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SEVENTH. MEETING 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


FOR THE 


ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; 


HELD AT LIVERPOOL IN SEPTEMBER 1837. 


VOL. VI. 


LONDON: 


JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 


1838. 


PRINTED BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR, 
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 


CONTENTS. 


panes As 

Page 
Ossects and Rules of the Association ........ 6.0.45 seen cece v 
Smecrttand Connie ee oe es Vill 
Treasurer's Account .......... “are epee as nly eeee nents es xi 
Reports, Researches, and Desiderata............ 02.20 ee ceee xil 
Address of Professor Traill... 0.0.0.0. 0... cece ce cece ce cece ed XEV 
Communications to the General Evening Meetings ............ xlili 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


Report on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at 
different Points of the Earth’s Surface. By Major Epwarp 
2 LE DIELS] Ly nO ts ee, SURO 3 ret ne op ga 1 


Report on the various modes of Printing for the use of a Blind. 
By the Rev. Wriuram Taytor, F.R.S. 22.2.2 eee 87 


Account of the discussions of Observations of the Tides which 
have been obtained by means of the grant of money which was 
placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose at the last 
Meeting of the Association. By J. W. Lussocg, Esq., F.R.S. 103 


On the difference between the Composition of Cast Iron produced 
by the Cold and the Hot Blast. By Tuomas Tuomson, M.D., 
F.R.S., L. & E., &c., Professor of Chemistry, Glasgow ...... 117 


Notice of the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the 
_ Greenwich Observations, made as commanded by the British 
Association. By the Rev. T. R. Rosinson, D.D........:... 127 


Report of some Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, 
and the Temperature of Mines. By Roperr Were Fox .... 1383 


iv CONTENTS. 


Page 
Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section of the 
British Association, appointed to investigate the Composition 
of Secretions, and the Organs producing them.............. 139 


Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of the 
Glands, &c., of the Human Body. By G. O. Rezs, M.D., F.G.S. 149 


Second Report of the London Sub-Committee of the British Asso- 
ciation Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart 155 


On the present state of our knowledge in regard to Dimorphous 
Bodies. By Professor Jounstron, F.R.S. .........-.-..-. 163 


Special Report on the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Duk- 
hun, under the British Government. By Colonel Syxzs, F.R.S. 217 


On the relative Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Cast 
Iron obtained by Hot and Cold Blast. By Eaton Hopexinson 337 


Report on the Strength and other Properties of Iron obtained from 
the Hot and Cold Blast. By Writtram Farrparrn.......... 377 


Report of the Committee on Waves, appointed by the British As- 
sociation at Bristol in 1836, and consisting of Sir Joun Rosr- 
son, K.H., Secretary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and 
Joun Scorr Russett, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Edinb., (Reporter) 417 


Note by Major Sasivez, being an Appendix to his Report on the 
Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points 
Gf the Battine Ontiese caput sede pd... 90t LUN ee 497 


Report from Mr. Jamzs Yates, as one of the Committee for ma- 
king Experiments on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and 
without any free Communication with the outward Air, on the 
Plan ‘of Mr. N, 1: Ward; of London... .. 0... 4. . se -4 ae 


OBJECTS AND RULES 


OF 


THE ASSOCIATION. 


OBJECTS. 


Tue Assoctration contemplates no interference with the ground 
occupied by other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a 
stronger impulse anda more systematic direction to scientific 
inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate Sci- 
ence in different parts of the British Empire, with one another, 
and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general atten- 
tion to the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvan- 
tages of a public kind, which impede its progress. 


RULES. 
MEMBERS. 


All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be 
entitled to become Members of the Association, upon subscri- 
bing an obligation to conform to its Rules. 

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philo- 
sophical Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Em- 
pire, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Members of 
the Association. 

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or managing 
Committees, of Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in 
like manner, to become Members of the Association. 

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by 
its Council or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like 
manner, to become Members of the Association. 

Persons not, belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by 
the General Committee or Council, to become Members of the 
Association, subject to the approval of a General Meeting. 


vi RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


SUBSCRIPTIONS. 


The amount of the Annual Subscription shall be One Pound, 
to be paid in advance upon admission ; and the amount of the 
composition in lieu thereof, Five Pounds. 

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secre- 
taries. 

If the annual subscription of any Member shall have been in 
arrear for two years, and shall not be paid on proper notice, he 
shall cease to be a member ; but it shall be in the power of the 
Committee or Council to reinstate him, on payment of arrears. 


MEETINGS. 


The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. 
The place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General 
Committee at the previous Meeting; and the Arrangements 
for it shall be entrusted to the Officers of the Association. 


GENERAL COMMITTEE*. 


The General Committee shall sit during the time of the 
Meeting, or longer, to transact the business of the Association. 
It shall consist of all Members present, who have communicated 
any scientific Paper to a Philosophical Society, which Paper 
has been printed in its Transactions, or with its concurrence. 

Members of Philosophical Institutions, being Members of 
this Association, who may be sent as Deputies to any Meeting 
of the Association, shall be Members of the Committee for that 
Meeting, the number being limited to two from each Institution. 


SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. 


The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, 
Committees, consisting severally of the Members most conver- 
sant with the several branches of Science, to advise together for 
the advancement thereof. 

The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation 
they would particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the 
ensuing year, and brought under consideration at the next 
Meeting. 


* The constitution of the General Committee was discussed at Liverpool, . 


and at the close of the meeting notice was given, that attention would be 
directed to the reconsideration of the laws of the constitution of the General 
Committee at the next meeting of the Association in Newcastle. 


RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. vil 


The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and 
progress of particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to 
time by competent persons, for the information of the Annual 
Meetings. 


COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS. 


The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Com- 
mittee, which shall receive and consider the Recommendations 
of the Sectional Committees, and report to the General Com- 
mittee the measures which they would advise to be adopted for 
the advancement of science. 


LOCAL COMMITTEES. 


Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Asso- 
ciation to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. 

Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers 
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may 
desire. 


OFFICERS. 


A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, two or more Se- 
cretaries, and a Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the 
General Committee. 


COUNCIL. 


In the intervals of the Meetings the affairs of the Association 
shall be managed by a Council, appointed by the General Com- 
mittee. The Council may also assemble for the dispatch of 
business during the week of the Meeting. 


PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS. 
_ The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty 
to reserve his right of property therein. 
ACCOUNTS. 


The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by 
Auditors appointed by the Meeting. 


viii SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1837-38. 


ee 


Trustees (permanent.)—Charles Babbage, Esq. R. I. Mur- 
chison, Esq. John Taylor, Esq. 

President.—The Ear] of Burlington. 

President elect.—His Grace the Duke of Northumberland. 

Vice-Presidents——The Bishop of Durham, F.R.S., F.S.A. 
The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., &c. Prideaux John 
Selby, Esq., F.R.S.E. 


Vice-Presidents elect.—The Right Rey. The Bishop of Nor- ~ 


wich. Rev. William Whewell. John Dalton, LL.D. Sir 
Philip Egerton, Bart., M.P. 

General Secretaries.—R. I. Murchison, Esq. Rev. Professor 
Peacock. 

Assistant General Secretary.—Professor Phillips, York. 

Secretaries for Newcastle-—J. Adamson, Esq. William 
Hutton, Esq. Professor Johnston. 

Treasurer.—John Taylor, Esq., 2, Duke Street, Adelphi. 

Treasurers to the Newcastle Meeting.—Rev. W. Turner. 
Charles Bigge, Esq. 


Council—Francis Baily, Esq., Treas. RS. Professor 
Christie, Woolwich. Professor Graham, London. J. EK. Gray, 
British Museum. G. B. Greenough, Esq., Regent's Park. 
Professor Henslow, Cambridge. Dr. Hodgkin. Rev. F. W. 
Hope. Robert Hutton, Esq., M.P. W.S. MacLeay, Esq. 
Professor Powell, Oxford. Dr. Roget. Colonel Sykes. 


Secretary to the Council—James Yates, Esq., 49, Upper 
Bedford Place, London. 


Local Treasurers.—Dr. Daubeny, Oxford. Professor Hens- 
low, Cambridge. Dr. Orpen, Dublin. Charles Forbes, Esgq., 
Edinburgh. William Gray, jun., Esq., York. George Ben- 
gough, Esq., Bristol. Samuel Turner, Esq., Liverpool. Rev. 
John James Tayler, Manchester. James Russell, Esq., Bir- 
mingham. William Hutton, Esq., Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Henry Woollcombe, Esq., Plymouth. 


OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. 1x 


OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES AT THE 
LIVERPOOL MEETING. 


SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 


President.—Sir D. Brewster. 
Vice-Presidents.—J. W. Lubbock, Esq. F. Baily, Esq. 
Rev. Professor Peacock. 


Secretaries.—Rev. Professor Powell. Professor Stevelly. 
W.S. Harris, Esq. 


SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY. 


President.—Dr. Faraday. 

Vice-Presidents.—Professor Daniell. Professor Graham. 
Dr. Apjohn. 

Secretaries.— Professor Johnston. Dr. Reynolds. — Pro- 
fessor Miller. 


SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 


President.—Rev. Professor Sedgwick. (For Geography) 
G. B. Greenough, Esq. 
_ Vice-Presidents.—Leonard Horner, Esq. Lord Cole. H. 
T. De la Beche, Esq. 

Secretaries.—Captain Portlock. R. Hutton, Esq. (For 
Geography) Captain H. M. Denham, R. N. 


SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 


President.—W. S. MacLeay, Esq. 

Vice-Presidents—Dr. Richardson. _ Professor Graham. 
Professor Lindley. 

Secretaries—C. C. Babington, Esq. W. Swainson, Esq. 
Rev. L. Jenyns. 


SECTION E.—MEDICAL SCIENCE. 


President.—Professor W. Clark, M.D. 

Vice-Presidents.—James Carson, M.D. Peter Mark Roget, 
M.D. Robert Bickersteth, Esq. Professor R. T. Evanson, 
M.D. 

Secretaries.—James Carson, Jun., M.D. J. R. W. Vose, 
M.D. James Long, Esq. 


x SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


SECTION F,.—STATISTICS,. 


President.—Lord Sandon. 

Vice-Presidents.—Col. Sykes, Esq. G.R. Porter, Esq. James 
Heywood, Esq. 

Secretaries.—W. R. Greg, Esq. Dr. W.C. Taylor. W. 
Langton, Esq. 


SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 


President.—Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D. 

Vice-Presidents.—Dr. Lardner. Professor Wheatstone. 
Professor Willis. 

Secretaries—Thomas Webster, Esq. Charles Vignolles, 
Esq. 


CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 


Professor Agassiz, Neufchatel. M. Arago, Secretary of the 
Institute, Paris. Professor Berzelius, Stockholm. Professor 
De la Rive, Geneva. Professor Dumas, Paris. Baron Alexan- 
der von Humboldt, Berlin. Professor Liebig, Giessen. Pro- 
fessor CErsted, Copenhagen. Jean Plana, Astronomer Royal, 
Turin. M. Quetelet, Brussels. Professor Schumacher, Altona. 


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xii SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


The following Reports on the progress and desiderata of dif- 
ferent branches of science have been drawn up at the request 
of the Association, and printed in its Transactions. 


Vo.. I. 


On the progress of Astronomy during the pin century, 
by G. B. Airy, M.A., Astronomer Royal. 

On the state of our knowledge respecting Tides, by J. W. 
Lubbock, M.A., Vice-President of the Royal Society. 

On the recent progress and present state of Meteorology, 
by James D. Forbes, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy, 
Edinburgh. 

On the present state of our knowledge of the Science of Ra- 
diant Heat, by the Rev. Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian 
Professor of Geometry, Oxford. 

On Thermo-electricity, by the Rev. James Cumming, M.A., 
F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry, Cambridge. 

On the recent progress of Optics, by Sir David Brewster, 
K.C.Ga"LE..D. i B.S ee. 

On the recent progress and present state of Mineralogy, by 
the Rev. William Whewell, M.A., F.R.S. 

On the progress, actual state, and ulterior prospects of 
Geology, by the Rev. William Conybeare, M.A., F.R.S., 
V.P.G.S,} &c: 

Onthe recent progress and present state of Chemical Science, 
by J. F. W. Johnston, A.M., Professor of Chemistry, Durham. 


On the application of Philological and Physical researches to - 


the History of the Human Species, by J. C. Prichard, M.D., 
F.R.S., &c. 
Vou. I. 


On the advances which have recently been made in certain 
branches of Analysis, by the Rev. G. Peacock, M.A.,F.R.S., &c. 

Onthe present state of the Analytical Theory of Hydr ostatics” 
and Hydrodynamics, bythe Rev. John Challis, M.A.,F.R.S., &c. 

On the state of our knowledge of Hydraulics, considered as a 
branch of Engineering, by George Rennie, F.R.S., &c. (Parts 
I. and IT.) 

On the state of our knowledge respecting the Magnetism of 
the Earth, by S. H. Christie, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathe- 
matics, Woolwich. 

On the state of our knowledge of the Strength of Materials, 
by Peter Barlow, F.R.S. 

__ On the state of our knowledge se ai Mineral Veins, by 
John Taylor, F.R.S., Treasurer G.S., 


DESIDERATA, ETC. xiii 


On the state of the Physiology of the Nervous System, by 
William Charles Henry, M.D. 

On the recent progress of Physiological Botany, by John Lind- 
ley, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in the University of London. 


Vou. III. 

On the Geology of North America, by H. D. Rogers, F.G.S. 

Onthe philosophy of Contagion, by Wm. Henry, M.D.,F.R.S. 

-Onthestate of Physiological Knowledge, by the Rev. William 
Clark, M.D., F.G.S., Professor of Anatomy, Cambridge. 

On the state and progress of Zoology, by the Rev. Leonard 
Jenyns, M.A., F.L.S., &c. 

On the theories of Capillary Attraction, and of the Propaga- 
tion of Sound as affected by the development of Heat, by the 
Rey. John Challis, M.A., F.R.S., &c. 

On the state of the science of Physical Optics, by the Rev. 
H. Lloyd, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Dublin. 


Vou. IV. 


On the state of our knowledge respecting the application of 
Mathematical and Dynamical principles to Magnetism, Electri- 
city, Heat, &c., by the Rev. Wm. Whewell, M.A., F.R.S. 

é paelaneteen's researches in Magnetism, by Captain Sabine, 

On the state of Mathematical and Physical Science in Bel- 
gium, by M. Quetelet, Director of the Observatory, Brussels. 


Vot. V. 

On the present state of our knowledge with respect to Mine- 
ral and Thermal Waters, by Charles Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S., 
M.R.1.A., &c., Professor of Chemistry and of Botany, Oxford. 

On North American Zoology, by John Richardson, M.D., 
F.R.S., &c. 

_ ,. Supplementary report on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids, 
by the Rev. J. Challis, Plumian Professor of Astronomy in the 
University of Cambridge. 


Vou. VI. 

On the variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at dif- 
ferent points of the Earth’s Surface, by Major Edward Sabine, 
R.A., F.R.S. 

On the various modes of Printing for the use of the Blind, 
by the Rev. William Taylor, F.R.S. 

On the present state of our knowledge in regard to Dimor- 
phous Bodies, by Professor Johnston. 

On the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Dukhun, under 
the British Government. 


Xiv SEVENTH REPORT— 1837. 


The following Reports of Researches undertaken at the re- 
quest of the Association have been published, viz. 


Vou. IV. 


On the comparative measurement of the Aberdeen Standard 
Scale, by Francis Baily, Treasurer R.S., &c. 

On Impact upon Beams, by Eaton Hodgkinson. 

Observations on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial 
Magnetic Force in Ireland, by the Rev. H. Lloyd, Capt. Sabine, 
and Capt. J. C. Ross. 

On the Phenomena usually referred to the Radiation of Heat, 
by H. Hudson, M.D 

Experiments on Rain at different elevations, by Wm. Gray, 
jun. and Professor Phillips. 

Hourly observations of the Thermometer at Plymouth, by 
W. S. Harris. ‘ 

On the Infra-orbital Cavities in Deers and Antelopes, by A. 
Jacob, M.D. 

On the Effects of Acrid Poisons, by 'T. Hodgkin, M.D. 

On the Motions and Sounds of the Heart, by the Dublin Sub- 
Committee. 

On the Registration of Deaths, by the Edinburgh Sub-Com- 
mittee. 


Vou. V. 


Observations on the Direction and Intensity of the Terres- 
trial Magnetic Force in Scotland, by Major Edward Sabine, 
R.A., F.R.S., &c. 

Comparative view of the more remarkable Plants which cha- 
racterize the Neighbourhood of Dublin, the Neighbourhood of 
Edinburgh, and the South-west of Scotland, &c.; drawn up for 
the British Association, by J. T. Mackay, M.R.I.A., A.L.S., 
&c., assisted by Robert Graham, Esq., M.D., Professor of 
Botany in the University of Edinburgh. 

Report of the London Sub-Committee of the Medical Section 
of the British Association on the Motions and Sounds of the 
Heart. 

Second Report of the Dublin Sub-Committee on the Motions 
and Sounds of the Heart. (See vol. iv. p. 243.) 

Report of the Dublin Committee on the Pathology of the 
Brain and Nervous System. 

Account of the recent Discussions of Observations of the 
Tides which have been obtained by means of the grant of Money 
which was placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose 
at the last Meeting of the Association, by J. W, Lubbock, Esq. 


i et 


DESIDERATA, ETC. XV 


Observations for determining the refractive Indices for the 
‘Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in various media, by the 

Rev. Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geome- 
try in the University of Oxford. 

Provisional Report on the Communication between the Arte- 
ries and Absorbents on the part, of the London Committee, by 
Dr. Hodgkin. 

Report of Experiments on Subterranean Temperature, under 
the direction of a Committee, consisting of Professor Forbes, 
Mr. W.S. Harris, Professor Powell, Lieut. Colonel Sykes, and 
Professor Phillips, (Reporter.) 

Inquiry into the Validity of a Method recently proposed by 
George B. Jerrard, Esq., for Transforming and Resolving 
Equations of Elevated Degrees: undertaken at the request of 
the Association by Professor Sir W. R. Hamilton. 


Vou. VI. 


Account of the discussions of Observations of the Tides 
which have been obtained by means of the grant of money which 
was placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose at the 
last Meeting of the Association, by J. W. Lubbock, Esq., 
F.R.S. 

On the difference between the Composition of Cast Iron 
produced by the Cold and the Hot Blast, by Thomas Thomson, 
M.D.,F.R.S., L. & E., &c., Professor of Chemistry, Glasgow. 

On the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the 
Greenwich Observations, made as commanded by the British 
Association, by the Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D. 

On some Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, 
and the Temperature of Mines, by Robert Were Fox. 

Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section 
of the British Association, appointed to investigate the Com- 
position of Secretions, and the Organs producing them. 

Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of 
oF Glands, &c., of the Human Body, by G. O. Rees, M.D. 

.G.S. 

Second Report of the London Sub-Committee of the British 
_ Association Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of 
the Heart. 

Report from the Committee for making experiments on the 
Growth of Plants under Glass, and without any free communi- 
_ eation with the outward air, on the plan of Mr. N. I. Ward, 


_ of London. 


Report of the Committee on Waves, appointed by the British 
Association at Bristol in 1856, and consisting of Sir John Robi- 


XVi SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


son, K.H., Secretary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and 
John Scott Russell, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., Edin. (Reporter). 
On the relative strength and other Mechanical Properties of 
Cast Iron obtained by Hot and Cold Blast, by Eaton Hodgkinson. 
On the Strength and other Properties of Iron obtained from 
the Hot and Cold Blast, by W. Fairbairn. 


The following Reports and Continuations of Reports have been 
undertaken to be drawn up at the request of the Association. 


On the progress of Electro-chemistry and Electro-magnet- 
ism, so far as regards the experimental part of the subject, by 
P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. 

On the Connexion of Electricity and Magnetism, by S. H. 
Christie, Sec. R.S. 

On the state of knowledge of the Phenomena of Sound, by 
Rev. Robert Willis, M.A., F.R.S., &c. 

On the state of our knowledge respecting the relative level 
of Land and Sea, and the waste and extension of the land on 
the east coast of England, by R. Stevenson, Engineer to the 
Northern Lighthouses, Edinburgh. 

On the Botany of North America, by Jacob Greene, M.D., 
and Professor Sir W. J. Hooker, M.D. 

On the Geographical Distribution of Insects, and particu- 
larly of the order Coleoptera, by J. Wilson, F.R.S.E. 

On circumstances in Vegetation influencing the Medicinal 
Virtues of Plants, by R. Christison, M.D. 

On Salts, by Professor Graham, F.R.S. 

On the progress of Medical Science in Germany, by Dr. 
Graves. 

On the Differential and Integral Calculus, by Rev. Professor 
Peacock, M.A., F.R.S., &c. 

On the Geology of North America, by H. D. Rogers, F.G.S., 
Professor of Geology, Philadelphia. 

On the Mineral Riches of Great Britain, by John Taylor, 
F.R.S., G.S. 

On Vision, by Professor C. Wheatstone, F.R.S. 

On the application of a General Principle in Dynamics to 
the Theory of the Moon, by Professor Sir W. Hamilton. 

On Isomeric Bodies, by Professor Liebig. 

On Organic Chemistry, by Professor Liebig. 

On Inorganic Chemistry, by Professor Johnston, F.R.S. 

On Fossil Reptiles, by Professor Owen, F.R.S. 

On the Salmonidz of Scotland, by Sir J. W. Jardine. 

On the Caprimulgide, by N. Gould, F.L.S. 

On theGenera of Fossil Insects, byRev.F.W.Hope,F.L.S.,&c. 


ms 


DESIDERATA, ETC. XVii 


Reporis requested, Researches recommended, and Desiderata 
noticed by the Commitiees of Science at the Liverpool 
Meeting *. 


ASTRONOMY. 


For the reduction of observations on Stars in the Histoire 
Céleste and the volumes of the Académie des Sciences for 
1789 and 1790 (see vol.iv. p. xv.) 500/. was placed at the dis- 
posal of a Committee, consisting of Mr. Baily, Prof. Airy, and 
Rev. Dr. Robinson. 

For the extension of the Catalogue of the Astronomical So- 
ciety, so as to include all the stars in Bessel’s Fundamenta 
Astronomiz, as well as some other stars both in the north- 
ern and southern hemisphere, which have since been found to 
come within the original scope and intention of that Catalogue, 
or which from peculiar circumstances of position, magnitude, 
discordance, or proper motion, might advantageously be in- 
cluded therein (the whole of the stars to be reduced to the year 
1850, and the constants of precession, aberration and nuta- 
tion to be computed for that epoch, with their secular varia- 
tions), the sum of 500/. was placed at the disposal of a Com- 
mittee, consisting of Mr. Baily, Prof. Airy, and Rev. Dr. Ro- 
binson. 

A Committee was appointed, consisting of Rev. Dr. Robin- 
son, Mr. Baily, and Dr. Traill, to apply to the proper authori- 
ties for the establishment of an astronomical observatory at 
Liverpool. 

A Committee was appointed, consisting of the President, 
the Earl of Burlington, Mr. Lubbock, the Astronomer Royal, 
Mr. Baily, Prof. Rigaud, Prof. Challis, Prof. Sir W. Hamilton, 
Prof. Peacock, and Rev. Dr. Robinson, for the purpose of re- 
presenting to Government the importance of reducing the 
Greenwich observations of the moon. 


TIDES. 


For completing the discussions of Tides of the port of Bris- 
tol, under the direction of Rev. Wm. Whewell, the sum of 
751. was granted. 

A committee was appointed, consisting of Mr. Whewell, Mr. 
Lubbock, and Dr. Traill, to apply to the proper authorities for 
the establishment of tide observations at Liverpool. 


* In addition to or extension of those contained in vol. iv. and vol. vy. 


VOL. vI. 1837. 


xvii SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


WAVES. 


For continuing the experimental investigations on Waves, 
1007. was placed at the disposal of Sir J. Robison and Mr. 
Russell. 


METEOROLOGY. 


The Committee for Meteorology and Subterranean Tempe- 
rature received a further grant of 1002. 

For hourly observations of the Barometer and Wet-bulb 
Thermometer a grant of 50/. was placed at the disposal of Mr. 
W. S. Harris. 

For the construction of an Anemometer, on Mr. Osler’s plan, 
the sum of 40/. was placed at the disposal of Mr. W. S. Harris 
and Mr. Osler. 

For the repairs of an Anemometer, on Mr. Whewell’s plan, 
102. was placed at the disposal of Mr. W. S. Harris. 

Application was directed to be made to the Dock Committee 
of Liverpool, requesting that body to direct Meteorological 
Observations to be made and recorded at the lighthouses and 
telegraphs under their direction, in conformity with any instruc- 
tions they may receive from the Meteorological Committee. 


OPTICS. - 


For the purpose of an inquiry into the action of Gases on 
the Solar Spectrum 100/. was placed at the disposal of Sir D. 
Brewster. : 

For the purpose of constructing a Telescopic Lens of Rock 
Salt, the grant of 80/., at the disposal of Sir D. Brewster, was 
renewed. 

Prof. Wheatstone was requested to present a Report on 
Vision to the next Meeting of the Association. 

Prof. Sir W. Hamilton was requested to consider and RE- 
porT on the question of the practicability of applying his gene- 
ral method of Dynamics to improve the Theory of the Moon. 


——. —_— — 


CHEMISTRY. 


For experiments on substances present in minute quantities 
in Atmospheric Air the sum of 10/. was placed at the disposal 
of Mr. West. 

For a continuation of his Table of Chemical Constants the 
sum of 30/, was placed at the disposal of Prof. Johnston. 


——— 


DESIDERATA, ETC. xix 


For the institution of a series of experiments on the great 
scale on the chemical and mechanical effects and changes pro- 
duced on Cast and Wrought Iron, by the continued action of 
Sea Water at various temperatures, and of foul River Water, 
whether fresh or salt, the sum of 20/. was placed at the disposal 
of Prof. Davy and Mr. R. Mallet. 

For the prosecution of experiments on the Action of Heat of 
212° on Organic and Inorganic Bodies the sum of 10/. was 
placed at the disposal of Mr. R. Mallet. 

Prof. Liebig was requested to prepare a Report on the pre- 
sent state of our knowledge in regard to Isomeric Bodies. He 
was also requested to prepare a Report on the state of Organic 
Chemistry and Organic Analysis. 

Prof. Johnston was requested to prepare a Report on the 
state of Inorganic Chemistry and Inorganic Analysis. 


GEOLOGY. 


For the purpose of carrying on the inquiry into the per- 
manence of the Relative Level of Land and Sea, the sum of 
2721., the remainder of the vote of last year (500), was placed 
at the disposal of a Committee, consisting of Rev. W. Whewell, 
Col. Colby, Mr. Greenough, and Mr. Griffith. 
- For the purpose of advancing our knowledge of Fossil Ich- 

thyology, by assisting the publication of M. Agassiz, the fur- 
ther sum of 1057. was placed at the disposal of a Committee, 
consisting of, Dr. Buckland, Prof. Sedgwick and Mr. Mur- 
chison. 

For the purpose of making excavations in the Peat Mosses 
of Ireland the grant of 50/., at the disposal of Col. Colby, was 
renewed. 

For the purpose of making experiments on the quantity of 
Mud in Rivers the grant of 20/7. was renewed, and placed at 
the disposal of a Committee, consisting of Mr. James Yates, 
Mr. De la Beche and Capt. Denham. 

It was stated to be desirable that a Report should be drawn 
up on the present state of our knowledge of the effects of Volta 
and Thermo-Electricity in the production of Crystals and the 
modification of Mineral Substances, and the Council of the As- 
sociation was requested to take steps for obtaining such a re- 
port. 

Prof. Owen was requested to draw up a Report on the pre- 
sent state of our knowledge of the Fossil Reptiles of Great 
Britain. 

b2 


XX SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


It was stated to be desirable that Engineers and Proprietors of Railways 
should be requested (where it is necessary to cover up sections) to preserve 
Notes and Drawings of such sections, and to collect the Organic Fossils, if any, 
and to transmit the same to the Geological Society of London, 

The attention of geological observers was directed to the different varieties 
of superficial Gravel and Detritus; their origin, whether fresh-water or marine ; 
their composition, whether of erratic or of local materials ; their position with 
respect to the present form of the surface and one another; their organic re- 
mains, and other peculiarities. 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


The following reports and monographs were requested in 
addition to such as are mentioned in vol. v. p. xv. 


On the species of Salmonide found in Scotland by Sir W. 
Jardine. 

On the Caprimulgide, by Mr. Gould. 

On the Genera of Fossil Insects belonging to Great Bri- 
tain and Ireland, by the Rev. W. F. Hope. 


For the purpose of collecting materials towards a Fauna of 
Ireland, a Committee was formed, consisting of Capt. Portlock, 
Mr. R. Ball, Mr. W. Thompson, Dr. Coulter, Mr. W. A. 
Eyton, and Mr. Vigors, who was requested to act as Secretary 
to the Committee. 

Mr. J. E. Gray and Mr. R. Ball were requested to investigate 
the mode by which Mollusca, Annelida, and other marine In- 
vertebrata excavate rocks. 

Capt. Ducane, R.N., was requested to continue his researches 
concerning the Crustacea of the waters of Southampton. - 

For the purpose of experiments on the Growth of Plants in 
Glass Vessels, on Mr. Ward’s plan, the further sum of 50/7. was 
placed at the disposal of a Committee, consisting of Mr. James 
Yates, Dr. Daubeny, Prof. Henslow, and Mr. R. Ball. 

For the purpose of experimenting on the best modes of Pre- 
serving Animal and Vegetable Substances the sum of 25/. was 
placed at the disposal of a Committee, consisting of Prof. Hen- 
slow, Mr. Jenyns, Dr. Clark, and Prof. Cumming. 


MEDICAL SCIENCE. 


The following Committees were re-appointed : 

For investigating the Anatomical Relations of the Absorbent 
and Venous Systems in different classes of Animals, with 504. 
at their disposal ; for inquiring into the Effects of Poisons on the 
Animal Economy, with 257. at their disposal ; for the Chemical 


i. 
ie 
a. 
Lae 
fe 

ie. 


DESIDERATA, ETC. Xxi 


Analysis of the Animal Secretions, with 25/. at their disposal *; 
for investigating the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous Sy- 
stem, with 25/. at their disposal; for investigating the Sounds 
of the Heart, the Committees of London and Dublin, with 25/7. 
at the disposal of each. 

A Committee was appointed, to consist of Dr. Carson and 
other Members of the Association resident in Liverpool and 
Manchester, for the purpose of making experiments on the 
Lower Animals labouring under Diseases of the Lungs, to de- 
termine the influence of local or general remedial means in the 
Cure of these Diseases, with 25/. at the disposal of the Com- 
mittee. 

A Committee was appointed, to consist of Dr. Williams and 
other Members of the Association, to investigate the Physiology 
of the Lungs.and Bronchi. 


STATISTICS. 


In furtherance of inquiries into the actual State of Schools 
in England, considered merely as to numerical analysis, the 
further sum of 150/. was placed at the disposal of a Committee 
consisting of Lord Sandon, Lieut.-Col. Sykes, and Mr. G. R. 


. Porter. 


In furtherance of inquiries into the Condition of the Work- 
ing Population, specified in the form of numerical tables, the 
sum of 100/. was placed at the disposal of a Committee, con- 
sisting of Lord Sandon, Lieut.-Col. Sykes, and Mr. G. R. 
Porter. : 

For the purpose of drawing up instructions for the Advance- 
ment of Statistical Science a Committee was appointed, consist- 
ing of Lord Sandon, Col. Sykes, Mr. Porter, Mr. W. Langton, 
Mr. W. R. Greg, and Mr. J. Heywood, with power to add to 


their number. 


MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 


For the prosecution of experiments on the Strength of 
Cast Iron, produced by the application of the Hot and the 
Cold Blast, and the extension of the same to Wrought Iron, the 
Committee, originally composed of Mr. E. Hodgkinson and 
Mr. W. Fairbairn, was enlarged by the addition of Prof. Willis, 
Mr. Donkin, and Mr. P. Clare, with 100/. at their disposal. 

For procuring, printing, and circulating periodical statements 


* Mr. Golding Bird was added to this Committee. 


XXii SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


of the Duties of Steam Engines in Cornwall and elsewhere, the 
grant of 50/., at the disposal of Mr. J. Taylor, was renewed. 

For ascertaining the Amount of Duty actually performed by 
the consumption of one bushel of Coals in Steam-Engines em- 
ployed in pumping Water, not in the Cornish districts, a Com- 
mittee was appointed, consisting of Mr. Bryan Donkin, Mr. G. 
H. Palmer, Mr. James Simpson, Mr. John Taylor, and Mr. 
Thomas Webster, who was requested to act as Secretary, with 
1007. at their disposal. 

The Committee was requested to report all the circumstances 
affecting the Amount of Duty in each case. 

For instituting a series of experiments to determine the mean 
Value of Railway Constants, a Committee was appointed, con- 
sisting of Mr. Hardman Earle, Dr. Lardner, Mr. Joseph Locke, 
Mr. G. Rennie, and Mr. John MacNeil, with 502. at their dis- 

osal. 
0 For obtaining a series of observations on the average loco- 
motive Duty of a ton of coals per horse-power in Steam Ves- 
sels, a Committee was appointed, consisting of Mr. Fairbairn, 
Dr. Lardner, Mr. J. S. Russell, and Mr. J. Taylor, with 1002. 
at their disposal. 

The Committee was requested to report all the circumstances, 
nautical and mechanical, which may affect this Duty. 

Should the Committee above named find it expedient to ex- 
tend their researches to the other side of the Atlantic, the 
further sum of 50/. was placed at their disposal for such pur- 
pose. 


ARTS. 


A Committee was appointed to superintend the exhibition of 
Mechanical Inventions, Manufactured Articles, and Processes 
in the Arts at Newcastle ; viz. Sir D. Brewster, Mr. Babbage, 
Prof. Wheatstone, Prof. Willis, Prof. Powell, and Prof. John- 
ston, who was requested to act as Secretary. 


GENERAL REMARKS. 


In grants of money to the Committees for purposes of science, 
the Member first named is empowered to draw on the Trea- 
surer for such sums as may from time to time be required. 
The General Committee does not contemplate in these grants 
the payment of personal expenses to the Members. 


SYNOPSIS. XXill 


SYNOPSIS OF SUMS APPROPRIATED TO 
SCIENTIFIC OBJECTS. 
BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE LIVERPOOL MEETING. 
(Drawn up for comparison with vol. iv. p. xl. and vol. y. p. xx.) 


