new  dis- 
coveries, and  by  explorers  like  Ohnefalsch-Richter  and 
Myres,  who  have  been  able  to  show  the  contemporaneous 
existence,  at  least  in  part,  of  the  Copper  Age  in  Cyprus 
with  the  late  Neolithic  period  in  other  regions  ;  as  like- 
wise it  seems  to  be  shown  that  the  primitive  types  of  axes 
came  from  this  island,  and  were  diffused  throughout  the 
Mediterranean  and  Europe." 

Montelius  has  divided  the  Bronze  Age  into  five  periods,^ 
the  first  of  which  is  characterised  by  implements  made 
of  pure  copper  or  of  copper  with  a  very  small  admixture 
of  tin.  His  classification  depends  upon  the  facts  as 
they  concern  France,  and  his  first  period  is  estimated  to 
have  lasted  from  about  2000  to  1850  B.C.  The  celts  are 
of  types  copied  from  those  of  stone  ;  the  sword  is  un- 
known ;  this  was  the  period  of  dolmens  and  allces 
couverteSy  and  that  to  which  a  great  many  of  the  Swiss 
lake  villages  may  be  attributed. 

The  second  period,  lasting  from  1850  to  1550  B.C.,  is  one 
in  which  the  bronze  often  contains  as  much  as  10  per  cent, 
of  tin.  The  celts  have  straight  borders,  generally  very 
slightly  raised  ;  triangular  daggers  were  made,  but  no 
true  swords  ;  burial,  as  in  the  first  period,  was  by  inhu- 
mation. 

The  third  period,  1550  to  1300  B.C.,  was  characterised 
by  celts  with  raised  edges,  palstaves,  and  swords.  In- 
humation and  cremation  were  both  practised. 

'  L' Anthropologie ,  xii.  609. 


92     REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

The  Joifr/h  period  lasted  from  1300  to  1050  B.C.,  and  the 
fif//i  from  1050  to  850  B.C.,  when  the  Early  Iron  Age  may 
be  said  to  have  commenced.  During  these  two  periods 
the  skill  of  artificers  in  bronze  greatly  increased,  and 
many  fine  objects  were  constructed.  The  swords  with 
horns  to  their  handles  and  oval  pommels  were  made 
during  the  latter  part  of  this  time.  It  must,  of  course, 
be  borne  in  mind  that  any  attempt  to  assign  exact  dates 
to  such  divisions  as  these  can  only  be  of  a  highly  tenta- 
tive character. 

Objects  of  bronze  have  been  found  as  isolated  dis- 
coveries, as  parts  of  the  funeral  gifts  laid  up  with  the 
remains  of  the  dead  in  entombments,  and  in  hoards,  of 
which  a  few  words  must  now  be  said.  A  hoard  is  a 
collection  of  bronze  implements,  with  or  without  raw 
material,  and  a  list  of  the  principal  discoveries  of  this 
class  in  England  is  appended  to  this  chapter.  Some  of 
these  hoards  may  have  been  temple-treasure,  perhaps 
votive  offerings,  like  the  great  collection  discovered  in 
Bologna  in  1871.  Here  14,800  bronze  objects  were 
brought  to  light  in  an  earthenware  vase.  With  them 
were  also  a  few  scraps  of  iron,  showing,  as  did  also  the 
character  of  the  bronze  implements,  amongst  which  were 
flanged,  socketed,  stopped,  and  looped  celts,  an  axe  with 
a  transverse  hole  for  its  handle,  chisels,  gouges,  horse- 
bits,  fibulce,  etc.,  that  the  collection  belonged  to  quite 
the  end  of  the  bronze  period,  perhaps  about  1000  B.C. 
No  hoards  which  can  reasonably  be  assigned  to  this  class 
seem  to  have  been  discovered  in  this  country. 

A  second  class  of  hoard  was  that  secreted  by  some 
private  person  when  obliged  to  leave  his  ordinary  place 
of  habitation  for  a  time.  Such  temporary  caches  must 
often  have  been  resorted  to,  and,  no  doubt,  in  many  cases, 
on  the  return  of  the  owner,  the  implements  were  dis- 
interred and  once  more  put  to  use.     But  in  other  cases 


THE    METALLIC    AGE  O."; 

the  hoard  was  never  recovered  by  its  original  owner,  and 
has  lain  undisturbed  and  undiscovered  to  our  own  time. 
A  third  group  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  stock-in-trade 
of  a  dealer,  for  the  objects  of  which  such  hoards  consist 
are  numerous,  ready  for  use,  and  sometimes  comprise  a 
number  of  implements  of  exactly  similar  size  and  shape. 
The  fourth  class  of  hoard  is  that  of  the  bronze-caster 
himself,  and  consists  of  rough  lumps  of  more  or  less  pure 
copper,  worn-out  implements  ready  to  be  remelted,  and 
sometimes  the  moulds  in  which  the  implements  were  to 
be  cast. 

Of  the  private  hoard,  that  discovered  a  few  years 
ago  at  Westbury-on-Trym  ^  may  be  taken  as  an  ex- 
ample. This  small  collection,  consisting  of  three  celts 
and  a  very  remarkable  bronze  chisel,  was  found  in  a 
place  called  Coombe  Dingle,  not  far  from  which  are 
remains  of  earthworks  and  other  traces  of  an  early 
occupation.  A  hole  in  the  bank  of  a  stream  is  the 
sort  of  place  which  would  naturally  be  selected  as  a 
temporary  hiding-place.  Of  the  manufacturer's  stock-in- 
trade  class  numerous  examples  might  be  given.  At 
Clohars-Carnoet  in  Finistere  203  bronze  celts  were  found 
together.  Quite  recently  at  Cwmdugold,  near  Machyn- 
lleth, eighteen  celts  were  found  of  three  different  sizes, 
clearly  an  example  of  the  same  kind.  Then  there  is  the 
great  Dowris  hoard,  part  of  which  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  This  collection,  apparently  from  the  nature  of 
some  of  the  objects  comprised  in  it,  belonging  to  a  late 
part  of  the  period,  contained  trumpets,  socketed  celts, 
tanged  knives,  razors,  bells,  a  sword,  spear-heads,  and 
other  articles.  Of  the  fourth  class  I  may  mention  an  ex- 
ample now  in  the  Museum  of  the  University  of  Birming- 
ham. This  example  came  from  Hanwell  in  Middlesex, 
and  consists  of  about  thirty  pounds  weight  of  nearly  pure 

'  Proc.  Sor.  Anf.,  xviii.  236. 


94     REMAINS    OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

copper.  The  exact  analysis,  which  I  owe  to  the  kindness 
of  my  colleague,  Professor  Turner,  shows  the  following 
constituents  in  addition  to  copper  : — 


Sulphur    . 

.     o'863  per  cent, 

Lead 

.     0-079         >> 

Iron 

.     0-038 

Tin,  antimony,  zinc,  and  nickel,  were  tested  for,  but 
not  found.  With  the  rough  masses  of  which  this  part  of 
the  hoard  w^as  made  up  was  a  single  imperfect  socketed 
and  ringed  celt.  This  appears  to  consist  of  bronze,  but 
has  not  been  assayed. 

In  the  case  of  hoards  of  this  class  the  rough  masses  of 
metal  almost  always  consist  of  pure,  or  nearly  pure, 
copper.  The  tin  w^hich  was  to  have  been  mixed  with  it 
was  generally  in  the  condition  of  cassiterite,  which  has 
been  overlooked  by  the  discoverers. 

•It  is  now  time  to  give  some  description  of  the  more 
important  objects  made  in  bronze,  and  in  this  chapter 
attention  will  mainly  be  paid  to  such  examples  as  may  be 
strictly  confined  to  the  bronze  period  proper.  Some  other 
objects  will  find  a  place  at  a  later  period  in  connection 
with  the  account  which  will  be  given  of  the  Early  Iron 
Age  and  its  manufactures. 

Celts. — As  in  the  case  of  neolithic  implements,  so  here 
the  most  prominent  and  characteristic  object  is  the  axe- 
head  or  celt,  of  which  several  distinct  varieties  exist. 

Flat  Celts. — Axe-heads  resembling  in  many  particulars 
those  of  stone,  and  possessing  neither  flanged  edges  nor 
sockets  for  the  reception  of  a  haft,  are  generally  considered 
to  have  been  the  earliest  efforts  at  casting  of  the  bronze 
period,  and  the  copper  celts  already  alluded  to  conform  to 
this  type.     Apart  from  the  fact  that  man  w^ould  be  most 


THE    METALLIC   AGE 


95 


likely  to  make  the  new  implement  after  the  type  of  that 
with  which  he  was  familiar,  the  difficulties  presented  in 
the  casting  of  such  a  tool  would  be  much  less  than  those 
connected  with  a  flanged  or  socketed  implement.  In 
fact,  the  simple  flat  celt 
could  be  cast  in  a  one- 
sided mould  either  of 
stone  or  of  sand,  and  its' 
roughnesses  afterwards 
diminished  by  hammer- 
ing or  rubbing  down. 
In  Fig.  39  will  be  seen 
an  example  of  this  kind 
of  implement,  an  imple- 
ment attached  to  its 
handle  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  neolithic  celt, 
that  is,  by  being  forced 
through  a  hole  in  it.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the 
cutting  edge  of  this  im- 
plement is  considerably 
expanded.  This  is  a  char- 
acteristic observable  in  a 
very  large  number  of 
these  objects,  and  may  be  looked  upon  as  an  early 
departure  from  the  stone  type  with  straight  sides.  These 
celts  are  sometimes  ornamented  with  patterns  of  a  geo- 
metrical character,  not  effected  in  the  casting,  but  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  a  punch. 


FU;.   39.       FLAT   BRONZE    CELT    (§) 


Flanged  Celts. —The  shape  here  does  not  differ  in  any 
important  respect  from  that  of  the  flat  celt  with  expanded 
end,  but  there  is  a  flange  along  each  side  of  the  imple- 
ment,  sometimes  raised   by  hammering,   sometimes  pro- 


96     REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC    AGE 

duced  in  the  casting.  These  are  also  at  times  ornamented 
with  geometrical  patterns  not  only  on  the  faces,  but  on 
the  flanges  also.  Sometimes  there  is  a  stop-ridge  half- 
way down  the  head  extending  transversely  between  the 
two  flanges.  This  seems  to  be  a  stage  in  the  development 
of  the  next  form. 


Palstaves. — Sir  John  Evans  limits  the  use  of  this  term 
to  two  classes  of  implements,  (i.)  Winged  celts  with  the 
wings  hammered  over  so  as  to  form  what  may  be  called 
external  sockets  to  the  blade.  This  kind  of  tool  is  rare  in 
England,  but  Fig.  41  gives  an  example  from  Italy.  The 
idea  of  hammering  over  the  edges  is  the 
same  as  that  applied  to  the  socketing  of 
garden  rakes  and  other  tools  at  the  present 
day,  and  may  be  seen  applied  also  to  a  bronze 
arrow-head  in  the  British  Museum,  the  differ- 
ence being  that  in  the  case  of  the  last-men- 
tioned objects  the  socket  is  single,  whilst  in 
that  of  the  celt  it  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
one  on  either  side  of  the  blade,  (ii.)  Winged 
celts,  with  the  portion  of  the  blade  which  lies 
between  the  side  flanges  and  above  the  stop 
thinner  than  that  which  is  below.  This  is 
the  common  implement  known  by  the  name 
of  palstave,  and  shown  in  Fig.  40.  Some- 
times it  has  a  ring  on  one  side  for  the 
purpose  of  enabling  it  to  be  lashed  to  the 
handle,  and  thus  more  securely  fixed  in 
position.  The  palstave  is  often  ornamented 
with  raised  patterns  of  geometrical  character 
produced  in  the  casting.  It  may  have  been 
fixed  at  rig-ht  ane^les  to  the  handle  by  attach- 

FIG.  40  ^  ^  -  .  -^ 

BRONZE  PAi STAVE  "^^^^    to    3.    portiou    of    thc    haft    placed    in 
Prittany  (i)        rcspect  to  tlic  rcst,  as  the  handle  of  a  walk- 


THE    METALLIC    AGE 


97 


ing-stick  is  to  the  stick  itself.  In  this  case  the  palstaff 
would  have  acted  rather  as  an  adze  than  an  axe.  Or  it 
may  have  been  fixed  into  the  end  of  a  straight  stick, 
when  it  would  assume  the  position  occu- 
pied by  the  blade  of  a  hoe  or  spade.  It 
will  be  observed  that  in  either  case  a 
portion  of  the  blade  was  actually  em- 
bedded in  the  handle,  instead  of  the 
handle  being  embedded  in  it.  In  the 
first  group  the  handle  was  embedded  in 
the  blade,  but  a  part  of  the  blade  was 
also  embedded  in  the  handle.  This 
form  seems  to  have  led  up,  as  indeed 
it  may  easily  have  done,  to  the  next 
class. 


Socketed  Celts.  —  Implements  with  a 
hollow  recess  for  the  reception  of  the 
handle,  of  which  Fig.  42  is  an  example. 
That  these  are  derived  from  the  class 
last  dealt  with  is  shown  by  the  facts  that 
(a)  a  socketed  celt 
has  been  found  with 
its  socket  divided* 
into  two  portions  by 
a  central  septum,  an 
obvious  proof  of  des- 
cent from  the  winged 
celt  with  its  wings 
hammered  over,  and 
id)  by  the  fact  that 
the  outside  of  the 
sockets  of  socketed 
celts  are    not  unfre-  fig,  42,    looped  and  sock- 

,  ,  ,  ETED   BRONZE   CELT 

quently  decorated  imh  (j) 


IIG.  41. 
PALSTAVE,   BRONZE 
Italian  (1) 
H 


98     REMAINS    OF  THE   PREHISTORIC    AGE 

with  curved  lines  obviously  representing  the  hammered- 
over  wings  of  the  earlier  pattern  (see  Fig.  52  ^  and  ^'^). 
Such  skeuomorphs,  or  forms  of  ornament  demonstrably 
due  to  structure,  afford  valuable  evidence  of  the  derivation 
of  the  socketed  celt,  and  may  be  compared  with  the  linear 
and  pellet  ornamentation  on  the  surface  of  the  blades  of 
palstaves,  perhaps  the  skeuomorphs  of  a  former  method 
of  attaching  the  blade  to  the  handle  by  cords  ^  (see  Fig. 
52^  and  ^'^).  The  socketed  celt  is  met  with  under  various 
shapes,  may  have  a  ring  at  the  side,  as  in  Fig.  42,  and 
may  be  ornamented,  indeed  often  is  ornamented,  around 
its  neck  with  rings,  perhaps  the  skeuomorphs  of  lashings, 
or  upon  its  surface  with  linear  and  other  raised  patterns 
(see  Fig.  52  *  '  ^°).  Ornament  produced  by  punches 
or  hammers  is  almost  entirely  wanting,  no  doubt  because 
the  application  of  such  kind  of  ornament  to  a  hollow 
implement  was  difficult,  if  not  inadvisable. 

Miniature  and  Ceremonial  Celts. — In  the  case  of  the  neo- 
lithic celts,  it  was  noted  that  small  implements,  evidently 
unintended  for  actual  use,  have  from  time  to  time  been 
found,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  objects  of  the  later  age 
with  which  we  are  now  concerned.  A  miniature  bronze 
dagger  or  knife  has  been  found  in  a  barrow  opened  near 
Marlboro  in  1907."'  Celts  made  of  bronze,  but  so  thin  as 
never  to  have  been  of  any  actual  use,  have  been  found  by 
Mr.  Hogarth  in  his  excavations  in  the  Dictyaean  Cave  in 
Crete.  They  have  also  been  found  at  Dodona,  at  Hall- 
stadt,  and  in  Mexico.  In  some  of  these  situations  it  seems 
unreasonable  to  doubt  that  their  purpose  was  votive,  but 
they  may  have  been  made,  at  times,  for  children's  toys,  or 
perhaps  even  for  use  as  money,  for  which  purpose  similar 
objects  are  now  in  vogue  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa. 

Dagg'ers. — The  dagger,  which,  very  probably,  also  served 

^   Cf.  Haddon,  Evolution  in  Art,  p.  75  et  seq, 
^  Rev,  H.  G.  O.  Kendall,  Afati,  1909,  21. 


THE    METALLIC   AGE 


99 


m 


the  purposes  of  a  knife,  was  an  instrument  early  constructed 

after  man  had  arrived  at  a  knowledge  of  the  use  of  bronze. 

Two    distinct    classes    of   dao-^rer    can    be    distinefuished 

according  to  the  manner  in  which  the  blade  was  attached 

to  its  handle,  by  tang  or  by  rivets  ;    the  latter 

appearing  to  be  the  more  primitive  implement. 

Of  these,  the  earlier  had  thin  flat  blades,  and 

were   more  or  less  triangular  in   shape,  whilst 

later   weapons  were  strengthened   by  a  strong 

mid-rib,  and  sometimes  presented  some  measure 

of  ornamentation  on  the  blade.     Fig.  43  shows 

one  of  these  daggers  still  attached  to  its  original 

handle,  an  extremely  rare  example.     The  blade 

measures    seven    and    a    half    inches,    and    the 

handle  four.     The  latter  overlaps  the  former  by 

about   an    inch,    and    is    secured    to   it    by   two 

bronze    rivets   about  three-quarters  of  an   inch 

in  length.     The  handle  is  of  horn.     This  object 

was  found  between  nine  and  ten  feet  from  the 

surface  in  a  peat-bog  near  Castleisland  in  the 

County  of   Kerry. ^     Horn  seems  to  have  been 

a  common  material  for  the  construction  of  the 

handle,  and  amongst  other  instances  of  its  use, 

one    may    be   quoted    from    Jewitt, ''   where   the 

portion  of  the  blade  of  a  bronze  dagger,  found        pjc  4^ 

in    a   tumulus,    presented    near   the    rivet  holes  bronze  dagger 

obvious  signs  of  the  grain  of  the  horn  which  with  handle 

had  originally  been  attached  to  it.     Sometimes 

the  handle  was  of  bone  or  wood,   like  one  described  by 

Dr.  Thurnam,  which    was  held  together  by  thirty  rivets 

of  bronze,   and    strengthened  at  the  end   by   an   oblong 

bone  pommel  fastened  with  two  pegs.     It  was  decorated 

by  dots   incised   in  the  surface  of  the  wood,   forming  a 

1  Pror.  Roy.  Soc.  Antiqs.  Ireland,  vii.  423. 
-  Grai'C-mounds  and  their  Contents,  24. 


m 


loo     REMAINS   OF   THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

border  of  double  lines  and  circles  between  the  heads  of  the 
rivets.  A  still  more  elaborate  handle,  on  which  a  Vandyke 
pattern  was  formed  by  tiiousands  of  small  gold  rivets,  each 
with  a  head  no  larger  than  that  of  an  ordinary  pin,  was 
described  by  Hoare.^  Again,  in  some  cases  the  hilt  was 
made  of  bronze,  and  a  few  examples  of  this  kind  have  been 
discovered  in  Ireland.  Longer  rapier-blade  daggers  have 
also  been  discovered.  These,  being  of  a  later  date  than 
the  shorter  dagger,  seem  to  form  a  kind  of  transition  be- 
tween it  and  the  sword.  Chapes  or  terminals  to  scabbards 
which  may  have  belonged  to  daggers  or  to  sw^ords  have 
been  discovered,  and  in  at  least  one  case  a  complete  dagger- 
sheath  has  come  to  light.  This  was  found  at  Pilling 
Moss,  measured  eleven  and  a  half  by  one  and  three-quarter 
inches,  and  had  a  bronze  loop  at  the  back  through  which  a 
strap  could  be  passed.  Short  scabbards  like  this  may  some- 
times have  been  for  swords,  the  upper  portion  having  been 
constructed  of  wood,  but  the  loop  in  this  case  seems  to 
prove  that  we  have  the  whole  of  the  object,  and  that  it  was 
intended  for  a  dagger  and  not  for  the  longer  implement. 

Swords. — The  leaf-shaped  sword  was  certainly  a  weapon 
of  the  bronze  period,  though  a  late,  rather  than  an  early, 
specimen  of  work  in  that  metal.  The  leaf-shaped  sword 
was  adapted  for  thrusting  rather  than  cutting,  as  there  was 
a  danger  of  its  breaking  off  short  in  a  blow^  The  bronze 
swords  shown  in  use  in  Mycenaean  designs  are  exhibited 
as  employed  in  the  thrust  exclusively,  in  fact  this  is  the 
case  with  all  pictorial  representations  of  the  use  of  the 
sword  in  the  Bronze  Age.-  There  was  a  later  bronze 
sword-blade  which  appears  to  have  belonged  to  the  Late 
Celtic  period,  but  this  was  not  leaf-shaped,  but  slightly 
tapering  and  with  edges  almost  straight  nearly  to  the 
point.  The  hilt  was  sometimes  of  bronze,  and  sometimes 
of  plates  of  wood,  or  horn,  or  bone,  riveted  on  to  the  metal. 
Those  with  hilts  of  bronze  are  rare  in  this  country. 

'  Ancient  Wilis,  i.  202.  -  See  Ridg-eway,  Early  Age  of  Greece,  p.  394. 


THE    METALLIC   AGE 


lOI 


Spear-heads. — All  the  examples  of  this  class,  see  Fig-. 44, 
which  have  been  found  in  this  country,  and  which  are 
clearly  recognisable  as  spear-heads,  are  cored,  and  have 
been  made  by  persons  thoroughly  expert  in  the  art  of 
casting  metal.  Hence  one  may  assume  that 
they  do  not  belong  to  the  earlier  part  of  the 
bronze  period.  Sir  John  Evans  divides  them 
into  five  classes,  namely  :  (i.)  Those  which  are 
simple  and  leaf-shaped,  either  long  and  narrow, 
or  broad,  and  have  holes  in  the  socket  through 
which  to  pass  the  rivets  to  fix  them  to  the  shaft, 
(ii.)  Those  which  are  looped,  and  have  eyes  on 
each  side  of  the  socket  below,  and  on  the  same 
plane  with  the  blade.  Those  are  generally  of  the 
long,  narrow,  straight-edged  kind,  (iii.)  Those 
with  loops  in  the  angles  between  the  edge  of 
the  blade  and  the  socket,  (iv.)  Those  with  side 
apertures  and  perforations  through  the  blade. 
(v.)  Those  in  which  the  base  of  each  side  of  the 
blade  projects  at  right  angles  to  the  socket,  or  is 
prolonged  downwards  so  as  to  form  barbs.  In 
some  cases  the  sockets  of  these  weapons  have 
been  elaborately  decorated  with  the  chevron  and 
other  hatchings  so  characteristic  of  the  art  of 
the  bronze  period. 


BRONZE 
SPKAR-HEAD 
The  Wrekin  (») 


Other  articles. — A  host  of  other  objects,  made 
of  bronze,  are  to  be  seen  in  museums  of  pre-  fig.  44. 
historic  archceology,  and  accounts  of  them  may 
be  sought  for  in  the  great  work  of  Sir  John  Evans. 
It  will  only  be  possible  here  to  enumerate  a  few  of  these, 
whilst  some  others,  of  the  nature  of  personal  ornaments, 
will  be  dealt  with  in  a  later  chapter.  Chisels,  gouges,  and 
saws  are  amongst  the  tools  of  this  material  ;  the  latter 
class,  however,  being  very  rare,  for  up  to  1885  only  five 


I02     REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

examples  had  come  to  H^ht  in  this  country.^  Mace- 
heads,  halberds,  and  sickles  (see  Fig.  45),  trumpets, 
bells,  and  shields  may  also  be  mentioned.  Allusion  has 
already  been  made  to  the  fact  that  bronze  arrow-heads 


Swiss  Lake  Village  (3) 


are  of  rare  occurrence  in  this  country.  This  seems  to  be 
the  rule  in  all  countries  north  of  the  Alps,  where  such 
arrow-heads  as  have  been  found  of  this  material  appear 
to  belong  to  the  late  Celtic  rather  than  to  the  bronze 
period.  In  Spain,  metal  arrow-heads  seem  to  have  been 
in  vogue  from  a  very  early  period.  These  range  from 
simple  bars  of  copper,  flattened  and  sharpened  at  one 
end,  to  lozenge-shaped  and  triangular,  tanged,  and 
tanged  and  barbed,  Montelius'  states  that  many  bronze 
arrow-heads  have  been  found  in  Egypt.  These  may  be 
tanged,  or  barbed,  or  both,  and  some  of  them  are 
socketed,  the  socket  being  formed  by  the  folding  over  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  blade.  An  example  of  an  arrow- 
head of  this  kind  found  in  France  is  in  the  British 
Museum.  There  is  also  found  in  Egypt  a  three-edged, 
socketed,  bayonet  type,  which  is  met  with  not  only  in 
that  country,  but  also  in  Arabia  and  in  vSicily. 

For  a  full  account  of  the  methods  pursued  in  the  casting 
of  the  objects  dealt  with  in  this  chapter,  the  reader  must 

'  Proc.  Soc.  Antujs.,  xi.  12.  -  L'Anthwpolugie,  i.  44. 


THE    METALLIC   AGE  103 

be  referred  to  Sir  John  Evans'  pages.  Here  it  will  not  be 
possible  to  do  more  than  to  quote  from  them  the  summary- 
given  as  to  the  various  modes  employed.  Objects  were 
cast — 

(i.)  In  a  single  mould  formed  of  loam,  sand,  stone,  or 
metal,  the  upper  surface  of  the  casting  exhibiting  the  flat 
surface  of  the  molten  metal,  which  was  left  open  to  the  air. 
In  the  case  of  loam  or  sand  castings,  a  pattern  or  model 
would  be  used,  which  might  be  an  object  already  in  use,  or 
made  in  the  desired  form  in  wood  or  other  soft  substance. 

(ii.)  In  double  moulds  of  similar  materials.  The  castings 
produced  in  this  manner  when  in  unfinished  condition  show 
the  joints  of  the  moulds  (this  may  be  noticed  in  Fig.  40). 
When  sand  was  employed  a  frame  or  flask  of  some  kind 
must  have  been  used  to  retain  the  material  in  place  when 
the  upper  half  of  the  mould  was  lifted  off  the  pattern. 
The  loam  moulds  were  probably  burnt  hard  before  being 
used.  In  many  cases  cores  for  producing  hollows  in  the 
casting  were  employed  in  conjunction  with  these  moulds. 

(iii.)  In  what  may  be  called  solid  moulds.  For  this 
process  the  model  was  made  of  wax,  wood,  or  some  com- 
bustible material,  which  w^as  encased  in  a  mass  of  loam, 
possibly  mixed  with  cow-dung  or  vegetable  matter,  which 
on  exposure  to  heat  left  the  loam  or  clay  in  a  porous  condi- 
tion. This  exposure  to  fire  also  burnt  out  the  wax  or  wood 
model  and  left  a  cavity  for  the  reception  of  the  metal,  which 
was  probably  poured  in  while  the  mould  was  still  hot.^ 

The  following  list  contains  the  hoards  of  bronze  imple- 
ments which  have  been  found  in  this  country,  so  far  as 
they  are  within  my  knowledge.  For  the  bulk  of  these 
I  am  indebted  to  the  pages  of  Sir  John  Evans'  work,  and 
for  the  references  to  these  its  pages  must  be  consulted. 

^  It  is  possible  that  the  lead  celts  which  have,  though  rarely,  been  dis- 
covered, were  cast  inside  bronze  moulds,  in  which  frag:ments  of  lead  have 
been  found  adhering-,  and  were  used  as  models  for  making'  clay  moulds  upon. 
In  these  clay  moulds  the  ordinary  bronze  celt  might  then  be  cast.  See 
Clark,  Proc.  Soc.  Ayitiquaries,  ii.  xx.  258. 


I04     REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 


The  remainder  have  the  references  added  to  them.  The 
hoards  are  arranged  not  according  to  their  character,  as 
has  been  done  in  the  work  just  alkided  to,  but  according 
to  the  plan  pursued  in  this  book,  under  the  counties  in 
which  thev  have  been  found. 


Wallinsfford. 


Whittlesea. 
Wicken  Fen. 

Wilburton    Fen    {Proc.   Soc. 
Ant.y  1882,  112). 


Mawgan. 
St.  Hilary. 


Bedford. — Wymington. 

Berkshire  — 
Hagbourn  Hill. 
Yattendon. 

Cambridgeshire — 
Burwell  Fen. 
Fulbourn  Common. 
Melbourn. 
Meldreth. 
Reach  Fen. 

Cheshire.  —  Broxton. 

Cornwall — 

Kenidjack  Cliff. 
Lanant. 

Devonshire — 

Bloody  Pool,  South  Brent. 

Dorsetshire.  — Weymouth. 

Durham— 

Heathery  Burn  Cave. 

Essex — 
Chrishall. 
Greys,  Thurrock  {Proc.  Soc. 

An/.,  xvi.  327). 
Hatfield,  Broad  Oak  {id.  96). 
Hig-h  Roding-. 
Panfield. 

Gloucestershire. — Westbury-on-Trym  {Proc.  Soc.  Ant.,  xviii. 
237)- 


Plymstock  (Worth). 


Stanhope. 

Romford. 

Shoebury  {Proc.  Soc.  An/., 
xiv.  174). 

South  Church,  near  South- 
end {n/.  xvi.  98). 


THE    METALLIC   AGE 


105 


Hampshire — 

Arreton     Down,     Isle     of 

Wight. 
Blackmoor. 
Clothall. 

Hereford. — Broadward. 

Hertfordshire — 
Cumberlow,  Baldock. 
Danesbury,  Welwyn. 

Kent — 

Allhallows,  Hoo. 

Ebbsfleet,     Isle    of    Thanet 
{Proc.  Sac.  Aiif.,  xiv.  309). 

Haynes  Hill,  Saltvvood. 

Hundred  of  Hoo. 
Lancashire. — Winmarleigh,  Garstang- 


Pear  Tree,  near  Southamp- 
ton [Proc.  Soc.  A71L,  xvii. 
1 29). 

Woolmer,  New  Forest. 


Westwick     Row, 
Hempsted. 


Hemel 


Isle  Harty,  Sheppey. 
Marden. 
Rochester. 
Sittinsrbourne. 


Leicestershire. — Beacon  Hill,  Charnwood  Forest. 

Lincolnshire — 

Branston     Hall    {Proc.    Soc. 


AnL,  ii.  XX.  3). 
Flixborough. 

Middlesex — 

Bromley-by-Bow  (Proc.  Soc. 

Ant,  xix.  13). 
Hanwell  (Univ.    Birm.    Mu- 
seum). 

Norfolk — 

Carleton  Rode. 

Dereham. 

Eaton. 

Fakenham. 

Frettenham. 

Kimberley. 

Little  Cressingfham. 


Haxey. 
Nettleham. 
West  Halton. 


Hounslow. 
Remington. 

Southall    (Proc.    Soc.    An/., 
xvi.  327). 

Necton. 

Reepham. 

Salthouse. 

Stibbard. 

Stoke  P'erry. 

Surlingham. 

Thetford, 


io6    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 


Northumberland — • 

Thrunton    Farm,   Whittiny;-- 
ham. 


Wallinjrton. 


Nottinghamshire — 

Newark  (near).  |       Nottingham. 

Oxfordshire. — Burgesses'  Meadow. 

Shropshire — 

Battlefield,   near    Shrews- 
bury. 
Ebnall,  near  Oswestry. 

Somerset — 

Edington,  Burtle. 
Heath  House,  Wedmore. 
Quantock  Hills. 
Sherford,  Taunton. 

Staffordshire. — Greensborough  Farm,  Shenstone. 

Suffolk^ 
Exning. 

Felixstowe  {Proc.  Soc.  Ant., 
xi.  8). 

Surrey — 
Beddington. 
Beddlestead  {Proc.  Soc.  AnL, 


Little  Wenlock. 
Porkington,  near  Oswestry. 
Wrekin. 


Taunton. 
West  Buckland. 
Wick  Park,  Stogursey. 


Martlesham. 

Postlingford  Hall,  Clare. 
Thorndon. 


Farley  Heath. 

Sussex — 

Beachy  Head,  Eastbourne. 
Hollingbury  Hill,  Brighton. 

Westmorland. — Ambleside. 

Yorkshire  — 
Bilton. 
Cleveland. 
Earsley  Common. 


Kingston  Hill. 
Wandle  River. 
WMckham  Park,  Croydon. 


Wilmington. 

Worthing. 


Hotham  Carr. 
Roseberry  Topping. 
Weston. 


CHAPTER    VI 

BONE  IMPLEMENTS— ENGRAVINGS,  CARVINGS,  AND 
ART  OF  PRIMITIVE  MAN— ORNAMENTS 

IMPLEMENTS   OF   BONE 

SAVE  where  they  are  found  with  other  undisturbed 
and  undoubted  relics  of  the  period,  there  is  often 
a  difticuhy  in  deciding  whether  a  bone  implement 
belongs  to  an  early  or  a  comparatively  recent  period. 
Take,  for  example,  the  pointed  implements,  made  from 
a  limb  bone  of  some  large  animal,  which  are  found  along 
the  Thames,  and  of  which  many  have  been  discovered 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Southwark  Bridge.  These  might 
be  a  kind  of  spear-head  of  an  early  date,  or  they  may, 
perhaps,  even  still  more  likely,  be  the  points  for  the  ends 
of  the  poles  with  which,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  skater 
propelled  himself,  on  his  bone  skates,  along  the  ice. 
But  where  implements  have  been  found  in  caves  mixed 
up  with  other  objects  of  whose  period  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  as  is  the  case  in  many  instances,  then  we  may 
at  once  accept  them  as  belonging  to  that  period.  It  is 
generally  held  as  a  fairly  well-established  fact  that  work 
in  bone  did  not  begin  until  a  somewhat  late  period  of  the 
Palasolithic  age,  or  at  least  that  if  it  did,  we  have  no  relics 
left  of  an  earlier  date,  which  would  be  a  somewhat  strange 
thing  had  the  industry  really  existed.  Thieullen  has, 
however,  recently  found  at  Chelles  some  worked  pieces 
of  bone  which  he  believes  to  belong  to  the  same  very  early 

107 


io8     REMAINS   OF  THE    PREHISTORIC   AGE 

part  of  the  Palaeolithic  age  as  the  stone  implements  dis- 
covered in  the  same  place.  If  this  observation  be  corrobo- 
rated, then  we  shall  be  obliged  to  assign  an  earlier  date 
for  the  known  commencement  of  work  in  bone  than  has 
hitherto  been  allowed.  But  at  least  this  may  be  said,  that 
there  is  no  evidence  of  any  considerable  amount  of  work 
in  bone  until  the  period  called  by  Mortillet  the  Mag- 
dalenian  and  described  in  Fischer's  classification  (p.  8) 
as  Papalian,  from  the  Grotto  du  Pape  at  Bassempouy, 
where  characteristic  objects  in  bone  have  been  found. 
As  his  classification  chiefly  depends  upon  the  character 
of  the  art,  it  will  be  dealt  with  more  fully  in  the  next 
section  of  this  chapter.  Meantime,  at  this  point  it  will 
be  convenient  to  consider  some  of  the  implements  made 
in  bone  and  horn  during  this  and  the  periods  which  suc- 
ceeded it. 

Harpoons. —  Harpoons,  or,  as  they  are  also  called, 
javelin-heads,  form  a  characteristic  series  of  objects  of 
the  Magdalenian  period  in  France,  and  have  been  found 
also  in  British  caves,  such  as  Kent's  Hole.  But  there 
is  a  larger  series  available  in  France,  and  we  are  indebted 
to  the  labours  of  M.  Piette  thereon  for  our  knowledgfe 
of  the  varieties  and  sequence  of  these  objects.^  The  char- 
acteristic Magdalenian  harpoon,  he  thinks,  consisted  of 
two  parts — a  wooden  shaft,  and  a  head  made  of  reindeer 
or  stag  horn,  provided  with  barbs  on  one  or  both  sides, 
which  was  attached  to  the  shaft  by  a  cord.  During  the 
first,  or  equidian,  portion  of  the  Magdalenian  period  the 
climate  was  dry  and  cold,  there  was  no  great  amount 
of  water  about,  and,  therefore,  no  great  demand  for 
harpoons  ;  nevertheless,  one  fragment  of  what  was  prob- 
ably a  harpoon  was  found  in  the  stratum  belonging  to 
this  date  at  Mas  d'Azil.     At  a  later  date,  when  the  rein- 

^  L' Anthropologic,  vi.  283. 


BONE    IMPLEMENTS 


109 


deer  had  become  the  prominent  animal  in  the  fauna,  the 
climate  was  damper,  and  many  harpoons  appear.  At  first 
the  butt-end  of  these  was  pointed,  but  this  was  open  to 
the  inconvenience  that  the  cord  attaching  the  head  to  the 
shaft  could  easily  slip  off. 
So  the  end  was  truncated, 
and  still  later  a  flange  was 
made  on  either  side  of  the 
shaft  a  short  distance  above 
the  base,  so  as  to  give  a 
good  hold  to  the  cord.  This 
seems  to  have  been  the  best  (/  //iiii'f 
and  the  latest  type  (see  Fig. 
46^).  In  the  later  part  of 
the  Cervidian  period,  when 
the  reindeer  was  gradually 
migrating  north,  the  red- 
deer  arrived.  The  man  of 
the  period  endeavoured  to 
manufacture,  on  the  old 
lines,  harpoons  from  his 
horns,  but  the  result  was 
not  a  success,  because  they 
were  only  hard  on  the  out- 
side. It  was  obvious  that 
some  other  plan  would  have 
to  be  tried,  and  consequently 
a  kind  of  oval-flattened  har-  ^"'-  ^^^ 

poon,  with  a  hole  at  the 
base  for  the  cord,  and  two  rows  of  barbs,  was  devised 
(Fig.  ^6d).  On  this  followed  various  experimental  forms, 
which  narrowed  themselves  down  to  two  types,  found  at 
Mas  d'Azil  in  the  stratum  of  the  coloured  pebbles,  (i)  An 
implement  with  a  single  row  of  barbs,  with  an  oval  or 
lozenge-shaped  hole.     This  disappeared  and  left  only  (2)  a 


HARPOONS   OF    HORN 
French  (j) 


no     REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

flat  oval  harpoon,  with  an  oval  hole  and  two  rows  of 
pointed  barbs  almost  parallel  with  the  base  (see  Fig.  466) 
and  with  no  ornament  to  weaken  it.  This  is  found  in 
the  shell-layer,  though  most  of  the  bone  implements  in 
that  stratum  have  been  destroyed  by  fire.  The  harpoon 
is  not  found  in  the  polished  stone  layers,  for  by  this  time 
man  had  learnt  how  to  make  a  fish-hook.  From  the 
remains  of  some  of  the  Swiss  lake  villages  harpoons  and 
polished  stone  implements  have  been  extracted  together, 
and  it  is  possible  that  their  use  may  have  been  simul- 
taneous. 

Javelins  and  Javelin-throwers. — It  is  possible  that  some 
of  the  pointed  implements  of  bone  may  have  been  the 
heads  of  javelins,  indeed,  some  of  the  objects  called 
harpoons  by  M.  Piette,  are  described  in  the  British 
Museum  Guide  under  the  former  name,  and  the  wedge- 
shaped  butt  is  said  to  have  been  so  constructed  for  the 
purpose  of  fastening  it  into  the  shaft.  So  much  do 
opinions  differ  as  to  the  use  of  the  same  object.  At  any 
rate,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  javelin-throwers  were  in 
existence,  for  one  was  found  at  La  Madelaine  ornamented 
with  carvings  in  the  round  of  horses'  heads,  which  in 
general  details  quite  resembles  similar  implements  used 
by  the  natives  of  Australia  and  the  North-West  Coast  of 
America  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  leverage  of  the 
arm  in  casting  a  spear. 

Dress-fasteners. — These  objects,  of  which  an  example 
is  shown  in  Fig.  47,  were  long  known  under  the  fanciful 
name  of  "  batons  de  commandement,"  or  sceptres,  and 
were  supposed  to  have  been  emblems  of  authority  like  a 
Field- Marshal's  baton.  Schoetensack^  has,  however, 
shown  that  they  were  a   means  of  keeping  together  the 

^  L' Anthropulugie,  xii.  140. 


BONE    IMPLEMENTS  in 

cloak  or  skin  robe,  and  that  si mikar  objects  are  used  in  that 
way  by  the  Esquimaux  to  the  present  day.  A  thin  cord, 
to  each  end  of  which  was  fastened  transversely  a  little  bit 
of  stick,  is  brought  round  the  neck  over  the  robe.     The 


La  Madelaine 


two  pieces  of  stick  are  then  passed  through  the  hole  in  the 
implement  and  the  cloak  is  secured.  Where  there  are 
several  holes  the  object  may  have  been  to  permit  of  the 
cloak  being  more  or  less  closely  brought  together  after  the 
manner  of  the  chain  supplied  with  the  modern  Inverness 
cape. 

Some  of  the  simpler  forms  of  ''baton  de  commande- 
ment,"  unprovided  with  holes,  have  been  identified  with 
the  "Pogamagan,"  or  strikers,  of  the  North  American 
Indians,  by  a  writer  in  Nature^  who  states  that  on  the 
mural  monument  of  Colonel  Townshend  on  the  south  side 
of  the  nave  of  Westminster  Abbey,  there  is  a  figure  of  a 
North  American  warrior  with  a  pogamagan  in  his  hand. 
Smaller  dress-fasteners,  made  from  the  articulating  end 
of  a  small  animal  bone,  have  been  described  by  Green- 
welP  and  others.  The  object  described  and  figured  by 
the  Canon  was  a  calcined  bone  pin  \%  inch  long,  with  a 
large  eye  in  the  head  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
discovered  in  a  barrow  in  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire. 

'  British  Barroivs,  352, 


112     REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

Needles. — These  valuable  implements,  made  of  bone, 
have  been  found  in  the  French  caves  and  in  Kent's  Hole. 
A  series  with  the  implements  used  in  their  manufacture 
is  exhibited  in  the  British  Museum,  and  figured  in 
the  Guide.  From  the  bone  selected  for  the  purpose,  a 
splinter  was  first  detached,  and  this  was  then  carefully 
rounded  with  the  aid  of  a  flint  made  after  the  pattern  of  a 
small-toothed  concave  scraper.  The  point  was  fashioned, 
and  the  whole  of  the  needle  polished,  by  a  burnishing  stone 
of  sandstone.  A  pointed  flint  served  as  the  drill  for  making 
the  eye.  In  some  cases  the  needles  seem  to  have  been 
made  of  a  small  round  bone  pointed  and  drilled.  But  it 
is  clear  that  the  points  of  these  would  not  be  as  sharp 
or  serviceable  as  those  made  from  a  splinter  composed 
entirely  of  compact  bone. 

Picks  or  hoes  have  been  found,  not  only  in  prehistoric 
workings  such  as  Grime's  Graves,  but  also  in  tumuli^  in 
the  excavation  of  which  they  may  perhaps  at  times  have 
been  used.  Chisels  of  horn  have  been  found  in  the  Swiss 
lake  villages.  Bone  arrow-heads  with  traces  of  bitumen 
adhering  to  their  bases,  showing  that  this  substance  was 
used  in  attaching  the  head  to  the  shaft,  have  been  found 
in  the  same  places.  Tweezers  of  bone,  perforated  for 
hanging  to  the  belt,  were  found  by  Bateman-  in  a  barrow 
at  Bailey  Hill,  in  Derbyshire.  Borers  and  implements 
like  a  small  cigar,  pointed  at  both  ends,  the  use  of  which 
is  rather  doubtful,  are  other  objects  made  of  the  same 
material. 

ART  OF  THIS  AND  LATER  PERIODS. 

With  the  knowledge  of  bone  as  a  workable  article  grew 
up  a  remarkable  school  of  art,  by  no  means  one  of  the 
least  interesting  points  in  connection  with  this  period  of 
the    world's    history.       The    examples    upon    which    our 

*  Greenwell,  op.  cif.,  231.  '■'    Ten   Years'  Digging,  170. 


ART  OF  THIS  AND   LATER   PERIODS     113 

knowledge  of  the  subject  is  based  have  mainly  been  dis- 
covered in  French  caves ;  one  instance,  so  far,  alone 
having  been  afforded  by  this  country.  They  have  been 
carefully  studied  by  M.  Piette,^  whose  classification  is 
given  on  p.  g.  The  period  in  question  is  called  by  him 
the  Glyptic,  and  is  divided  into  two  epochs,  (i.)  Equidian, 
again  subdivided  into  Elephantine  or  Ivory,  and  Hippie. 
The  fauna  was  of  the  Mousterian  character,  and  the  works 
of  art  included  sculptures  in  the  round,  bas-reliefs  and 
engravings  with  cut-out  contours.  In  part  this  epoch 
may  be  said  to  correspond  to  that  known  in  another 
classification  as  Solutrean.  (ii.)  Cervidian,  again  divided 
into  the  reindeer  and  red-deer  ages.  Save  that  the  rein- 
deer, particularly  in  the  first  part  of  the  time,  existed  in 
great  numbers,  and  that  there  were  also  some  circumpolar 
birds,  the  fauna  of  this  period  may  be  said  to  have  closely 
corresponded  to.  that  of  the  present  day.  During  this 
time  were  executed  simple  engravings.  It  was  also  the 
period  of  the  manufacture  of  needles  and  of  rounded 
harpoons  of  reindeer  horn.  Sculpture  on  ivory  preceded 
that  upon  bone  and  horn,  but  the  former  chiefly  char- 
acterises stations  near  the  sea,  the  latter  those  of  the  moun- 
tains. If  the  sculptures  and  engravings  on  mammoth 
tusks  and  those  in  relief  be  excluded  from  what  is  usually 
known  as  the  Magdalenian  period,  then  what  is  left  of  it 
may  be  said  to  correspond  to  Piette's  Cervidian  epoch. 
The  rounded  statuettes  of  the  Grotte  du  Pape  at  Bassem- 
pouy,  which  the  author  just  quoted  places  at  the  earliest 
part  of  the  Glyptic  period,  are  figurines  of  female  type, 
one  of  the  most  important  being  that  called  the  Venus  of 
Bassempouy  and  figured  with  other  examples  in  L' Anthro- 
pologies Unfortunately  only  the  abdomen,  hip,  and  right 
thigh  of  this  figure  have  come  down  to  us.      Both  abdo- 

^  L Anthropologic,  v.  131  and  vii.  2.  A  further  important  and  admirably 
illustrated  article  by  same  writer  dealing-  with  carvings  on  bone  and  particu- 
larly with  the  question  of  spiral  ornamentation  will  be  found  in  L'Anthro- 
pologie,  XV.   129.  -  vi.  129,  pi.  i.-vil. 

1 


114    REMAINS   OF   THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

men  and  buttocks  are  much  accentuated,  the  latter  being 
of  the  steatopygous  type.  Another  female  figure  has  been 
carved  to  form  the  handle  of  a  dagger.  Here  the  breasts 
were  long  and  pendent,  but  the  details  of  parts  of  the 
figure  had  been  sacrificed  to  the  necessities  of  the  purpose 
to  which  the  work  was  to  be  put.  In  all,  seven  female 
figurines  were  found  at  Bassempouy,  one  at  Mas  d'Azil, 
and  one  at  Laugerie  Basse.  They  were  not  all  of  the  heavy 
type  of  those  just  described.     There  was  a  second  series, 


insON    AM)    MAN    ENGRAVED   ON    REINDEER-IIORN 
Laugerie  Basse  (5) 

including  the  "figurine  a  la  capuche,"  a  statuette  with  a 
hood  over  the  head,  in  which  the  figures  were  straight 
and  thin,  without  protuberances  and  with  very  slight 
representations  of  flesh  or  muscle.  Nude  female  figurines 
have  been  found  in  steatite  at  Mentone,  and  in  marble  at 
Troy,  and  on  the  Carian  coast.  It  cannot,  however,  be 
said  that  all  these  are  of  anything  like  the  same  period, 
indeed,  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  last-mentioned  are 
crude  imitations  of  the  Chaldean  type  of  Astarte.  Per- 
haps the  subject  of  human  representations  may  here  be  dis- 
posed of,  though  the  cases  to  be  cited  do  not  all  belong  to 
this  early  period.  The  "femme  au  renne"  was  found  at 
Laugerie  Basse,  and  is  an  engraving  in  cliamp-leve  on  a 
piece  of  reindeer  horn.  The  figure  is  that  of  a  pregnant 
woman  lying  on  her  back  beneath  a  reindeer.  Unfortun- 
ately the  head  of  the  female  and  the  fore  part  of  the  beast 
have  been  lost  by  an  old  fracture  of  the  horn.  The  figure 
of  a  man  chasing  bison  is  shown  in  Fig.  48,  the  carving 
having  been  executed  on  a  piece  of  reindeer  horn.     It  was 


ART  OF  THIS   AND   LATER   PERIODS     115 

found  at  Laugerie  Basse.  The  well-known  figure  of  the 
man  with  eel  and  horses'  heads,  part  of  a  dress-fastener, 
was  discovered  at  La  Madelaine.  An  inartistically  exe- 
cuted profile  of  the  head  alone  has  also  been  discovered 
at  Laugerie  Basse.  Poor  as  all  these  representations  of 
the  human  form  are,  they  are  superior  to  those  bas-reliefs 
which  have  been  found  on  the  stones  of  dolmens  ^  and  in 
a  sepulchral  grotto.-^  In  these  cases  the  face  is  reduced  to 
the  superciliary  ridges  and  nose  with  small  eyes.  The 
breasts  and  sometimes  the  arms  are  represented.  Similar 
figures,  reduced  to  representations  of  the  breasts,  have 
been  found  on  menihirion  in  Sardinia.  Mention  should 
also  be  made  of  the  extremely  rude  figures,  with  girdles, 
discovered  by  Abbe  Hermet  and  described  by  Cartailhac.^ 
Some  of  these  have  beneath  the  girdles  represented  upon 
them  what  may  be  feet  and  legs,  or  may  be  the  fringed 
ends  of  a  stole-like  garment.      These  figures,  carved  on 


FIG.   49.       horses'    heads   CARVED    IN    ROUND   ON    BONE 
St.  Marcel  (J) 

blocks  of  sandstone  and  about  four  feet  in  height,  were 
discovered  in  Aveyron,  France. 

Returning  now  to  the  subject  of  the  paleolithic  w^orks 
of  art  one  may  at  once  admit  that,  if  he  represented  him- 
self ineffectually,  the  man  of  the  period  was  far  more 
successful  in  his  attempts  to  represent  the  animals  which 

^  Cartailhac,  L' Anthropologic ,  v.  147. 

'^  I)e  Baye,  L' ArchMogie  Pr^historique,  159.      PI.  i. ,  ii.,  iii. 

^  L' Ajithropohgie,  iii.  222. 


ii6    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 


he  saw  around  him.  Of  these  works  of  art  many  have  been 
discovered  embracing  a  wide  range  of  subjects.  Of  mam- 
mals there  are  representations  of  the  mammoth,  rhinoceros 
(atGourdan),Miorse(Fig.  49),  reindeer  {Fig.  50),  cave-bear, 
urus,  aurochs,  deer,  mountain  goat,  antelope,  chamois, 
ass,  wild-boar,  wolf,  fox,  lynx,  otter,  seal,  walrus,  and 
rabbit,  besides  some  others  which  are  as  yet  undetermined. 
Amongst  lish,  the  salmon  (of  which  admirable  pictures 
have  been  found  at  Lorthet  in  association  with  rein- 
deer), eel  (if  it  is  not,  as  some  suggest,  a  serpent),  trout, 


Fic;.    50.       REINDEER    ENGRAVED   ON    STONE 
St.  Marcel  (ii) 

and  pike  have  been  drawn.  A  representation  of  a  swan 
was  found  at  Laugerie  Basse  and  another  excellent  one  at 
Gourdan.  The  works  are  executed  on  pieces  of  bone  or 
horn,  or  sometimes  stone,  and  the  graving-tool  was  evi- 
dently a  sharp-pointed  piece  of  flint.  Amongst  the  most 
celebrated  of  these  gravings  are  those  of  the  mammoth, 
on  a  portion  of  mammoth's  tusk,  of  the  reindeer  by  a  pool 
of  water,  on  a  piece  of  reindeer  horn,  and  of  the  cave-bear 
on  a  flat,  oval  pebble  of  schist,  all  of  which  are  well  known 
from  numerous  representations  in  books  dealing  with  the 

'  L' A II fhropulogie,  xv.  147. 


ART  OF  THIS   AND   LATER   PERIODS 


su  bject  of  preh  istoric  archaeology.  For  this  reason 
it  lias  been  thought  better  to  give  here  a  less 
well-known  representation  of  the  reindeer  from 
St.  Marcel  (Fig.  50).  The  reindeer  is  the  favourite 
object  for  representation,  and  is  found  fighting 
and  dying,  and  as  seen  from  front  and  side, 
and  in  all  kinds  of  attitudes.  M.  Reinach^  has 
recently  pointed  out  that  all  the  animals,  so  far 
as  we  have  at  present  knowledge,  represented 
on  the  walls  of  caves  or  on  pieces  of  bone,  horn, 
etc.,  are  those  which  would  be  hunted  or  fished 
for  by  a  race  of  hunters  and  fishermen.  All  the 
undesirable  animals,  such  as  lions,  tigers,  etc. — 
for  he  believes  the  so-called  cave-bear  of  Bruni- 
quel  to  have  been  a  badly-drawn  ruminant — are 
wanting.  It  is  suggested — but  this,  of  course,  is 
pure  theory — that  the  drawings  may  have  been  of 
a  magical  character,  and  had  for  their  object  the 
attraction  of  the  species  of  game  or  fish  which 
they  represent.-  In  addition  to  the  incised  figures 
and  those  with  cut-out  outlines,  the  artist  of  the 
period  attempted  carvings  in  thefull  or  half-round 
in  the  regions  of  applied  art.  Amongst  these 
some  of  the  most  interesting  are  the  dagger 
handles.  Dagger  and  handle  in  these  cases  (see 
Fig.  51)  were  made  out  of  one  continuous  piece 
of  reindeer  horn,  pointed  at  one  end.  Two  ex- 
amples maybe  mentioned, one  of  them,  that  repre- 
sented in  the  figure,  a  decided  success,  the  other 
certainly,  to  our  ideas,  a  failure.  In  the  first  ex- 
ample the  artist  has  set  himself  the  task  of  making 
an  effective  and  comfortable  handle  to  a  dagger 
of  reindeer  horn,  which  handle  shall  represent 
the   reindeer   himself.     Now   a    reindeer  is   an 

^  L Anthropologie,  xiv.  257. 

^  M.  Piette's  paper  in  L' Anthropologie,  xv.  129,  seems  to 
dispose  of  this  theory,  since  he  shows  that  among"st  the  animals 
represented  in  the  caves  were  hyena,  wolf,  bear,  and  snake. 


•"y 


FIG.  51.       DAGGER, 
REINDEER   HORN 


ii8    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

animal  with  branching  horns,  and  our  artist  had  first 
of  all  to  think  how  they  are  to  be  disposed  of.  Hence 
he  represented  his  reindeer  running'  at  full  speed,  head 
thrust  far  forward,  so  that  the  horns  lie  along  his  neck, 
where  they  are  carved  in  high  relief.  The  same  pose 
enabled  the  artist  to  tuck  the  fore-legs  -well  away  under 
the  body,  so  that  they  shall  not  project  and  make  the 
grip  uncomfortable.  And  it  enabled  him  to  throw  the 
hind-legs  straight  out  behind  so  as  to  merge  with  the 
blade  portion  of  the  dagger.  It  is  important,  of  course, 
that  the  point  where  the  handle  merges  into  the  blade 
shall  not  be  weak.  Hence  the  artist  has  carved  the 
hinder  part  of  the  animal  where  he  meets  the  blade 
in  high  relief,  and  not  in  the  full  round,  as  the  an- 
terior part  is  carved.  The  result  is  a  dagger  comfort- 
able to  handle,  and  a  very  remarkable  piece  of  work 
for  the  time  it  was  made  and  the  tools  with  which  it 
was  executed.  The  other  dagger  handle  was  to  repre- 
sent the  mammoth,  not  a  very  easy  animal  to  work  into 
a  scheme  of  decoration,  unless,  perhaps,  he  had  been 
carved  on  the  handle  in  low  relief.  The  artist,  however, 
determined  to  try  and  execute  him  in  the  full  round.  He 
straightened  the  animal's  tusks  a  bit,  and  brought  them 
out  along  the  blade,  and  so  strengthens  his  junction. 
Thus  he  got  out  of  one  difficulty,  but  only  to  fall  into 
another  in  connection  with  the  legs.  He  could  not  well 
tuck  these  under  the  animal,  and  so  he  left  them  sticking 
straight  out.  The  result  is  exceedingly  inartistic,  and 
ineffective  too,  for  the  implement  when  complete — the 
blade  part  has  long  been  broken  off — must  have  been  most 
uncomfortable  in  the  hand.^  This  part  of  the  subject  can- 
not be  left  without  some  notice  of  the  remarkable  series  of 

1  Those  desirous  of  thoroughly  studying-  the  interesting  subject  of  the  art 
of  this  early  period  may  be  referred  to  the  valuable  work  by  Wilson  on 
Prehistoric  Art  published  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 


ART  OF  THIS  AND   LATER   PERIODS     119 

coloured  pebbles  discovered  at  Mas  d'Azil  by  M.  Piette, 
and  fully  described  by  him  in  U Anthropologie.^  The  layer 
in  which  these  objects  have  been  found  passes  insensibly 
into  the  shell  layer,  and  the  objects  themselves  are  water- 
worn  pebbles,  coloured  with  peroxide  of  iron,  probably 
mixed  with  fat  or  resin.  The  representations  on  the 
pebbles  are  divided  into  three  groups,  (i)  NiimberSy 
represented  by  («)  parallel  bands,  {h)  circles  or  disks  in 
lines,  (c)  oval  disks  placed  tangentially  to  the  edges  of  the 
pebbles.  Sometimes  the  borders  of  the  lines  are  even, 
sometimes  fringed.  In  no  case  are  more  than  eight  lines 
or  other  figures  present  on  any  one  pebble.  (2)  Symbols, 
{a)  the  equilateral  cross  or  +  figure,  {b)  the  solar  disk, 
(c)  the  Tau  cross,  T.  (3)  Pictographs,  (a)  serpentine  bands, 
(b)  ladder-like  figures,  consisting  of  a  single  upright  with 
a  number  of  bars  crossing  it,  (c)  tree-like  forms,  (d)  the 
eye,  (e)  harpoons,  (/)  reeds,  (g)  wavy  line.  The  most 
interesting  point  in  connection  with  these  objects  is  their 
apparent  connection  with  early  alphabets,  a  point  on 
which  Piette  says,  "  Nine  of  the  Mas  d'Azil  graphic  signs 
are  identical  with  characters  in  the  Cypriote  syllabary  : 
Ko,  mo,  pa,  lo,  si,  ve,  sa,  ti,  ta.  Eight  of  the  same  signs, 
of  which  some  are  also  Cypriote,  form  part  of  the  Aegean 
alphabet.  Many  ancient  inscriptions  from  Asia  Minor 
also,  especially  from  the  Troad,  present  characters  re- 
sembling the  pictures  from  Mas  d'Azil.  Recognising  in 
the  Cypriote  and  Aegean  alphabets,  or  in  the  writing 
in  use  in  Asia  Minor  before  the  Trojan  War,  the  characters 
of  Mas  d'Azil,  there  is  ground  for  believing  either  that 
the  invasions  from  the  west  to  the  east  carried  into  these 
regions  at  a  very  ancient  period  the  writing  used  in 
Pyrenasan  districts,  or  that  the   rudimentary  writing  of 

1  vii.  384.  The  accompanying-  portfolio  of  coloured  figures  gives  a  vivid 
idea  of  the  whole  series  of  finds.  See  also  Piette,  L Anthrop.,  1903,  641  ; 
Cook,  ib.  ib.,  655;  and  Lang,  Ma7i,  1904,  22,  for  a  discussion  as  to  real 
meaning  of  these  painted  stones. 


I20    REMAINS  OF  TIIK   PRl-.II  IS  lORIC   AGE 

Mas  d'Azil  was  in  Prehistoric  times  the  common  patri- 
mony of  the  Mediterranean  littoral  and  the  coasts  of  the 
Archipelago."^ 

ART   OF   THE   NEOLITHIC   AND   BRONZE   PERIODS 

No  attempt  can  be  made  to  enter  in  any  detail  into  the 
art  of  these  later  periods,  the  decorative  art,  that  is,  for  of 
the  applied  art  of  the  late  Celtic  period  some  notice  will 
be  taken  when  that  part  of  the  subject  is  reached,  but 
some  comment  must  be  made  upon  the  contrast  presented 
between  the  character  of  the  older  and  the  later  forms  of 
decoration.  The  former,  whether  those  which  have  just 
been  described,  or  the  cavern  decorations  alluded  to  in  an 
earlier  chapter,  consisted  of  graphic  representations  of 
animal  and  even  of  human  life.  Such  representations 
are  entirely  wanting  in  the  Neolithic  period,  and  it  is  only 
in  the  latest  examples  of  work  in  bronze  that  anything  of 
the  kind  again  appears.  In  place  of  these  we  find  on  the 
pottery  of  the  Neolithic  and  bronze  periods,  and  on  the 
implements  of  the  bronze,  a  wide  range  of  ornament,  but 
all  of  a  geometrical  character.  It  consisted  of  marks,  lines 
or  dots,  impressed,  incised,  or  raised,  as  a  result  of  casting, 
in  geometric  forms,  hatchings,  zigzags,  herring-bone 
work,  chevrons,  parallel  lines  and  thumb-marks.  Such 
geometric  forms  of  design  were  not  wanting  during  the 
Palaeolithic  period,  but  they  are  quite  overshadowed  by 
the  predominance  of  graphic  art.  On  harpoons  and  points 
of  bone  we  find  geometric  forms,  probably  because  there 
was  little  room  for  the  graphic  representations  which  were 
utilised  where  there  was  more  space  at  the  command  of 
the  artist.  Fig.  52  shows  a  few  of  these  geometric  forms, 
of  which  forty-six  are  given  by  Wilson.-  **The  decorative 
art  of  the  Bronze  Age,"  says  Wilson,  "was  but  a  continua- 
tion of  that  of  the  Neolithic  period,  and  it  is  not  impossible 

^  For  a  further  discussion  of  the  alphabetical  value  of  these  and  other 
ancient  signs,  see  LAnthrop.^  xv.  163-164.  ^  Plates  19  and  20. 


M 

mStmS/ 

m '''  H 

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w 

s 

11 

A 

Ik 

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— 
6 

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^ 

1 

» 

:M^ 

0 

6 

6 

0 

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o 

ft 

(*» 

"  V    -^^^^   '    "^^^^^ 

"5 

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t 
6 

9 

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rP 

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i*'«  «v» 

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.; 

r,-. 

t  V* 

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FIG.   52.       NEOLITHIC    AND    BRONZE   ORNAMENTATION 


1.  4,  7,  10.     Ornament  on  bronze  Celts 

2.  Dolmen  of  Gavr'Inis 

3.  Dots,  lines  and  Vandyke  on  edge  of  bowl 

5.  Spirals  and  concentric  circles  (slab  of  stone), 

Eday,  Orkneys 

6.  Herring-bone,  dog-tooth,  and  twisted  cord 

decoration  (urn) 


8.     Cup-markings,  single  and  encircled,  Ross- 
shire 
g.     Twisted  cord  ornament  (urn) 

11.  Crossed    lines   of  small   dots   arranged   in 

bands 

12.  Imitation  of  basket-work 


ART  OF  THIS  AND   LATER   PERIODS     123 

that  an  investigation  into  the  origin  of  some  of  the  speci- 
mens in  plates  19  and  20  (from  which  most  of  the  selected 
examples  have  been  taken)  would  show  them  to  have 
belonged  to  the  Bronze  Age  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  styles  of 
ornamentation  of  the  two  periods  or  ages  were  practically 
the   same,   and  the  latter  was   but  a  continuation   of  the 


^^^T^m^s^m^s^s^i^ 


KIG.   53.       CUP-AND-RING    MARKINGS 
Berwick 

former,  with  such  possible  changes  or  additions  as  would 
naturally  grow."  Amongst  these  forms  of  decoration 
there  is  one  to  which  some  special  attention  must  be  paid. 
These  are  the  cup-and-ring  markings  which  have  attracted 
the  attention  of  so  many  observers,  and  as  to  the  meaning 
of  which  so  many  surmises  have  been  made.  The  nature 
of  these  markings  will  be  made  sufficiently  clear  by  Figs. 
52^^,  and  53,  and  those  who  desire  to  pursue  the  sub- 
ject further  may  be  referred  to  the  works  mentioned  in  the 
footnote.^ 

^  Sir  J.  Simpson,  "Archaic  Sculptures";  C.  Rau,  "Observations  on 
Cup-shaped  and  other  Lapidarian  Sculptures  in  the  Old  World  and  in 
America,"    Contributions   to   North   American  Ethnology,  vol.   v.  ;  Coffey, 


124    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

Sometimes  there  are  a  series  of  cups  without  further 
ornamentation  ;  sometimes  the  cups  are  surrounded  by 
concentric  lines  ;  or,  again,  in  addition  to  these  there  is 
a  radial  groove.  "Cup  marks,"  says  Coffey,  "are  widely 
distributed  in  Europe.  They  have  been  recorded  from 
France,  Switzerland,  Portugal,  Germany,  Austria,  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  Yet, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  instances,  cup-and-ring,  or 
concentric  circle  sculptures,  have  not  been  recorded  in 
Europe  outside  Sweden,  Great  Britain,  and  Ireland.  The 
exceptions  referred  to  are  :  a  cupped  stone  near  Bunsoh, 
Holstein,  showing  twenty-seven  cups,  three  of  which  are 
surrounded  by  single  rings  ;  a  cupped  stone,  stated  to 
have  existed  near  Mels,  St.  Gall,  Switzerland,  unfortu- 
nately destroyed,  one  of  the  cups  of  which  was  enclosed 
bv  two  rings  ;  some  examples  of  cup-in-ring  and  cross-in- 
circle  markings,  in  association  with  cup-marks,  on  rock- 
surfaces  in  the  Eringerthal,  Valais,  Switzerland  ;  an 
example  of  concentric  rings  on  a  rock-surface  in  the 
Meraviglie,  Mentone  ;  and  two  or  three  examples  on  a 
surface  in  Galicia."  And  he  continues:  "This  narrow 
distribution  of  cup-and-ring  cuttings  is  emphasised  by  the 
fact  that  cup-and-ring  marks  with  radial  gutters  are  abso- 
lutely confined  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland."  A  list  of 
the  localities  in  which  these  markings  have  been  observed 
in  this  country  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 
The  spiral  ornament  may  perhaps  have  reached  Europe 
through  the  Aegean  from  Egypt.  It  has  been  found  on 
scarabs  of  the  fifth  dynasty  in  Egypt,  and  in  others  of  the 
twelfth  at  Crete  (2700-2500  B.C.). 

"  Origfins  of  Prehistoric  Ornament  in  Ireland,"  /f^;c;-/;    oj  Roy.  Soc.  oj  Atitiq. 
of  Ireland,  vol.  iv.  349;  v.  16,  195;  vi.  34;  and  vii.  28. 


PERSONAL   ORNAiMENTS 


125 


PERSONAL   ORNAMENTS. 


Bracelets,  torques,  pins,  and  some  other  objects  of 
bronze  will  be  dealt  with  in  a  later  chapter.  Here  it  is 
only  intended  to  call  attention  to  one  or  two  classes  which 
can  be  satisfactorily  dealt  with  at  this  point. 


FIG.  54.      JET    NECKLACE 

Gold. — An  unusually  large  number  of  gold  ornaments 
have  been  discovered  in  Ireland,  and  can  be  well  studied 
in  the  collection  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  in  Ireland. 
There  seems  little  doubt  that  at  an  early  period  of  history 
Ireland  was  the  El  Dorado  of  the  western  world,  and  there 
is  abundant  evidence  that  considerable  quantities  of  gold 
have  been  obtained  in  Ireland,  even  in  recent  times.^  We 
need  not  doubt  that  the  source  of  the  extraordinary  amount 
of  gold  converted  into  ornaments'-  was  purely  native. 

^    Wakeiiian's  Handbook,  p.  241. 

^  For  list,  seejoitrn.  Roy.  Soc.  Aniiq.  Ireland,  1870-71,  p,  509,  and  Cata- 
logue of  Gold  Ornaments,  R.  I.  A. 


126    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

Jet. — Objects  of  tliis  material  have  been  found  in  tuumli 
in  the  shape  of  rings,  buttons,  and  necklaces,  the  latter 
sometimes  very  elaborate  pieces  of  work.  Greenwell^ 
describes  one  consisting  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  beads, 
and  Bateman  -  gives  an  account  of  another  (see  Fig.  54) 
which  consisted  of  four  hundred  and  twenty  bits,  consist- 
ing of  three  hundred  and  forty-eight  laminae,  fifty-four 
cylinders,  and  eighteen  conical  studs  and  perforated  plates, 
the  latter  ornamented  with  punctured  patterns. 

Beads  of  Ainber  and  of  Glass  also  found  in  tumuli 
deserve  mention  in  this  place. 

'   British  Da7Toivs,  p.  330.  -  Ten  Years'  Dig'ginc^,  p.  24, 


LIST   OF   CUP-AND-RING    MARKINGS     127 


LIST  OF  CUP<\ND-RING  MARKINGS  IN  ENGLAND. 

Cumberland — 

"  Long  Meg"  and  her  Daughters."     Cf.  p.  199. 
A  circle  near  to  this. 

Derbyshire. — High  Hucklow.      In  barrow. 

Dorsetshire.  —  Came    Down.       Cupped    stones    in    a   barrow. 
(Warne,  Celtic  Tujiiuli  of  Dorset,  p.  37.) 

Lancashire. — The  Calder  Stones.     Cf.  p.  201. 

Northumberland — 

Beanley,  near  "The  Ringses." 

Bewick,  double  camp. 

Cartington  Fell. 

Chatton  Law  Camp. 

Chirnells  Moor,  near  Rothbury. 

Dod  Law,  near  the  double  camp. 

Ford  Common.      In  barrow.      {British  Barrotvs,  403-) 

Gled  Law,  near  Dod  Law. 

Hunter's  Moor,  near  Rowting  Lynn. 

Lord-in-Shaws  Camp. 

Morwick  Mill,  near.     Vale  of  Coquet. 
*  Rowting  Lynn. 

Stamfordham,  near  Black  Haddon.  In  barrow.  {British 
Biwroivs. ) 

Weetwood  Bridge,  near  the  camp. 

Whitton  Dene,  near  Rothbury.  (Cf.  "Ancient  Sculp- 
tured Stones  of  Northumberland,"  Trans.  Berwick 
Naturalists''  Club,  v.  137.) 

Yorkshire — 

Claughton  Moor.     Cupped  stones  in  round  barrow.     Cf. 

p.  171. 
Kilburn  Moor.      {British  Barrows,  329.) 
Way  Hag,  Ayton  Moor.      (British  Barrows,  p.  342.) 
Wykeham  Moor.     Cf.  p.  173. 


CHAPTER   VII 
PLACES   OF   BURIAL— BARROWS  LONG  AND  ROUND 

UNDERGROUND  are  all  great  treasures  and 
wonderful  things,"  says  Rabelais,  and  his  saying 
may  be  applied  to  the  tombs  and  cemeteries  of  the 
bygone  races  of  this  country,  so  far  as  archaeologists  are 
concerned.  For  they  have  been  most  fruitful  in  affording 
information  as  to  the  habits  of  those  wlio  constructed 
and  were  deposited  in  them.  As  far  as  their  physical 
characters  are  concerned,  the  examination  of  the  skeletons 
exposed  has  taught  us  almost  all  that  we  know  in  that 
respect.  And  the  custom  of  burying  various  things  with 
the  body  of  the  departed,  a  custom  perhaps  based  upon 
the  idea  that  the  gifts  deposited  would  be  useful  to  the 
spirit  of  the  dead  person  in  another  world,  has  led  to  the 
storing  up  in  burial  mounds  and  graves  of  a  varied  series 
of  objects,  examples  of  which  are  preserved  in  many 
museums,  objects  which  throw  more  light  upon  the  posi- 
tion and  habits  of  their  former  owners  than  perhaps  any 
other  discoveries  which  have  been  made.  These  "accom- 
panying gifts"  vary  in  number  and  character  according  to 
the  race  and  period,  and  they  will  be  dealt  with  more  fully 
further  on.  The  harvest  of  knowledge  which  has  been 
g-athered  from  the  examination  of  burial  mounds  is  so 
great  that  the  information  to  be  given  here  must  neces- 
sarily be  very  much  compressed  and  confined  t(j  the  more 
important  points.     For  further  information  reference  may 

128 


PLACES   OF   BURIAL  129 

be  made  to  the  works  in  the  footnote.^  Before  turning  to 
the  varieties  of  barrow  two  preliminary  points  have  to  be 
dealt  with. 

Cremation  and  Inhumation. — As  at  the  present  day,  so 
in  earlier  ages,  two  methods  of  disposing  of  the  bodies  of 
the  dead  were  practised,  ordinary  burial  or  inhumation 
and  burning,  with  subsequent  deposition  of  the  ashes  in 
a  grave  mound,  cyst,  or  urn-field.  The  method  of  burial 
by  inhumation  seems  always  and  everywhere  to  have  been 
the  earlier.  After  it  came  a  period  when,  as  now,  both 
inhumation  and  cremation  were  practised  at  the  same 
time,  the  difference  being  perhaps  due  to  racial,  perhaps 
to  religious,  distinctions.  But  cremation  never  seems  in 
any  place  to  have  had  the  universal  vogue  that  inhuma- 
tion had  before  the  introduction  of  the  later  method. 
According  to  Sergi,'-  the  former  was  the  primitive  method 
of  the  Mediterranean  race,  the  latter  the  introduction  of 
the  Aryans.  On  the  comparative  occurrence  of  the  two 
methods  many  statistics  are  available.  Thus  in  the 
Etruscan  tombs  inhumation  is  the  invariable  rule.  In 
Cyprus  cremation  is  unknown,  even  in  the  Bronze  Age. 
Inhumation  was  also  practised  in  Spain  during  the 
copper  and  bronze  periods,  and  it  was  the  recognised 
method  of  the  Guanches.  On  the  other  hand,  cremation 
was  practised  by  those  who  constructed  the  terramare 
of  Italy  and  the  well-tombs  of  Certosa,  Bologna,  and  else- 
where where  inhumation  is  almost  unknown.  In  the  Rhoe- 
tian  cemetery  of  Vadena  none  but  cremated  bodies  were 
found.  In  France  and  in  the  Swiss  lake  villages  during 
the   stone    period    inhumation    was    the    rule,   cremation 

^  Greenwell,  British  Barroivs  and  "  Recent  Researches  in  Barrows," 
Arcliceologia,  lii.  ;  Bateman,  Ten  Years'  Digging;  Jewitt,  "Grave  Mounds 
and  their  Contents "  ;  Thurnam,  papers  on  long  and  round  barrows  in 
Archceologia,  vol.  xlv.  ^  Mediterranean  Race,  pp.  266  and  286. 

K 


I30    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

coming  in  with  the  Bronze  Age.  In  the  cemeteries  of 
Glasinatz  and  Hallstadt,  belonging  to  the  early  Iron  Age, 
both  practices  are  met  with.  At  Hallstadt,  of  525  burials 
455  were  after  cremation.  In  Britain  both  methods  are 
met  with  during  the  Neolithic  and  bronze  periods,  the 
proportions  varying  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
Thus  Greenwell  says  :^  "In  Derbyshire  the  proportion 
is  slightly  in  favour  of  burnt  bodies  ;  in  Wiltshire  burnt 
bodies  are  as  three  to  one  unburnt ;  in  Dorsetshire  as 
four  to  one  ;  and  in  Cornwall  cremation  seems  to  have 
been  by  far  the  most  common  usage.  In  the  counties  of 
Denbigh,  Merioneth,  and  Caernarvon  cremation  seems  to 
have  been  almost  universal.  In  Northumberland  I  have 
disinterred  seventy-one  bodies,  and  of  these  forty-five 
were  after  cremation,  and  twenty-six  by  inhumation — the 
proportion  of  burnt  to  unburnt  bodies  being,  therefore, 
almost  two  to  one." 

Primary  and  Secondary  Interments. — As  to  the  mean- 
ingf  of  the  first  of  these  two  terms  there  can  be  no  manner 
of  doubt  ;  the  primary  interment  was  that  of  the  first 
person  or  persons  placed  in  the  tomb.  But  there  is  more 
ambiguity  as  to  the  use  of  the  latter  term.  Some  of  the 
tombs,  as  will  appear  shortly,  were  of  the  nature  of  family 
vaults,  and  were  intended  to  be  opened  from  time  to  time 
for  the  reception  of  fresh  inhabitants.  Such  later  inter- 
ments might  fairly  be  spoken  of  as  secondary.  But  there 
are  also  in  the  grave  mounds  other  burials  of  quite 
a  different  character.  Sometimes  a  Saxon  or  a  Roman 
interment  is  found  somewhere  in  the  superincumbent 
mass  of  earth,  though  the  original  mound,  and  the  burial 
or  burials  which  it  contains,  may  be  of  the  bronze  period. 
This  might  also  be  spoken  of  as  a  secondary  interment, 
and,  in  fact,  is  so  spoken  of.     It  might  perhaps  be  better, 

'  British  Barron's.     Note  on  p.  22. 


BARROWS    LONG   AND    ROUND  1^,1 

however,  to  confine  this  word  to  burials  of  the  Ivind  men- 
tioned above,  i.e.^  burials  of  the  same  class  but  of  later 
date,  and  to  speak  of  the  other  variety  as  alien  interments, 
i.e.^  interments  forming  no  part  of  the  scheme  of  the 
original  constructors  of  the  mound  and  of  a  different 
period. 

Varieties  of  Barrows. 

We  may  now  proceed  to  consider  the  various  kinds  of 
barrows  met  with  in  this  country,  and  it  will  much  simplify 
the  matter  if  we  compare  the  two  leading  varieties,  long 
and  round  barrows,  to  two  well-known  methods  of  inter- 
ment in  the  present  day,  the  family  vault  and  the  single 
grave.  The  simile  is  not  absolutely  unassailable,  but  is 
sufficiently  close,  for  the  long  barrow  was  a  family  or 
tribal  burying-place,  whilst  the  round  barrow  was,  at  least 
at  times,  heaped  up  over  the  remains  of  one  person  and 
not  intended  to  be  reopened  for  the  introduction  of  further 
burials.  In  relation  to  this  comparison  it  must  also  be 
remembered  that  our  modern  graves,  though  as  a  rule 
made  for  one  interment,  are  sometimes  used  for  two  or 
even  more.  The  long  barrow  is  the  earlier  form,  as  it 
is  the  larger,  and  must,  therefore,  be  first  considered. 
It  is  the  characteristic  place  of  burial  of  the  people  of  the 
later  stone  period,  and  the  first  form  of  artificial  burial- 
place  with  w^hich  we  are  acquainted.  But  it  must  be 
freely  admitted  that  so  far  we  know  nothing  of  the  burial 
customs  of  the  people  of  the  earlier  Stone  Age,  if,  indeed, 
they  had  any. 

Long  Barrows. — The  long  barrow,  whose  special  charac- 
teristics will  shortly  be  detailed,  was  of  two  kinds, 
chambered  and  unchambered,  and  the  former,  as  the 
more  interesting  of  the  two,  may  first  be  dealt  with.  If 
the  first  place  of  burial  as  well  as  the  first  place  of  habita- 


132    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

tion  was  a  cave,  it  would  not  be  surprising  if  man,  when 
he  emerged  from  his  gloomy,  natural  shelters,  made  his 
first  artificial  homes  and  his  first  tombs  on  the  model  with 
which  he  was  acquainted.  As  to  the  latter,  at  any  rate 
this  may  be  said,  that  the  chambered  tumulus,  perhaps  the 
earliest  sepulchral  monument  existent,  is  an  artificial  cave 
or  grotto,  composed  of  great  stones  arranged  so  as  to  form 
a  kind  of  cell.  Such  a  cell  may  have  been  embedded  in 
the  earth,  and  covered  up  with  no  intention  that  it  should 
ever  again  be  disturbed,  or  it  may  have  been  placed  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  and  covered  with  a  mound,  with 
the  same  intention.  A  cell  of  this  kind,  which  its  builders 
closed  up,  as  they  thought,  once  and  for  ever,  is  properly 
called  a  cist,  and  that  term  should  be  reserved  for  such 
forms  of  interment.  But  at  other  times  the  intention  was 
that  the  cell  should  be  opened  up  from  time  to  time  for  the 
introduction  of  further  burials,  and  to  this  class  belong 
the  true  chambered  long  barrows.  In  its  simplest  form  the 
cell  in  such  a  barrow  consists  of  three  or  more  great  stones 
reared  up  on  end,  and  surmounted  by  another  large  flat 
stone,  the  "  cap-stone,"  over  all  being  placed  a  mound  of 
earth.  This  cell  or  hut  might  be  closed  temporarily  or  per- 
manently after  the  remains  of  the  dead  had  been  introduced 
into  its  interior  by  a  further  slab  of  stone  forming  a  kind 
of  door.  Such  a  place  of  burial  would  form  a  unilocular 
tomb,  though  the  loculus  might  have  been  intended  for 
the  reception  of  more  than  one  body.  But  it  is  obvious 
that  by  making  a  kind  of  gallery  of  large  stones,  with 
transepts  or  chambers  opening  out  of  it,  a  multilocular 
burial-place,  capable  of  accommodating  a  greater  number 
of  burials,  perhaps  of  serving  as  mortuary  chapels  for  a 
number  of  families,  would  result.  An  example  of  this 
may  be  studied  in  the  plan  of  the  barrow  at  Uley,  in 
Gloucestershire  (Fig.  55"),  and  Stoney  Littleton,  Somerset 
(Fig.  55  ^).     At  Uley  there  were  four  chambers  opening 


BARROWS  LONG  AND  ROUND     133 

off  the  central  avenue,  the  termination  of  which  might  be 
described  as  a  fifth.  The  avenue  itself  is  entered  by  a  kind 
of  low  doorway  (see  Figs.  56  and  57),  closed  no  doubt 
originally  by  a  slab  of  stone  and  with  rough  walls,  curveci 
outwards  on  either  side  of  it.  There  may  have  been  only 
a  single  pair  of  transepts,  as  was  the  case  at  Weylands 
Smithy,  or  there  may  have  been  six,  in  three  pairs,  as  at 
Stoney  Littleton.  The  horned  cairns  of  Caithness  seem 
to  belong  to  the  class  of  barrow  now  under  consideration. 


H- 


FIG.   55.       PLANS    OF    LONG    BARROWS 
I.   Stoney  Littleton,  Somerset.     2.    Uley,  Gloucestershire.     3.    Littleton  Drew,  \\'ilts 


A  second  variety  of  chambered  barrow  is  that  in  which 
there  is  no  central  gallery,  but  the  chambers  are  all 
approached  separately  from  the  exterior  of  the  tumulus  as 
in  the  case,  for  example,  of  the  Rodmarton  tumulus.  In 
a  third  form,  perhaps  not  strictly  a  chambered  barrow 
in  the  restricted  sense  in  which  this  word  has  been  defined 
above,  the  tumulus  contains  a  series  of  cists,  perhaps 
never  intended  to  be  entered  when  once  closed,  but  if  to 
be  entered,  then  only  approachable  through  the  roof,  so 


134    UEMAIXS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

to  speak,  that  is,  by  removal  of  the  top  stone.  Four  cists 
of  this  kind  were  found  in  the  barrow  at  Littleton  Drew 
(Fig.  55^),  and  others  have  been  discovered  in  Wilts  and 
Gloucestershire.  A  somewhat  similar  arrangement  seems 
to  have  obtained  in  Arran,  where  the  cairns  have  recently 
been  most  carefully  examined  and  described  by  my  friend 
Dr.  Brvce.^ 


,r-^-^ 


FIG.   56.       ENTRANCE   TO    LONG    BAUKOW 
Uley,  Gloucestershire 


It  would  be  impossible  within  the  limits  of  space  to 
deal  with  the  cjuestion  of  interments  outside  this  country, 
but  attention  may  here  be  called  to  the  fact  that  the 
French  allees  coitvertes-  and  the  Hunnebedden  of  Holland-' 
closely  resemble  the  true  chambered  barrows  of  this  island. 
The  second  form  of  long  barrow,  the  unchambered  type, 
is,  according  to  Canon  Greenwell,  a  variety  due  to  the 

^  Proc.  Soc.  Antiqs.,  Scotland,  July,  1902,  and  June,  1903. 

-  For  a  description  of  a  typical  example,  see  L'Aiithropolnfrie,  \.  160. 

^  Franks,  Proc.  Soc.  Ant,  1S72,  p.  258,  and  L' Anlhropologie ,  ix.  i 


BARROWS    T.OXG   AND    ROUND 


135 


difference  in  local  circumstances  and  particularly  to  the 
supply  of  stone,  and  not  of  racial  or  chronological  signi- 
ficance. The  chambered  barrows  are  met  with  chiefly 
in  North  Wilts  and  Gloucestershire,  localities  where  large 
blocks   of   stone    of    a  ^ 

kind    suitable    for    the  ^.-    -     .17:'".  •":""  •• 

erection  of  such  sepul-  ■"•"^v."  :-  ''--'^-'''-'~~:5^^^^. 

chres  abound.  In  South 
Wilts,  in  Dorset,  in 
Yorkshire,  and  in 
Westmorland,  the  un-  '• 
chambered  variety  is 
found  in  districts  where  .**?'"■ 
stone  suitable  for  the 
construction  of  cham- 
bers is  less  easily  to  be 
met  with.  In  the  un- 
chambered  class  there 
are  sometimes  walls  in 
the  interior  of  the 
mound,  but  no  cham- 
bers or  recesses  as 
there  are  in  the  class 
first  considered.  The 
bones  or  ashes  are  em- 
bedded in  the  constitu- 
ents of  the  mound  itself 
and,  remarkable  to  say, 
have  sometimes  been 
burnt  m  situ.    In  order 

to  effect  this  the  bodies  or  bones  were  arranged  in  a 
line,  and  the  stones  around  them  were  built  into  a  kind 
of  flue,  so  that  a  draught  might  be  created.  For  this 
purpose  it  was  necessary  that  a  vent  should  be  constructed 
at  the  end  opposite  to  that  at  which  the  fire  was  lit,  and 


FIG.   57. 


ENTRANCE   TO   LONG    BARROW 
West  Kennett 


136    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

this  has  been  identified  in  at  least  one  case.  Perhaps  an 
example  of  each  class  may  be  briefly  described  before  the 
general  characteristics  of  long  barrows  are  summed  up. 
The  chambered  barrow  at  Uley  (see  Fig.  55)  consists  of 
a  mound  about  120  feet  in  length,  85  feet  in  its  maximum 
breadth,  and  about  10  feet  high.  It  was  originally  sur- 
rounded, like  other  long  barrows,  with  a  boundary  wall, 
and  its  entrance,  which  is  a  low  doorway,  2h  feet  in  height 
above  the  natural  surface  of  the  ground,  is  at  the  east 
end.  The  capstone  of  the  doorway  is  3  feet  in  length 
and  4I  inches  in  thickness.  The  gallery  in  the  interior 
runs  for  a  distance  of  22  feet  from  east  to  west.  It  is 
5  feet  high  and  4^  wide.  Its  sides  are  formed  of  large 
slabs  of  stone  set  edgeways,  the  spaces  between  being 
filled  with  smaller  stones.  The  roof  is  formed  of  large 
flat  slabs.  As  already  mentioned,  there  are  two  transepts 
on  either  side.  As  an  example  of  the  other  class,  the 
barrow  at  Scamridge  (Greenwell,  ccxxi.)  may  be  cited. 
The  mound  here  was  165  feet  in  length,  46  feet  in  breadth 
at  the  west  end,  and  54  at  the  east.  In  height  it  rose 
from  7  feet  at  the  west  to  9  feet  at  the  east  end.  It  con- 
tained a  wall  about  5  feet  from  the  exterior  on  the  north 
side,  which  may  have  run  the  entire  length  of  the  barrow, 
and  with  this  exception  and  another  to  be  mentioned  in 
a  moment  was  composed  of  oolitic  rubble,  clay,  and  earth. 
This  further  exception  was  along  the  central  line  of  the 
barrow,  where  the  mixture  of  stone  and  earth  above 
alluded  to  gave  way  to  a  line  of  oolitic  rubble,  amongst 
which  were  deposited  the  remains  of  fourteen  bodies,  the 
component  parts  being  scattered  about  in  a  confused 
manner.  This  disorder  w^as  not  due  to  secondary  dis- 
turbance of  the  barrow,  but  was  the  original  manner  in 
which  the  bones  were  laid  down.  At  the  eastern  end 
of  this  line  of  bones  there  were  evidences  that  a  fire  had 
been   lit  for  purposes  of  incineration.      It  had   been   in- 


BARROWS   LONG   AND    ROUND 


M 


tended  that  its  action  should  penetrate  along-  the  whole 
line,  hence  the  arrangement  of  the  bones  in  the  midst 
of  loose  rubble,  which  might  act  as  a  flue.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  there  was  a  regular  gradation  from  much  to  little 
burnt  bones.  At  the  east  the  bones  had  disappeared  and 
the  oolite  had  been  converted  into  lime,  w^hilst  at  the  west 
the  bones  were  untouched  by  fire.  This  condition  of 
affairs  has  been  observed  in  other  barrows  of  the  same 
class.  Canon  Greenwell  thinks  that  the  manner  of  carry- 
ing out  the  burning'  was  in  this  wise:^  "The  bodies 
sometimes  in  a  complete  state,  at  other  times  fragmentary 
and  the  bones  disjointed,  were  laid  at  or  above  the  level 
of  the  natural  surface  on  a  thick  layer  of  clay,  or,  as  in 
this  case  (i.e.  a  barrow  at  Westow,  E.R.,  Yorks),  on  a 
pavement  of  flagstones  ;  upon  them  were  placed,  as  here 
and  at  Rudstone,  turfs  or  earth,  and  upon  that  again 
stone  ;  there  do  not  appear,  in  all  cases,  to  have  been  any 
intervening  turfs,  the  stone  itself  lying  immediately  upon 
the  bones.  Wood  was  placed  amongst,  alongside,  and 
underneath  the  stone,  the  evident  remains  of  it,  in  the 
shape  of  charcoal,  being  found  abundantly  in  some  parts; 
and  in  others,  where  charcoal  is  w^anting,  it  is  probable 
that  the  intense  burning  had  consumed  the  wood  too 
perfectly  for  any  remains  beyond  a  white  ash  to  be  left. 
Over  and  upon  this  covering  deposit  of  stone  was  then 
thrown  up  the  ordinary  material  of  the  barrow\"  At 
some  point,  but  where  is  not  quite  clear,  the  wood  was 
fired  with  the  intention  that  all  the  bones  in  the  tumulus 
should  be  consumed,  or  at  least,  perhaps  it  should  be 
put,  purified  by  the  influence  of  the  flames. 

Where  cremation  has  not  taken  place,  the  bodies  are 
either  buried  in  a  contracted  position,  or  the  remains  of 
many  skeletons  may  be  mixed  more  or  less  promiscuously 
together.     In  the  Wilts  barrows  these  remains  are  gener- 

^  P-  495- 


138    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

ally  found  in  a  stratimi  of  black  carlh,  whose  blackness  is 
not  due  to  the  influence  of  fire,  below  the  great  mass  of 
earth,  flint,  etc.,  of  which  the  bulk  of  the  tumulus  is  com- 
posed. Partly  in  the  same  layer,  and  partly  above  it, 
have  been  found  the  remains  of  oxen  and  other  animals, 
perhaps  the  relics  of  the  funeral  feast.  In  the  floors  of 
these  barrows  and  scooped  out  in  the  surface-chalk,  have 
in  a  number  of  instances  been  discovered  pits  from  one 
to  two  feet  in  depth,  and  from  tw^o  to  three  feet  in  diameter. 
The  object  of  these  is  very  obscure,  since  they  have  never 
been  found  to  contain  human  bones,  but  we  may  conclude 
that  they  were  of  some  ceremonial  importance.  It  will 
have  already  been  noticed  that  the  bones  of  the  dead  are 
often  mixed  up  in  a  confused  manner,  and  it  may  be  added 
that  parts  of  skeletons  are  not  infrequently  missing.  This 
is  not  due  to  the  barrow  having  been  opened  and  the 
bones  disarranged  after  the  flesh  had  disappeared  from 
them.  It  is  a  condition  which  is  met  with  in  obviously 
undisturbed  mounds.  Hence  it  is  clear  that  the  bones 
were  deposited  as  we  find  them,  that  is,  that  the  flesh  had 
been  removed  from  them  before  they  were  laid  in  the 
grave.  On  this  fact  has  risen  a  suggestion  that  our  pre- 
decessors in  this  land  were,  like  many  other  savages, 
cannibals.  Whether  this  be  true  or  not,  it  is  an  un- 
necessary hypothesis,  for  the  state  of  aft'airs  can  be  quite 
w'ell  accounted  for  by  supposing  that  these  barrow's  w'ere 
ossuaries,  erected  from  time  to  time  over  a  number  of 
bodies  whose  bones  had  been  allowed  to  accumulate  until 
a  sufficient  number,  or  a  convenient  time,  seemed  to 
warrant  their  final  deposition.  To  the  points  already 
given  the  following  general  remarks  upon  long  barrows 
may  be  added.  Both  kinds  diff"er  from  the  round  variety 
in  several  ways,  w'hich  will  shortly  be  considered,  but  of 
which  one  must  here  be  mentioned,  namely,  that  they 
occur  in  isolated  positions  and  not  in  groups. 


BARROWS    LONG   AND    ROUND 


t^O 


As  their  name  signifies,  they  are  very  much  longer  than 
they  are  broad  ;  they  ahiiost  always  run  east  and  west,  and 
the  east  end,  which  is  that  where  the  interments  most 
commonly  are  found,  is  broader  and  higher  than  the 
west.  In  the  case  of  the  unchambered  barrows  there  is 
usually  a  ditch  on  either  side  of  the  mound,  but  not  con- 
tinued round  its  ends.  In  the  chambered  variety  this  is 
quite  frequently  absent,  and  in  its  place  is  to  be  found  a 
dwarf  wall,  sometimes  interspersed  with  small  ortholiths 
or  standing  stones  (see  Fig.  58).  Moreover  the  interior  of 
the  chambered  barrow  may  have  dry  walls  intersecting  it 
apart  from  those  which   form   the  cells  for  the  reception 


FIG.    5S. 
RESTORATION   OF    LONG    BARROW   AT   WEST   KENNETT   WITH    PERISTALITH 


of  the  bodies  (see  Fig.  55'').  And  in  some  case^(e.g.  the 
Tinglestone,  near  Avening,  Glos.)  a  monolith  or  menhir 
has  been  found  on,  or,  as  at  Ablington,  Glos.,  in  the 
barrow  itself.  The  skulls  of  the  primary  interments  in 
these  barrows  are  always  dolichocephalic  (see  p.  304)  or  of 
the  long  variety.  The  accompanying  gifts  are  few,  and 
consist  of  flint  implements  and  rough  pottery.  No  trace 
of  bronze  has  been  found  in  any  of  them.  In  France  and 
Scandinavia  barrows  of  the  same  class  have  been  found 
to  contain  objects  of  gold,  and  stone  implements  in 
abundance,  thus  forming  a  contrast  to  their  English 
brethren.  Alien  interments,  Anglo-Saxon,  Roman  and 
pre-Roman,  have  been  found  in  the  superincumbent 
masses  of  earth  covering  in  the   primary  burials  of  the 


140    RKMAIXS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

lonf;-  barrow.  There  has  been  much  controversy  as  to  the 
orio-in  of  the  chambered  barrow.  Was  it  derived  from 
the  primitive  house,  or  did  the  beehive  house  grow  out 
of  the  tomb?  It  is  certainly  suggestive  to  find  that  the 
Lapps  of  the  extreme  north  of  Scandinavia  use  a  mound- 
hut  closely  resembling  a  tumulus.  "  Here,"  says  Mr. 
A.  Evans,  "are  the  ring-stones  actually  employed  in 
propping  up  the  turf-covered  mound  of  the  dwelling,  and 
there  is  the  low  entrance-gallery  leading  to  the  chamber 
within,  which,  in  fact,  is  the  living  representative,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  remote  progenitor,  of  the  gallery  of  the 
chambered  barrow." 

Round  Barrows.  —  Barrows  with  a  more  or  less  circular 
base-plan,  which  occur,  as  a  rule,  in  groups,  are  very  much 
more  numerous  and  widely  distributed  than  the  long 
variety.  Even  in  Wilts,  where  there  are,  or  have  been, 
sixty  long  barrows,  these,  according  to  Thurnam,  are 
only  as  one  to  thirty-five  as  compared  with  the  round 
barrows,  which  amount  to  nearly  2,000  in  number. 

Though  all  more  or  less  circular,  a  number  of  varieties 
have  been  described  and  arranged  into  the  following 
classes  by  Thurnam  : — ^ 

Round  Barrows  {Bronae  Period). 

i  a.  Simple  bowl-barrows. 

1.  Bowl-shaped  barrows  -^  h.  Trenched  bowl-barrows. 

(  c.  Composite  bowl  or  oval  barrows. 
j  a.  Simple  bell. 

2.  Bell-shaped    barrows  <  h.  Twin. 

{  c.  Triple. 

a.  Simple — with  flat  area. 

b.  With   one,    two,   or  three  small 
central  tumuli. 

With    one    low     mound     nearly 
covering"  the  area. 

ArcJiceoldgin,  xlii.  i6S. 


Disc-shaped  barrows 


BARROWS    LONG   AND    ROUND 


141 


The  bell  variety  is  distinguished  from  the  bowl  by 
having  a  ditch  around  it,  and  the  disc  from  both  by  its 
resemblance  to  a  circular  shallow  dish  inverted.  The 
*' Druid"  barrow,  of  Stukeley,  belongs  to  this  category, 
and  consists  of  one  or  more  very  small  mounds  with  a 
circular  bank  surrounding  them  at  some  distance.  The 
following  general  account  relates  to  all  these  classes,  for 
we  have  no  evidence  as  to  any  reason  for  the  varieties  of 
shape,  nor  does  it  appear  that  they  are  of  racial  or  chrono- 
logical value. 

Structure  of  the  Barrow.— Commonly  the  primary  inter- 
ment was  made  in  a  grave  excavated  in  the  ground,  over 
which  was  heaped  up  a  mound  of  earth  gathered  from  the 


FIG.  59.       SECTION    OF   BARROW   WITH    SUCCESSIVE    INTERMENTS 


immediate  neighbourhood.  Here  the  interments  might 
end,  but  it  was  not  uncommon  for  others  to  be  added,  so 
that  several  layers  or  strata  may  be  met  with,  some  or  all 
of  them  containing  later  burials.  Fig.  59  gives  a  section 
of  a  tumulus  examined  by  Warne  and  described  in  his 
Celtic  Antiquities  of  Dorset.  It  is  one  of  a  group  of  six 
on  Lord's  Down,  in  the  parish  of  Dewlish.  It  was  eighty- 
two  feet  in  diameter  and  fourteen  feet  in  height.  Here 
a  cavity  (/)  had  been  cut  in  the  chalk,  to  contain  the 
primary  interment  in  an  urn.  The  cist  was  packed  with 
flints  and  chalk- rubble,  the  latter  extending  for  some 
distance  beyond  its  limits.  On  the  chalk  rubble  was 
a  layer  of  earth  (^),  and  above  this  a  second  layer  of  chalk- 


142    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

rubble  {d)  containing  an  interment.  After  the  mound  had 
reached  this  point  a  further  cist  was  cut  in  it,  in  which  an 
interment  took  place,  a  fresh  layer  of  earth  (c)  being  then 
added.  Above  this  again  was  a  further  layer  of  chalk- 
rubble  {b)  and  a  final  layer  of  earth  («),  and  in  both  of 
these  strata  were  interments.  Thus  there  were  three 
layers  of  chalk-rubble,  and  the  same  number  of  earth, 
alternating  with  one  another,  and  each  of  them  containing 
an  interment.  Around  the  barrow  was  sometimes  a  ditch, 
sometimes  a  ring  of  standing  stones.  This  was  possibly 
a  "ghost-hedge,"  and  like  the  rings  of  stone  and  trenches 
sometimes  found  inside  the  fabric  of  the  barrow,  is  always 
interrupted  at  one  or  more  points.  In  the  floors  of  the 
wold  barrows  are  sometimes  found  the  same  strange  pits 
already  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  unchambered 
long  barrows  of  the  south-western  part  of  the  island. 
These  pits  are  generally  filled  up  with  the  ordinary  con- 
stituents of  the  mound  itself,  but  they  may  contain  frag- 
ments of  animal,  or,  but  rarely,  human  bone,  charcoal, 
potsherds,  or  burnt  earth  and  stones.  They  are  not 
usually  in  close  contact  with  the  bodies,  and  no  satisfactory 
explanation  of  their  purpose  is  as  yet  forthcoming.  The 
remains  of  animal  bones  are  found  in  numbers  in  the 
substance  of  many  barrows,  and  may  represent  the  relics 
of  the  funeral  feast.  Amongst  the  bones  thus  discovered 
have  been  those  of  the  red-deer,  goat,  sheep,  horse,  pig, 
and  different  kinds  of  oxen.  Bones  of  water-voles  are 
very  common  in  Derbyshire  barrows  and  are  found  else- 
where, but  these  are  the  remains  of  animals  which  have 
burrowed  into  the  mounds  and  made  their  hybernacula 
there.  The  human  bones  have  often  been  found  o-nawed 
by  these  animals,  and  the  remains  of  one  of  them  was 
found  inside  a  human  skull  in  a  barrow.  Perhaps  the 
bones  of  the  badger  and  the  fox  may  have  at  times  been 
introduced  in  the  same  manner.     They  are  found,  and  so 


BARROWS  LONG  AND  ROUND     143 

are  those  of  the  (probably  wild)  cat,  hare,  pigeon,  and 
polecat.  The  dog  has  been  found  buried  with  his  dead 
master,  not  merely  in  British  mounds,  but  in  various 
parts  of  the  world. 

A  remarkable  feature  of  the  round  barrows  is  the  finding 
of  fragments  of  flint  and  of  pottery  strewn,  evidently  of 
set  purpose,  throughout  the  earth  of  which  they  are 
composed.  It  is  impossible  to  doubt  that  some  ceremonial 
significance  attached  to  this  deposition  of  shards,  and 
perhaps  the  recollection  of  the  pagan  ceremony  lingered 
in  the  custom  alluded  to  in  Hamlet  of  placing  such  objects 
in  the  graves  of  suicides,  for  the  sacred  observance  of  one 
religion  may  be  transmuted  in  another  into  a  ceremony 
of  disgrace. 

Disposition  of  the  Bodies. — The  round  barrows  contain 
bodies  which  have  been  cremated  and  others  which  have 
been  inhumed,  nor  is  there  any  evidence  to  show  that  one 
or  other  method  was  the  earlier.  Indeed,  there  is  abundant 
reason  to  believe  that  both  methods  were  practised  at  the 
same  time,  and  Canon  Greenwell  even  cites  one  case 
in  which  a  burial  after  cremation  and  a  burial  by  inhuma- 
tion seem  to  have  taken  place  simultaneously  in  the  same 
mound.  We  may  gather,  then,  that  the  condition  of  afl'airs 
was  much  as  it  is  now,  when  the  method  of  interment 
is  determined  by  the  wish  of  the  relations,  or  by  the  direc- 
tions of  the  dead  person. 

When  the  body  was  unburnt  it  was  generally  laid  in 
the  grave  in  a  contracted,  very  rarely  in  an  extended, 
position.  There  is  sufficient  evidence  to  show  that  the 
body  was  sometimes  interred  in  its  clothes,  whether  of 
skin,  or  of  wool,  or  of  coarse  cloth.  Where  the  body  was 
burnt  the  ashes  may  have  been  laid  upon  the  ground,  or 
placed  in  a  cinerary  urn — the  common  method  of  disposal, 
or  under  an  inverted  urn.     The  primary  interment  may 


744     REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

have  been  single  or  multiple.  Fig.  60  shows  the  skeletons 
of  a  mother  and  child  surrounded  by  a  number  of  fossil 
echini.  In  a  barrow  at  Goodmanham  (Greenwell,  Ixxxv.) 
the  calcined  bones  of  two  infants,  who  may  be  presumed 
to  have  died  at  about  the  same  time,  are  the  sole  occupants 
of  a  barrow,  Greenwell,  Bateman,  Hoare,  and  Warne, 
all  record  cases  in  which  husband  and  wife  have  been 
buried  together.^  A  man,  a  woman,  and  two  children, 
presumably  a  family,  have  been  found  simultaneously 
interred.-  Greenwell  is  inclined  to  believe  that  many  of 
the  cases  of  multiple  interment,  simultaneous  in  character, 
are  cases  where  wives,  children,  servants,  or  all  of  these, 
have  been  immolated  with  the  chief,  or  head  of  the  family, 
a  custom  so  common  that  it  would  be  almost  surprising 
if  no  evidence  of  it  were  met  with  in  the  past  history  of 
this  country. 

Burnt  or  unburnt,  the  body,  or  what  remained  of  it,  was 
sometimes  deposited  in  the  barrow  without  any  protec- 
tion from  the  earth  which  was  to  be  heaped  upon  it.  In 
other  cases  some  form  of  protection  was  afforded,  an  urn 
being  generally  provided  in  cases  of  incineration.  Some- 
times the  head  alone  was  shielded,  either  by  two  pieces 
of  stone  placed  in  a  /^-shaped  manner  over  it,  or  by 
being  embedded  in  gravel  before  the  rough  stones  of  the 
tumulus  were  heaped  up  over  the  body.  Sometimes  a 
cist  was  excavated  for  the  body,  and  this  cist  may  have 
been  lined  with  stones  or  with  wood,  and  roofed.  A 
hollowed  trunk  of  a  tree  sometimes  has  been  used  as  a 

1  "  Two  skeletons  lay  side  by  side,  evidently  those  of  a  man  and  a 
woman — the  bodies  touched  each  other — the  head  of  each  leaned  towards 
the  other,  so  that  the  foreheads  touched  so  intimately  that  the  blade  of 
a  knife  could  not  be  pressed  between  them.  The  right  arm  of  the  man  lay 
across  his  breast,  that  of  the  woman  by  her  right  side,  over  which  his  left 
arm  was  crossed,  apparently  to  clasp  the  left  hand  of  the  woman,  whose 
arm  was  bent  in  that  direction  across  the  body." — Warne,  Celtic  Tumult  of 
Dorset.  ^  Bateman^  Ten  Years'  Digging,  78. 


FIG.    60.        SKELETONS  OF   WOMAN   AND  CHILD,    ROUND   BARROW 

Dunstable  Downs 

(By  kind  perDiission  oj  W.  G.  Siiiiih) 


BARROWS    LONG   AND    ROUND  147 

coffin,  or  a  similar  receptacle  has  been  formed  from 
boards.  In  one  case  given  by  Greenwell  the  remains  lay 
on  a  wooden  platform,  in  a  cavity  formed  in  the  clay  and 
itself  lined  with  planks,  the  idea  apparently  being  to  keep 
the  body  from  the  wet.  A  chamber  of  the  beehive  type 
has  also  been  found  in  the  centre  of  a  barrow  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  body.  In  certain  cases  no  trace  of  human 
remains  has  been  found  in  a  barrow,  though  implements 
and  perhaps  pottery  may  have  been  brought  to  light.  By 
some  writers  such  mounds  have  been  looked  upon  as 
cenotaphs,  but  as  Greenwell  rightly  points  out,  the  idea 
which  gives  rise  to  the  erection  of  a  cenotaph  is  one  which 
belongs  to  an  age  more  artificial  than  we  can  suppose  that 
to  have  been  which  saw  the  construction  of  the  round 
barrows.  What  is  far  more  likely  is  that,  owing  to  some 
peculiarity  of  the  soil,  the  entire  of  the  human  remains 
have  become  decomposed,  only  the  imperishable  stone 
implements  entombed  with  the  body  remaining.  Alien 
interments  may  be  met  with  in  the  case  of  round  barrows 
as  in  that  of  their  long  predecessors. 

Accompanying  Gifts. — The  objects  buried  with  the  dead 
in  the  long  barrows  were,  as  we  saw,  very  few  in  number  ; 
in  the  round  variety  the  condition  is  just  the  reverse. 
Implements  of  stone  and  bronze,  the  latter  of  early  types, 
pottery,  ornaments  of  gold,  amber,  and  jet,  with  other 
objects,  are  found  with  the  skeletons  or  ashes  of  the  dead. 
The  pottery  will  be  dealt  with  separately  in  its  own  place, 
and  no  special  description  of  the  other  objects  need  be 
given,  since  many  of  them  have  already  been  touched 
upon  in  previous  chapters.  A  few  further  points  may  be 
mentioned  here.  Gold  has  not  been  found  in  any  great 
abundance  in  English  barrows.  Hoare  cites  instances 
from  six  barrows  in  Wilts,  and  perhaps  this  is  the  largest 
number   which   could    be   claimed   by  any  county.     The 


148    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

whole  number  of  finds  is  but  small,  and  the  character  of 
the  articles  found  is  not  imposing.  Evidently  there  was 
no  great  introduction  of  this  metal  into  the  country  during 
the  period  of  the  construction  of  the  round  barrows. 
Amber,  jet  and  glass  beads,  and  ornaments,  have  been 
found,  but  not  with  any  great  frequency.  The  necklace 
drawn  in  Fig.  54  is  an  example  of  work  in  the  second 
of  these  materials.  Pottery,  implements  of  stone  and  of 
bronze,  form  the  most  numerous  classes,  and  the  dis- 
coveries in  these  directions  have  afforded  most  valuable 
information  to  the  students  of  prehistoric  archaeology. 
Raddle,  a  substance  of  which  there  is  no  doubt  that 
primitive  man  was  very  fond,  has  been  found,  as  in  a 
barrow  opened  by  Bateman,^  where  there  was  discovered 
a  flat  piece  of  sandstone  rubbed  hollow  on  one  side,  and 
a  round  piece  of  raddle  or  red  war-paint,  which,  from  its 
abraded  surface,  must  have  been  in  much  request,  pro- 
bably for  colouring  the  skin  of  its  former  owner.  Where 
this  substance  has  been  found  in  tumuli  it  seems  to  have 
been  always  associated  with  well-made  flint  implements. 

Flint  and  steel  for  the  making  of  fire  have  also  been 
found  in  tumuli,  the  latter  being  represented  by  a  nodule 
of  pyrites,  and  both  it  and  its  fellow  flint  showing  signs 
of  use.  Similar  objects  have  been  found  in  Saxon  graves 
on  the  Continent."^  They  have  also  been  buried  with  the 
dead  by  Lapps. 

Pottery. — The  important  subject  of  pottery  can  only  be 
touched  upon  here,  but  some  mention  must  be  made  of 
the  characteristic  features  of  this  work  and  the  varieties 
of  vessels  met  with  in  the  barrows  of  the  Neolithic  and 
bronze  periods.  So  far  no  definite  evidence  is  forth- 
coming  that   pottery  was    made  during  the    Palceolithic 

^   Ten  Years'  Digging,  i68. 

*  De  Baye,  The  Industrial  Arts  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  p.  96. 


BARROWS    LONG   AND    ROUND  149 

period,  in  fact,  Mortillet  lays  down  the  law  that  in  France 
and  in  England  there  are  no  remains  of  pottery  belonging 
to  that  time,  if  indeed  pottery  was  then  manufactured. 
During  the  bronze  and  Neolithic  periods,  however,  plenty 
was  made,  and  there  is  no  great  difference  between  that 
belonging  to  the  earlier  and  later  dates.  In  the  bronze 
period  the  articles  were  for  the  most  part  smaller,  with 
thinner  walls  and  finer  paste.  The  ornamentation,  though 
on  the  same  scheme  and  consisting  of  geometric  figures, 
was  lighter,  and  the  patterns  were  more  artistic.  There 
are  more  cups,  dishes,  and  plates,  but  the  differences  are 
of  a  minor  character,  and,  with  the  note  just  given,  the 
same  description  will  suffice  for  the  work  of  both  periods. 

The  pottery  was  always  made  by  hand,  that  is  to  say, 
without  a  wheel,  that  useful  invention  having  come  in 
with  the  late  Celtic  period.  It  was  burnt,  but  in  an  open 
fire  and  not  in  a  kiln.  In  most  examples,  and  in  all  those 
of  any  considerable  size,  small  stones  have  been  mixed 
with  the  clay  of  which  the  vessel  was  compounded.  It 
was  never  glazed  with  a  true  glaze,  though  many  drink- 
ing cups  have  a  kind  of  polish  upon  them.  It  is  clear 
that  this  was  intentionally  produced,  and  the  method 
adopted  was  probably  that  of  rubbing  the  vessel,  when 
the  clay  of  which  it  was  composed  had  partly  dried,  with 
a  piece  of  hard  stone  or  perhaps  with  a  bone  implement. 
There  are  never  any  signs  that  colour  was  applied  as  a 
decoration. 

It  was  almost  always  ornamented,  and  the  patterns  on 
it  were  of  a  geometrical,  never  of  a  biomorphic,  character. 
Moreover,  the  patterns  were  almost  always  sunk  into  the 
clay,  the  use  of  raised  bands  being  rare.  A  common 
method  of  effecting  the  ornamentation  was  to  impress  a 
twisted  thong  upon  the  moist  clay  either  in  continuous 
bands  as  in  Fig.  61,  or  in  shorter  lengths  as  in  Fig.  63, 
where   a   kind   of  herring-bone    pattern    has    been    thus 


I50    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

produced.  In  other  cases  ornamentation  has  been  produced 
by  impression  of  the  point  of  the  finger  or  by  making 
geometrical  figures  in  lines  or  rows  of  dots  with  the  point 
of  some  sharp  instrument.  Sometimes,  though  rarely, 
the  vessels  are  provided  with  feet ;  covers  also  are  very 
rare.  Ears  or  lugs  sometimes  occur,  and  these  may  be 
either  pierced  or  unpierced  ;  the  latter,  according  to 
Greenwell,  belonging  to  a  later  date.  There  may  be  four 
pierced  or  four  unpierced  ears  ;  in  the  vessel  represented 
in  Fig.  62  there  are  eleven  vertical  piercings,  opening 
both  above  and  below,  within  the  cavity.  A  cup  with  a 
single  handle,  capable  of  admitting  one  finger  only,  has 
been  discovered  in  a  barrow. 

The  quality  of  the  pottery  varies  a  good  deal,  and  wide 
differences  may  be  observed  between  the  examples  in  the 
same  interment.  "It  is  no  uncommon  occurrence,"  says 
Greenwell,  "to  find  in  the  same  barrow,  and  under  cir- 
cumstances which  show  that  the  several  vessels  are  the 
product  of  the  same  period,  some  which  evidence  con- 
siderable skill,  whilst  others  might  have  been  made  by 
the  veriest  tyro  in  the  trade." 

Four  classes  of  vessels  have  been  met  with  in  connection 
with  interments.  With  the  exception  of  the  cinerary  urns, 
as  to  the  purpose  of  which  there  can  be  no  doubt,  since 
the  burnt  remains  of  the  dead  are  found  in  them,  the 
names  which  have  been  given  to  these  objects  are  of  a 
more  or  less  fanciful  character.  Still,  as  they  serve  a 
purpose  in  dividing  the  specimens  into  definite  classes, 
they  may  continue  to  be  used  until  some  better  nomen- 
clature is  accepted. 

(i.)  The  most  common  objects  are  those  known  as  Food 
Vessels,  which  have  been  found  in  association  with  both 
burnt  and  unburnt  bodies.  They  are  from  three  to  eight 
inches  in  height,  and  vary  considerably  in  shape.  Com- 
monly they  are  more  or  less  conical  below,  with  a  parallel- 


BARROWS   LONG   AND    ROUND 


151 


sided  upper  portion  or  even  a  contracted  mouth.  Knobs 
or  ears  are  often  found  around  the  shoulder  of  the  vase, 
and  they  have  been  ornamented  freely  in  the  manner 
already  described. 

(ii.)  Drinking  Cups  are  met  with  in  considerable  num- 
bers, but  not  so  commonly  as  the  first-named  variety. 
Commonly  they  fall  into  one  or  other  of  two  classes, 
though  exceptional  forms  are  met  with.  The  first  type 
narrows  from  the  mouth  to  a  point  generally  somewhat 
above  the  middle.  From  this  the  vessel  swells  out,  again 
to  taper  at  the  base.  The  second  type,  the  lines  of  which 
are  less  flowing  and  graceful,  is  rounder  at  its  lower  por- 
tion than  the  first,  and  from  the  upper  part  of  this  segment 
the  sides  expand,  without  any  curvature  until  they  reach 
the  mouth. 


FIG.  61.      CINERARY   URN   (PLAIN    PATTERN) 
Durrington  (height,  13J  inches) 


FIG.  62.      CINERARY   URN 
Woodyates  (height,  18J  inches) 


(iii.)  Cinerary  Urns^  (Figs.  6i  and  62)  are  the  largest 
examples   of  pottery  met,    ranging    in   height   from  five 

1  A  paper  by  Dr.  Colley  March  on  Types  of  Sepulchral   Urns,   Trans. 
Lane.  Ches.  Antiq.  Soc,  1887,  should  be  consulted  on  this  subject. 


152  REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 


inches  to  three  feet.  The  breadth  at  the  widest  portion 
is  generally  equal  to  the  height.  In  shape  they  generally 
form  two  truncated  cones,  the  larger  forming  the  basal 
portion,  the  smaller  the  upper.  Where  the  cones  meet 
the  upper  forms  an  overhanging  ring,  a  very  characteristic 
feature  of  all  shapes  of  cinerary  urns.  The  ornamentation 
is  often  confined  to  the  upper  cone,  but  may  extend  below 
it.  A  less  common  form  of  urn,  met  with  in  Dorsetshire, 
is  almost  tub-shaped.  Fig.  62  represents  a  large  urn  i8i 
inches  in  height  and  15^  inches  in  diameter  at  the  top.  It 
was  found  in  a  barrow  at  Woodyates,  and  has  the  over- 
hanging rim.  The  upper  part  is  ornamented  with  rows  of 
diagonal,    impressed-cord   lines   enclosed   within  vertical 

lines  of  the  same,  so  as 
to  form  a  herring-bone 
pattern.  Round  the 
shoulder  is  a  line  of 
thumbnail-shaped  cord 
impressions.  It  is  in 
the  Devizes  Museum. 

(iv.)  Incense  Cups  are 
always  found  with  burnt 
bones,    and    may    per- 
haps have  been  cinerary 
urns   for   the   remains  of 
infants.     They   often  ex- 
hibit the  feature,   rare  in 
other  kinds  of  pottery,  of 
perforations.      They    are 
generally    of    finer    clay 
than  the  other  varieties, 
and  of  small  size.    Some- 
times they  have  a  kind  of 
grape  pattern  upon  them 
,       ,,  „  'Fig.  64).     Fig.  6-;  is  an 

FIG.  64.       "incense   '  CUP,  GRATE  PATTERN      .  . 

Normanton,  Wilts  (height  23  inches).  IttCenSe      CUp      of      thlck 


FIG.  63.       PART   OF    "incense"   CUP. 
Winterbourne  Stoke  (height  ij  inches) 


BARROWS  LONG  AND  ROUND     153 

coarse  clay  with  two  perforations,  and  marked  with  cord 
ornamentation. 

It  appears  that  all  the  varieties  described  above  were 
made  for  sepulchral  purposes,  for  the  ordinary  domestic 
pottery,  as  far  as  w^e  know  it,  was  dark-coloured,  hard- 
baked,  and  perfectly  plain  and  without  ornament. 

LIST   OF    BARROWS    IN    ENGLAND. 

(With  regard  to  this  list,  it  has  not  always  been  found  possible 
to  determine  from  the  Ordnance  Map  whether  a  given  mound 
is  a  long  or  a  round  barrow.  All  those  stated  to  be  long  may 
be  taken  to  belong  to  that  class.  The  remainder  are  almost 
entirely  round  barrows,  but  it  is  possible  that  amongst  them 
may  also  be  included  some  examples  of  the  other  class.  More- 
over, since  the  nature  of  a  mound  can  only  be  told  by  excavation, 
since  Romans  and  Saxons  threw  up  barrows  very  like  to  those 
of  the  bronze  and  Early  Iron  period,  and  since  rubbish  heaps, 
natural  hillocks,  and  foundations  of  windmills  have  sometimes 
been  taken  for  barrows,  it  cannot  be  guaranteed  that  all  the 
objects  contained  in  this  list  are  sepulchral  in  their  nature  ;  but 
this  at  least  may  be  said,  that  all  of  them  have  been  claimed 
as  barrows,  and  many,  if  not  most,  of  them  have  been  proved 
to  be  such.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  include  in  the  list 
all  the  round  barrows  of  the  country,  but  it  is  hoped  that 
the  facts  given  may  afford  some  idea  of  the  distribution  of 
sepulchral  mounds  of  the  pre-Roman  period  throughout  England. 
Some  references,  here  as  elsewhere,  have  been  given  to  the 
literature  of  the  subject.  The  reader  is  asked  also  to  refer  to 
the  general  statement  as  to  these  lists  made  in  the  Preface.) 

Bedfordshire — 

Leighton  Buzzard. 

Wing,  near  Leighton  Buzzard. 

Berkshire — 

Bearwood.      In  a  wood  near  Wokingham. 
Blewbury,  li  S.  of.     Seven  barrows.     2  S.  of,  is  another 
near  a  square  camp. 