Reduction of Observations on Stars (vol. iv. p. xv. 5 


vol, vi. p. xvii.) . £500 
Continuation of Tide Discussions at Bristol W ol. v. 
p- Xx.; vol. vi. p. xvii.) . 7 
Meteorological Instruments and Subterranean Tem- 
perature (vol. iv. p. xix.) . . 100 
Comparative Level of Land and Sea (vol. iv. ‘p. XXVi. ; 
vol. v. p. xvii., part of the former grant saecaiilas 272 
Lens of Rock Salt (vol. iv. p. xxii.) . . 80 
Hourly Observations in Meteorology (vol. v. p- Xvi. ) 50 
Investigations on the Form of Waves (vol. v. p. xvi.) 100 
*Astronomical Society’s Catalogue (vol. vi. p. xvii.) . 500 
*Action of Gases on Solar Spectrum (vol. vi. p. xvili. ) 100 


*Osler’s Anemometer (vol. vi. p. xviii.) - - . 40 

- *Repairs of an Anemometer (vol. vi. p. xviii.). . . 10 
Composition of Atmospheric Air (vol. v. p. EVE.) 4. (220 
Chemical Constants (vol. iv. p. xxiv.) . 30 
*Effect of Water on Cast and Wrought Tron (vol. Vi. 


p. xix.) 
“Effect, of Heat of 212° on Organic and Inorganic 
Bodies (vol. vi. p. xix.) . 10 
Mud in Rivers (vol. iv. p. xxvii.) . ie aa ae een 
Fossil Ichthyology (vol. iv. p.xxvil.) - - + + - 105 
Peat Mosses in Ireland (vol. v. p. xviii.) . . . . 50 
Growth of Plants under Glass (vol. v. p. xviii.) . 50 
*Preservation of Animal and h eleag Substances 
(vol. vi. p. xx.) . a) hapa aVh eyrces 
Absorbents and Veins (vol. iv. 'p. XXXI. ) PAC SEI AAOO 
Sounds of the Heart (vol. iv. p. xxxi.) . . 50 
and of Poisons on the Animal Economy (vo. iv. 


xi.) . 
Pathologs of Brain and Nervous System (vol. iv. P. 
KI.) 9-3 5 
Chemical Analysis of Animal "Secretions (vol. v. pe. 


so ae Sr. 
*Disorders of the Lungs (vol. v vi. p- xxi.) Linh oe ihe aiaaes 
Carried forward £2357 


ros) 
o 
Ou S10), oO, 99 'O- Geos S205 SO SSiooed Soros So io »6 


XXiv SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Brought over. . . £2357 O- 
State of Schools in England (vol. v. p.xix.) . . . 150 0 
*Condition of Working Population (vol. vi. p. xxi.). 100 0 
Strength of Iron (vol. iv. p. xxxii.; vol. vi. p. ries 100 0 
Duty of Cornish Engines (vol. iv. p. xxxii.) . 50 0 
*Duty of oe ies. aa not in Cornwall (vol. vi. 4 
SSK.) is Choe Bist 

*Railway rhe ee (vol. vi. p xxii.) ohpagheut the cree 
*Duty of Steam Engines in Vessels (vol. vi. p. xxii.). 100 0 
*Conditional Grant to ditto (vol. vi. p. xxii.) . . . 50 O 
Total of Grants £3057 0 


The Grants to which the asterisk (*) is prefixed relate to 
subjects for which no previous Grant has been made. The 
others are renewals or continuations of former Grants. 


ADDRESS 


BY 


PROFESSOR TRAILL, M.D. 


GENTLEMEN,—The duty of addressing the British Association, on 
this occasion,was originally confided to one admirably qualified to do jus- 
tice to the task; and few persons have more cause to lament the circum- 
stances which deprive us of the services of that gentleman than the indi- 
vidual who now addresses you. To those who know me only as connected 
with my present domicile, my position at this Meeting may appear un- 
warrantable or presumptuous. I can only plead, that though highly 
honoured by the office, it certainly was neither expected nor solicited 
by me; and that, unless twenty-eight years’ residence in this place, 
and the existence of numerous and valued local attachments, may be 
considered as conferring the privilege, I fear I can advance few claims 
to be received as one of the Secretaries for Liverpool. 

The objects and nature of the British Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science have been so eloquently handled by my predecessors, 
that to some members the subject may appear to be exhausted ; but, 
as the Association is necessarily a fluctuating body—as many have 
now joined it for the first time—and as there still seems to be con- 
siderable misapprehension in the public mind regarding its objects 
and utility, a few remarks on the purposes which it is intended to ac- 
complish may not be altogether misplaced. 

The British Association was undoubtedly suggested by the successful 
efforts of the philosophers of Germany, within the last few years. The 
_ obstacles to free intercourse between scientific men, in that part of 
_ Europe, had always been felt as a great bar to the advance of science. 
_ Under such a system, those who, in sequestered regions, had long 


| pursued laborious investigations, had often the mortification to discover 


_ that they were following paths trodden by others, or in which they had 


| been completely anticipated by more fortunate inquirers. To obviate 


_ such grave inconveniences, and to promote social intercourse among 


| men of science, scattered over wide regions, separated by physical and 


XXVl SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


political obstacles, though connected by one common tongue, were the 
objects of that great Continental Association; and that these have 
been, to a considerable extent, realized by the annual assemblages of 
the illustrious sons of Germany, is generally admitted. 

In our more united and highly-favoured land, the facilities of inter- 
course between its most distant points, the less isolated position of our 
philosophers, unquestionably render the progress of science less de- 
pendent on such general associations of its cultivators than in Ger- 
many : yet it has never been doubted, that the personal intercourse of 
men engaged in similar pursuits is favourable to the progress of philo- 
sophical investigations, by the direct assistance derived from the ex- 
perience and suggestions of others, and by fostering that generous 
emulation in the search after truth which imparts a wholesome stimulus 
to mental exertion, while it tends to smooth the asperities occasionally 
engendered by controversy, even in the abstract sciences. Men ac- 
customed to meet and act together for one great end, naturally and 
insensibly imbibe the social spirit—scientific jealousy and personal 
rivalry are softened by mutual approximations; and individuals com- 
posing the Association, like members of the same family, learn to 
temper the pursuit of personal distinction by an honest exultation in 
whatever redounds to the honour and celebrity of the body to which 
they belong. 

These advantages the British Association shares in common with 
many other societies; but it possesses characteristics peculiarly its 
own. It can scarcely reckon a period of infancy ;—it sprung at once 
from the conception of its founders, like Pallas from the head of Jove, 
in the perfection of youthful vigour—-secure in the panoply of rectitude 
of purpose against open or secret hostility. It quickly numbered in 
its ranks the élite of the philosophy of the United Kingdom; and, 
strengthened by the accession of foreign associates of distinguished 
reputation, it has extended its views beyond its original horizon, and 
has attained a colossal magnitude that distinguishes it above every 
other scientific association in the British empire. 

This Institution ought not to be considered as the rival of any of 
the previously existing philosophical establishments which give lustre 
to these kingdoms. It, indeed, receives communications on every 
branch of scientific inquiry, but it professes to publish none of the 
numerous contributions which have given rise to the interesting and 
animated discussions in its different Sections: a short abstract of these 
papers is all that it attempts to promulgate; but the distinguishing 
features of its publications are those invaluable Reports on the pro- 


ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. XXVil 


gress of science which the Association has confided to some of its 
members, especially selected for that important duty. 

The advantages thus conferred on general science will be best ap- 
preciated by persons whose studies are directed to any of the subjects 
discussed in the Reports, and who have once felt the want of an ac- 
curate analysis of what had been recently added to our previous stock 
of knowledge; but it would be impossible to calculate in how many 
instances those abstracts of precise and useful information have saved 
the time, and abridged the labour, of the retired student, in tracks al- 
ready explored by other philosophers. Another peculiarity in the 
publications of the Association consists in the circulation of desiderata 
in different branches of science. The attention of their cultivators, 
thus drawn to the principal deficiencies in each, has already filled up 
various chasms in the paths of intellectual exertion, and stimulated to 
inquiries that cannot fail to lead to important results. 

It soon became apparent that the British Association must exercise 
a powerful influence on the general diffusion of science, and could 
undertake, or materially promote, investigations to which individual 
research and unaided exertion are utterly inadequate. Its annual 

_ migrations, and the comparative ease of admission into its ranks, have 
unquestionably increased the taste for scientific disquisition; and, 
although it would be absurd to suppose that all who seek for enrol- 
ment in the Association are destined to extend the boundaries of 
science, who can believe that familiarizing large masses of the com- 
munity with such investivations, and exhibiting how the highest 
branches of philosophy may be made available to the purposes of life, 
will fail to promote the avowed purpose of our meetings? Who will 
venture to deny, that the contemplation of the galaxy of illustrious 
men, mustered on occasions similar to the present, has often proved 
_ the first impulse to the secret aspirant after honourable distinction— 
has afforded the Promethean spark, that kindled the sacred flame in 
_ the breast of slumbering genius ? 

__ The Association has not failed to use its influence in stimulating 
_ our rulers to aid the progress of science. At its instigation, the 
British government has taken up the task of the reduction of the 
enormous mass of observations on the heavenly bodies, accumulated 
since 1750 at the Greenwich Observatory—which, though col- 
lected at a great expense to the nation, and by the exertion of con- 
_ summate skill in the observers—which, though pronounced by the 
highest authorities in Europe to be of the utmost moment to the 
| future progress of astronomy, —have been permitted to remain a rich, 


XXVIII SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


but unexplored, mine of facts. The voice of our petition has been 
heard—the work has been auspiciously begun—and 500/. have been 
assigned by the Treasury for the commencement of this great national 
work. 

The subject of the Tides, so strangely neglected in this great mari- 
time country, from the period of the promulgation of the Newtonian 
Theory to our own times, has engaged the attention of the Association 
from its commencement. The advances which have recently been made 
on this subject, and which have greatly altered the aspect of that branch 
of science, had chiefly for their original basis the very valuable tide ob- 
servations made in this port, many years ago, by Mr. Hutchinson, a 
dock-master, embracing an interval of above thirty years. The ori- 
ginals are preserved in the Lyceum Library of Liverpool ; and, by the 
liberality of the proprietors, have been confided to the hands of Mr. 
Lubbock, under whose direction the discussion of them, ordered by the 
Association, has thrown a new light on the laws of Tidal phenomena. 

Since that time, the earnest representations of a distinguished Asso- 
ciate, whom this county claims as a native, have given rise to a most 
important set of observations on the tides. Mr. Whewell, by personal 
application to the chief of the coast-guard service, and solicitation to 
the Admiralty, has procured the completion of a continuous series of 
observations, at upwards of 500 stations, along the coasts of Great 
Britain and Ireland. They were continued for a fortnight in June 
1834, and again in June 1835, when they were extended from the 
mouths of the Mississippi to the northern extremity of Europe. These 
observations have been discussed at the expense of the Admiralty ; but, 
as I shall presently mention, the Association has voted a large sum to 
be applied by Mr. Lubbock to the same object. 

These discussions have, within the last few years, led to very curious 
results ; for instance, to the fact of the rise of the mean level of the tides, 
in proportion to the fall of the barometer, and the existence of a diurnal 
tude—i. e. the difference between the morning and evening tides of the 
same day. This diurnal tide, it may be interesting for the inhabitants 
of Liverpool to know, was first marked in the tide tables constructed 
by a young ingenious townsman, Mr. Bywater, jun., who has, unfor- 
tunately for science, died since the last Meeting of the Association. 

The importance of the subject, and the success already obtained, have 
encouraged the Association to direct the discussion of the Tidal obser- 
vations recorded at the port of Bristol, and at the London Docks; and 
to supply the means of defraying the necessary expense. 

The influence of researches on tidal waters to navigation and to com- 


‘ 


ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL, XX1X 


merce are too obvious to require illustration: but perhaps it may not 
be unsuitable, in this place, to refer to the deductions of our eminent 
associate, Captain Denham, on the capability of the Mersey “ to com- 
mand a navigable avenue to the ocean, so long asits guardians preserve 
the high-water boundaries from artificial contraction.” It may also be 
stated, that in our Transactions, this gentleman has recorded his most 
important general inference (drawn from a connected series of observa- 
tions on the tides, which the liberality of the Dock Trustees of Liverpool 
enabled him to carry on)—that there is one invariable mean height, com- 
mon to neap and spring tides—rur Harr Trp—e Marx—a point from 
which engineers, geologists, and navigators will henceforward com- 
mence their calculations, and adjust their standards of comparison. 

The Association made application soon after the meeting at Edin- 
burgh for the resumption of the Trigonometrical Survey of Scotland ; 
a work imperiously demanded by the imperfect state of our best maps 
and charts of that part of the island, either for the purposes of geology 
or navigation. It is needless to give further proof, than that parts of se- 
veral of the large islands at the mouth of the Clyde are laid down se- 
veral miles out of their true position. The magnificent scale on which 
the survey of Ireland is now carrying on, emboldened various scientific 
societies of Scotland this year to memorialize the government on the 
subject. I am happy to add, that the applications have been successful, 
and the triangulation of Scotland will recommence early in 1838. 

The British Association may also boast, that at its instigation, our 
illustrious associate, Arago, moved the Bureau des Longitudes to soli- 
cit from the French government the publication of the series of obser- 
vations on the tides at Brest, and a reduction of the astronomical obser- 
vations made at the Ecole Militaire. The Brest observations have been 
printed, and a copy of the valuable documents put in the hands of one 
well able to appreciate them. 

At the Dublin meeting, a committee was appointed for representing 
to our own government two objects important to science ; which can 
only be accomplished in a satisfactory manner by the rulers of a power- 
ful nation, or by an union of governments in the cause of philosophy. 
The first related to the establishment of Magnetical and Meteorological 
Observatories, in different parts of the earth, furnished with proper in- 
struments, and in which the observations should be conducted on ac- 
_knowledged and uniform principles. The extent, and the variety of 
climate of the British possessions, indicate them as favourable points 
for such establishments, which have already been commenced in France 
and its dependencies, and may hereafter, by the co-operation of the 


XXX SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


several governments of Europe, and of our Trans-Atlantic brethren, 
be extended over a large portion of the civilized world. The second 
suggestion was the importance of an Antarctic Expedition, for prose- 
cuting discoveries and observations in Geography, Hydrography, Na- 
tural History, and, above all, Magnetism, with a view to determine the 
positive southern magnetic pole or poles, and the direction and intensity 
of the magnetic force in antarctic regions. The East India Company 
was likewise to be requested to favour the same objects, especially at 
their establishment at Madras. 

The General Committee some time ago made application to the au- 
thorities, both in France and this country, respecting some mode of in- 
stituting a reciprocal protection to literary property. Might I venture 
here to allude to a recommendation which I hope the Association will 
not fail to leave in Liverpool, for the promotion of a scientific object of 
immense consequence to this port—the establishment of an Observatory 
in or near Liverpool? The adoption of such suggestions, while con- 
ferring an incalculable benefit on science, would rear a proud, impe- 
rishable, and bloodless monument to national greatness. 

These statements might be a sufficient answer to a question, some- 
times put in tones of captious sarcasm,— What has the Association di- 
rectly contributed to the progress of useful knowledge? Without 
again appealing to the very admirable reports on the progress of science 
published in our Transactions ; without again claiming merit for the 
suggestions and efforts already noticed,—I should fearlessly answer 
such cavillers, by an appeal to the value and number of the communi- 
cations, which have occupied the different Sections, at each annual 
meeting, and which contain the application of pure science to important 
questions in Physics, or of experimental investigation to numerous 
branches of knowledge. I would point to the valuable researches 
which have been undertaken and completed at the request of the 
Association, among which it may be permitted to indicate the fol- 
lowing memoirs :—-The comparison of the standards of Linear Measure, 
made by the late Mr. Troughton, for the town of Aberdeen, and the 
Astronomical Society of London, which were confided to Mr. Baily— 
a comparison of much consequence, as the standard yard, by the same 
artist, was lost in the fire which consumed both Houses of Parliament ; 
On the Investigation of the Impact upon Beams, when struck by bodies 
of different weight, hardness, and elasticity, by Mr. Hodgkinson; On 
the Direction and Intensity of the Magnetic Force in England, Ireland, 
and Scotland, by Professor Lloyd, Major Sabine, and Captain James 
Ross; On the influence of Height above the Sea on Magnetic Intensity, 


SF an pl RBS ily i tee i 


ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. xxi 


by Professor Forbes—from which it appears that the horizontal inten- 
sity diminishes = ,/,, of the whole, for every 3000 feet of vertical ascent ; 
On the quantity of Rain falling at different heights above the surface of 
the Ground, made at York, by Professor Phillips, and Mr. Gray ; On 
the determination of the mass of the planet Jupiter, by the Astronomer 
Royal; On the Horary Variations of the Barometer, Thermometer, 
Hygrometer, and Whewell’s Anemometer, by Mr. Snow Harris—part of 
which has already appeared, and of which the sequel will be laid before 
this annual Meeting; On the Duty performed by Cornish Steam En- 
gines, by Mr. Enys; On the Ratio of the Resistance of Fluids to the 
Velocity of Waves, by Mr. Russell and Mr. Robison—of which we ex- 
pect to receive an account on this occasion. 

We may also be permitted here to allude to some highly-interesting 
investigations, still in progress, under the auspices of the Association, 
such as—Observations on the Temperature of Springs and Deep Mines, 
by Instruments procured and verified by the Meteorological Council, 
which are already placed in various districts of Great Britain and Ire- 
land, and also in Peru, under the direction of our scientific associate, 
Mr. Pentland, from which results most interesting to Geology are an- 
ticipated ; On the Temperature of the strata at different depths near 
Edinburgh, by Professor Forbes, for ascertaining the rate of the trans- 
mission of Solar Heat downwards; A continuation of Mr. W. Vernon Har- 
court’s experiments on the effects of long-continued Heat on Rocks and 
other bodies ; Experimental Investigations into the Fabrication of Glass, 
by the same gentleman and Dr. Faraday; A Systematic Catalogue of 
all the Organized Fossils of the British Islands, by Professor Phillips ; 
An Experimental Determination of the Strength and other Mechanical 
Properties of Iron obtained by the Hot and Cold Blasts, undertaken by 
Messrs. Hodgkinson and Fairbairn; Analysis of Iron in the different 
stages of its manufacture, and an Extension of the Tables of Chemical 
Constants, by Professor Johnston; Statistical Returns of the State of 
Education in our great towns ; An Examination of the Statistical docu- 
ments preserved in the India House, by Professor Jones; besides the 
discussion of numerous very interesting contested points in Natural 
History and in Medicine. 

These are satisfactory evidences of the activity of the Association ; 
_ but it bas not scrupled also to afford pecuniary assistance, when such 
_ aid appeared requisite to ensure success. It is true, that the moderate 
sum, payable on admission into the Society, seems more suited to the 


_ finances of the majority of philosophers, than to the support of ex- 


XKxIl SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


tensive enterprises; yet the numbers annually desirous of admission 
supply funds, adequate to important undertakings; and the power 
thus given to the General Committee is acknowledged to have been 
exercised with a sound discretion. 

Without descending to minute particulars, it may be well to state 
some of the appropriations for various scientific inquiries. 

The application to the French government already noticed, was ac- 
companied by a vote of the General Committee of the Association to 
appropriate 5001. for a duplicate reduction of the Astronomical Obser- 
vations, with a view to secure the utmost accuracy in these important 
computations. This offer proves the value attached by the Association 
to whatever can improve Astronomy, and the zeal which carries its 
scientific views even beyond the limits of the British Empire. This 
sum is still devoted to the reduction of Astronomical Observations. 
701. have been devoted to the determination of a constant numerical 
expression for Lunar Notation, as deduced from the observations made 
with the Greenwich mural circle: 250/. have been appropriated for 
the Discussion of the Tides ; besides 150/. voted last year for the Dis- 
cussion of the Observations made on Tides at Bristol: 100/. were set 
apart for meteorological instruments, and experiments on subterranean 
temperature,—the last a problem of the highest interest to Geology, as 
involving the question whether or not there be a general source of ter- 
restrial heat, independent of solar influence: 500/. have been voted 
for ascertaining the permanence or fluctuation in the relative level of 
the land and of the ocean, on the coasts of the British Isles. This sub- 
ject affords matter for the highest speculations in Geology ; but it is 
doubly interesting to a maritime people, as affecting the permanence of 
our river navigation, and of our naval stations: 2101. were given to 
enable M. Agassiz to include the fossil fishes of our islands among his 
interesting Researches on Fossil Ichthyology, a publication which forms 
a new era in this department of Geology : 100/. have been assigned for 
Investigations on the Form of Waves, and the mode of their produc- 
tion: 150/. for the experiments on Vitrification, and the improvement 
of the manufacture of Glass: 80/. for experiments on Lenses of Rock 
Salt ; a subject of much interest to Optics: 50/. for determining the 
specific gravity of Gases: 60/. for an experimental inquiry into the 
strength of Iron: 50/. for ascertaining the Duty of Steam Engines: 
50. for an inquiry into the Origin of Peat Mosses: 250]. for con- 
ducting various Physiological Rearches : 150/. have likewise been voted 
for investigating the Statistics of Education in our large towns. While 


ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. XXXIl 


on this subject, I must not omit to state that the Statistical Societies of 
London and Manchester trace their origin to this Association ; and that 
the laborious investigations of Colonel Sykes, on the Statistics of India, 
founded on materials chiefly collected by himself, and undertaken at the 
request of the Association, are now happily brought to a close, and will 
be presented to the Association. 

These appropriations are exclusive of several minor sums devoted to 
the encouragement of investigations into various branches of Physics, 
Chemistry, and Natural History ; making an aggregate of upwards of 
26591. set apart from the funds of the Association, in the past year, for 
scientific objects—a larger sum than has been appropriated, in so short 
a period, by any other Society, to purposes purely scientific. 

While stating these facts, we ought not to conceal a circumstance, cre- 
ditable to the disinterested zeal for the cause of science elicited by these 
grants. Though the voteshave been liberal, this circumstance has never 
induced inconsiderate expenditure. In many instances, far less than the 
sums appropriated have been actually expended ; and in various in- 
stances, the individuals intrusted with the funds have refused to draw 
on the Association, when their own labour could save its finances. 

It has been usually considered a part of the duty of the Local Secre- 
tary, to give a short account of the Reports which are just published. 

‘The first in the volume is the masterly report ‘On Mineral and 
Thermal Waters,’ by Dr. Daubeny. After glancing at the nature of 
atmospheric water, the author has pointed out the connexion of the 
foreign ingredients, detected in the atmosphere, with the production of 
meteoric stones, the formation of nitric acid under certain circumstances, 
and the presence of the organic principle found in air, even when col- 
lected on great elevations, to which the name of Pyrrhine has been 
given. He considers the existence of the elements of meteoric stones 
in the atmosphere as doubtful. The nitric acid may sometimes arise 
from the effects of electric explosion on its oxygen and nitrogen; at 
other times this union is seemingly produced by causes not yet ascer- 
tained. ‘The researches of the celebrated Ehrenberg have shown, that 
py:thine probably owes its origin to the ova of polygastric infusoria, 
raised by evaporation and by atmospheric currents induced by changes 
of temperature. In considering the ocean, the author directs particular 
attention to its gaseous contents; as confirming or invalidating the opi- 
nion of Arago, that oxygen predominates in all waters, even to con- 
siderable depths. This law is well known to hold good in the more 
superficial portions of the ocean, and seems intended to support the 
respiration of aquatic animals; but the preponderance of oxygen at 

VOL. Vie 1837. c 


XXXIV SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


great depths cannot yet be considered as absolutely determined, on ac- 
count of the imperfection of the modes of obtaining unmixed water front 
such points. The water of springs is more especially the object of Dr. 
Daubeny’s Report. 

In considering the saline contents of mineral springs, he gives some 
ingenious speculations on the origin of these salts; especially of the 
carbonate of soda, of the sulphates, and of boracic acid. The common 
salt he derives from the same source as the saltness of the sea; and he 
considers rock-salt as a deposition from the waters of the ocean; a view 
confirmed by the presence in saline deposits of iodine and bromine—ele- 
ments first detected in marine productions. Dr. Daubeny regards the 
absence of these two bodies in the lowest and purest bed of the Cheshire 
rock-salt while they abound in the upper saliferous beds, as proofs that 
rock-salt was deposited from a saturated solution. The salts of io- 
dine and bromine, as well as the earthy muriates, from their greater 
solubility, would remain longer in solution ; and thus be mingled with 
the more hasty mechanical deposits from the waters. The brine 
springs of Droitwich, which are found to contain neither iodine nor 
bromine, he also considers as derived from a salt deposited from a sa- 
turated solution. 

The siliceous earth, so often detected in thermal springs, he con- 
ceives to be dissolved by alkaline matter, aided by a high temperature. 
Both alkali and silica may be afforded by felspathic rocks; and Dr. 
Daubeny conjectures, that silica may be more soluble in hot water at 
the moment of its separation from its combinations in the rock, or ere 
it has its aggregation increased, by assuming the crystalline texture. 
He states, that it may be interesting to try, whether hot water has a 
stronger action on such bodies as opal, in which the molecules do not 
seem to have a true crystalline arrangement, than on quartz. Since I 
came this time to Liverpool, I subjected a fragment of wood-opal for 
fourteen days to a temperature estimated about 280° Faht., in the boiler 
of a fixed steam-engine ; but it had neither lost nor gained the smallest 
weight in that time. 

The author combats the opinion of Anglada on the origin of the or- 
ganic matter termed Glairine, now found to be a very common ingre- 
dient of thermal springs. This substance Anglada supposes, with little 
probability, to be derived from the interior of the earth ; while the ob- 
servations of our author on this substance, as collected from above fifty 
springs, especially from the thermal sources of the Pyrenees, show, that 
Glairine is probably derived from the decomposition of organic bodies, 
such as conferve and infusory animaleules. 


ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. XXKV 


The author’s speculations on the source of the heat of thermal 
springs, partake of his views on the origin of volcanoes; namely, that 
it depends on the penetration of water, through fissures in the external 
erust of the globe, to the regions where he conceives the elements of 
earthy and alkaline bodies to exist: that the intense heat, generated 
during the oxidation of these elements, converts a portion of the water 
into steam ; which, under compression, obtains a high temperature, acts 
on various earthy bodies, and communicates its heat to subterranean 
waters which issue in thermal springs. This view he supports by nu- 
merous instances observed by geologists; especially by Professor Forbes 
in the Pyrenees, where thermal waters gush out in the vicinity of dis- 
ruptions, or upheavings of strata by ignigenous rocks. The author be- 
lieves that, unless in countries agitated by volcanic action, the tempe- 
rature of thermal springs is subject to little variation ; and that, where 
the contrary has been alleged, it may generally be ascribed to the im- 
perfection of the thermometers employed. 

The temperature of copious springs has generally been observed to 
vary little, and is about the mean temperature of the country where 
they occur. Thus the magnificent fountain at Vaucluse has the mean 
temperature of that part of France, and scarcely ever varies one degree 
of Reaumur. It is, however, worthy of remark, that I found the tem- 
perature of St. Winifred’s Well, the largest spring in Britain, by dif- 
ferent observations during twenty years, to experience variations of 
more than four degrees of Faht., always to have a temperature several 
degrees above the mean of Flintshire, and at all seasons superior to that 
of another very large spring, Fynnon asa, about five miles distant. 
The variations may perhaps arise from surface water, directly finding 
its way into the Holywell spring; but its constant superior tempera- 
ture may be accounted for, on Dr. Daubeny’s principle, from the dis- 
turbances in the strata produced by the numerous mineral veins in the 
adjacent Halkin Mountains. 

The second report is ‘On the Direction and Intensity of Teascheitid 
Magnetism in Scotland,’ by Major Sabine. 

The experiments were made at numerous stations, both by the sta- 
tical method of Professor Lloyd, in which the dip and intensity are as- 
certained by the same instrument, and by Hansteen’s method, of mea- 
suring intensity by the number of horizontal vibrations in a given time. 
It is interesting to know, that the intensities estimated by both methods 
nearly correspond ; and that we therefore may place confidence in either 
mode of observing, when allowance is made for changes in the force of 
magnetism in the needles employed. Major Sabine experienced, on 


c2 


XXxVl SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


several occasions, what has been remarked by other observers, that 
magnetical experiments are liable to be affected by the vicinity of Trap 
rocks, This was particularly noticed by him at Oban and Loch Scavig, 
so as to render his observations at the latter of no utility for his calcu- 
lations. Two of the most familiar examples of this quality of ignigenous 
rocks are afforded by the powerful effect of a column of the Giant’s 
Causeway, as mentioned by Professor Lloyd ; and by the strong polar- 
ity of the basaltic cap of Arthur’s Seat, near Edinburgh, which is ca- 
pable, in more positions than one, of causing complete inversion of poles 
of the pocket compass. These instances show how carefully the vi- 
cinity of considerable masses of Trap rocks should hereafter be avoided, 
in all delicate experiments on magnetic dip and intensity: for the errors 
they occasion may be more considerable than the effect of a ship’s local 
attraction on azimuths, and are far less easily compensated. 

Major Sabine has considered it best to give no other designation, on 
his chart, to the isodynamic lines in Scotland, than what expresses their 
relation to each other, until we have more fully investigated their rela- 
tion to magnetic intensity in England. The differences between the 
deductions, in regard to the Isodynamic lines in Scotland and in Ireland, 
are very considerable, and apparently too great to be due to any dif- 
ference in the lines themselves: but future observations will probably 
disclose the cause. 

In a former volume of our Transactions, appeared a valuable report 
on North American Geology: in that just announced is an excellent 
essay on the Zoology of that portion of the globe, by Dr. Richardson, 
the intrepid friend and companion of Sir John Franklin, in their ha- 
zardous exploratory expeditions to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. 
After some general remarks on the climate of North America, he pre- 
sents us with an extensive Table of Mean Temperatures, calculated for 
periods of six and three months throughout the year, for the hottest and 
the coldest months, and for the months with a mean temperature above 
52° Faht., taken at forty-four different stations, and collected from his 
own and Franklin’s observations, combined with those of Humboldt, 
Ross, Parry, and Scoresby. The results are very important, and show, 
in a striking manner, the very erroneous deductions on the mean tem- 
perature of any place, if investigated by Mayer’s formula, especially in 
very low or very high latitudes. 

The geographical position of Mexico constitutes the point at which 
the Faune of the northern and southern regions meet; and hence it is 
the place in which the general laws regulating the distribution of animals 
can be most satisfactorily studied. There the Wolf of a northern cli- 


ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. XXXVI 


mate is seen with the Monkey of tropical regions; the Bunting and 
the Titmouse nestle near the Parrot and the Trogon; the Phalarope 
of the North seeks its food on the same beach as the Jacana and the 
Boatbill of Brazil. 

Dr. Richardson states, that though colonization has, in America, 

restricted the range and modified the migrations of wild animals, we 
have no evidence that a single species has been there lost within the 
records of history. The Quadrumana, or Monkeys, of America are 
peculiar to that continent. None of them have what may be called 
a perfect hand, with the thumb opposed to the fingers. Their thumbs 
are small, sometimes only rudimentary, or even wholly wanting. Not 
a single Ape—not one true Baboon is to be found among them; but 
many are furnished with prehensile tails, admirably adapted for ani- 
mals moving among thick forests, and almost as serviceable for grasp- 
ing as the proboscis of the Elephant. 
_ Almost all the Mammifera, considered as common to the New and 
Old Worlds, belong to the order of Carnivora; yet it is by no means 
improbable, that a minute examination of species now considered as 
the same, may detect specific differences among them. I would par- 
ticularly recommend attention to the skulls of animals. My late in- 
genious young friend, Robert Jameson, of Edinburgh, had acquired 
great tact in discriminating the Carnivora, in particular, by the form 
and position of the sutures uniting the bones of the face, which differ 
much in each species. It is believed by many naturalists, that the 
proportions of the skulls of Indian birds, in other respects similar to 
our own, as compared to their bodies, differ from those of Europe. 
Similar differences may occur in other parts of the skeletons of qua- 
drupeds, which have escaped the superficial examiner, yet sufficient to 
constitute specific characters. This would be particularly valuable in 
determining the species of weasels and amphibious Carnivora, which, 
at present, are very perplexing to the naturalist. 

All the existing Marsupial animals are confined to America, Au- 
stralia, and some other South Sea Islands: yet, at one period, animals 
of this order must have been very generally distributed over the earth, 
as their bones occur everywhere in a fossil state, and are formed in the 
oldest deposits of mammiferous remains. 

The number of Rodentia in North America is great, and all seem to 
be peculiar to the New World: of the Edentata, one only is found in 
North America. Two or three species occur in Africa and India; all 
the rest are South American. It is singular, that of the existing Pa- 
chydermata, two species only are considered as indigenous to Ame- 


XXXViil SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


rica—the tapir and the peccary; and of these, the last only is found 
in North America. Yet no region can boast of more numerous, or 
more gigantic species of fossil animals of this order—as elephants and 
mastodons—and, what is remarkable, though the present race of horses 
is acknowledged to be not indigenous, fossil bones of the horse were 
found on the N.W. coast by Capt. Beechey mingled with those of ele- 
phants. Of the Ruminantia, two only seem to be common to the Old 
and New World—the reindeer and the elk—unless we admit that the 
argali of Siberia is the same-as the sheep of the Rocky Mountains. 

The Cetacea, as might be expected from their mode of life, may be 
considered as common to both worlds. The Rytina Borealis and 
Manatus Americanus are found in North America, but not in the seas 
of Europe. Temminck estimates that we have 930 well ascertained, 
and 140 doubtful species of Mammifera; of these 207 are in the New 
World, and 169 in North America. The birds of North America are 
most numerous, and have heen illustrated by the successive labours of 
Pennant, Wilson, the Prince of Musignano ; but, above all, in the Fauna 
Boreali-Americana of Richardson and Swainson, and the superb work 
of Audubon. The similarity between the birds of Europe and North 
America is marked by one third of the species being common to both 
Faune. These are chiefly to be found among the Grallatores and 
Natatores, two-thirds of which orders are common to both: of the 
order Rapaces several are common to both continents. The Insessores 
are very numerous, and a great number are peculiar to America. The 
Rasores, in all countries, are little disposed to migrate ; and almost all 
of this order found in America are peculiar to it, with the exception of 
some pigeons and a few Arctic grouse. 

The Reptilia of North America are exceedingly numerous. All, 
with the exception of some sea-turtle, are distinct from those of the 
Old World. Two genera equally fitted to live in water and in air, as 
possessing both gills and lungs, and represented by the Siren lacertina 
and Menopoma gigantea, which abound in North America, have only 
one analogous animal in the Old World, the Proteus anguinus of the 
lakes and caves of Carniola. 

Many species of the fishes of the American seas are found else- 
where ; but the only fresh-water fish, common to both worlds, appears 
to be the pike; yet it is singular, that it does not occur in the waters 
to the west of the Rocky Mountains, although there the two continents 
are more approximated. Some of the family of the Salmonide and 
Clupiade, which visit America, have much resemblance to those of 
Europe. 


ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. XXXLE 


This Report is an excellent specimen of the method of comparing 
the Faunz of distant regions, and presents a model of a philosophical - 
disquisition on the geographical distribution of animals. 

The Association has, at different times, received three able Reports 
from Professor Challis, of Cambridge, on the Mathematical Theory of 
Fluids. In the first he showed how the application of mathematical 
analysis to investigating the properties of an imaginary fluid, supposed 
incompressible, or so compressible that the density should always be 
proportional to the pressure it sustains, admits of comparison with 
facts observed in the equilibrium and motion of water, or in the exist-_ 
ing mechanical qualities of air. In the second, the author considered 
the modifications which these theories had, in later times, sustained by 
the introduction of certain molecular hypotheses on the constitution of 
matter, and how a comparison of the consequences of these hypothe- 
tical speculations with experimental results, served to establish the 
basis of the mathematical reasoning, and to make known properties 
and conditions of bodies not cognizable by our senses. 

The present Report treats of several very important points in the 
Mechanical Theory of the Atmosphere. Mr. Atkinson’s* attempt to 
ascertain the law of variation of temperature, at different heights in the 
atmosphere, would seem to require, for its establishment, a more ex- 
tensive series of observations over a greater portion of the earth’s sur- 
face than we now possess. 

The difference between the velocity of sound, as determined by ex- 
periment, and Newton’s deduction from Boyle’s and Mariotte’s law of 
elastic fluids, amounting to one-sixth of the whole, has given rise to 
many attempts to solve the problem, especially by Euler, Lagrange, 
and Laplace. The latter gave the true solution of the discrepancy— 
namely, that it arises from the evolution of heat, and its absorption, 
which accompany every sudden compression or expansion of air. The 
application of analysis, to afford a formula of correction, was first at- 
_ tempted by Biot and Laplace, and more lately by Ivory ; but when we 
compare the theoretic deduction with the best experiments on the 
propagation of sound by Moll and Van Beck, at Utrecht, by Golding- 
ham at Madras, and Parry and Foster in the Arctic regions, the slight 
_ diserepancies between experiment and calculation are more to be at- 
_ tributed to some imperfection in our formule than to error in experi- 
_ ments, which in their results agree so nearly, though made under very 
_ different circumstances. 


* Trans. Royal Astron. Soc., vol. ii. 


xl SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Under the head of Theories of Elastic Fluids, the author has intro- 
duced some valuable remarks upon the memoirs of Poisson, on the 
equilibrium and motion of elastic bodies, on the equilibrium of fluids, 
and the pressure of fiuids in motion; and also on Laplace’s theory of 
Capillary Attraction; for which I must refer to the Report. 

We have next two reports on the Comparative Botany of Scotland 
and Ireland, by Mr. Mackay and Professor Graham, of Edinburgh. 
The first indicates the more remarkable plants that characterize the 
neighbourhood of Dublin and Edinburgh. In the second, Mr. Mackay 
points out the effect of climate on the Flora of Ireland. Ireland, it is 
true, has fewer species of plants than Great Britain, and possesses fewer 
alpine plants than Scotland. Its position and moister climate, how- 
ever, put it in possession of many plants not found in Great Britain, 
but of species occurring in Spain and Portugal, among which may be 
noticed Erica Mediterranea, Erica Mackiana, Pinguicola grandiflora, 
Arbutus unedo, Menziesia polyfolia. 

The Reports from the London and Dublin sub-committees on the 
Motions and Sounds of the Heart, in this and the last volume, will 
interest the physiologist and the physician. Ever since the application 
of the stethoscope, by Laennec, to the investigation of pectoral diseases, 
the sounds of the heart have been anxiously explored—its normal 
sounds studied, and its abnormal bruits eagerly inquired into, as im- 
portant diagnostics of health and disease. The causes of those sounds 
have been matter of dispute ; the investigation was recommended by 
the Association; and a sum appropriated for the expense of experi- 
ments on the subject. The Reports are the results of the labours of 
two sub-committees,who agree on the principal points,viz., that the first 
sound is produced during the systole, or contraction of the ventricles : 
and that the second sound is produced by the sudden check which the 
action of the semilunar valves gives to the current of blood impelled 
against them, by the elasticity of the arteries. In the second Dublin 
Reports, the abnormal sounds are illustrated by some ingeniously-de- 
vised experiments: but both sub-committees admit, that the motions 
and sounds of the heart require further investigations. 

The Dublin Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and Nerves 
express their opinion, that to arrive at any accurate conclusions on so 
extensive and difficult a subject, a very large number of cases must be 
first submitted to examination, their symptoms during life accurately 
noted, and minute examinations instituted after death. One hundred 
and seventy-cight males and two hundred and ninety-four females, 
labouring under nervous affections, are in the Dublin House of In- 


a aa 


ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. xli 


dustry and Hospitals—of whom forty-one have already been accurately 
examined, for the object just aliuded to. 

The results of the Discussion of the Observations on the Tides, ob- 
tained by means of the grants of the Association, have been reported 
by Mr. Lubbock. 

_ Mr. Dessiou was employed to discuss the Tides observed at Liver- 
pool, so as to ascertain the diurnal inequalities in their height, and also 
to classify the errors of prediction for a year in Liverpool and at the 
London Docks. The result is, that Daussy’s deduction from the ob- 
servations at Brest is confirmed, viz. that the height of high water is 
diminished when the barometer is high, and increased when it is 
low. 

The varicus discussions of nineteen years of observations at the 
London Docks, amounting to 13,370, for the purpose of deducing the 
diurnal irregularities, and examining the effects of the moon’s transit 
immediately preceding high water, and those of the two previous days, 
lead to the conclusion, that Bernouilli’s theory of Equilibrium “ satis- 
fies the phenomena nearly, if not quite, within the limits of errors of 
the observations,” and that it leaves very little to be otherwise ac- 
counted for, 

A short statement is made by Professor Powell, of Oxford, on the 
Determination of Refractive Indices for the definite rays in the Solar 
Spectrum, from direct observation. The investigations recommended 
in the third Report of the Association have been commenced by Pro- 
fessor Powell, who continues his observations. 

Dr. Hodgkin reported from the London Physiological Commit- 
tee, that their investigations have not established the views of Lippi, 
respecting the communications of the absorbents with the veins; but 
they do not warrant a rejection of his observations, nor amount to any 
proof that the thoracic duct is the sole medium of communication be- 
tween the lacteals and the veins. Direct communications between 
absorbents and veins have been observed by the reporter: but he is 
disposed to consider these as deviations from the normal structure. 

A short Report on the best methods of ascertaining Subterranean 
Temperatures, and the proper form for Registers of such observations, 
is published by a Committee appointed for the purpose. 

The last Report in the volume is the very profound Examination, by 
Sir William Hamilton, of the Validity of Mr. Jerrard’s proposed me- 
thod of Transforming and Resolving the higher degrees of Equations, 
as contained in his ‘ Mathematical Researches.’ Mr. Jerrard’s method 
may be characterized as consisting in rendering the problem indeter- 


xii SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


minate, and in employing this very property to decompose certain of 
the conditions into others, for the purpose of avoiding that elevation 
of degree, that would otherwise be the consequence of the elimination. 
The ingenuity of the principle, and the talent displayed in the re- 
searches, are freely admitted by Sir William, who contends that the 
process is valid, as a general and unexpected transformation of equa- 
tions of elevated degrees, though it fails as a method of resolving 
them; and who thus sums up the result of his investigations on the 
subject :—‘ This method of decomposition has, however, conducted, in 
the hands of Mr. Jerrard, to transformations of equations, which must 
be considered as discoveries in algebra ; and to the solution of an ex- 
' tensive class of problems in the analysis of indeterminates, which had 
not before been resolved: the notation, also, of symmetric functions, 
which has been employed by that mathematician in his published re- 
searches on these subjects, is one of great beauty and power.” 

On the very valuable matter contained in the proceedings of the 
Sections time will not permit me to enter, and I must refer you to the 
volume just published. 

In conclusion, allow me, in the name of my respected colleagues and 
of our Liverpool associates, to offer a sincere and hearty weleome to 
the distinguished strangers whose presence confers additional interest 
to this meeting ; and secondly, to congratulate the town of Liverpool 
on the exertions it has made, worthily to receive an Association, which, 
aiming at the diffusion of a general taste for scientific investigations, 
and their application to the improvement of society, seems calculated 
to perform an important part in the future destinies of our country— 
which, as co-operating with all other scientific bodies, and the rival of 
none, but including in its lists representatives from each—-which, distin- 
guished by the freedom of its discussions, the liberality of its assistance, 
and the importance of its recommendations, has been happily charac- 
terized, by an eloquent secretary of a former year, as a Fourth Estate 
in the Realm, and may be aptly designated Her Masrsry’s Partta- 
MENT OF SCIENCE. 


it 
| 


COMMUNICATIONS. xii 


Communications to the General Evening Meetings. 


On Monday evening Professor Traill read his Address. 

On Wednesday evening Mr. W. Snow Harris delivered a 
Lecture, illustrated by experiments on a large scale, on the 
application of Lightning Conductors to Ships. : 

On Friday evening Reports were received from the Presi- 
dents of Sections of the communications which had been read 
during the week. 

On Saturday evening, besides the official business, the Pre- 
dent noticed the gift, by Dr. Manni, of Rome, of a Colossal 
Bust of Mzcenas, as a mark of respect for the objects of the 
British Association. This magnificent Bust was forwarded 


for presentation to Dr. Bryce, of Liverpool, who has given 


the following account of the circumstances which render this 
Bust interesting to the public :— 


“ Tt was long a cause of wonder and regret, that no gem, medal, or 
statue of a man so illustrious had ever been discovered. At length, 
the Duke of Orleans, Regent of France, early in the last century, by a 
happy conjecture, fixed on one of the gems in his collection, an ame- 
thyst of small size, marked with the name of the engraver, Dioscorides, 
as being the representation of the head of Mezcenas. Another gem, 
bearing the name of Solon, the engraver, evidently representing the 
same person, was afterwards found in the Farnesian Museum; and a 
third of the same, a sardonyx, also engraved by Solon, has since been 
discovered in the collection of the Prince Ludovisi. The features 
given in these gems agree so well with all that has been handed down 
in the Roman Classics concerning the personal appearance and habits 
of Mzcenas, that the suggestion of the Duke of Orleans has been 
adopted by all subsequent antiquaries. A few years after the recogni- 
tion of the head of Mzcenas on the gems of Dioscorides and Solon, 
both artists coeval with Augustus, an antique fresco painting was dis- 
‘covered in the ruins of the palace of the Czsars on the Palatine Hill 
at Rome. This painting represents Augustus surrounded by his 
courtiers, conferring a crown on the Persian King Phraates, an event 
spoken of by Horace. In the front rank of the courtiers stands one, 


_ evidently the Prime Minister, in the act of speaking, whose features 


strongly resemble those on the gems of Mecenas above described. 
Next to him is Agrippa, who is readily recognized from medals, coins, 


and statues of him. Horace also is found in the group. A copy of 
_ this painting was bought by Dr. Mead, and brought to England by 


him; and an engraving of it may be seen in Turnbull’s Essay on 


Ancient Painting. 


“« This was the extent of antiquarian research and acquisition con- 


el 


xliv SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


cerning Mzecenas during the last half century, when, in the spring of 
1830, a Bust was found in an excavation made by Professor Manni, at 
Carsoli, the ancient Carsuli, about seventy miles from Rome, on the 
Flaminian Way. This place is situated in what is esteemed the most 
beautiful and romantic district of the Roman territory, being near the 
cascades of the Nera, at Terni, and midway between the towns of 
Terni, Todi, and Spoleto. 

“ The Bust was of colossal size, the same as that presented to the 
Association, of pure Parian marble, and perfect in every feature. On 
being cleared of its incrustation, the modelling of the work was seen to 
be of that masculine firmness which characterizes the style of the 
epoch of Augustus, excelling in what is called a broad manner—the 
execution that of a master—with the greatest severity and grandeur ; 
the emaciation by age of the individual represented being faithfully 
preserved. The striking resemblance of the Bust to the gems and 
picture of Mzcenas was at once recognized by the most eminent anti- 
quaries and learned men at Rome. 

“‘ It may be interesting to state, in further confirmation of the high 
value which has been set upon the Bust, in Italy, as also because the 
circumstance enhances the gift of Professor Manni, that it has been 
twice copied by Thorwaldsen. One copy was presented to the Grand 
Duke of Tuscany, and by him placed in the Hall of the Academy of 
Petrarch, at Arezzo, as being the presumed birth-place of Mzecenas ; 
the other to the King of Naples, who caused it to be deposited in the 
Borbonico Museum at Naples.” 


The following is an extract from the letter of Chevalier 
Manni, forwarded with the Bust to Dr. Bryce :— 


« The town of Liverpool shall possess a third copy in marble. You 
will exhibit it at the Meeting of the British Association, and express 
my very great regret, that I shall not be able to be present, as I was 
last year at Bristol. You will say, that the friendly civilities, received 
on that and on other occasions in your country, moved me to offer 
some tribute of my gratitude and of my respect; and to manifest these 
feelings, I am delighted to place in your hands this Bust of Mzcenas.” 


In conformity with the wish of Dr. Manni and a rule of 
the Association, which provides that gifts of this nature to 
Meetings of the Association shall be transferred to some sci- 
entific institution or public body at the place where the Meet- 
ing is held, the Bust of Mecenas will be placed in the Town- 
hall, in Liverpool. 


Sc ee on 


REPORTS. 


ON 


: THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


Report on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed 
at different Points of the Earth's Surface. By Major 
Epwarp Sasine, R.A., F.R.S. 

[With Plates. ] 


Ir has been justly remarked by M. de Humboldt, “ that the 
phenomena of the earth’s magnetism, in its three forms of 
variation, dip, and intensity, have of late years been examined 
with great care, in the most different zones, by the united ef- 
forts of many travellers ; and that there is scarcely any branch 
of the physical knowledge of the earth in which, in so small 
a number of years; so much has been gained towards an ac- 
quaintance with its laws, though not perhaps with its causes.” 
(Ann. der Physik, vol. xv. p. 320.) 

Be it here remarked, that it is to the example and the 
writings of this illustrious philosopher that the accelerated pro- 
gress in this, as in so many other branches of physical science, 
is eminently due. His writings exhibit, in the most pleasing 
manner, the delightful, the never-failing interest which such 
pursuits afford, awaken thereby a taste for them in those who 
were previously unconscious of its existence, and stimulate its 
exercise in all. It is in this respect that M. de Humboldt has 
| been not only a great promoter of science, but a moral be- 
| nefactor to many; for it is the privilege of such pursuits that 
__ tedious hours are little known to the mind that engages in them, 
and the enjoyment which they yield is unimpaired by advancing 

ears*. 
: M. de Humboldt’s remark is particularly true in regard to the 
“Magnetic intensity. At the commencement of the present cen- 


* The surviving friends of the late Major Rennell have, in their recollection 
_ of that true philosopher, when engaged in his latter years in his important work 
on the currents of the Atlantic Ocean, a memorable example of this power of 
physical research, to preserve its interest vivid and unbroken amidst the infirmi- 
_ ties of declining years. 


VOL. vi. 1837. B 


4 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


tury, the bare fact of there being any difference whatsoever in 
the intensity of the magnetic force in different parts of the 
earth was unattested by a single published observation. The 
maps attached to this memoir exhibit the progress which inves- 
tigation has made in the years that have since elapsed. They 
contain 753 distinct determinations, at 670 stations widely dis- 
tributed over the earth’s surface; leaving, it is true, much still 
to be desired ;—but in what has been accomplished, leading 
to conclusions so remarkable, in regard to the phenomena of 
magnetism, on the largest scale presented to us by nature, as 
to stimulate greatly to more extensive research. 

I have sought to embody in this report on the variations of 
the magnetic intensity, all the materials which have been ob- 
tained by the labours of observers of all nations, in all parts of 
the world ;—to present them in the form best fitted to add to 
our knowledge ;—and to call attention to the general conclu- 
sions, to which we are conducted by an attentive consideration 
of the facts of observation, when thus brought together in one 
view. A large portion of these determinations are here pub- 
lished for the first time. The observations of Capt. de Frey- 
cinet, Capt. King, Mr. Douglas, Capt. Fitz Roy, Capt. Ross, 
and Major Estcourt are wholly new, the original observations 
having been recently communicated to me by the respective 
observers, and calculated and arranged by me. Messrs. 
Hansteen and Due’s Siberian observations, and M. Erman’s in 
the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, have been furnished to me by 
the liberality of those gentlemen, calculated as they appear 
here. Of the results previously published, the greater number 
are collected from different foreign works which have little cir- 
culation in this country; and some of these, as well as a part of 
my own observations published in this country several years 
ago, have required additional calculations, for the purpose of 
bringing them into the general comparison. 

I have divided the report into three sections ; the first, con- 
taining a condensed historical notice of each of the several series 
of observations, by which our knowledge of the magnetic in- 
tensity has been progressively advanced; the second, comprising 
the whole of the results, classed according to the values of the 
intensity, and arranged in a tabular form; and the third, con- 
taining asummary of the principal general conclusions in regard 
to the system of terrestrial magnetism, which are deducible 
from the facts thus collected. 

I have endeavoured to confine the historical notices in the 
first section within the narrowest limits compatible with the pri- 
mary object, that of including in each notice all the circum- 


f 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 3 


stances required to be known in order to estimate rightly the 
value of the results. In the case of observations which are 
either wholly or partly new, these particulars are not to be 
found elsewhere; and in the case of those series, the published 
accounts of which are contained in foreign works rarely met 
with in this country, it has appeared desirable,—whilst giving 
every direction which may facilitate a reference to the original 
publication,—to make the account here given complete in all 
particulars essential to a just estimation of the value of the 
results, independently of such reference. The details neces- 


_ sary for this purpose may render this portion of the report 


i ap 


occasionally tedious to the general reader, who will be princi- 


pally interested by that section which contains the general con- 


clusions. 


Section I.—Historicat Notices. 


It is to France we owe the first rightly directed experimental 
inquiry on this subject. The instructions, drawn up by the 
members of the French Academy of Sciences for the expedition 
of La Perouse, contain a recommendation that the time of vibra- 
tion of a dipping needle should be observed at stations widely 
remote, as a test of the equality or difference of the magnetic 
intensity ; suggesting also with a sagacity anticipating the result, 
that such observations should particularly be made at those 
parts of the earth where the dip was greatest and where it 
was least. 

The experiments, whatever their results may have been, which 
in compliance with this recommendation were made in the ex- 
pedition of La Perouse, perished in its general catastrophe ; 
but the instructions survived, and bore fruit in the earliest re- 
corded observations of the variations of the magnetic intensity, 
which are those published by M. de Rossel in the second volume 
of the Voyage de Dentrecasteaux in search of La Perouse. 


Rossel, 1791—1794.—These observations, though made in the 
years above-mentioned, were not published until 1808. They 
were made with a needle vibrated in a dip circle of Le Noir, 
coming to rest disadvantageously soon for the purpose of experi- 


_ ments on the intensity. The needle continued in vibration little 
_ more than three minutes; consequently incidental errors would 
_ bear a very large proportion to the total time of vibration; a 
_ disadvantage which appears to have been in a great degree coun- 
_ teracted by the very great care bestowed on the observation. 


The needle was vibrated at Brest in 1791, before the voyage 
commenced ; and, successively, at Teneriffe; Van Diemen’s Land, 
B2 


4 SEVENTH REPORT—1837- 


in May 1792; at Amboyna, in October of the same year; again at 
Van Diemen’s Land, in February 1793; and at Surabaya in 
Java, in 1794. With this last observation the published results 
terminate; there is no record of the vibrations having been re- 
peated on the return to France, for the purpose of testing the 
constancy of the magnetism of the needle, a step which subse- 
quent experience has shown to be most important. ‘The con- 
nexion of all the foreign stations with Europe is consequently 
imperfect; and the values of the intensity at those stations, re- 
latively to any standard value in Europe, could only be com- 
puted, subject to the uncertainty arising from the possibility 
of a change in the magnetic condition of the needle. The 
conclusion drawn by M. de Rossel, of the increase of the inten- 
sity in receding from the equatorial to the higher latitudes, was, 
however, fully borne out and substantiated, in regard to the 
southern hemisphere, by the observations at Van Diemen’s Land 
in 1792 and 1793, compared with the intermediate vibrations at 
Amboyna. These form a comparison complete in all respects, 
and to the certainty of which nothing is wanting. It is inde- 
pendent of any change the needle may have undergone before 
or afterwards ; the correspondence of the time of vibration at 
Van Diemen’s Land in May 1792 and February 1793, proving 
the needle to have been steady in that interval. ‘The increase 
in the intensity between Amboyna and Van Diemen’s Land was 
in the proportion of 1 to 1°67, a difference far too great to be 
attributed to any supposable errors or accidents of observation. 
It is this determination which unquestionably entitles Admiral 
de Rossel to the distinction which he has always enjoyed, of 
having been the first who ascertained that the magnetic inten- 
sity is different at different positions on the earth’s surface: al- 
though his observations were not published until after those of 
M. de Humboldt in 1798-1803, by which the same fact was 
more largely established. 

As M. de Rossel’s observations have not, I believe, been pub- 
lished in any English work, I have subjoined a table containing 
an abstract of all their essential particulars. 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 5 


Station. Late. Lat.* Long.* Dip. Time of 


Vibration. 
rath SER 20 Sept., 1791) 4824 | 35534 | 7130N| 2-02 
Teneriffe .........+2. 21 Oct, 1791 | 28 28 343 42 | 6225N.| 2:081 
Van Diemen’s Land |11 May, 1792] 433828S.| 14657 | 7050S.| 1-869 
Amboyna ......... --.| 9 Oct., 1792 | 3428.| 12808 | 20878.| 2-403 
Van Diemen’s Land | 7 Feb., 1793 | 48348.) 14657 | 7222S.| 1-850 
Surabaya ....eceeeee 9 May, 1794) 7148.) 11242 | 2520S.| 2-429 


The times of vibration are in infinitely small ares, being reduced by M. 
de Rossel, by means of a table which accompanies the observations in the 
original publication. 


M. de Rossel’s observations at Van Diemen’s Land were 
made at a port on the S.E. part of the island. Capt. Fitz Roy 
has recently determined the value of the intensity at Hobart 
Town, about 40 miles north of M. de Rossel’s station, to be 
1-817, in terms of a comparative scale in general use adopted 
in this Report, of which an explanation will be given in the 
sequel. Suffice it at present to say, that in the same scale the 
force at Paris = 1348, and at London 1°372. Capt. Fitz Roy’s 
observations will be found in their place in the course of this 
Report. If we take his value of the intensity at Hobart Town 
for the force at M. de Rossel’s station, we have 1:097 as the 
force at Amboyna. By means of Capt. Fitz Roy’s observation 
at Van Diemen’s Land, I have been thus enabled to connect 
M. de Rossel’s determination at Amboyna with Europe, and it 
is accordingly entered in the general table. 


Humboldt, 1798-1803.—These observations were made in 
the course of M. de Humboldt’s well-known journey to equi- 
noctial America. Various partial notices of them have appeared 
at different times and in different works, but a complete account, 
communicated by M. de Humboldt himself, may be found in 
the xvth volume of the Annalen der Physik, from which the 
results employed in this memoir are derived. The observations 
were made with a dipping needle of Le Noir, selected by 
M. Borda. It vibrated considerably longer before coming to 
rest than the needle employed by M. de Rossel, so as to allow 
the number of vibrations performed in ten minutes to be taken 
as the measure of the intensity at the different stations. The 
time of vibration at Paris was observed in October 1798. be- 


* All the longitudes in this Report are east of Greenwich, unless otherwise 


‘expressed ; and all the latitudes are north unless they are designated otherwise. 


6 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


fore M. de Humboldt’s departure ; but as the needle was left in 
Mexico, those observations could not be made on the return to 
Europe, by which its magnetic invariability might have been 
assured. ‘lhe circumstances are greatly to be regretted, what- 
ever they may have been, which deprived a suite of observa- 
tions so extensive, and on which so much care and labour had 
been bestowed, of a final confirmation, which can hardly be 
supplied in an equally satisfactory degree by any less direct 
_ evidence. Fortunately, indirect means are not altogether want- 
ing in this case, and we may infer from them that up to the 
beginning of 1800 M. de Humboldt’s needle had undergone no 
change; and that if subsequently to that date it lost magnet- 
ism, the alteration was not considerable. The observations in 
Paris were made in 1798. Between August 1799 and February 
1800, M. de Humboldt made thirteen determinations of the 
intensity on the Spanish main, between the latitudes of 10° and 
11°, and the longitudes of 292} and 2963. The mean of these 
is an intensity of 1:196. In 1822 the value of the intensity at 
Trinidad, in lat. 10° 39! and long. 2984, was determined, by 
observations made by myself (to be discussed hereafter), to be 
1-204. The result of this comparison is extremely satisfac- 
tory; and being derived, on M. de Humboldt’s side, from obser- 
vations with one needle at several stations, and on mine from 
several needles at one station, a fair conclusion may be drawn, 
that in the beginning of 1800 his needle retained its magnet- 
ism unimpaired. In January, 1801, M. de Humboldt’s needle 
gave for the intensity at Havannah 1°359; mine, in 1822, 1-499. 
In this comparison the agreement is less perfect; there is a 
greater difference than is usual between the results of different 
observers at the same station ; and it is such as would be occa- 
sioned by a loss of magnetism in M.de Humboldt’s needle, but 
not to an amount that would impair in a material degree the 
value of his important series. Against any precise inference, 
however, to be drawn from these comparisons, there is, Ist, 
the difference of the dates_at which the respective intensities 
were determined ; 2nd, a small difference in longitude of the 
localities of the first comparison ; and 3rd, those circumstances 
of a local and instrumental nature which must affect every 
such comparison. 

In the account which M. de Humboldt has given of his ob- 
servations there is no mention made of corrections having been 
applied for the arcs of vibration or for the temperature of the 
needle; but in such an extensive series, corrections on these 
accounts are of minor importance. 

The number of Jand-stations at which the intensity was ob- 


a ee oe 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. ré 


served appears to have been 77, all of which are entered in 
the general table in this memoir. 

Besides the land-stations, there are 12 geographicai posi- 
tions, in which M. de Humboldt observed the vibrations of the 
needle on board ship. There are two great and obvious dis- 
advantages in such observations, compared with those on land, 
viz. the motion, and the iron, of the vessel. On the other side 
should be noticed, the space interposed between the instrument 
and the solid materials of the earth’s surface, many of which 
are known to exercise a very considerable disturbing influence 
on the needle. As opinions may, and I believe do, vary in re- 
gard to the degree of relative value to be allowed to observa- 
tions of intensity made at sea and on land, and as it is not a 
point on which, from personal experience, I fee] qualified to 
decide, I have placed the sea-observations in a separate table, 
and subjoin them here. 


Latitude. Longitude. Date. Intensity. 


° 

3s 62 | 34559 | 1799 | 1-315 
37 26 | 345 49 | 1799 | 1-315 
34 30 | 34526 | 1799 | 1-230 
31 46 | 34517 | 1799 | 1-261 
24 53 | 34123 | 1799 | 1-283 
3028.) 279 54 | 1803 | 1-067 
2129 | 33639 | 1799 126181 1956 
19 54 | 33336 | 1799 | 1-251* 

1415 | 31418 | 1799 1-285 | 1.050 
13 02 | 30923 | 1799 | 1-230* 

10 46 | 30127 | 1799 | 1-178" 


11 01 | 297 30 | 1799 L261 } 1220 


The results marked with an asterisk were observed on the 
passage across the Atlantic, between Teneriffe and Trinidad, a 
part of the ocean where no land exists, and where, consequently, 
the results obtained at sea furnish the only attainable evidence. 
On examination, they present differences among themselves 
considerably greater than is usual in land results ; but by com- 
bining them in pairs, as shown in the table, and using the mean 
latitude, longitude, and intensity of each pair, these partial dif- 
ferences greatly disappear. I have entered the mean latitude, 
eppinde. and intensity of these three pairs in the general 
table. 


Humboldt and Gay Lussac, 1805-1806.—These observations 


8 . SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


were made during a tour in France, Switzerland, Italy, and 
Germany, with a needle suspended by fibres of silk, vibrating in 
the plane of the horizon, and measuring the horizontal compo- 
nent of the magnetic intensity. The dip was observed at the 
same time with a dipping-needle of Lenoir (the same that had 
been used in the Voyage de Dentrecasteaux), supplying the 
means of computing the total intensity from its horizontal com- 
ponent. An account of these observations was published by 
M. Gay Lussac in the Ist volume of the Memoires de la Société 
d’ Arcueil, The values of the intensity were given in reference 
to the force at Paris, where the needle was vibrated at the close 
of the series, but not at its commencement. M. Gay Lussae 
infers that no change took place in the magnetism of the needle 
throughout the series, from its having had the same time of vi- 
bration at Milan on two occasions, viz. in going and in return- 
ing, at six months’ interval. As no dates are given, the stations 
at which the strict comparability of the force was thereby en- 
sured can only be conjectured. It is probable that no correc- 
tions were applied either for the arcs or for differences of tem- 
perature, as neither of these circumstances is noted in the 
record. The number of stations of known geographical po- 
sition is 19, 16 of which are inserted in the general table in 
this memoir. The other stations were in the crater, on the side, 
and at the foot of Vesuvius, where the results were considered 
by the observers to be affected, as no doubt they were, by the 
proximity of the lava. 


Sabine, 1818, 1819, 1820.—These observations were made 
in the first and second voyages of northern discovery to Baffin’s 
Bay and the Polar Sea. Aware of the magnetic importance of 
the regions to be explored, and anxious duly to improve such 
opportunities, I sought diligently to provide myself with instru- 
ments adequate to the occasion. Those furnished by Govern- 
ment were by no means so; but it fortunately happened that my 
brother-in-law Mr. Browne possessed and entrusted to me a 
dip circle and needle of very superior character, made by Nairne 
and Blunt, and similar in all respects to the one made under 
Mr. Cavendish’s directions, and described by him in the 66th 
vol. of the Phil. Trans. The needle vibrated about eight mi- 
nutes before coming to rest; and probably, from its age, had 
long acquired the state of steady magnetism which it was proved 
to possess during these voyages, its time of vibration being 
almost identical when observed in London in March, 1818, in 
March, 1819, and in December, 1820*. 


* The observations of March, 1819, and December, 1820, are recorded in 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 9 


~ The observations of the voyage of 1818 were published in 
the Phil. Trans. for 1819; those of the voyage of 1819-20, 
partly in the appendix to the narrative of that voyage, and 
partly in my work entitled Pendulum and other Experiments, 
published in 1825. In these publications the results were 
deduced without any corrections having been made for the 
arc of vibration or the temperature of the needle. On this oc- 
casion I have introduced both these corrections. That for the 
arc has been computed by means of the table published in the 
Voyage de Dentrecasteaux, which I find to reduce the vibrations 
in the different arcs so nearly to an equality as fully to justify 
its employment. The arcs themselves are stated in the printed 
record of the observations. ‘The temperatures on the different 
days of observation are taken from the record of the external 
thermometer in the Meteorological Journal, and the corrections » 
are computed by the usual formula for that purpose, in which 
the coefficient ‘0004 has been determined by experiments with 
the same needle in high and low temperatures. 

In the voyage of 1819-1820 I furnished myself, besides the 
dipping-needle, with three horizontal needles, and an apparatus 
for their vibration. ‘These would have been of great use had it 
been our good fortune to have returned to Europe by the way of 
the Pacific; but the method of deducing the total intensity by 
meansof horizontal needles almost ceases to be available in coun- 


__tries where the dip so nearly approaches 90°, and where small 


incidental errors in the determination of the dip will so greatly 
affect the conclusion as to the force. Accordingly, I have at 
no time brought the observations with the horizontal needles 
in this voyage in comparison with the results given by the dip- 
ping-needle. ‘There is, however, an incidental purpose of some 
value which they may serve, which did not occur to me when 
the record of the observations was printed, and which is worth 
noticing, as it may be useful on similar occasions, should there 
be such. The horizontal vibrations, though inappropriate in 
such circumstances to furnish the total intensities, give as cor- 
rect measures of the relative values of the horizontal component 


the Appendix of the second Polar Expedition. From the circumstance of the 
narrative and appendix of that voyage having been published at an interval of 


_ some months apart, the copy of the narrative which reached M. Hansteen was 


unaccompanied by the appendix, which it seems he has never seen. The abs- 
tract of the results, published in another work from whence he has taken them, 
refers to the full record of the observations in the appendix, and omits their 
dates, and Mr. Hansteen has consequently been at a loss to know whether the 
vibrations were observed both before and after the voyage of 1819—1820. By 
consulting the original account, he will see that this necessary care was not 
omitted, 


10 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


of the force at any two stations, as the vibrations of the dipping- 
needle do of the total force. If, then, T is the time of hori- 
zontal vibration, and D the dip at a primary station, where the 
total force is taken as unity,—and if T’ and D! are the same 
quantities at another station, where I’ is the value of the total 
intensity derived by the vibrations of the dipping-needle,— 
cos D'! = T? .cos D 
i pa 
dip distinct from the ordinary method, and independent of the 
instrumental errors from which it is so difficult to clear the 
dipping-needle, especially one in which the poles are not re- 
versed in every observation. : 
Employing the observations at Melville Island, printed in 
the appendix to the account of that voyage, in this manner, 
we obtain the dip at Melville Island by the three horizontal 
needles as follows, viz. 
Needlebety:p0o% coc B8°4w 
Needle @ipa shies. A 88) 46 
Needle Sivas hes | «88 48 
The direct observation by the dipping-needle was 88° 43/°5. 
The following table exhibits the results of the observations 
of intensity in the two north polar voyages above noticed, cor- 
rected for temperature and arc, and expressed in terms of the 
general scale. 


; and we thus get a determination of the 


Time of Vibration. 


Station Latitude. | Long. | Therm Gidea lta Intensity. 


ee 


London, 1818 ......... age ati 480 | 472-0 

London, 1819 ....... me js 31 |359 52} 48 Fe 473°5 1:372 
London, 1820 ......... 480 472°9 

Shetland, 1818......... 60 09 |3858 48} 44 470 461°7 1-434 
MONPECENcotessaniccstcee 68 22 |306 10} 34 440 432°1 1°643 
Hare Island ............ 70 26 |305 08} 34 443 434°9 1:622 
One sasscdecccessteenss 75 05 |299 37] 33 447°2 | 439-4 1-590 
Ole Ce live cae stectocar sess 75 51 |296 54) 33 443°6 | 435°6 1-618 
MCR settee sates 76 45 |284 00} 33 435°0 | 429-1 1°666 
OM MCE ots conacevacess 76 08 |281 39} 33 436°0 | 430:0 1:659 
Once sate tssc. ccf desk 70 35 {293 05) 33 436:0 | 429-7 1:661 
On Ice, 1819.........00. 64 00 |298 10} 32 437°4 | 435°0 1:621 
Possession Bay .......+. 73 31 |282 38] 40 439°5 |432°9 | 1-637 
Regent’s Inlet ......... 72 45 |270 19} 32 439°0 |428:9 | 1-668 
Byam Martin’s Island.| 75 10 |256 16] 32 442°5 |430°'7 | 1:653 
Melville Island ......... 74 27 |248 18} 20 444°3 | 434°6 1:624 
Winter Harbour ...... 74 47 |249 12) 43 446°2 |4382°6 | 1-638 


Hansteen, 1819-1825.—In 1819 M. Hansteen, having com- 


x 
> 
z 
& 


ae 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 11 


pleted and published his elaborate exposition of the theory of 
the earth’s magnetism, to which he had been conducted by the 
study of the phenomena of the variation and dip as far as they 
were then known, entered into the field of experimental re- 
search, in which he has since rendered such important practical 
services to his favourite science. His exceedingly portable ap- 
paratus for determining the intensity by horizontal needles is too 
well known to need description here; and his good fortune in 
possessing a needle of remarkably steady magnetism, supplied 
by Mr. Dollond, renders little more necessary to be said in re- 
gard to his determinations, than to refer to the publications in 
which they may be found, and to enter them in the general table. 
From 1819 to 1824 his observations were confined to Norway 
and the shores of the Baltic, and were published in the iiird 
vol. of the Ann. der Physik, the intensity stations being 37. In 
1825 he extended them round the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia; 
and the determinations of that year, being 30 in number, were 
published, first, in the ixth vol. of the Ann. der Physik, and, 
secondly, with corrections, in the Astro. Nach., No. 146. 


Lirichsen, 1824; Keilhau and Boeck, 1825-1827; Erman, 
1826.—I have classed these observations together, because 
they were all made, I believe, at the instance and with the ap- 
paratus of M. Hansteen, and were communicated to the public 
through him in the Astro. Nach., No. 146. Captain Erichsen’s 
consist of 3 stations on the shores of the Baltic, and in Ger- 
many; Messrs. Keilhau and Boeck’s of 9 stations in Germany ; 
and M. Erman’s of 2 stations in Germany. They were all 
connected with Paris through Christiania, and are entered in 
the general table. 


Sabine, 1822-1823.—These observations were made during 
two voyages, in which I was furnished by the British Govern- 
ment with a vessel for my conveyance to stations’ at remote 
latitudes from each other, for the purpose of determining the 
_ amount of the ellipticity of the earth by means of the pendu- 

lum. The first voyage was to the equatorial shores of the Afri- - 
- ean and American continents, and the second to the north of 
_ Europe, Greenland, and Spitzbergen. For these voyages I sup- 
_ plied myself with as many as six horizontal needles, in anti- 
_ cipation that some amongst them might prove unsteady in their 
_ magnetism. The observations with all the needles, and at all 
_the stations visited, were published in 1825, with the account of 
the pendulum experiments. 