154    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Berkshire  {contd.) — 

*Brimpton,  several  large  circular  barrows.^ 
Chlldrey.i 

King-ston.      Lisle  Park,  N.  of. 
*Lambourn,^  \\  E.   of.     Two.      \\  S.W.  of.     One.      (In 
one  a  half  nodule  of  pyrites  found.) 
Letcomb  Bassett.^ 
Newbury,  i^  S.W.  of.      Four. 

Upper  Lambourn,   \\  N.E.   of.      Twenty.      Contents  in 
British  Museum. 

Buckinghamshire— 

"Adwell  Cop.,"  %  S.E.  of  Adwell. 

Great  Kimble,  near  the  church  (Ro.-Brit.  pottery,  Proc. 

Soc.  Atif.,  xii.  340). 
Horsenden,  i^  S.E.  of.     Two. 
Icknield  Street,  along"  the  line  of.      The  most  important 

group  is  at  Eddlesborough. 
"  Thornborough  Mounds,"  2  E.  of  Buckingham.     Two. 
West  Wycombe,  2\  N.W.  of.     Two. 
*White  Leaf  Hill,  near. 

Cambridgeshire — 

"Chronicle   Hills,"  f  N.E.    of  Thriplow.      Three  large 

barrows  {Gent.  Mag-.  Lib.  Arch.,  i.  88). 
"  Copley  Hill,"  f  E.  of  the  Gogmagog  Hills. 
Five  Hill  Field,  near  Royston  {Archceol.,  xxxii.  357). 
"  Moulton  Hills,"  near  Bourn. 
Muttilow  Hill  (burnt  bones,  Jewitt,  35). 
Newmarket  (Bronze). 
"  Wormwood  Hill,"  \  S.  of  Vandlebury. 

Cheshire — 

Alderley  Park.     Two. 

Codlington. 

Cotebrook,  i  N.  of. 

Goostrey,  i  E.  of.     Three. 

Eddesbury  Hill,  near.     "  Glead  Hill  Cob,"  "  Castle  Cob," 

and  "  The  Seven  Lows." 
Withington  Hall,  i^W.  of.     Three. 

■^  ArchcBoIogin ,  lii.   i. 


BARROWS    LONG   AND    ROUND  155 

Cornwall — 

Angrowse  Mullion.      (Bronze  dagg-er,  urn,  and  piece  of 

pyrites.) 
Ballowal,  St.  Just.      Karn  Gluze. 
Boscregan.      Karn    Leskys    and    Karn    Creis.      (Pottery 

and  burnt  bones,  Borlase.) 
Bossiney. 

Braddock  Down,  near  Bodmin  Road  Station. 
Castle  Down,  near  St.  Columb  Major. 
Harlyn  Bay.     Late  Celtic  interments  in  cists. 
Pennance,  near  St.  Ives. 
Resparvel  Down. 

Rillaton.      (Contained  a  g-old  cup.) 
Samson  Island  (Scilly).      (Opened  1862.) 
Tregaseale,  St.  Just. 
Treloe  Down. 
Trevalgue.      (Perforated   axe-hammer.       ArchcroL,   xliv. 

423-) 
(For   further   notices   of  Cornish  barrows,   see   Borlase, 
Archceologid,  xlix.  181,  and  Ncenia  Cornubise.) 

Cumberland — 

L07lg. 

*Peelohill,  near  Bewcastle.      "Cairn  o'  the  Mount." 
Roinid. 

Arthuret  (perhaps  eskers). 

Aspatria,  Beacon  Hill. 
*Aughertree  Fell. 

Barnscar.      Many  cairns  (unexamined). 

Bewcastle,  "  Murchie's  Cairn." 

Binsey,  summit  of. 

Blencarn. 

Blindcrake,  between  this  place  and  Redmain,  "The  Grey 
Barrow  "  at  Isell. 

Boothby. 
*Broadfield,  Inglewood  Forest,  near  Highhead  Castle. 

Castle    Carrock,     near    Brampton.      {British    Barrows^ 

379- )_ 
Dunmail  Raise. 


156    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Cl'MKKRLAXD    (coilfd. )  — 

Eamont. 

Egremont  Common. 

Fishers  Cross. 

Friars  Moor. 

Geltsdale,  Coldfell. 

Gillalees  Beacon. 

Graysonlands,  Glassonby.     (Bronze   Ag-e    interments    in 

tumulus  with  circle.     British  Barrozvs,  7.     Proc.  Soc. 

Anf.,  ii.  xviii.  321.) 
Hallbank  Gate. 
Harras. 

Hartside,  Benty  Hill.      "  Old  Anthony's  Chair." 
Keswick,  Latrig-. 

Kirkoswald,  Parks  Tumulus.      (Bronze.) 
Kirksanton,  near  Millom. 
Knock's  Cross,  Port  Carlisle. 
*Newton  Regny. 

Derbyshire — 

Bakewell,  i  E.  of.     On  Calton  Pastures.      Five  tumuli. 

Blake  Low.     Longstone  Edge. 

Brassington,  near.      "  Minning  Low."     (Jewitt,  p.  54.) 

Brushfield  Hough,  in  Monsal  Dale. 

Bunkers  Hill,  near  Arbor  Low. 

Elton  Moor.     (Pyrites.) 

Eyam  Moor.      Six  tumuli. 

Flax  Dale.      (Internal  circles  of  stones  surrounding  urn 

with  burnt  bones.) 
Grinlow,  near  Buxton.      {Proc.  Soc.  A///.,  ii.  xv.  419.) 
Gunton,  near  Buxton,      (id.  ib.) 

Hartington,  near,      "  Garden  Low."     (Bronze  dagger.) 
Hitter  Hill.      (Jewitt,  16.) 
Hollinsclough,  if  N.E.  of. 
Kenslow. 

Melbourne,  near.      "  Knowle  Hills." 
Middleton-by-Youlgrave.       "  Borther     Low."      (Bronze 

celt.) 
Parcelly  Hay,  near  Arbor  Low. 


BARROWS  LONG  AND  ROUND     157 

Derbyshire  {contd.) — 

Parvvich  Moor.     (Bronze  dagger  and  celt.) 

Pilsbury,  near  Hartington.      "Castle  Hill  Barrows,"  and 

"  Wolf's  Cote  Barrows." 
Stanton  Moor.     (Covered  vase,  Arc/icroL,  viii.  62.) 
Stoney  Middleton,  i^  S.  of.     Three  tumuli. 
Stoop  High  Edge,  3^-  S.S.E.  of  Buxton.    {Proc.  Soc.  A/iL, 

ii.  xvi.  261.) 
Thirkellow  Frith,   3   S.S.W.    of  do.     {/d.,   xv.    419,  and 

xvi.  261.) 
Tissington.      (Jet  ring.     Jewitt,  176.) 
(For  full   list  of  lows  in  Derbyshire,  see   Bateman,   Te7i 

Years'  Digging.     Jewitt,    Grave  Mounds,  may  also  be 

consulted.) 

Devonshire — 

(For  full  lists  in  this  county  see  the  Reports  of  the  Barrow 

Commission  pub.  by  Devon.  Assoc,  for  Advt.  of  Sci.  in 

their  Transactions.) 
Black  Down,  Symondsborough. 
Broadbury,  between  Okehampton  and  Holsvvorthy. 
Cosdon  Beacon,  Dartmoor. 

Farway,  many  barrows.  [stones. 

Hookner  Tor.     Several  cairns,  one  with  ring  of  upright 
Sidmouth,  near.     Broad  Down. 
Stanborough  Camp.    (Opened  1799.) 
Western  Beacon. 
(See  Page,  Exploration  of  Dartmoor.) 

Dorsetshire— 

(This  county  contains  a  very  large  number  of  barrows. 
Only  a  few  of  the   most  important  sites   have  been 
included  in  this  list.) 
Long. — Bere  Regis. 
Chettle. 

Eastbury,  near. 

Gussage,  near.     Long  barrows. 
Litton  Cheney,  i  E.  of. 
Pimperne. 
Tarrant  Hinton. 
*Wor  Barrow.     (Pitt-Rivers,  Excavations,  iv.) 


i.vS    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Dorsetshire  icoiihL) — 

Round, 

Bincombe  Barrows.     Many  tumuli,  one,  opened  1784,  con- 
tained bronze  dagi^er. 

Bradford  Down. 
*Bridehead,   near.      ('*  For  sight   of  barrows    not   to    be 
equalled  in  this  world." — Stukeley. ) 

Busbury  Rings,  within  the  area  of  the  camp. 

Came  Down.      (Stones   with   concentric  circle   markings 
covered  two  burials  after  cremation.) 
*Chalbury,  near.    "  Rimbury. "   (An  urn-field,  not  barrows, 
the  necropolis,  perhaps,  of  the  adjacent  town  of  Chal- 
bury.      Urns,  etc.,  in  the  Dorchester  Museum.) 

Deverel  Barrow,  near  Dewlish. 

East  Chaldon,  near.      "The  Five  Marys." 

Eggardon  Hill. 

Fontmel  Down. 

Grimstone,  |  N.  of. 

Handley,  near.      Many  tumuli.    (Some  examined  by  Pitt- 
Rivers,  Excavations,  ii.      Bronze.) 

Litton  Cheney. 

Longbredy.      Disc  barrows. 

Long     Bury    Barrow,    near    Gillingham.       {Said    to    be 
Danish.) 

Milborne  Stileham. 

Pimperne. 

Puddletown  Heath.      Many  tumuli. 
*Stowborough.      "  King  Barrow."     (Opened  1767.      Tree 
coffin,  remains  of  body  wrapped  in  deerskin.) 

Tarrant  Hinton,  near. 

Tollard  Royal,  near.     Woodcuts. 

Winterborne  Kingston. 

Winterborne  Steepleton.      (Pierced  greenstone  axe.) 

Woodyates.      Disc  barrows. 

Woolsbarrow,  Bloxworth  Heath. 

Worgret,  \  N.W.  of. 

(See    Warne's    Celtic    Tumuli  of  Dorset,   also    his   map 
and  that  of  Pitt-Rivers.    Also  ArcJiceologia,  xxx.  327.) 


BARROWS    LONG   AND    ROUND  159 

Durham — 

Copt    Hill,    Houghton-le-Spring.      (Cremated    burial    of 
Stone  Age,   with  alien  Bronze  Age  interment.) 

Bradley,  near  Ryton.     (Contracted  body  in  cist.) 
Eg'g'leston   in    Teesdale.     (Fosse   and    circle   of  stones, 

"The  Standing  Stones.) 
Hetton.      "The  Fairies'  Cradle."     (Cairn  of  stones  con- 
taining urn.) 
Ryton,  to  N.  of  Churchyard. 
Sacriston,   near   Durham.      (Unburnt  body  in  cist  with 

cup.) 
Sherburn  Grange.      (Cist  with  contracted  body.) 
Silksworth,  Steeple  Hill.      (Unburnt  body  and  urn  with 

burnt  bones  of  child.) 
Sunderland,     near.      Hambleton     Hill.      (Barrows     with 

urns   containing  burnt  bones.) 
Sunderland,  near.  Tunstall  Hill.  (Cist  with  unburnt  body.) 
Treindon  Grange.     (Urn  with  burnt  bones.) 
Wardon  Law,  below  it  is  a  small  barrow. 
Westow.     (Cist  with  contracted  body  and  flint  knife.) 
Essex — 

Aldham,  near  Colchester.     Near  the  Church  House. 
Askesden,  near  Saffron  Walden.     In  Plesh  Wood. 
Chadwell,  near  Romford. 
Colchester.     (Late   Celtic   urn-field.     Proc.  Soc.  Ant.,  ii. 

XX.  211.)^ 
Hockley,  near  Rochford.      "  Plumboro'  Mount." 
Lawford,  near  Mannington.     Near  the  Church.     (Opened 

middle  of  last  century,  contained  black  pottery.) 
Maldon,  near  Beeleigh  Abbey. 
Messing,  near  Colchester.      In  Podswood. 
Navestock. 

Northey  Island,  on  the  Marshes. 

Rowhedge,  or  East  Douyland.     Near  the  old  Church. 
Shoebury.     (Late  Celtic  urn-field,  not  tumuli,  Proc.  Soc. 

Ani.  ii.  xvi.  259.)^ 
Sturmere,  near  Sudbury.     Two  tumuli. 
Theydon  Bois,  near  Epping.     Three  tumuli. 
^  I  have  thought  it  well  to  uiclude  the  late  Celtic  burial-places  in  this  list. 


i6o    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Glouc  estershire — 

Long. 

Ablingfton.     (Opened  1854.) 

Avening-,  near.     With  menhir  on  it  "The  Tinglestone." 

Avening"  Barrow. 
*Belas   Knapp,   above  Winchcombe.       (Contained   thirty- 
eight  skeletons,  see  Mrs.  Dent's  History  of  Winchconibe. 
Unfortunately  almost  ruined  by  boys  since  opened.) 

Bisley,  2  N.  of.     Two  barrows  at  the  village  of  Camp. 

Bisley,  2  E.  of.      Edgworth  Barrow, 

Bisley,  i  E.  of.  "The  Giant's  Stone  Barrow."  (Almost 
entirely  removed.) 

Bisley,  N.  of.  Througham  Barrow.  (Chambers  used 
as  pigstye.) 

Bourton-on-the-Water,  near.     Cold  Aston. 

Boxwell.      Leighterton   Barrow.      (Opened    1700,    burnt 
and  unburnt  interments.) 
*Brimpsfield,    Buckholt  Wood.      "West  Tump."     (Con- 
tained twenty  skeletons.) 

Cheltenham,  3  S.  of.  On  Shurdington  Hill.  "  Crippett's 
Barrow."     {Archceologia  xlii.  201.) 

Cirencester,  5  N.W.  of.  Duntisbourne  Barrow.  (Central 
part  gone,  ends  resemble  and  have  been  taken  for 
round  barrows.) 

Cirencester,  in  "Quern's  Field,"  close  to  amphitheatre. 
(See  Buckman's  Coriniiim.') 

Duntisbourne  Abbots.  "Hoarstone  tumulus."  (Com- 
posed of  loose  quarry  stones.  Contained  eight  or  nine 
bodies.) 

Farmington,  within  the  entrenchments  of  Norbury 
Camp. 

Lower  Swell.  In  "  Cow  Common  Field."  (Opened  in 
1867,  skeletons,  flints,  and  pottery.  British  Barrows^ 
445,  and  Rolleston,  Collected  Works,  i.  353. 

Minchinhampton  Common.  "Whitfield  Tump."  Re- 
mains of  barrow. 

Nailsworth,  i^  S.  of.  Lechmore  Barrow,  nearly  de- 
stroyed. 

Nailsworth,  2  N.W.  of.  Bown  Hill  Barrow.  (Opened 
1863,  skeletons,  etc,  Proc,  Cots,  Field  Club,  iii.  109, 
V.  279.) 


BARROWS  LONG  AND  ROUND     i6i 

Gloucestershire  {contd. ) — 

Nympsfield.  (Opened  1862,  skeletons,  flints,  pottery. 
Jl.  Anthrop.  Soc,  s.  i.,  iii.  66.) 

North  Leach,  2  S.  of.    At  Crickley  Barrow.    Two  barrows. 

North  Leach,  4N.W.  of.  Haselton  Barrow.  A  second 
close  to  it. 

North  Leach,  2  S.E.  of  Lodge  Park. 
*Notgrove,  i  N.W.  of.     In  the  "  Poor's  Lots."     (Opened 
by  Witts,  see  his  book  tit  infra.) 

Prinknash  Park,     In  Pope's  Wood.      "  Idol's  Barrow." 

Randwick,  2  N.W.  of  Stroud. 

Rodmarton.  "  Windmill  Tump."  (Opened  1863,  skele- 
tons, flints,  pottery.     ArchceoL,  ix.  367.) 

Selsley  Hill.      "The  Toots." 

Stow-on-the-Wold,  3  miles  from,  in  Eyford  parish. 
{Brit.  Bar.,  514.) 
*Uley,  near  the  camp.  '*  Hetty  Pagler's  Tump."  (Con- 
tained nearly  30  skeletons  and  an  alien  (Rom.)  inter- 
ment. ArchcEol.,  xlii.  201.  This  tumulus  can  be 
entered  and  examined,  but  the  key  of  the  enclosure 
must  first  be  obtained.) 

Upper  Swell.    (Skeletons, flints,  pottery.    Brit.  Bar.,  c^2\.) 

Willersey,  in  the  camp.     (Nature  rather  doubtful.) 

Withington,  i  S.  of. 
Round. 

Witts  {ArchcBolog-ical  Handbook  of  Gloucestershire,  a  book 
which,  with  its  accompanying  map,  will  be  found  in- 
dispensable to  any  person  working  at  the  early  history 
of  the  county)  enumerates  126  of  these.  The  follow- 
ing are  among  the  most  important. 

Avening  Copse.     "The  Oven."    (Burnt  bones  and  flints.) 

Bisley.  "Money  Tump."  Two  others  between  this  and 
Lypiatt  Park. 

Cheltenham,  4  S.  of.  Near  the  "Air  Balloon"  public- 
house.     Three  barrows. 

Cheltenham,  2  S.  of.     Dry  Heath  Field. 

Dowdeswell,  i  S.  of.     Foxcote. 

Dursley,  2|  S.E.  of.  Symonds  Hall  Farm.  Two. 
Another  on  Symonds  Hall  Hill, 

Lower  Swell.  "Cow  Common."  Eight  barrows.  {Brit. 
Bar.,  445.) 

M 


i62    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Gloucestershire  (conM.) — 

Lcckhampton  Mill,  near  camp. 

Lower  Swell,  2  W.  of.      Picked  Morden. 

Nailsworth,  1  S.E.  of. 

Thornbury,  ij  S.  of.      Near  the  "  Ship"  Inn.     Two. 

Tormarton,  i  S.E.  of.     Three. 

Turkdean,  i  S.E.  of.     Three  at  Leygore  Farm. 

Snowshill.     (Bronze.    Arc/iceo/.,  Hi.  i.) 

Hampshire — 

Long. — Barton  Stacey,  \\  S.  of.     Two. 
Clanfield,  i  E.  of.     On  Clanfield  Down. 
Winchester,  on  St.  Giles  Hill. 

Round. — Andover,  Road  from  Winchester  to,  6^  N.W.  of 

Winchester.     One  on  either  side  of  the  road. 
*Baughurst  Common.     Several. 
Beau  worth,  i  S.  of. 
Bournemouth.     Talbot  Wood. 
Brightstone  Down,  I.  of  Wight. 
Broughton.      (Urn  with  burnt  bones.) 
*Burg-hclere,    i;^  S.  of.      "The  Seven  Barrows."     (Burnt 

bones,  flints,  pottery,  one  bronze  pin.     Proc.  Soc.  A?U,, 

ii.  X.  18.) 
Cheriton,  |  E.  of.     Two. 
Gorley  Common,   li   S.E.   of.      "Black  barrow."     Oval 

tumulus. 
Itchenstoke  Down.      Several.     One  i  W.  of  Abbotstone, 

and  one  in  Abbotstone  Wood. 
Mitcheldever.      One   in   Cranbourne  Wood   and   two   on 

Down.     2  W.  of  Mitcheldever  Tunnels. 
New  Forest.     One  near  Stony  Cross,  another  in  Berry 

Lodge  Walk. 
Petersfield,  ^  E.  of.      On  Heath  Common.      Nine. 
Petersfield,  Butser  Hill.     Several. 
Preshaw,  i|  N.  of  Preshaw  House. 
Sydmonton,  f  S.  of. 

Tidworth,  S.     "  The  Seven  Barrows."     There  are  really 

nine  or  ten. 
Winchester,  i|  S.W.  of.     On  Compton  Down. 
Winchester,  2  S.E.  of. 
Woolmer,  several. 


BARROWS    LONG   AND    ROUND 


163 


Herefordshire — 

Bucton  Corn  Mill,  W.  of. 
King's  Pyon  (?). 
Leintwardine,  A  VV.  of.  Two. 

Hertfordshire — 
Great  Amwell. 
Hitchin.     (Opened  1806  and 
1816.) 
Kent — 

Long. — Chilham.     "Julaber's  Grave." 
Round. 
*Aylesford.     British  urn-field, 
not  tumuli.  {Proc.Soc.Ant.^ 
ii.  xiii.  18.) 
Benstead. 
Bourne  Park. 

Dover,  near.     (Burnt  bones 
and     pottery.      ArchceoL, 

xlv.  53-) 
Ewell.   In  LousyberryWood. 
Eythorne. 

Folkestone.  Sugar  Loaf  Hill. 
Greenwich  Park. 


St.  Weonard's. 

Walford,  nr.  Brampton  Bryan. 

Whitchurch,  1  S.W. of.  Three. 

Royston. 
Therfield. 
Widford. 


Ififin's    Wood,    near    Canter- 
bury.    {Aj'chcBoL,  XXX.  57.) 
Isle  of  Harty. 
Queenborough. 
Shorne.     {Proc.  Sac.  Ant.,  ii. 

xviii.  73.) 
Sibertswold.  "Rupert's  Butts." 
Stowting.    "  Mountain  Hill." 
Thanet.  "Hackendon  Banks." 
Wye.     "The  Giant's  Grave." 
Walmer.       (Bones    and    flint 
chips.  (/'wc.6"6»c..<4  «/.,  ii.  v.  3 1 .) 


Lancashire — 

Bannishead  Mire,  near  Coniston.     Ring-mound.^ 

Bleaberry  Haws,  near  Coniston.     Ring-mound.^ 

Goathwaite  Moor,  near  Coniston.     Ring-mound.^ 

High  Haume,  Ireleth.     "The  Beacons."     Sepulchral  (?). 

Kirkby  Ireleth.      Ring-mound. 

Todmorden.     Pottery,  burnt  bones,  bronze  implements, 

and  jet.     {Reliquary,  ix.  276.) 
Torver  Beck.     Ring-mound. 
Torver  Hare  Crag.      Ring-mound. 
Urswick,  near.     Birkrigg  Common. 
Weeton  Lane  Head,  near  Birkham. 

^  i.e.  a  low  bank  of  earth  or  stones  forming  a  small  circle.     Probably 
sepulchral.     See  Archceol.,  iii,  415. 


i64    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 


(Early  Iron  Ag-e.) 


Dowsby,  ^  N.  of. 
Fordington,  |  S.  of  Ulceby. 
Revesby,  N.E.  of.     Two. 
Scunthorpe,  near. 
Walton-le-Marsh, 
"Castle  Hill." 


Leicestershire — 

Hallaton,  h  W.  of.     ''  Castle  Hill 
Kibworth  Beauchamp,  N.  of. 
Ratcliffe-on-the-Wreak,  ^  S.  of.     Shapley  Hill. 
Lincolnshire — 
Ash  Hill,  ^  S.  of  Swinhope. 
Broughton.     (Flint  in  urn  of 

burnt  bones.) 
Bully  Hill,  I  S.E.  of  Tathwell. 
Burg-h-le-Marsh,  [Six. 

Cleatham,  A  N.W.  of. 

Middlesex. — Hampstead.       "  Boadicea's    Grave." 
early  bronze.     Proc.  Soc.  Ant.,  ii.  xv.  240.) 

Monmouthshire. — Risca,  i  N.  of. 

Norfolk — 

Alburgh. 

Anmer.     Four.  [Several. 

Aylsham     (Stow      Heath). 

Beechamwell.      "  Hangour 

Bergh  Apton.    Five.       [Hill." 

Billingford. 

Broome.    Remains  of  several. 

Buckenham  Tofts. 

Buxton. 

Carlton  Forehoe.     Four. 

CockleyCley.  Remains  of  one. 

Cringleford. 

Cromer. 

Croxton. 

Eaton.   Two  and  sites  of  two. 

Eccles.  "Gallows  Hill,"  "Tut 
Hill,"  "Elder  Hill,"  and 
"Seven  Hills"  (the  last 
nine  in  number). 

Fenwade. 

Felmingham.  Burial  appar- 
ently Saxon. 

Flitcham. 

Frettenham.    "Court  Hill." 


N.    of 


(Probably 


Great  Bircham.     Four. 

Harpley.     Two. 

Holkham. 

Houghton.     Remains  of  one. 

Letheringsett.  "Candlestick 
Hill." 

Little  Cressingham. 

Marsham. 

Massingham.  One  and  re- 
mains of  another. 

Merton.     Four. 

Middleton.      "  Middleton 

Morton.  Several.       [Mount." 

Necton.      "  Mona  Hill." 

New  Buckenham.     Two. 

North  Pickenham.     Three. 

Northwold.  One,  said  to  be 
Roman. 

Norwich.     Site  of  one. 

Old  Hunstanton. 

Quidenham. 

Roughton.  "  Rowhow  Hill," 
"Two  Hills,"  "Hare's 
Hill,"  and  two  others. 


BARROWS   LONG   AND    ROUND 


165 


Norfolk  {contd.) — 
Runton. 

Salthouse.       "  Gallow   Hill," 
"Three    Halfpenny    Hill," 
"Three     Farthing-     Hill," 
and  fifteen  others. 
Santon.     "Blood  Hill." 
Sheringham.  "  Flowe's  Hill." 
Snarehill   (extra-parochial   to 
Swannington.         [Thetford). 
Terrington.  "Giant's Grave." 
Thetford.     "  Gallows  Hill." 


Thompson.     Three. 
Thurlton.     One  and  sites  of 

three  others. 
Tottington. 
Tuttington.     Several. 
Walton. 
Warham. 
Weeting.    ' '  Pepper  Hill "  and 

five  others. 
Westwick. 
Weybourr>e.     Two. 


Northamptonshire — 
Grafton  Regis. 

Kings  Sutton.     "The  Lows." 
Longman's  Hill,  in  Pitsford  Parish. 
Northampton,  meadows  near. 
Northampton,  "  Danesbury  Camp."     (British  Cemetery, 

not  tumuli,  of  perhaps  first  century  B.C.) 
Woodford,  near  Thrapston. 

Northumberland — 

Alwinton.     {Brit.  Bar.  422.) 

Ashington.     (Cists  with  urns.) 

Bamborough  Castle,  near.     {Brit.  Bar.,  413.) 

Broomlee  Lough,  ^  S.  of. 

Broom  Ridge. 

Carham.     (Unburnt  body  with  bronze  dagger.) 

Chatton,  near.      {Brit.  Bar.,  412.) 

Chesterhope  Common,  if  W.  of  Sweethope  Loughs. 
(Gold  beads.     Brit.  Bar.,  436.) 

Cheswick.     (Unburnt  body  with  bronze  dagger.) 

Coldsmouth  Hill,  near  Kirk  Newton. 

Doddington.      {Brit.  Bar.,  410.) 

Eglingham,  2  N.W.  of.  Thirteen.  (One  with  circle  of 
stones.     Brit.  Bar.,  418.) 

Ford  Common.  (Flints  and  pottery.  Stones  with  cup- 
markings.     Brit.  Bar.,  403.) 

Haltwhi.stle,  near. 


i66    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Northumberland  (coji^d.)— 

Haltwhistle,  i  N.  of.     Eight. 

Holystone. 

Ingram,  ih  W.  of. 

Kirk  Whelpington.     (BnV.  Bar.,  433.) 

Nether  Witton,  h  N.W.  of. 

North  Sunderland.  (Bones  of  a  girl  and  three  drinking- 
cups.     Trans.  Berw.  Nat.  Club,  iv.  428.) 

Otterburn,  i  N.W.  of. 

Ovingham.     {Brit.  Bar.,  437.) 

Plessy.     (Many  burnt  bodies  in  urns.) 

Rothbury.  Cartington  Fell.  (One  with  circle  of  stones. 
Brit.  Bar.,  428.) 

Seghill.     (Quartzite  celt  in  cist  with  infant  body.) 

Stamfordham,  near  Black  H addon.  (Stones  with  cup- 
markings.) 

Warkworth.     {ArchcEol.,  Hi.  i.) 

Nottinghamshire — 

Blidworth,  i  E.  of.  |  Oxton,  i  N.  of. 

Oxfordshire— 

Long. 

Lyneham.     {Proc.  Soc.  Ant.,  ii.  xv.  404.) 
Round. 

Ash  Hall  Barrow,  near  Ash  Hall  on  the  Akeman  Street. 

Chadlington,  i^  E.  of. 

Henley  Park,  h  N.  of  Henley-on-Thames. 

Mixbury,  h  W.  of. 

Shutford,  I  S.  of. 

Wytham.  (Burnt  bones,  flints,  bone  fibula.  Brit. Bar. ,2^2.) 

Shropshire — 


Beguildy,  \  N.W.  of. 
Corra,  \  S.  of. 
Felindre. 
Hope,  \  N.  of. 
Little  Wenlock,  '\  N.  of. 
Longmynd,  "Robin  Hood's 
Butts,"  and  other  tumuli. 


Ludlow  Racecourse, "  Robin 

Hood's  Butts." 
Marton  village,  E.  of. 
Frees,  i|  N.E.  of. 
Wrekin,  The. 


BARROWS   LONG   AND    ROUND  167 

Somerset — 

Long. — Nempnet.     "  Fairy's  Toot."     (Chambered.) 
Orchardleigh.     (Chambered.) 
*Stoney  Littleton.     (Chambered.      Archceologia,  xix.  and 
xxxviii.) 

Round. — Clevedon,  near.     Walton  Park.     Cyst  (bronze). 
Dundry  Hill. 

Huish  Champflower.  {Soju.  and  Dors.  N.  and  Q.^  1903,  303,) 
North  Stoke  Down  in  British  Camp.     Pottery,  bronze, 

and  gold  ornaments. 
Priddy,  on  Mendip.     "  Priddy  Nine  Barrows." 
Priddy,  on  Mendip.     Ashen  Lane.      Eight. 
Sigwell.   Twin  and  Round  Barrows.    (Bronze.    Rolleston, 

Sci.  Papers.,  i.  440.) 
Small  Down  Camp.     Three  tumuli.     Urns,  burnt  bones, 

and  flints.     i^Pr.  A.  and  N.  H.  S.  So?n.,  iii.  ix.  183.) 
Wick  Barrow,  Stogursey.  Late  Neolithic.  (7l/««,  1909, 24.) 

Staffordshire — 

Brundlow,  near  Sheen.      {Pfoc.  Sac.  AnL,  ii.  xv.  428.) 
Earl's  Sterndale,  near.      "Hitter  HiU."     (Opened  1862, 

skeletons  and  urns.) 
Elford,  near.     "  Robin  Hood's  Butts." 
Harlington.     Many  tumuli  on  the  hills  near. 
Roylow,  near  Sheen.     (Proc.  Sac.  A?it,  ii.  xv.  419.) 
Tissington,  near.     "Sharp  Low." 
Tixall  Heath.     "The  King's  Low  "  and  "The  Queen's 

Low." 
Uttoxeter  High  Wood.     "  Toot  Hill." 
Wetton    Long    Low.       Twin    Barrow.       (Jewitt,    Grave 

Mounds,  36.)     (?  really  a  long  barrow.) 


Suffolk — 
Aldborough. 
Barnham. 

Belton.     "Bell  Hill." 
Brightwell.      Several. 
Culford.     "  Hill  of  Health. 
Euston. 


Fornham  St.  Genevieve. 

Herringswell.     Three. 

Higham. 

Home. 

Icklingham.     Five. 

Ligfham.     "  Seven  Hills." 


i68    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 


Suffolk  {co7itd.) — 
Kentford.  Four. 
Knettishall.       "Tut    Hill," 

and  one  other, 
Lackford. 
Lakenheath.    "Maid's  Cross 

Hill." 
Levington.     Eight. 
Little  Barton.     Three. 
Nacton. 
Orwell.      "Seven  Hills." 


Risby  Heath. 

Santon  Downham.     Three. 

Warren  Hill,  near  Milden- 
hall.  (Eighteen  deer-ant- 
lers over  the  body.  Jl. 
Stiff.  Inst,  of  Arch.,  iv., 
28g.) 

West  Stow.  "Jennet's  Hill." 

Word  well.      "Traveller's 
Hill." 


Surrey — 

Addington,  near.    Thunderfield  Common.    Twenty-five. 
Coulsdon,  near.     Farthing  Down. 


Elstead,  near. 
Frensham  Common. 

Sussex — 

Alciston,  near.     Many. 
Graff  ham,  ii  S.W.  of. 
*Hove,  near  Brighton.  (Tree 
coffin,  stone  axe,  bronze 
knife,  amber  cup.     Suss. 
Arch.  Coll.,  ix.  120.) 
Kingby  Bottom. 


Pattenham  Heath. 
Westcott,  i^  W.  of. 

Lewes,  Downs  near.     Many. 

Rottingdean,  i|  N.  of. 

Treyford,  f  S.  of.  "The 
Devil's  Jumps."  Five  tu- 
muli. 

West  Burton,  f  S.W.  of 


Warwickshire — 

Compton  Verney,  near.    Tachbrook.     Knightlow  Cross. 

Coombe  Abbey,  ^  N.  of. 

Hartshill,  W.  of.     "  Key  Abbey  Mound." 

Wolston.    Near  the  Fosse  Way. 

Westmorland — 

Long. — *Crosby  Garrett,   Raisett  Pike.      (Burnt  bodies  and 
alien  interments.    Brit.  Bar.,  510.) 

/?o?^«^.— Ashfell,  Kirby  Stephen. 

Askham.     Cairn  with  ring  of  stones.    {Br  Bar.,  400.) 

Brackenber  Moor. 

Crosby  Garrett.     Cairns.     {Br.  Bar.,  386.) 

Crosby  Ravensworth.    {lb.,  396.) 


BARROWS    LONG    AND    ROUND 


169 


Westmorland  {contd.) — 

Dufton  Church. 

Gamelands,  Orton. 

Great  Asby  Scar.     {Br.  Bar.,  396.) 

Kirby    Stephen.      Six   barrows,    one   contained   tree -coffin 

with    bronze    bowl,    perhaps    Post -Roman.      {Br.    Bar., 

382.) 
Ravenstonedale.    {lb.,  393.) 
Shap,  Raftland  Forest. 
Warcop.     {Br.  Bar.,  385.) 

Wiltshire — 

Long.      Unchamhered. 

Examined  by  Cunnington  and  Hoare,  and  described  in 
Aticietit  Wilis,  and  by  Thurnam,  Archceologia,  xlii.  161. 


Arne  Hill. 

Bishops  Cannings. 

Boreham.  "King's  Barrow." 

Bratton. 

Brixton  Deverell. 

Bulford. 

Corton. 

'*  Druid's  Head,"  near. 

Easton  Hill. 

Figheldean. 

Fittleton. 

Fyfield,  near  Pewsey. 
"  Giant's  Grave." 

Heytesbury.      "Bowls  Bar- 
row." 

Horton. 

Knook.    Two. 

Knowl  Hill. 

Long.      Chambered. 

East  Kennett. 

Lanhill.     "  Hubba's  Lowe." 

Littleton  Drew.   "Lup-burv." 


Milston.    Two  near  Tid  worth 

Normanton.  [in  Hants. 

Norton  Bavant. 

Scratchbury. 

Shalbourne. 

Sherrington. 

Sittingbourne — Kingston. 

Stockton. 

Stonehenge.     Two. 

Tilshead.    "White  Barrow." 

East. 

Old  Ditch. 

Lodge. 


Tilshead. 

Tilshead. 

Tilshead. 

Tinhead. 

Warminster. 

Willesford. 

Wilsford. 

Winterbourne  Stoke 


Ell  Barrow. 


Luckington.  "GiantsCaves." 
Monkton.    "Millbarrow." 
Oldbury. 


I70    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Wiltshire  (contd.) — 
Rockley. 
Temple  Farm. 
Tidcombe. 
Walker  Hill.      "  Old  Adam,"  or  "  Adam's  Grave." 

Ro  11)1(1. 

Very  numerous.     Hoare  {Ancient  Wilts)  describes  465  as 

opened  by  himself.    The  following  list  contains  some  of 

the  more  important  localities — 
Aldbourn.      Sugar  Hill  Down.      {ArchcroL,  lii.  i.) 
Allington,  i  N.  of.     "Kitchen  Barrows." 
Alton  Priors,  N.  of. 
Avebury,  neighbourhood  of.      Many. 
Bishops  Cannings  Down. 
Bratton. 

Brigmilstone.      (Flint  and  pyrites  found.) 
Cherhill  Downs. 
Cholderton  Lodge,  near. 
Cliffe  Pypard,  near  Uffcott. 
^'Collingbourne    Duels.       (Burnt    body   in    hollowed    tree- 
trunk  with  stag's-horn  hammer.) 
Deverills.      Many  near  these  villages. 
Everley. 

Hinton  Down.     {Archceol.,  lii.  i.) 
Little  Durnford.     (Covered  vase  found.) 
Manton.      Near  Marlborough.      Bronze,  amber  disc  with 

gold  mount,  bronze  lancet  in  gold  mount.     {Reliquary^ 

Jan.,  1907.) 
Rushmore,   near.      (Examined  by  Pitt-Rivers,  vol.  ii.   of 

Memoirs.      Bronze.) 
Stonehenge.     About  300  in  vicinity. 
Tan  Hill.      (Jet  ornament.     .Irc/ucot.,  xliii.  510.) 
Upton  Lovell.      (Bronze  pin  and  perforated  stone  axe.) 
Warminster,  Cop  Head.      (Fragments  of  stag's  horn.) 
Wilsford.      (Bronze  celt.) 

Winterbourne  Monkton.      (Flint  implements  and  jet.) 
(Full    information    as  to  this   class   of  barrow   in   Wilts 

will  be  found  in  Thurnam's  paper,  ArchcEol.^  xliii.  2S5.) 


BARROWS   LONG   AND    ROUND  171 

Worcestershire — 

Kidderminster  Foreign. 

Spring  Grove,  between  Kidderminster  and  Bewdley. 
•'The  Devil's  Spadeful." 

Yorkshire — 

The  barrows  in  this  county  are  very  numerous,  and  many 
of  them  have  been  opened  and  described  by  Canon 
Greenwell.  The  figures  in  brackets  after  certain  of  the 
examples  indicate  the  page  in  British  Barrows  at 
which  the  description  occurs.  Those  marked  thus  f 
are  dealt  with  in  Archceologia,  lii.  i. 

Long. 

Ebberston  (484). 

Gillingr  (550)- 
Kilburn  (501), 
Kilham  (553). 
Market  Weighton  (505). 
Over  Sitton  (509). 
Rudstone  (497). 
Weston  (490). 
Willerly  (487). 

Round. 

Acklam  Wold.    (Burnt  and  unburnt  bodies.     Food  vessel 

with  cover.) 
Ampleforth  Moors.     Many. 

Ayton  Moor,  Way  Hag.     (Cup-marked  stones.) 
Bempton,  Metlow  Hill,    t  f  N.  of  Danes'  Dyke.    (Flints.) 
Binnington  (179).     Flints  and  pottery. 
Bishop's  Burton.     Several.    (Flints  and  pottery.) 
Butterwick  (186).     (Bronze  axe.) 
Cherry  Burton  (279).     Four. 
Claughton    Moor.      (Contained    stones    with    cups    and 

circles.) 
Cleveland. 
Cold  Kirby  (336). 
Cowlam  (208,  bronze  in  three,  seven  others,  some  with 

flints). 
Danby  Moor.     Many.      One  has  a  ring  of  stones. 


172    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Yorkshire  {conid.) — 

Driffield,  Moors  near.  Many.  Objects  from  them  in  the 
Driffield  Museum.  The  Danes'  graves  are  late  Celtic. 
Joiirn.  Anth.  Inst.,  1903,  66. 

Duggleby.    Howe  Hill  Barrow  {Journ.  Anth.  Inst. ,  xxii.'3). 

Egton  (334).  "William  Howe."  (Jet  beads.  "Three 
Howes."    (Burnt  bones  and  a  flint.) 

Etton  (2S2).     Seven. 

Ferry  Fryston  (371). 

Fimber.     (Jet  necklace.) 

Fimber,  on  wolds  near.     (Barrow  with  oaken  coffin.) 

Flying  Dales.     Several. 

Folkton  (271).  t 

Canton  (169).     Flints  and  pottery. 

Gilling  (343).     Six. 

Goathland,  "Simon  Howe." 

Goodmanham     (286).       Thirty-eight.       (One     contained 
covered    vase,  another  jet   necklace    and    earrings.) 
*Gristhorpe.     (Oak  coffin,  bronze  knife.     Objects  in  Scar- 
borough Museum.)  f 

Harpham.      (Flints,)! 

Helperthorpe.  (191-203.)  (Flints,  bronze,  alien  inter- 
ment in  one.) 

Heslerton  (141).  Three  barrows.  Here  formerly  long 
barrow,  destroyed  1868. 

Hunmanby.     Two.  f 

Hutton  Buscel  (357).  "The  Three  Tremblers,"  and 
others. 

Hutton  Cranswick.  (Perforated  canine  of  wolf.  Proc. 
Yorks.  Phil.  Soc.) 

Ilkley,  near.      Many. 

Kilburn  (339).     (In  one  a  number  of  cup-marked  stones.) 

Kilham.  "  Danes  Graves. "  (Early  Iron  Age.  Proc.  Soc. 
Ant.,  ii.  xvii.  119.) 

Kirby  Grindalyth  (140). 

Kirby  Underdale  (132).  (With  alien  Saxon  interments. 
Flints  and  burnt  bones.) 

Langtoft  (204).     (Pottery.) 

Langton  (136).  (Several  interments.  Bones,  beads, 
pottery.) 


BARROWS    LONG   AND    ROUND  173 

Yorkshire  (contd.) — 

Londesborough  (331). 

Lythe.  f 

Market  Weighton.     Many  near. 

Melmerby  Common.      (Bone  Fibula.) 

Newbold,   N.   of.      Five  opened   1877    {Proc.    Soc.   Ant., 

ii.  vii.  321). 
Over  Sitton  (336). 
Potter   Brompton  Wold  (160).      Five.     (Flints,  pottery, 

burnt  and  unburnt  bones.) 
Rudstone  (229).     Nine  barrows. 
Runwick  and  Staithes,  cliffs  between. 
*Rylston  (374).     Scale  House.     (Interment    in   hollowed 

oak-tree.     Clothes  of  corpse.) 
Sherburn  (145).     Several  barrows.    (Pottery,  flints,  stone 

implements.) 
Skipwith  Common. 

Slingsby  (347).     Thirteen.     (In  one  a  bone  fibula.) 
Thwingf  (256).     Near  this   is    "Willy   Howe,"    a   large 

barrow  opened  in  1857,  and  again  by  Greenwell.  f 
Weaverthorpe  (192).      Flints. 
Welburn  (356). 
West    Tanfield,    near    Ripon.      "Centre    Hill."      (Oak 

coffin,  flints,  and  pottery.) 
Willerby  (180).     Nine.     (Flints,  pottery.)  f 
Wykeham  Moor.     (Cup-marked  stones.) 
(Further  notes  in   Gentlernati's  Mag.,  Ixii.  84,  and  Ixiii. 

16  ;  and  in  Ord's  History  of  Cleveland.) 


CHAPTER   VIII 

MEGALITHIC    REMAINS  :    DOLMENS— CISTS- 
CIRCLES— ALIGNMENTS— MEN  H  IRION 

SINCE  many  of  the  megalithic  monuments  are  un- 
doubtedly of  a  sepulchral  nature,  and  it  is  highly 
probable  that  all  of  them  may  be  of  that  character, 
they  naturally  fall  into  place  after  the  burial  mounds  con- 
sidered in  the  last  chapter.  Monuments  of  this  character 
have  been  most  elaborately  classified  by  Lukis^  in  a  paper 
which  should  be  studied  by  those  working  at  the  subject. 

Dolmens. — The  skeleton  of  one  kind  of  long  barrow — the 
chambered  variety — as  we  saw  in  the  last  chapter,  consisted 
of  a  cell  or  cells  constructed  of  great  stones.  If  the  earth 
or  stones  of  which  the  mound  or  cairn  consisted  be  removed, 
the  skeleton  will  remain  behind  exposed,  and  is  then  called 
a  dolmen  (daul-maen,  table-stone).  Mr.  Gowland  would 
enlarge  the  definition  so  as  to  make  the  term  connote  also 
monuments  of  the  same  kind  still  embedded  in  their  mound, 
and  would  thus  define  the  class  of  objects  now  under  con- 
sideration :  Stone  burial  chambers,  generally  of  rude  mega- 
lithic structure,  larger  than  cists,  whether  covered  by  a 
mound  or  not.  In  popular  parlance,  however,  the  dolmen 
or  Druid's  Altar  or  cromlech — the  last  two  misleading 
names — is  an  uncovered  structure  of  stones,  made  up  of 
two,  three,  four  or  more  slabs  standing  upright  and  sup- 
porting a  large  flat  stone,  the  **  cap-stone."  (See  Figs.  65 
and  66  and  Fig.  67,  which  gives  a  view  of  the  double 
dolmen  at  Plas  Newydd  or  Anglesea  Castle,  Isle  of  Angle- 

*  ArchcEologia ,  xxxv.  232. 
174 


MEGALITHIC    REMAINS  175 

sea.)     Sometimes  there  may  have  been  a  stone  floor,  but 
oftener  there  is  no  trace  of  anything  of  the  kind.     vSome- 
times,   though   rarely,   the  dolmen    is  double,   as   in  the 
Anglesea  example.     Or — if  indeed  this  should  be  classed 
amongst  dolmens— there  may  be  the  remains  of  several 
chambers  as  at  Weyland  Smith's  Forge  on  the  Berkshire 
Downs,  where  the  remains  of  a  chambered  tumulus  lie 
uncovered  in  the  interior  of  a  little  copse.     It  has  been 
suggested  by  some,  notably  by  Fergusson,^  that  some  of 
these  monuments  were  never  covered  with  a  mound,  but 
were  always  sub-aerial.    This  view,  which  is  supported  by 
Mr.  A.  L.  Lewis,"  seems  certainly  to  be  gaining  ground, 
and  it  must  be  admitted  that  a  careful  examination  of  the 
circumstances  and  surroundings  of  a  certain  number  of 
dolmens  renders  it  very  difficult  to  believe  that  they  were 
ever  included  within  a  mound.     That  many  of  these  struc- 
tures should  have  been  stripped  of  their  superincumbent 
mound  is  certainly  remarkable,  but  it  is  unquestionably 
true  that  some  of  them  have  been  exposed  in  recent  times. 
For  example,  Kits  Coty  House  was  still  partly  enclosed  in 
a  sepulchral  mound  in  the  eighteenth  century,^  and  the 
dolmen  at  West  Lanyon,  in  Cornwall,  the  cap-stone  of 
which  is  believed  to  weigh  fifteen  tons,  was  entirely  covered 
with  earth  until  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  when  the 
soil  was  carted  away  by  a  farmer  who  wished  to  utilise  it  for 
the  improvement  of  his  land.     There  was  no  idea  that  the 
mound  was  other  than  a  natural  one,  until  one  hundred 
cartloads  of  earth  had  been  removed,  when  the  cap-stone 
began  to  appear.  When  all  the  earth  had  been  carried  away 
the  dolmen  was  fully  exposed.     Some  broken  urns  and 
bones  were  found  inside,  but  it  had  evidently  been  rifled 
years  before.     Again  at  Cnocan,  near  Mallow,  in  County 
Cork,  the  stones  of  a  cairn  were  removed  gradually  for 
the  purpose  of  road-mending,  thus  exposing  a  fine  dolmen 

1  Rude  Stone  Monuments.  ~  Man,  1907,  26. 

^  Rice  Holmes*  Ancient  Britain,  66,  footnote  3. 


Silli^?l 


FIG.  65.       DOLMEN 
"Devil's  Den,"  near  Marlborough 


FIG.  66.      DOLMEN 
Bodowr,  Angelsea 


MEGALITHIC   REMAINS 


177 


containing  a  skeleton  with  a  bronze  sword  and  other 
objects.  The  agriculturist  has  never  had  very  tender 
feelings  towards  the  relics  of  antiquity  when  they  have 
seemed  suitable  for  any  of  his  purposes,  though  as  late 
as  1859,  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  a  farmer  has  actually  been 
known   to  offer  up  a  heifer  in  sacrifice,   to  prevent  any 


FIG.   67.       DOUBLE    DOLMEN 
Plas  Newydd,  Anglesea 


harm  befalling  him  in  consequence  of  the  opening  of  a 
tumulus  on  his  land.  It  is  unfortunate  that  similar  or 
any  motives  have  not  restrained  other  early  depredators. 

''Farmer  Green,"  said  Stukeley,  in  1710,  removed  the 
stones  from  a  long  barrow  near  that  at  West  Kennett  "to 
make  mere-stones  withal,"  i.e.^  boundary  stones,  probably 
the  boundaries  of  his  sheep-walks.  This  wretch  was  the 
great  destroyer  of  the  Avebury  avenues  and  circles,  and, 
according  to  Thurnam,  was  probably  responsible  for  the 
removal  of  the  peristalith  which  originally  encircled  the 

N 


178    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

West  Kcnnett  barrow.  To  disinterments  of  this  kind  we 
owe  the  existing  uncovered  dolmens  of  the  country.  These 
single  cells,  covered  or  imcovered,  vary  considerably  in 
size.  Perhaps  the  smallest  in  these  islands  is  that  at 
Bodowr,  in  the  Isle  of  Anglesea,  which  will  just  about 
accommodate  one  person  in  a  crouched  position.  (See 
Fig.  66.)  From  this  we  ascend  to  the  larger  Kit's  Coty 
House,  to  the  great  dolmen  at  Pentre-Ifan,  and — though 
monuments  of  this  size  are  unknown  in  England — to 
constructions  of  the  magnitude  of  that  at  New  Grange, 
near  Drogheda,  or  the  Chamber  of  Giants  at  Om,  near 
Copenhagen.  In  this  last  there  is  a  passage  three  metres 
in  length  which  leads  into  a  large  chamber,  spacious  and 
high  enough  for  twenty  people  to  walk  about  in  it.  The 
walls,  like  those  of  the  passage,  are  formed  of  large,  rough 
stones,  flat  and  erect.  The  spaces  between  them  are  care- 
fully filled  with  small  stones  placed  one  upon  another. 
The  roof  of  the  chamber  is  formed  of  large  slabs  long 
enough  to  rest  upon  the  tops  of  the  standing  stones.  Over 
this  is  still  the  earthen  mound,  but  suppose  it  removed, 
and  we  should  have  a  dolmen — in  the  common  acceptation 
of  the  term — of  enormous  size.  Dolmens  are  known  in 
many  parts  of  the  world.  They  are  numerous  in  Brittany, 
and  here,  according  to  Lukis,^  they  are  always  included 
in  a  mound  of  stone,  or  earth,  or  both.  Out  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  dolmens  in  this  district  there  are  only 
eighteen  about  which  there  is  no  trace  of  a  barrow.  In 
some  of  these  cases,  too,  there  are  still  the  remains  of  the 
passage  which  led  to  the  interior,  a  passage  which  would 
have  been  quite  useless  had  the  structure  always  been 
sub-aerial  and  free-standing.  Part  of  the  mound  still 
exists  which  covered  the  dolmen  near  Corancez,  in  the 
district  of  Chartres,  an  example  with  a  cap-stone  fifteen  by 
ten-feet-six  in  size.'     The  Breton  dolmens  nearly  all  have 

1  Pruc.  Soc.  A)it.,  1872,  366.  2  Lewis,  Journ.  Anth.  Inst,  1890,  68. 


MEGALITHIC    REMAINS  179 

openings  between  the  south  and  the  east  of  the  compass, 
and  where  there  are  avenues  they  are  oriented  in  the  same 
way.  Similar  structures  are  met  with  in  Spain  and  in  the 
North  of  Africa,  Algiers,  and  Tunis,  where,  however,  they 
appear  to  be  inferior  in  excellence  of  construction  to  those 
of  Europe.^  They  are  found  in  Turkey,  Syria,  Palestine, 
India,  Japan,-  and  also  in  Corea,  but  here  rarely,  and  only 
in  the  south  part,  where  they  are  of  a  class  intermediate 
between  the  cist  and  the  true  dolmen.  In  Ireland  they 
exist  in  extraordinary  numbers.  According  to  Borlase^ 
there  are  :  Certain  dolmens,  780  ;  chambered  tumuli,  50  ; 
uncertain,  68  ;  total,  898.  There  are  actually  163  in  the 
county  of  Sligo  alone.  It  has,  in  fact,  been  suggested* 
that  there  was  a  dolmen-building  race  which  made  the 
circuit  of  the  world,  passing  through  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  everywhere  leaving  behind  them  monuments  identical 
in  form.^  For  Sergi,  however,  the  dolmens  of  Europe  and 
Africa  are  all  the  product  of  his  Mediterranean  race. 

Cistvaens. — The  cist,  cistvaen  (cista-maen,  stone-chest), 
is  perhaps  best  looked  upon  as  a  small  variety  of  dolmen, 
from  which  it  differs  not  only  in  size,  but  also,  according 
to  Greenwell's  view,  which  we  may  take  to  be  correct,  that 
the  dolmen  was  intended  to  be  reopened  from  time  to  time 
for  later  burials,  whilst  the  cist  was  closed  up  once  for  all. 
The  term  is  generally  applied  to  a  box-like  tomb  formed 
of  stones,  and  originally  covered  with  a  mound,  though, 
like  the  dolmen,  it  may  have  in  later  times  been  robbed  of 
this  protection.  Within  the  cist  may  have  been  placed  a 
body  burnt  or  unburnt,  or  less  frequently,  the  remains  of 
a  burnt  body  in  an  urn.     It  is  very  difficult  to  ascertain 

^  See  Ser^'i,  passim,  also  Carton,  L Aiithropologie,  ii.  i. 

-  Gowland,  Archceologia,  Iv.  439.  ^  Dolmens  of  I relayid. 

*  Bertrand,  De  la  Distribiition  des  Dolmens,  etc.,  Paris,  i860. 

^  "  Everything-  points  to  the  conclusion  that  the  earliest  dolmen  builders 
of  Britain  retreated  from  Gaul  before  the  sturdy  round-headed  invaders  : 
and  it  is  useless  to  enquire  whether  the  Mediterranean  stock,  to  which  the 
British,  like  the  earlier  French  dolmen  builders,  belonged,  originated  in 
Europe,  in  Asia,  or  in  Africa.  We  only  know  that  the  oldest  traces  of  the 
race  were  discovered  in  the  Riviera."     Rice  Holmes'  Ancient  Britain,  67. 


i8o    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

what  relationship  in  point  of  time  the  dohnen  and  the 
cist  bore  to  one  another.  The  stone  bed  or  coffin 
may  have  grown  into  the  vault,  or  the  vault  may  have 
diminished  into  the  bed.  In  Brittany  both  kinds  have 
been  found  in  close  relation,  perhaps  the  smaller  in 
distinct  subordination  to  the  larger.  Whichever  came 
first  it  seems  fairly  clear  that  there  was  a  time  when  both 
were  being  constructed.  Perhaps  position  or  wealth,  or 
even  personal  caprice,  may  have  been  the  only  determin- 
ing factor  in  the  choice  between  the  two  methods  of  inter- 
ment. 

Circles. — Here  we  approach  a  much  more  difficult  prob- 
lem, and  one  on  which  a  vast  amount  of  writing  has  been 
expended.  In  consonance  Avith  the  general  idea  of  this 
book  little  notice  will  be  taken  of  the  theories  which  have 
been  brought  forward  to  explain  the  stone  circles  of  this 
and  other  lands.  Here  the  main  object  w^ill  be  to  explain 
the  classes  and  structure  of  these  objects.  For  further 
information  readers  may  be  recommended  to  consult  the 
works  mentioned  in  the  footnotes.^  That  some  of  the 
circles  were  sepulchral  in  character  there  can  be  no  sort  of 
doubt,  and  with  this  class  w'e  may  first  deal  before  dis- 
cussing those  as  to  whose  nature  some  still  feel  a  hesita- 
tion, (i)  Circles  composed  of  cists.  There  can,  of  course, 
be  no  doubt  as  to  the  nature  of  this  form  of  circle.  Near 
Port  Erin,  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  there  is  an  example  of  this 

^  Some  idea  of  the  mass  of  literature  on  the  subject  may  be  g-ained  from 
the  statement  that  Mr.  Jerome  Harrison's  valuable  and  careful  Bibliography 
of  Stonehejige  and  Avehury,  Wilts  Arch,  and  N.  H.  Soc,  xxxii.  i,  runs 
to  more  than  one  hundred  and  sixty  pages.  This  may  be  consulted,  as  well 
as  the  following- :  Fergusson,  I^ude  S/onc  Monuments,  though  manj'  of  the 
theories  there  put  forward  are  now  exploded  ;  Evans,  Archceological Review, 
ii.  312,  a  most  important  paper  ;  various  articles  b\'  Lewis  \n  Jour.  Anthrop. 
Inst.  In  the  author's  little  book.  Life  in  Early  Britain,  will  also  be  found 
a  summary  of  the  theories  up  to  the  date  of  its  publication.  See  also  Colley 
March,  Trans.  Lane,  and  Chesh.  Antiq.  Soc,  188S,  and  Lockyer  and  Penrose, 
Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  452. 


MEGALITHIC    REMAINS  i8i 

kind  in  the  Meayll  Circle.^  This  circle,  which  is  placed 
near  three  little  prehistoric  villages,  each  consisting  of 
four  to  sixteen  hut-circles,  consists  of  six  symmetrically- 
arranged  sets  of  cists,  each  a  tritaph,  i.e.  two  tangential 
and  one  radial.  There  is  some  evidence  that  a  cist  formerly 
existed  in  the  centre  of  the  circle.  The  floor  of  each  cist 
was  paved  with  flat  stones,  and  all  the  interments  were 
after  cremation.  There  were  two  to  five  urns  in  each 
tangential  cist,  or  in  the  proximal  end  of  the  radial.  This 
circle  had  two  openings  in  it,  one  to  the  north  and  one  to 
the  south.  According  to  Jewitt,-  there  is  a  somewhat 
similar  circle  in  the  Channel  Islands,  but  I  know  of 
nothing  like  it  in  England.  (2)  Circles  composed  of  stones 
formerly  enclosing  a  tumulus.  Whether  it  may  have  been 
for  the  purpose  of  supporting  the  mound,  or  of  indicating 
that  it  was  a  place  under  tabu,  or  of  serving  as  a  "  ghost 
hedge "  to  keep  the  unruly  spirits  of  the  dead  within 
bounds,  there  is  no  doubt  that  a  peristalith,  or  low  en- 
closure of  stones,  often  surrounded  a  funeral  mound. 
This  arrangement,  which  has  already  been  alluded  to 
in  the  previous  chapter,  is  not  confined  to  this  country. 
Pausanias,  writing  in  the  second  century  A.D.,  mentions 
the  interest  with  which  he  examined  the  grave  of  Aegyptus, 
because  Homer  had  alluded  to  it,  and  he  describes  it  as  a 
mound  of  earth  of  no  great  size,  and  enclosed  in  a  circular 
kerbing  of  stones,  an  account  which  he  also  gives  of  other 
tombs.  In  a  great  many  cases,  as,  for  example,  in  that  of 
the  great  barrow  at  West  Kennett  (see  Fig.  58),  it  is  the 
ring  of  stones  which  has  gone,  whilst  the  mound  remains, 
for  the  stones  are  available  for  many  purposes  from  road- 
mending  upwards.  But  in  some  instances  it  is  the  mound 
which  seems  to  have  disappeared,  and  the  circle  is  then 
left  behind  as  a  ring  of  low  and  often  prostrate  stones. 

^  See  Herdmaa  and  Kynnode,  Trans.  Biol.  Soc.  Liverpool,  October  13th, 
1893.  -  Op  ciL,  p.  78. 


i82    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

(3)  Circles  composed  of  stones  formerly  contained  within 
a  barrow.  The  hedge  of  stones  was  sometimes  included 
within  the  substance  of  the  mound  itself,  instead  of  forming 
a  low  wall  around  its  base  externally.  Such  a  circle  is 
described  by  Bateman^  in  a  barrow  near  Cawthorn  Camps 
in  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  **By  cutting,"  he 
says,  "from  the  north  towards  the  centre,  we  uncovered 
some  flat  stones,  set  upright  in  the  ground,  which  on 
further  examination  were  found  to  be  part  of  a  complete 
circle,  seven  yards  in  diameter,  standing  about  two  feet 
above  the  natural  level,  and  enclosing  a  grave."  This,  as 
he  points  out,  is  what  would  have  been  called  a  "Druidical 
circle "  had  the  earth  all  been  removed  from  the  stones. 
The  Flax  Dale  barrow,  described  by  Jewitt,'-  is  another 
example  of  the  same  kind  of  thing.  GreenwelT^  found 
a  circle  of  chalk  stones  with  an  opening  on  the  east  side, 
which  had  a  radius  of  thirty  feet,  and  was  enclosed  in 
a  mound  eighty  feet  in  diameter.  It  is  obvious  that  by 
the  removal  of  the  earth  such  a  circle  would  be  exposed, 
and  present  the  appearance  with  which  we  are  familiar  in 
the  smaller  stone  circles  of  the  country.  It  is  probable 
that  to  this  and  the  class  immediately  preceding  it  most  of 
these  objects  belong.  (4)  Small  circles,  with  central  in- 
terment, without  mound.  Excavations  made  in  the  interior 
of  small  circles  have  sometimes  revealed  the  existence  of 
interments,  though  there  was  no  mound  or  trace  of  mound 
left.  This  must  not  be  taken  as  implying  that  there  never 
was  a  mound,  but  that  we  have  no  evidence  of  the  existence 
of  any  such  feature  in  these  particular  cases.  An  example 
of  this  kind  is  recorded  by  Bateman*  on  Stanton  Moor, 
where,  "near  the  Andle  Stone,  we  noticed  a  small  circle 
of  six  stones,  four  of  which  were  upright  and  two  pros- 
trate, the  diameter  being  about  twenty  feet."     On  digging 

1   op.  til.,  p.  207.  -   Op.  fit.,  p.  71. 