One of the needles, No. 2, lost so much of its magnetism.in 


jg SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


the first voyage that it was not used in the second. Another, 
No. 1, appears to have been subject to fluctuations in its 
magnetic condition, rather than to have undergone permanent 
or uniform gain or loss. M. Hansteen, who has discussed 
these observations at some length in the ixth volume of 
the Annalen der Physik, has rejected the results with these 
two needles whenever they differed considerably from those 
of the other four; but has retained and allowed weight 
in the general mean to such of their results as appeared 
to agree with the other needles. Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6 showed 
.on their return to England small and comparatively unim- 
portant differences from their times of vibration previous to 
their departure. M. Hansteen has applied corrections on this 
account to the intervening observations, according to their 
dates. One of my stations having been Drontheim in Norway, 
which was visited by M. Hansteen himself for the same purpose 
in 1825, two years after I had been there, it became a station 
common to our respective series ; and he was thereby enabled 
to compute the values of the intensity at all the stations visited 
by me, relatively to the force at Drontheim, which he had 
already compared with Paris by observations at Drontheim 
and Christiania, and at Christiania and Paris. The values so 
computed and published by M. Hansteen in the volume of the 
Ann, der Physik referred to, are here subjoined, for the pur- 
pose of exhibiting them in comparison with my own deduc- 
tions. The latter are made from the observations with Nos. 3, 
4, 5, and 6 alone, those of Nos. 1 and 2 being put wholly 
aside. The times of vibration of each needle at the different 
stations, as originally published in 1825, have received three 
corrections: one, when necessary, for change of magnetism, 
assigned on the principle of uniform gain or loss; a second, 
to diminish the observed times of vibration to the correspond- 
ing times in infinitely small arcs; and a third for reduction to 
a standard temperature of the needle, the coefficients for 
the formula having been determined experimentally for each 
needle. The values of the intensity in my deductions are given 
relatively to the force in Paris, by my own comparison of the 
force in London and in Paris, which will be noticed hereafter. 
There are, therefore, several particulars in which M. Han- 
steen’s mode of deduction and mine differ; but it is interesting 
to perceive how nearly the results agree. The values calculated 
by M. Hansteen are almost everywhere slightly in defect of those 
computed by me. ‘This arises from the force at Drontheim be- 
ing somewhat less by M. Hansteen’s observations than by mine; 


and as he has compared the intensity at all my stations with that. 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 18 


at Paris through the observations at Drontheim, the original 
difference between us at Drontheim pervades the whole series. 


Place. Hansteen. | Sabine. Place, Hansteen. | Sabine. 
PIRATE eke. 0°894 |0°898 || Madeira ......... 1382 |1:373 
Ascension ...... 0:900 |0:920 || Jamaica ......... 1-414 | 1:486 
St. Thomas ...... 0-921 |0-931 || Drontheim ...... 1-430 | 1-442 
Maranham ...... 1:006 |1:016 || Grand Cayman. | 1-480 | 1-454 
Sierra Leone ... | 1:°048 | 1-053 || Havanna..... wee. | 1°493 | 1499 
Gambia River... | 1:129 |1:141 || Hammerfest ... | 1-493 | 1-506 
Port Praya ...... 1-184 |1:193 || Greenland ...... 1:512 | 1:5380 
SEPIA. asec. 1183 | 1:204 || Spitzbergen...... 1531 | 1:562 
Teneriffe ......... 1-300 |1°313 || New York ...... 1:794 | 18038 


In the deductions contained in this table (both in M. Hans- 
teen’s and mine) the dips employed are those which M. Hans- 
teen has calculated from my published observations. The 
differ occasionally a minute or two from my calculated results, 
but in no instance does the difference amount to 3’. 


Liitke, 1826-1829.—These observations were made by 
Captain (since Admiral) Liitke, of the Russian Imperial Navy, 
in a voyage of circumnavigation in H.I.M. ship Siniavin. At the 
request of Capt. Liitke, M. Lenz, of the Imperial Academy of 
Sciences at St. Petersburg, undertook to arrange them for 
publication, and they have since been published in the German 
language in the Memoirs of the Imp. Acad. of Sciences for 1835. 
I was indebted to the friendship of Capt. Liitke for an early 
knowledge of these observations, having received a copy of them 
in a letter from Norfolk Sound in July 1827; but the present 
hotice, as well as the results entered in the table, are taken 
from the published account. 

M. Lenz’s memoir is divided into two sections,—on the ob- 
servations of Dip,—and on those of Intensity. Our present 
purpose is with the latter section. 

-_ The observations of intensity were made with one dipping and 
five horizontal needles. The dipping-needle was 33 inches in 
length, with a steel axle, and was reserved exclusively for mea- 
_ suring the intensity by its vibrations, as there were two other 
_ dipping-needles for observations of the dip. The horizontal 
_ needles were of various shapes, cylindrical, rhomboidal, and 
elliptical, but all of the same length, i.e. two English inches. 
They were obtained in England when the Siniavin was on her 
outward passage. The apparatus in which they were to have 


Be ce en 


i? 


14 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


been used was unfortunately broken in pieces in the carriage 
from London to Portsmouth by mail. It had been Capt. Liitke’s 
intention to have vibrated the needles at Portsmouth before his 
departure, and again at the same spot on his return from the 
Pacific; so that all the observations of his voyage with each 
needle might have been comparable with its rate at Portsmouth. 
The accident which prevented the execution of this purpose, 
and rendered the series of observations much less complete than 
it would otherwise have been, is much complained of both by 
Capt. Liitke and M. Lenz. In consequence of this accident, it 
was not until the arrival of the Siniavin at Kamtschatka that 
the needles could be vibrated at a station to which they were 
subsequently brought back ; and out of 52 stations, there are 
only 18 which were observed at during an interval in which 
anything is known by observation of the steadiness of the mag- 
netism of the needles. They were vibrated at three different 
dates at the harbour of St. Peter and St. Paul, viz.on Septem- 
ber 30, 1827, June 6, 1828,and October 9, 1828. Their changes 
of rate in the intervals were small, but not proportionate. 
Corrections are computed and applied at all the intermediate 
stations in the usual manner. M. Lenz has employed the rate 
of change of each needle, deduced from the first and second 
times of vibration at St. Peter and St. Paul, to furnish correc- 
tions for the stations observed at antecedently to Capt. Liitke’s 
first arrival at Kamtschatka; of these the land stations are 
Rio de Janeiro, Concepcion, Valparaiso, Sitka and Unalaska. 
For a single station (Manilla) observed at subsequently to the 
final departure from Kamtschatka, M. Lenz has used the rate 
of correction deduced from the second and third times of vibra- 
tion there. 

The times of vibration were derived on all occasions from the 
mean of 250 consecutive vibrations, commencing with an arc 
of 30° and ending usually about 10°. M. Lenz has not consi- 
dered it necessary to apply a correction for the ares. The value 
of the correction to a mean temperature was determined for 
each needle by observations made at St. Petersburg at the con- 
clusion of the voyage. For four of the five needles the correc- 
tion was as usual additive to the time for temperatures below 
the standard, and subtractive for those above it; but one 
needle, rhomboidal in shape, exhibited the anomaly of a de- 
crease of force in the colder temperatures, fully as great as the 
increase shown by any of the others. The observations appear 
to have been very carefully made,—were repeated four times,— 
and include a difference of temperature of 20° Reaumur. A 
similar anomaly has been noticed, if I remember rightly, by M. 


a ee ee Pe 


e Ago 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 15 


Kupffer, as having occurred in his experience, and I have my- 
self met with an instance of the same kind. M. Lenz has em- . 
ployed no correction for this needle; and the vibrations of the 
vertical needle appear also to have been uncorrected for tem- 
perature. 

The harbour of St. Peter and St. Paul is the fundamental 
station of Capt. Liitke’s determinations. ‘The value of the in- 
tensity there, 1-447 to 1°348 at Paris, is stated by M. Lenz to 
be taken on the authority of M. Hansteen. 

Capt. Liitke used both his dip and intensity needles at sea in 
favourable weather, placing the instruments on a board sus- 
pended in gimbals above the companion. His sea observations 
appear to be viewed by M. Lenz as not entitled to equal weight 
with those at the land stations, but as valuable additions. Of. 
51 intensity results, 16 are at land stations, and are entered in 
the general table; and I subjoin, as in the case of M. de Hum- 
boldt’s, a separate table of the 35 results obtained at sea. 


Lat. Long. Date. Intensity. Lat. Long. Date. Intensity. 
Souru. 1827. NorTH. 1827. 


/ 
29 10 | 313 35 |16 Jan. | (a) 0-924*|| 0 35 | 232 56 | 8 May | (2) 1.013 
40 55 | 307 0 |25Jan. | (a)1-110 || 2 24 | 232 08 | 9 May | (0) 1-019* 
49 18 | 302 48 |31 Jan. | (a) 1:268 || 13 13 | 227 0/19 May | (8) 1-112* 
53 16 | 301 37| 3 Feb. | (6) 1:320*|| 23 26 | 218 02 | 25 May | (6) 1-212* 
55 25 | 298 27| 8 Feb. | (b) 1:413 || 25 21 | 213 56 | 30 May | (2) 1:376* 
4100 | 282 30 | 1 March] (6) 1:324 || 40 28 | 213 35] 1 June | (0) 1-456 
29 38 | 278 26 |11 April | (c) 1°153*|| 44 54 | 214 50| 3 June | (d) 1:573* 
21 51 | 268 05 |18 April | (c) 1°046*|| 48 44 | 216 37| 6 June | (d) 1-653 
13 09 | 251 20 |27 April | (c) 1:014 |] 52 29 | 219 08.| 9 June | (b) 1-662* 
9 38 | 243 25 |30 April | (c) 1°141*|| 45 27 | 159 02 | 23 Oct. | (b) 1-303 
6 01 | 240 08 | 2 May | (4) 1:005*|| 39 07 | 159 03 | 26 Oct. | (4) 1-186 
420 | 238 13 | 3 May | () 0-998 || 32 59 | 161 49| 1 Nov. | (d) 1-113* 
229 | 236 26 | 4 May | (a) 1:000*|| 18 44 | 163 55 | 13 Nov. | (8) 0-989 
202 | 236 04| 4 May | (»)0-996*|| 11 27 | 161 52 |18 Nov. | (5) 0-970 
115 | 225 30] 5 May | (c)0-989*|| 417 | 162 54 |23 Dec. | (a) 1-001 
110 | 234 31 | 6 May | (8) 0-995*|| 347 | 162 59 |23 Dec. | (a) 1-010 
0 56 | 233 17 | 7 May | (c) 0:990*| 2 56 | 162 50 |24 Dec. | (a) 1-018 


> 
on 
o 
_ 
or 
Co 
So 
bo 
-~T 
os 
-} 

= 


(a) 0 990 


__ The results with an asterisk are so marked in M. Lenz’s memoir to signify 
observations made under less favourable circumstances than the others. The 
sixteen which are not so marked are entered in the general table. 

(a) designates results obtained by means of the horizontal needles; (6) those 
b > ia of the dipping-needle ; and (c) results which are a mean of both me- 
thods. 


King, 1826-1830.—These observations were made during 


16 SEVENTH REPORT—-1837. 


a survey of the coast of South America from Rio de Janeiro to 
Valparaiso, carried on under the orders of the British Govern- 
ment by Capt. Philip Parker King of the Royal Navy. They 
were undertaken at the request of M. Hansteen, and with an 
apparatus for horizontal vibration with which Capt. King was 
furnished by him. A copy of the observations was transmitted 
from time to time, as they were made, to M. Hansteen, who em- 
ployed the results, computed provisionally, in his map of the 
intensity, published in the Annalen der Physik, vol. xxviii. 
The observations themselves have not yet been published, 
having been given by Capt. King to his successor in the survey, 
Capt. Fitz Roy, to be published when the latter should return 
to England. On his return, which took place late in 1836, 
Capt. Fitz Roy placed Capt. King’s magnetic observations in my 
hands (together with his own, of which a separate notice will be 
given in the sequel,) to calculate and arrange for publication 
in an account which he is now preparing for the press, of the ~ 
proceedings of Capt. King and himself during the survey. 
Meantime I have Capt. Fitz Roy’s permission to introduce Capt. 
King’s results into this memoir. 

The needle with which M. Hansteen supplied Capt. King sus- 
tained a very considerable loss of magnetism during the four 
years it was employed by that officer. Its time of vibration in- 
creased between March 22, 1826, and January 24, 1831, (on 
which days it was tried in the garden of the Royal Observatory 
at Greenwich,) from 734°5 seconds in 1826, to 775°8 seconds in 
1831. A change of such magnitude in the magnetic intensity 
of the instrument employed to measure the variations of the 
terrestrial intensity, and which ought itself, therefore, to be in- 
variable, would, in ordinary circumstances, have prevented any 
satisfactory conclusion whatsoever being drawn from the obser- 
vations. Fortunately, from the nature of the duties in which 
Capt. King was engaged, he had occasion to return frequently 
to the same anchorages; and as he was extremely careful to 
re-examine the needle on every such return, we have the means 
of knowing by direct observation the amount of the loss it 
sustained in certain portions of the time of its employment. 
There are eleven stations at which the force was observed 
on the east and west coasts of South America, and two in ports 
of the Atlantic on the outward voyage. By the practice re- 
ferred to, of repeating observations at the same station at di- 
stant intervals, the South American stations are so linked toge- 
ther and connected, that by adopting a method similar to that 
used in determining chronometrical differences of longitude, we 
may compute and assign the intensity at each, in reference to 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 17 


one selected, and regarded in the same light as a first meri- 
dian. In justice to these valuable observations, and in consi- 
deration of the great change undergone by the needle, it may 
be desirable briefly to describe the manner in which this has 
been done. 

At Rio de Janeiro, which was the first station observed at in 
South America, the needle was vibrated in August 1826, Sep- 
tember 1827, and December 1828; in the intervals between 
these dates are comprised the principal part of the observations 
on the east side of South America. There is no direct obser- 
vation at Rio subsequently to December 1828, but we are able 
to supply the time of vibration at a fourth date in the following 
manner. The intensity at Rio and at Monte Video having been 
correctly compared by a double comparison in 1827 and 1828, 
the needle was vibrated at Monte Video on the Ist of June, 
1830, immediately before Capt. King’s departure for England, 
and we thus obtain by an easy calculation the time of vibration 
at Rio corresponding to the same date. The intervals between 
these four dates include the whole of the South American sta- 
tions ; and we have only to distribute in each interval the loss of 
magnetism which the observations show to have taken place 
from one date to the next, in the manner which may appear 
most suitable. There is no very obvious indication that, the, 
loss was other than gradual; and by considering it uniform in 
each separate interval, the results are found extremely ac- 
cordant at several other stations at which observations were re- 
peated at distant intervals. The subjoined tables will enable 
the reader to judge of this for himself. In the first table are 
shown the times of vibration at Rio, corresponding to the four 
dates: Ist, the observed times of horizontal vibration reduced 
to infinitely small arcs and to a temperature of 60°; and 2nd, 
the corresponding times as a dipping-needle. The value of 
the correction for temperature has been determined for this 
needle by observations which I have recently made with it for 
that purpose, the particulars of which will be given in the 
more detailed statement in Capt. Fitz Roy’s publication. In 
the three last columns are shown,—the number of days com- 
prised in each interval,—the increase in the time of vibration 
owing to loss of magnetism in the needle,—and the resulting 
daily correction on the supposition of the loss in each interval 
being uniform. 

_The second table contains the corrected times of horizontal 
vibration at each of the South American stations at the dates 
respectively inserted ;—the dips observed by Capt. King ;—the 
time of vibration as a dipping-needle at Rio at the same dates, 

VOL. VI. 1837. Cc 


18 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


derived from the observations in the first table ;—and the result- 
ing intensity at the station relatively to Rio. The contents of 
the tables thus far are the results of Capt. King’s observations, 
unmixed with those of any other observer. We have now 
to express his results in terms of the general scale of compari- 
son, and this is done in the final column, by taking the value 
of the intensity at Rio at 0°884, which is the mean of four inde- 
pendent determinations by the following observers, viz. : 
1817 and 1820 Freycinet . . . 0°890 
1827... 6s. Litke seis 0°886 
TE6B0 6 cs Erman .... 0:879 
1836 oa a Fitz Roy ... 0°878 
I have included in table II. Madeira and Port Praya, at which 
Capt. King observed in his outward passage. The dates of 
these fall between the observations at Greenwich in March, 
1826, (corrected time = 734-0 and dip 69° 52',) and those at 
Rio in August, 1826. Having the intensity at Greenwich 
= 1°372 and at Rio = 0°884, we have the time of vibration 
as a dipping-needle at Rio at the respective dates as follows: 
March, 1826 ...... 536°2 
August, 1826 ..... 537-0 
It appears, therefore, that only a very slight change took 
_place in the magnetism of the needle during the outward voy- 
age, and we may take 536°6 as the time of vibration at Rio, 
corresponding to the dates of the observations at Madeira and 
Port Praya. I have assumed the dip and force at Greenwich 
to be the same as at London. The dip at Madeira was not ob- 
served by Capt. King, but has been supplied from my own ob- 
servations in 1822, which were made in the same locality, 
namely, the Consul’s garden in Funchal, where Capt. King’s 
needle was vibrated. I have deducted 12' from my determina- 
tion of the dip at Madeira for the probable change between 
1822 and 1826. 


Taste I. 
Time of Vibration. 
Rio de Janeiro 3 
; 7 is Int 1, Loss. Per diem, 
wg Bg i Horizontal. As pe care rn brs 
Ss. s. Days. Ss. 
August 29, 1826...| 545°2 537°0 
i 382 | 65 017 
September 15, 1827 5518 543°5 
} 462 | 92 020 
December 21, 1828 561-1 552-7 
i 507 | 27 005 
June 1, 1830 ...... 5638 555-4 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 


TaBueE II. 


19 


Station, Date. 
Madeira............ 1826, May 31............ 
Port Praya ...... 1826, June 22 & 24...... 
St. Catherine...... 1827, Nov. 3 .......c000 
Gorriti ...........,{1826, Oct. 29 & Nov. 6 
Se ots vax backs 1829, Jan. 10 

| Monte Video...... 1827, Dec. 18 
Beare? anise. ca skseces 1828, Oct. 8 ... 


Time of hori- 
zontal vibra- 
tion. 


Observed dip. 


..|576-37| 53 13°5 


584-29) 59 43°8 


598-97 


eee ceceessccess 


..| 555°59) 45 10-0 


anne eer eccccees 1830, June 1 
Sea-bear Bay ...|1829, March 20 
St. Martin’s Covel1827, Jan. 15 & 22...... 
$d ceceseceeenes 1827, March 27 ......... 
Port Famine...... 1828, Jan. 28 .......0.065 
$= derevcceseeeees 1828, May 8 ............ 
ia cesansorces 1828, June 18 & July 20 
hence ce eceeeee 1830, April 26 ......... 
Chiloe ....... .....{1829, Sept. 1 & Dec. 15 
Juan Fernandez .|1830, Feb. 19............ 
Talcuhuano ...... 1829, Dec. 28... 

BER Soteee 1830, May 12............ 
Valparaiso......... 1829, Aug. 4 ..........0. 
Es de swessvevecces 1830, Jan.11 & Feb. 1. 


565-23) 49 52-6 
551-83) 44 49-8 


557:18 


5516 


Coe eeeeeraseces 


at Rio. 


Time asa 
dipping needle 


Intensity, 
Rio | Rio. 
=1°000. | =0°884. 
1556 | 1:377 
1330 |1:177 
1:045 | 0-920 

1:172 j 

1 ot oe 
} 1:065 

1538 | 1-361 

1-691 i 

ie aR 1-498 

1-712 

1-683 FY 5 

1-694 1-505 

1-712 

1-402 | 1321 

1-425 | 1-262 

1-413 A 

i hav 1-250 

1-334 aa 

13 at 1176 


Sabine, 1827.—These observations were made for the pur- 
pose of determining the ratio of the intensity in Paris and 
London, in order to connect and unite in one system, the re- 
sults of the different observers who had made Paris and Lon- 
don respectively the base stations of their series. 

All values of the intensity hitherto determined are relative 
values ; that is to say, each observer has taken some one sta- 
tion as the fundamental one of his series, and has expressed 
the values of the intensity at all his other stations, compara- 


tively with the force at his fundamental station. 


Unless, there- 


fore, two such series have one station common to both, or un- 
less the force at their respective fundamental stations has been 
otherwise compared, they do not form parts of one system, 


and the results of the one series cannot be bro 


_ nexion with those of the other. 


ught into con- 


_ The continental observers in general have taken Paris, either 
_ mediately or immediately, as their fundamental station ; and the 
_ English observers have as generally taken London ; the present 
_ observations were designed, therefore, as a link to connect their 
_ Tespective series into one system. 


Cc 


2 


20 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Six horizontal needles were employed for this purpose, and 
a number of observations were made with them at different 
dates at both places; the details are published in the Phil. 
Trans. for 1827. From these it appears that, if the horizontal 
intensity in London be designated as unity, the several needles 
gave its value in Paris as follows, viz. : 


Needle IV. = 1-0732 Needle XI. = 1:0723 
4 VIII. = 1:0675 Al oreo 
» =X. = 10726 of Bos 1 Onis 


Mean 1:0714. 

The observations were corrected for a small excess of tem- 
perature in the experiments at Paris over those in London, 
being, I believe, the first time in which a correction for dif- 
ference of temperature was introduced into any published re- 
sults of the variations of intensity at different stations. The 
places of observation were the magnetic cabinet of M. Arago at 
Paris, and the garden of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick, 
near London. 

In order to deduce the relative values of the total intensity 
from their observed horizontal components, we require the 
dip at the two stations as accurately as it can be inferred from 
nearly cotemporaneous observations. In August, 1828, the dip 
in the garden at Chiswick was observed by Mr. Douglas and 
myself, 69° 46°9. Phil. Trans., 1829. Ina paper of M. Han- 
steen’s, in the dnnalen der Physik, vol. xxi. p. 414, we find 
recorded the following observations at Paris, a part of which 
fall on either side of the London observation of August, 1828, 
Viz. : : 

PROS Arne WY) obs Se ETO 68 00 

1826 Humboldt and Mathieu YP OGT gore 
1827 Humboldt and Mathieu .. 67 58:0 
Daa ragorts she Pee . 67 41:3 

The months in which the observations were made are not 
named by M. Hansteen, but M. de Humboldt in a paper in the 
xvth vol. of the dann. der Physik mentions that those of 1825 
and 1826 were made in August and September, and I have 
taken those of 1827 and 1828 as corresponding to the same 
months. Allowing then an annual decrease of dip of 28 (dun. 


der Physik, vol. xxi. p. 419) we obtain the dip in Paris in Au- _ 


gust, 1828, as follows: Sei 
Uo Fal YOY Ae ea ie 67 51°6 
1826 Humboldt and Mathieu 67 50:9 
1827 Humboldt and Mathieu 67 55:2 
PSdO rapa eee ee es 67 46°9 


67 51-15 


I have therefore taken 67° 51':2 as the most satisfactory co- — 


tnt Rear s ay ta aeolian alata 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 21° 


temporaneous result that I can obtain for Paris, all the obser- 
vations being made in M. Arago’s magnetic cabinet. It appears 
therefore, that about the period in question, the dip in London 
exceeded that in Paris by 115'"7; preserving this difference in 
- the dips at the two stations when reduced to the period of the 
horizontal observations in 1827, and combining them with the 
observed horizontal intensities, we obtain 1°018 as the value of 
the total force in London to unity in Paris. 

Such being the case, if any other number than unity be 
taken for the measure of the force in Paris, the correspond- 
ing value in London will be the product of that number multi- 
plied by 1:018. By the observations of M. de Humboldt al- 
ready described, the intensity at Paris to that of a place in 
Peru, where the needle had no dip, was found to be as 1°3482 
to 1000. As at that period it was supposed that an equal in- 
tensity, being the minimum on the surface of the globe, pre- 
vailed at all places where the needle had no dip, the station 
at which M. de Humboldt had observed in Peru appeared the 
proper unity of the system of intensities. Subsequent ex- 
perience, however, has shown that the intensity lines follow a 
very different course from the dip lines; and in retaining the 
expression of unity for the force observed by M. de Humboldt 
in Peru, we are necessitated to employ terms less than unity 
to express the force in many other of the inter-tropical parts 
of the globe, and even in one quarter beyond the tropic. The 
scale is therefore purely arbitrary; but it is in general. use, 
and will probably continue to be employed till experiments 
(perhaps those of M. Gauss) shall have determined an abso- 
lute value for the magnetic intensity at some one station; when 
all the relative intensities may be converted into the corre- 
sponding absolute intensities. Suchis the origin of the num- 
ber 1°3482 employed by observers generally as expressing the 
force at Paris. In assuming a constant expression for the force 
at any station on the globe for any considerable number of 
years, we are of course subject to error resulting from the 
secular change in the intensity ; of the amount of which we have 
as yet no definite knowledge. 

The force in London relatively to the above value of the 
force at Paris is 1:3482 x 1:018 = 1°372. 


In the spring of 1828 two of the needles used in this com- 
parison were interchanged between M. Hansteen and myself, 
for the purpose of determining in a similar manner the ratio 
of the horizontal intensity at London and Christiania. The 
observations are detailed in the Journal of the Royal Institu- 


22 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


tion for 1830, p. 29. They gave the following results for the 
horizontal intensity at Christiania to unity in London: 
Needle IV Comparison in March . . 0°9124 
‘Comparison in May ... 0°9157 
VIII Comparison in March .. 0°9157 
‘Comparison in May... 0°9160 


33 


Mean... 09147 

We have seen that the observations in Paris and London 
gave |:0714 for the horizontal intensity at Paris, also to unity 
in London; consequently Christiania to Paris is as 09147 to 
10714, or as 0°8537 to 1. _In the spring of 1828 M. Hansteen 
observed the dip at Christiania 72° 16'2; at Paris at the same 
time, or about four months before August 1828, we may con- 
sider it to have been 67° 525. The total intensity at Christi- 
ania derived from this comparison is therefore 1:425, The 
result of a direct comparison between Paris and Christiania 
made by M. Hansteen in 1825 is 1°419. 

All the values of the intensity inserted in this memoir were 
originally observed in reference to one of these three stations, 
Paris, Christiania, or London, mediately or immediately, They 
have been united by means of the comparisons above noticed, 
viz., those of Paris and London, and of Paris and Christiania ; 
and they now form one connected series. 


Keilhau, 1827.—These observations were made in a voyage 
to Finmarken and Spitzbergen, in which M. Keilhau was fur- 
nished with an horizontal apparatus of M. Hansteen’s, and a 
5-inch dip circle and two needles made by Dollond. The 
observations were communicated to M. Hansteen, and the re- 
sults were published by him in the xivth vol. of the Annalen 
der Physik, from whence I have taken them. 

There may be remarked in these resuits greater differences 
of intensity between stations near to each other than are 
usually met with. From the geological character of the coun- 
tries, it is probable that a portion of these may be due to local 
circumstances; but it is also probable that a considerable por- 
tion of them may be attributed to the inadequacy of the dip- 
ping-needle with which M: Keilhau*was furnished, to give re- 
sults sufficiently exact for the computation of intensities, ina 
part of the globe where a small error in the dip will occasion 
a very considerable one in the deduced intensity. His two 
dipping-needles frequently gave results at the same station ~ 
differing from twenty to thirty minutes from each other. 

There are 20 stations determined by M. Keilhau in Norway, 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 23 


Finmarken, and Spitzbergen, all which are inserted in the ge- 
neral table. 


Hansteen and Due, Erman, 1828-1830.—In 1819 M. Hans- 
teen published his celebrated work on the magnetism of the 
earth, in which he brought into one view a larger body of 
observations of the dip and variation than had been brought 
together by any previous philosopher ; and by subjecting them 
to a close examination, drew this remarkable inference in re- 
gard to the intensity; namely, that a centre, or pole as it 
might be termed, of magnetic intensity must exist in the north 
of Siberia, less powerful, but otherwise similar to the one in 
the north of America; and that the lines of equal intensity 
would be found to arrange themselves around the Siberian 
centre in the same way as around the centre of greater force in 
America. At the time M. Hansteen drew this inference not a 
single observation of the intensity had been made nearer to 
Siberia than Berlin on the one side and Mexico on the other. 

M. Hansteen’s work, much more read on the Continent than 
in England, produced a very general desire that an inference 
so remarkable, and so important if confirmed, should be sub- 
mitted to the test of experiment, This, however, exceeded in- 
dividual means to accomplish; it was one of those underta- 
kings in science for which national aid is required. To the 
honour of Norway, the funds for this undertaking were fur- 
nished by a unanimous vote of the Norwegian Storthing or 
Parliament. In 1828 M. Hansteen, accompanied by Lieut. 
Due, proceeded at his country’s expense, and with every faci- 
lity which could be afforded him by the Russian Government, 
on a journey expressly for magnetic observations through the 
Russian dominions in the north of Europe and Asia, They 
were provided with a dip circle and two needles of Gambey’s, 
and with M. Hansteen’s apparatus for horizontal vibrations. 
At St. Petersburg they were joined by M. Erman of Berlin, 
proceeding on a similar mission to the same countries, and 
similarly furnished with magnetic instruments. The three 
gentlemen travelled together to Siberia, MM. Hansteen and 
_ Due on the one part, and M. Erman on the other, making the 
same observations everywhere, but independently of each other. 
They wintered at Irkutsk ; and the following year MM. Hans- 
teen and Due returned to St. Petersburg by land route, and 
M. Erman proceeded by Ochozk to Kamtschatka, where he 
embarked for Europe. The maps attached to this memoir 
mark by the observations entered on them their various jour- 
neys, separately and together, in northern Asia. Suffice it 


24 . SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


here to say, that, they traversed the whole of the north of 
Europe and of Asia longitudinally, and descended the rivers 
Oby and Jenesei to the polar circle, with a view of determining 
the latitude and longitude of the Siberian pole or centre 
of magnetic intensity; and that its general phenomena were 
found to correspond in a very remarkable degree with M. 
Hansteen’s anticipations, its locality being removed but a few 
degrees (about 6°) to the eastward of the position he had pre- 
viously assigned to it. 

Soon after M. Hansteen’s return, he published a general 
map of the magnetic intensity, in the xxvilith vol. of the An- 
nalen der Physik. Y am not aware that he has as yet pub- 
lished any detailed statement of the results of his journey. The 
stations inserted in the table in this memoir are from a MS. co 
of his and Lieut. Due’s observations, which, with the liberality 
that has hitherto characterised the labours of those engaged in 
this interesting inquiry, and which I trust may long continue to 
do so, he sent me from Irkutsk in 1829, with permission to make 
“‘ every use of it that I might think proper, especially when it 
can encourage to new undertakings, and accordingly forward 
the science.” 

M. Hansteen’s determinations of intensity have a very great 
advantage in the perfect invariability of the needle he em- 
ployed. For sixteen years in which it was in constant use no 
sensible alteration took place in its magnetism. This is an ad- 
vantage which only those can duly appreciate who have been 
much engaged in making or in computing observations of this 
nature. The correction for temperature also, which he deter- 
mined experimentally in the usual manner, has received the 
fullest practical confirmation, by the exact agreement, when 
corrected by it, of observations at the same place in tempera- 
tures differing nearly 90° of Fahrenheit. 

M. Erman’s intensity observations are not yet published ; 
they are to form a part of the second volume of the scientific 
portion of his journey, the first volume of which was published 
at Berlin in 1835. He has, however, communicated their re- 
sults, provisionally computed, with corrections applied for tem- 
perature and arc, in the xviith vol. of the Annalen der Physik, 
from whence I have extracted them. 

The number of stations entered in the table are, 80 observed 
by MM. Hansteen and Due, and 98 by M. Erman.. These are 
all in the north of Europe and Asia, and 46 are common to 
M. Erman and MM. Hansteen and Due. There are besides 
four land determinations of M. Erman’s on his homeward voy- 
age, viz., Sitka, St. Francisco in California, Otaheite, and Rio 


ee eke ee ee ad er 


Hi 
Ly 
; 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 25 


de Janeiro. He made also a very extensive series of intensity 
observations on board ship in his passage from Kamtschatka 
to Europe. Of these he has not yet communicated the nume- 
rical results. He observed the vibrations of a dipping-needle 
placed on an apparatus contrived to guard against the ship’s 
motion, which is understood to have been very successful*. 


Kupffer, 1829.—These observations were made in a scien- 
tific journey to the Caucasus, undertaken by the order of the 
Emperor of Russia. M. Kupffer was furnished with two 
- horizontal needles, one of which he received from M. Hans- 

teen, and the other from myself through M. de Humboldt. 
He employed them, between May and August, 1829, at St. 
Petersburg, Moscow, Stavropol, two stations in the Caucasus, 
Taganrog, and Nicolaieff; and on his return to St. Petersburg, 
presented to the Imperial Academy of Sciences a report on 
the general results of his journey, in which the times of 
vibration of the needles are specified, together with the tem- 
peratures and the observed dips; but the conclusions, in 
regard to the relative intensity at the different stations, were 
deferred, until the corrections for temperature for the two 
needles could be experimentally investigated. I am indebted 
_to M. Kupffer for a printed copy of this report, and I have 


* Since this report passed from my hands into those of the Assistant-general 
Secretary, I have been favoured by M. Erman with a complete copy of his ob- 
servations, including those made at sea. On hearing from M. de Humboldt 
that I was engaged in drawing up this report, M. Erman, with great liberality 
and most obligingly, sent me a copy in manuscript of the whole of his results 
provisionally computed. I have thus been enabled to add five or six stations 
between Ochozk and the harbour of St. Peter and St. Paul with which I was 
previously unacquainted, and 167 observations made on his voyage from Kamt- 
schatka to Europe. I consider these last observations particularly valuable, in 
the evidence they afford, that determinations of the intensity can be made at 
sea with an accuracy but little inferior to those on land. With the exception 

of a few in the very early part of the voyage, which appear from some cause to 
give somewhat lower intensities than accord with M. Erman’s own observations 
at Sitka and St. Francisco, the results, both in the Pacific and Atlantic, when- 
ever they approach the land stations of other observers, present a most satisfac- 
tory accordance. 

The complete series of M. Erman’s magnetic determinations is the most ex- 
tensive contribution yet made to the experimental department of magnetical 
science ; nor can we rate its value too highly, since it furnishes us with conse- 

_ cutive determinations of dip, variation, and intensity, by the same highly qua- 

lified observer, and with the same excellent instruments, extending through all 
the meridians of the globe, and from the Arctic circle in Siberia to nearly 60° of 
south latitude, the whole of this distance being traversed in the course of two 
_ years, and the track completely marked by the frequency of the observations. 


26 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


seen no later publication containing his own conclusions from 
his observations. The results entered in the table are con- 
sequently computed by myself from the report above no- 
ticed, and are uncorrected for temperature, which is of the 
less importance as the differences of temperature were not 
considerable. It is not stated in the report that the needles 
were re-examined at St. Petersburg at the close of the series; 
but as the two give results very nearly accordant, it is pro- 
bable they underwent little or no loss. At one of the sta- 
tions in the Caucasus no dip was observed ; consequently no 
total intensity can be computed. Some error has obviously 
taken place in regard to the observations at Moscow; the 
times of vibration of both needles as given in the report would 
correspond with a very much higher intensity there than at St. 
Petersburg, which we know from the concordant observations 
of MM. Erman and Hansteen is contrary to fact. M. Han- 
steen, who received the observations direct from M. Kupffer 
at St. Petersburg, has omitted the Moscow results in his notice 
of this series. I have therefore done the same, supposing that 
there is some satisfactory reason for the omission with which 
I am unacquainted. At Stavropol and Taganrog the dips 
employed in the reduction were observed with an inferior ‘in- 
strument, the principal dipping-needle having met with an acci- 
dent. 


Quetelet, 1829-1830.—In 1829 M. Quetelet, Director of the 
Royal Observatory at Brussels, made observations on the hori- 
zontal intensity at several stations in Germany and the Nether- 
lands, with an apparatus similar to M. Hansteen’s and two 
needles ; and in the following year in France, Switzerland, and 
Italy with the same apparatus and four needles. The obser- 
vations of 1829 are contained in a memoir printed in the 6th vol. 
of the Memoires de ? Academie Royale de Bruxelles; those of 
1830 in the Annalen der Physik, vol. xxi. Unfortunately, the 
greater part of the observations of horizontal intensity are un- 
accompanied by observed dips, and the stations are compara- 


tively few at which M. Quetelet either observed the dip himself i 


or has selected dips observed by others, so as to be available 
for our present purpose. There are ten such stations entered 
in the general table. Having vibrated his needles in Paris in 
1830, the values of the intensity are deduced by direct com- 
parison. He has corrected the observations for temperature, 
employing for their reduction the coefficient determined by M. 
Hansteen for his own needle. 


be ek SA EE caer a ae oe 


or 


~% 


“? 


a, 


tJ 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 27 


» Douglas, 1829-1834,—'These observations were made by. 
Mr. David Douglas during a journey to the N.W. coast of 
America, undertaken for botanical and geographical objects. 
The circumstances of his much-regretted death at Owhyhee in 
the spring of 1834, whilst waiting for a vessel to convey him 
home to England, are too well known to need repetition here. 
Having been supplied with instruments for a part of the scien- 
tific purposes of his journey by the Secretary of State for the 
Colonies, his papers on such subjects were sent by the British 
Consul at the Sandwich Islands to the Colonial Office, and on 
their arrival in England were placed in my hands to examine and 
report upon, The books containing the magnetical observations 
showed, by the completeness of the record, the attention and 
care bestowed on every circumstance which could conduce to 
accuracy. A full report on these, and on his other scientific 
papers, has been presented to Lord Glenelg, the present Se- 
cretary of State for the Colonies, but is yet unpublished. I 
have therefore permitted myself to enter into a more circum- 
stantial account of these observations in this place than I have 
done in regard to other observers, whose works can be imme- 
diately consulted. 

Mr. Douglas was furnished with a dip circle of 11} inches 
in diameter, made by Dollond, with a needle on Mayer's prin- 
ciple ; and for the intensity, with four of the same horizontal 
needles which I had used in 1822-1823, viz., Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6. 
The time of vibration of these needles was observed by Mr. 
Douglas in London, in 1828 and 1829, previously to his leaving 
England. In May, 1830, they were vibrated at Oahu, one of 
the Sandwich Islands; and between September, 1830, and 
February, 1831, at four stations in North America, where 
the dip was also observed, viz., Fort Vancouver, Cape Disap- 
pointment, Monterey, and St. Francisco; and at several other 
stations, where the dip was not observed. In February, 1831, 
he sent Nos. 3 and 4 to England, to have the permanency of 
their magnetism examined ; retaining Nos. 5 and 6 with him 
for further observations. Nos. 8 and 4, from accidental cir- 
cumstances, did not reach me till 1836 in Ireland, and bein 
examined in Limerick and Dublin (both which stations had 


_ been carefully compared with London), No. 3 was found to 
~ have slightly gained, and No. 4 slightly lost magnetism, on a 
_ €omparison with their rates in 1828 and 1829. When not em- 
_ ployed in actual obseryation, these needles were kept together 


in the same case, with their opposite poles connected, as were 
Nos. 5 and 6 in another and a separate case. I have had ocea- 
sion to remark elsewhere, that, when needles differing consider- 


28 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


ably in their rates of vibration are so kept together, it does not 
unfrequently happen that the weaker needle acquires magnetism, 
and the stronger loses it; and such appears to have been 
the case in this instance. It was not until 1829 that Nos. 3 
and 4 were put together, having been previously paired in a 
similar manner with other needles, whose magnetic strength in 
both cases very nearly coincided with their own. It is pro- 
bable, therefore, that the one began to lose and the other to 
gain from that time forth ; and that the whole gain or loss took 
place in the earlier portion, rather than equably throughout 
the interval from 1829 to 1836. 

When needles are so kept together in pairs, the two should 
be employed on every occasion, and their combined result 
should be regarded as one determination. Mr. Douglas never 
employed them singly. If in such cases the gain of the one 
needle were exactly proportioned to the loss of the other, the 
results of the two needles taken separately would differ, but 
combined would furnish a mutual compensation. In the pre- 
sent case the gain and loss, though not identical, were so 
nearly equal, that by taking a mean between the London 
rates of each needle in 1829 and 1836, and combining at Lon- 
don and at the other stations the results of the two needles into 
one determination, we obtain the values of the intensity as they 
would have been given by a single needle whose magnetism 
had undergone little or no change. 

The intensities thus calculated by needles 3 and 4, for the 
Sandwich Islands and the stations in North America, are al- 
most identical with those computed from Nos. 5 and 6, taken 
jointly in the same manner, using the London rates which they 
had before they left England. These needles have been 
sought for in vain amongst Mr. Douglas’s effects sent to En- 
gland ; their steadiness, therefore, can only be judged of from 
a comparison of their results with those of Nos. 3 and 4. 

The special objects of Mr. Douglas’s mission leading him 
in excursions on foot into the interior of the country, in Cali- 
fornia, and on the rivers tributary to the Columbia, the use of 
the horizontal needles was the only service he could there ren- 
der to magnetism, as the dip circle was not sufficiently port- 
able to be taken with him. There are 18 stations at which 
he used the horizontal needles alone, between 34}° and 543° 
N. lat., and all nearly on the same meridian, viz., between 119° 
and 124° W. from Greenwich. The only absolute deduction 
in these cases is that of the horizontal intensity. In deducing 


the total force from its horizontal component, the dip employed ~ 


must necessarily be computed from the dips observed at other 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 29 


stations. Determinations of intensity in that part of the globe 
: are as yet so rare, that such observations are too valuable to be 

omitted in this memoir ; I have accordingly entered them in the 
general table, as well as in a separate table here, and have an- 
nexed to the latter a brief notice of the manner in which they 
have been computed. 

The last observations recorded in Mr. Douglas’s books are 
those which he made on the dip at Byron’s Bay, and on the 
force, with needles 5 and 6, at Byron’s Bay and in the crater of 
the volcano Kiraueah, soon after his arrival at Owhyhee in 1834. 
I have searched in vain, amongst the few loose papers which 
were sent home, for the rough notes of observations of very 
great interest, of which he speaks in his private letters, but 
which are not entered in his books. I mean those of the dip, 
variation, and intensity at the summit of Mowna Kaah, nearly 
14,000 feet above the sea, andat other elevations on the island 
exceeding 10,000 feet. He mentions, as a general inference’ 
from these observations, that he found little or no difference 
between the three phenomena observed at those heights and 
near the sea. Those in the crater of Kiraueah, about 4000 feet 
above the sea (which are the only ones preserved), indicate a 
decidedly less intensity (1059 to 1°098) than on the sea side at 
Byron’s Bay, a few miles distant: but Kiraueah is a recent 
_ yoleano, and no conclusion, as to the simple effect of elevation 
on the magnetic intensity, can of course be drawn. 

In the first subjoined table are inserted the intensities de- 
termined at the stations where both the dip and horizontal in- 
tensity were observed. The second table contains those sta- 
tions where the horizontal component only was observed, and 
the dips are supplied in the third table according to the expla- 
nation annexed to it. 


Tass I. 


Long. west SS Intensity. London=1°372. 
p Z 
‘om. ae EPR GEOL Ua A EON E 
Greenwich | °Pserved. Nos.3 & 4.) Nos.5 & 6.) Mean. 


a | 


| Fort Vancouver... Nov., 1830... & 37 122 36 


Cape Disap- Sept. Dec., 
sintment } “Hel BRO isco aa 25. 16) #8 56 
Oint George ...]......ssssesseneee 46 11) 123 40 
St. Francisco...... Feb., 1831 ...|37 48| 122 25 
Monterey ......... Jan., 1831 ...}36 35) 122 0 


| Owhyhee ......... Feb., 1834...) 19 43| 156 10 


30 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Tas_e II. 3 
4 
Monterey = 1°000. Fort Vancouver = 1°000. & 
Place. Horiz. Int. Place. Horiz. Int. f 
eee 3 i 
Stuart’s Lake ...... 0-5616 Mouth of aia 0-9790 & 
Frazer’s Lake ...... 0-5719 lawullah ...... i 
Fort Alexandria ...| 0°6015 Rapids of the Co- | 1-0000 - = 
Thompson’s River 0:6415 lumbia ......... f =| 
Oakanagan ......6. 0:7165 South branch of 10163 ¥ 
San F. Solano ...... 0-9721 the Multnomah 
San José ....csessees 0:9859 Sandiam River......| 1:0463 
La Soledad ......... 1-0056 ) 
San Antonio......... ed 
San Miguel ......... 1-010 London =1°000. 
San Obispo ......... date at 
Santa Barbara ...... 2 i | 
Santa Ynez ......+- SS ah presomca eptaladbatiy (po | 
La Purissima ...... Ab L>-1 7 imda | a i Nit, J 
y 
‘ 
Taste III. * 
j 
Long. i A 
Place. Lat. Sean 5 Date. beget cone, 
Greenwich. Be =1'372, 
Stuart’s Lake ...sessee0e 54 27 | 124 20 |June, 1883) 76 69 || 1-745 
Frazer’s Lake ........+++ 54 03 | 124 40 | June, 1833; 75 48 || 1-734 
Fort Alexandria ......... 52 33 | 122 29 | May, 1833) 74 50 || 1-714 4 
Thompson’s River ...... 50 41 | 120 11 | April, 1833) 73 43 || 1-701 4 
“Oakanagan .......seeeeeee 48 05 | 119 27 | April, 1833) 71 45 || 1-701 
River Wullawullah ...... 46 03 | 118 48 | July, 1830} 70 14 || 1-699 
Rapids of the Columbia | 45 40 | 121 48 | Sept., 1830) 69 27 || 1-671 
River Multnomah ...... 45 15 122 47 | Aug., 1830} 68 57 1°660 
River Sandiam ............ 44 35 122 27 | Aug., 1830) 68 28 | 1-672 
St. Francisco Solano ...| 838 17. | 122 24 | July, 1831} 68 24 | 1-614 
San JOSE Veasiccsessasssvacs 37 32 122 00 | July, 1831) 62 52 1:607 
La Soledad ......... ss. 36 24 121 24 | April, 1831] 62 04 | 1-596 
San Antonio............06 36 01 | 121 18 | April, 1831} 61 46 || 1-584 
San Miguel ............0+ 35 45 121 00 | April, 1831} 6140 | 1-580 ‘ 
San Obispo .......s.ss0e0. 35 16 120 40 | May, 1831) 61 17 1581 
Santa Barbara ............ 34 25 119 40 | May, 1831} 60 48 | 1-587 
Santa W677 ciccesceosesees 34 36 120 11 | May, 1831) 60 53 1:579 
La Purissima ............ 34 40 | 120 27 | May, 18381} 60 53 || 1-571 
Sandwich Islands. 
ahs silence vesiecssacersces 2118 | 158 0|May, 1830! 41 39 || 1-116 
Crater of Kiraueah...... BO ivccceenses March, 1824; 38 00 || 1-059 


The latitudes in this table, and the longitudes of the stations on the River Co- 
lumbia and its tributaries are from Mr. Douglas’s observations. The longitudes 
are chronometrical, from Fort Vancouver as a first meridian. The longitude of 
Fort Vancouver is computed from 1200 lunar distances observed by him. A few 
of these were computed on the spot, but all were fully recorded, and have heen 
calculated since his papers arrived in England. 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 31 


Notice of the manner in which the results in the above table 
have been computed.—There are five stations in North Ame- 
_ rica at which Mr. Douglas observed the dip. ‘The number of 
_ separate observations is 21 distributed as follows: 
Cape Disappointment . . . 38 
Pont George: FR 
Hore. Yancoirver 0s es SG 
Sie Bran@isto 3 po. SS 
Money Blk ee OT 
To compute from these the dip at the eighteen stations where 
_ it was not observed, we require the direction of the isoclinal 
lines, and the rate at which the dip increases in the perpendi- 
cular to them. 

The relative position of the five stations, being nearly on the 
same geographical meridian, is unfavourable for determining 
the direction of the lines; but, on the contrary, extremely fa- 
vourable for a deduction of the rate at which the dip increases 
in the perpendicular to them; and as the horizontal stations 
are all nearly under the same meridian also, the rate of increase 
is the element of calculation, which it is most important to ob- 
tain correctly. ‘ 

To compute, therefore, the rate of increase from the observa- 
tions themselves, we may take the direction of the lines from 
a general map, as a small uncertainty in this respect has little in- 
fluence on the result. In M. Hansteen’s map of the lines of 
dip in 1780 we find their direction in that part of the globe to 
be from N. 74° W. to S. 74° E.* If we express by r the rate 
of increase corresponding to a geographical mile, and make 
8 = the dip at a central geographical position, say 45° N. 
lat., and 124° W. long., and 9,, 8,, 65, &c., the observed dip at 
the five stations, we shall have 


8, = 8 + (a, cos 74° — b, sin 74°) r 
é 8, = 8 + (a, cos 74° — b, sin 74°) r, &e., 
_ the coefficient a being the difference of longitude between the 


ie central station and that at which the dip was observed, ex- 


__ * When I wrote the above I had not seen M. Erman’s more recent mag- 
| _‘ netic map from his own observations in 1828, 1829 and 1830, in which are de- 
_ lineated the dip lines of 60°, 65°, and 70°, which pass through the district in 
_ which Mr. Douglas’s observations were made. Their direction in the meridian 
| _ of 124° W. measured on M. Erman's map is, as nearly as the measurement can 
be made, from N. 743° W. to 8. 743° E. I add this note to explain the reason 
| __ why the direction in the text was not taken at once from the more modern and 
_ cotemporaneous map, and to express the satisfaction I feel in this confirmation 
| _ of the element I had ventured to introduce for the calculation of Mr. Douglas’s 
_ results,—the only element in the calculation which was not furnished by his 
___ own observations. 


32 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


pressed in geographical miles, and 0 the difference of latitude 
also in geographical miles. 

If we combine the five equations so formed for the five dip 
stations by the method of least squares, giving each equation a 
weight proportioned to the number of observations which it re- 
presents, we obtain by the usual process of summing and eli- 
mination 

§ = 68° 42’; r = — 0013608, 
the latter being equivalent to 75°5 geographical miles to one 
degree of dip. With these we may compute the dip for each of 
the horizontal stations ; and having the values of the horizontal 
component we may deduce the total intensity. ‘The dips and 
intensities for the North American stations in Table 3 are thus 
computed. 

Mr. Douglas mentions that the dip he observed i in the crater 
of Kiraueah was 2! greater than at Byron’s Bay; I have there- 
fore entered it in Table 3 as 38°00’. The dip at Oahu is from 
Capt. de Freycinet’s observations at the adjacent island of Mowi, 
and must be regarded as uncertain for Oahu to some minutes ; 
but in so low a magnetic latitude an error of that amount would 
have very little influence on the calculation of the intensity. 
The horizontal intensity at Oahu was very well determined, the 
four needles being employed, a few months only after their vi- 
bration in London, 


Fitz Roy, 18351-1836.— We come next to a series which must 
rank amongst the most important contributions to magnetical 
science, and which we owe to Capt. Fitz Rey, R.N., and the of- 
ficers of H.M. ship Beagle, employed in the years above-men- 
tioned in the survey of the coasts of South America, and in a 
voyage of circumnavigation performed chiefly in the southern 
hemisphere, having for its primary object the determination 
of differences of longitude by a number of chronometers. 

Capt. Fitz Roy had the precaution to furnish himself with a 
dipping needle of Gambey, whose instruments of this kind, 
though not always without fault, are universally acknowledged ~ 
to be the best that are made, and superior to those of our own © 
artists inmodern times. For the intensity he received fromCapt. — 
King the horizontal needle with which that officer had been © 
supplied by M. Hansteen. This needle, which in Capt. King’s 
voyage had lost from time to time considerable portions of its — 

magnetism, appears to have very nearly attained a permanent — 
magnetic state when Capt. Fitz Roy received it. By observa- _ 
tions at Plymouth in 1831 and 1836, and at Port Praya in 1832 
and 1836, its time of vibration is shown to have varied to a very 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY QF THE EARTH. 33 


inconsiderable amount, admitting of safe and easy interpola- 
tion. 

Capt. Fitz Roy’s observations are not yet published. On his 
return to England he paid me the compliment of placing them 
in my hands to calculate and arrange for publication in the 
appendix of an account of his voyage, which he is preparing. 
Meanwhile he has permitted me to insert the intensity results in 
the general table of this memoir. They are corrected for tem- 
perature and for arc. They include 27 stations, of which 24 
in the southern hemisphere, distributed throughout its longi- 

_ tudes, throw very considerable light on the system of the inten- 
sity inthose regions. This extensive series is, I trust, but the 
precursor of what British naval officers will accomplish for mag- 
netism in the southern hemisphere. 


Rudberg, 1832.—These observations were made with a dip- 
ping-needle and two horizontal needles of Gambey’s, at five 
stations on the continent of Europe, of which Paris was one. 
A full account of them is published in the xxviith vol. of the 
Annalen der Physik. They appear to have been made with 
great care, and the results are corrected for temperature. 


Lloyd and Sabine, 1835-1836.—These observations were 
made in compliance with a wish expressed by the British Asso- 
ciation that some of its members would undertake a survey of 
the dip and intensity in the British Islands. Accordingly the 

intensity was determined at 80 stations in Ireland by Mr. Lloyd 
and myself, in 1835, and by myself at 25 stations in Scotland, 
in 1836. 'The volumes of the Reports ofthe British Association 
for those years contain a full account of these observations, as 
well as of the mode in which the determinations at the several 
stations are all made to concur in assigning the intensity at 
one central position in each country as their general result. 
It appears unnecessary, therefore, to reprint them in this 
yolume, and it is only the intensities at the central position, 
thus calculated, which are entered in the general table. 


Ross, 1836.—These observations were made in a voyage to 


‘ ‘Davis’s Straits, undertaken by Capt. James Ross, R.N., in 
_ the winter of 1836, to relieve the crews of several whalers 


_ which had been detained in the ice. Those of the intensity 
_ were made with two horizontal needles in an apparatus similar 
_ to M. Hansteen’s. The magnetism of one remained quite 
_ steady during the voyage; the other sustained a slight loss, 
which it is evident by inspection took place between Orkney 
VOL. vi. 1837, D 


34 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


and Greenland, and has been allowed for accordingly ; Orkney 
being compared with the first London rate, Greenland and 
Labrador with the second. ‘The needles then give every- 
where very nearly identical results. 

The dip circle which Capt. Ross employed was of 4 inches 
diameter. The needle appears to have given very consistent 
results always at the same station; for example, of six obser- 
vations at Westbourn-green near London in 1856, the ex- 
tremes are 69° 28’ and 69° 85"6, the poles being changed in 
every observation; the mean of the six, however, as well as 
each of the separate results, is a few minutes higher than the 
dip at that spot is known to have been at that time. ‘Taking 
into account Capt. Ross’s experience in observations of this 
. kind, and that the observations were made on four different 
days, it is most probable that there was some instrumental 
cause for this needle giving constantly at this station a higher 
dip than the truth. Being ignorant, however, what that cause 
may have been, I have not ventured to apply a correction to 
the dips with this needle either there or elsewhere, but have em- 
ployed them just as they were observed at each of the stations. 

In countries where the dip is so great as in the vicinity of 
Davis’s Straits, the horizontal intensities may be very correctly 
determined, and yet from slight errors in the dip, the resulting 
total intensity may present anomalies unusual elsewhere. We 
have an instance of this in Capt. Ross’s observations in Green- 
land. There are two stations in Greenland, at no great distance 
apart, where the difference of the computed intensity is excess- 
ive; and the fact of there being some anomaly in the observed 
dips which would sufficiently explain the difference, is made 
quite obvious by the circumstance that the higher dip is at 
the southernmost station; whereas the dip should increase 
in going northward on this coast, and with this the horizontal 
vibrations are in accord. J have therefore omitted both the 
results in Greenland in the general table. 

As these observations have not been published elsewhere, 
I subjoin a table containing the principal particulars. 


Time of horiz. vibra, Di Ee 

- 1 di 
Station, Date. Lat. | Long. ee) dod cbnerredtite 178. 

De 2 itty ot S. a o 7 

London...... Aug., 1835) 51 31/859 50) 439-07 | 441°46 |.........08 1:372 
Stromness...| Feb., 1836/58 58 |356 80) 480-22 | 483-34 | 73 36 1-419 
Greenlanad | June, 1836/ 66 57 |306 26) 648-57 | 645:30 | 82 51 1:798 
June, 1836/68 59/3806 47| 667-29 | 665-94 | 82 25 1-590 
Labrador ...| Aug., 1836/57 33/298 9} 616-11 | ......... 73 386 1-652 


London...... ct, 1836/51 31/859 50) 442:19 | 441-64 | 69 32:1) 1372 


The times of vibration are reduced toa standard temperature. 


oF ee oe 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 85 


Estcourt, 1836.—These observations were made during the 
late survey of the navigation of the River Euphrates, conducted 
by Colonel Chesney. 'The magnetic observations were entrusted 
to Major Estcourt, who was furnished with a good dip circle 
by Robirison, and an apparatus similar to M. Hansteen’s, with 
eight horizontal needles: Numerous observations were made 
with these at Port William and Bussora, the manuscripts of 
which have been sent to me, by the President of the Board of 
Control, to arrange for publication in the official account of the 
proceedings of the expedition, preparing under the direction of 
Colonel Chesney. On the arrival in England of the needles, 
which only took place very recently, they were also placed in my 
hands, in order that the necessary comparative observations 
might be made with them. It had unfortunately happened that 
the manuscript containing the times of vibration of the needles 
observed by the officers of the expedition before its departure 
from England, were on board the Tigris steamer when she 
was lost in the Euphrates, and no record was preserved. But 


- on receiving the needles, I recognised two of the number as 


b 
| 
bE 


having belonged to Professor Lloyd, of Dublin, and as having 
been employed by Mr. Lloyd and myself in Ireland. I had 
consequently a memorandum of their rates before they were 
given to the officers of the expedition; and on vibrating them 
in Sussex, where I was staying when I received them, I per- 
ceived with great satisfaction that these two needles must have 
preserved their magnetism wholly or very nearly unaltered. 
‘They were immediately sent to Professor Lloyd, who kindly 
vibrated them at the same spot in which they had been used in 
1834, and found their magnetism almost identical with what it 
had been at that period. On trying the six other needles, I 
found that two gave similar values for the intensity at Port 
William and Bussora with those of Mr. Lloyd; whence I in- 
ferred that those also had undergone no change-in their mag- 
netism since the observations on the Euphrates. The deter- 
minations at Port William and Bussora inserted in the general 
table of this report are derived from these four needles. Their 


_ times of vibration have been reduced to a standard temperature, 


the coefficient inthe formula having been ascertained for each 
needle by experiments made since they have been placed in my 
hands. ‘The full details will be communicated in Colonel Ches- 


_hey’s official publication. 


Freycinet, 181'7-1821.—I am most happy in being able to 

-add to this collection the valuable observations of Capt. de 

Freycinet in the voyage of circumnavigation, performed in the 
oO 


mw 


36 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Uranie in 1817-1821. Having heard that I was engaged in 
drawing up this report for the British Association, Capt. de 
Freycinet, unsolicited, did me the honour to propose to place 
his observations, hitherto unpublished, in my hands, to be 
communicated to the public through this channel. I should 
certainly fail if I attempted to express my sense of this act 
of great liberality ; happily it needs no comment; and I will 
only observe, that it adds another instance, but a very strong 
one, to those already noticed, of the good feeling that has pre- 
vailed amongst the persons by whom these inquiries have 
been carried forward. The world hears more than enough 
of the jealousies and enmities which too often disfigure the 
history and embitter the pursuits of science; it is right that 
the instances to the contrary should not always be passed in 
silence. 

The manuscript of the observations was accompanied by the 
following remarks from Capt. de Freycinet. 

‘* J’ai mis une grande attention a ce qu'il ne se glissa pas de 
faute dans la copie; et telle qu’elle est je crois que vous pou- 
vez compter sur son exactitude. L’experience a prouvé que 
les aiguilles Nos. 7 et 8, dont je me suis servi, ont perdu un 
peu de leur magnétisme pendant le voyage ; il sera facile d’en 
tenir compte, comme aussi des légéres altérations qui auront eu 
pour cause les variations de température ; mais je ne me suis 
pas livré 4 ces considérations, pensant qu'il valait mieux que 
vous vous en occupassiez selon vos vues particuliéres.” 

The table in pages 38 and 89 contains the observations, 
printed from this manuscript without alteration of any kind. 

In compliance with the wish expressed by Capt. de Frey- 
cinet, I proceeded to calculate the results of these observations 
in the following manner. The consideration of No. 9 was put 
aside in the first instance for the reason assigned in the mar- 
ginal note to the observations at the Isle of France. The 
times of vibration at Paris before and after the voyage, con- 
firmed by the observations at Rio de Janeiro in 1817 and 1820, 
show that Nos. 7 and 8 both slightly lost magnetism, and No. 8 
rather more than No. 7. It further appears that the extra 
loss of No. 8 over No. 7 was all sustained in the first fourteen 
months ; as at the Isle of France in June, 1818, they had arrived 
nearly at an equality in their time of vibration, which they pre- 
served for the whole remainder of the voyage, and exhibited 
on the return to Paris. In whatever way, therefore, we may 
proportion the equal loss sustained by both needles, the extra 
loss of No. 8 must be placed before the arrival at the Isle of 
France. When there are no circumstances in the observations 


eo 


SNP V 6 2 cnt 


>. ey ere, Re POPPE My ae gee © LN ee 


Mure 7 


: by 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 37 J 


themselves indicating otherwise, the usual course is to distri- 
bute a loss equally through the interval in which it is known 
to have occurred. I have therefore pursued this course in 
regard to the loss sustained by No. 7; and in the case of No. 8 
I have allowed a double proportion in each of the first fourteen 
months. The observations furnish two tests of the propriety 
of this distribution: the general agreement of the results of 
the two needles with each other at the different stations is one ; 
the other is the agreement of the force thus calculated at Rio 
in 1817 and 1821. In both the accordance is satisfactory. 

On computing the intensity at the Cape of Good Hope and 
the Isle of France by No. 9, using for that purpose its time of 
vibration at Paris in 1817, the results appeared to agree ex- 
tremely well with those of Nos.7and 8. It is hence inferred, that 
until the accident at the Isle of France, No. 9 had undergone 
no change of magnetism, and I have therefore brought into the 
account all the results obtained with it before that occurrence. 
As the effect of changes of temperature on these particular 
needles does not appear to have been ascertained experiment- 
ally, no corrections are applied on account of temperature ; 
but, as I have before remarked, such corrections are of minor 
importance in so extensive a series as the present. The table 
in page 40 exhibits the computed results, and appears to need 
no other explanation, except that the column entitled ‘Time of 
vibration as a dipping-needle at Paris” exhibits the times of 
vibration corrected for loss of magnetism. 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


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39 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 


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40 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Time of vibration. Intensity. 
Station. g As a dipping-needle. 
2 Horizontal.| “4 the ‘x th Paris = 1°000. Baa” 
station, Paris. . 
PATIG. satcaceneaseneaad 1019-75 6177 617-7 ||1:000 
Pedechepssnacancee 1009-93 6117 611-7 ||1:000 + 1-000 | 1:348 
Sbsatteiens odes a 525-05 318-0 318-0 |!1-000 
Teneriffe .......0000+ 450°75 319-0 318-0 |}0°9942 1-340 
Rio de Janeiro...... 775-9 763°1 620-0 ||0°6602 


nytt 402-20 | 395-6 | 318-0 ||0-6465 
937-0 | 7451 | 620-9 llo-6945 
4779 | 3800 | 318-0 |\0-7005 
9120 | 689-7 | 6228 ||0-8155 


913-0 690°5 622-3 ||0°8139 } 0°813) 1-096 
467°8 353°8 318-0 ||0°8082 


800-4 60771 624-0 ||1:057 


767:27 | 7546 616-7 ||0°6679 ; 0-658) 0-887 


}o-eo7 0-945 


Baie des Chiens- 


MAriNs ...se+eee } 1-054 1-421 
Sn 802°5 608°6 624-2 ||1:052 
We Pinon Fe os as yess 7285 667°7 624:2 ||0-8741] o, ; 
poet SEs 729-3 | 6689 |. 6245 ovis f° 8738/1177 
Ile Rawak ......... 721-6 710-1 625-1 ||0°7750 


cated 722-7 | 7ill | 6255 07736 (0774 1-044 
749:15 | 7393 | 626-9 |0-7181 


Iles Mariannes 
799 | ya08 | eae losia ¢ 0718/0868 


Te Mow? ...20: Pe 


7928 | 685°3 | 627-9 |[0°8395 1 o.ciql 4. 
ends 793-0 | 685°5 | 6285 o-8io1 ¢°840 Liss 
Sydney ssssccssssscons 846-4 | 572-4 | 629°5 ||1-210 


Ba | erai-| e308 (Lai ¢ 2210 | 1681 
Sea | tare. Iheaco-lvor (ieee 
7909 is 633-6 (o-eens ¢ 0°652| 0-892 
10453 | 6363 | 6563 [1-000 $1000 | 1-348 


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Rio de Janeiro 


ONADNBDNIBDNBDNBDNONWND NS OCmnNo mn CHNOORDN 


Senate ne eeeseeseee 


It would have given me great satisfaction had I been enabled 
to have included in this publication the observations made in In- 
dia by Capt. Jules de Blosseyville,in whose untimely death within 
the Arctic circle, now, I fear, but too certain, science has sus- 
tained the loss of an officer who gave full promise, had he lived, 
of becoming one of the most accomplished navigators of the 
age. In the last letter which I received from him, dated at 
Toulon in 1830, he thus expresses himself in regard to his ob- 
servations of the intensity :—‘‘ Toulon ayant été, et pouvant de- 
venir encore le point de départ de plusieurs expeditions scien- 

ifiques, il sérait utile, je pense, d’y connoitre d’une maniére 
exacte la valeur de l’intensité magnétique, et je me chargerais 


laser 


ee ee 


et BE MEO 


we es ae 


a . S 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 4l 


volontiers pendant le petit sejour que je vais y faire, d’y ob- 
server les aiguilles. Ceci me conduit naturellement a vous 
parler des observations d’intensité que vous m’avez vues com- 
mencer a Paris, et que j’ai faites ensuite dans plusieurs lieux 
de l’Inde. Si elles avaient été plus satisfaisantes, je vous en 
aurais entretenu dés mon arrivée; mais malheureusement les 
aiguilles ont perdu pendant le voyage une partie notable de leur 
magnétisme, et M. Arago a été d’avis de ne point s’occuper de 
leurs résultats. C’est ainsi que toutes mes peines ont été per- 
dues, quoique j’eusse eu l’attention de rapporter toutes les ob- 
servations 4 Pondicherry, qui était le centre de nos operations, 
espérant par leur repetition dans le méme lieu, connoitre le de- 
croissement graduel du magnétisme de nos aiguilles. Si je re- 
commence quelque grand voyage, comme je l’espére, je me 
livrerai avec plaisir 4 /’étude de l’intensité, et je m’occuperai a 
Yayance, de faire faire par Gambey l'appareil de plus com- 
mode. Je voudrais connoitre vos idées sur ce sujet.” 
Experience has shown in many cases, and particularly in 
the observations of Capt. King, that it may be possible to ob- 
tain very valuable facts from a series of observations, in which 
the needles have undergene a considerable loss of magnetism 
in the course of a long voyage ; particularly in cases where at- 
tention has been paid to repetition at the same station, for the 
purpose of a frequent examination of the state of the needles ; 
and this was practised by Capt. de Blosseville, as well as by Capt. 
_ King. Aid may also be sometimes obtained from other ob- 
_ servers who may have observed the intensity at some of the 
_ stations: and the publication of a series of determinations de- 
_ pending upon Pondicherry would render it an object with 
persons who might hereafter be engaged in magnetic observa- 
| tions in India, to make Pondicherry one of their stations, and 
thus supply a link to connect M. de Blosseville’s observations 
with Europe. 


| In 1833 Mr. Forbes made a very numerous series of excel- 
_ lent determinations of horizontal] intensity in different parts of 
_ Europe. They were made chiefly with a view to the influence 
_ of height on the magnetic intensity, and are discussed in a 
highly interesting paper in the Edinburgh Transactions for 
_ 1836. The dip was observed with a three-inch circle, at a few 
_ stations only, and Mr. Forbes has nowhere himself deduced 
| the total intensities. If I am rightly informed, he has since 
| made another tour in the same countries, in which magnetic 
_ observations formed a part of his object. We may hope that 
_ by a series of dips, corresponding in extent and exactness to 
his horizontal determinations, he will add greatly to the fulness 


42 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


and accuracy of our knowledge of the course of the magnetic 
lines in those parts of Europe. The investigation evidently 
cannot be in better hands. Meantime I have not thought pro- 
per to make deductions which he has not made for himself; 
and the more so, because the stations are very few at which 
there are both observations of dip and of horizontal intensity, 
and at some of these the total intensity has already been de- 
termined by other observers. 


The preceding notices include all the observations of the 
magnetic intensity with which I am acquainted, in which the 
instruments, by the steadiness of their magnetism, and their 
capability of yielding sufficiently precise results , proved eed 
of the time and pains bestowed in their employment. 


Section I].—Generat Taste or INTENSITIES. 


The intensities are arranged in this table according to their 
values, commencing with those of highest amount in the 
northern hemisphere, descending progressively to those of 
least amount, which have their “places in the intertropical 
regions, and again ascending to the highest values in the 
southern hemisphere. They are classed in zones, the first 
zone (§ 1) comprehending all the observed intensities in the 
northern hemisphere between 1°85 and 1°75; the second 
zone (§ 2), all between 1°75 and 1°65; the third (§ 5), all be- 
tween 1°65 and 1°55; and so on. In each zone the record 
in the table commences with the geographical meridian of 
Greenwich, and passes round the globe in an easterly direc- 
tion ; all the longitudes being counted east from Greenwich, 
and all latitudes nor th, unless where it is otherwise distinctly 
specified. 

The geographical position of the several zones is shown in the 
maps attached to this report by the insertion of the observed 
intensities themselves in their places in the map. For the 
more ready guidance and direction of the eye lines are drawn, 
marking as nearly as can be judged, the middle of each zone. 
These lines are consequently what are usually denominated 
isodynamic lines, or lines of equal magnetic intensity at the 
surface of the earth. ‘They correspond successively to the 
values of 1°8, 1°7, 1°6, &c., down to 0°8, which is the line of 
lowest value yet observed. There is, of course, great ine- 
quality in the evidence for their precise geographical position 
in different parts of the globe; sometimes, for the purpose of 


connection, they have been partially continued where obser- - 


Br gr ee ae Le 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 43 


_ vations are wholly wanting; but in all cases the insertion of 
the authorities themselves in the map manifests the degree 
of exactness to which it is yet possible to trace the several 

_ portions of each line. 

Where the geographical positions are too near each other for 
convenient insertion in the map, two or more stations are. 

Ss collected into a group in the table, and the mean latitude, 

_ longitude, and intensity are placed at the foot of the page. 
Such groups are in all cases composed of the determinations 
of the same observer, and the mean determination inserted in 
the map is characterised by an additional figure, placed be- 
neath, expressive of the number of separate stations thus 
represented. 

In the case of stations visited by two or more observers, their 
separate determinations have been inserted in the map 
wherever space has permitted. As this could not always be 
done in the north of Europe and Asia, the mean of the 

. determinations of the two observers has been given, cha- 
racterised by the mark +, expressive of the double weight 

| _ to which such intensities are entitled. 

| The geographical positions may require correction in a few 

| instances, but pains have been taken to obtain them correctly 

. from the most recent authorities. 


Division I. Norruern HEMISPHERE. 
§ 1. Intensities from 1:85 to 1°75. 