3  Op.  cit.,  p.  145.  *  Op.  ciL,  p.  84. 


MEGALITHIC    REMAINS  183 

in  it  it  was  found  that  "a  grave  had  been  dug  for  the 
reception  of  three  or  four  cinerary  urns  and  as  many 
incense  cups."  Fragments  of  calcined  bones  were  found. 
A  most  remarkable  double,  concentric  circle  of  wooden 
posts,  enclosing  a  central  interment,  has  recently  been 
found  at  Bleasdale,  near  Garstang.  In  other  cases,  how- 
ever, careful  examination  has  failed  to  reveal  the  existence 
of  any  traces  of  a  burial  within  the  circle.  Such,  according 
to  Mr.  Collingwood,^  is  the  case  at  Sunken  Kirk,  near 
Swinside,  the  third  largest  circle  in  Cumberland.  Here 
the  results  of  a  searching  examination  were  entirely 
negative.  There  were  no  traces  of  interments,  nor  of 
ancient  fires,  nor  was  there  any  tumulus,  or  any  remains 
of  a  tumulus,  in  the  interior  of  the  circle. 

In  respect  of  all  these  circles  connected  with  interments 
— and  the  same  is  true  of'the  larger  class  which  has  yet  to 
be  dealt  with — one  special  point  requires  notice,  and  that 
is  their  incompleteness.  There  is  always  an  interruption 
in  the  circle,  as  there  is  in  the  ditch  which  includes  a 
barrow.  In  the  case  of  the  larger  circles  this  interruption 
may  be  looked  upon  as  a  doorway  or  entrance,  but  in  the 
case  of  the  enclosed  circles,  those  which  were  buried  in 
the  material  of  the  mound,  if  a  gateway  at  all,  it  can  only 
have  been  intended  for  the  use  of  the  spirits  of  the 
departed.  Whatever  its  idea  or  intention,  it  is  there,  and 
Canon  Greenwell,  who  calls  attention  to  it,  notes  the 
similarity  of  idea  with  that  of  the  penannular  ring,  when 
that  shape  is  not  required  by  the  exigencies  of  use,  and 
with  that  of  the  frequently  interrupted  circles  which  are 
met  with  in  the  case  of  cup  and  circle  markings  on  rocks. 

Passing  now  to  the  Great  Circles  likeStonehenge  and  Ave- 
bury,  can  we  say  anything  as  to  the  sepulchral  character 
of  these?  According  to  some  they  are  purely  religious 
edifices,    though,    like    many    of   our    modern    churches, 

^  Proc.  Soc.  Ant.j  ii.  xix.  98. 


iS4    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

surrounded  by  a  cemetery,  as  was  the  case  at  Stoneheng-e, 
where  there  are  three  hundred  barrows  in  the  immediate 
vicinity.  But  beyond  this,  according  to  another  idea, 
which  may  well  be  the  correct  one,  the  great  circles  are 
actually  derived  from  sepulchral  monuments.  "The  stone 
circle,"  says  Mr.  Arthur  Evans,  '*  that  originally  performed 
a  structural  function  in  early  dwellings  and  in  certain 
barrows,  by  propping  up  the  superincumbent  mass  of 
earth,  becomes  itself  an  independent  feature  in  sepulchral 
ritual.  It  separates  itself  from  the  mound  to  form  a  huge 
circle  of  monoliths,  surrounding  it  at  an  even  distance  ;  or 
it  may  fulfil  a  ritual  purpose  by  itself,  apart  from  any 
central  mound  or  chamber."  The  same  writer  states  it 
as  his  opinion  that  the  component  parts  of  such  circles, 
namely,  the  circle  itself,  the  avenue  of  stones  which  leads 
up  to  it,  imperfect  at  Stonehenge,  though  better  marked 
at  Avebury,  and  the  central  dolmen,  wanting  at  Stone- 
henge, are  all  of  them  amplifications  of  the  simplest 
sepulchral  forms.  The  circle  is  an  enlarged  version  of 
the  ring  of  stones  placed  round  the  grave  mound  ;  the 
dolmen  represents  the  cist  w^ithin  it ;  the  avenue  is  merely 
the  continuation  of  the  underground  gallery  which  leads 
to  the  sepulchral  chamber,  which  remains  as  a  ritual 
survival  when,  owing  to  cremation  or  other  causes,  the 
galleried  chamber  to  which  it  led  has  itself  been  modified 
away.  He  also  thinks  that  the  central  object  of  Stone- 
henge was  probably  a  sacred  oak-tree,  "the  Celtic  image 
of  Zeus,"  according  to  Maximus  Tyrius.  Stonehenge 
is  perhaps  the  latest  of  these  monuments ;  it  is,  at  any 
rate,  the  only  one  in  which  there  is  evidence  of  dressing 
or  workmanship  as  applied  to  the  stones  of  which  the 
monument  is  constructed.  Mr.  Arthur  Evans  did  not 
hesitate  to  place  it  at  quite  a  late  date,  holding  that  it 
belongs  "  to  the  same  age  as  the  latest  class  of  the  round 
barrows  by  which  it  was  surrounded— a  class  of  barrows 


MEGALITHIC    REMAINS  185 

which  it  would  not  be  safe  to  bring  down  beyond  the 
approximate  date  of  250  B.C."  On  the  other  hand,  since 
the  article  from  which  this  quotation  has  been  taken  was 
written,  an  opportunity  for  a  more  complete  investigation 
of  the  circle  has  been  afforded,  and  has  been  conducted 
under  the  guidance  of  Mr.  Gowland,  whose  discoveries 
seem  to  show  that  it  was  erected  at  the  very  end  of  the 
Neolithic  period,  when  bronze  was  just  becoming  known, 
but  was  still  unutilised  for  the  purpose  of  making  im- 
plements.^ Stonehenge  consists  of  the  following  parts  : 
(i.)  a  shallow  ditch  and  bank,  which  opens  out  at  one 
point  into  an  avenue  flanked  by  a  ditch  and  bank  on 
either  side  ;  (ii.)  a  ring  of  hewn  local  sarsen  stones,  with 
imposts  mortised  to  them  ;  (iii.)  a  ring  of  less  perfectly 
hewn,  diabase  pillars ;  (iv.)  an  ellipse  of  hewn  sarsen 
trilithons,  with  mortise  and  tenon  connections  ;  (v.)  an 
ellipse  of  less  perfectly  hewn  diabase  pillars  ;  (vi.)  a  single 
recumbent  rock  of  different  character  from  the  rest.  The 
plan,  which  Mr.  Gowland  has  kindly  permitted  me  to 
reproduce  (Fig.  68),  is  the  result  of  his  recent  survey.  It 
shows  the  standing  and  recumbent  stones,  differentiating 
between  "sarsen"  and  diabase,  but  not  the  ditch,  which 
is  too  far  distant  to  come  into  a  plan  on  this  scale.  The 
portions  marked  "excavations"  are  the  places  examined 
during  the  operations  for  raising  the  stone  described  in 
Mr.  Gowland's  paper  in  Arcliceologia  cited  above.  The 
igneous,  or  "blue"  stones,  were  formerly  regarded  as 
strangers  brought  from  a  distance,  but  Professor  Judd 
has  recently  examined  them,  and  believes  that  they  are 
ice-borne  boulders,  the  relics  of  a  former  drift  deposit. 
He  also  thinks  that  they  were  probably  commoner  formerly 
than  now,  and  that,  perhaps,  an  accidental  abundance  of 
them  at  or  near  Stonehenge  may  have  helped  to  determine 
the   selection    of  this   site.     In   the  examination   recently 

^  Man,  1902,  6  and  i6;  ArcJiiCologia,  Iviii.  38. 


iS6    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

made  it  was  found  that  the  dressing  of  the  stones  had  not 
been  accomplished  with  the  aid  of  metal  tools  as  was 
formerly  thought.  ' '  The  tabular  structure  of  the  ' sarsens, ' 
and  their  great  inequality  of  hardness,  makes  very  little 
working  necessary.  They  seem  to  have  been  broken  to 
shape  by  alternate  heating  and  chilling,  and  by  the  use  of 
the  heavy  mauls ;  but  their  preliminary  dressing  took 
place  at  a  distance,  and  all  that  can  be  seen  at  Stone- 
henge  are  the  grooves  pounded  out  by  the  mauls  and 
the  traces  of  the  sideward  blows  by  which  the  interven- 
ing ridges  were  obliterated.  The  '  blue-stones '  show  no 
grooves,  but  also  no  such  careful  shaping  as  the  'sarsens.' 
The  surface  tooling  was  effected  by  hammer-stones." 
(Gowland.)  The  tools  found  during  the  excavations  were 
of  several  classes  :  (i.)  haches,  longer  or  shorter;  (ii.)  an 
intermediate  type  much  chipped  and  blunted ;  (iii.)  hammer- 
axes  ;  (iv.)  intermediate  types  of  hammer-stones  with 
traces  of  an  edge.  The  four  types  thus  described  were 
all  of  flint,  unhafted,  and  too  brittle  for  use  on  "hard 
sarsens"  or  "  blue-stones,"  though  they  would  have  been 
serviceable  for  working  the  softer  varieties,  (v.)  Regular 
hammer-stones  of  quartzite,  more  or  less  chipped,  from 
one  to  six  pounds  in  weight ;  (vi.)  quartzite  mauls,  with 
two  well-defined  faces,  and  traces  of  a  waist,  as  if  to  hold  a 
rope ;  these  weighed  from  thirty-seven  to  sixty-four  pounds, 
and  are  similar  to  the  great  stone  mauls  used  in  Japan, 
which  are  raised  and  let  fall  by  ropes  held  by  several  men, 
whilst  another  man  directs  their  aim  by  a  wooden  handle. 
The  mode  of  erection  of  these  great  stones  has  often 
excited  curiosity.  Those  of  the  outermost  circle,  thirty 
in  number  when  the  circle  was  perfect,  are  each  sixteen 
feet  in  height  and  three  and  a  half  feet  distant  from  one 
another.  The  stones  of  the  great  trilitha  of  the  ellipse 
gradually  rise  in  height  to  twenty-five  feet,  the  stature 
of  the  tallest.     The  diabase  pillars  are  only  about  six  feet 


1  SAR5EN 
J  DIABASE 
3   OTHER   STONES 


OVERTHROWN  [ZZ]     bc^vl 
CXCAVATIONS  ^H 


40  50 


SCALC   OF   TECT 
FIG.    68 
PLAN    OF    STONEHENGE 


i8S    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

in  height.  As  regards  the  problem  of  their  setting  up, 
Mr.  Gowland  remarks  :  "It  differed  in  different  cases,  for 
the  'recumbent  stone,'  twenty-five  feet  long,  went  only- 
four  feet  into  the  ground,  while  the  '  leaning  stone,'  twenty- 
nine  feet  long,  went  eight  feet  down.  The  reason  is 
obvious,  for  the  two  stones  were  set  up  as  a  pair  to  carry 
a  lintel  in  the  most  important  part  of  the  whole  structure. 
The  shorter  stone,  therefore,  being  set  less  deep,  had  a 
more  elaborate  base,  and,  to  gain  base,  was  only  dressed 
on  the  parts  which  showed  above  ground.  The  leaning 
stone  was  erected  by  (i.)  excavating  a  pit  with  three 
vertical  walls  and  one  sloping  rim  on  the  side  next  the 
stone  ;  (ii.)  raising  the  head-end  of  the  stone  by  levers 
and  timber  packing  till  its  foot  slid  down  the  sloping  rim 
into  the  pit ;  (iii.)  hoisting  it  from  about  fifty  degrees  into 
an  erect  position  by  ropes  ;  (iv.)  securing  it  in  its  place  by 
the  smaller  '  sarsens '  which  support  its  oblique  lower 
surface.  Similar  leverage  is  customarily  employed  in 
Japan  with  trunks  of  trees,  and  many  rope-ends  each 
pulled  by  one  man.  The  '  recumbent'  stone,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  (i.)  supported  at  its  foot-end  on  a  low  wall  of 
small  'sarsens';  then  (ii.)  tipped  upright,  as  above, 
against  two  large  'sarsens'  placed  in  front;  then  (iii.) 
packed  tight,  as  above,  with  disused  mauls."  On  one 
stone  a  stain  of  copper  oxide  was  discovered,  from  which 
it  is  concluded  that  that  metal  was  known  though  not 
employed  in  the  execution  of  the  work. 

From  what  we  know  of  the  date  of  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Bronze  Age  in  this  country,  then,  the  date 
of  the  circle  may  be  set  down  at  somewhere  between 
2000-1800  B.C.  An  attempt  has  been  made  to  work 
out  the  date  on  the  hypothesis  that  the  circle  was 
oriented  with  respect  to  the  sun  at  the  time  of  the 
summer  solstice. 

To    the    N.E.    of    Stonehenge    is   the   detached   stone 


MEGALITHIC    REMAINS 


189 


known  as  ''The   Friar's   Heel."      Lockyer  and   Penrose 

working   on    these    lines   obtained   a   date   of    1680   B.C. 

with  a  possible  error  in  either  direction  of  two  hundred 

years. 

All  that  remains  of  Avebury  shows  us  that  when  it  was 

in    its   prime    it  was  a   far    more  imposing  edifice  than 

Stonehenge,  and  that  Au- 
brey was  right  in  saying 
that  it  as  far  surpassed 
that  erection  as  a  cathedral 
does  a  parish  church.  It 
has,  however,  been  so  much 
despoiled  by  "Farmer 
fGreen"  and  other  depre- 
dators that  it  requires  a 
plan  and  some  imagination 
to  form  any  sort  of  an  idea 
of  what  it  must  originally 
have  looked  like.  The  great 
FIG.  69.    PLAN  OF  AVEBURY,  SHOWING    rampart  and  fosse  are  still 

FOSSE,  CIRCLES  AND  AVENUES  AS  THEY         ,  ,       ^  , 

TROBABLY  EXISTED  therc,   and   form,    perhaps, 

the  most  striking  of  the 
existing  parts  of  the  temple.  They  enclose  an  area  of 
twenty-eight  and  a  half  acres,  and  have  a  diameter  of 
1,200  feet.  The  depth  of  the  fosse  is  still  forty  feet, 
and  as  it  is  inside  the  rampart  it  is  evident  that  its 
purpose  was  not  defensive.  Within  the  ditch  was  a 
circle  of  rough  stones — unlike  Stonehenge,  the  stones 
here  are  quite  unhewn — which  encloses  two  circles,  each 
with  a  smaller  concentric  circle  in  its  interior.  In  the 
centre  of  each  pair  of  circles  there  appears  to  have  been 
an  arrangement  of  stones  called  a  cove.  These  points 
will  be  seen  indicated  in  Fig  69,  where  also  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  commencement  of  two  avenues  is  repre- 
sented.    One  of  these   is  still   sufficiently  obvious,   and 


I90    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

leads  in  the  direction  of  West  Kennett,  of  the  existence  of 
the  other  there  is  more  doubt. 

A  few  notes  concerning  some  cf  the  other  circles  in 
this  country  will  be  given  in  the  list  at  the  end  of  the 
chapter,  and  attention  may  be  called  to  the  figure  showing 
the   set  of  circles  at    Stanton   Drew    (Fig.    70).     Before 


W0  %^ 


FIG.   70.       PLAN   OF   STONE   CIRCLES 
Stanton  Drew 

leaving  this  for  the  next  group  of  megaliths,  however, 
attention  must  be  called  to  a  quite  different  form  of  circle 
met  with  in  Cornwall.  Here  encircling  walls  of  large 
stones,  set  on  edge  and  with  earth  between  them,  are 
found  as  the  fence  around  groups  of  hut  dwellings ;  these 
are,  of  course,  in  no  way  akin  to  the  circles  which 
have  lately  been  engaging  our  attention. 

Alignments. — Rows  or  avenues  of  stones  are  often 
associated  with  stone  circles,  as  we  have  just  seen  to  be 
the  case  at  Avebury.  In  this  country  this  class  of  monu- 
ment is  best  seen  on  Dartmoor,  though  the  objects  there 
are  almost  insignificant  when  compared  with  the  avenues 


MEGALITHIC    REMAINS  191 

of  Carnac  in  Brittany.  On  Dartmoor^  there  are  thirty- 
eight  stone  rows,  of  which  twenty-five  are  associated 
with  circles.  In  its  typical  and  complete  form,  in  fact, 
the  Dartmoor  row  begins  with  a  circle  and  ends  with 
a  menhir.  Within  the  circle  is  very  commonly,  though 
not  always,  a  barrow  or  a  cistvaen.  The  circles  are 
free-standing,  and  have  never  been  the  supports  of  a 
mound. 

The  most  celebrated  are  the  Merivale  rows,  of  which 
the  north  avenue  commences  with  a  circle  around  a 
menhir.  The  south  avenue  ends  with  a  menhir  at  each 
end,  and  has  a  circle  twelve  feet  in  diameter  midway. 
This  circle  once  enclosed  a  cistvaen.  To  the  north-west 
of  the  rows  is  the  great  menhir,  with  the  remains  of  a 
small  circle  around  it,  and  also  the  fragments  of  a  row. 
The  great  circle,  which  is  near  by,  is  fifty-four  feet  in 
diameter,  and  at  present  isolated.  It  may,  however,  very 
probably  have  been  connected  with  the  other  works  by  an 
avenue  now  destroyed. 

At  Callernish-  there  is  a  similar  conjunction  of  circle 
and  avenues.  The  circle  is  forty-two  feet  in  diameter, 
and  single  lines  of  four  or  five  stones  each  extend 
E.,  S.,  and  W.  from  it.  Somewhat  E.  of  N.  there  are 
two  longer  lines,  one  of  nine  and  one  of  ten  stones.  The 
ends  of  these  lines  are  294  feet  from  the  centre  of  the 
circle,  i.e.  just  seven  diameters  of  the  circle. 

The  view  that  these  circles  were  solar  or  stellar  temples 
is  one  which  has  long  been  suggested,  and  has  recently 
received    great    support   from  the  writings  of   Lockyer,^ 

^  For  an  account  of  these  objects  see  Worth,  Cornivall  Roy.  Inst.  Joiirn., 
xii.  76. 

-  Lewis,  Cornivall  Roy.  Inst.  Joiirn.,  xiv.  378,  and  Proc.  Roy.  Sac.  Anf. 
Ireland,  ix.  26S. 

^'  Stonelienge  and  other  British  Stone  Monionents.  Sir  Norman  Lock- 
yer. 


192    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Somerville/  and  others.  Mr.  Lewis,  for  example,  who 
has  devoted  much  attention  to  this  particular  question,  has 
pointed  out  that  of  twenty-one  circles  in  South  Britain, 
nineteen  have  special  reference  to  the  N.E.  and  nine  to 
the  S.E. 

The  theory  put  forward  is  that  not  only  the  circles, 
but  also  many  dolmens,  menhirion,  and  other  mega- 
liths in  association  with  mountain  peaks  or  other  objects 
formed  sight  lines  oriented  for  the  purpose  of  mark- 
ing solstitial  sunrises  or  sunsets,  or  both  ;  some  for 
sunrise  or  sunset  at  the  equinoxes  ;  some  for  sunrise  or 
sunset  at  a  point  equidistant  in  time  between  solstice  and 
equinox  (namely,  at  the  beginning  of  May,  August, 
November,  and  February),  some  for  the  rising  and  setting 
of  a  star,  or  of  the  moon.  There  seems  considerable 
probability  that  such  monuments  as  Stonehenge  were 
oriented  with  reference  to  the  summer  solstice,  but  the 
relation  of  others  to  stars  is  a  question  which  can  only 
adequately  be  discussed  by  those  who  have  a  much  more 
profound  knowledge  of  astronomy  than  falls  to  the  lot  of 
the  present  writer.  But  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  there 
is  a  most  fruitful  field  for  inquiry  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  the  relation  of  megalithic  monuments  to  the  sun 
and  other  heavenly  bodies. 

Menhirion. — The  menhir,  or  standing  stone  (Figs.  71 
and  72),  is  as  ancient  an  institution  as  it  is  world-wide, 
and,  in  the  shape  of  obelisks  and  monuments,  persistent. 
Such  stones,  as  indicated  in  the  section  immediately 
preceding,  are  sometimes  met  with  in  conjunction  with 
other  varieties  of  megaliths.     Sometimes,  as  at  the  Tingle- 

'  Proc.  R.  S.  A>2tiq.  of  Ireland,  part  2,  vol.  xxxix.  p.  192.  See 
also  a  discussion  of  the  question  in  Ancient  Britain,  by  Rice  Holmes, 
p.  215. 


MEGALITHIC   REMAINS 


193 


.■-9-> 


•.-  ii'-.^.^  -•■•■v-»  ■■'■■-■  '■•"■ 


,  V'< 


FIG.   71.       THE   KINGSTONE 
Rollright,  Warwickshire 

stone  barrow,  the  menhir  is  on  the  mound,  sometimes  it 
is,  as  at  Ablington,  inside  the  chamber  of  burial,  some- 
times it  is  embedded  in  the  substance  of  the  mound  itself. 
Again,  the  menhir  may  be  quite  isolated  and  independent 
of  other  ancient  remains.  Perhaps  this  is  the  most 
o 


194    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

common  occurrence.  In  this  country  they  are  not 
usually  of  great  size,  that  at  Clun,  for  example,  measures 
eight  feet  in  height,  six  and  a  half  feet  in  width,  and 
eight  inches  to  a  foot  in  thickness.  In  Brittany  menihirion 
exist  of  much  greater  size,  for  that  at  Dol  is  twenty-eight 


FIG.   72.       MENHIR 
Woeful  Dane's  Bottom,  Gloucestershire 


feet  above  the  soil  and  sixteen  feet  below.  The  great 
menhir  of  Men-er-H'roeck  at  Locmariaquer  was  sixty-four 
feet  high  before  it  was  shattered  by  a  stroke  of  lightning. 
These  stone  pillars  sometimes  bear  cup-and-ring  mark- 
ings. Occasionally  they  are  perforated,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Men-an-Tol  in  Cornwall  and  the  menhir  at  Woeful 
Dane's  Bottom  in  Gloucestershire.  (Fig.  72.)    In  this  last 


MEGALITHIC   REMAINS  195 

case,  however,  the  perforations  are  small  and  natural,  but 
may  still  have  added  to  the  importance,  perhaps  to  the 
sanctity,  of  the  stone  in  the  eyes  of  its  erectors.  Like 
many  other  menhirion,  this  object  is  just  a  rough,  un- 
shaped  block  of  stone,  like  many  another  that  might  be 
met  with  on  the  seashore.  It  is  only  the  inexperienced 
who  imagine  that  menhirion  must  necessarily  be  slender, 
shapely  monuments.  Perforated  menhirion  occur  also  in 
Ireland^  and  Cyprus.- 

LIST  OF   DOLMENS    IN   ENGLAND 

This  list  includes  a  few  cistvaens,  which  are  specially  indicated. 

BERKSmRE. — "  Wayland  Smith's  Cave."  Remains  of  chambered 
dolmen  in  clump  of  trees,  on  downs  near  White  Horse 
and  Icknield  Street.     {ArchceoL,  xxxii.  312.) 

Cornwall. — Ballowal. 
Bosporthennis. 

Caerwynen  Quoit,  in  Pendarves  Park,  near  Camborne. 
Carn  Kenidzhek,  near  St.  Just. 
Chapel-carn-Brea,  St.  Just.     (Also  cist.)     (Small  dolmen 

in  mound.) 
*Chun  Cromlech,  near  the  Land's  End. 
Crouza  Downs,  St.  Keverne.     "The  Three  Brothers  of 

Grugith."     (Cistvaen.) 
Hawkstor,  near  the  Stripple  Stones. 
*Lanyon  Quoit,    Boswavas   Moor.     Upset   in    181 5,   but 

restored  in  1824,  though  not  as  it  originally  stood. 

{ArchcBol.^  xxxii.  314.) 
Mulfra  Quoit,  near  Lamorna  Cove.     (Ruined.)    One  mile 

from  this  is  another  ruined  dolmen. 
Pawton,  St.  Breock.     (Small  dolmen  in  a  mound.) 
Sancreed.     (Small  dolmen  in  mound.) 
St.  Columb  Major,  i  S.E.  of.     (Ruined.) 
Tregifhan,  St.  Just. 

Trethill,  nr.  Sherock.   (Cistvaens.  Jl.  Plym.  I?isi.,\n\.  134.) 
Trevethy  Quoit,  near  St.  Clear. 

West  Lanyon  Quoit,  Boswavas  Moor.     See  p.  175. 
*Zennor  Quoit,  near  St.  Ives. 

^  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Ant.  Ireland,  vi.  158  ;  Wakeman's  Handbook,  p.  14. 
^  L Anthropologie,  vi.  158. 


196    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Derbyshire. — Minning  Low. 

Ringham  Low.     Chambered  tumulus.     (Jewitt,  p.  70.) 
Taddington,   near.       "The    Five   Wells."      Chambered 
tumulus.      (//;.,  p.  69.) 

Devonshire — 

(Nearly  100  cistvaens  in  this  county  are  enumerated  in 
the  2 1st  Report  of  the  Barrow  Committee,  Trans.  Devon. 
Ass.  for  Adv.  ofSci.,  1902,  xxxiv.) 
Archerton,  Dartmoor.     Cistvaen. 
Brown  Heath. 

Cawsand  Beacon.     Cistvaen. 
Coryton  Ball.      Ruined  dolmen. 
Grims  Grove.     Ruined  dolmen. 
Harter  Tor. 
Hound  Tor  Down. 
Lake  Head  Hill.     Two  cistvaens. 
Lundy  Island. 

Merivale  Bridge.     Ruined  dolmen. 
Morte  Point,  near  Ilfracombe. 
*"The  Spinster's  Rock,"  near  Drewsteignton. 
Trowlesworthy  Tor. 
Yar  Tor,  near  Buckfastleigh.     Cistvaen. 

(See  also  list  of  Megalithic  remains  infra.) 

Dorsetshire. — Carlben  Circle,  near,  on  the  Bridport-Dorchester 
road.     (Ruined.) 
**'The  Grey  Mare  and  Her  Colts."     Gorwell,  Blackdown. 
"The   Hellstone. "      On   Ridge   Hill,   above  Portisham. 

(Restored.) 
Two  Gates,  on  the  Roman  Bridport-Dorchester  road. 

Gloucestershire  (city  of  Bristol). — Stoke  Bishop. 

Herefordshire. — "Arthur's  Stone."     Moccas,  near  the  Dore 
Valley. 

Kent. — "  The  Countless  Stones,"  near  Aylesford.     (Apparently 
remains  of  a  chambered  tumulus.) 
*"  Kit's  Coty  House,"  near  Aylesford.    {ArchcBol.^  ii.  116.) 

Monmouthshire. — Newchurch,  near  Caerwent. 

Northumberland. — Alnwick  Deer  Park.     Cistvaen  of  Bronze 
Period. 


MEGALITHIC    REMAINS  197 

Oxfordshire. — Enstone,  near.    "The  Hoar  Stone. "    (Ruined.) 
Steeple  Aston,  near.     "The  Hoar  Stone." 
Rollright.    "  The  Whispering  Knights."    (Partly  ruined.) 

Somerset. — Wellow.  Dolmen  in  mound.  {Jl.  Ajith.  Insi.^-xA.iiS.) 

Westmorland. — Brougham.    Moorhouse  Farm.    Cistvaen  with 
contracted  body.     Food  and  drink  vessels. 

Wiltshire. — *"The   Devil's    Den."      Clatford    Bottom,    near 

Marlborough. 
"The  Hareholes."     Two  cistvaens  at  Lockeridge. 
Nettleton,  near  Castle  Combe. 
West  Kennett.    Dolmen  in  mound.     Ruined.    {ArchcBoL, 

xlii.  213.) 

LIST  OF  OTHER   MEGALITHIC   REMAINS    IN 
ENGLAND 

Cheshire. — "The  Bridestones. "     On  Cloud  Hill,  near  Congle- 
ton.     Remains  of  circle  and  avenue. 

Cornwall.^ — "  The  Bhnd  Fiddler."    Menhir,  Higher  Drift,  near 

Penzance.     Two  other  menhirion  near  this. 
Boscawen-un.       Circle    with    central    standing   stone,    a 

most  rare  occurrence. 
Bosporthenis.     Circle  on  downs  to  E.  of. 
BoUeit.     Circle. 

Carwen.     Circle  and  enclosures. 
*"  Dawns  Men."    (Stone  Dance.)    "  The  Merry  Maidens." 

Circle  of  nineteen  stones,  near  Lamorna  Cove. 
Duloe  circle,  near  St.  Keynes.     Probably  enclosing  ring 

of  a  cairn. 
Fernacre,   near    Garrah.     Circle    140   feet   in   diameter ; 

forty-five  out  of  fifty-five  stones  still  standing. 
"The  Giant's  Staflf."     Menhir  12  feet  high,  near  Pen- 

tewan. 
*"  The    Hurlers."     Three    intersecting   circles    near    the 

Cheesewring.     {Arch.  Journ.^  1862.) 
Kenidzhek.     Alignment   near    "The    Merry    Maidens," 

and  row  of  three  whole  stones  at  Boslow  end  of  moor. 
The  Longstone.     Menhir  near  Woon  Gumpus  Common, 

Land's  End. 

^  For  a  paper  on  Stone  Circles  of  East  Cornwall,  by  St.  G.  Gray,  see 
ArchcEologia,  Ixi.  i.  i.     See  also  Lewis, y/.  Anthrop.  Inst.,  1895  and  1905. 


198    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Cornwall  {contd.) — 

*"Men-an-Tol,"  or  **The  Crick  Stone."     A  holed  stone, 

the  centre  of  three   monoliths.     The   hole   is   21  x  i8 

inches  on  one  side,  smaller  on  the  other.     The  stone 

is  3  feet  9  inches  in  height. 
"The  Merry  Maidens."    Circle  on  Carn  Kenidzhek,  near 

St.  Just,  72  feet  in  diameter. 
Newtown,  near  St.  Buryan.     Two  holed  stones. 
*"The  Nine  Maidens."     Boskednan,   near  Ding   Dong. 

Circle  72  feet  in  diameter. 
♦'The  Nine  Maidens."     On  St.  Breock  Downs.      Eight 

stones,  formerly  nine,  forming  an  alignment  262  feet 

long. 
Pridden,  near  St.  Buryan.    Menhir  and  Roundago.   {Proc. 

Soc.  Ant.^  ii.  vi.  500.) 
"The  Old  Man,"  or   "The  Fiddler."     On   St.   Breock 

Down,   near   "The  Nine   Maidens."     Menhir  7|  feet 

high. 
"The  Pipers."     Trewoofe,  near  St.  Just.     Two  mono- 
liths  320  feet  apart,   and   13^  and    15I  feet  high  re- 
spectively. 
Stannon    Down,    near    Bodmin.     Circle    of    seventy-six 

stones,  134  feet  in  diameter. 
"  The  Stripple  Stones."    Hawkstor,  near  Bodmin.    Circle 

(five  erect,  eleven  fallen)  148  feet  in  diameter. 
Tregaseale,  St.  Just.     Two  circles. 
"The  Trippet  Stones."     One  mile  from  "The  Stripple 

Stones,"  on  a  moor  near  Carbilly.     Circle  (nine  erect, 

four  fallen),  105  feet  in  diameter. 

Cumberland — 

Ainstable.     Circle. 

Bampton  Common.     Standing  stones. 

Burn  Moor,  near  Eskdale.     Circles.     {Proc.  Soc.  Ant.y  ii. 

xii.  92.) 
Dacre,  Yamonside.     Circles.     (Perhaps  natural.) 
Dalston,  Chapel  Flat.    Circle. 
*"  Grey  Yauds."    Circle.     Cumwhitton,  King  Harry  Fell 

(Nearly  destroyed.) 
*"  Keswick."     Circle. 
Kirk  Santon.      "The  Standing  Stones,"  called  "Giants' 
Graves,"  and  two  small  circles. 


MEGALITHIC    REMAINS  199 

Cumberland  {contd.) — 

Lamplugh,  Stockhow.     Circle. 
*"  Long  Meg-  and  her  Daughters."    Half-mile  N.  of  Little 
Salkeld.     Circle  with  cup-and-circle  markings.     There 
is  a  second  small  circle,  which  formerly  had  a  cairn  in 
its  centre.     Cup-and-circle  markings  here  also.     {Proc. 
Soc.  Au^.,  ii.  X.  310.) 
Studfold  Gate.     Reported  remains  of  stone  circle. 
Swarth  Fell.     Menhir. 
*Swinside,  Sunkenkirk,  near  Millom.     Circle.    {Proc.  Soc. 
Ant.,  ii.  xix.  98.) 
(Note. — The  circles  at  Annanside,  Gutterby  Kirkstones,  and  the  Standing 
Stones  at  Hall  Foss,  all  of  which  were  near  Whitbeck,  have  been  destroyed.) 

Derbyshire — 

*Arborlow,  Youlgrave.     Circle  with  ditch   and  rampart. 
{Archceologia,  vii.   112;  Iviii.  part  2;  Man,   1903,    133, 

I45-) 
Beeley  Moor,  above  Chatsworth.     Circle. 

Cadster,  near  Chapel-en-le- Frith.     Circle. 

Derwent,  if  S.E.  of.     Circle. 

Eastmoor,  near  Ramsley  Lodge.     Circle. 

Eyam,    i|  N.    of,   on   Eyam   Moor.       "Wet  Withins." 

Circle.     {Man,  1903,  135  ;  Jl.  Anth.  hist.,  1874.) 
Froggatt  Edge.     Circle. 

Hathersage,  near.     Two  circles  with  tumuli. 
"Marl  Wark."    2\  miles  W.  of  Dore.     Circle. 
"The    Nine    Ladies,"    Stanton -in -the -Peak.       Circle. 

{Archceologia,  vi.  112;  Man,  1903,  136.) 

Devonshire — 

Assycombe.     Cairn  and  row. 
*"The   Bair  Down   Man."        Menhir,   near  Princetown. 

(Cf.  Dartmoor  Pictorial  Records,  iii.  56.) 
Batworthy.     Three  circles  and  rows. 
Bellaford  Tor.     Circle  and  cistvaen. 
Bisworthy.      Circle. 
Brown    Heath,    near   Erme    Head.     Avenue   and   circle 

enclosing  dolmen. 
Challacombe  Down.     Four  rows  of  stones  with  menhir. 
Cholwich  Town.     Circle  and  avenue. 
Cocks  Tor.     Circles  and  rows. 


200    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Devonshire  (contd.) — 

Conies  Down.     Cairns  and  rows. 
Cordon.     Triple  rows. 

Coryton  Ball.     Seven  parallel  rows  of  stones. 
Down  Tor.     Circle,  row,  and  menhir. 
Drewsteij^'nton. 

Drizzlecombe.     Three  circles,  row,  and  menhir. 
*"  The  Grey  Wethers."    Two  circles  under  Sittaford  Tor. 
Gidleigh.     Menhir.     {Darim.  Pict.  Rec,  iii.  56.) 
Glazecombe.     Circle  and  row. 
Grimsgrove.     Circle  and  cistvaen. 
Harford,  near  Ivybridge.     Circle  and  cistvaen. 
Hound  Tor.     Circle  with  cistvaen. 

Lew  Trenchard.     Menhir.     {Darim.  Pict.  Rec.^  iii.  56.) 
*"  The  Long  Stones."     Scorhill  Down.     Circle.     {Dartm. 

Pict.  Rec,  I.  45.) 
Loo  Hill,  near  Sidford.     Menhir. 
*Merivale    Bridge.     Three   circles,   two    avenues,  and   a 

menhir.     {Dartm.  Pict.  Rec,  i.  49.) 
"The  Nine  Maidens,"  or  "The  Nine  Stones."     Belstone 

Tor.     Circle. 
Raybarrow.     Circle. 
Ringmore.      Circle. 
Shavercombe.     Circle  with  cistvaen. 
Sherberton. 
*Shuffle  Down.      Five  rows  of  stones,  with  "The  Long 

Stone,"  a  menhir,  also  pounds. 
Stalldon  Moor.     Circle  with  avenues. 
Throwleigh.     Circle. 
Tolch  Gate.     Circle  and  avenues, 
Trowlesworthy    Tor.       Avenues    and    single    row    with 

circles. 
Yardsworthy.     Circle,  row,  and  menhir. 
Yar  Tor.     Many  lines  of  stones. 

(Note. — The  megalithic  and  rude  stone  remains  of  Dartmoor,  including 
Pounds  and  the  different  objects  mentioned  above,  are  very  numerous,  and 
some  are  very  difficult  to  place.  For  further  information,  see  a  paper  in 
Cornwall  Roy.  Inst,  journal,  xii.  76,  also  Page,  Aji  Exploration  of  Dart- 
moor, Baring  Gould's  Book  of  Dartmoor,  and  Trans.  Plymouth  Inst,  x.  289, 
xi.  173. 


MEGALITHIC    REMAINS  201 

Dorsetshire. — "The  Broad  Stone."     Fallen  menhir,  on  road- 
side, near  Winterborne  Abbas. 
Carlben   Circle,   near    Longbredy  Gate.     Stones  almost 

entirely  buried.     A  few  isolated  stones  near  by. 
Kingstone  Russell,  near.      Menhir. 

"  The  Nine  Stones."  Small  circle  nearWinterborne Abbas. 
Osmington  Hill.    Small  circle  with  remains  of  avenue. 
*Tenant  Hill,  near  Kingston  Russell  Farm.     Circle. 

Gloucestershire — 

"The  Hoar  Stone."     Menhir,  near  Lower  Swell. 
Marshfield.     Remains  of  circle. 
*"The  Tingle   Stone."      Menhir  standing  on  a  barrow 
near  Avening. 
"The  Whittle  Stone."     Menhir,  near  Lower  Swell. 
*Woeful  Dane's  Bottom,  near  Minchinhampton.     Menhir. 

Hampshire.— "  The  Long  Stone."     Menhir,  near  Brixton,  Isle 
of  Wight. 

Kent — Addington  Park.  Two  circles  with  (?)  remains  of  dolmens. 

Coldrum  Farm,  near  Addington  Park,  on  a  hill.  Circle 
with  dolmen.  (Lewis,  Anthropologia,  1874  >  ^^so  Man, 
1904,  23  ;  and  Clinch,  AlaUy  1904,  12.) 

Ryarsh,  Gold  Piece  Field. 

White  Horse  Hill,  in  Poundgate  or  White  Horse  Wood. 
At  this  place  and  Ryarsh  are  blocks  of  stone  which 
may  have  formed  part  of  an  avenue  connecting  the 
above-mentioned  circles  with  Kit's  Coty  House,  which 
is  six  miles  distant. 

Lancashire. — Banniside,  Coniston.     Interment  circle. 

*Birk   Rigg,   near   Bardsea.     Circle  with    enclosure    and 
tumulus.     {ArchcEologia,  liii.  418.) 
Bleaberry  Hawes.     {lb.) 
*Bleasdale,  near  Garstang.    A  remarkable  double  circle  of 
timber,  with   a  central  interment  containing  calcined 
bones. 
"The  Calderstones,"   near  Liverpool.       Arranged  in   a 
circle,  but  probably  remains  of  a  dolmen.     Cup-and- 
circle  markings.      (Herdman,    Trans.   Liverpool  Biol. 
Soc,  Dec,  1896.) 
Knapperthaw,  near  Lowick.     Remains  of  a  circle. 
Rusland  Whitestock.     Menhir. 


202    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Leicestershire — Charnwood     Forest,     near    the     Monastery. 
Doubtful  circle,  perhaps  natural. 

Northumberland — 

Alnwick  Park.      "  The  Lon£jstone."     Menhir. 
Carting-ton,  near  Debdon  House.      Part  of  circle. 
Doddiii'jton.      Part  of  circle. 

"The  Duddo  Stones."     Grindon  Rig-.     Part  of  circle. 
"The  Five  King's."     Vale  of  Coquet.     Part  of  circle. 
Flodden.     Menhir. 
Humbleton.      Menhir. 

"The  Hurl  Stone,"  near  Lilburn.     Menhir. 
Lordenshaw  Camp,  near.     Rothbury.     Avenues. 
*"The   Poind   and   his  Man."     Two  monoliths   and  two 
barrows  were  here  in  171 8.     One  monolith  has.  been 
removed. 
*Roddam,  near.     At  the  Three  Stone  Burn.     Remains  of 
a  circle.     Three  upright,  twelve  fallen  stones, 
Matfen.        "The     Standing     Stone,"    near     Corbridge. 

Menhir. 
Swinburn,  Chollerton.      Menhir. 
Yeavering.     Menhir. 

Oxfordshire — 

"The  Devil's  Quoits."  Three  large  stones  near  Stanton 
Harcourt. 
*RolIright.  Circle.  Close  by  are  (i)  a  partly  ruined 
dolmen,  "The  Whispering  Knights,"  and  (2)  a  men- 
hir, "The  King's  Stone";  the  latter  just  across  the 
boundary  in  Warwickshire.  (See  an  admirable  account 
by  A.  Evans  in  Folk  Lore,  vi.  5). 

Shropshire — 

Clee  Hill,  near  Abdon  Burf.     Circle  and  menhir.      "The 
Giant's  Staff." 
*Clun  Valley,  near  Whitcott  Keysett.     Menhir. 
*"  Mitchell's  Fold."     Circle  near  Stapeley  Hill. 
Marshpool.     Circle  near  Stapeley  Hill. 
Stapeley  Hill,  summit  of.     Small,  nearly  buried  circle. 
"The  Whetstones,"  near   Stapeley    Hill.     Possibly   re- 
mains of  circle. 


MEGALITHIC    REMAINS  203 

Somerset — 

'*  Hauteville's  Quoit,"  near  Stanton  Drew.     Circle. 
*Stanton  Drew.     Circles.     {Proc.  Soc.  Ant.^  1883,  347.) 

Warwickshire — 

*"The  King's  Stone,"  near  Long  Compton,  and  close  to 
the  Rollright  Stones  in  Oxfordshire.      Menhir. 
Wardington.      "  The  Hoar  Stone."     Menhir. 

Westmorland — 

Crosby  Ravens  worth.      "  Druid  Circle."     Circles. 
Gamelands,  near  Raisbeck  Hall.     Orton.     Circles. 
*Gunnerfield,  near  Shap.   Circles  with  cairns.   (See  Carlisle 

vol.  Proc.  Arch.  Inst,  and  Proc.  Soc.  Ant.,  ii.  x.  319.) 
*"  Karl  Lofts"  and  "The  Guggleby  Stone,"  near  Shap. 
Circle    and    avenues.      (See    Gent.    Mag.    Lib.    Arch., 
ii.  72.) 
Leaset  Wood.     Clifton  Dykes. 
Lowther  Scar,  near  Bempton.     Circle. 
Moor  Divock,  Askham.     Circles.     Also  "  The  Copstone. " 

Menhir. 
Ravenstonedale,  Rotherbridge.     Circle, 

Wiltshire — 

*Avebury.     Circle  with  ditch  and  avenue.     Near  this  is 
Silbury  Hill,  an  artificial  mound  of  great  size  ;  nature 
still  undetermined.    {Archceol.  xxv.  and  Lord  Avebury's 
Prehistoric  Times. ) 
**  Longstone  Cove."    Two  stones  only  remaining  between 
Beckhampton  and  Avebury. 
*Stonehenge.     (See  references  in  pp.  183-190.) 
West  Kennett.     Remains  of  circles. 
Note. — The  circle  on  Overton  Hill,  East  Kennett,  has  been  destroyed. 

Yorkshire — 

"The  Bride  Stones."     Bilsdale.     Circle. 
"The  Bride  Stones."     Doedale.     Circle. 
"The  Bride  Stones,"  near  Grosmont.     Circle. 
"The    Bride    Stones."      Sleights    Moor,    near   Whitby, 
Circle. 

N.  of.     Circle. 


204    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Yorkshire  {contd.) — 

*'  Danby  Long  Stone."     Menhir,  near  the  ancient  village 
on  Danby  Moor. 
*"  The    Devil's  Arrows."     Three   stones   near   Borough- 
bridge.     {Proc.  Soc.  Ant.y  ii.  vii.  134.) 

"The  Lad  Stone,"  near  Greetland.     Menhir. 
*"The    Rudstone."      At     Rudstone-on-the-Wolds,     near 
Bridlington.      Menhir. 

Simon    Howe,     near    Goathland     Mill    Station.     Three 
upright  stones. 

"The   Standing   Stones."     if  S.W.    of   Robin    Hood's 
Bay,  on  Flyingdales  Moor. 

"The  Wolf's  Fold."     Beacon  Hill,  near  Slack.     Circle. 


CHAPTER    IX 
EARTHWORKS— CAMPS— DYKESi 

SCATTERED  all  over  the  face  of  the  country,  though 
in  much  greater  numbers  in  some  districts  than  in 
others,  are  a  large  variety  of  earthworks  of  a  defensive 
character.  From  the  great  size  which  they  sometimes 
reach,  and  the  commanding  positions  which  they  fre- 
quently occupy,  these  memorials  of  the  past  attract,  and 
have  always  attracted,  a  considerable  amount  of  attention. 
It  is  only,  however,  of  late  years  that  any  attempt  has 
been  made  to  arrange  them  in  a  scientific  manner,  and 
to  assign  dates  to  them  on  any  other  grounds  than  those 
supplied  by  the  imagination.  In  looking  through  the 
pages  of  guide-books  and  the  older  county  histories,  one 
notes  that  such  a  camp  has  been  assigned  to  the  Britons, 
a  second  to  the  Romans,  and  a  third  to  the  Danes  ;  but 
for  the  truth  of  such  assignations  no  evidence  as  a  rule  is 
forthcoming.  Shape  used  to  be  relied  upon  as  a  criterion, 
the  circular  camps  being  considered  British,  the  rect- 
angular Roman,  and  the  oval  Danish.  This  is  now 
known  to  be  a  fallacious  test,  for,  though  many  of  the 
rectangular  camps  are  of  Roman  origin,  any  hard  and 
fast  division  like  the  above  is  misleading,  and  must  be 
abandoned.  To  give  but  one  example  :  Pitt-Rivers  has 
shown  by  excavation  that  three  rectangular  camps — the 
South  Lodge,  Handley  Down,  and  Martin  Down  en- 
trenchments, are  all  of  the  bronze  period,  and,  therefore, 

^  Since  the  first  edition  of  this  book  appeared  great  progress  has  been 
made  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  earthworks.  Mr.  Hadrian  Allcroffs 
monumental  work  Earthwork  of  Englatid  {^\3l.cvi\\\\2lX\,  1908)  contains  an  ex- 
haustive account  of  the  whole  subject,  to  which  inquirers  may  be  referred. 
A  smaller  book  on  the  same  subject  has  been  published  by  Wall  in  the 
Antiquaries'  Primers  Series. 

205 


2o6    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

belonging  to  the  class  commonly  called  British.^  There 
is  only  one  way  of  dating  an  earthwork,  and  that  is  by 
trenching  and  excavating  it,  and  examining  the  objects 
thus  brought  to  light.  This  lesson,  together  with  the 
proper  method  of  carrying  out  such  an  examination,  is 
one  of  the  debts  which  the  science  of  prehistoric  archce- 
ology  owes  to  the  late  General  Pitt-Rivers.  Any  person 
who  visits  the  magnificent  collections  which  he  has  left 
behind  him  at  Farnham,  and  there  studies  the  series  of 
models  descriptive  of  the  excavations  which  he  carried 
out,  will  readily  understand  that  the  process  of  examining 
an  earthwork  thoroughly  is  a  somewhat  lengthy  and  ex- 
pensive one,  and  will  not  be  surprised  to  find  that  so  far 
it  has  only  been  applied  to  a  few  examples.  It  will  be  a 
long  time  before  any  large  number  of  earthworks  can  be 
examined  in  this  careful  manner,  and  it  must,  consequently, 
be  a  long  time  before  any  accurate  classification  of  such 
objects  can  be  undertaken.  Thanks,  however,  in  large 
measure  to  the  labours  of  Mr.  Chalkley  Gould  and  a 
committee  of  which  he  is  chairman,  steps  are  now  being 
taken  to  make  some  sort  of  a  division  and  census  of  earth- 
works in  this  country.  The  classification  which  he  has 
adopted  roughly  divides  the  objects  under  consideration 
into  those  which  are  probably  pre-Roman,  those  which 
may  be  Roman,  and  those  which  are  almost  certainly 
post-Roman.  Actually  the  classification  is  by  shape, 
but  roughly  it  works  out  somewhat  in  this  manner.  To 
the  last  group,  which  may  be  at  once  disposed  of,  belong 
the  moated  mounds  and  mounds  with  base-courts,  formerly 
supposed  to  be  the  buhrs  of  the  Saxon  period,  but  now 
thought,  with  greater  probability,  to  be  of  Norman  con- 
struction. These  form  a  quite  distinct  class,  and  cannot 
be  confused  with  the  pre-Roman  earthworks  by  any  person 
who  has  examined  an  example  of  each.     The  same  may 

^  Excavations,  vol.  iv. 


EARTHWORKS— CAMPS— DYKES  207 

be  said  of  the  moated  farmstead  enclosures,  many  of 
which  are  clearly  mediceval,  though  some  may  be  of 
earlier  date.  There  are  various  other  objects,  how- 
ever, which  more  closely  resemble  the  earthworks  with 
which  we  are  concerned  in  this  chapter,  and  of  which 
some  mention  must  be  made.  The  true  Roman  camp 
seems  usually  to  have  been  rectangular,  and  to  have 
possessed  four  entrances,  one  on  each  side,  which  en- 
trances were  not,  as  a  rule,  supplied  with  the  elaborate 
outworks  met  with  in  many  of  the  more  important 
earlier  fortresses.  When  we  come  across  a  construction 
of  this  kind  we  may  at  least  strongly  suspect  that  it 
is  not  of  pre-Roman  date.  Then  there  are  circular  en- 
closures with  ditch  and  mound,  but  with  the  former 
inside  the  latter,  of  which  examples  exist  at  Blois  Hall 
and  Thornborough  in  Yorkshire.  These  remind  us  of 
the  arrangement  already  noted  at  Avebury,  and  are 
perhaps  more  probably  religious  in  their  character  than 
military.  The  Cornish  "  rounds,"  which  may  have  been 
enclosures  for  the  purpose  of  games,  form  a  separate  class, 
and  so  also,  of  course,  do  the  Roman  amphitheatres,  of 
which  a  few  exist  in  this  country.  Then,  especially  in 
the  northern  parts  of  the  country,  where  earthworks  of 
all  kinds  are  peppered  so  thickly  over  the  hills,  we  have 
to  distinguish  from  the  earthworks  in  which  we  are  now 
interested  others  which,  though  they  have  been  set  down 
by  the  older  antiquaries  as  belonging  to  this  class,  may 
well  be  the  tun-garths  of  early  settlers,  or  pele-garths  or 
mediaeval  enclosures,  or  even  the  villages  of  the  sixteenth 
century  during  the  period  of  the  Scottish  raids.  Finally 
we  have  to  distinguish  between  the  true  camp  and  the 
fortified  town  or  oppidum,  often  a  difficult,  even  an  im- 
possible task.  In  the  case  of  a  village  like  that  at  Woodcuts, 
fully  described  by  Pitt-Rivers,  or  like  that  at  Chalbury, 
near   Weymouth,    though   there   are   embankments   and 


2o8    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

ditches,  yet  they  are  not  of  a  pronounced  character,  and 
are  evidently  so  subsidiary  to  the  pit-dwellings  which 
they  surround  that  we  may  fairly  call  such  a  collection 
of  earthworks  a  village.  But  let  us  take,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  case  of  such  a  fortress  as  Worlebury,  near 
Weston-super-Mare.  Here  there  is  no  question  as  to  the 
strength  of  the  fortifications,  which  are  powerful  enough 
to  place  it  in  the  first  rank  of  fortresses.  Yet,  on  the 
other  hand,  within  the  enclosure  are  about  one  hundred 
pits,  small  certainly  as  places  of  habitation,  perhaps  only 
the  cellars  or  storehouses  of  wigwams  erected  above  them, 
but  still  giving  evidence  that  this  earthwork  was  a  regular 
place  of  habitation.  The  same  might  be  said  about  other 
earthworks  which  have  been  carefully  examined,  Winkle- 
bury,  for  example.  These  we  must  certainly  speak  of  as 
fortified  towns,  or  oppida,  because  they  contain  places  of 
habitation.  It  is  very  dangerous  to  lay  down  laws  about 
matters  which  have  been  so  imperfectly  investigated  at 
present,  but  perhaps  one  may  venture  the  surmise  that 
there  were  three  classes  of  earthworks  more  or  less  over- 
lapping one  another.  There  was  the  strongly  fortified 
hill-camp,  intended  as  a  place  of  resort  in  an  emergency, 
but  not  as  a  place  of  habitation.  It  was  a  place  to  which 
the  inhabitants  of  the  valleys  betook  themselves  with  their 
families  and  their  herds  when  attacked  by  enemies,  but  a 
place  reserved  for  such  occasions,  and,  perhaps  on  account 
of  its  bleakness,  or  of  its  want  of  water,  unsuitable,  and 
unintended  for  any  protracted  occupation.  Then  there  was 
the  village,  surrounded  by  low  banks  and  ditches,  of  little 
use  for  purposes  of  defence,  but  subserving  other  ends, 
perhaps  as  cattle-folds,  or  means  of  drainage.  And 
finally  there  was  the  third  class  where,  because  the  local 
climate,  the  water  supply,  and  the  general  topographical 
conditions  were  all  favourable,  the  town  was  also  a  camp, 
and  served  the  purposes  both  of  a  habitation  and  a  fortress. 


EARTHWORKS-CAMPS-DYKES  209 

The  second  class  does  not  come  under  consideration  here, 
but  is  reserved  for  the  next  chapter.  Here  we  are  chiefly 
concerned  with  the  defensive  earthwork,  the  object  com- 
monly called  in  this  country  a  "camp,"  whether  with,  or 
without,  enclosed  hut-circles,  and  with  that  portion  of  this 
subject  which  relates  to  earthworks  of  the  pre-Roman 
period,  the  so-called  British  camps.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
this  title  ought  to  be  dropped  as  misleading,  and  that  of 
pre-Roman  earthworks  adopted,  since  it  commits  us  to  less 
than  the  other.  Certainly  many  of  these  works  are  of  the 
bronze  period,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  in  this 
country,  as  certainly  in  France,  some  of  them  were 
originally  constructed  in  the  Neolithic  age.  Here  again 
the  impossibility  of  deciding  without  excavation  must  be 
insisted  upon,  and  at  the  risk  of  being  tedious  a  further 
example  may  be  cited,  in  illustration  of  the  unexpected 
results  which  may  follow  a  proper  investigation.  "Cesar's 
Camp,"  near  Folkestone,  which  the  country  people,  in  the 
time  of  Lambarde,  "ascribed  to  King  Ethelbert,  the  first 
godly  king  of  this  shyre,"  which  Wright  considered  to  be 
the  site  of  a  Roman  Pharos,  and  which  has  been  believed 
by  many  to  have  owed  its  construction  to  that  race,  whether 
the  Pharos  theory  was  right  or  not,  turns  out  on  examina- 
tion to  have  been  almost  certainly  a  construction  of  the 
Norman  period. ^  Castle  Neroche,  in  part  at  least,  belongs 
to  the  same  category.^  Lastly,  mention  must  not  be  omitted 
of  the  fact  that  many  of  these  fortresses  have  been  used  by 
different  races,  and  altered  from  time  to  time  to  suit  the 
ideas  of  their  several  occupants.  Old  Sarum,  for  ex- 
ample, which  was  probably  pre-Roman  in  its  inception, 
was  certainly  afterwards  a  Roman  fortress,  a  Saxon  burh, 
a  Norman  stronghold,  and  a  Mediaeval  city.  To  take 
another  example  where  the  successive  occupations  have 
been  fewer:  on  Hod  Hill,  in  Dorsetshire,  there  is  a  large 

1  Arch(eologia,  xlvii.  429. 

^  Som.  Arch,  and  N.  H.  Soc,  S.  3,  vol.  ix. ;  and  AUcroft,  p.  86. 

P 


2IO   REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

pre-Roman  camp,  which  was  afterwards  occupied  by  the 
Romans  themselves.  Probably  they  found  the  enclosure 
too  large  for  the  number  of  troops  occupying  the  place  ; 
at  any  rate  they  cut  off  a  small  corner  at  the  point  best 
designed  to  watch  over  the  Vale  of  White  Hart,  and  used 
it  as  their  place  of  occupation.  The  alterations  have  not 
always  been  the  same,  but  the  history  of  this  earthwork  is 
that  of  many  others  throughout  the  country.  Others  have 
been  occupied  at  still  later  dates.  According  to  tradition, 
the  almost  certainly  pre-Roman  earthworks  on  Woodbury 
Hill,  in  Worcestershire,  were  occupied  by  Owen  Glendower 
and  his  French  allies  under  Montmorency,  and  here  they 
were  encountered  by  Henry  IV.  and  his  son.  Hambledon 
Hill,  close  to  Hod  Hill,  was,  during  the  Civil  War, 
occupied  by  nearly  2,000  "Clubmen,"  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Mr.  Bravel,  Rector  of  Compton.  They  were 
driven  from  this  fortress  by  Cromwell  and  Desborough 
on  August  4th,  1645.  Perhaps,  even  yet,  these  earthen 
fortresses  have  not  seen  the  last  of  actual  use  in  warfare. 

Having  thus  cleared  the  ground,  we  may  proceed  to 
turn  our  attention  to  the  task  of  classifying  and  describing 
the  earthworks  with  which  we  are  now  concerned,  those, 
namely,  which  there  is  some  reason  for  thinking  may  be 
pre-Roman,  or,  perhaps  it  may  be  better  put,  which  there 
is  no  good  ground  for  believing  not  to  be  pre-Roman. 

Such  earthworks  may  be  provisionally  arranged  under 
three  headings— Promontory,  Hill,  and  Plateau  forts — 
and  each  of  these  must  now  receive  consideration. 

Promontory  forts. — These  strongholds  (Fig.  73)  may 
be  defined  as  fortified  places  which,  being  already  strong 
in  their  natural  defences  on  one  or  more  sides,  have  only 
been  furnished  with  embankments  in  a  portion  of  their 
circuit.  The  name  of  promontory  forts  has  been  given 
to  this  class  by  Westropp,^  who  points  out  that  the  type 

1  "The  Ancient  Forts  of  Ireland,"  Trans.  R.  I.  A.,  xxxi.  Also 
separately  published. 


EARTHWORKS-  CAMPS— DYKES  211 

occurs  in  Greece  and  elsewhere  round  the  Mediterranean, 
and  is  found  in  Dalmatia,  at  Riigen  in  the  Baltic,  in 
Switzerland,  France,  and  the  British  Isles.  There  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  there  is  any  relation  of  derivation 
between  the  forts  in  these  different  localities,  since  the 
plan  is  one  which  might  readily  occur  to  any  person, 
given  suitable  topographical  conditions.  The  term  used 
is  a  convenient  one,  as  it  enables  us  to  group  together, 
not  merely  the  so-called  "cliff-castles,"  which  are  pro- 
tected on  one  or  more  sides  by  the  sea,  but  also  those 
inland  examples  which  occur  upon  spurs  of  hills.  So 
that  in  this  class  w^e  have  two  obvious  subdivisions,  coast 
and  inland. 