Lat. Long. Observer. Date.|| Intensity. 
ee 63 0 |120 O\Due....,......... {1829} 1-759 
Oe 40 43 285 57\Sabine............ 4 1°803 


Sts 65 55 | 87 33)/Hansteen........../|1829]| 1-667 
....| 60 02 | 90 33\Hansteen.......... 1829]| 1-660 
ee 56 16 | 91 00\/Hansteen & Due.... {1828]) 1°654 
me EOL OST 39. 58 27 | 92 11/Hansteen........../1829]| 1°668 
sBV1AA: 56 01 | 92 57/Erman............/1829]) 1:652 
Hgt-At' re »  |Hansteen & Due.... |1829]) 1:663 

55 43 | 96 53.Erman............ 1829]| 1-670 

5 » |Hansteen & Due.. ..|1829]) 1-678 

.s....{ 55 12 | 98 50)/Hansteen & Due.... |1828) 1°671 

AS es RY 55 00 | 99 20\/Hansteen & Due ... |1828)| 1°672 


A4 


Station. 


oe 


Kurgan ... 
Salarinsk 


a ey 
ed 


BOATS lion. epee > ae 
Tarakanowa 
Potapowsk 


Kirensk 


eee ew wee 


reo stot 

Tena: Ss 
Parchinsk .. 
Wittinsk... os 
Kantinsk incr <esels 


see eeee 


Jasbinek A Ref SEER 
Beresowsk ........ 
OLA STi aS ee 


Sanjacktatsk . 
Toen Arinsk 
Yakutsk .. 

Porotowsk ... 
Lebeghine 
Nokchinsk 
Perewos....... 
Tchernolies \ - 


Karnastak 
Allachjan 
JMUOMSK oei0 6 es sche 
Arki 


At Sea 


ee eeeer eae 


see eee eee eee 


Stuart’s ae Mer et? 
Cape Disappointment 
Fort Alexandria.... 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Lat. 


54 20 
53 30 
53 34 
52 59 
55 10 
56 05 
52 14 
57 17 
57 47 


+P) 
58 38 
58 38 
59 07 
59 40 
59 53 


9 
60 28 
59 50 
60 22 


60 47 
61 37 
62 01 
62 01 
62 11 
GI i57 
61 45 
61 31 
61 30 
61 03 
60 54 
60 07 
65 38 
48 44 
57 03 


”? 
54 03 
54 27 
46 16 
52 33 


Long. 


216 
224 


bf 
235 
235 
236 
237 


* Mean, 2 stations 


00 
00 
53 
04 
22 
34 
37 
34 
04 


36 
34 
31 
00 
10 


ont 
61 30 


Observer. - 


Erman (.°. (i); ae 
Hansteen & Due .. 
Erman 
Erman 
Erman 


ee 


ee D 


ote oe oem 6) et uters 
ed 
© jw >.0/@) a) ow @, © ohn 
eer er eer e eee 
eerereee 
ereee eres 
ee ed 


Erman 
Erman 
Erman 
Erman 
Erman 
Erman 
Erman 
Erman 
Erman 


Douglas 
Douglas 
Douglas 
Douglas 


137 00 


Date.|| Intensity, | 


1-652 
1°652 
1-657 
1-673 — 
1-720 
1-689 
1664 
1-711 
1-704 — 
1-693 © 
1°714 
1-708 
1-741 
1-731 
1-712 
17 
1-747 | 
1°725) 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 


45 


Station. Lat. Long. Observer. Date.|| Intensity. 
‘Multnomah River] 45 15 237 13 Douglas...... 1830] 1°669 . 
|} Fort Vancouver..| 45 37 |237 24| Douglas.......... 1830) 1-688 
) Sandiam River ..| 44 35 (237 33) Douglas.......... 1830)) 1-683 
Columbia Rapids 45 40 |238 12) Douglas.......... 1830)| 1°679 
Thompson’s River... 239 49| Douglas.......... 1833|| 1°710 
Oakanagan........ 240 33) Douglas.......... 1833|| 1-707 
Wullawallah River . 241 12) Douglas.......... 1830) 1-707 
Byam Martin’s Il. . B5Gr 1G) Sabine: aoeiesiscee 1819| 1-653 
|Regent’s Inlet...... 270 19) Sabine. .......... 1819] 1-668 
|Baffin’s Bay ...... 281 39| Sabine .......... 1818]| 1-659 
| Baffin’s Bay ...... 284 00) Sabine .......... 1818] 1-666 
Baffin’s Bay ...... 293 05| Sabine .......... 1818) 1-661 
Waurador).;...... 298 09| Ross ............ 1836]| 1:682 
§ 3. Intensities from 1°65 to 1:55. 

= Fair | 79 40 | 11 40\ Sabine .......... [1823] 1-362 
le - 76 35 | 14 00) Keilhau.......... 1827|| 1-558 
| Katchegatisk ...... 65 09 | 65 02| Erman .......... 1828]| 1568 
| oe 63 56 | 65 04) Erman .......... 1828] 1:580 
Ray ie fe 63 18 | 65 06) Erman te 1828]] 1:584 
BEE Ya i¥a\ ahiei'e 66 16 | 65 10) Erman ........../1828)| 1-608 
> 3 CARES. 62 13 | 66 36) Erman ..........{1828]) 1:596 
cr Ole 66 31 | 66 42) Erman ..........{1828|| 1:580 
Be at 57 32 | 67 06) Erman ........../1828] 1°546 
oe ” ” Hansteen & Due ..{1828|| 1°558 
....e-| 57 59 | 67 31] Erman ... .. (1828)) 1°544 
Ristalesne ” » Hansteen & Due. .. {1828|| 1-:566 
oa 61 20 | 68 05) Erman ..........{1828]) 1°585 
et 58 12 | 68 16) Hansteen & Due ../1828] 1560 
SA » » Erman y..3%......(1828)| 4-554 
60 45 | 68 35) Erman ..,....... 1828)| 1:584 
BMNEES So: aio > 59 00 | 68 46) Erman ........../1828]| 1°564 
57 27 | 68 58) Erman ...... Ay 1829] 1-564 
60 23 | 69 26| Erman ....... ~. »- (1828) 1°573 
Bret 59 32 | 69 40) Erman ..........[/1828|| 1°574 
BEBE ws aes 56 54 | 74 04; Erman ..........{1829]] 1:575 
Reacirtels 55 38 | 77 05) Erman ,.........{1829]] 1:617 

* Mean, 4 stations 4517 23735 1-680 


46 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. q : 
"| 


Intensi ? 


Station. Lat. Long. Observer. Date. 
Muraschiwa ......| 55 50 | 76 00| Hansteen & Due ..|1828) 1°586 | 
Gotoputowa ......| 55 47 | 77 00| Hansteen & Due ..|1828| 1-577 
Autoschina........| 55 40 | 78 00) Hansteen & Due ..|1828)| 1°585 — 
Le) See ee 55 40 | 78 10} Hansteen & Due ,./1828) 1-601 
Maa RE. 58 50| 81 00/Due .........-.. 1828] 1-638 |} 
Tschulum ........ 55 06 | 81 14) Erman .......... 1829} 1°578 
Kigiyviin SiR. eos 55 17 | 82 45) Hansteen & Due ..|1829) 1°611 ~ 

AT ie eee a » Erman .......... {1829} 1°599% 
Togursk .. ibe, wow -58 40 | 83:00! Due 06... 5... 1828} 1°644 — 
Barnaul ...... .--.| 53 20 | 83 56)Hansteen ........ 1829} 1-605 
TOMBE 70s 5 sc 56 30 | 85.09] Erman ........ ../1829]| 1-618" 

sbtbescceve ” ” Hansteen & Due re 1829 1-620 — 
Pojelnik . Beets 56 18 | 87 10) Erman .:........ 1829) 1-627 — 
Kangatovo.. ESivorsteretor 63 27 | 87 16) Hansteen ........ 1829} 1:648 — 
VD 52 16 |104 20) Hansteen & Due ,,|1829) 1°642 — 
ae Al ai Pon eA ” ” Erman ..........(|1829]| 1-632 @ 
MAUS) ia 2.0ena 52 07 |104 51) Hansteen & Due. ..|1829) 1-649 
” Cera be scce ” ” Erman A eae 1828 1°634 : 
Chogotsk ........ 53 On LOb OUI Due <.2..0.. .... |1829]| 1645 © 
Tiumeruska ...... 54 09 |105 33) Erman .......... 1828] 1-648 — 
Selenginsk ........ 51 20 |106 15) Hansteen & Due .,,|1829] 1:°642 © 
Troisko Sawsk ....| 50 21 |106 28) Hansteen & Due ,,/|1829)| 1°642 — 
bias’ sha ” » |Erman .......... [1829] 1°628 7% 
Monachorowa ....| 50 58 |106 29) Hansteen & Due ,.|1829)| 1°624 | 
states ” iy) PB hs ee a eee 1829|| 1-638 | 
Aréentiska bie Siclafsvete 51 17 |106 56) Hansteen & Due ., |1829)) 1°650 i 

” Ret wieletate’s ” ” Erman ee es ecae ota 1829 1-636 Ph 

Werchne Udinsk ..| 51 49 |107 47) Hansteen and Due, . |1829) 1625 © 

” on ” ” Raman Oise 2 bras 1829) 1-626 — 
OGRORE 20 GE fice -| 59 21 (143 11] Erman .......... 1829|| 1°615 
Sea of Ochozk ....| 58 46 |145 52) Erman ...... .. .. {1829} 1:677 
Sea of Ochozk ....| 58 15 /152 01) Erman .......... 1829) 1-601 
Sea of Ochozk ....|°58 13 |157 06) Erman .......... 1829) 1595 
Tigil River........ 58 01 {158 15) Erman ....... ... [L829] 1°57 
Masehura ........ 55 04 (158 55| Erman ...... .... 1829] 19551 
St. Croix Bay...... 65 28 1181 28] Liitke............ 1828| 1-646 
Undlaska o53...5. 53 54 1193 30} Liitke............ 1827|| 1°604 

St. Franciseco...... 87 48 1235 45) Erman .......... 1829} 1°585 — 
ich wis’ F HA 1 Détielad:. 03, cennh 1831) 1*597 
San Solano... ....| 38 17 |@35 36 Douglas.......... 1831} 1-610 
+) Monterey ......| 36 35 [236 00) Douglas.......... 1831) 1°599 
San’ JOs@i eo were 37 32 |236 00 Douglas Be Sere 5 ise 1831} 1605 
La Soledad ....| 36 24 |236 36 Douglas PNR ae 1831) 1°590 


o ’ ° 
* Mean, 4 stations 3712 23603 1-600 


) ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. Al 
: 7 Station Lat. Long. Observer. Date.|| Intensity. 
- iidegecie dladiimitaian wee 
vi pee Antonio....| 36 01 |236 42) Douglas.......... 1831) 1°584- 
n Miguel ....| 35 45 |237 16) Douglas... 1831] 1°583 
t. Louis eee 35 16 |237 20) Douglas.......... 1831|| 1°583 
oka 34 40 [237 33) Douglas.......... 1831], 1571 
< Santa Ynez 34 36 |237 49) Douglas.......... 1831] 1:579 
nta Barbara 34 25 |240 00} Douglas 1831) 1:604 
ville Island 74 27 \248° 18) Sabine .......... 1819)| 1:624 
inter Harbour ..| 74 47 |249 12| Sabine .......... 1820] 1-638 
73 31 |282 38] Sabine .......... 1819||. 1:637 
\ aR 75 51 |296 54) Sabine ..........|1818]) 1618 
Tewie’s Straits ....| 64 00 |298 10) Sabine .......... 1819] 1:62] 
Baffin’s Bay ...... 75 05 |299 37| Sabine .......... 1818] 1:590 
Hare Island .... 70 26 |305 08) Sabine .......... 1818] 1-622 
| Davis’s Straits ....| 68 22 |806 10) Sabine .......... 1818] 1-643 
1 oa § 4. Intensities from 1:55 to 1:48. . 
WOME, ees 61 05 | 8 09} Hansteen ........ 1821|| 1-454 
LoL eee 62 57 | 11 18} Hansteen ........|1825)| 1°452 
67 15 | 13 55] Keilhau.......... 1827)| 1451 
bar er ey av 74 55 | 14 50) Keilhan . 1827|| 1-496 
bergen, . 
Whale’sHead.. (| “7 29 | 17 00| Keilhau.......... 1827] 1°539 
romsoe ...... 69 38 | 18 55) Keilhau... 1827|| 1515 
is 69 54 | 20 45) Keilhau . 1827|| 1-467 
| Talvig 2 ae 70 02 | 22 48) Keilhau.......... 1827|| 1-512 
\* ] Havoe Sund . 70 57 | 23 19| Keilhau.......... 1827|| 1-476 
| Migoe sci... 71 06 | 24 03] Keilhau.......... (1827|| 1°517 
Mageroe ...... 71 01 | 26 01) Keilhau ..........{1827)| 1°500, 
amerfest . ..| 70 40 | 23 46) Sabine ..... 1823)| 1-506 
. ; ry) a Metihan ) Sh bec .s. 1827|| 1°461 
‘ 66 16 | 23 47| Hansteen ........ 1825|| 1-464 
ey seee....| 64 41 | 24 20) Hansteen ......-. 1825)]| 1:455 
[Lebbesbye...... 70 37 | 26 45) Keilhau.......... 1827] 1:465 
feMehavn,....... 71 06 | 27 58) Keilhau.......... 1827)| 1496 
aleboton ...... 70 12 | 28 10) Keilhau .......-... 1827|| 1°491 
ae ent 71 00 | 28 30) Keilhau .......... |1827|| | 1°487 
ae 70 54 | 29 11\ Keilhau ..........|1827]| 1:460 
Eide. ve | 00 TO (ROSSER eliftan i es 1827|| 1469 
ie} ‘ o ‘ 
* Mean, 3 stations 85 41 237 06 1-583 
| Mean, 8 stations 84 84 288 27 1°585 
Mean, 6 stations 70 26 22 38 1:498 
Mean, 6 stations 70 40 28 23 1:478 


4s SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Station. Lat. Long. Observer. 
Wardhuus ........ 70 93 | 31 07\Keilhau . 
Miteschka ........| 56 13 | 49 54/Erman. ae ; 

ra RE ro ; a Hisinte he Dueae ct 
LUC ee eed Sr 56 41 | 50 30/Erman.....:...... 
Pte Th, A 5» |Hansteen & Due.... 

Roach . ere fh oe 57 08 | 51 52\/Erman.. =. 
os Feb sh. eee = $s Hansteen & Due... 
Sa teeter oS] 84 4) Pome s Banta we ee 
ESSE Chae Renee 99 »» |Hansteen & Due.... 
Dubrowa ........ 57 42 |. 54/S0iErman..2.40-.. 6.0. 
3 eee bs »  |Hansteen & Due.... 
Ouhenskee res). 57 00 | 56 00\Hansteen & Due.... 
Perm earch. 58 01 | 56 14\Hansteen & Due.... 
cae Re Sao ” ” Erman.. 08, Ue 

Reinaown, Se fh eal ai cee oO neg Hansteen ‘& Dac. t 
Veuee aie Tee as ao ia EAD Ce eee ate ee rere 
Hikawi MGS ed 8 56 53 | 57 26\Hansteen & Due.... 
S A i hols 5 SF | EPMAD ees. |. \s..ceelon es 

Kirgischansk ....| 56 50 | 59 06/Hansteen & Due... 

a Bend np ho wikureaan +; . 2 ae 

Meashwalees tte o 52 58 17 | 59 43 Hansteen & Due. sine 
POR ” »  |Erman.. Aint eee 

N. Tagilsk . A AREY 57 55 | 59 54/Hansteen & Due.... 
Bogoslowsk ...... 59 49 | 59 55 Erman. . Lone 
Berne 221 ” ” Hansteen & Due. im 
Ekaterinenburg. 2 56 58 GO, 34 Erman. 2.28 .i.03. < 
ee ” ” Hansteen: & Dae. ake 

Werchoturie ...... 58 52 | 60 46/Erman............ 
of MERE See See ” »  |Hansteen & Due.... 
Bjelieska.......... 56 50 | 61 56\/Erman............ 
* pCRee > > eRe ” »  |Hansteen & Due.... 
SOBRE Wise hl. ac. 57 00 | 63 44/Erman............ 

OB. 4 > Ae » »  |Hansteen & Due.... 

Tvanen Abad). | Og AO boned Brmnn.£) A osc. os 
CR Ey. aN ee » »  |Hansteen & Due... 
Meshing Turinsk.... Hansteen & Due... 
CinloweiGe hi. <5: Hansteen & Due.... 
Semipalatinsk...... 50 24 | 80 21/Hansteen ........ 
Natschika ........ 53 06 |158 .15|Erman............ 
St. Peter and St.Paul] 53 00 |158 40/Erman............ 
Kosuirewsk ......| 55 52 |159 34/Erman............ 
Chartschinsk...... 56 31 {160 43/Erman....,....... 
Telowisa me aie aren 56 54 |160 55|Erman............ 
Kuruginski........ 58 34 {163 27|Liitke ............ 1828 


AP Seay. eoees| 40 28 [213 25)Liitke 055. ow 20 oe 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 


Station ' Lat. Long. Observer. 
n Island 19 14 |278 55Sabine......... fre ines 
38 39 |332 47 Fitz ay ae Se Ce 1836 
OS ae 74 32 |341 10 Sabine. . 1823, 


gee ars fe °° 
(Bekkervig Bes ith 60 01 
| Bergen ........ 
) Ullensvang ? 
Leierdal........ 61 10 


ed 
ee 


ere eens 


Pe 


a ey 


You. Min. LS37. 


* Mean, 6 stations 
+ Mean, 5 stations 
+ Mean, 6 stations 


4 20/Quetelet ......--.- 

ee PRUGDEED.. oui. s/s = 
5 10)Hansteen........-- 1821 
5 17|Hamsteen.........- 1821 
6 38\Hansteen........-- 1821) 
7 50\Hansteen........-- 1821, 
8 14\Hansteen’......... |1821 
8 37|Hansteen........-- 1821 
8 37\Quetelet ....... ... (1829) 
9 04|Humboldt& G. ee 1806 
8 48)Hansteen........-- 1821 
9 20\Hansteen.......... 1821 
9 32\Hansteen.......... {1822 
9 40)/Hansteen.......... 1820 
9 54/Hansteen.........- 1822 
9 20\Hansteen.........- 1824 
9 55|Hansteen.........- 1824 


9 55|Humboldt& G. Lussac Bat 
»» (Quetelet . .. {1829 


y |*AUAaHETH .. ~ eee es oe 


ae 


9 56\Hansteen.........- 1824 
9 58|Hansteen........-- 1821 
10 10|/Hansteen.......... 1825 
10 13|Hansteen.......... {1823 
10 31|/Hansteen.......... 1821 
10 32\Hansteen.......... 1821 
10 37|Hansteen.......... 1825 
10 14|Hansteen.........- 1824 
10 19|Hansteen.......... 1824 
10 25\Sabine...... eae 1823 
1825 


» |iansteen..:......- 
10 45)/Hansteen.......... 


7 1-416 
5913 927 ~~ «1-401 
6011 1020 1°414 
LE 


49 


Da Intensity. 


1-450 


1:457 


- 15543 


1°411 
1422 
1-426 
1:419 
1-406 
1°414 
1°358 
1°357 
1°416 
1°405 
1°373 
1°414 
1°398 
1°385 
1°381 
1°348 
1°365 
1°349 
1°367. 
1°425 
1°415 
1°377 
1°423 
1°422 
1:425 
1384 
1-365 
1-442 
1-430 
1°419 


50 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Station. | Lat. Long. Observer. Date. Intensity. | 
Elleden........ 59 19 | 10 40\Hansteen.......... 1822 1-384 | 
peer eas Es, 59 32 | 10 45|/Hansteen.......... 1822) 1-383 4 

*< Skieberg ...... 59 14 | 11 11/Hansteen.......... 1822|| 1-:372 4 
Fredericshall....| 59 01 | 11 30!/Hansteen and Due. . 1828] 1+387 
Altorp ........| 58 53 | 12 14|Hansteen.......... 11822) 1°389 
IRENE sens) fase 61 06 | 10 34\Hansteen........../1821]| 1-431 

| Nebye SR RIT ES: 62 18 | 10 58/Hansteen.......... 1825]| 1-423 | 

+ ; Biornestad...... 61 03 | 11 28\Hansteen.......... 1825|| 1-423 4 

| Roraas ethers 62 34 | 11 35)Hansteen.......... 1825|| 1:440 | 
Crrandspg,.;...... 60 56 | 11 35\Hansteen:. ..;...... 1825| 1:440 
Fredericshavn ..| 57 27 | 10 33/Hansteen.......... 1824) 1-384 

‘ pees .---| 57 42 | 10 58)Hansteen.......... 1819) 1°383 
Quistrum ...... 58 27 | 11 45|Hansteen.......... 1819) 1407 
Odensala ......| 57 26 | 12 03\Hansteen.......... 1822) 1°:367 | 
Wennersborg....| 58 22 | 12 17\Hansteen & Due.... |1828]| 1°381 | 

Saba s soaps e--.| 63 42 | 12 12/Hansteen..........|1825]| 1-423 @ 
BORE Ateneo 5 2. 55 27 | 11 54/Hansteen........../1820)) 1°384 | 

§J Fredericsberg ..| 55 56 | 12 18|Hansteen........../1820|| 1-403 
Helsingberg ....| 56 03 | 12 43/Hansteen.......... 1820] 1-378 
Copenhagen ....| 55 41 | 12 55/Hansteen.. ..|1820] 1-367 4 

Leinsie: Wiaas. 2: 51 20 | 12 22\Keilhau & Boeck .. 1826] 1-359 | 
WED (a Sabet ccs a Queteletie. sae 4s 32 1829] 1-363 q 

Magnar i vasis.... 59 57 12 29 Hansteen. . . |1825]| 1-420 

Berlin ..........| 52 31 | 13 22|Humboldt&G. ‘Lussae 1806] 1-370 

eae rt ee . MPT “54 Tae i en 1828|| 1-367 
eaesl. D2 . » |Quetelet ........../1829]|  1°367 | 

Dredien .. ...| 51 02 | 13 43/Quetelet ........../1829|/ 1-366 

Ystad...... iG Eis. ce | OO CO ehe OOMITICHSelie: ye .... (1824) 1°374 
Carlstad..,..:°. 59 23 | 13 26|Hansteen,......... 1825|| 1-378 
|< Mariestad .... .. 58 40 | 13 50/Hansteen & Due... . 1828) 1-381 
Lincoping ...... 58 26 | 15 38/Hansteen & Due.... 1828] 1-356 
Casnieath “thee. 05): 51 46 | 15 57|Erichsen .......... 1824) 1-351 
Oestersund...... 63 10 | 14 32)Hansteen....,..... 1825) 1:434 
Grimnas........| 62 50 | 15 10)/Hansteen.......... 1825]) 1:427 

RE Ce ae G2 29 | 16 @ [eansteen,....... 2. 1825|| 1:422 
Sundswall...... 62 22 | 17 16\Hansteen.......... 1825], 1:415 | 
Hernosand...... 62 38 | 17 53\Hansteen.......... 1825|| 1°42] © 

* Mean, 5 stations 59 12 11 16 1-383 4 
+ Mean, 5 stations 61 35 11 16 1-431 i 
+ Mean, 5 stations 57 58 11 31 1-384 
§ Mean, 4 stations 55 47 12 28 1:383 

|| Mean, 8 stations 58 50 14 18 1:372 4 


4 Mean, 5 stations 62 42 16 10 1-424 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 51 


Lat. | Long. Observer. Date.|| Intensity. 
59 15 | 17 50\Keilhau .......... 1827|| 1-444 
59 20 | 18 04)Hansteen.......... 1825]| 1-392 

” » |Hansteen & Due....|1828)| 1°386 
Se MMT ESATL 5 We cE» es avcress 1828] 1-386 
iH 9 |Rudberg.......... 1832|| 1°382 
54 21 | 18 38/Erichsen.......... 1824)| 1°374 
63 49 | 20 12|Hansteen.......... 1825|| 1°413 
54 43 | 20 30/Erman.......... .. |1826|) 1°365 
62 17 | 21 22|)Hansteen,...... .... |1825]| 1:406 
65 19 | 21 29|Hansteen...,.,....{/1825]} 1°448 
63 04 | 21 42/Hansteen.....,.... |1825)| 1°448 
61 29 | 21 46|Hansteen.......... 1825)| 1-400 
60 27 | 22 18}Hansteen........., |1825|| 1389 
63 38 | 22 51\Hansteen,......... 1825)| 1:414 
65 50 | 24 15|Hansteen.......... 1825) 1+445 
65 00 | 25 30|Hansteen, . ...|1825]} 1-440 
59 56 | 30 18|Hansteen & Due... . |1828)| 1-410 
59.15 OR 2aiErmiah i. dt. i es es 1828) 1:427 
» »  |Hansteen & Due... .|1828)} 1°417 
58 31 | 31 19/Erman............ 1828), 1-412 
» » |Hansteen & Due....|1828]| 1:412 
57 55 | 33 10)/Erman.......... . . |1828]) 1-416 
» »  |Hansteen & Due....|1828] 1:416 
57 35 | 34 40/Erman, . .. +. {1828}, 1417 
” » |Hansteen & Due. . . .|1828]| 1-395 
56 52 | 35 57|/Erman,....,...... 1828] 1-398 
» » |Hansteen & Due.... |1828)) 1:397 
55 46 | 37 36|Erman.,...... ... 1828] 1-408 
- 5, |Hansteen & Due. . . . [1828 _ 1401 
55 41 | 38 35|Hansteen & Due... . |!828||° 1-399 
” ” E RAS (ude wl osc gfe 1828 1-411 
55 59 | 39 59|Hansteen & Due.... |1828) 1-409 
” ” E Syeta: dadee Riscdts © 1828 1:463 
55 35 | 41 12\Hansteen & Due.... |1828| 1436 
» ee AMATO. Kd wih , {1828} 1-433 
55 54 | 42 26|Hansteen & Bue. _ |1828)| 1-423 
56 09 | 43 34\/Erman.. _... [1828] 1-434 
» ” Hansteen. & Due. ...{1828]| 1:400 
56 19 | 43 57|Erman,........... 1828)) 1:442 
” »  |Hansteen & Due....|1828]| 1-408 
56 06 | 45 48)/Erman...... we, Shanes 1828] 1:435 
PY » |Hansteen & Due..../|1828)| 1°431 
55 44 | 48 09/Erman............ 1828)} 1°450 
ss »  |Hansteen & Due... .|1828)| 1-428 


E2 


52 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


a 


Station. Lat. | Long. ” Observer. Date.|| Intensity. | 
Kasan.........-..| 55 48 | 49 O7/Erman............ 1828] 1-440 
Rear fs cies BP c's - » |Hansteen & Due....|1828)) 1425 
(lo i a ea 51 11 | 51 22)Hansteen.,........ 1829] 1°398 
Kitnpen 35. .---|.49 05 | 52 00)Hansteen.......... 1829], 1°370 
Orenburg ........|.51 45 | 55 06)/Hansteen.......... 1829] 1-432 
ie Ee iat 54 45 | 56 00 Hansteen.......... 1829) 1-469 
Ha yeme ois! a oF 23 09 277 38\Humboldt ........ 1801)| 1*351 
DO iets. Be SUMRUANIG ots Pst ee 1822]| 1*492 — 
JSMIBIGD iid os os 17 56 |283 O6/Sabine............ 1822|| 1:436— 
Madeira yy io)... os 32 3S) 1343 sO4 Sabine wate creel 2 oe o's 1822|| 1°373 7 
a Sl 9 Lear - ain | at abe c 1826), 1°377 
Ireland. By 301) 53 95 |352 o5|Lloyd & Sabi 1835|| 1-410 
stations ...... ea eey Bre ae aaa 
aes fewee he 56 27 355 35\Sabine............ 1836] 1-414 | 
Stromness ........ TPR YS Rie S10 2) 1836]| 1°419 
MGKEA: waits. sac GO O9 lps ASipabine 24.53. 0 oc oc 1818]| 1°443 © 
Lamon Gcncr... >. 51 31 |359 50|Sabine............|1827]| 1-372 4 
§ 6. Intensities from 1°35 to 1:25, . | 
Valencia ...... 39 29 |359 36|Humboldt ........ 1798) 1-241 
Cambrlg; +5. 40 55 | 0 46)Humboldt ......../1798) 1°305 
m< Barcelona ...... 41 23} 2 12)Humboldt ........ 1798} 1-348 
PABELONG So). +s 41 52 | 2 48\Humboldt ........ 1798} 1-209 
LPerpignan......| 42 43 | 2 57|/Humboldt ........ 1798, 1:381 
AGS Fade tou os ¥%s 48 52 | 2 21\/Humboldt ........ 1800} 1°348 — 
Montpellier ....| 43 36 3 53)Humboldt ........ 1798} 1°348 © 
+< Nismes ...... ../ 43 50 | 4 20!/Humboldt ......../1798| 1:294 | 
wen at eke 43 18 | 5 23\Humboldt ........ 1798) 1-294 
Me VOnS pis a ass 45 46 | 4 52, Humboldt&G. Lussace 1805) 1-333 — 
t< St. Michel......| 45 23 Humboldt & G. Lussac 1805] 1°349 © 
\s Cenis ......| 45 14 | 6 55 Humboldt& G.Lussac1805)} 1:344 © 
Geneva ........ 4612} 6 07\Quetelet ...... ... (1830) 1-292 | 
54 Gd. St. Bernard.. | 45 55 7 11\Quetelet .. 2.2.00... 1830} 1:294 — 
Lanslebourg ...... 45 18 |Humboldt& G.Lussac1805)) 1°323 — 
* Mean, 5 stations 41 16 1 do 1:296 
+ Mean, 3 stations 43 35 4 32 1312 
t~ Mean, 3 stations 45 28 5. 53 1°342 ! 
§ Mean, 2 stations 46 08 6 39 1-293 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 53 
Intensity. Lat. Long. Observer. Date.|| Intensity. 

Os 45 04) 7 42\Humboldt& G.Lussac|1805|| 1-336- 
St. Gothard 46 32 8 33/Humboldt&G. Lussac/1805]} 1-314 
BRA) oa) 5 46 4] 8 32)/Humboldt& G. Lussac}1805]| 1-325 
ie Re eo ok 45 48 | 9 06)/Humboldt&G.Lussac/1805|| 1-310 
a 45 28 | 9 09/Humboldt& G. Lussac|1805|| 1-312 
aa > Mu ouerelet ik 6525. 1830) 1-294 
Bema ON 43 46 | 11 15)Humboldt&G.Lussac|1805|| 1:278 
=) 5 Seal 48 08 | 11 34;/Erman............{1826/ 1:339 
BAAR dss a a8 41) 54 | 12 26|/Humboldt& G. Lussac}1805]} 1-264 
ee 49 58 | 12 52\Keilhau & Boeck ..|1826)) 1:334 
Marieste......... 45 38 | 13 47\Keilhau & Boeck ../1826|) 1:317 
Lohitsch ...... 45 55 | 14 13/Keilhau & Boeck ../1826/ 1:314 
PA os a 40 50 | 14 14;/Humboldt& G. Lussac]1805)| 1°274 
ke 50 05 | 14 27/Keilhau ..........{1826]| 1:332 
2S ee 47 04 | 15 27\Keilhau& Boeck ....|1826)| 1:327 
weseeese| 49 23 | 15 36)Keilhau& Boeck .. ..|1826|| 1-319 
Mienna)......:... 48 13 | 16 23\Keilhau& Boeck ....|1826|| 1-325 
Biaief........ 46 58 | 32 Ol\/Kupffer .......... 1829|| 1:275 
2 tes 47 12 38 58 Kupffer ........../1829] 1°308 
ae 45 03 | 42 01 Kupffer Wah wore toys 1829|| 1°327 
ee of Malka 43 45 | 42 30 Kupffer aS SRE ee 1829|| 1°302 
rachan ........ 46 20 | 48 00/Hansteen.......... 1830] 1-334 
Bas. ....| 13 39 {311 50|/Humboldt ......../1799|| 1:256 
US 20 41 |335 08)\Humboldt ......../1799|| 1:256 
BUREN e535. 2 28 27 |343 45)Humboldt ......../1798)| 1:272 
BRAG sk se ” »  |Freycinet.......... 1817] 1:340 
aMeOM ES ve e's 6 ” ” Sabine 26.02... ‘ 1822)| 1:313 
AS Sees 43 29 |351 46/Humboldt ......,.{/1799|| 1-262 
Ville el Pando . 41 58 |354 33)Humboldt ........ 1799|| 1:294 
Medina del Campo} 41 24 |355 16/Humboldt ........ 1799] 1°:294 
uadarama 40 39 |355 52;Humboldt ........ 1799) 1:294 
la Franca 42 37 |855 59|Humboldt ........ 1799|| 1:294 
BGs PRE ENS A) 25 1356 19|Humboldt . 1799}| -1-294 

* Mean, 4 stations 46 00 8 38 1:321 

+ Mean, 2 stations 45 45 14 00 1315 

t Mean, 3 stations 48 13 15 49 1:324 

§ Mean, 6 stations 41 45 354 58 1:290 


54 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


§ 7. Intensities from 1:25 to 1:15. 


Station. Long. Observer. 
Port William...... 87 00 | 38 00Estcourt .......... 1836 
Bessbra Wiese ce. 0 20 | 47 36\Estcourt ...... o.- {1836 
AniiSea hak. sacieh aA OF (PHO (OSlItitke 6 eens 1827 
Carthagena........ 10 25 |285 31;Humboldt ........ 1801, 
Mompox ...... 9 14 285 34;Humboldt ........ 1801 
Morales,....... 8 15 |286 0 |Humboldt ........ 1801, 
Nueva Valencia..| 10 10 |291 47/Humboldt ........ 1800. 
Hac. de Cura....| 10 16 |292 06;Humboldt ........ 1800 
Wictoriae sf... 2 10 14 292 30,\Humboldt ........ 1800 
+ Hac. de Tui ....| 10 17 |292 34;Humboldt ........ 1800 
1 Venta di Avila ..| 10 33 |292 53;Humboldt ........ 1800 
La Guayra...... 10 36 292 54;Humboldt . 1800 
Caracas........ 10 31 |292 56;Humboldt ........ 1800 
{ Silla de Curacas.. | 10 31 |292 59/Humboldt ........ 1800 
fCumana........ 10 28 |295 51)Humboldt “ 1800 
| Il Impossibile 10 26 \295 55|Humboldt ........ 1800 
T<<Cocollares;..... 10 10 |296 01\Humboldt ... 1800, 
Garipetrees. 2... 10 10 (296 07;/Humboldt ........ 1800 
Cumanagoa ....| 10 16 (296 02/Humboldt ........ 1800 
Tynided ey... s, 10 39 (298 25\Sabine.......... ./1822 
Pare ES $2 3. 10 53 |299 29|Humboldt acerwtename 1799, 
Port hts Ook... ..| 14 54 |336 30/Sabine............ 1822 
Ee is op Re SSR, hit 1826 
aie Sipe a enema) 
§ 8. Intensities from 1:15 to 1:05 

Bonin .|27 07 |142 24|Liitke ............ 1828 
Osh: 0 SURG is. 21 18 |202 0 |Douglas .......... 1830 
Mowi 20 52 |203 19Freyeinet.......... 1819 
Owhyhee ........ 19 43 |203 50;\Douglas .......... 1834 
Galapagos I. ......| 0 158.j269 29/Fitz Roy .......... 1835 
Guajaquil ......| 2 138.280 03,Humboldt ........ 1803, 
§ Cuenca ........| 2 558./280 47/Humboldt ..,..... 1802 
Alausi va.eee| 2 138.1281 0 [Humboldt ». 2... (1802 
Riobamba...... 1 428./281 16|Humboldt ........ 1802 

* Mean, 3 stations 9 18 285 42 1-227 

+ Mean, 8 stations 10 24 292 35 1:203 

+ Mean, 5 stations 10 18 296 00 1184 

§ Mean, 4 stations 2168. 280 46 1:055 


Intensity, 


1198 | 


1175 


1186 


1-294 


1-199 
1°188 | 
11274 
1189 — 


1°251 
1-168 


1-230 | 
1-262 — 
1-209 


1189 


1178 | 
1219 — 


1-178 


1:178 | 


1/168 
1198 
1-220 


1:193 


1177 
1:156 


1-111 
1°119 


1-133 ’ 


1-098 
1-069 
1:058 
1029 
1:058 


1-077 — 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH, 55 
Station. Lat. Long. Observer. Date.}| Intensity. 