(i.)  Coast  examples. — These  fortresses  have  been  con- 
structed on  projecting  headlands  by  the  simple  process 
of  cutting  off  the  approach  from  the  land  by  one  or  more 
lines  of  embankment.  Along  the  whole  coast  of  Corn- 
wall, Borlase'^  states  that  there  is  scarcely  a  high  piece  of 
cliff  or  promontory  which  does  not  bear  on  its  rough 
crest  some  landmark  of  the  Prehistoric  time.  Many  of 
these  are  cliff  castles.  One  of  the  best  of  these  is  on 
Trevalgue  Head.  Here  a  narrow  passage  cuts  off  a 
small  island  from  a  promontory  on  the  mainland.  The 
first  line  of  defence  is  on  the  mainland  itself,  and  con- 
sists of  a  ditch  and  rampart,  the  latter  averaging  about 
8  feet  in  height.  Beyond  this,  at  the  narrow  extremity  of 
the  promontory,  are  the  following  defences :  (i.)  a  ditch 
8  feet  deep  and  12  feet  wide  ;  (ii.)  a  rampart  20  feet  broad 
and  ID  feet  high  ;  (iii.)  a  second  ditch  also  12  feet  wide  ; 
(iv.)  a  second  rampart  20  feet  high  and  30  feet  wide  ;  (v.) 
a  third  ditch  10  feet  wide,  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock; 
and  (vi.)  of  a  third  rampart  10  feet  high.  The  narrow 
piece  of  land  on   which  these  are  constructed  averages 

1  ArchcEologia,  xliv.  422. 


212    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

from  80  to  100  feet  in  breadth.  On  the  sea  side  of  these 
defences  is  a  chasm  25  feet  wide  and  55  feet  deep.  At 
full  tide  this  is  entered  by  the  sea,  which  converts  the 
fortress  itself  into  an  island.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
chasm  and  on  the  island  itself  is  a  further  rampart  20  feet 
high  by  30  feet  thick.  Still  further  across  the  island  is 
the  final  piece  of  defence,  cutting  off  what  we  may  call 
the  citadel,  in  the  shape  of  a  rampart  12  feet  high  on  its 
outer  side.  Many  rude  chippings  of  flint  have  been 
found  in  this  embankment,  perhaps  a  clue  to  its  date. 
From  this  castle  no  less  than  three  others  of  similar  type, 
Trevarrian,  Bedruthan,  and  Park  Head,  may  be  seen,  so 
thickly  are  these  fortifications  scattered  along  the  Cornish 
coast.  Similar  castles  are  found  on  the  West  Coast  of 
Ireland  and  in  France.  A  good  example  in  the  latter 
country  is  that  at  Castel-Meur,  Cleden,  Finistere.^  In 
this  case  the  base  of  the  promontory  is  defended  by  three 
ramparts  and  ditches.  Within  the  enclosure  were  ninety- 
five  rectangular  habitations,  sunk  in  the  earth  and  lined 
internally  with  w^alls  of  dry  stone.  Early  iron  imple- 
ments were  found  in  them.  As  to  the  age  of  the  Cornish 
and  Irish  cliff-castles  it  is  impossible  to  speak.  Nor  is  it 
easy  to  say  whether  they  were  the  work  of  the  natives  or 
of  invaders  making  a  temporary  stay  in  the  country. 
The  fact  that  in  some  places  these  forts  occur  on  harbour- 
less  points,  and  that  they  resemble  so  closely  other  forts 
inland,  would  lead  one  to  conclude  that,  in  some  cases  at 
least,  they  may  well  have  been  native  fastnesses  and  not 
merely  temporary  camps  thrown  up  by  sea-borne  in- 
vaders. One  of  the  largest  fortresses  of  this  kind  is  that 
formed  by  Flamborough  Head,  where  it  is  cut  off  from 
the  mainland  by  the  great  entrenchment  two  and  three- 
quarter  miles  in  length,  which  is  called  the  Dane's  Dyke. 

^  L' Anthropologie,  i.  401.     For  a  further  note  on  French  camps,  see  the 
same  journal,  xiii.  84. 


EARTHWORKS-CAMPS— DYKES 


213 


The  entrenchment  is  double,  and  is  provided  with  pro- 
jections, or  breastworks,  at  certain  points.  Here,  again, 
we  have  no  certain  knowledge  of  the  date  of  the  work. 
The  entrenchment  is  called  the  Dane's  Dyke;  the  portion 
of  the  head  cut  off  by  it  is  called  Little  Denmark  ;  and 
General  Pitt-Rivers  thought  that  this  line  of  fortification, 
and  others  to  the  west  of  it,  were  successive  constructions 
of  invaders  who  had  arrived  by  sea  and  fortified  them- 
selves, from  time  to  time,  in  the  process  of  driving 
further  inland  the  native  tribes.  Canon  Greenwell  ex- 
presses some  doubt  of  this,  and  the  point  must  be 
regarded  as  at  present  unsettled. 


(ii.)  Inland  examples. — The  inland  promontory  fort  is 
exactly  on  the  same  lines  as  its  seaside  brother,  save  that 
it  relies  for  the  defence 
of  one  or  more  of  its 
sides  on  the  steepness 
of  the  escarpment  of  a 
hill  or  on  a  precipice. 
Where  the  unembanked 
side  or  sides  were  not  * 
absolutely  precipitous,  ^ 
it  is  probable  that  they*" 
were  defended  by  a  pali- 
sade of  wood,  all  trace 
of  which  has,  of  course, 
long  disappeared.  Fig. 
73  gives  an  example  of 
this  kind  of  fortification 
as  exemplified  in  the 
great  camp  on  Bredon 
Hill,  Gloucestershire. 
On    two    sides,    where  ^^^  ^3^    camp      • 

the     escarpment     of     the  Biedon  HiU,  Gloucestershire 


214    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

hill  is  steep  though  not  precipitous,  there  are  no  signs 
of  any  entrenchments.  This  projecting  nose  of  ground 
is  defended  on  the  remaining  side  by  an  angular  pair 
of  entrenchments,  separated  from  one  another  by  a  con- 
siderable distance  and  perhaps  of  different  dates.  Within 
the  inner  line  is  a  singular  mass  of  stone,  "The  Bam- 
bury  Stone,"  concerning  which  many  theories  have  been 
spun.  It  is  simply  a  huge  block  of  the  local  oolite,  but 
whether  the  hollow  in  which  it  lies,  by  the  excavation 
of  which  the  block  has  become  visible,  is  natural  or  arti- 
ficial is  uncertain.  In  the  inner  rampart  of  this  camp 
have  been  found  Roman  pottery  and  coins,  sufficient 
evidence,  it  seems,  to  permit  us  to  believe  that  it  was 
occupied  for  a  time  by  that  people,  who  may  have  con- 
structed this  line  of  defence.  Probably  the  outer  rampart 
at  least  is  of  earlier  date.  A  few  worked  flints  have  been 
found  on  the  hill  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  camp,  but 
apart  from  the  objects  mentioned  there  is  singularly  little 
to  help  us  to  assign  to  it  a  date.^  Mr.  Westropp  states 
that  the  promontory  forts  on  the  spurs  of  inland  hills  in 
this  country  are  especially  abundant  in  Yorkshire,  along 
the  Esk  Valley  from  Guisborough  to  Whitby.  Eight  or 
nine  of  these  spurs  are  fortified,  sometimes  with  a  single 
rampart  of  earth,  sometimes  with  a  core  of  loose  stones, 
more  rarely  with  a  facing  of  dry  masonry  of  large  blocks; 
in  a  few  cases  several  fosses  and  mounds  occur.  The  fort 
on  the  third  spur  from  the  west  has  a  double  earthwork 
with  a  ditch,  and  farther  back  three  earthworks  and  two 
fosses.  In  the  rear  of  these  is  a  ring-fort ;  still  further 
back  a  single  mound  crossing  the  ridge.  Then  a  mound 
across  two-thirds  of  the  ridge  from  the  west,  and  another 
overlapping  it  from  the  east,  running  down  the  eastern 
slope  to  a  bog.  These  forts  have  been  found  to  contain 
articles  of  bronze,  but  the  tumuli  which  are  mixed  up 
with  them  seem  to  have  mainly  exhibited  objects  of  stone. 

'  See  p.  234. 


EARTHWORKS— CAMPS— DYKES  215 

One  cannot  help  being  struck  with  the  small  size  of  some 
of  these  inland  promontory  forts,  and  wondering  what 
their  purpose  can  have  been.  On  the  promontory  of 
Stinchcombe  Hill,  above  Dursley,  in  Gloucester,  for 
example,  there  is  a  very  small  portion  cut  off  by  three 
lines  of  entrenchment.  Near  by,  but  not  included  in  the 
ramparts,  is  a  row  of  pit-dwellings.  The  portion  of  the 
hill  which  is  cut  off  is  so  small  that  it  can  hardly  have 
been  of  any  use  as  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  inhabitants 
of  these  pits.  Possibly  some  of  these  small  forts  may 
have  been  signalling  stations. 

Hill -forts. — Fortresses  whose  lines  are  determined  by 
the  shape  of  the  summit  of  the  hill  on  which  they  are 
placed.  These  include  some  of  the  most  characteristic 
of  the  objects  commonly  spoken  of  as  British  camps. 
They  have  been  very  fully  treated  by  Pitt-Rivers,^  whose 
military  training  rendered  him  a  peculiarly  valuable 
witness  on  such  subjects.  He  sums  up  the  special 
characters  of  this  particular  group  of  camps  under  the 
following  heads:  (i.)  The  entrenchments  occupy  the  whole 
summits  of  the  eminences  on  which  they  stand,  (ii.)  Con- 
siderations of  the  supply  of  water  and  fuel  are  invariably 
sacrificed  to  the  occupation  of  the  strongest  features  of  the 
country.  He  has  never  come  across  an  earthwork  with  a 
well  in  it.  Here  one  may  pause  to  note  the  puzzling  fact 
that  these  hill-forts  seem  in  almost  all  cases  to  have  been 
singularly  badly  off  for  a  water  supply.  Some  have  sup- 
posed that  the  inhabitants  brought  up  water  from  some 
neighbouring  source,  though  it  has  never  been  explained 
how  this  could  have  been  done  if  the  fortress  was  at  all 
closely  invested.  Others  think  that  there  may  have  been 
wells  which  have  now  been  filled  up.  Or  again,  it  has 
been  suggested,  and  this  from  what  we  know  of  the 
physical   conditions   of  the  country  is   not   improbable, 

1  "Hill-Forts  of  Sussex,"  Archceologia,  xlii.  27. 


2i6    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 


that  the  springs  may  then  have  been  much  higher  than 
they  now  are.  But  there  are  cases  where  any  supply  of 
this  kind  seems  to  have  been  always  impossible.  Perhaps 
some  use  may  have  been  made  of  catchment  basins  and 
dew-ponds,^or  perhaps  the  absence  points  to  the  fact  that 
the  earthern  forts  were  not  intended  for  prolonged  occupa- 


iQifefe 


■  S  %  j^  ^    -=:^  ^£;'  ^      ~S    iJ? 

'-^0,  -::^  ^^  g  f  /I  _. 


-ffe*?-^  ifflW»  s  m-  -M^  ¥'<t(i.-  ^a.lt 


•tr^sl|^r;m*.^ 


FIG.   74. 


DEFENCES   OF   W.    ENTRANCE   OF 
MAIDEN   CASTLE 
Dorset 


FIG.   75.       DEFENCES    OF    E.    EN- 
TRANCE  OF    MAIDEN    CASTLE 
Dorset 


tion,  but  merely  for  temporary  protection  in  case  of  a 
sudden  raid,  (iii.)  The  strength  of  the  ramparts  cor- 
responds inversely  with  the  natural  strength  of  the 
position,  (iv.)  The  ditch,  which  was  generally  on  the 
outside  of  the  rampart,  has  been  noticed  occasionally  on 
the  interior.  This  is  a  more  common  arrangement,  how- 
ever, in  those  earthworks  which  seem  to  have  been  con- 

^  The  question  of  dew-ponds  has  lately  attracted  much  attention,  Messrs. 
A.  J.  and  G.  Hubbard  having  published  a  book  upon  it  called  Neolithic  Dew 
Ponds  and  Cattle  Ways.  Very  full  consideration  has  been  devoted  to  the 
subject  b\'  Allcroft,  Earthwork  of  England,  chap,  vii.,  and  Johnson,  Folk 
Memory,  chap.  xiv. 


EARTHWORKS— CAMPS— DYKES 


217 


structed  for  religious  or  spectacular  purposes,  (v.)  Out- 
works were  thrown  up  on  commanding  sites  within  two 
or  three  hundred  yards  of  the  main  work,  (vi.)  The 
ramparts  at  the  gateways  were  increased  in  height,  and 
sometimes  thrown  backwards  so  as  to  form  a  re-entrant 
angle,  and  thus  obtain  a  cross-fire  upon  the  causeway 
over  the  ditch.  The  extreme  complexity  of  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  earthworks  at  and  near  the  places  of  entrance 


^^SOi-^^C 


■'^^' 


FIG.  76.       BRITISH    CAMP 
Herefordshire  Beacon,  Malvern 

is,  it  may  be  pointed  out,  one  of  the  important  charac- 
teristics of  this  and  the  next  class  of  forts.  No  better 
example  could  be  desired  than  the  entrances  to  Maiden 
Castle,  near  Dorchester,  in  Dorset,  shown  in  Figs.  74 
and  75.  The  extraordinary  complexity  of  the  banks 
may  be  likened  to  the  fingers  of  two  hands,  interlocking 
with  one  another.  Another  form  of  breastwork,  defending 
the  entrance,  will  be  noticed  in  the  plan  of  Yarnbury,  in 
Fig.  78.  In  the  case  of  the  Sussex  forts,  Pitt-Rivers 
points  out  that  circular  erections,  with  intervals  between 
them,   have   been  placed   in   the    neighbourhood   of   the 


2i8    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

entrance  for  the  purpose  of  guarding  it.  In  the  case  of 
the  special  group,  with  which  he  was  dealing,  the  in- 
habitants of  the  camps  were  lodged  in  pit-dwellings,  and 
the  interior  of  the  ramparts  was  found  to  be  strewed  with 
flint  flakes  of  artificial  manufacture.  As  an  example  of 
this  kind  of  fortress,  the  great  camp  on  the  Herefordshire 
Beacon,!  one  of  the  Malvern  Hills,  of  which  a  view  is 
given  in  Fig.  76  and  a  plan  in  Fig.  77  may  be  cited.  Here 
the  outer  earthworks  include  a  large  portion  of  the  hill, 
though  the  central  portion,  or  citadel,   is  very  small  in 


^'^jimiiiim  rfjc ''  ■  •  \1i 


FIG.   77.       PLAN   OF   BRITISH   CAMP 
Herefordshire  Beacon,  Malvern 

comparison  with  the  extent  of  the  outer  fortifications. 
Objects  belonging  to  the  bronze  period  have  been  found 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  this  camp,  but  its  exact  date  is 
as  yet  unsettled.  Though  the  term  earthworks  has  been 
frequently  used  in  connection  with  the  class  of  object  now 
under  consideration,  it  must  not,  therefore,  be  supposed 
that  fortresses  with  rude  stone  walls  are  on  that  account 
excluded.  A  place  like  Worlebury,  whose  ramparts  are 
mainly  of  stone,  diff"ers  in  no  essential  respect  from  one 

^  It  is  now  thought  that  this  fortress,  though  in  its  outer  works  probably 
orignnally  of  prehistoric  construction,  was  re-worked  by  the  Normans,  who 
seem  clearly  to  have  constructed  the  central  citadel.  Excavations  have  given 
negative  results.     (See  Allcroft,  121  and  415.) 


EARTHWORKS— CAMPS— DYKES 


219 


like  Malvern,  where  earth  has  been  the  material  employed 
for  the  embankments.  The  builders  of  these  fortresses 
used  the  materials  that  came  most  easily  to  hand,  and 
when  we  talk  about  earthworks  we  must  remember  that 
the  term  is  not,  in  all  cases,  strictly  accurate. 

Plateau  forts. — This  class  of  fortifications  differs  chiefly 
from  the  last  in  that  the  embankments  by  which  it  is  sur- 
rounded are  not  adapted  to  the  outlines  of  the  top  of  a 
hill.     The  ground  on  which  they  are  placed  is  high,  but 


FIG,  78.      PLAN   OF  YARNBURY  CASTLE 
Wilts 

the  area  immediately  around  may  be  almost  or  quite  flat. 
Take  the  case  of  Yarnbury,  of  which  a  plan  is  given  in 
Fig.  78.  This  camp  occupies,  it  is  true,  an  elevated 
position  on  Salisbury  Plain.  To  reach  it  one  has  to  ascend 
considerably,  but  when  one  arrives  in  its  neighbourhood 
there  is  a  long  stretch  of  almost  flat  ground  surrounding 
the  earthwork  itself.     In  fact,  it  lies  on  a  plateau,  and  has 


220   REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

thus  no  natural  defences,  such  as  belong  to  both  the  classes 
of  fortresses  which  we  have  so  far  been  considering.  It 
must,  therefore,  depend  upon  the  height  of  its  banks  and 
the  depth  of  its  ditches,  together  with  the  intricacy  of  its 
entrances,  for  the  protection  denied  to  it  by  nature.  Mr. 
Gould  is  inclined  to  think  that  earthworks  of  this  class  are 
perhaps  later  in  date  than  the  other  varieties,  but  as  has 
been  already  pointed  out,  there  is  only  one  unfailing  test 
of  period,  and  that  has  not  been  applied  as  yet  to  any  forts 
of  this  kind. 

Dykes. — From  the  group  of  objects  now  to  be  considered 
must  first  be  excluded  those  lines  of  entrenchment  which, 
though  called  dykes,  were  constructed,  like  the  "Dane's 
Dyke  "  on  Flamborough  Head,  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
verting a  promontory  into  a  fortress  or  a  camp.  Such 
dykes  are  somewhat  different  in  purpose,  if  identical  in 
construction,  from  those  now  to  be  considered,  and  they 
have  already  been  dealt  with  in  an  earlier  portion  of  this 
chapter.  The  more  or  less  lengthy  lines  of  entrenchment, 
with  which  we  are  now  concerned,  are  met  with  in  many 
parts  of  the  country.  In  certain  districts  they  exist  in 
great  numbers,  Warne,  for  example,  enumerating  no  less 
than  twenty-five  in  Dorsetshire,  in  his  list  of  the  antiquities 
of  that  county.  Some,  at  least,  of  these  seem  to  have  been 
utilised  as  tribal  boundaries,  even  if  they  were  not  originally 
constructed  for  that  purpose.  McKenny  Hughes,^  dealing 
with  Offa's  Dyke,  one  of  the  most  important  of  these  works, 
at  one  period  the  boundary  between  the  Briton  and  the 
Saxon,  inclines  to  the  view  that  it  is  really  made  up  of  a 
number  of  works,  possibly  of  the  Roman  period,  which 
were  subsequently  united  together  to  form  a  tribal  boun- 
dary. This  dyke,  near  to,  and  parallel  with,  which  is  another 
known  as  Watt's  Dyke,  runs  in  an  approximately  straight 
line.     As  the  present  boundary  between    England   and 

'  Archceulogia,  lii.  465. 


EARTHWORKS— DYKES— CAMPS         221 

Wales  is  tortuous,  the  dyke  is  sometimes  in  one  country, 
sometimes  in  the  other.  It  can  be  well  studied  as  it  crosses 
Shropshire  on  the  hills  in  the  district  of  Clun.  A  still 
greater  dyke  is  the  Wans  Dyke,  in  the  south-west  of 
England,  which  possesses  a  total  length  of  eighty  miles. 
Commencing  on  the  banks  of  the  Severn,  it  passes  through 
part  of  Somerset,  crosses  the  Avon,  first  at  Warleigh,  near 
Bathford,  and  afterwards  at  Benacre,  near  Melksham.  It 
passes  through  Spye  Park,  and  across  the  Wiltshire 
Downs  by  Shepherd's  Shore,  an  excellent  place  to  study 
it.  Thence  it  makes  its  way  towards  Inkpen,  in  Berks. 
According  to  Stukeley  and  Guest, ^  this  dyke  was  one  of 
four  lines  of  defence  successively  constructed  by  the 
Belgae  in  their  northward  advance,  the  other  lines  being 
Combe-Bank,  Bokerley  Dyke,  and  a  dyke  north  of  Old 
Sarum.  This  view  has,  however,  been  upset  by  the  in- 
vestigations made  by  Pitt-Rivers.^  He  shows  that  the 
Wans  Dyke,  contrary  to  what  was  once  believed,  is  a 
work  of  Roman  or  post-Roman  date,  though  he  does 
not  decide  whether  it  is  Romano-British  or  Saxon.  The 
Bokerley  Dyke  in  Wilts  is  about  four  miles  in  length, 
and  belongs  to  the  same  period  as  the  Wans  Dyke. 
Its  extremities,  like  those  of  some  other  dykes  yet  to  be 
mentioned,  seem  to  end  ''in  the  air,"  that  is,  without 
abutting  upon  any  natural  object  of  support,  such  as  a 
river  or  a  lake.  In  considering  this  and  many  other 
problems  in  connection  with  the  early  occupation  of  this 
country,  one  cannot  be  too  careful  to  keep  in  mind  the 
differences  between  our  present  physical  geography  and 
that  of  the  earlier  period.  All  that  we  know  points  to  the 
fact  that  there  were  then  far  greater  and  more  numerous 
forests  than  now.  The  greater  part  of  Warwickshire,  for 
example,  was  covered  with  the  forest  of  Arden,  a  fact 
which  explains  the  dearth  of  prehistoric  objects  in  that 
county,     Denbighshire  was  covered  with  forest  up  to  a 

^  Origines  Celticae,  ii.  201.  ^  Excavatiotis,  vol.  iii. 


222    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

comparatively  recent  period.  The  great  forest  of  An- 
derida  in  the  south  extended  in  a  belt  for  many  miles. 
Swamps  must  have  been  much  more  common,  and 
marshy  places  and  fens,  for  the  climate  was  wetter,  and 
the  streams  must  have  been  much  clogged  by  pieces  of 
wood  and  the  dams  of  beavers.  Forests,  such  as  then 
existed,  almost  impenetrable,  and  the  haunt  of  savage 
wild  beasts,  and  swamps  must  have  offered  greater 
obstacles  to  the  advance  of  troops  than  mountains,  rivers, 
or  even  narrow  seas.  In  fact,  we  know  that  it  was  the 
forest  of  Anderida  which,  for  so  long  a  time,  cut  off  the 
inhabitants  of  Sussex  from  attack  on  any  side  but  that  of 
the  sea.  In  the  case  of  the  Bokerley  Dyke,  Pitt-Rivers 
has  shown  that  it  extended  across  an  open  place  between 
two  forests,  so  that  its  ends  were  by  no  means  without 
support.  In  the  eastern  counties  there  are  several  im- 
portant dykes  lying  across  the  course  of  the  Icknield 
Way.  Of  these  the  Roman  Way,  shown  by  Hughes^^  to 
be  really  a  dyke  and  not  a  road,  the  Fleam  Dyke  and  the 
Devil's  Ditch  are  right  across  the  Way,  whilst  the  Black 
Ditches,  farther  east,  cross  what  may  have  been  a  bye- 
road  from  it.  The  Heydon  and  Pampisford  dykes  are 
short  and  weak,  and  the  fen  and  forest  in  their  vicinity 
were  both  weak,  so  that  in  a  dry  summer  these  dykes  might 
have  been  outflanked.  The  other  dykes  in  the  district 
could  not  have  been  outflanked  because  of  the  forest  and 
depth  of  the  fen.  There  were  two  or  three  miles  of  the 
latter  at  Balsham,  and  probably  forty  at  the  Devil's  Dyke. 
At  the  forest  end  were  the  villages  of  Balsham  and  Wood 
Ditton  (Ditch  Town)  respectively.  Each  of  these  is  a 
mile  or  so  ofl^,  and  is  situated  in  the  forest ;  perhaps  an 
abattis  connected  the  dyke  with  the  village.  At  the 
other  ends  were  also  the  villages  of  Fen  Ditton  (Ditch 
Town)  and  Reach  respectively.  The  main  street  of  each 
of  these  was  formed  by  the  fosse  of  the  dyke,  and  at  the 

^  Camb,  Review,  May  6th,  18815. 


EARTHWORKS— DYKES-CAMPS 


223 


other  side  of  each  was  the  fen.  The  Devil's  Dyke  is  much 
the  loftiest  of  all  these  at  present,  being  still  34  feet  in 
height  in  places.  Ridgeway^  has  shown  that  it  was  prob- 
ably   in    the    neigh- 

bourhood  of  these 
dykes,  and  most  like- 
ly near  the  Fleam 
or  the  Devil's  Ditch, 
that  the  Romans, 
under  P.  Ostorius 
Scapula,  defeated  the 
Iceni,  as  related  by 
Tacitus.'-  The  Devil's 
Ditch  is  about  eight 
miles  long.  The  bank 
is  18  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  country, 
30  feet  above  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ditch,  and 
12  feet  in  width  at  the 
top,  whilst  the  ditch 
itself  is  20  feet  wide. 
Now  all  these  dykes 
seem  to  end  "in  the  air,"  like  the  Bokerley  Dyke,  but, 
like  it,  this  idea  is  dispelled  when  the  circumstances  of 
the  time  at  which  they  were  constructed  are  considered. 
If  the  plan  annexed  be  examined  (Fig.  79),  it  will  be 
noticed  that  a  great  deal  of  the  land  now  inhabited  was  at 
the  period  in  question  either  fen  or  forest,  and  the  dykes 
extend  between  these  two.  The  Roman  Way  does  not 
quite  touch  the  fen,  though  it  starts  from  the  forest.  But 
there  are  two  small  subsidiary  dykes  connected  with  it, 
one  at  Cherry  Hinton,  the  other  at  Fen  Ditton,  which,  in 
some  way  or  another,  no  doubt  made  up  the  deficiency. 
The  Fleam  Dyke  and  the  Devil's  Ditch  both  abut  upon 

'  Proc,  Camb.  Ant.  Soc,  xxxiii.  -  Attnaies,  xii.  31. 


FIG.  79.      CAMBRIDGESHIRE   DYKES 


224    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

one  or  other  of  these  supports,  and  the  Black  Ditches  run 
between  the  River  Lark  and  the  forest. 

If  Ridgeway  is  right  in  his  view,  these  dykes  are  pre- 
Roman,  and  of  an  earlier  period  than  the  western  dykes 
previously  mentioned.  In  examining  ditches  of  this  kind 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  there  are  many  lines  of  en- 
trenchment in  the  country  which  are  not  prehistoric,  or  even 
belonging  to  an  early  period  of  history,  but  are  mediaeval, 
or,  it  may  be,  post-mediaeval.  Thus  there  is  a  ditch  which 
runs  along  the  summit  of  the  Malvern  Hills  from  end  to 
end,  dividing  Herefordshire  from  Worcestershire,  which 
is  called  the  "Shire  Ditch,"  or  the  "Red  Earl's  Ditch." 
There  seems  little  doubt  that  this  was  cut  by  Gilbert  de 
Clare,  Earl  of  Gloucester,  to  separate  his  own  forest  of 
Malvern,  which  he  had  as  dowry  with  his  wife,  the  daughter 
of  Edward  I.,  from  the  possessions  of  the  Bishop  of  Here- 
ford. Other  lines  of  entrenchment  may  perhaps  be  referred 
to  the  period  of  the  Civil  War.  But  much  doubt  must 
rest  upon  all  dykes  until  their  date  has  been  decided  by 
the  use  of  the  pick  and  shovel. 

LIST   OF   EARTHWORKS 

The  following  list  is  quite  of  a  tentative  character.  It  has  been 
compiled  from  County  Handbooks,  archaeological  surveys,  the 
Ordnance  Map,  and  other  sources,  and  I  have  to  express  my 
grateful  acknowledgments  to  Mr.  Chalkley  Gould,  who  has  looked 
through  it  and  given  me  many  suggestions.  At  the  same  time  I 
am  fully  aware  that  it  must  contain  many  errors  of  omission  and 
of  commission.  I  hope  that  it  includes  all  the  most  important  ex- 
amples in  the  country,  but  I  fear  that  it  may  also  include  some 
examples  which  are  not  pre-Roman,  and  perhaps  even  others 
which  havedisappeared  altogether.  In  spite  of  this!  have  thought 
it  well  to  publish  the  list.  It  may  at  least  serve  as  a  ground- 
work for  a  more  complete  and  accurate  attempt  in  the  future,  and 
a  complete  list  of  earthworks  is  a  thing  very  much  to  be  desired. 
Where  the  word  (Ro.  ?)  is  added,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  earth- 
work is  one  altered  or  originally  constructed  by  the  Romans. 


LIST    OF    EARTHWORKS  225 

Bedfordshire — 

Big-gleswade,  near.     Old  Warden. 

"Caesar's  Camp,"  near  Sandy.     Oval. 

"Maiden  Bower,"  near  Dunstable.     Circular. 

"  Wanlud's  Bank,"  near  Leagrave.     Many  gold  British 

coins  found  near. 
Berkshire — 

Abing-don,  near.     "Poor  Ned."     An  irregular  enclosure. 

Flint  chips. 
"Alfred's  Castle."     W.   side  of  Ashdown  Park.      Circ. 

2  entrances. 
Aston  Upthorpe,  W.  of.     Oval.     {?  Danish.) 
Badbury  Hill,      i  J  N.  of  Coleshill.     Circ. 
"  Caesar's  Camp,"  East  Hampstead.   Shaped  like  oak-leaf. 
"Chirbury."     li  S.  of  Hinton  Waldrish.     Oval. 
"  Grimsbury   Castle."     In    Grimsbury   Wood,    i|   N.    of 

Cold  Ash.      Irreg.      i  ent. 
Lambourne,  near  Ashbury. 
Little  Wittenham,  ^  S.  of.     Oval. 

Lowbury  Hill.    2  S.  of  Blewbury.    Square  with  tumulus. 
Maidenhead  Thicket.     Quadrilateral. 
Newbury,  near.      Bussock. 
Newbury,  near.     Borough  Hill. 
Newbury,  near.      Overborough. 
"  Perborough  Castle."     i  S.  of  Compton. 
"Sigsbury."     i  S.  of  Letcombe  Regis.     Circ.      i  ent. 
*"  Uffington  Castle."    f  S.  of  Woolstone.     S.  of  "  White 

Horse."     Irreg.      i  ent. 
"Wallbury."     i  W.  of  Wood  Hay.  [1906.) 

Wallingford,  Old.  Pre-Roman  {A^.  Brit.  Arch.  Ass.,  June, 
Buckinghamshire — 

*Bulstrode  Park.      Irreg.     2  ent. 
Chesham,  2 J  N.E.  of.     Circ. 
"  Cholesbury."     Oval.      Flint  flakes  abundant. 
"  Danesborough,"  near  Bow  Brickhill. 
*"  Desborough  Castle."     E.  of  West  Wycombe.     Oval. 
Great  Missenden.     Quadrilat.     (?  Roman.) 
Harlington,  h  S.  of.      Circ. 
Keep  Hill,  near  Wycombe. 
Lee,  I  N.E.  of. 
9 


226   REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 
Buckinghamshire  (coufd.) — 


West  Wycombe.     Circ. 
Whelpley  Hill,  I  E.  of. 


Pulpit  Hill,  near  Great  Kim- 
Shenley  Church  End.      [ble. 

Cambridgeshire — 

"Arbury."     i  N.  of  Cambridge. 

"  Belsars  Hill  Camp."     i;^  N.  of  Rampton.     Circ. 

"  Vandlebury."     Entrenchment  on  Gogmagog'  Hills. 

War  Ditches.  Pre-Roman  and  later.  (Hughes,  Proc. 
Cainbs.  Ayitiq.  Soc,  xliv.  p.  452.) 

Wimblington,  ij  E.  of.     (Possibly  Roman.) 
Cheshire — 

"  Bucton  Castle,"  near  Staleybridge. 

"Camp  Hill,"  near  Whitmore  Station. 

Helsly  Hill,  near  Frodsham. 

"  Kelsborough  Castle,"  near  Kelsall. 

'•  Maiden  Castle."     Bickerton  Hill. 

Oakmere.     Delamere. 

Cornwall.   Earthworks  and  cliff-castles  very  numerous  in  this 
county.     The  following  is  a  selection  only. 

"  Blackaden  Rings,"  near  Menheniot. 

"Black  Head,  The."     St.  Austell.     Cliff-castle. 

Bodmin,  near  Tregoar.     (Roman  coins  found.) 

Braddock.     Entrenchments  in  Largin  Wood. 

"Bury,  The."  1  W.  of  Week  St.  Mary.   Oval.   (?  Roman.) 

Caddan  Point.     Cliff-castle. 

"  Cadsonbury."     i|  S.W.  of  Callington.     Oval.     2  ent. 

"Caer  Bran."     |  S.W.  of  Sancreed. 

"  Caer  Dane."     J  E.  of  Perranzabuloe. 

"  Castel-an-Dinas,"  near  Penzance.  (Much  destroyed. 
Rogers  Tower  (modern)  in  it.)  Three  stone  walls  and 
an  earthen  vallum,  remains  of  huts  and  a  well. 

"Castel-an-Dinas."  2  S.E.  of  St.Columb  Forth.  (Contains 
two  tumuli;  traditionally  hunting-lodge  of  King  Arthur.) 

"Castle  Canyke."     i  W.  of  Fletcher's  Bridge.     Circ. 

"  Castle  Dour,"  near  Fowey. 

Castle  Downs,  on.     Circ. 

"Castle  Gotha,"  near  Phoebe's  Point,  St.  Austell. 

Cheesewring,  near  the. 
*Chun  Castle.     Rough   stonework.     (Double  stone  ring 
contains  remains  of  stone  huts  and  a  well.) 


LIST   OF   EARTHWORKS 


227 


Cornwall  {coiifd.) — 
"Crellas,  The. 


Bodenaar. 


Delabole  Station,  |  S.E.  of. 
"  Demeliock  Castle."     2\  \l.  of  Port  Isaac. 
Dodman,  The.      Cliff-castle. 

"Ding-erein  Castle,"  or  "Geraint's  Castle."  Gerrans  Bay. 
"Dunmeer  Castle,"  near  Dunmeer  Bridge.    Irreg.     Oval. 
Eg-loskerry,  i  W.  of. 
Germoe.      i  N.E.  of.     Two  camps. 
"Giant's  Castle."     St.  Mary's  Island,  Scilly. 
Quadrilateral, 
of.     Golden  Farm.      Irreg. 
of.     On  the  St.  Austell  road. 
W.  of.     On  the  Truro  road. 
N.  of.     Near  left  bank  of  Fal.     Quadrilat. 
"Great  Dinas,"  near  Manaccan. 
Gurnard's  Head.    Slight  remains  of  entrenchment.   Rocks 

form  inner  citadel. 
Harnack,  near  Penzance.      "Round  Castle." 
"  Kilbury  Rounds,"  near  St.  Mabyn.  [hood. 

Kilkhampton.      Five  camps  in  the  immediate  neighbour- 


Goonhilly  Downs. 
Grampound,  i  S.E. 
Grampound,  \  N.E. 
Grampound,  i 
Grampound,  i 


Ladock,  ^  E.  of. 

Ladock,  i|  S.E.  of. 

"  Lescudjack  Castle,"  near 
Penzance.  (In  fact  prac- 
tically part  of  town,  and 
nearly  destroyed.) 

Linkinhorne,  |S.W.  of.  Circ. 

"  Little  Dinas,"  near  Manac- 

Luxullian,  ^  S.  of.  [can. 

Mawgan,  \  E.  of. 

Mevagissey,  near.  Turbot 
Point. 

"  Padderbury,"  near  Menhe- 


Pellynt,  f  N.E.  of. 
*Pencarrow.     Circ. 
Pengold,  I  S.E.  of. 
Pengold,  I  S.E.  of. 
"  Penhargate  Castle,' 
Dunmeer  Bridge. 


[niot. 


*"  Perran    Round,"  near    Per- 

ranporth.  (? Amphitheatre.) 
Port  Isaac  Road  Station,  J  E. 
Poundstock,  i  E.  of.  [of. 

"  Prideaux     Warren,"     near 

St.  Blazey. 
Quethiock,  i  N.  of. 
Rame  Head.     Cliff-castle. 
"  Redcliff  Castle,"  near  Bod- 

ruthan.  [zance. 

"  Resongy  Round," near  Pen- 
"  Resugga       Castle,"       near 

Grampound,    on     the     left 

bank  of  the  Fal. 
St.  Columb  Forth.     N.  of, 
St.  Denis,  \  N.  of. 
St.  Endellion,  i  W.  of. 
St.  Enoder,  f  of. 
St.  Erth,  Trencom,  near. 


228    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Cornwall  {contd.) — 

St.  Eval,  |S.E.  of. 

"St.  Syth's  Beacon,"  near  Michaelstow. 

Sancreed,  near  Caer  Bran  and  Bartine  Hill, 

Tinta^el.     Clift'-castle. 

"Trecroben  Castle,"  near  Lelant.     On  Trecroben  Hill. 

Rampart  of  large  stones  and  earth. 
Tregonan,  near  Helston, 
*"Treryn  Dinas."     Cliff-castle  near  Penzance  with  logan 
stone,  three  rows  of  entrenchments,  and  rocks  forming 
inner  citadel. 
Trevalgue  Head.     Cliff-castle.     {ArchcBol.  xliv.  422.) 
Truen,  near  Penzance.     A  "round"  125  feet  in  circum- 
Truro,  ih  E.  of.  [ference. 

Truro,  near,      i  S.  of  Newbridge. 
"  Upton  Castle,"  near  Five  Lanes.     Circ.  rampart,  with 

rectang.  enclosure  within. 
"  Warbstowbury."  ^  W.  of  Warbstow  Cross.  Circ.   i  ent. 
Contains  a  long  mound  called  "  King  Arthur's  Grave." 
West  Looe,  i  N.E.  of. 
Cumberland — 

Aughertree  Fell,  near  Irebay.     Three  circular  camps. 
*Bewcastle.      Probably  originally  British. 
Bothel  Crags,  on.     Camp  Hill.     (?  Roman.) 
"Caermote. "    N.  of  Bassenthwaite  Lake,  near  Bewcastle. 
**'Caerthanoc."     Soulby  Fell. 
"Castle  How."     W.  side  of  Bassenthwaite  Lake.     Circ. 
Crewgarth.   Five-sided.   Date  uncertain,  may  be  mediseval. 
Dovenby  Hall,  near  Bridekirk.     Three  oval  ewks.     Date 
doubtful. 
*"Dunmallet,"near  UUswater.   Double-ramparted  hill-fort. 
Hayton  Castle  Hill. 
Lazonby,  2^  W.  of.     Circ.      i  ent. 
Lazonby,  2\  W.  of.     Circ.      i  ent. 
"  Maiden  Castle. "     Burnmoor. 
Newton  Regny.      Oval. 
Overwater.     Quadrilat. 
Ponsonby,  E.  of.     Infell.      Five-sided.     Date  uncertain, 

may  be  mediceval. 
*" Shouithwaite  Castle,"     Shoulthwaite. 


LIST   OF   EARTHWORKS 


229 


Cumberland  {contd.) — 

Snittlegarth.     Quadrilat. 
Tower  Tye,  Naworth.     Circ. 
Triermain,  Watch  Hill,     Circ, 


Derbyshire — 

Ashbourne,  5  N.  of.  Parwich. 
Ro,  coins  found, 

Calton,  near  Chatsworth, 
*"  Carlswark,"      Hathersage 
Moor. 

Castleton,  i  N.W.  of.     Mam 
Tor, 

Combe  Moss.      Possibly  al- 
tered by  Romans. 

Cronkstone  Hill.     Peak. 

"DoveHoles,"near  Buxton. 


Fin  Cop. 

Harthill  Moor,  Banks  on. 

Hathersage  Village.      Circ. 

(Very    probably    Nor.    or 

Sax.) 
Markland  Gripps.     Elmton. 
Mouslow,  near  Glossop. 
Pilsbury. 
Standerton. 
Taddinijton. 


Devonshire — 

The  following  is  a  selection  from  the  many  earthworks  in 

this  county. 
Ashburton.     Holne  Chase  Castle. 
Bampford  Speke,  ij  S,  of.     Oval. 
Barnstaple,  \\  N.E.  of.     Square. 
"Beacon,  The."     \  N.W.  of  Martinhow. 
"  Blackbury  Castle,"  Southleigh.     Remarkable  entrance 

defences.     (Allcroft,  198.) 
'*  Blackdown  Camp."     ^  W.  of  Hazelwood.     Oval. 
"  Boringdon  Camp."     On  N.  edge  of  Cann  Wood. 
Braunton  Barrows.     Near  Saunton  Down. 
Brayford,  \\  N.W.  of.     Oval. 
*"Cadbury,"  near   Exeter.     Late   Roman  objects  found 

1848. 
"Castle  Dyke."     Ugbrooke  Park.     Probably  first  Brit. 

then  Ro. 
*Clovelly  Dykes.     Irreg.  quad.     (Brit,  and  later  Ro.) 
Coombe  Raleigh,  i^  N.E.  of.     On  Dumpton  Hill.     Oval. 

I  ent. 
*"Cranbrook    Castle."      2|    N.E.    of   Chagford.       Circ. 

rampart  of  stones  and  earth. 
"Dane's  Castle,"  near  Exeter.     (Perhaps  Danish.) 


230    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC   AGE 

Devonshire  {contd.) — 

"  Dupley  Castle."     i  N.E.  of  Newton  St.  Patrock. 

Durniford. 

Dembury,  \  S.W.  of.     Oval. 

Dolbury,  near  Silverton. 

Embury  Beacon. 

Hawksdown  Wood,  In.      if  S.E.  of  Colyton.      Irreg. 

Heywood  Wood.     \\  S.  of  Chulmleigh.     Circ. 

High   Peak,   near  Sidmouth.      Charcoal,   bones  of  ox, 

deer,  etc.     Flint  implements  and  coarse  pottery  found. 
*"  Hembury,"  near  Honiton.     Oval.     Certainly  at  some 

period   Roman.      Ro.   coins   and   lar  found.     Perhaps 

Moridunum.      But  probably  Brit,  in  origin. 
*"  Hembury,"  near  Buckfastleigh.    Irreg.  oblong.    Bronze 

celt  and  sling-stones  found. 
*"  Hembury."     In  N.  of  county,  if  N.E.  of  Payhembury. 

Oval,      I  ent.     (Alcroft,  p.  3.) 
"  Henbury  Castle."     2  S.  of  Buckland  Brewer. 
"  Henwell  Castle,"  near  Parracombe. 
Ideford,  i|  E.  of.     Circ. 
Kentisbury  Down. 

Luppitt,  near.     Dumpton  Great  Camp. 
Malborough,  \  N.  of.     Irreg. 

"  Membury,"  near  Axminster.    Remarkable  entrance  de- 
fences. 
Milber  Down,      i  S.E.  of  Newton  Abbot. 
Milton  Abbot,  i  E.  of. 
"Musbury,"    near    Axminster.       Remarkable    entrance 

defences. 
'Old  Barrow,"  near  Countisbury.      Quad,  with  rounded 

angles. 
Parracombe,  i  N.  of. 
*"  Prestonbury. "     On  Prestonbury  Common.     Oval. 
*"Sidbury  Castle."     .}  W.   of  Sidbury.     Large  store  of 

sling-stones  found  1864. 
*' Shoulsbury."       Shoulsbury     Common,     Challacombe. 

Square. 
*' Stanborough."      i  S.  of  Hahvell.      Circ. 
•'  Stockland  Great  Camp."     i^  N.E.  of  Colleigh.      Irreg. 
Stoke  Gabriel,  i  S.E.  of. 


LIST   OF   EARTHWORKS  231 

Devonshire  {contd.) — 

Stoke  Rivers,  f  E.  of. 

Stratton,  i  N.E.  of. 

Stratton,  \\  N.  ot. 

"  Voley  Castle."     i^  N.W.  of  Parracombe. 

Widworthy,  \  S.E.  of. 

"  Woodbury  Camp. "     i  J  W.  of  Dartmouth.     Oval. 

"Woodbury  Castle."     \\  E.  of  Woodbury.     Irreg". 

"  Wooston  Castle."     3  from  Moretoii  Hampstead. 

Dorsetshire  — 

Abbotsbury,  near.     Wears  Hill. 
*"  Badbury    Rings,"   near    Sturminster    Marshall.       The 
"  Mons  Badonicus  "  of  Guest. 
Banbury  Hill,  near  Okeford  Fitzpaine. 
Buckland  Newton,  2  S.E.  of. 

"  Buzbury  Rings,"  near  Tarrant  Keynston.      Circ. 
"Cattistock  Castle."     Cattistock.      (?Ro.) 
Cerne  Abbas,  near.     Two  camps. 
"Coney's  Castle,"  near  Wootton  Fitzpaine. 
Cranborne  Chase.     Two  camps  in  Bussey  Stool  Wood. 
Also  the  "Soldier's  Ring."    Pentagonal.    Near  Boker- 
ley  Dyke. 
"Dungeon,  The."     i|  E.  of  Middlemarsh. 
Dudsbury,  Wimborne. 

Eggardon  Hill,  near  Powerstock.     With  hut-circles. 
*"  Flower's  Barrow,"  near  Lulworth. 

Gallows  Hill,  near  Wool. 
*Handley    Hill.       Bronze    or    early    Ro.       (Pitt-Rivers, 

Excavations^  iv.) 
*Hambledon  Hill,  near  Iwerne  Courtney.     Probably  first 

Brit,  then  Ro. 
*Hod  Hill,   near  Stourpaine,      Brit,    with  small   Ro.   en- 
closure in  N.W.  corner.      Hut-circles. 
"  Lambert's  Castle,"  near  Marsh  wood,     D-shaped. 
*"  Maiden  Castle,"  near  Dorchester.    Perhaps  the  Dunium 
of  Ptolemy.     At  first  Brit.      Certainly  at  one  time  Ro. 
Remarkable  entrance  defences. 
Minterne  Magna,  \  N.  of. 
Morden  Heath. 


232   REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Dorsetshire  {contd.) — 

Nettlecombe  Tout,  near  Milton. 

Ower  Heath. 

Pillesdon  Pen.     Oval. 

Pimperne  Down,  on. 

"Poundbury,"  near  Dorchester.      Possibly  Pre-Roman. 

Powerstock. 
^"Rawlsbur}'. "     On  Bulbarrow  Hill.      Irreg-.   circ.      Iron 
anchor    and    other    iron    and    bronze    objects    found. 
{A  rchcBol. ,  xlviii.  115.) 

Rings  Hill,  Worbarrow  Bay. 
*"  South    Lodg-e   Camp."      Rushmore.      Bronze.      (Pitt- 
Rivers,  Excavations,  iv.) 

"Spettisbury  Rings,"  or  "Crawford  Castle,"  near  Spettis- 
bury,      Circ. 

Shipton  Beacon.      Irreg. 

"  Weatherbury,"  near  Milborne  Stileham. 

Woodbury  Hill,  near  Bere  Regis.     Irreg.  circ. 

"  Woolsbarrow."     On  Bloxworth  Heath. 

Durham — 

"  Castle  Hill."  Bishopton.  Very  doubtfully  prehistoric, 
certainly  occupied  by  Roger  Conyers,  twelfth  century. 

"Castle,  The."  Hamsterley,  ii  N.W.  of.  Rampart  of 
cobble-stones. 

Cockfield  Fell.     Small  square  earthworks,  probably  pre- 

"  Maiden  Castle,"  near  Durham.     Old  Elvet.      [historic. 

Essex — 

*"Ambresbury Banks."  Epping  Forest.  Excavated.  British. 
Asheldham,  near  Burnham. 

"Grymes  Dyke,"  and  other  ramparts  near  Lexden. 
Loughton.     Epping  Forest. 
"  Pitchbury  Ramparts."     Great  Horkesley. 
Prittlewell.     Smither's  Farm,  near  Southend. 
Ring  Hill.     2  from  Saffron  Walden. 
South  Weald,  Brentwood. 
"  Wallbury  Camp."     \  W.  of  Little  Hallingbury. 


LIST   OF   EARTHWORKS  233 

Gloucestershire — 

"  Abbey  Camp, "     Alveston.     Oval,      i  ent. 
Ablington,  near  Bibury,      i  ent. 

Amberley,   near  Minchinhampton.     Many  pit-dwelling-s 

in  and  near. 
Batsford,  near  Moreton-in-Marsh.      Quadril.      Ro.  coins 

and  other  antiquities  found. 
Beckford.     2^  N.E.  of  Winchcombe.      Irreg-.     A  spring" 

near,  witli  covered  approach. 
"BirdHp  Camp."     -i  N.   of   Birdlip   Hill.      Flint  arrow- 
heads. 
*' Blackenbury,"  or  "  Brackenbury,"  or  "  Becketsbury. " 

2   S.   of  Dursley.      2   ent.      Many   pit -dwelling's    near. 

(Proc.  Soc.  Auf.,  ii.  x.  325.) 
Blaise  Castle,  Henbury.      Irreg".      Many  Ro.  coins  found 

here. 
*"  Bloody  Acre  Camp. "     Tortworth  Park,  Cromhall. 
"  Bury  Hill  Camp."     Mang-otsfield.      Irreg.      i  ent. 
Caerwood,  Tidenham. 
*Cam    Long-   Down.      Many    pit  -  dwellings    near.      Many 

flints  found. 
"Castle  Bank."     Saintbury.     Round  barrow  within. 
"  Castle  Tump,"     Stow  Green,  Coleford. 
Charlton  Abbots.     Circ.      i  ent. 
Cleeve  Hill  Camp. 

Clifton.    St.  Vincent's  Rocks.     Nearly  destroyed.     Prob- 
ably  at  one  time   Roman.     Traditionally  the   British 

Caer  Oder. 
Combesbury  Camp.     Tidenham.     Circ. 
"  Conderton  Camp."     Bredon  Hill.      Irreg.  oval,     i  ent. 

(?  Danish.) 
Condicote.     3   N.W.    of  Stow- on  -  the- Wold.     Almost 

obliterated. 
Coopers  Hill.      2  W.  of  Birdlip. 
Crickley  Hill,      i  N.  of  Birdlip. 
Dowdeswell.     Two  camps. 
Dyrham    Camp,     3  S.   of  Chipping  Sodbury.     Close  to 

site  of  Battle  of  Deorham. 
Elberton.     Irreg.  quadril. 
Eubury,  Condicote. 


234    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

Gloucestershire  {contd.) — 

***  Godwin  Castle,"  or  "  Painswick  Beacon,"  Painswick. 

Irreg".      Ro.   relics. 
*Haresfield.    Brit. ,  with  separate  portion  entrenched  by  Ro. 

Hazelwood  Copse,  i  S.E.  of  Nailsworth.  Many  worked 
flints  found  near. 

Horton  Camp.      3  N.E.  of  Chipping  Sodbury. 

*' Kemerton  Camp."  Bredon  Hill.  Ro.  pot.  and  coins 
said  to  have  been  found  here.  Recent  excavations 
disclosed  only  early  pottery.  {Maiiy  1905,  74.)  Con- 
tains the  "  Bambury  Stone."  An  ancient  cache  of 
wheat  discovered  here. 

Kingsweston  Camp.      Henbury. 

Leckhampton.  2  S.  of  Cheltenham.  Bronze  and  flint 
implements.      {Archceol.  xix.  171.) 

Little  Dean.      i|  N.W.  of  Newnham. 

Lydney.  Close  to  Ro.  villa.  Many  Ro.  coins.  Perhaps 
originally  Brit. 

Lydney.  h  mi.  from  last.  Ro.  coins,  etc.  Probably 
first  Brit,  then  Ro. 

Meon   Hill.     6    S.    of  Stratford -on -Avon.      Irreg.     394 
iron  sword-blades  found  here  in  1824. 
*Minchinhampton.     Includes  nearly  600  acres. 

"Norbury. "     Farmington. 

"Norbury."     Colesbourn. 
^Nottingham  Hill.     Cleeve.     Brit,  and  Ro.  coins. 

Oldbury-on-Severn.      S.  of  Oldbury  Pill. 

Oxenton  Hill. 

Prestbury.  2  from  Cheltenham.  Traces  of  stone  founda- 
tions within,  probably  mediaeval. 

Ranbury  Camp.     4  E.  of  Cirencester. 

Randwick.     2  N.W.  of  Stroud. 

"  Ring  Outpost,  The."     Cleeve  Hill. 

"  Salmonsbury."    Bourton-on-the-Water.    Rectang.     Ro. 
relics  and  120  iron  sword-blades.     These  may  possibly 
have  been  iron  currency  bars.   {Proc.  Soc.A/iL,  xx.  182.) 
Perhaps  originally  Ro. 
*Sodbury.     Rectang.     Probably  Ro. 

Sowdley.     2  W.  of  Newnham,  [dwellings. 

Stinchcombe   Hill.      Small  earthworks  at  end,   near  pit- 

" Toots, The."  Oldbury-on-Severn.  Many  Ro.  coins  found. 

Towbury.     Twyning. 


LIST   OF   EARTHWORKS  235 

Gloucestershire  {cojiid.) — 

Trevvsbury.     3  S.W.  of  Cirencester. 
*"  Uleybury,"    near    Uley-cum-Owlpen.      Ro.   coins    and 
worked  flints  found. 
"Welshbury."     3  N.  of  Newnham. 
Wick  Rocks,  near  Bath. 

Willersey.      Remains  of  long  barrow  in  camp. 
Windrush.      Circ.      i  ent. 

(For  further  notes,  see  Witts'  Archceological  Handbook  of 
Gloucestershire. ) 

Hampshire — 

"  Balksbury,"  or  "  Folksbury,"  near  Andover. 

Basingstoke,  i  N.W.  of. 

"Beacon  Hill  Camp,"  near  Burghclere.      Hut-circles. 

"  Buckland  Rings.'      i  N.  of  Lymington.      Irreg.  cir. 

Buriton,  i^  W.  of.      Irreg.     Probably  Ro. 

Bury  Hill,  near  Andover. 

"  Caesar's  Camp."     Aldershot.      Ro.  coins. 

"Caesar's    Camp."      Crondall.       100    Merovingian    gold 
coins  found  near  it  in  1828. 

Chil worth,  i  S.E.  of.     Circ. 

Christchurch,  i^  N.W.  of.     St.  Catherine's  Hill.      Irreg. 
and  circ.  ewks. 

"Danebury."     i  N.E.  of  Nether  Wallop.     Circ.      i  ent. 

Egbury  Hill.     Pentagonal. 

Ellisfield.     Circ. 

"  Hengistbury,"  near  Christchurch. 

"Lidbury  Ring."      if  E.  of  Middleton.      Probably  Brit, 
then  Ro. 

Lydmorton,  f  S.  of. 

Mortimer  Heath,  Silchester.     Square.     (?Ro.) 
*01d    Winchester    Hill.      Ro.    lamp   and   coins.      Perhaps 

originally  Ro. 
*Quarley  Hill,      i  S.W.  of  Quarley.     Oval,      i  ent. 

Sherfield  English,  i  N.E.  of. 

Sherfield-upon-Loddon,  |  N.W.  of.     Oval,      i  ent. 

Stockbridge. 

"Norbury  Ring."     h  N.W.  of  Stoke  Charity.     Circ. 
*Sydmanton,  i  S.W. "of.     Ladle  Hill. 
*Tatchbury  Mount.     2  N.E.  of  Tolton.     Oval. 


236    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Hampshire  (con/d.) — 

Upper  Clatford,  ^  W.  of.     Bury  Hill.     Circ.     2  ent. 
**'Walbury."     i  N.  of  Coombe.      Irreg. 
Winchester.     St.  Katherine's  Hill.     Probably  Ro. 
"  Winklesbury  Circle."     Vallum  of  flints. 
Wootton  St.  Lawrence, 

Worldbury  Mount.    A  "  White  Horse  "  here,  not  ancient. 
"Tunorbury."     Hayling.     Circ. 

Herefordshire — 

Aconbury  Camp.     ^  W.  of  Aconbury.      1  ent. 

Ashton,  near  Eye  in  Pyon  Wood. 

Aymestrey,  ^  N.  of.      Irreg. 

Bach  Camp.      Kimbolton. 

Bradnor  Hill  Camp.      Kington. 

Brandon.   |S.  of  Leintwardine.   Irreg.   i  ent.  Probably  Ro. 

"Capler  Camp."    i  S.E.  of  Fownhope.    In  Capler  Wood. 
Oval.      I  ent. 

Coxwall  Knoll,      h  N.  of  Brampton  Bryan. 

Credenhill  Park  Wood,  In. 
*"  Croft  Ambrey."     4  W.  of  Orleton. 
*Dcerfold,  near  Wigmore.     Circ. 

"Dinefor  Camp."      i  S.  of  Billingham.      Oval.      (?  Ro.) 

"  Eaton  Hill  Camp."     Foy. 

"Ethelbert'sCamp."   f  S.  of  Dormington.    Irreg.    (?Ro.) 

Fownhope  Park.    Cherry  Hill.    ^  N.  of  Fownhope.    Oval. 
I  ent. 

Garmsley.      i|  E.  of  Bockleton.     Oval. 
*Herefordshire  Beacon.     Malvern  Hills.    Irreg.    Probably 

in  part  Norman. 
*Holly  Bush,  or  Midsummer  Hill.     Malvern  Hills.     Irreg. 

Ivington.      if  N.W.  of  Hope-under-Dinmore.     Irreg. 

"  Kilbury  Camp,"  near  Ledbury.      Irreg. 

"King's  Cellar,  The,"  or  "Sutton  Walls."     i  N.E.  of 
Moreton-on-Lugg.     Said  to  be  a  Mercian  Palace. 

Little  Doward  Camp,  near  Whitchurch. 

"  Oldbury  Camp."     Much  Marcle. 

Pentwyn  Camp.      2  W.  of  Brilley.      Circ. 

Pudleston,  i  W.  of.      Irreg. 

"  Risbury  Camps."     ^  S.  of  Humber.     Oval. 

Ruckhall  Camp,  near  Eaton  Bishop. 


LIST   OF   EARTHWORKS  237 

Herefordshire  (co?i/d.) — 

Uphampton  Camp.      Docklow. 

Walford,  near  Ross. 

"Wall    Hills."      I    W.     of    Collington.      Oval.      Spear, 
arrowheads,  pot,  worked  flints. 

Walterstone,  h  E.  of.      Circ.      2  ent. 

Wapley  Hill,  ^  S.  of  Combe.      Irreg.      i  ent. 

Westingfton  Camp,  Grendon  Bishop. 

"Vineyard,  The."     Haffield. 
Hertfordshire — 

"Aubreys,"  or  "Anbury,"  near  Redbourn. 

Beech  Bottom,  near  Sandridge. 

"  Cleigh-hangres,"  near  Watton. 

"  Ravensborough  Castle."     Hexton. 

"  Slad,  The,"  near  Wheathamstead.  [lamium. 

St.  Albans.    Ewks.    Nearly  parallel  with  Ro.  wall  of  Veru- 

HUNTINGDONSHIRE — 

"  Bulwark  Fort,  The."     Earith. 
Bury,  S.  of. 


Kent- 


Alkham. 

Amsbury,  near  Hunton. 
Bigbury  Camp,  near  Canterbury. 
"  Castle  Rough."     Milton.     (?  Danish.) 
Chilham.    |S.E.  of.    Entrenchment  supposed  to  be  Brit. 
"  Clubberlubber. "     Swanscombe. 
Coldred.     Rectang.     2  ent.     (?  Ro.) 
Darenth,  near  Green  Street  Green. 
Holwood,  Keston. 
Ightham.     Bronze  Age. 
Kingston.     (?  Ro.) 
Knowlton. 
Maidstone,  i|  S.  of. 
Offham,  I  E.  of. 
Ospringe. 

Queenborough  Camp.     Rectang.     (?  Ro.) 
"Roman  Codde."     Kingsdowne,  near  Walmer. 
Westerham.     Camp  in  Squerries  Wood. 
(See  Archaeological  Survey  and  list  by  Flinders  Petrie  in 
Archccologia  Caiiiiana,  xiii.) 


238    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Lancashire  — 

Beadle  Hill,  near  Burnley. 

Birkrii,rg-.      (C.) 

Bleaberry  Hawes.      Torver.      (C.) 

"  Bucton  Castle."     Mossley. 

CasterclifF,  near  Colne. 

"  Castle  Steads,"  near  Walmesley. 

"Dykes,  The."     2|  E.  of  Burnley. 

"  Eusdon  Fort,"  near  Burnley. 

"Foula."     Urswick,    Holme  Bank.     (C.)     Foundations 

of  walled  enclosure. 
Havvkshead  Hall  Park.     (C.) 
Heathwaite  Fell  Stone  Rings.      (C.) 
"Mount,  The."     Holton,  near  Lancaster.     Querns,  etc., 

found. 
"  Ringstones."     Worsthorne. 
Scrow  Moss  Coniston.     (C.) 
Stonyhurst  Park. 

Torver  Beck.     Bannishead  Moor,     (C.) 
Trawden.     2  S.  of.     Circ. 
*Ursvvick,  Great.      Oval  stone-walled  enclosure. 
Warton  Crag". 
Whalley. 
(C.   enclosures  with  earth  and  stone  banks,  the  period 

of  which  is  not  very  certain.     Described  by  Cowper, 

Archceologia ,  liii.  389.) 

Leicestershire — 

Beacon  Hill.     Bronze  celts  and  armlets  found. 

Billesdon. 

Breedon    Hill.      Querns,   probably  of   Early    Iron   Age, 

have  been  found  here. 
Burrough-on-the-Hill,  near  Great  Dalby. 
"  Bury  Camp,"  near  Ratby. 

Lincolnshire — 

Billingborough,  f  S.E.  of.     Rectang.     (?  Ro.) 
Burnham,  near  Barrow  Haven.     (?  Danish.) 
"  Castle  Hills."     Gainsborough.     Possibly  Danish,  prob- 
ably afterwards  Norman. 


LIST   OF   EARTHWORKS  239 

Lincolnshire  {contd.) — 

*' Countess  Close. "     Alkborough.     Rectang^.     (?  Ro.) 

'«  Dam  Close."     S.W.  of  Willoughby.     (?  Ro.) 

Hallington,  near.      Orgarth.      (?  Danish.) 

Honington,  \  S.E.  of.      Rectang. 

*'  Manwarings,  The,"  near  Swineshead.     (?  Danish.) 

North  Kyme,  near  Heckington.     (?Ro.) 

Revesby. 

"  Round  Hills,"  near  Bassingthorpe.     Clrc. 

"Three  Castles."      \  S.E.   of   Barrow  Haven.      Irreg. 

Said  to  be  British,  then  Danish. 
"Yarborough  Camp."    i  N.E.  of  Melton  Ross.    Rectang. 

Probably  Ro.     Many  coins  found. 

Monmouthshire — 
Bishton,  near. 

Caerleon,  iN.W. of.  TheLodgeFarm.  (?British,thenRo.) 
"Coed-y-Bunedd."     \  N.  of  Bettws  Newydd. 
"  Craig-y-gaercyd,"  near  Llancayo,  N.W.  of  Usk. 
Kemeys  Inferior,  S.  of.     Two  camps. 
Kemeys  hiferior,  N.  of. 
Llangwm,  i  S.  of.     Oval.     (?  Ro.) 
Liang wm,  f  N.  of. 
Llanhennock,  i  N.E.  of. 
Llanishen,  2\  W.  of.      Irreg. 
Llantilio  Crosenny,  \\  S.E.  of. 
Llanvihangel  Crucorny,  2  N.  of. 
Llanvair  Discoed,  i  E.  of. 
Newport,  i^  W.  of.     (?Ro.) 
Portskewet,  Coast  near.     (May  be  Saxon.) 
Raglan,  y\  W.  of. 
Risca,  I  N.  of.     Oval,     i  ent. 
St.  Bride's,  near  Netherwent. 
Tintern,  i  S.W.  of. 
*' Twyn-y-gaer."     2  N.W.  of  Llanvihangel  Crucorny. 

Norfolk — 

"Castle  Hill."     Entrenchment  E.  of  Hunworth.     Prob- 
ably a  Norman  motte. 
Tasburgh  Camp.     Probably  Roman, 


240    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Northamptonshire — 

Arbury. 

Borough  Hill,  Daventry. 

Cotton  Camp,     f  E.  of  Little  Addington. 

East  Farndon.     Entrenchment. 
*Hunsbury  Hill.     i|  S.W.  of  Northampton.      Circ.      Late 
Celtic,   as  proved  by  excavation.      Objects  in  North- 
ampton Museum. 

"  Larches,  The."     i^- N.E.  of  Farthingstone.     Entrench- 
ment. 

"  Rainsborough    Camp."      Newbottle.       Oval.      2    ent. 
Ro.  coins. 

Thenford,  i  N.  of.      Irreg. 

Northumberland — 

The  earthworks  in  this  county  are  extremely  numerous. 

A  selection  of  the  more  important  is  here  given,  and, 

on  account  of  their  number,  the  plan  of  placing  named 

camps  in  alphabetical   order   has   here   been   departed 

from,   and    all    are  classified  according   to    the   place 

nearest  to  them. 
Alnham,  |  W.  of.     On  Castle  Hill.     Circ.      i  ent. 
Alnmouth,  N.  of.     Irreg.  quad. 
Alnwick,     (i.)    Near  tower  in  Park.     Oval,     (ii.)   Close 

by  this  and  to  S.    of  it.      (iii.)    i   S.   of  this   "Black 

Chesters." 
Alwinton,  N.  of.     Two  camps. 
Bamburgh.       (i.)   i^    S.W.    of,    on    West    Hill.       Irreg. 

(ii.)  I  S.W.  of,  on  Crook  Hill.     Irreg.  oval,     (iii.)  2  S. 

of,  on  Pigdon  Hill.      Irreg.     (iv.)  On  Cat  Crag. 
Barrasford,  near  Moneylaws. 
*Beanley  Moor.      "The  Ringses."     With  hut-circles. 
Belford.      (i.)    ^    N.W.    of.      "  Derry    Camp."      Quad. 

(ii.)  On  Chapel  Hill,     (iii.)  On  the  Kyloe  Hills. 
Bellingham.     (i.)  2|  S.  of.     "Garret  Holt  Camp."    Circ. 

(ii.)     2    S.E.    of.      Irreg.      i    ent.      (iii.)    2|    S.E.    of. 

Rectang.     (iv.)  i^  N.W.  of,  in  Riding  Wood.     Oval. 
Bewick    Hill.      if  N.E.    of    Eglingham.      *(i.)    Double 

Camp,   with   hut-circles,      (ii.)   i   mile   from  this,   near 

Blaw-Weary. 


LIST   OF   EARTHWORKS  241 

Northumberland  {coutd.) — 

Birtley,  near,     (i.)    Birtley  Shields  Green,     (il.)    Birtley 

West  Farm.      (iii.)    High  Shields  Green.      (iv.)    Mill 

Knowe. 
Bolam.     (i.)  On  Old  Stale  Hill,     (ii.)  On  Huckhoe. 
Bolton,     (i.)  "The  Guards."     (ii.)  On  Jenny's  Lantern 

Hill. 
Bowmont  Hill,      i  S.  of  Mindrum.      Irreg-.  oval. 
■^Broug'hlaw,  near  Ing-ram.     With  hut-circles, 
Bucton  Moor,      i  W.  of  Bucton.     Two  circ.  camps. 
Caistron,  near  Hepple. 
Callaly.       On    Castle    Hill.       One    rampart    consists    of 

squared  stones  set  in  lime.      (?Brit. ,  then  Ro.)     Two 

other  camps  near  here,    (i.)  High  Houses,    (ii.)  Rabbit 

Hall. 
*Carry  House  Camp,    i  S.  of  Countess  Park.    Hut-circles. 
Catcleug-h  Plantation.     Irreg. 

Chatton,  J  E.  of.     On  Chatton  Law.     Circ.  and  others. 
Chillingham.      Hebburn  Crags,  E.  of. 
Cochrane  Pike,      i^  S.  of  Ligram.      Oval. 
Cornhill,  near  Campshill. 
Doddington,    near.      *(i.)    Dod    Law.      Double   Camp. 

(ii.)    Venton    Hill.       i    N.       (iii.)     "The    Ringses." 

(iv.)  Several  others  near  here. 
Downham  Village,      (i.)    E.   of,   on  Camp  Hill.      Oval. 

(ii.)  1  N.E.  of.      "Moneylaws."     Oval. 
East  Ord,  ^  N.W.  of,  at  Canny  Bank. 
Elsdon.     (i.)   I  S.W.  of.     Irreg.     (ii.)    li  S.W.  of,  at 

Raylees.     (?Ro.) 
Flodden,  near  the  Linthaughs. 
Gunnarton.     *(i.)   "Moneyhill."     Mound  with  ramparts 

and  fosses,  possibly  a  Norman   "motte. "     *(ii.)  One 

on    each   side    of  Gunnar   Heugh,   with    rough   stone 

walls.    Hut-circles  near,    (iii.)  i  N.  of  Gunnarton  Nick, 

"Pity  Me  Camp." 
*Hare  Haugh  Hill.     li  S.E.  of  Holystone.     Oval.     2  ent. 
*Hare  Hope  Hill,  near  Humbleton,  in  Monday  Cleugh,  on 

Standrop  Hill.     Irreg.  quadrilateral. 
"Harelaw."     f  S.E.  of  Mindrum.     Circ.  [i  ent. 

Hartleyburn  Common,  near  Lambley  Station.     Rectang. 
Hepple,  behind  Swindon  Hill.      "Soldiers  Fauld." 

R 


242    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Northumberland  {confd.)^- 

Holystone,  J  W.  of,  near  Campville  Farmhouse. 
Howick  Burn,  near  mouth  of,      Circ.      Ro.  coins. 
Ilderton.     (i.)  On  Ilderton  Dod.     Rectang.     (ii.)  Rose- 
den  Edge.     Octagonal.      Hut-circles. 
Ingram,  near,     (i.)  i  S.E.  of.     On  Castle  Knowe.     Circ. 

3  ent.      (ii.)  On  Old  Fawdon  Hill,      (iii.)  Wether  Hill. 

(iv.)  Gibbs  Hill,     (v.)  Chubden  Hill,     (vi.)  Knock  Hill. 

(vii.)  Ewe  Hill,      (viii.)  Reaveley  Hill. 
Kirk  Newton,  near,     (i.)  Little  Hetha.     (ii.)  Great  Hetha. 

(iii.)  Sink  Side,      (iv.)  Fawcett  Shank  and  others. 
*Kirk  Whelpington.     Several  camps  in  neighbourhood. 
*Linhope  Fame,  4  mi.  from  Ingram,    (i.)  "Greaves  Ash," 

with  many  hut-circles,     (ii.)  Near  this  "The  Chesters," 

also  with  hut-circles. 
*Lord-in-shaws.      Many    hut -circles.      Near    Rothbury. 

(Green well,  British  Barrows,  430,) 
Matfen,  near.      On  Grindstone  Laws.      Circ. 
Middleton  Hill,  near  Wallington.     (?  Ro.) 
Long  Framlington.     On  Hall  Hill,  near  Heatherwick's 

Well.     Rectang.      i  ent. 
Norham,nearTwizell  Bridge.    "  Haly  Chesters,"  Quadril, 
Otterburn.     (i.)  i  N.E.  of,  on  Colwell  Hill,     Circ.     i  ent. 

(ii.)  Fav\'don  Hill. 
Plashetts,  near,  on  Haw  Hill. 
Rothbury.     (i)  "Old  Rothbury,"  N.W.  ot.     Circ.     (ii.) 

I  W.  of,  at  Westhills.    Circ.    Others  in  neighbourhood. 
*Rowting  Lynn. 
Swinburn,  near,      (i.)  On   Reiver  Crag,      (ii.)  On  Oxhill. 

(iii.)  On  Blue  Crag. 
Swine  Hill,  on  Watling  Street,  near  Ridsdale.     Rectang. 

(?  Ro.) 
Thorneyburn,  near. 
*Tosson,  Great.      Burgh  Hill  Camp. 
Trewhitt.      "  Roberts  Law." 
Unthank,  near  Berwick.     Three  Camps. 
Warden,      (i.)  W.   of.      Circ.      i  ent.      (ii.)  N.W.   of,   on 

High  Warden.      Circ.      i  ent. 
Weetwood  Bridge,  near  Wooler.     Stone  balls  and  querns 

found. 


LIST   OF   EARTHWORKS  243 

Northumberland  {contd.) — 

Whalton,  f  N.E.   of.     (i.)  "Dead  Men's  Graves."     (ii.) 

Near  this  a  second,  larger. 
Woolen      (i.)  \  W.   of.      "Green  Castle,"  or  "Maiden 
Castle,"  or  "  The  Kettles."    Irreg.  quad.     Hut-circles. 
Ro.  coins  found,    (ii.)  "  Cup  and  Saucer  Gamp."    S.W. 
of  Humbleton  Mill.     Several  others  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. 
*Yeavering'    Bell.      Hut-circles.     Many    flint    implements 
found  here. 
(Information  respecting-  many  of  these  camps  and  other 
antiquities  of  the  county  may  be  found  in  Tomlinson's 
Coynprehensive  Guide  to  Northuinbcrland.Y 

Nottinghamshire. — East  Leake.     "The  Castle." 
Eg-manton,  i  S.W.  of.     (?  Danish.) 
Rinshill,  near. 

Oxfordshire. — Chadlington,  i  N.W.  of. 

Chalcombe  Lodge,  near.  [Papers^  \.  224.) 

Chastleton,  |  S.  of.     Irreg.  rectang.     (RoUestone's  Sci. 
Chipping  Norton.      "The  Castle   Hills."     Complicated 

earthworks  behind  the  church. 
Crowell.     (?  Ro.) 

Dyke  Hills,  Dorchester.     (AUcroft,  p.  67.) 
Evenley,  i  S.W.  of. 
Idbury,  i  S.W.  of. 

"Maiden  Bower,"  near  Steeple  Barton. 
Nether  Worton,  ^  N.E.  of.     Oval. 
North  Leigh,  i  S.E.  of,  in  Eynsham  Hall  Park. 
"  Rainsborough  Camp."    |  S.  of  Charlton.    Circ.     i  ent. 
"  Round  Castle."     A  E.  of  Begbroke. 
Sarsden,  f  S.  of. 

Shutford.     f  S.  of  Madmarston  Camp.     Circ. 
Swallcliffe,  near  Blacklands.    (Ro.  coins  found.    Perhaps 

first  Brit.) 
Wigginton,  i^  N.  of.     Tadmarton  Camp.     Circ.      i  ent. 
Wigginton,  h  S.W.  of  the  last  Camp. 

^  "Arthur's    Round    Table."     Soney    Riggr,    near    Plashetts,    perhaps 
similar  to  those  ewks  mentioned  in  note  to  Yoi-kshire  ewks. 


244    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Shropshire — 

"Abdon  Burf."     On  Brown  Clec  Hill.      Irreg.  circ. 

"Banks,  The."     iS.  ofWem.      Rectang-.     (?  Ro.) 

Belan  Bank.     ^  S.  of  Kinnerley. 

"  Berth,  The."     |  N.  of  Eyton. 

"  Billings  Ring."     ii  N.W.  of  Edgton. 

"  Bodbury  Ring."    h  N.W.  of  Church  Stretton.     Circ. 

Brockton,  i  N.W.  of.      Irreg.  circ. 

Burrow  Wood.     |  W.  of  Hopesay.     Irreg. 

"  Bury  Ditches."     2  N.E.  of  Clun. 

"Bury  Walls."     2  S.W.  of  Hodnet.     (Ro.  coins  found.) 

"Caerbre,"  near  Chirbury. 
*"  Caer  Caradoc,"  near  Church  Stretton. 
*"  Caer  Caradoc,"  near  Clun. 

"  Caer-Din  Ring."     if  S.W.  of  Church  Town. 

*'  Castel  Brogynton."    In  Brogynton  Park,  near  Oswestry. 
*"  Castel-Bryn  -  Amhvg."      i|   N.    of   Felindre,    in    Clun 
Valley.     Circ. 

"Castle  Ring."     Slitt  Hill.      Irreg. 

"Castle  Ring."     i  S.  of  Snailbeach. 
*Caynham,   h  N.   of.     (?  Ro.)     The  Chastel  Key  of  the 
thirteenth  century  and  perhaps  the  Kair  Key  of  Henry 
of  Huntingdon. 

"Cefn-y-Castel."     On  the  Breidden  Hills. 

Church  Town,  |  S.E,  of.     Irreg.  oval. 

"  Clee  Burf."     On  Brown  Clee  Hill. 

Clun,  near,  (i.)  i  N.E.  of.  Irreg.  (ii.)  i^  S.W.  of. 
(iii.)  I  S.  of.  (See  also  "Bury  Ditches"  and  "Caer 
Caradoc") 

"Coed-y-Gaer."     ij  N.E.  of  Llansilin. 

Coxwall  Camp.     (Partly  in  Herefordshire.) 

"Ditches,  The."     i  S.  of  East  Hope. 

Longnor,  i^  W.  of.      Irreg.     (?  Ro.) 

Minsterley,  h  E.  of.     Gallows  Hill.     (?  Ro.) 

Moel-y-Golfa,  Breidden  Hills. 

Newcastle,  N.  of.     Irreg.     (?  Ro.) 

Nordy  Bank.     ^  E.  of  Clee  St.  Margaret.     Irreg.     3  ent. 

Norton  Camp,  near  Stokesay.     (?  Ro.) 
*"01d  Oswestry,"  or  "  Hen  Dinas."     ^  N.  of  Oswestry. 


LIST   OF   EARTHWORKS  245 

Shropshire  {contd.) — 

Pontesbury,  \  S.  of.     Circ. 

Pontesbury,  \  S.E.  of.     Oval,      i  ent. 

Pontesford  Hill.     Oval. 

Priestweston,  i^  S.W.  of.      Irreg. 

Ratlinghope  Hill.     Irreg-. 

"  Ring",  The."     \  S.  of  Pontesbury. 

•'Robury  Ring."     i  N.  of  Asterton. 
*Roden,  if  W.  of.     Irreg.  circ. 

Ruyton-of-the-Eleven-Towns,  i|  S.  of.      Irreg. 

Snead,  \  N.E.  of.     Two  irregular  camps. 

Titterstone  Glee,      i  W.  of  Cheney  Longville  in  Warthill 
Plantation.     Irreg. 
*Wrekin,  The. 

Somerset. — Banwell,  \  E.  of.  Oval.  Many  flint  flakes  have 
been  found.  Near  it  is  a  quadrangular  enclosure  con- 
taining what  has  been  described  as  an  agrimensorial 
cross.     (Coote,  Romans  of  Britain,  p.  loi.) 

Bath.     Lansdowne  Hill. 

Bathampton  Camp,      i  E.  of  Bath.     Irreg. 

"Bats  Castle."    f  S.  of  Dunster.    Quadril.    2  ent.    (?Ro.) 

Blackers  Hill,      i  N.  of  Ashwick. 

Bleadon  Hill,  near  Hutton. 

"Borough  Walls,"  or  "Bower  Walls,"  near  Rownham 
Ferry  on  Avon.     {^ArchceoL,  xliv.  428.) 

Bourton,  2\  N.  of.     On  Park  Hill.     Irreg. 

Bourton,  2\  N.W.  of.      Irreg. 

Brean  Down.     With  hut-circles. 

Brent  Knoll.     Irreg.     Ro.  coins. 

"  Brewers  Castle,"  near  Dulverton. 

Broomfield,  f  N.  of. 

Burrington,  \  S.  of.     Rectang.      i  ent. 

"  Bury  Castle,"  near  Selworthy. 
*"  Cadbury  Camp."     N.  of  Sutton  Montis.     Irreg.     Ro. 
coins.     Traditionally  the  Camelot  of  Arthurian  legend. 

*'  Cadbury  Camp,"  near  Tickenham.    Oval.    Loose  stone 
ramparts. 

"Cadbury  Camp,"  near  Yatton. 

"  Caer  Badon,"  near  Claverton. 


246    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Somerset  {con id.) — 

"  Castles,  The."     Bathealton.     Ro.  coins. 
**' Castle  Neroche."    Buckland  St,  Mary.    Partly  Norman. 

(See  p.  209  and  Allcroft,  86.) 
"Castle  Hill." 
Charnwell,  near  Sigwell. 
Clatworthy.     ^  N.W.  of.     Oval. 
Countesbury. 

"Cow  Castle,"  on  Exmoor. 
*"  Danesboroug-h."     Stowey. 
*"Dolebury,"  near  Churchill.     Oval,  stone-walled.     (See 

full  account  of  this  camp  in  Allcroft,  chap,  xx.) 
Dowsborough.      1}  S.  of  Holford.     Oval,      i  ent. 
Dundon  Hill.      Irreg. 
Dunster,  |  S.W.  of.     Circ. 
"  Elvvorthy  Barrows."     Brendon  Hill. 
*Hamdon    Hill.      Irregf.      British    ewks,    of   which    N.E. 

portion  was  altered  by  Romans.    {ArchcEol.^  xxi.;  Proc. 

Soc.  Ant.,  ii.  xi.  86.) 
Henbury,  near. 

"Jack's  Castle,"  near  Bruton. 
"  Kenwalch  Castle,"  near  Stavordale. 
"King  Alfred's  Fort."     \  N.  of  Borough  Bridge. 
"Maesbury  Castle."     i;^  W.  of  Oakhill.     Oval.     2  ent. 
"  Maesknoll."     |  N.  of  Norton  Malreward. 
Merehead  Camp.     5I  S.E.  of  Maesbury. 
''"Norton  Fitzwarren.    Constructed  during  Bronze  Age,  and 

much  used  during  Romano-British  period. 
Ruborough  Camp.     Triangular,      i   ent.      Roman  coins 

and    querns,    perhaps    solely    Roman.       {Proc.    Som. 

A.  &  N.  H.  Soc,  S.  iii.-ix.  173.) 
Sigwell.      Flints,  etc.     (Rollestone,  Sci.  Papers,  i.  440. 

And  as  Ruborough.) 
Small  Down,  near  Evercreech.     Oval.     2  ent.     Contains 

three  tumuli.     (Ref.  as  Ruborough,  p.  183.) 
"  Solisbury  Camp,"  near  Swains  wick.     Irreg.    The  Mons 

Badonicus  of  Earle. 
Stantonbury  Hill.     \  N.  of  Stanton  Prior.     Irreg. 
Stokeleigh,   in   Leigh  Woods,  opposite   CHfton.     Irreg. 

{ArchcBoL,  xliv.  428.) 


LIST  OF   EARTHWORKS 


247 


(?Ro.) 


irregf.     i  ent. 


Somerset  {confci.) — 

Stonesbury  Camp,  on  Exmoor. 
Stoney  Stratford,  i  N.E.  of.     Oval. 
Tedbury  Camp,  near  Mells.      Irreg. 
"  Trendle  Ring,"  near  Bicknoller.     Circ. 
Wadbury  Camp,  near  Mells. 
Wiveliscombe,  f  E.  of.      Irreg. 
*"  VVorlebury,"  near  Weston-super-Mare.     Late  Celtic, 

contains  many  pits,  stone-walled. 
Yarlington,  W.  of. 

(See  Pi'oc.  Som.  A.  &  N.  H.  Soc,  v.  38.) 
Staffordshire. — Arley  Wood.     Remains  of  ewk. 
"  Berth,  The,"  near  Whitmore.     (?  Ro.) 
"  Bury  Ring."     2  S.W.  of  Stafford. 
"  Castle  Old  Fort,"  near  Over  Stonnal. 
"Castle  Ring."     Beaudesert  Old  Park. 
"  Knaves  Castle,"  near  Brown  Hills. 
Suffolk.—"  Castle  Yard."     I  E.  of  Bramfield. 
Clare  Camp.     N.  of  the  town. 
Fakenham  Camp. 

"  Warbanks,"  near  Cockfield.     Possibly  British. 
Surrey. — Albury,  near,     On  Farley  Heath.     (?  Ro.) 

"  Anstiebury,"  near  Dorking.     Circ.     Flint  implements 

found  in  and  near. 
Ashstead,  ih  N.  of.     On  Ashstead  Common.     2  ent. 
Bisley,   between,   and   West    End,   Chobham.      "Danes 

Dyke  "  or  "  The  War  Banks." 
Byfleet,  4  E.  of. 
"  Caesar's  Camp."     Wimbledon  Common.     Circ.     2  ent. 

(Arc/iceo/.,  xxxii.  450.)     Wantonly  destroyed  in  1875. 
"Caesar's  Camp."     St.  George's  Hill,  Weybridge. 
"  Cardinal's  Cap,"  The.     Caterham  on  the  White  Hill. 
"  Castle  Hill."     Hascombe.     Quadrilat. 
"  Castle  Hill,"  near  Godstone. 
"  Elderbury."     St.  Anne's  Hill,  near  Chertsey. 
Farley    Heath.       Slight   remains.       Aubrey's    "  Roman 

Temple."     Many  early  British  and  Roman  coins  found. 
Holmbury  Hill,  near  Ockley.     Rectang. 
Leatherhead,  ^  N.E.  of.     Irreg.  rectang.     (Ro.  tiles  and 

coins  found  1859.) 


248    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Surrey  {contd.) — 

Tilford,  near,    (i.)  Hillyfield.    (ii.)  Long  Town,    (iii.)  Kin- 
Warling-ham,  1^  E.  of.  [chill. 

Wallington.      (//.  Anthrop.  Insi.y  xxxv.  387.) 

Sussex. — Amberley,  i  S.E.  of. 

Beltout,  above  Berling-  Gap.     (A.) 
*Brighton  Race  Course.     White  Hawk  Hill.     (A.) 
"  Broyle,  The."     Near  Chichester. 
Burpham. 

"Castle,  The."     Newhaven.     (A.) 
"Chanctonbury  Ring."     f  W.  of  Wiston.     (A.) 
Chichester,  4  N.  of.     St.  Roches  Hill.     (A.) 
*"  Cissbury."     Worthing,  2\  N.  of.     Oval,  contains  many 

pits.    A  flint-factory.     (A.)    {Jl.  Anthrop.  Insi.,\.  iS'j6; 

ArchceoL,  xlv.  337  ;  RoUestone,  Sci.  Papers^  i.  409.) 
Combe  Hill. 

"  Devil's  Dyke  Camp."     |  S.  of  Poynings. 
"  Ditchling    Beacon."     \  S.W.  of  Westmeston.     Irreg. 

(?Ro.)     (A.) 
Edburton,  \  S.E.  of.     Circ. 
Falmer.      Two   "valley-entrenchments."     (See  Thoms, 

Antiquary,  Nov.,  1907,  and  AUcroft,  p.  146.) 
Fulking,  I  S.  of.     (?  Ro.) 

"  Goosehill  Camp."     i|  W.  of  West  Dean.     Circ. 
Graff  ham,  i^  S.W.  of.     Entrenchments. 
"  Harrow  Hill."     2}  E.  of  Burpham.     Circ. 
Highdown.      4  S.W.  of  Cissbury.      (A.)     Bronze  imple- 
ments found  {Proc.  Soc.  A?it.,  ii.  xviii.  386).    Late  Celtic. 
"  Hollingbury  Castle."     i|  N.  of  Brighton.    (A.)    Bronze 

celt,  torque  and  armillae  found.     {AixhceoL^  xxix.  372, 

and  xlvi.  423.) 
Kingston-by-Sea,  if  N.  of. 
"  Lingfield    Mark   Camp,"   near    E.    Grinstead.     British 

Oppidum.      {Proc.  Soc.  A7it.,  ii.  xiv.  33.) 
"  Mount Caburn."  |  N.of  Biddingham.  Circ.   LateCeltic. 
Piecombe  Street,  ^  N.  of.     Circ.     2  ent. 
Ranscombe.     W.  of  Mt.  Caburn.     (ArchceoL,  xl\i.  ^2^.) 
Ringmer  Holt. 

Saxonbury  Hill.     2  N.E.  of  Rotherfield.     Oval. 
Seaford,  near.     (A.) 


LIST   OF  EARTHWORKS 


249 


I  S.E.  of  West  Dean.     Circ. 


Sussex  {contd.) — 

Steep  Down. 

Thunderbarrow. 

"Trundel,  The." 

Wolstonbury. 

(For  Sussex  Hill  Forts,  see  Archctologia,  xlii.  27.  Those 
marked  (A.)  above  are  included  in  this  paper.  See  also 
chapters  on  South  Downs  in  AUcroft,  xviii.  and  xix.) 

Warwickshire — 


Ashorne,    near.      In    Oakley 

Wood.     Irreg. 
Barmoor. 

Beausale,  near  Wroxall. 
Brinklow.     Irreg.  oval. 
Brownsover.     Irreg. 
"Danesbank,"onCappa  Hill. 

Westmorland — 

Bampton  Grange. 

Brackenber,  near  Appleby. 

Clifton,  W.  of. 

Great  Asby.  Several  camps 
in  neighbourhood. 

"Grig  Hall,  near  Kendal." 
Also  three  other  earth- 
works. 

"Grimes  Hill,"  N.  of  Kirby 
Lonsdale. 

Haweswater. 

Kirby  Stephen.     Two  ewks. 

Laithwaite  Crags. 

("Arthur's  Round  Table,"  near  Penrith,  appears  to  be  a  mound 
like  those  mentioned  at  the  end  of  the  Yorkshire  ewks.) 

Wiltshire. — *"  Barbury   Castle."      On    Barbury    Down,  near 

Hackpen  Hill.    Oval.    2  ent.    Possibly  the  Berranybrig 

of  the  Saxon  Chronicle. 

"  Battlesbury    Camp."     \\    E.    of  Warminster.     Irreg. 

2  ent.     With  remarkable  entrance  defences,     (Allcroft, 

Bradenstock-cum-Clack.  [pp.  196-197.) 

*"  Bratton  Castle,"  near  Edington.    Below  this  a  "  White 

Horse,"  restored. 


Loxley,  Red  Hill. 
"Mount,  The,"  near  Ches- 

wick    Green,    Monkspath 

Street. 
Nadbury  Camp,  on  Edge  Hill. 
Oldbury,  near  Hartshill. 
Solihull  Lodge. 

Milburn,  i  E.  of. 

Newbiggen,  2  E.  of. 

Oddendale. 

Ortonscar. 

Orton.     Two  ewks. 

Sandford,      near      Appleby. 

Two  evi^ks. 
Stainmore.     Two  ewks. 
Troutbeck,  near  Ambleside. 

Two  ewks. 
Shap,  S.  of. 
Tirril. 


250    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Wiltshire  {contd.) — 

"  Bury  Camp."     \  S.  of  North  Wraxall. 
"Bury  Hill."     if"w.  of  Purton  Stoke.     Oval. 
Brixton  Deverill,  i^  E.  of.      Rectang.      2  ent. 
easterly  Camp.     2  S.  of  Uphaven. 
"Castle  Ditches."     i  S.E.  of  Tisbury. 
"Castle  Rings."     i  N.W.  of  Donhead  St.  Mary. 
Chisbury  Camp,      h  N.  of  Great  Bedwin. 
"Chiselbury."     2  N.W.  of  Broad  Chalke. 
"  Chisenbury  Camp."     f  N.E.  of  East  Chisenbury. 
"  Church  End  Ring."     i^^  S.  of  Wylye. 
Clay  Hill.     2  W.  of  Warminster.     Irreg. 
"  Codford  Castle."     h  N.E.  of  Codford  St.  Mary. 
"  Coniger,  The."     E.  of  Stonehenge. 
Dean  Station,  near. 

"  East  Castle."     \  S.  of  Hanging  Langford. 
*"  Figsbury    Ring,"    or    "  Chlorus'    Camp."      i    S.E.    of 

Winterbourne  Earls.      Unusual  internal  ditch.      (See 

note  on  p.  252,  and  Allcroft,  p.  574.) 
"  Fosbury  Camp."     On  Haydown  Hill,  near  Vernham's 

Dean  in  Hants. 
"  Groveley  Castle,"  near  Little  Langford. 
"  Hanging  Langford  Camp."     if  S.  of  Wylye. 
Kingston  Deverill,  i  S.W.  of.     Rectang. 
*Knap  Hill,      i  N.E.  of  Alton  Priors.     (See  Cunnington, 

Man,  1909,  28.) 
•'  Knook  Castle."     li  W.  of  Chitterne  St.  Mary. 
"  Lidbury    Camp."     On    Littlecote    Down,    i    S.E.     of 

Chisenbury  Camp. 
Martin,  2  W.  of. 
*"  Liddington  Castle."      i  E.  of  Chisledon.      Oval. 
Martinsell  Hill,  near  Marlborough. 
"Membury."      13  E.  of  Aldbourne. 
Milk  Hill.      I  N.W.  of  Alton  Priors. 
"  Oldbury  Castle."     |  S.E.  of  Cherhill. 
*"01d  Sarum."     (British,   Roman,  Saxon,  Norman,  and 

Mediaeval  city.) 
Odstock,  1 1  S.  of. 
"Ogbury."     E.  of  Durnford. 


LIST   OF   EARTHWORKS  251 

Wiltshire  {conid.) — 

"Oliver  Castle."  On  Roundway  Hill,  near  Devizes. 
Probably  late  Celtic.     {Man^  1908,  4.) 

Orcheston  St.  Mary,  2^  E.  of.      Two  concentric  rings. 

"Ramparts,  The,"  near  Stonehenge.  Stukeley's  "Ves- 
pasian's Camp."  Perhaps  later  Ro.  Outer  ramparts 
seem  to  be  of  different  date  from  inner. 

"  Ringsbury  Camp,"  near  Purton. 

"Robin  Hood's  Bower."  In  Southfield  Wood,  i|  S.  of 
Warminster. 

"Rybury."     i  N.W.  of  Stanton  St.  Bernard.     Oval. 
*"  Scratchbury    Camp."     i   S.E.   of  Battlesbury.     Irreg. 
3  6^^t. 

"Sidbury  Hill."  i^  N.W.  of  North  Tidworth.  Br. 
celt  found  on  slope  of  hill.  {Proc.  Soc.  Ant.^  ii.  1882, 
227.) 

"White  Sheet  Castle."     i  N.E.  of  Stourton. 

Whitsbury,  N.  of. 

"  Wick  Ball  Camp,"  near  Tefifont  Magna. 
*"Winklebury."      \   S.E.   of   Berwick  St.   John.      (Pitt- 
Rivers,  Excavations,  ii.) 

Woodford,  i  S.E.  of. 
*"Yarnbury."     On  Berwick  Down.     N.  of  Steeple  Lang- 
ford.     Circ.      I  ent. 

Worcestershire — 

Berrow,  near  Martley. 

"Gadbury  Bank."     W.  of  Eldersfield.     Irreg.     Oval. 
Hanbury.     Ro.  coins  found. 
The  Mount,  Beoley. 
Spetchley  Park.     Round  Hill. 

Woodbury  Hill,      i  W.  of  Witley  Court.     Irreg.      i  ent. 
*Wychbury  Hill.     S.E.  of  Pedmore.      Irreg.      i  ent. 

Yorkshire — 

Argam,  5  N.W.  of  Bridlington.     Line  of  entrenchment 

like  that  on  Flamborough  Head. 
Austerfield,  near  Bawtry.  (?Ro.) 
Bridlington.     On  the  Wolds  W.  of  are  several  camps, 

some  probably  British,  others  Roman. 
"Castle  Dyke."     i^  S.W.  of  Aysgarth. 


252    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Yorkshire  {contd.^ — 

"Castle  Dyke."     N.W.  of  Ripon. 

"  Castle  Stead,"  near  Pateley  Bridge.     (?  Ro.) 
*'*  Dane's  Dyke,  The."     Double  entrenchment,  probably 
of  the  bronze  period,  fortifying  Flamborough  Head. 

Hawsett  Moor. 

Highcliff  Nab.     S.  of  Guisborough. 

Kirklees  Park,  near  Cooper's  Bridge.     (Traces  only.) 

Lee  Hill.     N.  of  Slack.     Circ. 

North  Grimston,  2  E.  of.     (?  Ro.) 

Norton,  near. 

Roomer  Camp,      i  S.  of  Masham. 

"  Studfold  Rings."     J  N.  of  Ampleforth. 

Swale  R.  and  Tees  R.  Between  these  are  many  camps, 
dykes,  and  entrenchments,  for  which  see  Archcco- 
logia,  vi. 

(At  Blois  Hall,  near  Ripon,  at  Thornborough,  and  near 
Penistone,  are  circular  ewks,  surrounded  by  a  mound 
and  mner  trench,  like  that  at  Avebury,  but  without 
any  standing  stones.  The  nature  of  these  ewks  is  un- 
known, but  it  can  scarcely  have  been  military,  judging 
from  the  position  of  the  ditch.  Perhaps  they  were 
religious  in  their  origin.  Figsbury,  in  Wilts,  is  a 
similar  edifice.     See  Allcroft,  pp.  567  et  scq.) 

LIST   OF   DYKES 

(Some  of  those  included  belong  to  a  period  later  than 
that  commonly  called  prehistoric.) 

Buckinghamshire — 

"  Grim's  Dyke,"  near  Prince's  Risborough. 

Cambridgeshire — 

"The  Devil's  Ditch."     Fens  at  Reach  to  woodlands  at 

Camois  Hall,  near  Wood  Ditton. 
"The  Balsham  or  Fleam  Dyke."     Fen  Ditton,  by  Great 

Wilbraham  and  Fulbourne  to  near  Balsham. 
"The  Bran  Ditch."     Fen  called  Melbourn  Common  to 

Royston,  ending  at  Haydon,  in  Essex. 
"  The  Brent  Ditch."     Pampisford  to  Abingdon  Park. 
"The  Roman  Way." 


LIST   OF   EARTHWORKS  253 

Cornwall — 

"The  Giant's  Hedg-e."    From  Trelawne  to  an  earthwork 
on  Bury  Down. 

Cumberland — 

"The  Bishop's  Dyke,"  dividing  parishes  of  Crosby  and 
Irthington. 
Dorsetshire. 

Warne  enumerates    twenty-five.      The   most   important 
are — 
*"Bokerley  Dyke." 
"Coomb  Bank."     W.  of  Spettisbury. 
Essex — 

"The  Bran  Ditch,"  entering  from  Cambridgeshire. 
Gloucestershire — 

*"Offa's  Dyke." 
"  Bagendon  Earthworks.     Dykes  3  N.  of  Cirencester. 
Hampshire — 

"The  Devil's  Dyke,"  near  Andover. 

Herefordshire — 

*"Offa's  Dyke." 
"  Rowe  Ditch,"  Pembridge.      i  mile  long. 
Hertfordshire — 

"  Grim's  Dyke,"  on  Berkhamstead  Common. 
"The  Bank,"  in  the  parish  of  Cheshunt. 
Great     Berkhamstead,     through     North     Church     and 
Wigginton    parishes    to    the    north    of    the   camp   at 
Cholesbury. 

Lancashire — 

Bleaberry  Haws,  dyke  h  mile  long. 
Bacup,  f  N.  of. 

Middlesex — 

Grimsdyke.     Near  Brockley  Hill.     (M.  Sharpe,  Diagram 
of  Antiquities  of  Middlesex.) 

Norfolk — 

"  Bunn's  Bank,"  Attleborough. 

"The  Devil's  Dyke,"  or  "Fen  Dyke,"  connecting  the 

marshland  of  the  Wissey  and  Little  Ouse. 
"The  Devil's  Dyke,"  connecting  the  marshland  of  the 

Wissey  and  Nar. 


254    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Norfolk  {contd.) — 

"The  Devil's  Dyke,"  on  Garboldisham  Heath. 
*'  Fen  Dyke,"  near  Grime's  Graves. 

Northumberland — 

"Awd  Dyke,"  Brands  Hill. 

"  Black  Dyke."    Crosses  Ro.  wall  S.  of  Brownlee  Lough. 

Oxfordshire — 

"Grime's    Dyke,"   or    "The    Devil's    Ditch,"    between 

Mongewell  and  Henley,  eleven  miles  in  length. 
"Medlar's    Bank,"    near    and    parallel    to    last,    about 

fourteen  miles  long. 

Shropshire — 

*"Offa's  Dyke." 

*"  Watt's    Dyke."     Nearly   parallel    with    the   last,    and 

about  two  miles  to   its  east.     An  extensive  but  less 

important  dyke. 

Somerset — 

"  Pouter's  Ball,"  or  "  Wall,"  near  Glastonbury.   (Allcroft, 
*"Wansdyke."  [9-69). 

Wiltshire — 

*"Bokerley  Dyke." 
"  Grim's  Dyke,"  in  S.  part  of  county. 
"The    Roman    Dyke."     Shiftway   Coppice,    Rushmore. 
Roman    or    Romano  -  British.      (Pitt  -  Rivers,    Excava- 
tions, i.) 
*"  Wansdyke." 
"The  Old  Ditch."     On  Salisbury  Plain. 

Worcestershire — 
Pendock,  near. 

Yorkshire — 

Vale  of  Pickering,  many  on  the  N.  side  of. 

"  The  Roman  Rig."     Between  Sheffield  and  Mexborough, 

on  the  ridge  of  hills  left  of  the  Don. 
Between    Catterick  on  the  Swale  and  Gainford  on  the 

Tees  (//.  Arch.  Inst.,  vol.  vi.) 
"The  Double  Dykes,"  on  Ampleforth  Moors. 
The  Scanridge  Dykes  at   Ebberston   and   on   the  West 

Riding  Moors  in  that  district. 
From  Richmond  on  the  Swale  to  Barford  on  the  Tees. 


CHAPTER    X 

EARLY  PLACES  OF  HABITATION— PIT-DWELLINGS— 
HUT-CIRCLES  —  SOUTERRAINS  —  DENE-HOLES  — 
BEEHIVE  HOUSES  — PILE-DWELLINGS— CRAN- 
NOGES— TERRAMARE 

SO  far  as  we  know,  the  earliest  places  of  habitation  of 
man  were  caves,  grottos,  rock-shelters,  and  other 
natural,  if  only  partially  efficient,  protections  from 
the  wind  and  the  weather.  Of  these  sufficient  has  been 
said  in  previous  chapters,  and  they  need  not  further  be 
alluded  to.  But  in  later  times — in  most  cases  probably, 
in  much  later  times— there  were  other  forms  of  prehistoric 
dwelling-place,  of  which  remains  are  still  in  existence, 
which  will  form  the  subject  of  this  chapter.  Many  of 
these  were,  if  not  originally  connected  with  the  late  Celtic 
period,  at  least  occupied  during  it.  Since  this  period  has 
yet  to  be  dealt  with,  in  dealing  with  them  we  are  to  some 
extent  trenching  upon  the  province  of  another  chapter. 
There  is  reason  for  supposing,  however,  that  the  original 
construction  of  some  of  the  villages  was  considerably 
earlier  than  would  seem  to  be  indicated  by  the  discovery 
therein  of  objects  belonging  to  their  latest  occupants. 
When  Macaulay's  New  Zealander  visits  this  country,  he 
will  not,  if  he  is  an  instructed  person,  estimate  the  date 
of  the  foundation  of  Westminster  Abbey  by  the  latest 
monuments  which  it  contains. 

In  Belgium,  the  Abbe  Gaillard  has  divided  the  neolithic 

^55 


256    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

stations — other,  of  course,  than  those  of  a  lacustrine  char- 
acter, with  which  we  are  not  at  present  concerned — into 
two  classes,  which  he  calls  respectively  cites  agrestes  and 
stations  a  del  oiivertes.  The  former  are  collections  of 
underground  habitations,  in  which  the  hearth  was  situated 
six  feet  or  so  below  the  level  of  the  surface  of  the  ground; 
the  implements  which  belonged  to  the  dwellers  in  such 
pits  are  to  be  found,  as  one  would  expect,  at  some  distance 
below  the  soil.  Of  the  dwellings  of  the  second  class  no 
trace  has  been  left,  for,  according  to  the  writer  just  cited, 
the  people  of  such  stations  lived  in  tents.  Their  occupa- 
tion, then,  of  any  given  spot  is  only  obvious  from  the 
implements  and  pottery  found  thereat.  In  Belgium  the 
dwellers  in  tents  were  less  skilful  in  polishing  stone  than 
their  pit-dwelling  relatives  (perhaps  successors),  and  the 
pottery  which  they  used  was  coarser  and  less  ornate.  It 
is  perhaps  not  necessary  to  pin  ourselves  down  too  closely 
to  the  meaning  of  the  word  tent ;  if  we  admit  that  it  may 
be  used  to  include  other  temporary  above-ground  resi- 
dences, made,  for  example,  of  boughs,  sods  of  turf  and 
the  like,  then  it  is  probable  that  the  same  classes  of  stations 
may  be  recognised  in  this  country.  There  are  spots  where 
great  quantities  of  neolithic  flakes  and  other  traces  of  work 
in  flint  are  to  be  found,  without  any  evidence,  in  the  near 
neighbourhood  at  least,  of  pits  or  huts  for  the  dwellings 
of  the  workers.  In  such  cases  it  is  not  unreasonable  to 
suppose  that  tents  or  other  temporary  above-ground  huts 
were  their  dwelling-places,  and  that  all  traces  of  these 
have  now  disappeared.  Of  the  other,  or  underground, 
habitations  we  have  plenty  of  remains,  and  it  is  these 
that  we  must  first  of  all  consider. 

Pit  -  dwellings. — Pit  -  dwellings,  "  hut  -  circles,"  the 
*' British  villages"  of  the  Ordnance  maps,  are  the 
remains  of   habitations  occupied,  we  can  now  say  with 


PIT-DWELLINGS  257 

certainty,  in  the  Neolithic  period.  Pitt-Rivers  thought 
that  a  careful  examination  of  sites  of  this  kind  might 
prove  that  they  all  belonged  to  the  late  Celtic  period, 
into  which  similar  collections  of  habitations,  such  as  that 
at  Woodcuts,  undoubtedly  extended,  if,  indeed,  they  did 
not  originate  at  that  time.  Later  investigations  have  not 
confirmed  this  view,  and  the  excavations  in  Kent  by 
Mr.  Clinch,^  and  in  Dorset  by  Dr.  Colley  March, ^  have 
settled  the  point  that  these  structures  were  in  use  in 
the  Premetallic  period.  Filled  up  as  they  now  are  with 
rubbish,  nearly  to  the  level  of  the  surrounding  ground, 
they  look  like  dimples  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and 
the  shallow  depressions  thus  formed  are  scarcely  to  be 
noticed,  save  by  the  trained  eye.  When  examined,  it 
would  appear  that  the  method  of  their  construction  has 
been  somewhat  as  follows.  First  a  hole  was  excavated 
in  the  ground  twelve  to  thirty  feet  in  diameter  and  three 
to  six  in  depth.  Sometimes  the  earth  which  was  removed 
in  making  the  hole  was  heaped  up  in  a  ring  round  its 
mouth,  thus  deepening  the  cavity  and  forming  a  wall 
which  would  prevent  surface  water  from  pouring  into  the 
pit.  The  walls  of  the  pit  were  sometimes,  as  at  Hurst- 
bourne,  Hants,  rudely  pitched  with  stones.  From  the 
centre  of  the  floor  it  is  probable  that  in  many  cases 
the  trunk  of  a  tree  was  erected  as  a  pillar  for  the  support 
of  the  roof.  Where  the  pit  was  of  any  considerable 
diameter,  the  presence  of  some  central  support  for  the 
roof  would  seem  to  have  been  indispensable.  The  roof 
itself,  we  may  suppose,  was  formed  by  a  number  of 
boughs  of  trees  fixed  peripherally  into  the  mound  sur- 
rounding the  pit  and  meeting  centrally  at  the  pillar 
which  emerged  from  it.  After  the  boughs  had  been 
placed  in  position  they  would  have   been  covered  over 

^  Joui'7i.  A?ilJirop.  Inst.,  s.  ii.  ii.  124. 
2  Proc.  Soc.  Ant.,  ii.  xviii.  258. 


258    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

with  turfs  removed  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  (see 
Fig.  80).  In  one  of  the  Kentish  pits  upwards  of  nine 
hundred  fragments  of  flint,  including  cores,  flakes,  and 
waste  chips  were  found,  the  evidence  derived  from  them 


FIG.   80.       IDEAL   SECTION    OF   PIT-DWELLING 

a.    Natural  soil  b.    Bank  of  same  heaped  up  round  pit. 

c.    Central  support  of  roof  d.    Roof  of  turfs  and  branches. 

and  from  other  points  being  conclusive  that  this  was 
a  neolithic  workshop.  In  the  Eggardon  pits  examined 
by  Dr.  Collie  March  no  trace  of  any  metallic  object  was 
discovered.  The  same  is  true  of  those  examined  by 
Dr.  Stevens  at  Hurstbourne  and  of  the  pits  at  Stand- 
lake,  Oxon.,  of  which  there  is  a  model  in  the  Ashmolean 
Museum  at  Oxford.  These  were  examined  by  Akerman 
and  Stone,  but  at  a  period  when  the  science  of  examin- 
ing such  structures  was  in  its  infancy.  Hence  Pitt- 
Rivers  thought  that  further  examination  might  lead  to 
the  discovery  of  metal  in  this  village.  In  the  light  of 
the  observations  which  have  just  been  recorded,  how- 
ever, this  is  more  doubtful  than  when  the  General  wrote. 
Besides  the  larger  pits  in  the  Kentish  group,  wherein  we 
may  suppose  the  men  of  the  period  lived,  there  were  smaller 
excavations,  in  which  only  traces  of  fire  were  to  be  found. 
From  this  it  would  appear  that  in  this  locality  it  was  the 
custom  to  use  separate  cooking-pits,  in  which  animals  may 
have  been  roasted  whole — a  custom  which,  as  we  know. 


PIT-DWELLINGS  259 

obtains  and  obtained  amongst  many  savage  races.  The 
method  of  construction  of  the  pit  was  not  quite  the  same 
in  all  cases.  At  Fisherton,  for  example,  in  the  Wylye 
Valley,  Wilts,  there  is  a  group  of  pits,  of  which  models 
may  be  seen  in  the  Devizes  Museum.  Here  a  shaft,  some 
three  feet  in  diameter,  was  sunk  into  the  earth  for  a  depth 
of  from  seven  to  ten  feet.  At  some  distance  below  the 
surface  of  the  earth  this  shaft  was  expanded  to  a  diameter 
of  from  five  to  seven  feet,  so  that  a  kind  of  bottle-shaped 
cavity  was  formed  in  the  earth,  the  neck  of  which  was 
uppermost.  The  resemblance  to  a  bottle  was  increased 
by  the  fact  that  in  some  cases  the  floor  of  the  pit,  formed 
of  the  chalk  in  which  the  excavation  was  made,  was  elevated 
in  the  centre,  like  the  "kick"  in  the  bottom  of  a  wine-bottle. 
These  pits  to  some  extent  resembled  the  dene-holes,  which 
will  shortly  be  described. 

Later  Pits  in  Ramparted  Villages. — In  the  case  of  the 
village  at  Woodcuts,  so  laboriously  examined  by  Pitt- 
Rivers,^  there  was  a  very  complicated  system  of  ditches 
and  ramparts,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  plan  shown  in 
Fig.  81.  From  the  shallow  nature  of  the  former,  it  seems 
possible  that  these  were  designed  more  for  purposes  of 
surface  drainage  than  for  that  of  protection,  and  perhaps 
solely  with  the  former  object  in  view. 

In  the  pits  contained  within  these  ramparts  were  found 
pottery,  including  Samian  ware,  bronze  and  iron  im- 
plements and  Roman  coins,  clear  evidence  of  a  late  date 
of  occupation.  These  pits  had  apparently  not  been  made 
for  purposes  of  habitation,  but  as  storehouses,  or  perhaps 
as  refuse-pits.  What  is  most  remarkable  is  that  they  were 
also  used  for  purposes  of  burial.  In  two  villages  at  Wood- 
cuts, 191  of  these  pits  were  examined,  and  in  them  were 
found  twenty-eight  skeletons.    Such  pits  were  of  a  smaller 

'  "Excavations  in  Cranbourne  Chase,  "  vol.  i.  of  Memoirs. 


26o    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

diameter  than  those  of  the  habitable  class.  Models  of  this 
village  and  of  the  excavations,  showing  where  the  different 
implements  and  skeletons  were  found,  are  in  the  Museum 
at  Farnham,  and  here,  also,  are  the  remains  and  objects 
which  were  discovered  in  them.  At  the  village  itself,  the 
ramparts  and  ditches  are  still  quite  distinct,  and  some  of 
the  pits  which  were  cleared  out,  as  well  as  the  mouths  of 
two  deep  wells  discovered  during  the  excavations,  are  yet 
to  be  seen.  Similar  villages  have  been  described  by 
Haverfield^  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Thames,  near 
Wallingford,  Dorchester,  Oxford,  and  Eynsham.  Here 
the  pits  are  partly  wells,  seven  or  eight  feet  deep,  partly 
rubbish-holes,  partly  burial-places  ;  one,  so  large  and 
irregular  that  it  can  hardly  be  called  a  pit,  was  found 
to  contain  over  a  hundred  bushels  of  lime.  The  trenches, 
two  to  five  feet  deep,  and  two  to  three  feet  wide  at  the 
top,  and  V-shaped  below,  seem  principally  to  represent 
the  foundations  of  wattle  and  daub,  or  mud  walls  once 
surrounding  various  enclosures.  These  enclosures  vary 
widely  in  shape  and  size.  Some  are  circular,  with  diameters 
that  range  from  24  to  145  feet.  Others  are  purely  rect- 
angular or  rhomboidal,  and  these  are  in  general  at  least 
as  large  as  the  larger  circles  ;  in  some  cases,  indeed,  we 
may  have  in  them  the  lines  of  roads  or  field-walls.  In 
several  cases  the  circular  and  rectangular  areas  intersect, 
as  if  different  in  date.  All  the  walls  appear  to  have  been 
mud  or  wattle  and  daub  ;  no  traces  of  flint,  or  brick,  or 
stone  walls  were  noticed,  nor  even  the  footing  courses 
which  are  almost  invariably  found  in  more  modern  mud 
walls.  Late  Celtic  pottery  and  fragments  of  Samian  were 
found  in  these  pits,  with  other  objects.  Haverfield  thinks 
that  we  have  here  a  village,  or  something  like  a  village, 
the  inhabitants  of  which  were  engaged  in  pastoral,  and 
possibly  in  agricultural  pursuits.    The  circular  enclosures, 

'  Proc.  Soc.  Ant.,  s.  ii.  xviii.  lo. 


PIT-DWELLINGS  263 

the  late  Celtic  urns,  the  burials,  may  denote  that  the 
village  existed  before  the  Roman  Conquest,  or,  at  any 
rate,  before  Roman  civilisation  spread  over  Oxfordshire. 
The  rectangular  enclosures  may  be,  with  the  Samian  and 
Romano-British  pottery  and  other  such  things,  the  intro- 
duction of  the  second  or  third  century  of  our  era. 

Hut-dwellings  have  been  found  within  stone  wall  en- 
closures in  the  Furness  district,  and  described  by  Cowper.^ 
At  High  Hugill,  near  Windermere,  in  Westmorland,  the 
site  of  the  settlement  consists  of  an  enclosure,  two  sides 
of  which  are  angular  and  two  rounded.  It  was  en- 
compassed by  the  foundations  of  a  wall  or  rampart, 
which  has  been,  in  places,  14  feet  in  width.  The  foun- 
dations were  apparently  formed  by  stones  set  on  edge, 
the  space  between  which  was  probably  filled  in  with 
smaller  stones.  Within  this  enclosure  are  sundry  ill- 
defined  lines  of  division  walls,  courts,  and  hut-dwellings, 
one  or  two  of  which  are  circular,  and  measure  about  7  feet 
and  13  feet  in  diameter. 

At  Mill  Riggs,  Kentmere,  Westmorland,  the  settle- 
ment occupies  a  small  terrace  flanked  by  a  cliff  on  the 
east,  and  is  oval  in  form,  measuring  240  feet  north  and 
south,  160  feet  across  its  wider  end  at  the  north,  and 
140  feet  at  the  south,  where  it  narrows.  The  walls  seem 
to  have  been  7  to  10  feet  thick,  but  they  are  now  chiefly 
to  be  traced  by  their  foundations.  It  is  suggested  that 
they  were  not  of  solid  construction,  but  were  faced  by 
stone  and  filled  up  inside  with  softer  stone,  as  was  prob- 
ably the  case  at  the  settlements  at  Urswick,  near  Dalton- 
in-Furness,  and  Hugill,  the  spot  described  above.  There 
were  four  entrances  in  all,  placed  on  the  south-east,  west, 
north,  and  north-east  sides,  but  it  is  not  certain  that  all 
these  were  ancient.  The  interior  of  the  settlement  is  sub- 
divided by  cross  walls,  the  use  of  which  was  perhaps  for 

'  Arcliccologia,  liii    409;  Proc.  Soc.  Ant.,  ii.  xvi.  253;  xviii.  265. 


264    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

penning  cattle.  There  are  also  six  or  seven  hut  circles. 
These  are  rounded  mounds  of  earth  and  stones  raised 
four  feet  or  so  above  the  level  of  the  soil  outside.  The 
diameter  of  these  huts  is  15  to  25  feet  internal  measure- 
ment, and  their  doorways  are  placed  to  the  north-west. 
Cowper  is  careful  to  distinguish  these  settlements  from 
others  in  the  same  district,  which  are  quadrangular  in 
shape.  The  Furness  sites,  he  thinks,  with  their  irregular 
courts  and  groups  of  cairns,  and  with  the  absence  of 
rectangular  buildings  which  they  show,  were  the  home- 
steads of  primitive  communities,  while  the  quadrangular 
structures  seem  to  have  been  self-contained  farms,  almost 
certainly  of  post-Roman  date.  The  late  Bishop  Creighton^ 
conveys  a  warning  as  to  mistaking,  on  account  of  their 
shape,  all  circular  excavations  for  early  remains,  and  at 
the  same  time  gives  a  picture  which  may  enable  us  to 
form  an  idea  of  what  the  early  dwellings  of  this  kind 
were  like  and  how  their  occupants  may  have  lived  in 
them.  Speaking  of  the  mediaeval  period  on  the  Borders, 
he  says,  "The  houses  of  the  peasants  were  huts  of  clay, 
frequently  with  the  floors  scooped  out  so  as  to  resemble 
the  beehive  huts  of  primitive  times.  They  were  thatched 
with  straw  and  were  mere  shelters  against  the  weather. 
They  contained  no  furniture,  save  perhaps  a  few  wooden 
stools;  the  beds  were  litters  of  straw.  There  was  nothing 
to  tempt  the  cupidity  of  the  plunderer,  and  the  destruction 
of  the  house  was  not  worth  the  time  it  would  take.  The 
common  way  of  doing  mischief  was  to  fire  the  thatch, 
when  the  fire  caused  the  walls  to  crumble.  To  prevent 
this  loss  the  Borderer,  if  he  had  time,  tore  down  the 
thatch  of  his  house  when  a  raid  was  announced,  then 
he  gathered  his  cattle  and  drove  them  to  a  place  of  safety. 
His  wife  walked  by  his  side,  carrying  all  the  accumulated 
wealth  of  the  family  in  a  few  personal  ornaments  which 

'   "  Carlisle,  "  in  the:  Historic  Towns  Series. 


PIT-DWELLINGS  265 

hung  around  her  neck."  Not  very  different  perhaps  may- 
have  been  the  flight  of  the  occupants  of  some  group  of 
pit-dwellings  to  the  fortified  camp  in  their  neighbourhood 
at  the  news  of  the  approach  of  some  hostile  tribe. 

The  Romano-British  village  at  Wetton,  in  Stafford- 
shire,^ had  its  huts  in  rows  or  streets,  and  the  precise 
position  of  each  was  indicated  by  a  pavement  of  rough 
limestone,  which  had  formed  the  floor.  This  remained 
either  entire  or  in  part.  Sometimes  the  spot  was  shown 
by  a  sunken  surface  covered  with  ashes  or  charcoal  and 
broken  pottery,  the  teeth,  bones,  and  horns  of  animals 
that  had  been  used  for  food,  burnt  stones,  and  other 
vestiges  of  human  occupation.  The  discovery  of  iron 
and  bronze  implements  here,  with  Roman  coins,  leaves 
no  doubt  as  to  the  period  of  this  settlement. 

An  instance  of  the  existence  of  pits  within  a  strongly 
fortified  place  must  conclude  this  section  of  the  chapter, 
and  may  be  taken  from  the  discoveries  made  at  Worle- 
bury,  near  Weston-super-Mare.  In  this  camp,^  and 
chiefly  towards  the  eastern  end  of  it,  are  nearly  a  hundred 
shallow  pits.  As  the  diameter  of  these  is  seldom  more 
than  six  feet,  and  as  some  of  them  are  much  smaller,  so 
much  so  as  to  make  it  even  difficult  to  sit  down  in  one  in 
a  cramped  position,  it  can  scarcely  be  supposed  that  they 
were  intended  as  living-places.  They  were  probably 
cellars  or  storehouses,  and,  as  at  Woodcuts  and  else- 
where, burial-places,  for  in  the  course  of  their  excava- 
tions the  explorers  of  these  pits  found  parts  of  eighteen 
skeletons.  The  largest  pit  of  all  was  six  feet  deep,  tri- 
angular in  shape,  its  sides  measuring  6,  9  and  10  feet 
respectively.  The  pits  are  hollowed  out  of  the  rock 
where  it  is  soft  and  easily  removable.  Besides  the 
skeletons  of  men  and  bones  of  animals  and  birds,  much 

^   Batcnian,  Ten   Years'  Diggiuir,  194. 

-  See  Knit^ht,  The  Sea-Board  of  MentJip,  iii. 


266    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

rude  pottery,  flint,  bone  and  bronze  objects,  glass  beads, 
and  spearheads  and  other  things  made  of  iron  were 
found.  No  Roman  objects  were  discovered,  so  that  we 
may  provisionally  place  these  pits  at  an  early  part  of  the 
early  Iron  age. 

Souterrains  and  Dene-holes. — Subterranean  dwellings,  of 
a  more  elaborate  character  than  those  already  described, 
are  not  common  ;  indeed,  are  almost  unknown  in  this 
country,  though  there  are  souterrains  in  connection  with 
some  of  the  ancient  Cornish  villages.  In  Ireland  such 
underground  chambers  are  common  in  the  "  raths "  or 
forts,  and  are  sometimes  found  apart  from  them.  At 
Killala,^  for  example,  there  are  a  series  of  underground 
chambers  and  passages  of  considerable  size.  The  Scotch 
"  Eirde  houses,"  "weems,"  or  "  Pict's  houses,"  are  of  a 
similar  character;  indeed,  the  resemblance  of  the  Cornish, 
Scotch,  and  Irish  examples  seems  clearly  to  point  to  a 
common  origin.  Others  have  been  found  in  France, 
Hungary,  and  elsewhere.  The  most  interesting  structures 
of  this  type  met  with  in  England  are  the  dene-holes,  of 
which  some  account  must  now  be  given.-  These  sub- 
terranean chambers  are  reached  by  a  vertical  shaft  of  some 
depth,  which  appears  to  have  been,  at  least  in  some  cases, 
lined  with  flint  stones  where  it  passed  through  the  Thanet 
sand — no  doubt  a  somewhat  treacherous  stratum — to  reach 
the  subjacent  chalk  in  which  the  chambers  themselves  were 
excavated.  The  special  feature  of  these  excavations  is 
that  each  consists  of  a  primary  chamber  from  which  others 
branch  off,  as  shown  in  the  annexed  plan  (Fig.  82).  One 
system  of  chambers  sometimes  communicates  with  another, 
and  thus  a  most  complicated  group  of  rooms  is  produced. 