Bll sacs 0.14.28] 16\Humboldt ........ 1802) 1-067 

}*< San Antonio....| 0 0 (281 19 Humboldt ........|1802)| 1:087 

oe di Ibarra ..| 0 21 /281 42;Humboldt ......../1802)) 1:028 

SUC a 113 |282 39;Humboldt ........ 1801] 1:048 

Bp Atmaquer Bee 154 (283 06/Humboldt ........ 1801] 1:067 

ee ropoyan’ ...... 2 38 283 21/Humboldt ........ 1801] 1:117 

Sp Oarthago?|...... 4 45 (283 54\Humboldt ... . |1801)| 1-077 

4 Ibague ........ 4 27 |\284 41/Humboldt ......... 1801]| 1:147 

_S. Fé de Bogota | 4 36 (285 47/Humboldt ........ 1801) 1:147 

Honda.. .| 5 12 |285 07|/Humboldt ........ 1801|| 1-117 

Bocca di Nares | 6 10 |285 20/Humboldt ........ 1801|| 1:137 

a Atabapo ...... 4 03 |291 50/Humboldt ........ 1800) 1-077 

PApufe........ 7 53 |292 01|/Humboldt ........ 1800) 1-107 

Peeaiures........ 5 38 (292 02;\Humboldt ........ 1800) 1°117 

| Carichana ....| 6 34 (292 06/Humboldt ........ 1800)| 1:157 

Calabozo...... 8 56 (292 10/Humboldt . ...... 1800) 1:107 

Bepiavita........ 248 (291 59'Humboldt ........ 1800) 1:068 

14 St. Carlos |. 17| 1 54. 292 22ltumboldt ““higool| 1-048 

es. Nueva Barcelonaj!10 07 (295 16)/Humboldt ...... .. |1800)) 1°127 

| ) St. Thomas .. 8 08 (296 06/Humboldt ........|1800) 1:107 

PRiver Cie ....\03 08 ./349\27\satine.. a2... |. 1822) 1:141 

Sierra igene’...... 8 29 |346 45/Sabine............ 1822)| 1.053 
|| Saag 


a Gh See er B POKES ei ace cas ‘ 
Siavahan .......... 13 26 |144 44\Liitke ........00.. 1829} 0-980 
maAgagha........:. 13 28 {144 58/Freycinet.......... 1818] 0°968 
Meehset 2.2.6.0... Gubes NOs titkE 8222S A 1827|| 0-990 
i 11227 NG GA thes o's koe eg 1827|| 0-970 
re 256 |162 50\Liitke ............ 1827), 1-018 
Mb Sea ft... es A U7 -gDOA BAM ike 08 ols tee. es 5 1827) 1-001 
Meisea =. ........ 3.47 (162 59|Liitke ............|1827] 1°010 
Se 18 440) diet Gal Litithkes wit st disc ices 1827) 0°989 
Merraea 6c... .. 35N./232 56 Liitke ............ A 

4 * Mean, 3 stations 0 2 281 26 1:061 

ig + Mean, 3 stations 1 52 383 02 1:077 

— + Mean, 3 stations 4 36 284 47 1:124 

a § Mean, 2 stations 5 31 285 14 1-127 

_ || Mean, 5 stations 6 36 292 02 1:113 

oe 4 Mean, 2 stations 2 21 292 10 1:058 

‘im ** Mean, 2 stations 9 07 295 41 1117 

nl a a 


56 


Driviston II. 


_ SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


SouTHERN HEMISPHERE. 


§ ll. Intensities from 0:95 to 1-05. 


Cape of Good Hope34 1158. 


9 


18 26\Freycinet. . 
Fitz Roy 


AW wc aw cine ts 1 348. 131 00\Freycinet 

Olea 2 pany: 7 22N.143 S7|Liitke ..........-. 

Lugar. Sit cues. 5 29N. 153 eeiLutke =f). we: 

Los Valientes.... .. 5 46N. 157 05 Liitke hk ee 
* Mean, 7 stations 5 10 S. 28043 1-01 
+°’Mean, 4 stations 7 21S. , 281 20 1:01 


7 
2 


Station. Lat Long Observer. Date. || Intensity. | 
Ayavaca ......| 4 388.|280 26/Humboldt ........ 1802) 1-019 
Gualiaquillo sos |.4.528,|280. 26|Humbold@t:”.2. . ..0.. 1802) 1:028 
Gonzanama ....| 4 13S./280 27 Humboldt ........ 1802) 1:009 
Guancabamba ..| 5 148./280 37/Humboldt ........ 1802)| 1:019 
Puearatinc...... 5 568.|280 37|Humboldt ........ 1802|| 1:009 
Amazon's River..| 5 488./281 13)Humboldt ........ 1802)) 1:009 
Tomependa ....| 5 315/281 24\Humboldt ........ 1802|| 1°019 
Montan . 6 33S8./281 10 Humboldt .. . |1802)| 1:009 
Micuipampa .. 6 44S./281 21\Humboldt ........ 1802| 1-000 

il Santa . 8 59S8./281 23,;Humboldt ........ 1802)| 1°019 

Chcsamunuetg 7 098.|281 25 Humboldt ...... 1:019 

Maranham........ 2 328.|315 39\Sabine............ 1-016 
§ 10. Intensities helow 0-95. 

St, Thomas:....... 0 25 6 45|Sabine j 1822) 0-931 

a gas Ui 27 268.\311 27\King ............ 1827) 0-920 

Rio de Janeiro ...-lo9 555.1316 51\Freyeinet........ (ieee 0890 

” ‘: RS eee 1827) 0:886 

aif a Pees Birman. 680". cen 1830) 0°879 

a Pr eee EUOy Se o+.. (1832) 0°878 

LH LA Cees aera ena 12 59S./321 30/Sabine............ 1822) 0-898 
ae eae ¥ » | (Fitz Roy... .... 2... (1836) -0°871 
Pernambuco ...... 8 048.|325 09/Fitz Roy........... 1836) 0-914 
Ascension . 7 568.1345 36|Sabine............ 1822| 0-920 
‘ eS 33 pede ac. Oat Sere ae 1836| 0:873 

St. Helena. BAAS, os, 5. ck 15 55S,354,17|Fitz)Roy os ..6..... |1836 0°836 


0°945 
1-014 
1044 
1:004 
0-998 | 
0-993 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 57 

Station. Observer. ue Intensity. 
Mu... 0. ...... a aR SH EO, 1827] 1-002 
MatGea ..3.....:. 4 Pathe 2 SS H53; Goss 11827] 0-998 
Miser .......... 13 hr ae eae 1827| 1-014 
Bmasma 3d... 9 Humboldt .. 1802) 1-000 
‘Guarmey ...... 10 Piotnboldt “fs: .2 24 1802] 1-000 
Pitiauras*...... 11 ‘Humboldt ........ 1802} 1-009 
El Ramadal 1] 5 Humboldt ... 1802] 1-009 
ema is... 12 Humboldt ........ 1802) 1:077 
ei 34 03 King A te Ber 1829| 1:041 


§ 12. Intensities from 1:05 to 1:15. 


Mauritius ........ 20 Freyeinet ». . vs siess 1818} 1-096 
YE ee Fi TA | aan Ae 1836]| 1-192 
|| Amboyna ........| 3 Es os cccswine ss 1792) 1:097 
Otaheite GS Sa 17 HORM Sale e te eyes 1830] 1°172 
Bd seers : Fitz Roy.......... |1835]} 1-017 
Shes 30's 29 PUA TLOY wo sees + - |LGeay Poe 
ee a 38 Fitz Roy........../1832} 1-113 
‘Monte Video...... 34 FY oe a care 6 1830] 1-065 
nee BEER LENGY. .ewco)s ire, « 1833] 1:°055 
Ma erey 2. ais 40 Littke ....0......./1827]) 1:110 

§ 13. Intensities from 1:15 to 1°25, 
_ Guo 10 Freyeinet 05. 3.5.4: . |1818}).:0e1 77 
Re a. 39 Fitz Roy ........../1885/ 1-238 
4 soe eer 36 Riutke 2h 08. lo... | T82 Tie deee4 
itor s ME cy feeeuhres | LBZ0} .. o2bE 
pees Fitz Roy. ... |1835]) 1-186 
ee eghe s ae 028. 288° 19iLiitke |”... ...... 4. (1827 1:170 
Sey King sentences {1830 1:176 

§ 14. Intensities from 1:25 to 1:35. 

fuan Fernandez.. ..|33 38 s.l281 LS NS eee 1830|| 1-262 
455 ace ree 41 00S8./282 30\Litke ............{1827]} 1:324 
./43 488.1285 58|Fitz Roy APB nae 1835]] 1:326 
Rr ee 41 518./286 04/King Boe scticteva sie 3 |1LS2Oi rica 
- REE aE Fitz Roy .......... {1834 1°304 
SCCM ICE 49 188. 302 48/Liitke ............{1827]| 1268 


* Mean, 5 stations 


o 4 erie 
10 528. 282 10 1:019. 


58 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


§ 15. Intensities from 1°35 to 1°45. 


l 

Station. | Lat. | Long. | Observer. Date.|| Intensity. 

| f 

,| | ’ 
Bay of Seals ...... 25 43 S.113 20, Freycinet,......... 1818 1-421 
R. Santa Cruz ....|50 078.291 36/Fitz Roy.......... 1834) 1-425 
Port Desire .|47 458.294 05/Fitz Roy.......... 1833), 1-355 
Sea Bear Bay...... 47 518.294 12 King eho eSorL e 1829) 1:361 
OS eee 55 258.1298 27iLutke ......0.....-- 1182 1-413 
Falkland Ids. ...... 51 338.301 55 Freycinet.......... 1820 1°363 
Ae ke ze 51 328.301 53 Fitz Roy ........../1833) 1-349 
Be Bi Scahont | » |» [Bitz Roy.......... 1834] 1385 


§ 16. Intensities from 1°45 to 1°55. 


Port Famine ...... 53 388.289 o2\King ............ ‘sez 1-505 
ae et | Fitz Roy ..........|1834)| 1-560 
St. Martin’s Cove ~. 55 51 S. 292 26 King yey aoe Rage Lo 1827) 1:498 


§ 17. Intensities from 1:55 to 1°65. 


New Zealand ...... 35 16 8.174 00 Fitz Roy.......... 11835, 1-591 
§ 18. Intensities from 1-65 to 1°75. 
Sydney i. 0... oss 33 51 S151 17 Freycinet ET ee 1819 1-631 
Poet te tee »  |Fitz Roy..........|1836}) 1°685 
King George’s Sound|35 02 Ss. 1 17 aa Figg, Hiya? e250 il 836) 1-709 
§ 19. Intensities from 1°75 to 1°85. | 
Hobart Town...... 42 53 8.147 24 Fitz Boyes: Shox: 1836, 1-817 i 


3 
3 


| | 
. ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 59 


Additional Table, containing the Observations made by M, 
Erman at sea, on his return from Kamischatka to Europe 
hy Cape Horn, 


_ These observations were received from M. Erman since this. 
_ Report was sent to press, which occasions their being given 
in a separate table. 


Latitude. | Longitude. ip. Intens. 


203 32 . || 1°52 

213 38 . 1°587 

{ 221 01 1:639 
291 23 1-673 

j 230 24 1:580 
233 39 . 1°551 

j 235 28 1°528 
935 54 1°556 

234 18 1-435 

235 41 1-394 

238 24 | | 1:380 

{ 238 59 1-402 
239 08 1-364. 

239 28 1:377 

238 54: . 1°321 

238 37 1°356 

238 15 1°341 

238 12 1:289 

237. 57 1-271 
{ 237 45 1-241 
237 34 1-219 

j 237 13 1°185 
236 55 1°183 

236 36 1°158 

236 28 15143 

236 22 1°136 

j 9 235 58 . 1°107 
8 235 57 1:082 

7 236 26 1:053 

6 236 42 1-055 

5 236 38 1-056 

4. 235 47 1-049 

2 234 17 1-028 

1 233 29 1:018 

f 0 232 54. 0-992 
0 232 27 0-986 


Pacific Ocean 


” 


| 
| 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Latitude. 


OONNTNTD EDRF NOR RE Re Reker OOCOCOoOsooc: 
na 
bo 
TN 


Longitude. 


232 09 
231 44 
230 40 
299 44 
229 29 
298 41 
228 30 
298 16 
298 0 
297 18 
296 28 


225 32 
225 03 
223 46 
222 12 
221 49 
221 13 
221 O 
220 16 
218 42 
218 3 
Z17 4 


216 53 
216 41 
215 58 
215 21 
214 59 
214 52 
214 51 
214 38 
214 37 
214 51 
214 31 
213 59 
212 26 
209 49 
209 29 
210 O 
209 54 
209 57 
213 08 
213 25 
212 58 


Ino CSOooooooorNwmnnerf ot Oso 
_ 
D 
bo 
Z 


45 26°5 S. 
47 20°6 S. 


Intensity. 


0°997 
0°995 
1°014 
1:022 
1:029 
| O:977 
0-980 
1-000 
1:028 
1:015 
0:996 
0°942 
1-008 
1°015 
1:004 
1:009 
1-022 
1-001 
0:981 
1-016 
1032 
1-031 
1:009 
1:033 
1:066 
1°105 
1°081 
1:070 
1-114 
1-118 
1-124 
1°095 
1075 
1-121 
1:091 
1°253 
1-209 
1°250 
1-349 
1°324 
1°257 
1°339 
1°371 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 61 


Latitude. | Longitude. Dip. Intensity. 
Pacific Ocean ...... 82 928. | 214 35 | 49 0718. | 1-361 
» 34 238. | 216 27 | 51 12°78. 1-370 
»” 34 558. | 218 29 | 52 29°38. 1°392 
34 288. | 220 19 | 50 32°98. 1°426 
? { 36 178. | 219 50 | 52 17°68. 1°407 
” 387 39S. | 218 41] 53 52:48. 1-489 
» 42 048. | 218 44 | 58 48°48. 1°509 
» 44248. | 221 59 | 61 428. 1°543 


45 6S. | 225 11 | 61 56°78. 1°545 
45 05S. | 228 23 | 61 43°98. 1611 
47 138. | 237 34 | 63 15°58. 1°583 
48 11S. | 242 23 | 63 39°6S. 1-609 
48 508. | 245 29 | 64 25°58. 1666 


”? 


—_—-—"“" 


» 51 03S. | 252 22 | 65 48°6S. 1614 
” 55 03S. | 266 24 | 66 16:18. 1°630 
» 56 288. | 276 38 | 65 05°68. 1:576 
” 56 O58. | 284 36 | 62 51°38. 1°537 


‘ %s 58 31S. | 289 35 | 61 05°68. || 1-592 
Atlantic Ocean .... | 57 268. | 295 56 | 60 0658S. || 1-491 
{ 56 02S. | 299 34 | 58 2668. |] 1-391 
55 368. | 302 02 | 57 28-48. || 1-412 


9? 


” 52 448. | 304 26 | 54 29°08. 1°301 
»” 50 128. | 304 17 | 51 09°58. 1:280 
» 47 118. | 306 20 | 48 445 S. 1:233 


39 488. | 308 45 | 40 27:0S. 1°023 
37 09S. | 309 41 | 36 41°98. 1:016 
35 44S. | 310 23 | 34 09:9 S. 0°938 
33 048. | 312 02 | 30 3°48. || 0-984 


—_r—“_ 


» 29 538. | 312 28 | 25 32°5S. 0°923 
» 27 588. | 314 20 | 22 01°28. 0°899 
” 26 22S. | 315 30 | 19 44-758. 0°880 


24 128. | 316 19 | 16 02°08. || 0:844 
24 248. | 316 12 | 15 47-98. || 0-916 
24 188. | 318 35 | 16 35:08. || 0-867 
24 538. | 324 26 | 18 29°98. || 6-852 
24 268. | 325 12 | 15 17:18. || 0-811 
24 06S. | 325 14 | 15 56°68. || 0-809 
20 56S. | 325 15 | 9 45:18. || 0-816 
20 OOS. | 325 0] 7 53:38. || 0-743 
19 38S. | 324 56}. 7 3408S. || 0°792 
18 578. | 324 57 | 7 19°88. || 0-820 
17 33S. | 325 54 | 4.4408. |} 0-784 

2 

1 

0) 


2? 


16 178. | 326 30 28:08. || 0°795 
15 568. | 326 33 33°58. || 0°797 
14 538. | 326 49 24°8 N. || 0°838 


amare Os 


62 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Latitude. | Longitude. Dip. Intensity. 

' 14 258. | 327 05 | i 28:8N. || 0-856 
Atlantic Ocean.... | 13 1g, | 397 92 | 3 18-2 0°812 
i 9 42S. | 328 15| 9 280 0*892 
¥ 5 198. | 329 12 | 17 43:0 0992 
3 51S. | 329 19 | 20 242 0-949 
” 1 53S. | 329 33 | 23 28:9 1:031 
‘4 0 96N.| $29 45 | 27 165 1-043 
z 230 | 329 32 | 30 48-4 1-074 
i 426 | 329 56 | 34 295 1-094 
if 545 | 331 21 | 35 165 1-094 
9 36 | 333 34 | 39 144 1°125 

” 10 24 | 333 35 | 40 483 1114 
11 3. | 332 38 | 41 548 1°187 

r { 12 36 =| 331 42 | 4d 463 1:209 
14 36. | 330 58 | 46 20°9 1-201 

15 53 =| 329 26 | 48 15-9 1-273 

” { 16 41 328 48 | 49 52-0 1:238 
19 05 | 396 42| 51 596 1311 

” { 21 Ol 325 07 | 54 440 1314 
i 24 0 | 392 55 | 58 172 1375 
26 26 «=| 321 55 | 60 49:0 1°4.06 

” { 28 02 =| 321 22 | 61 536 1°404 
29 34 | 320 14 | 63 12:0 1427 

” { 30 30 =| 319 29 | 64 17:3 1-478 
31 11 320.12 | 64 45°7 1:469 

” { 32 55 «6| 319 3 | 65 213 1-468 
33 45 | 318 36| 66 44 1:4.99 

” { 34.29 | 318 18 | 67 26°5 1:500 
35 0 | 318 33 | 67 366 1°505 

» { 3615 | 319 56 | 68 17°5 1°507 
37 96 | 321 22 | 68 19% 1°501 

” { 38 24 | 392 57 | 69 O7-4 1491 
{| 40 09 | 325 20 | 69 32-9 1°504 

» \| 41 97 | 3297 25 | 70 036 1-466 
“ 42 29 | 398 34| 69 476 1°512 
is 44922 | 330 55 | 71 O71 1°515 
» 46 46 | 335 42 | 70 18:5 1°463 
47 47 | 343 58 | 69 460 1421 

” { 47 46 | 344 25 | 70 149 1-419 
-, 48 13 | 347 7 | 69 278 1°422 
i, 4916 | 351 58 | 69 105 1-416 
British Channel ...... 50 48 358 54 | 68 45°0 1*380 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. - 63 


Section IJ].—Gerenerat Conciusions. 


In considering the comparative fitness of the three kinds of. 
magnetic lines, those of equal variation, equal dip, and equal 
intensity, to promote a knowledge of the system of terrestrial 
magnetism, the lines of equal intensity have in one leading re- 
spect an advantage over the other two. Viewed under the most 
favourable circumstances and in its simplest aspect, the magnet- 
ism of the earth is still, it must be acknowledged, a highly com- 
plicated subject ; and needs not the additional complication of 
its phenomena being involved with considerations foreign to 
itself. Now the lines of equal dip and equal variation do 
not express simple magnetic relations. The lines of equal dip, 
for example, connect those stations on the earth’s surface where 
the direction of the magnetic attraction forms a certain angle 
with the horizontal plane at the station. But every station has 
its own horizontal plane depending on the direction of gravity, 
which has no known or necessary connexion with magnetism. 
The zero planes thus differing, the equality of dip does not ex- 
press, or necessarily imply, a simple magnetic relation, but has 
reference to the attraction of gravitation as well as to that of 
magnetism. ‘The lines of equal variation express a complex re- 
lation of a similar character. Here also the zero planes change 
with the station; and, the variation being the same at two sta- 
tions, by no means implies parallelism in the direction of the 
needle at them, or any other specific relation whatsoever inde- 
_ pendent of the geographical pole, which pole has no known or 
necessary connexion with magnetism. It is not the same with 
the lines of equal intensity. Whatever may be the sources of 
agnetic attraction, and wherever their situation in space,— 
rhether superficial as regards the earth,—or above or beneath 
its surface—the line of equal intensity expresses the equality of 
their resultant at all those points of the earth’s surface through 
_ which it is drawn, unmixed with any considerations foreign to 
‘magnetism. ‘They are pure magnetical isodynamic lines at the 
urface of the globe; and express a common relationship to the 
purces of magnetical attraction. ‘The instruction they convey 
s therefore more simple, direct and unequivocal than in the 
e of the other two. The eye of the mathematician may dis- 
n the pure magnetic indication through the complex signi- 
ation of the lines of equal variation and dip; but the lines 
of intensity are better suited to convey the system of magnetism 
s indicated by the phenomena to the general apprehension. 


Gt SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


I proceed to notice a few of the most striking inferences which 
are deducible from the observations of intensity recorded in 
this report. 

1. The lines of equal intensity are not parallel with the 
lines of equal dip, and the difference is systematic. 

In 1805 M. Biot published an investigation of the laws which 
should govern the dip and the intensity, in the hypothesis of a 
magnet situated at the centre of the earth, having its poles in- 
finitely near to each other, and directed to opposite points on 
the surface of the globe. It is a well-known consequence of this 
hypothesis, that the lines of equal dip and equal intensity on the 
earth’s surface should everywhere be parallel to each other. 

It has always appeared to me that the distinguished author of 
this investigation has been taken much beyond his meaning, 
when he has been supposed to have propounded this hypothesis 
as a general representation of the facts of terrestrial magnetism 
then known, or of those which should be shown by more ex- 
tensive experience. He was doubtless fully aware that, many 
years antecedently, the phenomena of the variation had been 
shown by Dr. Halley to be wholly irreconcileable with the 
geometrical deductions from a single central magnetic axis; 
and that Euler, who may in some degree be regarded as an op- 
ponent of Halley upon the subject generally, fully acquiesced 
in this conclusion. Accordingly, M. Biot made no comparison 
of the hypothesis with the variation, considering no doubt that 
its inapplicability in that respect had been already shown. A 
few facts of the dip were the only observations with which he 
compared the formule of his hypothesis, and with some of 
these it appeared to accord tolerably; but still there were 
anomalies which drew from him the acknowledgement, that to 
represent even those few facts of the dip, it would be neces- 
sary to add to the influence of the primary axis the supposi- 
tion of subordinate centres. That he had no expectation of its 
proving applicable to the intensity, any more than to the varia- 
tion, is, I think, beyond a question, when we read the following 
sentence: ‘‘Quant A la declinaison et 4 l’intensité nous avouons 
franchement que nous ne savons absolument rien sur leurs 
lois ni sur leurs causes: et si quelque physicien est assez 
heureux pour les ramener 4 un principe unique, qui explique en 
méme temps les variations de l’inclinaison, ce sera sans doute 
une des plus belles découvertes que Yon ait jamais faites.”* 


* Journal de Physique, vol. lix. p. 450. The state in which the question 
was left by Halley and Euler was, I believe, as follows: Halley decided in 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 65) 


_ The light in which I have thus considered M. Biot’s essay is 
the same, I think, in which it was regarded at the time, by his 
distinguished coadjutors in this and so many other branches of 
science. MM. Gay Lussac and Humboldt, in closing the ac- 
count of their magnetic observations on the continent of Europe — 
in 1805 and 1806, remark as follows: ‘* Les inclinaisons corre- 
_ spondantes données par la théorie d’aprés M. Biot, sont toutes 
beaucoup plus grandes, car les plus petites différences vont a 
_prés de 4°. En supposant la position de l’équateur magnétique; 
Tigoreusement déterminée, il en resulteroit qu’en Europe, il y 
a une inflexion considérable des paralléles magnétiques vers 
Yéquateur, occasionnée par l’influence de quelque centre parti- 
eulier. Mais pour tirer aucune conclusion a cet égard, il est 
prudent d’attendre que des observations exactes et plus nom- 
breuses fournissent des bases solides, sur lesquelles on puisse 
- élever une théorie rigoreuse qui les embrasse toutes*.” It is 
here fully recognised that M. Biot’s was not “ cette théorie 
rigoreuse” which, resting on the solid basis of induction from 
a competent assemblage of facts, should have a proportionate 
claim to be regarded as a general representation of the pha- 
nomena. 
In showing the incompatibility with subsequent observations 
| of this ‘‘ abstraction mathématique,” as M. Biot himself de- 
_signated it, I do not therefore consider myself as opposing 
_ either his opinions or his expectations. 
_ It has sometimes appeared to me that the very simplicity of 
| the laws of this hypothesis has tended to counterbalance in 
_ some degree the advantage it produced, in recalling attention 
_ to a subject; the interest in which had been for some years 
_ suspended. Apart from the question of accordance or non- 


favour of four poles, as the best representation of the phenomena: Euler hesi~ 
tated to accede to this until it should be shown more decisively that the pha- 
mena might not be represented by a single excentric axis, having its semi- 
| axes of unequal length; claiming in such case the preference for the latter 
| supposition over that of four poles, as being more suitable for geometrical de- 
ductions. To liave accomplished what such men as Halley and Euler had left 
complete would have been an undertaking not unworthy of M. Biot; but it 
would have required the preliminary labour of collecting together, as M. 
Hansteen has since done, the great body of the facts of observation, which, at 
_ the time his essay was written, were scattered in the journals of travellers and 
| ee navigators, and in the transactions of learned societies of many countries. This 
. ibour might well in prospect have deterred him from the attempt ; but it was 
dispensable for the purpose of furnishing the basis of.a philosophical induc- 
tion of such general laws as should comprehend the whole of the phenomena. 
On no less solid foundation was it probable that phenomena should be repre- 
Sented, known to wear so complicated an aspect, and which had been the sub- 
ject of the long-continued investigation of the eminent men above noticed. 
__ * Lhave put in Italics the part of this extract to which I particularly refer. 
_ VOL. VI. 1837. F 


66 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


accordance with facts, simplicity recommends itself to all; 
and persons imperfectly acquainted with the phenomena may 
have been led by it to undervalue observation, when detached 
portions of its facts, inconsistent with the hypothesis, may have 
come under their notice; and, departing from the principles of 
inductive philosophy, may have suffered themselves to look to 
the hypothesis rather than to the phenomena. The simplicity 
of its resulting phenomena is, however, that characteristic in 
which it specially departs from the facts of nature. The real 
phznomena are complex, as all who have studied them will 
most readily admit; and it can scarcely be expected that the 
laws which are to represent them should not also have in some 
degree an appearance of complexity, until the laws of their 
causation shall be discovered. 

In a science which stands in need of national aid for its ex- 
perimental extension, it is peculiarly desirable to remove such 
erroneous impressions as militate against a belief in the value, 
and consequently the importance, of experimental research. 

I propose, therefore, in the first place, to show, that the irre- 
concilability of a single central axis does not rest on insulated 
facts only, or, as some may have supposed, on the conclusions 
of a single observer, but that all those who have principally 
concurred in extending the boundaries of our experimental 
knowledge of late years, have arrived at the same conclusion 
in that respect, and have uniformly borne testimony to the in- 
applicability of the formule of that hypothesis to represent their 
respective observations; and, secondly, to direct the reader’s 
attention to those facts in particular, which may produce the 
readiest conviction of the systematic departure of the lines of 
dip and intensity from that law of the hypothesis by which they 
should have parallel courses. 

We have already seen the conclusion at which MM. Gay 
Lussac and Humboldt arrived in 1807, namely, that their ob- 
servations in France, Italy, and Germany, taken in conjunction 
with M. de Humboldt’s in America, could only be reconciled 
with M. Biot’s hypothesis, by supposing the existence of a 
secondary centre extending its influence over the continent 
of Europe, and acting conjointly with the primary. 

From 1807 the spirit of experimental inquiry slumbered for 
a while; the times were unpropitious to a research which re- 
quired freedom of access to different countries, and safety and 
facility in traversing extensive spaces of the earth’s surface. 
At length it revived nearly simultaneously, in Capt. de Freyci- 
net’s voyage of circumnavigation, and in the British expeditions 
for the discovery of a north-west passage. Between 1818 and 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 67 


1823 I had the good fortune to enjoy opportunities of observing 
the magnetic phenomena over a portion of the globe amounting 
to about one-eighth of its surface, or the quarter of an hemi- 
sphere. In comparing, on my return to England, the observa- 
tions of dip with M. Biot’s formula, the differences between cal- 
culation and experiment were seen to be not atsingle stations only, 
but systematic, extending over large spaces of the globe; the 
discrepancies were also so great as (in the words which I em- 
ployed in 1825) to make it “‘ certain that no two positions could 
** be assigned to the magnetic poles, which would enable a cal- 
** culation of the dip as a function of the magnetic polar distance, 
** in which differences from fact should not be found of 10° and 
“upwards.” Further, in comparing the observations of dip and 
intensity with the parallel course, which, according to the hy- 
pothesis, the lines of equal dip and equal intensity should 
preserve, their irreconcilability with this law was shown to be so 
great and so systematic as to be ‘ decisive’ against the sup- 
** posed relation of the force to the observed dip; and equally 
**so against any other relation whatsoever, in which the re- 
“spective phenomena might be supposed to vary in corre- 
** spondence with each other.” Another important difference 
was also pointed out. Inthe hypothesis the maxima of dip 
and intensity are coincident: with this the observations were 
at variance ; those of the intensity placing its maximum several 
degrees to the southward of the geographical position which 
the bhservations of dip indicated as that of the dip of 90 de- 
rees*, 

In 1830 M. Erman returned from a journey in which he had 
carried magnetic observations over a space on the globe still 
more extensive than mine, and (which should be specially no- 
ticed) so entirely distinct from mine, that we had not a single 


* The observations of intensity arranged around their own centre presented 
much less discordance with the laws of an uniaxal hypothesis than appeared 
in those of the dip when referred 'to the position of the pole as indicated by the 
dip of 90 degrees. By substituting in the formula of that hypothesis the “ iti- 
nerary distance from the maximum of intensity” for the “‘ magnetic polar di- 
stance,” and employing this formula as an empirical representation, it was 
found to correspond with the facts of the intensity within the district comprised 
by my observations, with no very material discrepancies. In that portion of 
the hemisphere in which the influence of the primary centre is predominant, 
ne variations of the intensity may be easily imagined not to differ greatly from 
the effect of a single axis; and such is apparently the fact. It happened that 
my observations, extensive as they were, fell within that limit; had they been 
pursued a few degrees further to the eastward, the influence of the Siberian 
centre would have become more sensible, and the uniaxal formula would have 
ceased to afford even an approximate representation of the facts. But this 
perhaps will be better understood when the sequel of the report has been read, 


F2 


68 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


station in common. I cannot state his conclusions better than 
by giving his own words*. 

* Tignes a égale Intensité, ou Lignes Isodynamiques.— 
Esperant encore completer mes observations relativement a 
ces lignes interessantes, pendant mon passage du Brésil en 
Europe, je me borne icia en relever quelques particularités frap- 
pantes, et nommement celle, qu’en Siberie les lignes isodyna- 
miques ne sont rien moins que paralléles aux lignes d’égale 
inclinaison. Nous voyons au contraire sous le meridien d’Ob- 
dorsk et de Tobolsk, les premiéres avoir des branches déscen- 
dantes presque verticales ou légérement infléchies du N.O. 
au §.E., tandis que les lignes a inclinaison égale y sont presque 
horizontales. 

* * % * * 

‘** Ces indications préliminaires suffiront pour prouver que 
Yancienne théorie, développée par Euler et Krafft, et plus 
tard par MM. Humboldt et Biot, et qui ne suppose gu’un seul 
axe magnétique, est absolument en défaut pour les loix de l’in- 
tensité de la force magnétique. En effet, l’intensité n’étant 
d’aprés cette théorie qu'une fonction de l’inclinaison, les lignes 
qui representent l'un et l'autre de ces phénoménes, devraient 
conserver une marche toujours paralléle. On peut en tirer la 
conséquence interessante, que la position des deux poles mag- 
nétiques n’est pas la seule qui régle les phénoménes de I'incli- 
naison et de la declinaison dans les différentes parties du 
globe; mais qu'il existe encore une cause secondaire qui n’af- 
fectant toutefois que tres faiblement la declinaison et lincli- 
naison, et la derniére d’autant moins qu’on lobserve plus prés 
de I’équateur, exerce cependant sur les loix de l’intensité une 
influence si puissante qu'elle en efface presque tous les carac- 
téres déduits par la théorie.” 

M. Erman’s conclusions, in respect to the non-parallelism of 
the lines of dip and intensity, and the insufficiency of a single 
magnetic axis to represent his observations, were almost iden- 
tical with mine. Our difference, in regard to the particular 
class of the phenomena which were most at variance with that 
hypothesis, arose from the different parts of the globe which 
had been the field of our respective researches. 

I have next to state the inferences of M. Hansteen as an 
experimentalist, drawn from his observations in his own ex- 
tensive journeys. ‘This need occupy the less space, because I 
have already} endeavoured to show, as clearly as the necessity 


* Mémoires de l’ Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St. Petersburg, 1831, (Bulletin 
Scientifique). 
+ Fifth Report of the British Association, p. 72—73. 


t. 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 69 


of great condensation would admit, the arrangement of the lines 
of intensity, and their systematic departure from parallelism 
with those of the dip, which, in his theory of four poles, founded 
on the assemblage and study of the earlier observations of the 
dip and variation, M. Hansteen had anticipated, previous to his 
own experiments. It is sufficient to show, as may be done by 
a single sentence written since his return from Siberia, that the” 
results of these have accorded with his previous views. ‘Thus 


is confirmed in the clearest and most satisfactory manner what 


I had earlier inferred from the two other magnetic phenomena ; 
namely, that in the northern hemisphere there are two magnetic 
centres, or poles ; and that the westernmost, in North America, 
has asensibly greater intensity than the easternmost in Siberia*.” 


Having thus shown the concurrent opinions which those 
who have most extensively engaged in the experimental in- 
quiry have been led to form, it remains to place the facts them- 
selves in a convenient manner before the general reader. The 
complete view of the systematic difference in the course of the 


two kinds of lines is best obtained, by comparing the map of 


the intensity lines in this Report with M. Hansteen’s map of 


the dip lines for 1780, in the Fifth Report of the British 
Association}. The lines of dip have undergone some changes 


since that period, but none which much affect their general 
configuration. All readers, however, may not have that 


‘volume at hand, and I have therefore traced in Plate I. 


the course of the line of equal intensity which passes through 
our own islands, for 160 degrees of longitude, and have 


exhibited it in comparison with the neighbouring lines of dip. 
The line of intensity, shown by the continuous line, is taken 


from the general map accompanying this memoir. The por- 
tions of dip-lines, marked by the dotted lines, are taken from 
M. Erman’s map drawn from his own observations, in_ the 
Annalen der Physik, vol. xxi. The intensity line, which in 


the meridians of 280° and 290° is in close juxtaposition with 


* Ann. der Physik, vol. xxviii. p. 579. 