'  Journ.  R.  Soc.  Ant  /rekttid,  viii.  igi, 

2  For  full  account  of  the  exploration  of   these,  see  Essex  Naturalist, 
December,  1887. 


SOUTERRAINS   AND    DENE-HOLES      267 


In  other  cases  quite  thin  walls  separate  one  set  of  chambers 
from  another.  In  exploring  the  pits  at  Hangman's  Wood, 
near  Grays,  Essex,  bones  of  the  horse,  ox,  sheep,  dog,  and 
badgerwere  found, as  also  some  human 
bones.  Pottery,  some  of  it  mediaeval 
and  some  British,  but  in  no  great 
quantity,  was  also  discovered.  One  of 
the  most  interesting  finds  was  a  piece 
of  Niedermendig  lava,  once  part  of  a 
stone  for  grinding  corn.  In  connec- 
tion with  these  dene-holes,  a  number 
of  underground  passages,  which  have 
their  entrance  at  Chislehurst  in  Kent, 
should  be  mentioned.  These  have 
been  described  by  Mr.  Nichols,^  but  it 
is  quite  clear  that  they  are  for  the  most 
part  of  quite  recent  construction.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  some  of  the  dene- 
holes,  though  it  is  quite  possible  that 
others  may  go  back  to  the  late  Celtic 
period.-  Underground  dwellings  have 
also  been  discovered  in  the  isle  of  Portland,^  which  are 
really  subterranean  beehive  huts,  completely  walled  in  with 
flat  stones  overlapping  inwards,  until  they  leave  an  open- 
ing at  the  crown  of  16  inches  in  diameter.  This  opening 
has  generally  been  found  to  be  covered  with  a  slab.  Over 
all  was  the  soil  about  a  foot  in  thickness.  The  height  of 
these  chambers  was  about  8  feet,  though  in  one  case  it  was 
12  feet,  and  the  width  at  the  bottom  was  from  10  to  12  feet. 
In  one  instance  twin  chambers  were  found,  communicating 
with  one  another  by  a  passage  at  the  base  2  feet  in  height 
by  2  feet  6  inches  in  width.  Skulls  and  bones  of  domestic 
animals,  corn-crushers,  a  celt  and  flint  flakes,  with  other 
stones  and  blackened  wheat,   have  been  found   in  these 

'  Jl.  British  Arch.  Ass.,  Dec,  1903,  and  April,  1904. 

^  Allcroft,  Earihivorks  of  England,  248.  See  also  Johnson's  Folk  Memory, 
234,  for  a  lengthy  account  of  the  dene-holes,  and  Hayes,  Jl.  R.  Anlhrup. 
Inst.,  xxxix.  44. 

*  Damon,  Geology  of  Weymouth,  etc.,  164. 


FIG.   82. 
GROUND    PLAN    OF   TWO   CON- 
NECTING  DENE-HOLES 


268    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

chambers.  It  still  remains  doubtful  whether  they  were 
storehouses  or  dwelling-places.  The  evidence  at  present 
forthcoming  certainly  seems  to  point  to  the  former  conclu- 
sion. Somewhat  similar  constructions  have  recently  been 
discovered  at  Waddon,  near  Croydon.  Flint  implements 
and  Romano-British  pottery  were  discovered  in  them.^ 

Beehive  Houses. — Take  such  an  edifice  as  the  last,  and 
instead  of  burying  it  in  the  earth,  erect  it  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  and  place  its  entrance  at  the  side,  and  not  at 
the  top,  and  the  result  is  the  beehive  house,  a  well-known 
object  in  Ireland.  The  tumbled-dovvn  remains  of  such 
huts  may  be  seen  in  the  "  cittiau  "  of  Braich-y-Dinas,  on 
Penmaenmawr.  Examples  are  also  met  with  in  Cornwall, 
for  example,  at  Chysoyster.  These  buildings,  being  made 
of  rough  stones,  uncemented  together  by  mortar,  are  of 
course  very  liable  to  tumble  down.  The  principle  on 
which  they  are  constructed  is  that  of  advancing  each 
course  of  stones  a  little  nearer  towards  the  centre  of  the 
hut  than  that  immediately  below  it.  As  a  result  the  walls 
gradually  slope  inwards  until  they  meet  at  the  top,  the 
whole  forming  a  figure  like  the  old-fashioned  straw  bee- 
skep,  from  which  their  name  is  derived. 

Pile-dwellings. — To  give  anything  like  a  complete 
account  of  the  pile-  and  other  lake-dwellings  of  the  pre- 
historic period  within  the  limits  of  this  book  would  be  an 
impossible  task.  Only  the  most  prominent  facts  can  be 
mentioned  here,  and  those  who  desire  to  pursue  their 
studies  further  may  be  referred  to  the  books  mentioned 
in  the  footnote.-  In  the  first  instance  it  may  be  said  that 
the  idea  of  the  constructors  of  all  these  villages  was  to 
surround  their  places  of  habitation  with  water.  A  similar 
idea  occupied  the  minds  of  the  mediaeval  castle-builder, 
and  of  the  constructors  of  the  terramare.  But  the  end 
was  achieved  in  a  different  way  in  the  two  cases.     The 

'  Reliquary,  ix.  71. 

-  Keller,  Lake  DivclUiigs  of  S~<vilzerlnnd ;  Muiiro,  TJie  Lake  Divellings  of 
Europe,  ami  Ancient  Scottish  Lake  Divellings  ;  Biilicid,  Account  of  the  L^ake 
Village  at  Glastonbury. 


PILE-DWELLINGS  269 

lake-village  was  an  artificial  island,  of  one  sort  or  another, 
in  the  midst  of  a  natural  sheet  of  water.  The  moat  of  the 
castle,  or  homestead,  or  terramare,  was  an  artificial  lake 
formed  around  a  building  on  the  dry  land.  The  result 
was  the  same,  though  the  method  by  which  it  was  arrived 
at  was  different. 

The  first  method  was  that  adopted  by  the  constructors 
of  the  lake-villages  of  Switzerland,  and  of  the  crannoges 
of  Ireland  and  Scotland  ;  but  here  again  each  went  to 
work  upon  somewhat  different  lines.  The  builders  of 
the  lake-villages  followed  a  plan  which  is  still  practised 
in  New  Guinea.  How  it  is  carried  on  there  may  be 
gathered  from  the  account  given  by  Haddon.^  In  the 
first  place  a  series  of  long  poles  pointed  at  one  end  were 
gradually  worked  into  the  bed  of  the  lake.  When  a 
sufficient  number  of  these  were  securely  in  position, 
a  platform  of  wood  was  erected  upon  them,  and  on 
this  platform  log-houses,  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
makers,  were  constructed.  The  platform  and  its  houses 
may  have  then  been  connected  with  the  shore  by  means 
of  a  gangway,  and  the  task  was  completed.  A  very  large 
number  of  villages  of  this  kind  have  been  discovered  in 
different  parts  of  the  Continent.  According  to  Mortillet 
there  are  in  Switzerland  160  such  settlements,  and  of 
these  no  less  than  51  are  in  the  Neuenberger  See. 
There  are  32  in  France,  36  in  Italy,  11  in  Austria,  and 
46  in  Germany.  At  Staffis,  in  the  Neuenberger  See, 
there  are  two  villages  of  the  Bronze  period,  near  together; 
one  of  them  only  measures  a  few  square  metres,  whilst 
the  other  is  over  two  hundred  metres  in  length,  and  nearly 
fifty  metres  wide.  The  great  settlement  of  Morges,  in  the 
Lake  of  Geneva,  is  360  metres  in  length,  and  30  to  45  in 
width;  its  area,  in  fact,  is  more  than  10,000  square  metres. 

The  villages,  then,  vary  considerably  in  size,  and  they 

^  Ilead-Hiiniers :  Blacky  Brown.,  and  White. 


270    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

also  vary  in  date.  Some  of  them  are  of  a  comparatively- 
early  period  in  the  Neolithic  age,  or  at  least  disclose  im- 
plements which  would  lead  one  to  come  to  that  conclusion, 
for  the  stone  hatchets  which  are  found  are  small  and  im- 
perfectly polished.  Moreover,  they  are  made  of  serpentine, 
diorite,  sausaurite,  and  other  materials  easily  accessible. 
The  pottery,  too,  is  coarse  and  cylindrical,  and  shows  no 
trace  of  ornamentation.  In  the  greater  number  of  the 
lake-villages  of  Switzerland  implements  of  a  better  class 
are  found,  amongst  them  large  perforated  hammer-axes 
made  of  tough  stone  such  as  jade,  chloromelanite,  or 
nephrite.  The  pottery  also  speaks  of  a  higher  skill,  for 
it  is  ornamented  with  various  geometrical  figures,  dog- 
tooth, rows  of  dots  and  shaded  triangles.  In  yet  another 
series,  articles  of  bone,  of  copper,  and  of  bronze  are  met 
with,  accompanied  by  still  more  richly  ornamented  pottery. 
The  facts  just  mentioned  go  to  prove  that  this  class  of 
village  was  in  use  over  a  long  period  of  time.  In  the 
valley  of  the  Mandel,  Belgium,^  a  village  has  been 
discovered,  supported  upon  many  piles  of  oak,  in  which 
have  been  found  flint  implements,  objects  of  bone  and 
bronze,  pottery,  and  a  coin  of  Trajan.  From  this  we 
learn  that  this  particular  village — and  the  same  may  be 
true  of  others — had  been  the  home  of  men  for  many 
generations. 

In  the  case  of  the  crannoge,  so  common  in  Ireland  and 
Scotland,  and  utilised  in  both  countries  up  to  so  very 
recent  a  period,  instead  of  rearing  a  platform  upon  piles, 
an  artificial  island  was  constructed  by  heaping  brush- 
wood, stones,  and  other  matters  together  in  a  selected 
spot  on  the  floor  of  the  lake  and  driving  piles  into  its 
floor  around  the  heap  so  as  to  prevent  its  being  washed 
away  by  the  action  of  the  waves.  By  this  means  an 
artificial,   but  approximately  solid  platform  was  formed, 

^  L Anthropologic,  xii.  558. 


PILE-DWELLINGS  271 

upon  which  the  houses  were  erected,  and  this  again  was 
connected  with  the  shore  by  means  of  a  gangway.  Near 
Clones,  in  Ireland,  is  a  crannoge  which  has  been  very 
carefully  investigated  with  the  following  results.^  Part 
of  this  crannoge  consisted  of  a  small  natural  shoal  of 
marl,  which  had  been  supplemented  by  laying  down  three 
or  four  superimposed  layers  of  tree-trunks,  some  eighteen 
inches  in  diameter — birch,  oak,  and  fir.  Beneath  these 
was  a  layer  of  earth  and  stones.  The  remaining  portion 
of  the  crannoge  rested  on  the  bed  of  the  lake  and  con- 
sisted of  (i.)  a  layer,  the  lowest,  of  bracken,  fern,  and 
moss  ;  (ii.)  branches  of  oak  and  blackthorn  and  hazel 
with  large  stones  in  places.  In  this  layer  were  both 
horizontal  logs  and  perpendicular  piles;  (iii.)  clay  and 
gravel.  In  the  construction  of  the  entire  crannoge 
metallic  implements  had  been  used,  and  in  it  were  found 
implements  of  stone,  bronze,  iron,  bone,  and  wood,  also 
pottery,  glass,  and  a  leather  dagger-sheath. 

So  far,  it  must  be  admitted,  the  discoveries  of  this 
class  in  England  have  been  few,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  the  remarkable  discoveries  at  Glastonbury,  not  very 
important.  Duncombe^  has  described  a  number  of  piles 
in  the  river  Costa,  near  Pickering,  Yorks,  which  appear 
to  have  belonged  to  a  construction  of  the  Swiss  nature. 
Bones  of  various  animals  and  fragments  of  pottery  have 
been  found  in  the  bed  of  this  stream.  Near  Hedsor,  Bucks,^ 
an  oak  floor  about  four  inches  in  thickness,  supported 
upon  piles  of  oak  and  beech,  varying  in  diameter  from 
five  to  nine  inches,  was  found,  under  about  2  feet  6  inches 
of  alluvium  and  six  feet  of  peaty  soil.  The  principal  and 
larger  piles  were  about  five  feet  apart,  and  the  small  thickly 
studded  between  them.  Pottery  and  iron  objects  were 
found  in  the  excavation  of  this  village,  the  construction 

^  T>'Arcy,Jouni.  Roy.  Soc.  Aitt.,  Ireland,  vii.  205. 

"^  Joiirn.  Anthrup.  Inst.,  i.  151.  •*  Pruc.  Soc.  Ant.,  ii.  xvi.  7. 


272    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

of  which,  owing  to  the  difficulties  met  with  in  the  explora- 
tion, has  not  been  very  clearly  made  out.  Pitt-Rivers 
called  attention  to  the  existence  of  piles  in  beds  of  peat 
seven  to  nine  feet  deep,  near  London  Wall  and  in  South- 
wark.  The  articles  found  near  them  were  for  the  most 
part  Roman,  but  some  of  the  bone  implements  were  of 
a  rude  type. 

The  most  interesting  and  the  most  carefully  examined 
object  of  this  class  is  the  village  near  Glastonbury, 
most  of  the  things  found  in  which  are  to  be  seen  in 
the  Museum  in  the  little  town  itself.  The  peat-moor 
where  it  lies  w^as  once  a  mere,  and  here  an  artificial 
platform  of  clay  and  timber  had  been  constructed  and 
surrounded  by  a  stockade  composed  of  a  palisade  of 
piles  from  three  to  nine  inches  in  diameter,  and  from 
nine  to  eleven  feet  in  height,  between  which  was  a  kind 
of  rough  hurdle-work.  On  this  platform  was  a  series  of 
huts,  each  about  twelve  to  fourteen  feet  in  diameter,  con- 
structed of  wattle  and  daub,  with  a  stone  hearth  in  the 
centre,  and  a  few  stones  in  front  of  the  door — which  was 
about  three  feet  in  height — by  way  of  threshold.  As  one 
might  expect,  a  foundation  of  timber  and  clay  was  not  of 
a  very  stable  character,  and  must  gradually  have  sunk  so 
as  to  render  the  huts  uncomfortably  damp.  No  doubt  it 
was  on  account  of  this  fact  that  it  was  found  necessary 
from  time  to  time  to  raise  the  level  of  the  floors  by  the 
addition  of  fresh  wood  and  clay.  As  the  old  hearthstones 
seem  always  to  have  been  left  behind,  we  have  a  guide  to 
the  number  of  times  that  the  operation  of  raising  the  floor 
was  necessary,  and  find  that  it  took  place  no  less  than 
nine  times  in  the  case  of  one  hut,  whilst  others  show  four, 
five,  or  six  superimposed  hearths.  A  remarkable  series  of 
objects  in  metal — particularly  a  bronze  bowl  made  familiar 
by  the  reproductions  of  it  which  have  been  constructed — 
glass,   and  wood   have    been    discovered  in  this  village. 


PILE-DWELLINGS  273 

Indeed,  one  of  the  interesting  things  about  the  village  is 
the  evidence  which  it  presents  as  to  the  carpentry  of  the 
period,  as  well  as  the  love  of  art  which  existed.  The  peat 
having  preserved  the  timber,  which  in  so  many  other 
places  has  decayed,  we  know  that  their  bowls — there  is 
a  model  of  one  of  these  in  the  British  Museum  which 
admirably  exemplifies  this  point — and  even  the  waggon 
wheels  were  decorated  with  scrolls  and  patterns  of  a  flam- 
boyant character.  Mr.  A.  J.  Evans^  thinks  that  the  whole 
series  of  remains  was  accumulated  within  a  definite  period 
of  not  very  extensive  duration,  which  closed  before  the 
days  of  Roman  contact.  On  the  other  hand,  the  relics  do 
not  belong  to  the  earlier  style  of  the  **  late  Celtic  "  fabrics 
in  Britain,  as  illustrated  by  the  Arras  chariot-burials  in 
Yorkshire,  but  might  be  referred  to  the  first  and  second 
centuries  before  Christ,  though  some  belonged  to  a  date 
coming  very  close  to  the  period  of  Roman  influence. 
A  typical  form  of  fibula  or  safety-pin,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  identical  with  specimens  found  in  association  with 
Ptolemaic  coins  of  the  second  century  before  Christ,  in 
the  Illyro-Celtic  cemetery  of  Gurina,  in  the  Gailthal. 
The  remains  at  Glastonbury  thus  represent  the  results  of 
the  second  wave  of  Belgic  or  East  Gaulish  conquest  in 
this  island.  Other  contemporary  aspects  of  the  same 
culture  are  seen  in  the  Aylesford  cemetery,  associated 
with  imported  Italo-Greek  vases,  and  in  the  Oppidum 
or  fortified  settlement  at  Hunsbury,  near  Northampton. 
The  relics  found  in  the  well-known  camp  at  Worlebury, 
Weston-super-Mare,  show  the  same  culture  under  a 
military  aspect  in  this  western  district;  but  in  the 
Glastonbury  village  the  population  was  apparently  un- 
armed and  peaceful. 

Terramare. — Although    no   instances   of    this    kind    of 

^  Journ,  Anthrop.  Inst.,  s.  ii.  i.  i88. 


274    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

village  has  been  discovered  in  this  country,  or  indeed 
outside  of  Italy,  a  brief  reference  may  be  permitted  to 
them  here.  A  moated  enclosure  with  pile-dwellings 
inside  it,  such  was  a  terramare.  The  moat,  fed  by  a 
canal,  and  crossed  by  a  bridge,  surrounded  a  heaped-up 
rampart,  within  which  was  an  enclosure.  So  far  the 
arrangement  differs  in  no  important  way  from  the  moated 
enclosures  of  this  country,  but  of  a  much  later  date.  But 
in  our  moated  enclosures  there  is  generally  a  mound  or 
earthen  keep.  In  the  terramare  the  enclosure  was  occupied 
by  a  number  of  huts  built  on  a  platform  which  was  itself 
supported  on  piles,  but  on  piles  driven  into  the  dry  ground, 
and  not  into  the  bed  of  a  lake.  No  doubt  this  kept  the 
huts  dry,  and  may  also  have  been  convenient  for  the 
herding  of  cattle  in  the  same  enclosure.  The  relics  found 
within  the  terramare  show  that  they  belonged  to  the  Bronze 
period. 

LIST   OF   VILLAGES    IN    ENGLAND 

In  the  following"  list  all  classes  above  mentioned  are  included, 
diflFerentiation  being  made  where  possible.  Where  no  state- 
ment to  the  contrary  is  made  the  pit-dwelling  or  British  village 
is  meant.     Only  a  selection  of  sites  is  included  in  this  list. 

Bedfordshire — 

Blowsdown,  E.  of  Dunstable. 
Dunstable  Downs,  near  Dagnal. 
Dunstable  Downs,  near  the  Five  Knolls. 
Luton,  Warden  Hills. 

Berkshire — 

Little  Coxwell,  J  E.  of. 

Long  Whittenham  (Rom.  Brit.) 

Buckinghamshire — 

Hedsor.     Pile-dwellings.     {Proc.  Soc.  Ant.,  ii.  xvi.  7.) 


LIST   OF   VILLAGES    IN   ENGLAND        275 

Cumberland — 

*Birker  Fell,  Barnscar.     With  sepulchral  cairns. 
Bootle  Fell. 

Brampton,  near.  Castle  Carrock  and  Cardonnock  Pike. 
Caldwell,  near,  Carrock  Fell.     Doubtful.         ^ 
Gillalees  Beacon,  Lower  Brow.     Doubtful. 
Thelkeld,  Wanthwaite  Crags.     Old  settlement,  examined 

without  very  definite  results. 
Thwaites  Fell. 

Cornwall — 

Bodinnar.     With  subterranean  passage.     (See  Proc.  Soc. 

Ant.,  ii.  iv.  161.) 
Bodmin  Moor.     Brockabarrow  Down. 
Bodmin  Moor.     Browngelly  Downs. 
Bodmin  Moor,  near  Fox  Tor. 
Bodmin  Moor.     Garrow  Tor. 
Bodmin  Moor,  near  Leskernick  Hill. 
Bodmin  Moor.     Rowtor  Moor. 
*Bosporthennis.     Beehive  Hut. 
Calvanack,  near.      \\  S.E.  of  Croft  Michel. 
Carn  Brea,  on   and  near.     Excavated  ;    many  flint  im- 
plements   found,    also     pottery.       (7>.    Plym.    List., 

xii.  102.) 
Chapel  Enny.     (Ref.  as  Bodinnar.) 
*Chysoyster.      With    remains    of  souterrains.      (Ref.   as 

Bodinnar). 
Chian  Castle. 

Croft  Michel,  f  S.  of,  near  Camborne. 
Lanyon.     Near  West  Lanyon  Quoit. 
Morvah,  near. 
Mulfra  Hill,  on. 
MuUyon,    near    Kynance    Cove.       {Proc.    Soc.    Ant.,    ii. 

xvii.  79.) 
Newbridge,  near.     3  E.  of  St.  Just. 
Old  BusuUow,  near  Morvah. 
Sancreed,  \\  S.W.  of. 
Smallacombe    Down,    Bodmin    Moor.       **  Smallacombe 

Enclosures."     Pottery   and    worked   flints    have    been 

found  here. 


276    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 


and 


Tor, 


Cornwall  {contd.) — 

Tregonebris,  near. 
Twelve  Men's  Moor. 

Devonshire — 

(Very  numerous,  the  followingf 

Archerton. 

Believer  Tor. 

Brent  Moor. 

Brown  Heath,  near  Erme 
Head. 

Cadover  Bridge,  near  clay 
works.  {Tr.  Ply  in.  Inst., 
X.  296.) 

Cawsand  Beacon. 

Dunnabridge  Pound,  Dart- 
moor. Walled  enclosure 
containing  "The  Judge's 
Chair."  Group  of  stones. 
Nature  doubtful. 

Evilcombe,  Dartmoor.  Re- 
mains of  beehive  huts. 
(Ref.  as  Cadover,  389.) 
*Grimspound,near  Hameldon 
Tor.  Walled  village  with 
hut  circles. 

Harford  Moor. 

Harter  Tor. 

Haytor. 

Hen  Tor.      Hut  circles  and 
enclosures.     (Ref.  as  Cad- 
over.) 
*Kestor.  [bridge. 

Lakehead  Circle,  near  Post- 

DORSETSHIRE 

(Very  numerous,  the  following  being  the  most  im- 
portant.) 

Cattistock.     (i.)|N.E.  of.     (ii.)   i|  E.  of. 

Cerne  Abbas,  (i.)  if  W.  of.  (ii.)  f  N.  of.  (iii.)  ^  S.E.  of, 
on  Black  Hill. 


being  the  most  important.) 

Legis  Tor.  Many  hut  circles 
and  enclosures.  (Ref.  as 
Cadover.) 

Leighon  Tor. 

Manaton,  near.  Walled  en- 
closure, perhaps  a  cattle- 
pound. 
*Merivale  Bridge,  Dartmoor. 
"The  Plague  Market,"  or 
"Potato  Market." 

Metherall. 

Mis   Tor,    between    it 
Cock's  Hill. 

Rolls    Tor,    or    Roose 

near.      (Flint    implements 
found  here.) 

Shell  Top. 

Shilstone  Pound. 

Shuffle  Down. 

Stannon  Hill. 
*Teigncombe  Common.     The 
Round    Pound     and     the 
Square  Pound. 

Trowlesworthy  Tor.  With 
fortified  enclosure.  (Ref. 
as  Cadover.) 

Yar  Tor,  near  Buckfastleigh. 


LIST   OF  VILLAGES   IN   ENGLAND        277 

Dorsetshire  {contd.) — 

*Chalbury,  near  Weymouth,  surrounded  by  fosse  and 
vallum.  "  Rimbury,"  close  by,  seems  to  have  been 
the  necropolis  of  this  village. 

Chettle,  I  S.W.  of. 

Eg-gardon  Hill.     {Proc.  Soc.  Atit.,  ii.  xviii.  258.) 

Farnham,  if  S.E.  of. 

Grimstone,  f  N.  of. 

Hinton  Parva,  |  N.  of. 

Hod  Hill. 

Maiden  Newton,  if  E.  of. 
*Portland  (dene-holes).    Cf.  Damon's  Geology  of  Weymouth. 


S.  of. 


Plush,  1  S.E.  of. 

Shillingstone,  i  S.  of. 

Sydling  St.  Nicholas,  \  S.E.  of. 

Tarrant  Hinton.     (i.)  i  W.  of.     (ii.)  i\  S.W.  of. 

Tenant's  Hill,  near  the  stone  circle. 

Turnworth,  i  N.W.  of. 

West  Compton,  i  E.  of. 


Winterbourne  Kingstone,  i  S.W. 

of. 

*Woodcuts,    near   ToUard    Royal. 

(Excavated   by    Pitt- 

Rivers.     See  text.) 

Essex  (dene-holes) — 

East  Tilbury. 

*Grays,  near.     Hangman's  Wood. 

Little  Thurrock. 

Gloucestershire — 

Cam  Long  Down. 

Minchinhampton,  near  Amberley  Camp. 
Selsley  Hill,  in  the  area  of  the  camp. 
*Stinchcombe  Hill,  near  the  Drakestone. 
*Westridge  Hill,  near  Wotton-under-Edge. 

Hampshire — 

Burghclere,  |  S.W.  of.      In  camp. 

On  Brighstone  Down,  S.E.  of  Calbourne,  Isle  of  Wight. 
Eight  villages. 


278    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Herefordshire — 

Holly  Bush  Camp,  on  Malvern  Hills,  S.  of. 

Kent — 

Addington    Park,    Hayes    Common.     {Proc.    Soc,    Afit.^ 
ii.  xii.  258.) 

Lancashire — 

Dunnerdale  Fell.  (C.) 
Heathwaite  Fell.  (C.) 
Monk  Coniston  Moor. 

Seethwaite  StoneWalls.    (C.)   {Q.  ^Cow^tv yArchceologia, 
liii.  409.) 

Norfolk — 

Aylmerton.      "The  Shrieking'  Pits." 
Beeston  Heath.      "  Hills  and  Holes." 
Sheringham. 
Weybourne. 

Wretham  Mere,  near  Thetford.     (Lake-dwellings.     See 
Norf.  Arch.,  vii.  355.) 

Northumberland — 

Beanley.     Near  and  in  "The  Ringses." 

Bewick,  at  the  Double  Camp. 

Brough  Law,  near  Ingram. 

Carry  Hill  Camp,  near.     {Archceologia,  xlv.  355.) 

"The  Chesters,"  near  The  Breamish. 

Colledge,  Valley  of,  near  Kirknewton. 

Colwell  Hill  Camp,  near. 

Earle  Dene,  near  Earle. 

Fawcett  Shank,  near  Kirknewton.     {Trans.  Berw.  Nat. 
Field  Club,  1861  and  1862.) 
*Greaves  Ash,  near  Linhope  Fame.     Greenshaw  Hill. 

Gunnar  Heugh  Valley,  near  Gunnarton. 

Hartside  Hills. 
*Hawsden  Burn,  by.     Near  Brand's  Hill.     (Cheviots.) 

Humbleton  Hill. 

Ilderton,  Roseden  Edge. 

Ingram  Hill. 

Keilder. 
*Lord-in-Shaws,  near  Rothbury. 


LIST   OF  VILLAGES    IN   ENGLAND        279 

Northumberland  (contd. ) — 

Megrim's  Knowe,  near  The  Breamish. 

Middleton  Hill,  near  Wallington. 

Snear  Hill.     (Cheviots.) 

Swint  Law,  near  Yeavering  Bell. 

Thorngrafton,  near  Haltwhistle. 

West  Hill,  near  Rothbury. 

Wooler,  at  Kettles  Camp. 

Yeavering  Bell.     (Cf.  ref.  to  Greaves  Ash.) 
Oxford — 

Chadlington  Downs,  near  Chipping  Norton  (dene-holes). 
(See  Essex  Report,  supra.) 
*Standlake.  Explored  1857.  (See  Archccologia ,  xxxvii. 
363,  and  also  reprint  of  lecture  by  Boyd-Dawkins  in 
Gents.  Mag.  Lib.  (Arch.),  1.  301.  Objects  obtained 
are  in  the  Ashmolean  Museum. 

Shropshire — 

Pike's  End,  Lyneal  -  cum  -  Colemere.  Possible  Lake- 
village.     {Proc.  Soc.  Ant.^  ii.  xix.  140.) 

Somerset — 

Brean  Down. 
*Worlebury. 
Staffordshire — 

Borough  Holes,  near  Wilton. 
Suffolk— 

Barton  Mere,  3  N.E.  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds.  Said  to  be 
Lake-dwellings,  but  very  doubtful. 

Surrey — 

Croydon.  Waddon,  near.  Subterranean  beehive  cham- 
bers.    Flints  and  Ro.-Brit.  pot.     {Reliquary,  ix,  71.) 

Leatherhead,  near.  Pottery,  charred  wheat,  etc.  {Proc. 
Soc.  Ant.,  ii.  xviii.  253.) 

Sussex — 

Cissbury,  west  slope  of  area. 

Goodwood.      "The  Trundle." 

Hollingbury. 

Kingby  Bottom,  near  Lavant. 

Wolstonbury. 


28o    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Westmorland — 

Crosby  Ravensworth.     Ewe  Close,  Oddendale. 
Crosby  Ravensworth.     Howarcles. 
Great  Asby  Scar. 
Holborn  Hill. 
*Hugill    High    House,    Windermere.     {Proc.    Soc.    Ant.y 
ii.  xvi.  253.) 
Kentmere.     {lb.  ii.  xviii.  265.) 

Kirkby  Lonsdale.  (TV.  Cumb.  and  Westm.  Aniig.  Soc,  vii.) 
Knype  Scar,  Bampton. 
Langdale,  Harbyn  Ring". 
Lowther  Woodhouse. 
Moor  Witherslack,  Harnburn  Rigg. 
Urswick,  near  Dalton-in-Furness.     (Arckceol.,  xliii.  409.) 

Wiltshire — 

(Very    numerous.      The    following    are    the    most    im- 
portant.) 
Barford  St.  Martin,  N.  of.     Hams  Hill  Ditches. 
Berwick  St.  John,  ^  E.  of. 
Bower  Chalk,  i  S.E.  of. 

Broad  Blumsdon,  -|  N.E.  of.      "Castle  Hill." 
Chitterne  St.  Mary,  W.  of.      Two  settlements. 
Durrington  Walls.     |  S.W.  of  Durrington. 
*Fisherton  Delamere. 
Fyfield  Down. 

Great  Ridge  Wood,  S.  of.     Four  settlements. 
Hindon,  |  N.W.  of. 
Huish  Hill,  1  E.  of  Huish. 
Imber,  i  N.W.  of. 
Longbridge  Deverill,  S.W.  of. 
Marden,  I  N.E.  of. 
Marlborough,  ih  N.W.  of. 
Martinsell  Hill. 

Monkton  Down,  i^  E.  of  Winterbourne  Monkton. 
Ogbourne  St.  George,  N.E.  of.     Several  settlements. 
Pewse}^  Down. 

Rotherley.     Explored  by   Pitt  -  Rivers.     (See  vol.  ii.  of 
his  Excavations.\     Romano-British. 


LIST   OF  VILLAGES   IN   ENGLAND        281 

Wiltshire  {coiitd.) — 

Rushmore.     (Do.  vol.  i.)     Romano-British  pits. 
Sherrington,  3  W.  of. 
*Steeple  Langford  Downs.     {Bt-iL  Arch.  Jl.^  1862,  22  and 

117.     Archceologia ,  xxii.  430.) 
*"  Stockton  Works,"   i\  S.W.    of   Stockton.     Ro.-Brit. 
pottery.     Ro.  coins. 
Stonehenge,  2  W.  of. 
Swallow  Cliffe,  i  S.  of. 
Tilshead,  2i  E.  of.      "Church  Pits." 
Westbury,  |  N.W.  of. 
Wootton  Rivers,  i  N.W.  of. 

Yorkshire — 

Blakey  Moor,      if  W.  of  Rosedale.     Stone  Haggs. 
Blayshaw  Bents,  near  Stean. 
Danby  Moor.     (Date  and  use  very  doubtful.) 
Egton,  moor  near. 

Goathland.      "  Killing  Pits."     Very  probably  only  kilns. 
Rudstone,  near  the. 
*Scarborough,  Wolds  near.     Many  dwellings. 
Skipwith  Common. 

Lake-dweUings — 

Barmston.     (Bronze.) 

Gransmoor.     (Bronze.) 

Pickering.     (//.  Anthrop.  Inst.^  s.  ii.  i.  151.) 

Ulrome.     (Bronze.) 


CHAPTER    XI 
THE   LATE   CELTIC   OR   EARLY   IRON   AGE 


IT  has  already  been 
shown  that  there  was 
a  considerable  over- 
lap between  the  Stone 
and  the  Bronze  age.  The 
Bronze  age  also  over- 
lapped that  of  Iron  ;  in- 
deed, the  Stone  probably 
overlapped  it  too,  for  it 
is  most  probable  that 
objects  such  as  the  elabo- 
rate perforated  stone  ham- 
mers (see  Fig.  8s)  were 
used  long  after  the  metals 
were  in  common  employ- 
ment. 

The  discovery  of  iron 
was,  some  would  have  us 
believe,  due  to  its  being 
found  in  a  nearly  pure 
state  in  meteoric  masses; 
others  think  that  it  may 
have  arisen  from  pieces 
of  rich  iron  ore  becoming  fig.  83.    perforated  stone  axe-hammer. 

accidentally  embedded  in  ^''^^  (i> 

282 


THE   LATE   CELTIC   AGE  283 

the  domestic  fire,  the  burning  embers  of  which  would 
easily  reduce  them  to  the  metallic  state.  Or  again, 
perhaps  primitive  man,  who  had  already  ascertained  that 
metallic  copper  could  be  obtained  from  certain  stones, 
made  experiments  with  other  stones,  with  the  result  that 
he  lighted  upon  iron.^ 

Ridgeway-  is  of  opinion  that  iron  was  discovered  by 
the  Celts,  and  certainly  the  objects  of  the  Early  Iron  age 
in  this  country  appear  to  have  been  made  by  a  Celtic 
race,  whose  track  can  be  traced  across  Europe  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  Britain.  The  most  important  stations 
so  far  discovered  in  which  objects  of  the  Early  Iron  age 
have  been  brought  to  light  are  on  the  Continent,  and 
some  mention  must  be  made  of  them  before  the  objects 
belonging  to  this  period  in  England  are  dealt  with.  The 
stations  in  question  are  those  of  Hallstadt  and  La  Tene  ; 
according  to  Montelius^  the  succession  and  dates  of  these 
periods  may  be  arranged  as  follows  : — 

Hallstadt,    i.  850 — 600  B.C.    Period  of  transition  from  bronze  to 

iron,  which  might  be  also  called 
the  last  (or,  according  to  his  classi- 
fication, sixth)  age  of  bronze. 
Hallstadt,  ii.  600 — 400  b.c. 

La  Tene,  i.  400 — 250  B.C. 
La  T^ne,  ii.  200 — 150  B.C. 
La  T6ne,  iii.  150B.C. — a.d. 

The  lake  of  Hallstadt,^ near  which  are  the  cemeteries 
from  the  excavation  of  which  so  much  has  been  learnt 
about  this  period,  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  the  Austrian 
Alps.  Nearly  one  thousand  graves  have  been  opened 
there,  and  the  examination  of  these  has  disclosed  the  fact 

^  Gowland,  ArchcEologia,  Ivi.  302. 

-  Early  Age  of  Greece,  from  which  other  opinions  cited  in  this  chapter, 
under  the  name  of  this  author,  are  taken. 

^  L' Anthropologic ,  xii.  609. 

^  For  a  learned  and  fully  illustrated  account  of  the  objects  of  this  period 
seQ  Arch.  f.  A7tthrop.,  iii.  233. 


Iron. 


284    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

that  burials  were  sometimes  by  inhumation,  sometimes 
by  cremation,  and  sometimes  by  partial  cremation;  that 
is  to  say,  that  whilst  the  greater  part  of  the  body  was 
inhumated,  some  portion,  perhaps  only  a  very  small  part 
of  the  body,  was  separated  from  the  rest  for  the  purpose 
of  being  subjected  to  the  action  of  fire. 

With  the  remains  of  the  dead  were  deposited,  as  accom- 
panying gifts,  their  weapons  and  ornaments.  The  swords 
show  the  gradual  transition  from  bronze  to  iron,  for  some 
are  entirely  of  the  former  metal,  some  have  iron  blades 
and  bronze  hilts,  and  others  are  forged  from  iron  alone. 
These  weapons  are  all  leaf-shaped,  and  do  not  gradually 
taper  to  their  end,  but  are  brought  abruptly  to  a  kind  of 
triangular  point.  The  handgrip  is  large  in  all  of  them, 
a  point  of  contrast  with  the  relatively  small  size  of  this 
part  of  the  earlier  bronze  weapon.  Spears  are  very 
common,  and  are  almost  all  made  of  iron.  The  axe-heads 
tell  the  same  tale  as  the  swords.  Some  are  of  bronze — 
socketed  and  flanged  ;  a  larger  number  are  of  iron  ;  one 
has  its  cutting  edge  of  iron,  whilst  the  shaft-bed  and 
flanges  are  of  bronze.  It  was  found  in  a  tomb  together 
with  an  iron  dagger,  provided  with  a  bronze  handle. 
Two  helmets,  many  plates  of  bronze,  bosses  of  circular 
shields,  are  other  objects  of  a  martial  character  which 
have  been  brought  to  light.  Amongst  the  ornaments 
none  are  more  numerous  nor  more  important  than  the 
brooches,  of  which  several  as  a  rule  were  found  in  each 
grave.  They  belong  to  two  classes:  (i.)  those  of  the  safety- 
pin  type,  and  (ii.)  those  formed  by  bending  a  single  piece 
of  round  wire  into  two  spirals,  one  at  either  end,  so  as  to 
form  two  discs,  the  so-called  "spectacle-fibulas."  These 
had  sometimes  an  iron,  more  often  a  bronze,  pin.  Pins, 
rings,  armlets,  spirals,  chains,  and  beads  of  gold,  bronze, 
amber,  and  glass,  with  other  objects,  should  be  added  to 
the  list  of  ornaments  buried  with  the  dead  of  Hallstadt. 


THE    LATE    CELTIC    AGE  285 

La  Tene  is  a  place,  near  the  village  of  Marin,  to  the 
north  of  the  Neuenberger  See  in  Switzerland,  which  was, 
according  to  Ridgeway,  undoubtedly  an  oppidum  of  the 
Helvetii.  Here  the  admixture  of  the  two  metals,  which 
was  noticed  at  Hallstadt,  is  no  longer  discoverable.  The 
swords,  the  spear-heads,  and  the  axes  are  all  of  iron. 
The  swords  are  from  thirty  to  thirty-eight  inches  in  length, 
the  handles  forming  from  four  to  seven  and  a  half  inches 
of  this.  They  have  a  double-edged  blade,  which  usually 
possesses  a  mid-rib.  The  edges  are  parallel,  or  nearly 
so,  almost  to  the  extremity,  which  ends  in  a  rounded 
point,  if  such  a  term  may  be  allowed. 

Attached  to  the  heel  of  the  blade  is  a  curved  ridge, 
which  on  its  concave  aspect  adapts  itself  to  the  upper 
end  of  the  scabbard.  This  last  was  sometimes  wholly 
of  bronze,  sometimes  provided  with  scapes  of  that  metal, 
and  in  either  case  at  times  considerably  ornamented. 
The  shield  was  oblong.  Many  agricultural  implements 
were  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  this  oppidum,  sickles, 
scythes,  shears — a  very  characteristic  object — rakes,  and 
ploughs,  and  all  were  made  of  iron.  The  pins,  which 
are  made  of  bronze  or  iron,  are  characterised  by  the 
double-sided  spiral  winding  of  the  head,  and  particularly 
by  the  extension  of  the  pin-trough,  which  is  bent  back- 
wards towards  the  shoulder-piece.  But  the  points  of 
greatest  interest  in  connection  with  the  race  and  culture 
of  which  La  Tene  is  the  name-site,  are  the  pottery  and 
the  style  of  ornament.  For  with  this  civilisation  for  the 
first  time  the  potter's  wheel  enters  into  this  country.  This 
point  will  be  more  fully  dealt  with  in  a  few  pages,  where 
the  scheme  of  ornament  which  belongs  to  it  will  be  more 
particularly  considered.  At  present  it  may  be  stated  that 
it  is  specially  characterised  by  a  form  of  scroll,  of  a 
flamboyant  type,  and  believed  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  palmetto  of  the  Greeks.      Figures   of  animals,  with 


286    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

arabesques  and  flourishes,  masks  of  human  faces  and 
other  ornaments  were  applied  to  their  vessels  and  to  other 
articles  in  common  employ.  Enamelling  also  seems  to 
have  been  a  discovery  of  this  people,  and  the  chief 
countries  in  which  it  was  practised  were  England  and 
France. 

We  may  now  turn  to  the  consideration  of  the  objects 
belonging  to  this  period  which  have  been  discovered  in 
our  own  country.  In  the  last  chapter  as  much  has  been 
said  as  space  will  permit  concerning  the  villages  belonging 
to  this  stratum  of  culture.  Having  called  attention  to 
them,  we  may  next  consider  the  question  of  interments, 
before  passing  under  notice  some  of  the  individual  objects 
discovered  in  the  villages,  or  with  the  remains  of  the  dead. 

The  "  Dane's  Graves"^  is  the  local  name  of  a  burying- 
ground  of  the  Late  Celtic  period,  near  Kilham,  East  Riding 
of  Yorkshire.  The  interments  here  were  by  inhumation, 
and  in  a  contracted  position. 

One  of  them  was  a  "chariot-burial,"  that  is  to  say,  the 
chariot  of  the  dead  man  had  been  buried  with  him,  but 
not,  it  would  appear,  since  there  were  no  horses'  bones 
discoverable,  the  animals  which  had  been  accustomed  to 
drag  it.  Two  snaffle-bridle  bits  of  iron  were  found,  also 
several  rings  and  ornaments  of  bronze.  From  the  position 
of  the  objects  in  the  grave  it  seems  that  the  wheels  must 
have  been  taken  off  the  body  of  the  chariot  and  laid  upon 
their  sides.  The  body  of  the  car  was  deposited  upon  them, 
and  the  trappings  of  the  horses  laid  beside  them.  One  of 
the  bodies  in  this  grave  had  some  personal  ornaments, 
amongst  them  two  bosses,  originally  connected  with  the 
fastening  of  the  belt,  which  were  made  of  white  shell  set 
in  thin  bronze  sockets.  In  this  connection  it  may  be 
noted  that  in  another  grave  was  found  a  pin  whose  head 
was  wheel-shaped,  with  four  spokes,  perhaps  a  representa- 

^  Proc.  Soc.  Ant.,  ii.  xvii.  119. 


THE    LATE    CELTIC   AGE  287 

tion  of  a  chariot  wheel.  This  pin,  which  was  made  of 
bronze,  was  also  inlaid  with  fragments  of  white  shell. 
Other  chariot-burials  have  been  found  at  Arras  ^  and 
Beverley.  At  the  former  place  in  one  such  interment  the 
whole  of  the  chariot,  together  with  its  horses,  had  been 
buried  with  its  former  owner.  In  two  others  at  the  same 
place  only  the  wheels  of  the  chariot  had  been  laid  with  the 
dead  man,  perhaps  as  sufficiently  representing  the  entire 
object.  At  Beverley  the  same  state  of  things  was  found, 
for  there  also  remains  of  two  wheels  and  an  iron  bit  were 
the  only  objects  discovered,  even  the  bones  of  the  interred 
body  having  completely  disappeared.  Other  interesting 
objects  found  in  the  Arras  interments — some  of  the  spoils 
of  which  are  in  the  York,  some  in  the  British  Museum — 
are  iron  mirrors.  Before  leaving  the  subject  of  chariot- 
burials,  mention  may  be  made  of  the  fact  that  they  occur 
on  the  Continent  in  the  La  Tene  stratum.  At  Nanterre,'^ 
for  example,  in  France,  an  interment  of  this  class  has 
recently  been  described.  Here  the  horses  had  been 
buried  with  their  master,  as  their  bones  as  well  as  their 
trappings  and  parts  of  the  tyres  of  the  wheels  were  found 
in  the  grave.  The  metallic  objects  were  partly  of  iron, 
partly  of  bronze. 

A  group  of  barrows  of  the  period  now  under  considera- 
tion was  opened  by  Greenwell  at  Cowlam,  in  the  East 
Riding  of  Yorkshire.  ^ 

By  far  the  most  important  series  of  interments,  how- 
ever, which  have  so  far  come  to  light  are  those  at  Ayles- 
ford,  described  in  an  elaborate  paper  by  Mr.  A.  J.  Evans.'* 
In  this  cemetery  the  cinerary  urns  were  placed  in  shallow 
pits  no  great  distance  below  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
and  with   no  mounds  heaped   up  over  them.     With  the 

^  Greenwell,  British  Barroivs,  454.  "  L Anthropologic,  xiii.  G6. 

■*  Brit.  Barrows,  20S.  Sec  also  note  on  p.  50  in  the  same  book  for  further 
instances  of  interments  of  this  class,  ■*  Archceologia,  lii. 


288    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC   AGE 

urns  were  placed  smaller  vessels  and  other  objects.  The 
pits  described  by  Mr.  Evans  formed  an  irregular  ellipse 
and  represented,  in  his  opinion,  a  group  of  interments 
belonging  to  the  same  family.  He  also  points  out  that 
this  cemetery  fits  on  to  a  widespread  group  of  "urn- 
fields  "  containing  cremation  interments  as  this  did,  the 
first  appearance  and  dissemination  of  which  in  central 
and  northern  Europe  goes  pari  passu  with  the  diffusion 
of  the  Early  Iron  age  culture,  and  the  final  triumph  of 
iron  over  bronze.  There  are  certain  slight  differences, 
a  tendency  to  place  several  cinerary  urns  in  the  same 
grave,  and  a  reduction  in  the  number  of  the  accessory 
vessels  placed  w^ith  that  containing  the  ashes  themselves. 
This  urn-field  belongs  to  the  period  which  preceded  the 
Roman  invasion  of  Britain  ;  its  immediate  antecedents 
are  to  be  sought  in  the  Belgic  parts  of  Gaul,  but  may 
be  ultimately  traced  to  an  extensive  Illyro-Italic  province 
and  to  a  southern  branch  of  the  urn-field  group  character- 
ising the  Early  Iron  age  of  east-central  Europe.  It 
appears  that  the  main  portion  of  the  cemetery  was  occu- 
pied by  the  "family-circle"  type  of  interments,  associated 
with  objects  characteristic  of  the  Late  Celtic  culture.  But 
on  the  outskirts  were  other  interments,  with  relics  of  an 
earlier  civilisation,  which  seems  to  show  that  this  site  was 
utilised,  not  only  by  the  later  Celtic  people,  who  had  intro- 
duced from  Gaul  these  new  sepulchral  methods,  but  also 
by  the  representatives  of  the  race  who  had  occupied  this 
country  before  their  arrival,  and  that  the  two  races  lived 
side  by  side  in  its  neighbourhood.  Or,  of  course,  the 
invaders  may  have  made  use  of  a  cemetery  which  had 
previously  been  formed  by  the  earlier  race. 

Pottery. — Turning  now  to  the  objects  found  in  this 
cemetery  and  to  other  objects  belonging  to  the  same 
period  as  that  with  which  it  is  connected,   we  may  first 


THE   LATE   CELTIC  AGE  289 

pay  attention  to  the  pottery.  This  differs  in  several 
respects  from  the  earlier  pottery,  of  which  some  mention 
has  been  made  in  chapter  vii.  In  the  first  place,  it  is 
thrown  on  a  wheel,  and  not  hand-made,  as  in  the  other 
case,  and  here,  of  course,  we  touch  a  cardinal  point  of 
distinction.  Then,  in  the  next  place,  the  paste  is  much 
finer.  In  the  older  style  of  pottery  fragments  of  stone 
and  grit  were  mixed  with  the  clay  of  which  the  vessels 
were  built  up.  These  are  almost  entirely  wanting  in  the 
later  pottery,  though  occasionally  small  grains  of  quartz 
may  be  made  out.  The  clay  is  of  much  finer  quality, 
and  the  burning  has  been  better  carried  out.  As  a  general 
rule  the  internal  colour  of  the  pottery  is  of  a  light  brown 
colour,  though  occasionally  it  may  be  of  a  pale  brick 
shade  resembling  some  Roman  vases.  The  surface  seems 
in  almost  all  cases  to  have  been  coated  with  pigment. 
This,  which  is  black  and  shining,  was  probably  formed 
from  charcoal  very  finely  pounded,  a  method  employed  in 
the  case  of  Gaulish  vases  of  a  contemporary  period. 
When  this  pigment  has  worn  away,  the  outer  surface 
is  left  of  a  dark  brown  colour. 

No  one  would  apply  the  word  graceful  to  the  heavy 
pottery  of  the  earlier  period,  but  it  is  a  term  that  may 
well  be  used  of  that  with  which  we  are  now  concerned. 
The  contours  of  the  vases,  says  Mr.  Evans,  from  whose 
paper  the  facts  here  given  have  been  collected,  are  often 
of  real  elegance,  and  the  finer  among  them  are  provided 
with  well-turned  pedestals.  Amongst  their  most  char- 
acteristic features  are  the  raised  cordons  or  ribs,  generally 
defined  by  two  lateral  grooves  by  which  they  are  accom- 
panied, and  which  divide  the  body  into  zones.  Sometimes 
these  zones  are  themselves  decorated  with  finely  incised 
sloping  lines,  and  at  times  other  linear  ornaments,  such 
as  zigzags  and  sprays,  have  been  drawn  with  a  blunt 
point.  At  times,  again,  the  whole  side  of  the  vessel  is 
u 


290    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

covered  with  comb-markings  that  give  it  the  appearance 
of  basket-work  or  of  the  grain  of  wood.  This  kind  of 
ornament  is  perhaps  borrowed  from  the  older  form  of 
pottery,  for  there  the  forms  and  ornaments  of  the  basket- 
work  in  which  it  had  its  origin  are  reproduced  with 
certain  modifications  and  additions.  The  Aylesford  class 
of  pottery  seems  to  extend  over  the  whole  of  south-eastern 
England,  examples  having  been  found  at  Elveden,  in 
Essex,  and  elsewhere.  It  has  also  been  found  in  Dorset- 
shire, including  the  Isle  of  Portland,  at  Northampton, 
and  at  Hunsbury  close  by. 

Buckets  or  Situlse. — One  of  the  most  remarkable  and 
beautiful  objects  in  the  Aylesford  find  was  a  bronze-plated 
pail,  composed  of  w^ooden  staves,  bound  together  with 
three  bronze  bands,  the  two  lower  of  which  were  destitute 
of  ornament.  The  upper  band,  which  encircled  the  rim 
of  the  bucket  and  carried  the  handle,  was  ornamented  with 
repousse-wor^i  representations  of  animals  and  scroll-like 
ornaments.  The  handle,  which  was  movable,  was  made 
of  iron  plated  with  bronze.  It  was  ribbed  in  several 
places,  and  was  connected  with  the  pail  itself  by  an 
attachment,  on  either  side,  shaped  like  a  human  head, 
bearing  a  sort  of  crested  helmet.  As  for  the  decorations 
on  the  upper  band,  these  are  of  two  kinds,  foliated  and 
zoomorphic,  and  an  examination  of  them  has  led  Mr. 
Evans  to  enunciate  some  very  interesting  views  as  to 
their  connections.  Fig.  84^  shows  a  quintuple  scroll 
resembling,  in  all  but  the  number  of  its  parts,  a  design 
found  on  a  scabbard  at  La  Tene  itself.  A  comparison  of 
this  with  other  La  Tene  sheaths  leads  him  to  believe  that 
this  ornament  is  really  a  modification  of  the  upper  volutes 
of  a  Greek  anthemion  or  palmette.  In  Fig.  84-  is 
shown  another  of  the  foliated  ornaments  from  this  bucket- 
rim.     Here   in    the   centre   is   a   circle   of  volute   petals. 


THE    LATE   CELTIC   AGE 


291 


Above  and  below  it  are  foliated  scrolls,  with  a  general 
resemblance  to  those  in  the  other  figure.  The  "circle" 
represents  in  fact  one  of  the  star-like  flowers,  sometimes 
rendered  as  volutes,  which  on  Greek  bronze  vases  and 
other  ornamental  metal-work  often  appear  encircled  by  the 
sprays  of  arabesque  foliage,  serving  at  times  as  offshoots 
for  a  palmette.     The  animals,  with  curved  horns,  which 


I  FIG.  84.       I.ATE   CELTIC   ORNAMEM'  2 

form  the  remaining  ornaments  of  the  rim  of  the  pail,  have 
their  bodies  facing  one  another,  but  their  heads  turned  back 
to  back.  The  tails  are  bifid.  This  is  not  an  uncommon 
motif \n  archaic  Greek  and  Oriental  art.  Sometimes  the 
bodies,  placed  as  they  are  in  this  case,  have  but  a  single 
head.  This  type  has  been  explained  as  being  due  to  a 
primitive  attempt  at  perspective,  the  intention  being  to 
show  both  sides  of  an  animal  in  a  single  front  view.  On 
the  other  hand,  Ridgeway  mentions  that  on  some  Attic 
coins  are  to  be  seen  figures  of  two  owls  with  one  head, 
and  on  a  Mycenaean  gem  two  lions  with  a  common  head. 
These,  he  thinks,  are  the  last  remnant  of  the  common 
Mycenaean  motif  of  pairs  of  animals  facing  one  another. 
Animals  of  a  monstrous  character  with  one  head  and  two 
bodies  are  not  by  any  means  unknown,  and  perhaps  it  may 
be  suggested  that  the  sight  of  such  a  monstrosity  may  in 
the  first  instance  have  given  rise  to  this  peculiar  form.  If 
so,  it  is  not  the  only  debt  that  mythology  and  art  owe  to 
teratology.  A  further  example  of  late  Celtic  ornament  is 
given  in  Fig.  85.    The  "Marlborough  Bucket,"  now  in  the 


FIG.  85.  FRAGMENT  OF  LATE 
CELTIC  ORNAMENT 


292    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

Devizes  Museum,  was  found  by  Sir  Richard  Colt  Hoare, 
in  St.  Margaret's  Mead,  Marlborough,  and  contained 
burnt  human  bones.  It  was  classed  by  its  finder  as 
Roman,  and  by  Wright^  as  Saxon, 
but  it  appears  to  belong  to  the 
same  class  as  the  situla  at  Ayles- 
ford,  and,  thinks  Mr.  Evans,  may 
be  recognised  as  an  article  of 
Armoric  fabric  imported  into  south- 
western Britain.  If  so,  it  would  be 
an  additional  witness  to  the  trade 
connection  which  seems  to  have 
existed  between  the  western  tract 
of  Gaul  and  the  opposite  coasts  of 
our  own  island,  of  which  the  finds 
of  Gaulish  coins  of  the  Channel  Islands,  or  of  Ar- 
moric type  in  Devonshire  and  Hants,  have  already 
supplied  interesting  evidence.  The  fir-wood,  of  which 
this  bucket  was  made,  has  perished,  and  its  place  is 
now  taken  by  modern  staves.  The  sides  are  quite 
vertical,  therefore  the  iron  hoops  which  held  the  staves 
together  would  not  "bind,"  and  the  vessel  was  probably 
not  intended  to  contain  liquids.  A  thick  hollow  bar  of 
iron  crossed  the  top  of  the  bucket,  and  was  fixed  into  the 
ends  of  two  staves  projecting  above  the  rim.  This  was 
apparently  intended  not  as  a  handle,  but  to  fasten  down 
a  lid  of  wood,  of  which  traces  were  found  adhering  to  the 
under  side  of  the  bar.  Two  drop-handles  of  iron  were 
fastened  to  the  sides.  The  decoration  consisted  of  three 
broad  bands  of  thin  bronze,  fastened  to  the  wood  by  round 
bronze-headed  nails  of  iron.  Fragments  only  of  these 
bands  remain,  but  they  were  covered  with  repousse 
ornament  of  grotesque  animal  forms  and  human  heads.^ 
The   side-curls   attached   to   some   of    the   heads   on   the 


■*   Celt,  Ro7nan  and  Saxon,  400. 

2  Catalogue  of  Devizes  Museum,  No.  387. 


THE   LATE   CELTIC   AGE  293 

bucket  seem  to  have  been  derived  by  direct  descent  from 
the  early  Phoenician  bowls  and  situlse  found  in  the  tombs 
of  Palestrina  and  elsewhere. 

Bowls.  —  A  group  of  bowls  of  this  period  has  been 
described  by  Romilly  Allen, ^  who  finds  in  their  orna- 
mentation a  link  between  the  flamboyant  ornament  of 
the  Pagan  Celtic  metal-work  and  the  spiral  ornament 
of  the  Celtic  MSS.  and  sculptured  stones.  Their  mount- 
ings, in  the  shape  of  small  circular  enamel  discs,  have 
often  been  looked  upon  as  personal  ornaments.  Objects 
of  this  class  w^ere  found  in  a  grave  at  Barlaston,  in  Stafford- 
shire, and  described  as  portions  of  a  Saxon  helmet,  by 
Jewitt.-  The  grave  in  this  case  was  cut  in  a  solid  Red 
Sandstone  rock,  and  at  one  end  there  was  a  recess  con- 
taining the  remains  of  a  bowl  with  three  very  beautifully 
enamelled  plates,  each  provided  with  a  hook.  The  bowls 
to  which  these  and  other  similar  objects  belong  have  the 
following  peculiarities  :  (i.)  A  concave  fluted  moulding 
just  below  the  rim.  (ii.)  Hooks  for  suspension  by  means 
of  rings,  with  zoomorphic  terminations  projecting  over 
the  rim.  The  lower  portions  of  the  hooks,  which  are 
fixed  to  the  convex  sides  of  the  bowl,  are  in  the  form  of 
circular  discs,  or  of  an  oval  with  the  lower  end  pointed, 
or  of  the  body  of  a  bird,  (iii.)  Champleve  enamel  decora- 
tions, either  on  the  lower  part  of  the  hooks  or  on  separate 
pieces  of  metal  of  various  shapes  attached  as  mountings 
to  the  bowl,  (iv.)  A  ring  on  a  disc  fixed  to  the  bottom  of 
the  bowl,  which  is  corrugated  to  give  it  additional  rigidity, 
with,  in  some  cases,  strengthening  ribs  round  the  sides  of 
the  bowl  in  addition.  The  bowls  now  under  consideration 
seem  to  belong  to  the  end  of  the  Late  Celtic  period  and 
the  beginning  of  the  Saxon.  Other  bowels  of  bronze,  but 
unprovided  with  the  enamel  ornaments  described  above, 

1    Airhaologia,  hi.  39.  "  Grave  JMoiinds,  p.  258. 


2Q4    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 


were  common  in  the  Late  Celtic  period, 
and  perhaps  one  of  the  best  known  of 
them  is  that  which  was  found  in  the 
Glastonbury  village,  and  of  which  fac- 
similes are  now  to  be  purchased.  This 
bowl  was  furnished  with  projecting 
bosses  by  way  of  ornament. 


Swords. — The  sword  and  sheath  shown 
in  Figs.  86  and  87  were  found  on  the 
moors  of  Catterdale,  at  the  head  of 
Wensleydale,  Yorkshire,  and  described 
by  the  late  Sir  A.  W.  Franks. ^  The 
remarkable  feature  about  it  is  that  it 
still  retains  considerable  portions  of  its 
handle,  these  remains  being  of  thin 
bronze,  probably  once  attached  to  horn 
or  hard  wood.  The  blade  is  of  iron. 
The  sheath,  which,  unlike  the  blade  of 
the  sword,  is  in  a  good  state  of  pre- 
servation, is  of  bronze.  The  front  is 
comparatively  plain,  but  the  back  is 
strengthened  by  a  band  of  bronze,  of 
which  the  upper  part  spreads  out  into 
a  pierced  triangular  plate.  At  about 
two-fifths  of  its  length  it  widens  into  a 
very  prominent  loop,  through  which  no 
doubt  a  belt  or  rather  cord  or  chain  was 
passed.  The  end  of  the  sheath,  the 
total  length  of  which  is  twenty-three 
inches,  is  protected  by  a  solid  bifurcate 
chape.  In  the  paper  just  mentioned  an 
account  is  given  of  the  various  swords 
of  this  class  which  had  then   been  dis-     ^'^^'  ^^' 

I.ATIC  CELTIC 

^  ArchcBologia,  i.  251.  swoRD- 

SlIliATH 


FIG.  86.      I.ATE 
CELTIC  SWORD 


THE   LATE   CELTIC   AGE  295 

covered  ;  a  class  found  as  far  west  as  Ireland  and  as  far 
east  as  Hungary,  as  far  north  as  Scotland  and  as  far 
south  as  the  Apennines.  In  general  character  all  these 
swords  resemble  one  another,  their  length  varying  from 
3  feet  6  inches  to  i  foot  8  inches.  The  ends  are  fairly 
sharp,  though  not  as  pointed  as  the  bronze  swords  which 
preceded  them.  The  tangs  are  of  tolerable  length,  so 
as  to  fit  into  a  handle  of  good  size.  The  handles,  which 
have  rarely  been  preserved,  were  formed  in  a  few  in- 
stances either  entirely  or  partly  of  bronze,  but  more 
usually  they  were  made  of  some  material  which  has  per- 
ished, probably  of  wood.  The  sheaths  are,  in  England, 
often  made  of  bronze,  more  rarely  of  iron.  The  loops 
for  suspension  are,  in  one  variety,  very  prominent  and 
half-way  down  the  sheath.  In  another  and  commoner 
variety  they  are  less  prominent  and  at  the  upper  end. 
The  tops  of  the  sheaths  are  frequently  straight,  though 
more  generally  ogee-shaped,  and  fitting  into  a  corres- 
ponding curved  bar  in  the  handles.  Franks  divided 
these  weapons  into  three  classes,  viz.  (i.)  Bronze  sheaths 
with  bifurcate  ends  and  very  large  loops  half-way 
down  the  backs,  found  only  in  England  and  Scotland, 
(ii.)  Sheaths  with  broad  rounded  ends  and  the  loop 
towards  the  upper  part,  found  both  in  England  and 
abroad.  (iii.)  End  of  the  sheath  more  pointed,  and 
strengthened  with  a  peculiar  heart-shaped  termination, 
found  in  England  and  Ireland,  but  more  common  on  the 
Continent.^ 

Shields. — Two  kinds  of  bronze  shields  hav-e  been  dis- 
covered in  this  country,  round  and  oblong.  The  latter 
are  placed  in  the  British  Museum  amongst  the  objects 
belonging  to   the   Late  Celtic   period,   a  position    which 

^  For  ;i  further  example  of  the  first  class  see  a  paper  with  illustration  by 
Greenwell,  Proc.  Sac.  Anf.,  ii.  xvi.  4. 


296    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

no  one  would  dispute.  The  former  are  classed  amongst 
the  ordinary  bronze  objects,  but  will  be  described  here 
for  purposes  of  contrast  with  the  other  variety,  which, 
there  is  no  reason  to  doubt,  they  preceded. 

Of  the  round  variety  there  are  several  specimens  in 
the  British  Museum.  Two  of  these  were  found  in 
Wales  on  Moel  Siabod  and  at  Rhyd-y-Gorse,  near 
Aberystwith,  respectively,^  and  have  concentric  circles 
of  raised  moulding,  with  concentric  bands  composed  of 
rounded  knobs  between  them.  Two  others  found  in  the 
Thames  are  similar  in  character,  but  the  mouldings  and 
the  knobs  are  much  bolder  and  the  number  of  rows  of 
both  is  much  smaller.  In  the  Welsh  examples  there 
are  twenty  rows  of  studs,  whilst  in  those  found  in  the 
Thames  there  are  only  four. 

The  remains  of  another  circular  shield,  but  this  time 
found  in  connection  with  Late  Celtic  objects,  was  dis- 
covered at  Grimthorpe,  Yorkshire,  and  was  classed  by 
its  describers  as  Anglo-Saxon.-  On  the  breast  of  the 
skeleton  lay  a  mass  of  decayed  wood,  a  quantity  of 
ferruginous  dust  —  probably  all  that  was  left  of  the 
handle  and  inside  fittings  of  the  shield — and  remains 
of  decomposed  leather.  On  these  lay  two  thin  plates  of 
bronze,  and  the  umbo  or  boss  of  the  same  metal.  The 
plates  of  bronze  are  not  much  thicker  than  writing  paper, 
measure  \2\  inches  from  point  to  point  of  the  semi- 
circles which  they  form,  and  are  3|  inches  in  width  in  the 
middle.  They  have  a  raised  pattern  around  their  border. 
This  shield  appears,  then,  to  have  been  made  of  wood, 
faced  with  plates  of  bronze  and  with  a  bronze  umbo, 
covered  or  backed  with  leather  and  perhaps  provided  with 
an  iron  handle  and  fastenings.  Other  round  shields  have 
been  found  in  Scotland  and  in  Ireland  as  well  as  in  this 

^  ArchcEologia,  xxii. 

^  Mortimer,  Reliquary,  ix.  iSo;  JevviU,  Grave  Mounds,  245. 


THE   LATE   CELTIC   AGE 


297 


country.^  Descriptions  of  some  of  them  will  be  found 
in  Evans'  work-  and  in  Ridgeway's  chapter  on  the  Round 
Shields.^  In  the  latter  work  it  is  pointed  out  that  the 
round  shield  with  a  central  boss  is  characteristic  both  of 
the  Achean  and  the  Hall- 
stadt  folk,  and  that  bronze 
shields  of  the  type  men- 
tioned above  all  possessed 
a  backing  of  leather.  A 
lining  of  leather  has,  in 
fact,  survived  in  some 
of  the  bronze  shields  of 
Etruria.  In  Ireland,  at 
least,  these  defensive 
weapons  seem  to  have 
been  used  in  the  early 
Christian  period,  for 
sculptured  upon  one  of 
the  crosses  at  Kells,  co. 
Meath,  are  armoured  fig- 
ures with  round  shields.* 
Of  the  oblong  shields 
there  are  two  very  beauti- 
ful examples  in  the  British 
Museum,  a  portion  of  one 
of  them  being  shown  in 
Fig.  88.  This  shield  was 
found  in  the  Thames,  near 
Battersea.  It  is  2  feet 
6h  inches  in  length,  and 
curves  inwards   at  the  sides. 


FIG.  88. 


LATE   CELTIC    BRONZE    SHIELD 
British  Museum 


It  has  a   central   boss,   a 


^  Round  shields  of  thin  bronze,  with  alternating  ridges  and  rows  of 
knobs,  also  a  snake-ornamented  shield,  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Edinburgh 
Museum  of  Antiquities.  ^  Ancient  Bronze  Implements. 

■^  Op.  cit.,  453.  ■*  Wakeman's  Handbook,  229. 


298    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

very  marked  feature,  ornamented  with  what  looks  like 
a  modified  swastika.  The  remainder  of  the  shield  is 
decorated  with  wavy  patterns  and  ornaments,  relieved 
with  red  enamel. 

The  other  shield,  which  was  found  in  the  River  Witham, 
is  oval,  and  measures  3  feet  8^  inches  in  length.  It  has 
in  its  centre  a  much  decorated  boss,  in  the  middle  of 
which  are  set  some  fragments  of  coral,  and  other  pieces 
of  the  same  substance  are  near  to  it.  When  it  was  first 
found  this  shield  was  further  decorated  with  the  figure  of 
a  boar  with  very  much  elongated  legs.  A  drawing  near 
the  shield  shows  what  this  figure  looked  like,  but  it  does 
not  appear  precisely  how  it  was  worked  upon  the  shield. 
Both  of  these  shields  may  be  referred  to  the  La  Tene 
culture,  and  probably  belonged  to  Belgic  warriors. 

Brooches. — Ridgeway  points  out  that^  the  primitive 
safety-pin,  which  is  the  foundation  form  of  brooches 
with  a  catch,  was  a  development  from  the  simple  pin, 
which  itself  was  probably  preceded  by  and  derived  from 
a  thorn,  and,  as  he  aptly  notes,  the  two  Irish  words  for 
a  brooch,  eo  and  dealg,  both  mean  a  thorn,  just  as  in 
German  we  get  dorn,  with  the  signification  of  the  pin  of 
a  brooch.  "For  greater  security,"  he  proceeds,  "some- 
one with  a  progressive  mind  bent  up  the  pin  after  passing 
it  through  the  garment  and  caught  the  point  behind  the 
head.  The  inventor,  or  som.eone  else  wishing  to  get  a 
better  hold  for  the  point  of  the  pin,  gave  the  pin  a  com- 
plete turn,  and  thus  produced  the  spring."  Once  this 
point  had  been  reached,  development  produced  the  numer- 
ous patterns  of  fibula  or  safety-pin  of  the  Late  Celtic  and 
succeeding  ages.  There  is,  however,  a  very  important 
difference  between  the  Late  Celtic  fibula  and  its  Roman 

1  Op.  cit.,  "The  Brooch,"  p.  552.  On  the  subject  of  the  evolution  of  the 
brooch  see  a  paper  by  Ridg-eway  and  R.  A.  Smith,  Proc.  Soc.  Anf.,  xxi.  97, 
and  on  the  simple  pin  a  paper  by  the  last-named  author,  Proc.  Soc.  Anf., 
XX.  344. 


THE   LATE   CELTIC   AGE 


299 


successor.  The  former  is  made  of  one  piece  of  metal, 
and  the  head  has  not  to  be  fixed  by  a  hook.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Roman  fibula,  as  found  here  and  else- 
where in  the  Roman  provinces,  is  made  in  two  pieces. 
The  pin  and  the  spring  are  separate  from  the  bow,  and 
are  provided  with  a  hook  to  catch  the  loop  of  the  spiral. 
A  brooch  of  the  La  Tene  pattern, 
the  characters  of  which  have  been 
given  in  the  first  part  of  this  chapter, 
has  been  found  in  Britain,  and  an 
example  from  Suffolk  is  figured  and 
described  by  Ridgeway  in  his  chapter 
on  the  subject.  Some  of  these 
brooches  were  ornamented  with 
enamel,  as,  for  example,  one  in  the 
Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford,  which 
bears  a  fly  with  blue  enamelled  wings. 
The  brooch  represented  in  Fig.  89 
was  found  in  the  Thames  at  Datchet. 
It  is  made  of  bronze,  and  is  orna- 
mented with  seven  beads  of  amber 
and  three  of  blue  glass.  It  is  believed  to  belong  to 
the  period  with  which  this  chapter  deals.^ 


FIG.  89 
LATE    CELTIC    BROOCH    {^) 


Armlets  and  Torques. — Fig.  90  shows  an  elaborate 
torque  intended  to  be  worn  round  the  neck,  found  in  a 
gravel-bed  at  Perdeswell,  near  Claines,  Worcestershire. 
Only  a  portion  of  the  object  was  discovered,  but  its 
vertebrated  pattern  closely  resembles  a  bronze  armlet 
found  by  Greenwell  in  a  Late  Celtic  barrow  at  Cowlam. 
Torques  were  sometimes  made  of  gold,  and  one  found 
near  Holywell,  in  Flintshire,  is  now  at  Eaton  Hall.  It 
weighs  twenty-eight  ounces,  and  is  forty-four  inches  in 
circumference.     The  armlets,  which  were  of  smaller  size, 

•^  Proc.  Sue.  ylnL,  ii.  xv.  191,  with  coloured  figure. 


300    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 

were  intended  to  be  worn,  not  on  the  wrist,  like  a  bracelet, 
but  higher  up  above  the  elbow. 


FIG.   90.       PART   OF    BRONZE   TORQUE 
Perdeswell,  Worcester 

Horse-trappings. — Many  objects  belonging  to  this  period 
must  be  omitted,  from  considerations  of  space,  but  mention 
must  be  made  of  the  bits,  rings,  head-ornaments,  and 
other  objects  connected  with  the  harness  of  the  chariot 
horses.  Objects  of  this  class  may  well  be  studied  in  the 
collections  from  the  Polden  Hills  in  Somersetshire,  and 
from  Stanwick  in  Yorkshire,  which  are  exhibited  in  the 
British  Museum. 


Enamelling. — Mention  has  several  times  been  made  of 
the  application  of  this  beautiful  art  to  ornaments  and 
objects  of  daily  use,  and  it  may  once  more  be  pointed 
out  that  the  art  was  introduced  into  this  country  by  the 
Late  Celtic  people.  In  the  British  Museum  there  are 
examples  of  its  application  to  brooches,  armlets,  and 
horse-bits,  as  well  as  to  some  larger  objects.  Red,  blue, 
and  yellow  are  the  chief  colours  made  use  of. 


CHAPTER    XII 

PHYSICAL   REMAINS   OF   PREHISTORIC   MAN 

TO  deal  adequately  with  the  subject  of  this  chapter 
would  require  a  book  not  less  in  size  than  the 
present  manual.  This  chapter  must,  therefore,  be 
looked  upon  as  a  mere  note  on  the  subject,  inserted 
because  to  omit  any  mention  of  the  kind  of  men  who 
made  the  objects  described  in  the  preceding  pages  would 
be  to  leave  a  gap  which  ought  in  some  way,  however  in- 
adequate, to  be  filled. 

Of  the  remains  of  men  belonging  to  the  palaeolithic 
stratum  of  culture  there  are  but  few,  and  these  few  are  in 
many  cases  still  doubtfully  attributed  to  that  epoch.  In 
fact,  the  changes  of  view  which  have  taken  place  as  to 
the  position  of  what  are  generally  regarded  as  the  most 
ancient  skulls  make  it  very  difficult  to  lay  down  any  laws 
which  are  not  in  danger  of  modification  by  further  altera- 
tions in  scientific  opinion.  The  best-authenticated  skulls 
or  fragments  of  skulls  belonging  to  the  Palceolithic  Period 
are  those  from  Heidelberg,  Neanderthal,  Spy,  Naulette, 
Malarnaud,  Krapina,  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints,  Mentone 
(lowest  strata),  Briinn,  Brux,  Galley  Hill,  Bury  St. 
Edmunds,  Cro-Magnon,  Laugerie-Basse,  Prince-Jean, 
and  Chancelade.  Of  these  skulls  some  notice  must 
now  be  taken,  but  before  doing  so  it  will  be  necessary  to 
mention  briefly  the  lines  upon  which  craniologists  work  in 
determining  the  differences  between  individual  crania  and 

301 


-,02    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 


o 


groups  of  crania.  The  method  adopted  in  the  past,  and 
still  in  full  operation,  has  been  to  take  certain  measure- 
ments of  length,  breadth,  etc.,  and  to  construct  from  them 
certain  indices,  affording  matter  of  comparison  between 
different  skulls.  Of  all  these  indices  the  most  commonly 
employed  is  that  known  as  the  "Cephalic  Index,"  by 
which  the  relations  of  length  and  breadth  are  estimated. 
Any  person  looking  at  the  drawings  of  the  two  skulls 
shown  in  Figs.  91  and  92,  and  especially  at  those 
drawings  which  show  the  top  view  of  the  skull,  or  norma 
verticalis,  can  scarcely  fail  to  notice  that  one  of  them  is 
much  longer  than  it  is  broad,  whilst  the  breadth  of  the 
other  approaches  more  nearly  to  its  length.  In  other 
words,  it  is  more  nearly  circular  than  the  skull  with 
which  it  is  being  contrasted.  In  order  to  ascertain  more 
exactly  the  relations  between  length  and  breadth  than 
can  be  done  by  merely  looking  at  the  skulls,  two 
measurements  are  taken.  The  first  of  these  is  from  the 
centre  of  the  forehead  (glabella)  above  the  root  of  the 
nose,  to  the  prominence  at  the  back  of  the  skull  (inion, 
or  external  occipital  protuberance).  This  gives  the 
maximum  length.  The  second  is  at  right  angles  to  the 
first,  and  is  taken  at  the  point  of  maximum  breadth, 
which  may  be  nearer  to  the  front  or  back  of  the  skull, 
according  to  its  shape.  The  length  is  multiplied  by  100 
and  divided  by  the  breadth,  the  result  being  the  index 
required.  Various  divisions  of  skulls,  according  to  the 
results  given  by  this  method,  have  been  suggested, 
though  all  agree  that  there  are  three  main  classes, 
namely,  long  or  dolichocephalic,  intermediate  or  mesati- 
cephalic,  and  short  or  brachycephalic  crania.  Broca's 
division  is  as  follows  : — 

Skulls  with  index  below  777         .  Dolichocephalic. 

Above  this  and  below  80       .         .         Mesaticephalic. 

Above  So      ....         .         Brachycephalic. 


REMAINS   OF   PREHISTORIC   MAN       r,oi 


FIG.  91.      DOLICHOCEPHALIC  SKULL 
Driffield 


FIG.  92.       BKACHYCEPHALIC   SKULL 
Driffield 


Besides  this  index  there  are  others  relating  to  the  orbit 
and  many  other  parts  of  the  cranium,  which  cannot  be 
touched  upon  here.  Another  method  of  measurement  is 
to  take  the  cranial  capacity  in  cubic  centimetres  by  filling 
the  skull  with  shot  or  millet  seeds,  and  measuring  the 
amount  which  it  is  capable  of  containing.  In  addition 
various  angles  are  measured  with  a  view  of  estimating, 


304    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

amongst  other  things,  the  amount  of  the  projection  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  face  (prognathism  and  orthognathism), 
though  less  importance  is  assigned  to  this  particular 
observation  than  was  once  the  case.  A  more  recent 
method  of  comparison  of  skulls  which,  though  as  yet  in 
its  infancy,  may  revolutionise  the  subject  of  craniology, 
is  the  natural  system  of  Sergi.^  Here  the  entire  contour 
of  the  skull  is  taken  into  consideration,  and  not  merely 
isolated  measurements  from  point  to  point.  So  far  the 
difficulty  in  connection  with  this  system  has  been  that  it 
comprises  a  series  of  forms  which  have  to  be  estimated 
by  eye.  So  far  as  the  leading  types,  when  characteristic 
specimens  are  selected,  are  concerned,  there  is  not  much 
difficulty  about  this.  But  the  intermediate  types,  and 
those  on  the  borderland,  may  easily  be  assigned  to  one 
class  by  one  observer,  and  to  another  by  a  second. 
An  attempt  to  estimate  these  differences,  and  arrange  the 
skulls  in  Sergi's  classes  by  means  of  geometrical  figures, 
has  recently  been  made  by  Wright,-  and  in  some  such 
direction,  no  doubt,  the  problem  of  arranging  these  forms 
so  as  to  be  truly  comparable  by  all  observers  will  be 
solved. 

Passing  now  from  these  prefatory  observations  to  the 
consideration  of  the  skulls  themselves,  it  will  be  well  to 
review  the  features  of  some  of  the  examples  at  present 
believed  to  belong  to  the  earliest  periods.  This  must  be 
done  at  somewhat  greater  length  than  will  be  necessary 
in  connection  with  those  undoubtedly  belonging  to  the 
Neolithic  and  Bronze  periods. 

Palaeolithic. — Amongst  the  skulls  belonging  to  the 
earliest  periods,  that  which  has  of  late  years  attracted 
the  greatest  amount  of  discussion  is  that  found  at  Trinity 

^  specie  e  Varietd  Umana,  "The  j\Iediterranean  Race,"  etc. 
2  Ma7i,  Aiig'ust,  1903, 


REMAINS    OF    PREHISTORIC   MAN        305 

in  Java,  by  Dr.  E.  Dubois.^  For  the  animal  to  which 
this  skull  belonged  a  new  family,  that  of  Pithecanthropus, 
has  been  formed  by  its  discoverer.  At  the  present 
moment,  however,  it  must  be  admitted  that  there  is  so 
much  divergence  of  opinion  as  to  this  skull,  that  it  is 
impossible  to  base  any  arguments  upon  it.  At  the  same 
place  as  the  skull,  but  at  twelve  to  fifteen  metres  from  it, 
was  found  a  femur,  or  thigh-bone,  and  also  in  the  same 
neighbourhood  a  molar  tooth.  It  has  been  assumed  by 
the  discoverer  and  by  some  others  that  all  these  remains 
belonged  to  the  same  individual.  Though  this  is  possible, 
it  is  by  no  means  certain,  nor  can  it  ever  be  proved,  and 
this  fact  adds  greatly  to  the  difficulty  in  deciding  as  to  the 
character  of  the  skull.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  femur 
is  that  of  a  human  being,  and  the  disease  from  which  its 
possessor  suffered  is  a  perfectly  well  recognised  one. 
The  molar  tooth,  though  very  large,  is  almost  certainly 
human.  As  for  the  skull,  which  is  the  real  crux,  the 
opinions  of  scientific  men  who  have  examined  it  are  very 
much  at  variance.  Virchow  declared  that  it  was  patho- 
logical, but  that  distinguished  man  had  rather  a  tendency 
to  take  that  view  of  certain  early  skulls,  for  he  came  to 
the  same  conclusion  as  to  the  Neanderthal  example.  At 
the  same  time  other  men  of  science  have  held  the  same 
opinion  respecting  the  Trinil  skull,  and  Sir  William 
Turner,  without  expressing  the  view  that  it  is  patho- 
logical, has  pointed  out  that  the  skull  of  a  microcephalous 
idiot  presents  a  frontal  flattening  very  analogous  to  the 
Javan  example.  The  theory  that  the  condition  is  patho- 
logical, and  due  to  an  early  synostosis  or  junction  of  the 
sutures,  is  not  one  which  can  at  present  be  ruled  out  of 
court. 

^  Pithecanthropus  erectus,  eine  Ucbergatigsforni  ans  Java,  Batavia,  1894. 
On  the  question  of  the  geologfical  position  of  these  remains  see  a  paper  by 
Deniker  in  L' Anthropologie,  xix.  260.  The  deposit  has  been  presumed  to  be 
Pliocene. 


3o6    REMAINS   OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 


Then  there  is  the  view  held  by  Sergi,^  a  very  skilled 
craniologist,  that  the  skull  is  that  of  *'an  animal  with 
some  human  characteristics,  but,  in  my  opinion,  it  is  not 
man  nor  the  intermediary  type;  it  is  a  higher  type  of  the 
other  anthropomorphic  species." 

To  this  may  be  added  Deniker's^  opinion  that  the  owner 
of  the  skull  was  "a  being  more  closely  related  to  man 
than  to  the  anthropoid  apes,  or  even  a  man  of  a  race 
inferior  to  all  existing  ones." 

Perhaps  scientific  opinion  in  this  country  would  find 
itself  most  in  agreement  with  Cunningham's^  view  that 
Pithecanthropus,  to  give  him  his  discoverer's  title,  cannot 
represent  a  transition  animal  between  man  and  any  of  the 
existing  anthropoids,  since  he  stands  in  the  direct  line  of 
human  divergence  in  the  genealogical  tree,  as  will  be  seen 
in  a  graphic  manner  below. 

European  Races      1,550  c.c.  cranial  capacity. 


Low  Races 
Pithecanthropus 


Chimpanzee,    350    c.c. 

cr.  cap. 


1,250  c.c.  cranial  capacity. 
1,000  c.c.  cranial  capacity. 

/Gorilla  and  Orangf, 

500  c.c.  cranial  capacity. 


If,  however,  the  skull  can  be  called  human,  and  if  it  is 
not  pathological,  it  is  certain  that  it  is  of  considerably 
lower  type  than  that  of  any  other  race  or  healthy  indi- 
vidual as  yet  known.  The  figure  93  annexed*  shows  the 
curve  of  the  vault  of  the  skull  in  this  example,  as  com- 
pared with  the  curves  of  a  chimpanzee  on  the  one  hand, 
and  with  those  of  the  Spy  and  Cro-Magnon  skulls  on  the 
other. 

^  The  Mediterranean  Race,  201. 

2  The  Races  of  Man,  360. 

^  Nature,  February  28th,  1895. 

*  After  Manouvrier,  Bull.  Soc.  d'' Anthropologic,  1896,  438, 


REMAINS   OF   PREHISTORIC   MAN        307 

The  Heidelberg"  mandible  is  probably  the  oldest  speci- 
men   of    man    with    which    we   are   acquainted.     It    was 

found  in  IQ07  at  Mauer,  ^  ^.^ -^ 

near   Heidelberg,  some  S^'^^i^^ ^\ 

twenty-five  yards  below  /      xl^^'^"''^     — ^^^\  '^    \- 

the  surface,  in  a  deposit  /  /^^  a,rr,;^je.     .  ^^V■^^i  \ 

of  sand  which  is  to  be         \/y^  ^"^\"-  \    \  \ 

attributed  to  the  earliest  o-..^X. _\ .\....)l.L 

Pleistocene  or  possibly     /V  1\       )  f 

to    the     late     Pliocene.  /         ^    * 

The  chief  features  of  the  fig.  93 

jaw    are    its    thickness,       curves  of  vaults  ok  various  skulls 

its  width,  and  the  complete  absence  of  a  chin.  The  teeth 
are  all  present,  and  are  very  similar  to  those  of  present- 
day  mah.^ 

The  Neanderthal  skull  was  found  in  a  limestone  cave 
near  Diisseldorf,  and  is  attributed  to  the  Mid-Pleistocene 
period.  It  possesses  certain  distinct  simian  attributes,  of 
which  the  strongly  developed  superciliary  eminences  are 
the  most  striking.     The  cranial  vault  is  long  and  low. 

The  Spy  skulls,  known  as  Spy  I  and  Spy  II,  were  found 
in  a  cave  at  Spy,  Namur,  Belgium.  Both  skulls  probably 
belonged  to  individuals  of  the  male  sex.  The  skull  of 
Spy  I  bears  a  very  close  resemblance  to  the  Neanderthal 
skull  ;  that  of  Spy  II  is  of  a  somewhat  higher  type.  The 
mandibles  were  devoid  of  a  chin.  The  Spy  individuals 
were  short  and  thick-set. 

The  Naulette  and  Malarnaud  specimens  are  mere  frag- 
ments of  mandibles  found  at  Naulette,  Belgium,  and  at 
Malarnaud  in  the  Pyrenees.  Like  the  mandibles  from 
Spy,  they  are  chinless. 

The  Krapina  skulls  were  found  in  a  cave  at  Krapina  in 
Croatia,  Hungary,  and  are  too  fragmentary  to  make  any 
considerable  addition  to  our  knowledge.     It  is,  however, 

^  Der  Unterkiefer  des  Homo  Heidelbergensis,    Schoetensack  (author),  1908. 


3o8    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

interesting  to  note  that  the  foreheads  possess  prominent 
superciliary  ridges,  so  that  in  this  important  anthropo- 
logical feature  the  skulls  are  akin  to  those  from  Nean- 
derthal and  Spy. 

The  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints^  skeleton  was  found  in  a 
cave  in  the  Department  of  Correze  as  recently  as  August, 
1908.  The  skull  belongs  to  the  same  class  as  those  already 
mentioned.  The  superciliary  eminences  are  very  pro- 
minent, the  cranial  vault  is  low  and  long,  the  mandible  is 
thick,  wide,  and  devoid  of  a  chin.  The  face  has  a  some- 
what pithecoid  appearance  from  the  absence  of  any  canine 
fossce. 

All  the  skulls  so  far  mentioned  belong  to  a  single 
morphological  type  of  marked  homogeneity  ;  the  greatest 
variation  is  probably  exhibited  by  Spy  II.  All  these 
skulls,  moreover,  with  the  probable  exception  of  the 
Heidelberg  mandible,  are  of  the  same  age  ;  they  belong 
to  the  Mid-Pleistocene  or  Moustier  period.  This  Nean- 
derthal-Spy type  of  man  was,  however,  it  would  seem,  not 
the  only  type  which  lived  in  Europe  during  the  Moustier 
period.  The  Briinn  and  Brux  skulls,  the  Galley  Hill 
skeleton,  the  fragment  from  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  and 
some  of  the  Mentone  skeletons  are  referable  to  the  same 
period. 

The  Briinn  skeletons  were  found  at  Briinn,  Moravia 
— one  in  1885,  the  other  in  1891.  The  skulls  have  a 
moderately  high  cranial  vault,  the  superciliary  eminences 
are  not  strikingly  prominent,  and  the  mandibles  have  a 
well-formed  chin. 

The  Brux  skull  is  a  mere  fragment  found  at  Brux, 
Bohemia.     It  is  similar  to  those  from  Briinn. 

The  Galley  Hill  skeleton  was  discovered  at  Galley  Hill, 
Kent,  in  undisturbed  stratified  palaeolithic  gravel  90  feet 
O.D.     It  lay  8  feet  below  the  surface,  2  feet  above  the 

^  Boule,  L Anthropologic,  1908. 


REMAINS   OF    PREHISTORIC   MAN        309 

chalk.  It  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the  Briinn  skulls 
in  the  three  particulars  noted  above,  particulars  which 
permit  one  to  differentiate  easily  between  the  Neanderthal- 
Spy  and  the  Briinn-Galley  Hill  types. 

The  Bury  St.  Edmunds  skull  is  a  mere  fragment  of 
the  cranial  vault.  It  was  found  in  brick  earth  near 
Bury  St.  Edmunds  at  a  depth  of  7J  feet.  So  far  as 
it  is  possible  to  judge,  it  is  allied  to  the  Galley  Hill 
specimen. 

A  third  type  of  Moustier  man  has  been  obtained  from 
La  Grotte  des  Enfants^ — one  of  the  Baousse-Rousse  caves 
at  Mentone.  It  is  represented  by  two  skeletons,  one  that 
of  a  boy,  the  other  that  of  an  old  woman,  which  were 
found  under  ten  metres  of  deposit  in  beds  of  Moustier 
date.  The  cranium  of  this  type  is  characterised  by  a  high 
vault,  an  almost  vertical  forehead,  and  the  faintest  of 
superciliary  eminences.  In  these  respects  the  cranium 
resembles  that  of  the  negro,  a  resemblance  which  is  still 
further  borne  out  by  certain  features  in  the  face  and  limbs 
of  the  skeletons. 

There  is  strong  evidence,  therefore,  for  the  belief  that  in 
Moustier  time  three  distinct  types  of  man  were  to  be  found 
in  Europe.  The  origin  of  man  is  thus  seen  to  belong  to  a 
period  much  more  remote  than  that  of  the  Mid-Pleistocene 
— a  conclusion  which  the  archaeological  evidence  showed 
us  to  be  incontestable. 

The  other  Palaeolithic  skulls — those  from  Cro-Magnon, 
Laugerie-Basse,  Prince-Jean,  and  Chancelade — belong  to 
the  Madeleine  period,  and  are  all  of  one  type,  which  is 
closely  akin  to  the  Briinn-Galley  Hill  type  of  the  earlier 
period. 

The  Cro-Magnon  specimens  are  four  in  number,  and 
were  found  under  a  rock  shelter  in  the  valley  of  La  Vezere. 
The  best-preserved  skull  is  that  of  an  old  man.     The  fore- 

^  Les  Grottes  de  Grimaldi,  MM.  Villeneuve,  Boule  et  Verneau,  1906. 


3IO    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

head  is  high,  the  superciliary  eminences  faint,  the  chin 
prominent. 

The  Laugerie-Basse  specimen  was  also  found  under  a 
rock  shelter  in  the  same  district. 

The  Prince-Jean  specimen  was  found  in  a  cave  at 
Prince-Jean,   Moravia. 

These  three  skulls  bear  the  closest  possible  resemblance 
to  each  other,  and  exhibit  a  remarkable  feature  termed 
"  dysharmony,"  which  consists  in  the  association  of  a 
long  cranium  with  a  short,  broad  face. 

The  Chancelade  skull  was  found  in  the  same  district  as 
that  from  Cro-Magnon.  The  skull  is  not  dysharmonic, 
but  in  all  other  respects  resembles  the  three  skulls  pre- 
viously mentioned.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  large  size  of 
its  cranial  cavity,  1,710  c.cm.,  100  c.cm.  more  than  that  of 
the  average  Frenchman  of  to-day. 

A  number  of  similar  skulls  to  those  from  Cro-Magnon 
have  been  recovered  from  the  higher  levels  of  the  Mentone 
caves.  They  are  not  to  be  confused  with  the  two  Moustier 
skulls  from  the  lower  strata. 

So  far,  therefore,  as  the  state  of  our  knowledge  allows 
us  to  form  a  conclusion,  the  Neanderthal  type  and  the 
Mentone  negroid  type,  in  at  any  rate  their  extreme  forms, 
were  already  extinct  in  Europe  before  the  end  of  the 
Palaeolithic  period. 

Mesolithic. — The  Mesolithic  period  is  itself  so  vague 
that  it  is  scarcely  to  be  expected  that  any  skulls  can  be 
justifiably  allotted  to  it. 

Neolithic. — The  skeletons  of  the  people  of  this  period 
and  of  the  next  in  this  country  are  numerous,  and  have 
been  very  fully  studied,  so  that  we  can  form  a  very  fair 
idea  of  what  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  race  were. 
In  this  country  the  greatest  number  of  skeletons  examined 


REMAINS  OF  PREHISTORIC  MAN        311 

have  been  those  from  Wilts  and  Gloucester,  but  others 
have  been  investigated  from  other  parts  of  this  island. 
The  skull  of  Neolithic  man  in  England  is  very  similar  to 
that  of  Cro-Magnon  man,  so  much  so  that  the  latter  man 
was  at  one  time,  in  defiance  of  the  archaeological  evidence, 
judged  to  belong  to  the  Neolithic  period.  The  skulls 
belonging  to  this  period — those  which  are  found  in  the 
long  barrows — are  dolichocephalic,  with  good  foreheads, 
slightly  developed  superciliary  eminences,  and  with  small 
and  well-shaped  jaws.  The  stature  perhaps  averaged 
about  five  feet  and  half  an  inch.  The  bones,  generally 
speaking,  were  slender,  often  with  a  well-marked  ridge 
on  the  back  of  the  femur  and  a  flattening  of  the  tibia, 
from  which  we  gather  that  they  were  those  of  a  people 
active  on  their  feet,  probably  much  engaged  in  the  chase. 
It  is  not  improbable  that  this  description  of  Neolithic  man 
is  not  applicable  to  the  whole  of  Britain.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  practically  all  we  know  of  the  appearance 
of  Neolithic  man  is  derived  from  the  bones  obtained  from 
a  very  small  area  of  our  country,  viz.  Wilts,  Gloucester- 
shire, and  Dorset.  Skulls  obtained  from  the  Perthi 
Chwareu  caves  in  Denbighshire  indicate  that  North 
Wales  was  inha]  ited  in  Neolithic  times  by  a  people  who 
were  more  round-headed  than  long-headed.^ 

Bronze. — Here  again  there  is  no  lack  of  skulls  and 
skeletons,  and  the  descriptions  of  them  are  many.  In 
the  barrows  of  this  period  we  find  long  skulls,  round 
skulls,  and  skulls  of  intermediate  shape.  The  first  may 
have  belonged  to  the  earlier  people,  the  second  to  a 
race  which  had  invaded  the  country,  and  the  third 
may  be  attributed  to  the  intermixture  of  these  two 
people.  Or  the  collocation  may  be  explained  without 
supposing  the  arrival  of  a  different  race,   but  these  are 

^  Boyd  Dawkins,  Cave  Hunting. 


312    REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 

points  into  which  it  is  impossible  to  enter  here.  Suffice 
it  to  say  that  the  skulls  regarded  as  typical  of  this  period 
are  brachycephalic,  of  large  size  and  with  well-formed 
brow.  There  arc  salient  ridges  above  the  eyes,  but  these 
are  not  the  monstrous  projections  of  the  Neanderthal 
type.  One  gains  the  idea  that  the  cast  of  countenance 
of  the  possessors  of  these  skulls  must  have  been  much 
more  fierce  and  commanding  than  that  of  the  milder 
race  which  preceded  them.  They  were  also  taller,  their 
average  stature  being  about  live  feet  five  inches,  a 
measurement  which,  in  fact,  exceeds  the  stature  of  the 
present  inhabitants  of  this  country.  Dr.  Thurnam,  from 
his  examination  of  the  bones  of  these  two  races,  has  also 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  average  age  at  the  time  of 
death  was  higher  than  that  of  the  preceding  race.  That 
of  the  Neolith,  in  his  opinion,  was  forty-five,  that  of  the 
man  of  the  Bronze  period  fifty-five. 


APPENDIX 

LIST    OF    MUSEUMS    CONTAINING    OBJECTS    DEALT 
WITH   IN   THIS   BOOK 


THIS  list  of  museums  has  been  compiled  for  the  use  of 
persons  visiting  different  parts  of  the  country  who  may 
desire  to  study  the  objects  described  in  this  book.  Con- 
siderable trouble  has  been  taken  to  ascertain  the  special  features 
of  interest  in  each  collection,  and  it  is  hoped  that  no  important 
museum  has  been  omitted.  In  a  few  cases  where  the  interest 
of  the  collection  lies  chiefly  in  the  Roman  series,  or  where  there 
are  important  objects  belong-ing-  to  this  period,  the  fact  has  been 
indicated  in  the  table.  The  symbol  x  shows  that  objects  are 
present,  -  that  they  are  absent.  The  same  symbols  have  been 
used  to  indicate  that  a  catalogue  or  guide  is  or  is  not  published. 


<u 

V 

06 

•  6 

c 
o 

c 
o 

« 

^6 

5   3 

0^ 

Special. 

Bedfordshire — 

Bedford,  Lit.  and  Sci.  Inst. 

X 

X 

- 

Berkshire — 

Reading  *        .              .          . 

X 

X 

X 

Roman,  from 
Silchester. 

Cambridgeshire — 

Cambridge,  Arch.  Mus.*     . 

X 

X 

X 

- 

,,     Woodwardian  Mus. 

X 

- 

- 

Wisbech 

X 

X 

Cheshire — 

Chester 

X 

X 

Important     Ro- 
man  series, 
with     Cata- 
logue. 

X     2 


114 


APPENDIX 


1) 

c 
o 

in 

c 
o 

ca 

^5 

hi 

02. 

Special. 

Cornwall — 

Penzance 

X 

X 

- 

Cumberland— 

Carlisle 

X 

X 

X 

- 

Keswick,  Fitz  Park    . 

X 

X 

- 

Derbyshire — 

Derby 

X 

- 

- 

- 

Devonshire — 

Exeter 

X 

X 

- 

Plymouth  Institution 

X 

X 

Dorsetshire — 

Dorchester  *    .              .          . 

X 

X 

X 

- 

Rimbury  objects. 

Farnham  **     .              .          , 

X 

X 

X 

Objects  de- 
scribed in 
Pitt-Rivers' 
Meffioirs. 

Durham — 

Ushaw  College 

X 

- 

Essex — 

Colchester  Castle 

X 

X 

X 

Fine  Roma  n 
series. 

Gloucestershire — 

Bristol 

X 

X 

X 

— 

Cirencester 

X 

Fine  Roman 
series,  with 
Catalogue. 

Cheltenham  College    . 

X 

- 

Gloucester 

\y 

X 

X 

- 

Hampshire — 

Newport,  Isle  of  Wight 

X 

X 

- 

Ryde,  Isle  of  Wight  . 

X 

X 

— 

Winchester 

X 

X 

Herefordshire — 

Hereford 

LIST   OF   MUSEUMS 


o'3 


v 
c 
o 

c 

2 

si 

Special. 

Kent — 

Canterbury 

X 

X 

X 

- 

Dover 

- 

X 

- 

- 

Folkestone 

X 

X 

X 

- 

Maidstone 

X 

X 

X 

Eoliths. 

Lancashire — 

Blackburn 

X 

X 

- 

Manchester 

X 

X 

- 

Stonyhurst  College     . 

X 

X 

- 

Leicestershire — 

Leicester 

X 

X 

X 

- 

Lincolnshire — 

Lincoln 

X 

X 

X 

- 

Middlesex — 

London,  British  Museum  ** 

X 

X 

X 

X 

,,         Guildhall 

X 

X 

X 

X 

,,        Nat.    Hist.    Mus., 

South  Kensington 

X 

Type  series  of 
Eoliths. 

,,   Society  of  Antiquaries 

X 

X 

X 

Norfolk — 

Norwich 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Northamptonshire — 

Northampton 

X 

X 

X 

Late  Celtic 
series  from 
Hunsbury. 

Northumberland — 

Alnwick  Castle 

X 

X 

X 

Catalogue  for 
private  circu- 
lation only. 

Newcastle-on-Tyne     . 

^ 

X 

Important  Ro- 
man series, 
with  Cata- 
logue. 

Ii6 


APPENDIX 


c 
o 
w5 

B 

2 

rt -r, 

2  i 

a  Ml 
^3. 

Special. 

Nottinghamshire — 

Nottingham     . 

X 

X 

— 

- 

Oxfordshire — 

Oxford,  Pitt-Rivers  ** 

X 

X 

,,        Ashmolean     . 

X 

X 

X 

Important  Late 
Celtic  series. 

Shropshire — 

Ludlow 

X 

X 

X 

Shrewsbury     . 

X 

X 

Important  Ro- 
man series 
from  Viro- 
conium. 

Somerset — 

Bath,  R.  Lit.  and  Sci.  Inst. 

X 

- 

- 

Glastonbury*. 

X 

Objects    from 
Lake-village, 

Taunton 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Objects  from 
Worlebury. 

Suffolk — 

Bury  St.  Edmunds,  Movses 

Hall               .              /      . 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Ipswich 

X 

X 

X 

Surrey — 

Godalming-,      Charterhouse 

School 

X 

- 

~ 

- 

Guildford 

X 

- 

- 

Sussex — 

Brighton 

X 

X 

X 

Chichester 

X 

X 

- 

Lewes 

X 

X 

Warwickshire — 

Birmingham,  University     . 

X 

X 

- 

- 

Warwick 

X 

X 

X 

- 

Westmorland—^ 

Kendal 

X 

— 

— 

— 

LIST   OF   MUSEUMS 


317 


c 
0 

c 
0 

si 

a  bi) 

Special. 

w 

a 

"-■o 

U3. 

Wiltshire — 

Devizes  *          .              .          . 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Colt  Hoare  Col- 
lection. 

Marlborough  College 

X 

X 

- 

- 

Salisbury,    Blackmore    Mu- 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Perhaps      the 

seum.** 

most  valuable 
series  of  stone 
i  m  p  1  e  m  e  n  t  s 
forthestudent 
in  England. 

Worcestershire — 

Worcester 

X 

X 

- 

Yorkshire — 

Driffield,  Mortimer  Museum 

X 

X 

X 

Giggleswick  School    . 

X 

X 

X 

Objects  from  the 
VictoriaCave, 
Settle. 

Hull    .... 

X 

X 

X 

Keigfhley 

X 

- 

- 

Leeds  .             .             .         . 

X 

X 

- 

Scarborough   . 

X 

X 

— 

Gristhorpe  ob- 
jects. 

Sheffield 

X 

X 

X 

Whitby 

X 

X 

- 

York* 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Arras  objects. 
Most  import- 
ant Roman 
series. 

INDEX 


Note. — Names  only  occurring  in  the  Lists  are  not  included  in  the  Index. 


Abbeville,  21 

Ablington,  193 

Abraded  palEeoiiths,  47,  49 

Accoinpanyingf  yifts,  147 

Adze,  stone,  y:^ 

Aegfyptus,  grave  of,  iSi 

^'Eneolithic  period,  88 

Alien  interments,  131 

Alig"nments,  190 

"Alli^es  couvertes,"  134 

Allen,  Romilly,  293 

Amber,  126 

Amphitheatre,  Roman,  207 

Angflesea  Castle,  dolmen,  174 

Armlets,  299 

Arras,  273,  287 

Arrow-heads,  stone,  17,  81  ;  bronze, 

17,  96,  102  ;  bone,  1 12 
Art,    Palaeo-    and    Mesolithic,     112; 

Neolithic  and   Bronze,   120 ;    Late 

Celtic,  290 
Asylian  period,  13,  59 
Australian   natives,    manufacture    of 

implements    from   glass,   etc.,    23y 

38 
Avebury,  189 
Avebury,    Lord,    Man    and    Glacial 

epoch,  8 
Aylesford,  273,  287 

Bambury  Stone,  214 

Barrows,  varieties  of,  131 ;  long,  131 ; 
chambered,  132  ;  unchambered, 
134;  round,  140;  bell,  bowl,  and 
disc,  140;  structure  of  round,  141  ; 
bodies  in,  143 ;  accompanying 
g-ifts,  147 ;  bones  of  animals  in, 
142;  shards,  143;  list  of  barrows, 

153 
"Batons    de    commandement,"    so- 
called,  no 


Beads,  jet,  amber,  glass,  126,  148 
Beehive    huts,     268 ;    subterranean, 

266 
Blackmore,  Dr.,  on  eoliths,  39 
Blois  Hall,  207 

"  Blue  "  stones  at  Stonehenge,  185 
Bodowr  dolmen,  178 
Bokerley  Dyke,  221 
Bone  implements,  107 
Borers,  stone,  83  ;  bone,  112 
Boring-stones,  39 
Boucher  de  Perthes,  21 
Bowls,  Late  Celtic,  293 
Bracers,  86 

Brachycephalic  skulls,  302 
Braich-y-Dinas,  268 
Brandon,  24 
Bredon  Hill,  213 
British  Museum,  20,60,  96,  112,  273, 

287,  296,  300,  315 
British  villages,  256,  274 
Bronze  Age,  divisions  of,  91 
Brooches,  298  ;   Hallstadt,  284  ;  La 

Tene,  285 
Broom,  30,  47 
Buckets,  Late  Celtic,  290 
Bulb  of  percussion,  23 

Caddington,  51 

"Caesar's  Camp,"  Folkestone,  209 

Cairns,  horned,  133;  of  Arran,  134 

Callernish,  191 

Campignian  period,  13 

"  Camps,"  209 

Cannibalism,  possible,  of  Neolithic 

man,  138 
Cap-stone,  132 
Castel-Meur,  212 
Casting-  bronze,  methods  of,  103 
Caves,    53  ;    La   Mouthe  and   other 

French  caves,  54  ;  English,  59 


31S 


INDEX 


319 


Cave  implements,  46 

Celtic  period,  Late,  257,  2S2 

Celts,  stone,  68;  polished,  70;  bored, 

70  ;  handled,  73  ;  bronze,  94 
Cenotaphs,  supposed,  147 
Cephalic  index,  302 
Ceremonial  celts:  stone,  86;  bronze, 

Cervidian  period,  13,  log,  113 

Chalbury,  207 

Chancelade  skull,  309 

Chariot-burials,  286 

Chellean  period,  56 

Chert  implements,  30 

Chipping-  stones,  35 

Chisels,  bronze,  loi  ;  horn,  112 

Chysoyster,  268 

Cinerary  urns,  151 

Circles  :  stone,  varieties,  180  ;  great 
circles,  183  ;  possible  orientation, 
1 88  ;  theories  respecting',  184 

Cissbury,  14,  25,  69 

Cistvaens,  179 

Cit^s  agrestes,  256 

Cittiau,'  268 

Classification  of  Geological  periods, 
3  ;  of  Prehistoric  periods,  9 

"Cliff-castles,"  211 

Clun,  194,  221 

Coffey,  G.,  go,  124 

Coffin,  wooden,  in  barrows,  147 

Concave  scrapers,  79 

Copper  Age,  89 

Copper,  state  on  discovery,  89 

"Couches  infra-neolithiques,"  13 

Crannoges,  270 

Creighton,  Bishop,  on  mediseval 
huts,  264 

Cremation  and  inhumation,  129,  143; 
proportions,  130;  method  of  cre- 
mation in  long  barrows,  137 

Cro-Magnon,  57;   skulls,   301,  306, 

309,311. 
Cup-and-ring  markings,  123,  194 
Cyprus,  89 

Daggers,    Scandinavian    flint,     19 ; 

bronze,  98;  carved  horn,  117 
Dane's   Dyke,  Flamborough  Head, 

212,  220 
"  Dane's  Graves,"  286 
Dartmoor,  19 1 

Dawkins,  Boyd,  13,  16,  59,  279,  311 
Dene-holes,  266 
Designs  in  French  caves,  54 


Dewlish,  eoliths  found  at,  7 
Dictyaean  Cave,  98 
Dol,  194 

Dolichocephalic  skulls,  302 
Dolmens,    174;    double,    175;    distri- 
bution of,  i7g;  list  of,  ig5 
Double-headed  animals,  291 
Dowris,  93 
Dress-fasteners,  110 
Drills,  stone,  83 
Drinking-cups,  151 
Druid's  altar,  174 
"  Druid  "  barrow,  141 
Druimvargie,  16 
Dykes,  220 

Earthworks  :  shapes,  205  ;  classifi- 
cation, 206  ;  list  of,  224 

Eggardon,  258 

Egyptian  knives,  19 

Elephants,  fossil,  5 

Enamelling,  300 

Eoliths,  14,  40 

Equidian  period,  113 

Esk  Valley  camps,  214 

Evans,  A.  J.,  273,  287,  289,  290,  292 

Evans,  Sir  J.,  22,  34,  37,  39.96,  101, 
103,  297 

Fabricators,  stone,  83 

"  Farmer  Green,"  177 

Farnham  Museum,  206,  260 

"  Femme  au  renne,"  114 

Fibulae,  298 

Figurines,    female,    113;    "i   la   ca- 

puche,"  114 
Fisherton,  259 

Flaking,  36  ;  by  pressure,  36 
Flamborough  Head,  212,  220 
Flanged  celts,  95 
Flint  and  steel,  148 
Flint-jack,  38 
Food  vessels,  150 
Forests,  prehistoric,  221 
French  camps,  209 
"Friar's  Heel,  The,"  189 

Galley  Hill  skull,  308 
Gatty,  Rev.  R.  A.,  84 
Geological  time,  period  of,  2 
Geometric   forms    in    Neolithic  and 

Bronze  art,  120,  149 
"  Ghost-hedge,"  142 
Glacial  epoch,  3 
Glass,  126 


320    REMAINS  OF  THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE 


Glastonbury  lake-village,  272 

Gl^'ptic  period,  11,  113 

Gold  ornanients,  etc.,  125,  147 

Gowland,  88,  90,  185 

Cioiild,  Chalkley,  206 

Grime's  Graves,  24 

Grotto  du  Pape,   Bassempoiiy,    108, 

113  . 
Grubbing-tool,  72 

H addon,  74,  269 

Hallstadt,  98,  130,  2S3 

Hambledoii  Hill,  210 

Harpoons,  bone,  108 

Haverfield,  260 

Hedsor,  271 

Herefordshire  Beacon,  218 

High  Hiigill,  263 

Hill-forts,  characteristics,  215 

Hoare,  100 

Hoards  of  copper  and  bronze  objects, 
92  ;  list,  104 

Hod  Hill,  209 

Hoes,  bone,  1 12 

Holed  stones,  194 

Hollow  scrapers,  79 

Holmes  on  manufacture  of  stone  im- 
plements, 34 

Holywell  torque,  the,  299 

Horse-trappings,  300 

Hughes,  McKenny,  28 

Human  form,  representations  of,  113 

Hunnebedden,  134 

Hurstborne,  257,  258 

Hut-circles,  256 

Incense  cups,  152 

Ingleborough,    effects    of   flood    on 

caverns,   28 
Inhumation  and  cremation,  129,  143; 

proportions,  130 
Interments,      primary,      secondary, 

alien,    130 
Iron  axe-head,  hammered  up,  71 

Jade,  31 

Javelins  and  javelin-throwers,  1 10 

Jet,  126,  148 

Karar,  Lake,  implements  found  at,  14 
Kent's  Hole,  26,  53 
Kitchen-middens,  66 
Kit's  Coty  House,  178 
Knives,  stone,  75  ;  handles,  77 
Knowles,  15,  80 


Lakenheath,  85,  87 
Lake-villages,  269;  pottery  of,  270 
Lanyon  dolmen,  175 
La  T^ne,  283,  290,  299 
Late  Celtic  period,  257,  282 
Laugerie-Basse,  59,  309 
Laugerie-Haute,  ;;7 
Lead,  how  discovered,  88 
Littleton  Drew,  134 

MacArtlnir  Cave,  15 
Magdalenian  epoch,  11,  57,  loS,  113 
Maiden  Castle,  Dorset,  217 
Malvern:  camp,  218;  dyke,  224 
Mammals  of  Prehistoric   period,    5, 

6 
Mammals,  representations  of,  in  early 

art,  116 
Man,  first  appearance  of,  6 
March,  Dr.  Colley,  85,  258 
Marlborough  bucket,  the,  291 
Mas  d'Azil,  layers  in,  12;  harpoons, 

109;  coloured  pebbles,  119 
Meayll  Circle,  181 
Megaliths,  list  of,  197 
Men-an-Tol,  194 
Men-er  H'roeck,  194 
Menhir,  139,  192  ;  and  barrow,  193 
Merivale  rows,  191 
Mesaticephalic  skulls,  302 
Mesolithic  implements,  15 
Mill  Riggs,  263 
Miocene  period,  3 
Montelius's  divisions  of  Bronze  Age, 

gi  ;  of  Iron  Age,  283 
Mousterian  period,  57 
Munro,  31,  268 
Museums,  313 
Myres,  89 

Neanderthal  skull,  307 
Needles,  bone,  112 
Neolithic  implements,  65 
Notch  in  stone  implements,  43 

Obsidian  flakes,  how  made,  37 

Off'a's  Dyke,  220 

Old  Sarum,  209 

Oppidum,  207 

Ornaments,  personal,  125 

Ortholiths,  139 

Otta,  so-called  miocene  implements, 

7 
Ovate  paloeoliths,  49 


INDEX 


321 


Palaeolithic  implements,  11,   14,  46; 

varieties,  48;  list  of  localities,  61 
Palaeolithic  man,  localities  of,  59 
Palmette,  291 
Palstaves,  96 
Papalian  period,  108 
Pebbles,  coloured,  at  Mas  d'Azil,  iig 
Pele-g:arths,  207 
Pentre-Ifan,  178 
Perdeswell  torque,  the,  299 
Periods  of  Geological  time,  2 
Piette,  12, 13,  io8,  no,  113,  119 
Piette,  divisions  of  Palaeolithicperiod, 

.'3 
Pig-my  implements,  84 
Pile-dwellingfs,  268 
Pit-dwellingfs,  256 
Pithecanthropus,  305 
Pitt-Rivers,  14,  25,  205,  206,  215,  217, 

257-9 
Plateau  forts,  219;  implements,  40 
Pleistocene  period,  3 
Pliocene  period,  3,  5 
"  Pog-amagan,"  in 
Pottery,  Neolithic  and  Bronze,  149  ; 

Late  Celtic,  285,  288 
Pressigny,  ^2 

Prestwich,  Sir  J.,  on  eoliths,  41 
Primary  interments,  130 
Promontory  forts,   210;   coast,   211; 

inland,  213 
Punches,  stone,  83 

Quartzite  implements,  30 
Quaternary  epoch,  2 

Racloirs,  80 

Recent  Geolog-ical  period,  4 

Rhinoceros,  fossil,  5 

Rido-eway,    Professor,  86,  283,  297, 

298 
Ripple-flaking-,  36 
River-drift  implements,  46,  50 
Rock-shelters,  53 
Rodmarton,  133 
"  Rounds,"  Cornish,  207 


Sacrifice  of  heifer,  177 
St.  Acheul,  56 
"  Sarsen  "  stones,  185 
Sawing'  stones,  38 
Saws,  stone,  83  ;  bronze,  loi 
Scabbards:    of    daggers,     100;     of 
swords,  295 


Scandinavia,  tree  epochs,  66 
Scandinavian  daggers,  19 
Scrapers,  49,  78 
Secondary  interments,  130 
Semangs  of  Malaysia,  implements, 

6 
Sergi,  90,  129,  304,  306 
Shaft-makers,  80 
Shell  period,  13 
Shields,  295 
Sickles,  bronze,  102 
Situla?,  Late  Celtic,  290 
Skeletons:   Neolithic,  310;    Bronze, 

3" 
Skeuomorphs,  98 
Skulls,  early,  304 

Smith,  Worthingtoii,  15,  47,  48,  50 
Socketed  celts,  97 
Solutrean  period,  56 
Souterrains,  266 
Spearheads,  loi 
Spiennes,  25 
Spindle-whorls,  87 
Spy  skulls,  307 

"Stations  A  ciel  ouvertes,"  256 
Standlake,  258 
Stanton  Drew,  igo 
Stinchcombe  Hill,  215 
Stone  Agre,  meaning  of  term,  10,  n 
Stonehenge,  185 
Stone    implements,   features    of,    19, 

22  ;     uses    of,     25 ;     periods,     26 ; 

materials,  30  ;  how  worked,  34 
Sunken  Kirk  circle,  183 
Sussex  earthworks,  217 
Swords:    bronze    leaf-shaped,     100; 

Hallstadt,    284 ;     La    T^ne,    285 ; 

Late  Celtic  in  England,  294 

Terramare,  273 

Tertiary  epoch,  2 

Thenay,  so-called  miocene  imple- 
ments, 7 

Thornborough,  207 

Thurnam,  99,  140 

Tinglestone,  139,  192 

Torques,  299 

Transition  from  Palaeo-  to  Neolithic 
periods,  13 

Trevalgue  Head,  211 

Tridacna,  celts  made  of,  t,;^ 

Triiiil  skull,  305 

Tun-garths,  207 

Tweezers,  bone,  112 

Twisted  thong  ornament,  149 


322     REMAINS  OF  THE   PREHISTORIC  AGE 


Uley  barrow,  132 
Urn-fields,  288 

Venus  of  Bassempouy,  113 

Victoria  Cave,  1^5 

Vindhya  Hills,  84 

V'illages,  208,  256 ;  list  of,  274 

Walls,     external     and     internal,     of 

barrows,   139 
Wans  Dyke,  221 

Water,  want  of,  in  earthworks,  215 
Watt's  Dyke,  220 


Westbury-on-Trym,  93 

West  Kennett  barrow,  177,  181 

Wetlon,  265 

Weyland's  Smithy,  133,  175 
Wheel,  potter's,  149,  289 
White  Park  Bay,  15 
Winklebury,  20S 
Woodbury  Hill,  210 
Woodcuts,  207,  257,  259 
Workshop,  palaeolithic,  51,  52 
Worlebury,  208,  218,  265,  273 
Upright,  W.,  304 

Varnbury,  217 


PLYMOUTH 
IrRENDO.N    AND   SON,    LIMIT  EP 
I'KlNTtRS 


A   SELECTION    OF    BOOKS 

PUBLISHED  BY  METHUEN 

AND     CO.     LTD.,    LONDON 

36  ESSEX   STREET 

W.C. 

CONTENTS 

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PAGE 

General  Literature       ...           2 

Little  Quarto  Shakespeare     .          20 

Ancient  Cities    ....          13 

Miniature  Library     . 

20 

Antiquary's  Books    ...          13 

New  Library  of  Medicine 

21 

Arden  Shakespeare  ...         14 

New  Library  of  Music    . 

21 

Classics  of  Art           ...          14 

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Fiction 

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Jane.     Marie  Corelli. 


Fiction 


31 


Methaen's  Shilling  Novels— co/jf//Jue(y, 

Joseph.     Frank  Danby. 


Ladv  Betty  Across  the  Water.      C.  N. 
and  A.  M.  Williamson. 

Light  Freights.    W.  W.  Jacobs. 

Long  Road,  The.     John  Oxenham. 

Mighty  Atom,  The.    Marie  Corelll. 

Mirage.    E.  Temple  Thurston. 

Missing  Dklora,  The.    E.  Phillips  Oppen- 
beim. 

Round  the  Red  Lamp.  Sir  A.  Conan  Doyle. 


SAfD,  the  Fisherman. 
thall. 


Marmaduke  Pick- 


Search  Party,  The.    G.  A.  Birmingham. 

Secret  Woman,  The.    Eden  Phillpotts. 

Severins,  The.    Mrs.  Alfred  Sldgwick. 

Spanish  Gold.     G.  A.  Birmingham 

Splendid  Brother.     W.  Pett  Ridge. 

Tales  op  Mean  Streets.     Arthur  Morrison. 

Teresa    of    Watling    Street.       Arnold 
Bennett. 

Tyrant,  The.     Mrs.  Henry  de  la  Pasture. 

Under  the  Red  Robe.    Stanley  J.  Weyman. 

Virginia  Perfect.     Peggy  Webling. 

Woman    with    the    Fan,     The.       Robert 
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Broom  Squire,  The.    S.  Baring-Gould 

By  Stroke  of  Sword.     Andrew  Balfour. 

House   of   Whispers,    The.      William  Le 
Queux. 

Human  Boy,  The.     Eden  Phillpotts. 

I  Crown  Thee  King.     Max  Pemberton. 

Late  in  Life.     Alice  Perrin. 

Lone  Pine.     R.  B.  Townshend. 

Master  of  Men.     E.  Phillips  Oppenheim. 

Mixed  Marriage,  A.    Mr.  F.  E.  Penny. 


Fcap.  Svff.      yd,  net 

Peter,  a  Parasite.    E.  Maria  Albanesi. 


Pomp  or  the  Lavilettes,  The.    Sir  Gilbert 
Parker. 

Prince    Rupert   the    Buccaneer.     C.    J. 
Cutcliffe  Hyne. 

Princess  Virginia,  The.      C.  N.  &  A.  M. 
Williamson. 

Profit  and  Loss.     John  Oxenham. 

Red  House,  The.    E.  Nesbit. 

Sign  of  the  Spider,  The.    Bertram  Mitford. 

Son  of  the  State,  A.    W.  Pett  Ridge. 


6/5/14 


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