+ I may take this opportunity of stating that the sea portions of M. Han- 
steen’s map of the dip in 1780 rest on the authority of between 900 and 1000 
observations of the dip made at sea between the years 1767 and 1788, and that 
these are tabulated in the Appendix of the Magn. der Erde. The observation 
of the dip at sea in favourable weather was the habitual practice of many of the 


“scientific navigators of that period, such as Le Gentil, La Perouse, Ekeberg, 


Lewenhorn, and our own countrymen Phipps, Hutchins, Abercrombie, and 
Pickersgill. It is much to be wished that it were a more frequent practice now. 
M. Erman, in his voyage from Kamtschatka to Europe, found a number of 


days sufficiently favourable to enable him to observe the dip in not less than 


167 geographical positions at sea. 


70 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


that of 50° of dip, successively intersects in its eastern pro- 
gress all the lines of dip between 52° and 73°, with which 
latter it coincides in lat. 60° and long. 10°; it then again de- 
scends, intersecting successively, a second time, the same lines 
of dip, until it touches that of 57° in long. 70°. When it is 
seen that the same line of intensity successively coincides with 
the lines of dip of twenty different degrees, it must be admit- 
ted that their systems are not parallel, and that the conclusion 
was justly drawn, that the facts could not be represented by.an 
hypothesis in which the intensity should vary as any function 
of the dip. A conclusion by no means at variance, however, 
as has been erroneously imagined, with their having a causal 
connexion. 

Nor is the fact of non-parallelism confined to the northern 
hemisphere; on the contrary, the southern hemisphere ex- 
emplifies it in a still more striking degree. Thus we have in 
South America the line of unity under a dip of 0, as observed by 
M. de Humboldt in Peru; and at the Cape of Good Hope, the 
same line of unity under a dip exceeding 50°, as shown by the 
concurrent observations of Captains de Freycinet and Fitz Roy; 
whilst at Port Desire and atthe Falkland Islands, these officers 
found an intensity of 1:36, with nearly the same dip as had 
been found at the Cape of Good Hope accompanying an inten- 
sity less than unity. 

‘In M. Erman’s dip-lines (Plate I.), which represent his 
own recent observations, and are quite independent of pre- 
existing evidence, we see the same double flexure, of which 
the importance, in its bearing on physical causes as well as 
on empirical laws, was pointed out in the Fifth Report of the 
British Association, page 67. This double flexure takes place 
also in the intensity lines, but ina more marked degree. In 
both series of lines the radii vectores drawn from the geo- 
graphical pole have two maxima and two minima; a line joining 
the parts of each curve which approach nearest to one another, 
i.e. at the points of minima, will divide the area into two un- 
equal portions, the larger comprehending the American, and 
the smaller the Siberian centre of attraction. But there is a 
distinction in this respect between the two series of curves of dip 
and intensity, which has been pointed out by M. Erman, and 
is illustrated by the annexed diagram (Plate II.), taken from his 
paper in the Annalen der Physik, vol. xxi. The diagram re- 
presents the northern hemisphere, on which the curves of in- 
tensity of 1:45 and of 75° of dip are drawn. The longitudes 
of the maxima of both these curves are nearly the same; but 
not so those of the minima. In the curve of dip, the minima 


peat > 
‘ 


te “s; 


* 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 71 


are in the longitude of 35° and 140°; in the curve of intensity, 
in those of 20° and 175°. The Siberian portion of the inten- 
sity curve bears consequently a larger proportion to the whole 
area of that curve, than the Siberian portion of the dip-curve 
does to its total area. From the general resemblance of the 
several lines of dip to each other, and of the several lines of 
intensity to each other,—the characteristics of each being - 
always marked, though gradually softening as they approach 
the middle regions of the globe,—the features of distinction 
which are thus strongly marked in the curves compared by M. 
Erman, must exist also in a greater or less degree in many. 
Here, then, is another striking and systematic difference in the 
two species of magnetic lines*. 


2. The lines of intensity in the northern hemisphere system- 
atically indicate the existence of two centres of attraction of 
unequal force. 

The examination of the graphical representation of these 
lines in the maps will convey a clearer apprehension of this 
systematic indication than a lengthened verbal description. 
The higher the values of the intensity of each isodynamic line, 
—in other words, the nearer the lines approach the centres of 
attraction,—the more unequivocal is their testimony. The 
smaller areas included by the curves in the Siberian quarter 
mark the less extensive influence and inferior power of the 
Siberian centre. Looking next at the values of the intensities 
represented by the lines, we find in the neighbourhood of New 
York, a portion of a line of 1:8, to which there is no equiva- 
lent in Asia. The highest intensity there is 1°76, observed by 
Lieut Due at Viluisk, which M. Hansteen believes, and with 
great probability, derived from the configuration of the lines, to 
be the highest existing in that quarter. It is improbable, 
moreover, that the greatest intensity in the American quarter 
should be found so far south as New York; the configuration 
of the lines, as shown particularly in the north polar map, in- 
dicates the maximum to be nearer Hudson’s Bay}. 


* M. Erman remarks that the difference is of that character which would 
appear to indicate for the Asiatic centre a less depth beneath the surface than 
the American. 

+ Since the above was written, the first number has reached London of the 
Observations Météorologiques et Magnétiques faites dans l’étendue de l' Empire 
de Russie, which have been confided to the editorship of M. Kupffer. In the 
introduction we have a formal recognition of the existence of the Siberian pole. 
“La Russie est aussi la terre classique du magnétisme terrestre. Il y aun 
pole magnétique dans le nord de la Siberie.” 


72 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


3. The two centres of magnetic attraction in the northern 
hemisphere are not at opposite points ; in other words, the dif- 
ference of geographical longitude between them is not 180°, 
measured both ways. 

This is also best evidenced by inspection. Their distances 
apart are more nearly 200° measured across Greenland and 
Norway; and 160° across Behring’s Strait. 


4. The magnetic intensity is unsymmetrically distributed in 
the meridians of the northern hemisphere. 

This is a consequence of the two centres being nearer to 
each other in the one direction than in the other. If we 
imagine the hemisphere to be divided into two equal sections, 
by a plane coinciding with the meridians of 100° and 280° (Plate 
V.), the American division, which we may call the western sec- 
tion, will contain both centres of attraction, and a higher mea- 
sure of intensity will be seen to be spread over its meridians 
than in the corresponding latitudes in the eastern section. 
Thus we find, that in 150 meridians, or in five-sixths of the 
eastern section, no intensity of so high a value as 17 has been 
found within the range of observation, and probably does not 
exist ; whilst in the western section there is not a single me- 
ridian in which a higher intensity than 1°7 is not found. Europe 
is situated nearly midway between the centres at their widest 
separation, and we find that throughout Europe (with possibly 
the exception of its S.W. extremity in Spain), the magnetic 
intensity is weaker in every latitude than in the same parallels 
elsewhere in any other part of the hemisphere. 


5. The lines of intensity in the southern hemisphere havea 
general analogy with those in the northern hemisphere. 

The materials from whence conclusions may be drawn are 
fewer in the southern than in the northern hemisphere; but 
aided by our acquaintance with the magnetic system and dis- 
tribution in the latter, we are enabled to trace the general 
analogy of the two hemispheres, though the particular con- 
clusions in the case of the southern must necessarily be less 
determinate and exact than those we have hitherto discussed. 

We have already seen that the lines of dip and force depart 
from parallelism with each other even more in this hemisphere 
than in the northern. We may also perceive in the portions 
of the curves, which observations have as yet enabled us to trace, 
evidence of the same double flexure which in the other hemi- 
sphere we have seen to be characteristic of two centres of 
governing influence, The radii vectores carried from the south 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 73 


geographical pole would have also two maxima and two minima. 
The New Holland curves inclose larger areas than the South 
American, indicating that the centre to which they more espe- 
cially belong is more powerful than the other. We have another 
indication of the same fact in the appearance in Van Diemen’s 
Land of an intensity exceeding 1°8, which in the other hemi- 
sphere we have seen to characterise distinctively the centre of 
primary influence. The coincidence in this respect in the two 
hemispheres is very striking ; not only is the highest intensity . 


yet observed in the one, (1°80 at New York,) matched by the 


nearly identical value of 1°82 at Hobart Town, but the geogra- 
phical latitudes of the two observations are also nearly identical, 
New York being in 40° 43' N. and Hobart Town in 42° 53'S. ; 
both being unexpectedly low latitudes in which to find such 
high intensities. 

With regard to the geographical positions of the centres in 
the southern hemisphere, the observations are yet too few 
and too distant from them to admit of their localities being 
assigned with any fair degree of approximation ; but by com- 
paring the observations in Southern Africa, and on the east 
coast of South America, with those of the corresponding paral- 
lels in the better known hemisphere, we are able to infer with 
considerable probability, that the southern centres are not only 
not in opposite points of the hemisphere,—that is to say, distant 
180 degrees of longitude from each other, measured both 
ways,—but that they are nearer to each other in the one diree- 
tion, and more distant in the other, than is the case with the 
centres of the northern hemisphere. We have seen that in 
the meridians of Europe, where the northern centres are widest 
apart, the lower intensities extend. greatly northward, occupy- 
ing latitudes which in all other parts of the hemisphere possess 
a higher intensity. In the southern the same thing takes place, 
but in greater degree. ‘The line of unity, once thought to 
be the minimum intensity on the globe, is found on either side 
the Atlantic in south latitudes exceeding 30°; whence we may 
conclude that in the higher latitudes of the southern Atlantic, 
a much lower intensity prevails generally than the lowest inten- 
sities in the same latitudes in the northern hemisphere; eviden- 
cing that the space between the influential centres is wider in that 
quarter of the southern, than in the corresponding quarter of 
the northern hemisphere. 

The converse of this should be found in the Pacific section. 
As the southerly inflection of the lines of low intensity in the 


South Atlantic is the greatest, so should their southerly in- 


flexion in the opposite section of the hemisphere be the least, 


of the inflections which these lines undergo in either hemi- 


74 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


sphere. The observations by which this inference might be 
confirmed are few, but none give a contrary indication. Every 
observation in the South Pacific section shows that a higher 
intensity prevails there than in equal latitudes in the North 
Pacific section; and, as far as the lines can yet be traced from 
the observations, the inflection in the South Pacific does ap- 
pear to be the least marked in character, and to extend over 
the fewest meridians. It is of course the lines of higher in- 
tensity which would afford the more decisive evidence, because 
their characteristics are more marked; but the authorities for 
these are few in the part of the space between New Zealand 
and South America, where they could most illustrate the point 
in question. 

In review, we conclude, therefore, that, as far as observa- 
tions have yet been made in the southern hemisphere, they 
accord with a system analogous to that in the northern, of two - 
centres, of unequal force, and at unequal distances apart. The 
observations further render it probable, that the distances be- 
tween the centres are still more unequal in the southern than 
in the northern hemisphere. Admitting the small difference 
of distribution from this cause, there does not appear reason 
to suppose that there is any general inequality in the magnetic 
charge of the two hemispheres ; on the contrary, there is every 
appearance that they have the same. 


6. If the globe be divided into an eastern and a western 
hemisphere by a plane, coinciding with the meridians of 100° 
and 280°, the western hemisphere, or that comprising the 
Americas and the Pacific Ocean, has a much higher mag- 
netic intensity distributed generally over its surface, than the 
eastern hemisphere, containing Europe and Africa and the 
adjacent part of the Atlantic Ocean. 

This is a corollary from (4) and (5) rather than a distinct 
proposition. The four centres being in the western hemisphere 
a higher intensity will prevail generally in its meridians; and 
this is accordant with the whole body of observations distri- 
buted over the globe (Plate V). 

The equality of the magnetic charge in the northern and 
southern hemispheres and its inequality in the eastern and 
western, are important features of the magnetic system mani- 
fested by the observations of intensity. 


%. The distribution of the intensity in the intertropical re- 
gions is accordant with the conclusions already drawn, of two 
governing centres in each hemisphere. 

As the lines of higher intensity are those which have the 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 75 


characteristics of the system most strongly marked, I have 
chiefly employed them, where observations would permit, in 
describing its general features. The characteristics soften 
gradually as the distance increases from the governing cen- 
tres; but even in the intertropical regions the distribution of 
the intensity and the arrangement of the lines contribute their 
testimony to the same system. I have nowhere attempted to 
assign the precise geographical positions of the centres ; and in 
regard to those of the southern hemisphere especially, have 
expressly stated, that the facts yet acquired would not enable 
this to be done within fair limits of approximation. Thus 
much, however, may be safely said in regard to them, that the 
primary in the southern, and the secondary in the northern, 
are at the present time not far from the same meridian; and 
that the primary in the northern, and the secondary in the 
southern, are similarly situated, except that their difference of 
longitude is somewhat greater. If we respectively connect 
the centres, which thus approximate in longitude, by lines 
on the globe crossing the equator, the lines will mark those 
localities within the tropics where the influence of the cen- 
tres should produce a higher intensity than elsewhere in 
the same latitudes. Thus we should have two maxima in the 


_ intertropical regions; and these should not be in opposite me- 


aera SA ake and 


~ 


ridians, because the centres are unsymmetrical. Such is ac- 
tually the distribution of the intensity in these regions. The 
isodynamic lines which represent unity are the weakest which 
run unbroken round the globe, and appear twice in every me- 
ridian; these approach each other in the meridians of 110° 
and 260°, whilst, intermediately, they recede from each other, 
and inclose spaces occupied by a still weaker intensity; the 
largest of these spaces, corresponding to the widest interval 
between the centres, is of 210 degrees of longitude, and the 
smallest of 150 degrees. In the middle of the largest, as the 
point most distant from all the four centres, we should expect 
to find the weakest intensity existing anywhere at the surface of 
the globe; and accordingly at St. Helena, which is nearly in 
that situation, the intensity observed by Captain Fitz Roy, 0°84, 
is the lowest determination recorded in this report, and is the 
locality of the weakest intensity yet observed on the globe. 
Between St. Helena and the lines of unity on either side, we 
should have a line representing the value of 0°9, a part of 
which has been extremely well determined by concurrent ob- 


_ servations. This line, being comprehended by the lines of 


unity, is necessarily a closed one. Observations are yet want- 
ing to show whether the intensity descends as low as 0°8 in the 


76 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


middle of the larger space, or as 0°9 in the smaller space, 
which has its locality in the Pacific*. 

We may also trace in the intertropical regions another con- 
sequence of the inequality of force of the primary and secondary 
centres. Where the lines of unity approach each other in the 
Pacific, the primary is to the north, the secondary to the south; 
the latitude in which the lines approach is consequently to the 
south of the equator. In the Indian Sea the primary is to the 
south, and the secondary to the north ; and here the latitude 
in which the lines of unity approach each other is to the north 
of the equator. 

Every geographical meridian has a point of minimum inten- 
sity ; if these points in different meridians were connected by a 
line, that line would separate the intensities of the northern 
from those of the southern magnetic hemisphere. It would be 
in some respects analogous to the line of no dip, but it would not 
be aline of equal intensity, as it would consist of intensities va- 
rying from unity to the lowest on the globe. Such a line traced 
on the map is found to differ very considerably in geographical 
position from the line of no dip. 


8. The geographical position of the maximum of intensity 
in the North American quarter is not the same with that of the 
maximum of dip, or with that of the point of convergence of 
the variation lines. 

It will be necessary here to enter into rather more precise 
geographical positions than we have hitherto done. In regard 
to the maximum of dip we cannot err widely in taking the lati- 
tude and longitude where Capt. James Ross observed the dip 
of 89° 59! in 1831, viz. 70° N. and 263° E. That this is also 
very nearly the spot to which the variation lines converge may 
be shown abundantly by the observations made in the different 
polar voyages by sea and land}. It is marked by an asterisk 


* Since the above was written Mr. Erman’s sea observations have been re- 
ceived ; he crossed the space in the Atlantic included by the line of 0-9 some 
degrees to the west of St. Helena, and, midway between the north and south 
portions of that line, found the intensity diminished below 0°8. Captain Fitz 
Roy’s observation at St. Helena is consequently no longer the lowest observed 
on the globe; and it is probable that even a lower intensity than was observed 
by M. Erman would be found a few degrees to the south of St. Helena, and 
nearly in the meridian of that island. 

+ M. Hansteen, who has brought together the observations of dip and va- 
riation made in the different polar voyages, finds that the variations observed 
to the north of the latitude in which the dip is 90° and in the vicinity of that dip, 
converge to a point alittle to the north of thatlatitude ; and conversely, that the 
variations observed to the south converge to a point south of that latitude; or, 
more exactly, that the curves of highest dip are ellipses, having theirgreater axes 


—— 


abe CS 5 


pee’ 
we 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 7? 


in the North Polar map annexed to this report. If the reader 
will nowrefer tothat map (PlateIV.), he willsee that this position 
will by no means accord with that which the observations point 
out for the maximum of intensity. We are not, indeed, enabled 
to assign the position of the latter as nearly as in the case of 
the dip; but it must clearly be in a much lower latitude. The 
intensities observed in Baffin’s Bay and the Polar Sea have 
all a much lower value than at New York; and the general 
configuration of the lines of intensity would rather point to a 
maximum in the vicinity of the shores of Hudson’s Bay. 

‘This remarkable feature of the system was first brought to 
notice in the account of my magnetic observations published 
in 1825*. Ina point of so much interest, it is natural to in- 
quire whether there is any indication of a similar separation at 
the principal pole of the opposite hemisphere. Observations 
as yet do not enable us to assign with sufficient approxima- 
tion the places of the maxima in that quarter; but we are in 
possession of a leading fact, which, by its complete analogy 
with the phenomena at New York, gives strong ground for 
believing that in the southern hemisphere also the places of 
the maxima of the two phznomena are distinct. Ihave already 
noticed the almost identity of the force at Hobart Town and 
NewYork, under nearly equal geographical latitudes; but there 
is yet another feature which completes the analogy, and bears 
directly on the point now treated of. At New York we have 
the highest intensity of the northern hemisphere, 1°80, with a 
dip of 73° 07’; at Hobart Town the highest intensity of the 
southern hemisphere, 1°82, with a’dip of 70° 35’. In both hemi- 
spheres the highest intensity united with a comparatively low 
dip. Nor in that quarter is Hobart Town a solitary instance of 


in a north-west and south-east direction, and that the variation lines converge 
not to the point of 90° but to points in this axis. Small differences of position, 
however, have no effect on the reasoning in the text. 

- * It has been viewed by M. Kupffer as having a direct and important bear- 


_ ing on the very interesting question of the physical nature of the magnetism of 


the earth. In the Ann. der Physik, vol. xv., after describing the course of the 
isogeothermal lines (or lines of equal temperature of the earth at 25 metres be- 
low its surface) between the meridians of 80° west aud 60° east of Paris, he has 


discussed the influence which the facts represented by those lines should 


have on the magnetic dip and force, in the case of the earth’s magnetism being 
superficial and induced. The differences of surface temperature affecting the 
intensity but not the dip would cause the isoclinal and isodynamic lines to se- 
parate where otherwise they might have been accordant; and would especially 
separate the places of the maxima, causing the maximum of intensity to be in 


the lower latitude. M. Kupffer considers the fact of their being thus separated 


_ as giving probability to the aforesaid view of the physical nature of the earth’s 
_ magnetism. 


78 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


high intensity with comparatively low dip; at King George’s 
Sound and Sydney, in 34° and 35° south latitude, Captain Fitz 
Roy found intensities of 1°71 and 1°68 with dips of 64° 41’ and 
62° 29’. 

Should such a separation exist at the secondary centres, it 
cannot be expected to be of so striking a character. I wish 
not to anticipate the more able discussion which we may ex- 
pect on this point from M. Hansteen, whose long and arduous 
journeys were undertaken expressly to determine with exact- 
ness all the phenomena of the Siberian pole. I will confine 
myself, therefore, to noticing his remark already referred to, 
that he believes the intensity observed at Viluisk to be the 
highest intensity existing in Siberia. Should this be so, the 
highest intensity in that quarter is certainly not in the same 
locality as the highest dip*. 

Our knowledge of the phenomena in the neighbourhood of 
the secondary centre in the southern hemisphere is not suffi- 
cient to throw any light on this question. 


With regard to the direction which the lines of higher 
intensity may be conceived to take around their maxima in 
the northern hemisphere, we should infer from the observations 
that the line representing 1°8 must be a closed curve around 
the North American maximum only; as must also be that of 1°9, 
supposing such to exist. 

The North American portion of the line of 1°7 appears also 
to be nearly, if not quite, a closed curve. Encompassed on the 
north, east, and south, by intensities of less value, the western 
is the only direction open for its connection with the Siberian 
portion of the same line. The situation of the two branches 
of the line of 1-7 in the west of America is marked by the ob- 
servations ;—the southernmost crossing the lower waters of the 
Columbia River,—and the northernmost between Sitka and 
Melville Island. Whether these branches join and form a 
closed curve, or whether they communicate with the Asiatic 
portion of the same line in some such courses as is represented 
by the dotted line in the polar map, observations do not yet 
enable us to decide. No intensity of so high a value as 1°7 has 
yet been observed between Sitka in 224°, and the meridian 


* It is much to be desired that the observations in Siberia should be still 
further completed by a series of determinations along the shores of the polar 
sea. If the view here taken be correct, these should exhibit higher dips and 
lower intensities than were observed at Viluisk. From the liberal support which 
the Russian government gives to the prosecution of magnetic inquiries we may 
expect that such observations will not be long wanting. 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 79 


of 138° in Siberia; and it is possible that a navigator sailing 
from the Pacific through Behring’s Strait, and passing the Bay 
of St. Lawrence where Admiral. Liitke observed 1°65, might 
proceed to the northward having the spaces included by the 
closed curves of 1:7 on either side of him. 

The space inclosed by the curve of 1°8 possesses a very high 
degree of magnetic interest, and is well deserving of being 
traversed by observations as frequent and as accurate as those 
of MM. Hansteen and Erman in Siberia. The greater part of 
it is in the British dominion, and over a considerable portion at 
least convenient means of locomotion are to be found. The 
British Association had but to express the wish that a magnetic 
survey of the British Islands should be made, and it was at 
once responded to by some of its ownmembers. ‘The present 
volume contains the record of the completion of that under- 
taking ; and it may be permitted to one of the contributors to 
that work to express a hope, that the attention of the Associa- 
tion may now be given to the British possessions abroad. 
In the extensive territory under British dominion in India, not 
a single determination has yet, I believe, been made of the 
magnetic intensity, and but few of either of the other pheno- 
mena. From the well-known zeal of the officers of the Indian 


service, a recommendation in the proper quarter would speedily 


cover that large portion of the earth’s surface with accurate 
magnetic determinations. But the Canadian quarter is of pro- 
minent interest; a correct delineation of the lines of variation, 
dip, and intensity in the space included by the curve of 1°8, or 


_ in even a portion of that space, would have a high value in 


ox Rien angi ty smi ae 
- - ; - 


sya 
= 


if He 


>. 


by 
i s 
z 


theoretical respects. 'The accomplishment of this service is 
not altogether beyond the compass of individual means, and 
needs not, like a southern voyage, await the success of an ap- 
plication to Government. It requires only for its proper ex- 
ecution, that it should be the principal object of the person 
undertaking it, and that he should be provided with adequate 
instruments. Were the wishes of the Association expressed in 
regard to Canada, as they were in regard to the British Is- 
lands, I have little doubt that they would soon be complied 
with by members of their own body*. 


* The ground which Capt. Back traversed in his journey in search of Capt. 
Ross in 1833 and 1834 is of great interest as regards the magnetic intensity ; 
and had that officer been furnished with suitable instruments, and had it ac- 
corded with his other objects to have made observations in the manner of MM. 
eensteen and Erman at every halting-place, his results might have possessed 
great value. 

The vibrations of the dipping-needle, which he employed to measure the in- 


80 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


9. The highest intensity already observed is more than twice 
as great as the lowest. 

The intensities observed at New York and Hobart Town, 
compared with that at St. Helena, are as 1°81 to 0°84, or as 
2°16 to 1. 

St. Helena is not the lowest intensity; and the force at 
New York and Hobart Town cannot be viewed as abso- 


tensity, appear to have been subject to a considerable instrumental uncertainty ; 
and the needle lost magnetism during the absence from England to a large 
amount, but at what time the loss took place is not very obvious from the ob- if 
servations. Under these circumstances I have not felt that I could assign with y 
sufficient confidence the value of the intensity relatively to Europe at any of ! 
Capt. Back’s American stations. By grouping them, however, and comparing 4 
the values of the intensity in different groups, relatively to each other only, and 
not relatively to Europe, we may considerably lessen the effect of the irregu- 
larities above mentioned, and obtain an indication, which, if we could view it as 
sufficiently clear from instrumental uncertainty, would possess much interest. 
For example, if we group neighbouring stations as in the subjoined table, and 


make the intensity at New York the unity of the comparison, we have as fol- ‘ 
lows: viz. 
r= Mean 
Station. Date| < Lat. | Long. |Time off 3 |——_—__~________ ||. Tntemm 
a T if . 
North West Vib, | & Lat. | Long. va Ther. 
1833] 4, ae s. . uy = S. 3 | 
New York........++ Apr.| 40 42 7401 |1:2857|/69: | 4042] 7401] 1:2857 | 69 || 1-000 


Fort Alexander ...|Jun.} 5037 96 21 | 1-2482| 70-5 a 
Cumberland House |July| 5358] 10222 | 1:2643/59-5 | 5320/10213| 1:2681 | 68 || 1-027 
Isle 4 la Crosse ...... July} 5525] 10755 | 1-2969| 73:5 (a) 


Fort Chipewyan ...|July| 5842] 11119 | 1-3000) 95- j og 
Fort Resolution .../Aug.| 6110] 11345 |1-2387| 65-6 ¢ °956)11232) 12693 ) 80 | 1-035 


Oct.| 6246] 10901 | 1-2750) 44- (0) 
i 1834 

Fort Reliance «+4 (nray| is4:{  vssses [12844149 ( 6246{10901] 1-2792 | 40 || 0-9 

Get.) Sake. |) Near 1-2781| 28- 
Musk Ox Rapid .../July| 6441] 10808 | 1-2873| 64- ‘ 
Rock Rapid ......... July} 6554} 9810 | 1-2800) 87- % 
Point Beaufort...... July| 67 41 95 02 | 1:2975| 72- 6651] 9819} 1-2838 | 70 || 1-002 
Montreal Island ...|Aug.| 67 47 9518 | 1:2885] 74: (cm 
Point Ogle ......... Aug.| 6814] 9458 | 12656] 53- Fi 


Here we see that the groups (a) and (4), which have their mean position about 
53° N. and 102° W., (258 east), and GO N., and 1123 W. (2473 east), have a 
higher intensity than the more northern group (c), which has its mean position 
about 67° N. and 98° W. (262 east). These groups (a) and (6) have alsoa 
higher intensity than that of Fort Reliance to the north, or New York to the 
south. New York, Fort Reliance, and the northern group (c), scarcely differ in 
the values of their respective intensities, This arrangement is quite conformable 
with the lines in the polar map. 

I have taken Capt. Back’s observations from Mr. Christie’s paper in the Phil. 
Trans. for 1836; the times of vibration at the stations in America being those 
contained in the table page 393, That table shows that the needle was vibrated at 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 81 


lutely the highest. If we suppose the minimum to reach 
0°74, (one of M. Erman’s sea observations is 0°743) and the 


every station with its face to the face of the instrument, and that at some of the 

- stations it was also vibrated in the reverse position. Where this has been done 
there often appears a considerable difference between the times of vibration 
at the same place in the two positions, which must be ascribed to instrumental 
defect. It does not appear to have been of the nature of a constant error in 
either position of the needle, as sometimes one position gives the highest inten- 

, Sityand sometimes theother. I have taken the twelfth column just as it stands, — 
that is, the times of vibration in the position which was everywhere observed, 
as there can be no question of the comparability of those with each other ; and 
T haye reduced the times of vibration to an uniform temperature by the coefli- 
cient which Mr. Christie found for that needle; but I have introduced no other 
corrections, either for loss of magnetism or on any other acconnt. I have grouped 
the results by taking the mean latitude, longitude, and intensity of the neigh- 
bouring stations, connected by brackets. 

If the intensities are taken from a mean of all the observations at each of the 
stations, including those in the reversed, as well as in the direct position of the 
needle, the inferences drawn above are somewhat strengthened, as is shown in 
the following table :— 


Station. Lat. Long. Time of |Ther.'| Intensity. 
North. East. Vib. 


New York ......-..] 40 42 | 285 59 | 1:2857 | 69 | 1-000 
Group (a) .........| 53 20 | 257 47 | 1:2644 | 69 | 1-033 


: Group (2) ......4 .| 59 56 | 247 28 12607 | 80 1:045 
bo Fort Reliance..... | 62 46 | 250 59 | 1:2758 | 40 1002 
Pm Group (c) .........| 66 51 | 261 41 | 1:2857 | 70 0°999 
‘* 


_ Mr. Christie, in combining the observations at different stations and in differ- 
ba ent positions of the needle, has followed a somewhat different course, and has 
"arrived at somewhat different conclusions. With more perfect instruments,— 
with observations alike complete at all the stations,—and repeated at New 
York as well as in London, to test the permanency of the needle’s magnetism,— 
_ there would not have been room for any difference of view. The only result 
absolutely deducible from the observations, and in which all persons must 
_ agree, is the comparability of the intensities at the different stations of the 
© northern group with each other, and with Fort Reliance ; as the observa- 
_ tions of May and October, 1834, show by their agreement that during 
_ that interval the needle underwent no change. The conclusion to be drawn 
from this portion of the observations, which are as strictly comparable as 
_ the imperfection of the instrument permits, is, that in the district which it 
comprises no consistent alteration takes place in the intensity. If any small 
alteration does take place, it would require a more delicate instrument than’ 
| Capt. Back was furnished with to determine it. 
It is in these countries that the statical method of Professor Lloyd would be 
_ of the greatest advantage. I have already had occasion to speak of the disad- 
vantage to which the method by horizontal vibrations is exposed in countries 
of very high dip, where every error in the dip is magnified to a high degree in 
__ its effect on the intensity deduced; and of the preference due in such cases to 
_ the vibrations of a dipping-needle. But it is well known that this latter method, 
_ though a trust-worthy, is far from being a delicate test of differences of mag- 


me VOL. VI. 18d7. G 


82 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


maximum 1°85, the proportion would be 2°5 to 1. It seems 
probable that this is rather under than over the difference 
existing in the present distribution of the intensity. If the 
centres change their relative places, by having unequal mo- 
tions, both the absolute and the relative values of the max- 
imum and minimum must be variable. 


This report has already occupied so large a portion of the 
annual volume, that I feel the propriety of not permitting the 
inferences of an individual judgment to trespass further on 
its pages. Ihave endeavoured, to the best of my power, to 
place the facts themselves before the reader in such a manner, 
that, on the one hand, he may have no difficulty in tracing every 
observation to its original source,—and on the other, that by the 
assemblage of the results in one view, he may be enabled with 
the greater facility to draw his own conclusions. 

Having in a former report described M. Hansteen’s theory 
of the magnetism of the earth, and given the formule for the 
variation, dip, and intensity deduced from his hypothesis of two 
excentric axes of unequal force, it may be expected that I should 
conclude this report by comparing some of the observed inten- 
sities with the results computed by the formula. I may there- 
fore add a few words to show that the proper time for a detailed 
comparison of this kind has not yet arrived, because observa- 
tion is stillinarrear of theory. Until observation has supplied 
the materials which theory has required for the correct assign- 
ment of the elements of calculation, such a comparison could 
not be otherwise than imperfect. 

The geographical positions of the magnetic poles in the 
Magnetismus der Erde were derived from observations made 
between 1787 and 1800, which were insufficient to furnish them 
in more than a very general manner. Since that period also, 
changes, of the nature anticipated by M. Hansteen, appear to 
have taken place in the positions of the poles; which conse- 
quently require to be assigned afresh (as well as more cor- 
rectly), in order that the results computed by the formula may 
represent observations of a more recent date. ‘The materials 
proper for this purpose are observations in the vicinity of the 


netic intensity, even with a good instrument, on account of the shortness of the 
period during which the needle will continue to vibrate, and the consequent 
necessity of commencing with a large are of vibration. With an inferior instru- 
ment the limits of error are of course much wider still. In high magnetic la- 


titudes the statical method deserves a decided preference over the method of . 


horizontal vibrations, inasmuch as a moderate error of the dip will scarcely have 
an appreciable effect on the intensity ; and over that by verticul vibrations, inas- 
much asit admits of much greater exactness. 


he 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH, 83 


magnetic poles themselves. In the northern hemisphere, these 
are far more ample and exact than at any former period, owing 
in great measure to the interest excited by the publication of 
M. Hansteen’s theory. But the corresponding observations in 
the southern hemisphere are yet wanting; and until these are 
supplied, we cannot advance beyond an anticipation, more or 
less confident, of the eventual accordance of the hypothesis, 
when the correct elements of calculation shall have been ob- 
tained ; and in this view, we may at least say thus much in re- 
gard to the general accordance of the hypothesis with the ob- 
servations of intensity, that if we omit the consideration of the 
higher latitudes, where the contemporaneous and correct posi- 
tions of the magnetic poles are most essential, the formula, 
even with the elements derived from the earlier and less perfect 
observations, both represents all the leading features of the 
system, and shows a fair approximation in individual cases. 
_ The method in which this science has progressively advanced 
is strikingly illustrative of a passage in Mr. Playfair’s writings, 
in which the distinct offices of theory and experiment, and the 
value of their co-operation in inductive investigation, are well 
described. ‘‘In physical inquiries the work of theory and ob- 
servation must go hand in hand, and ought to be carried on at 
the same time, more especially if the matter is very complicated, 
for then the clew of theory is necessary to direct the observer. 
Though a man may begin to observe without any hypothesis, 
he cannot continue long without seeing some general conclusion 
arise; and to the nascent theory it is his business to attend, 
because by seeking either to verify or to disprove it, he is led 
to new experiments and new observations. He is led also to 
the very experiments and observations that are of the greatest 
importance; namely, to those tmstancie crucis that naturally 
present themselves for the test of every hypothesis. By the 
correction of his first opinion a new approximation is made to 
the truth, and by the repetition of the same process certainty 
is finally obtained. Thus theory and observation mutually 
assist one another; and the spirit of system, against which 
there are so many and so just complaints, appears nevertheless 
as the animating principle of inductive investigation. The 
business of sound philosophy is, not to extinguish this spirit, 
_ but to restrain and direct its efforts. It is therefore hurtful to 
_ the progress of physical science to represent theory and obser- 
vation as standing opposed to one another.” 
The earlier observations of terrestrial magnetism were made 
_ without reference to theory. As facts accumulated general 
- conclusions arose. ‘Their elaborate examination conducted to 
G2 


84 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


an hypothesis of four magnetic poles; and this, to the sugges- 
tion of new experiments to verify or disprove it. In the north- 
ern hemisphere the verification is complete, affording signal 
proof of the value of experiment directed by theory. A simi- 
lar verification in the southern hemisphere is yet wanting ; and 
the observations necessary for that purpose will also supply 
those elements of calculation whereby the hypothesis may be 
fitted for a detailed comparison with facts. ‘This will be the 
next “‘stepin the advancement of knowledge ;’—the next ‘‘ term 
of a series that must end whenever the real laws of nature are 
discovered” ;—but which, in its progression, fitly prepares the 
way for their discovery. 

i have already adverted to what the influence of the Associ- 
ation may effect, in causing the spaces yet vacant on the map, 
in the British possessions in India and Canada, to be filled. 
But beyond all comparison, the most important service of this 
kind, which this or any other country could render to this branch 
of science, would be by filling the void still existing in the 
southern hemisphere, and particularly in the vicinity of those 
parts of that hemisphere which are of principal magnetic in- 
terest. This can only be accomplished by a naval voyage; for 
which it is natural that other countries should look to England. 
That the nations that have made exertions in the same cause 
do look to England for it, cannot be better shown than by the 
following extract of a letter of M. Hansteen’s, which I take 
the liberty of introducing here, both for this purpose, and be- 
cause it expresses in so pleasing a manner, the praise that is so 
justly due to his own country, and which I am sure will be 
cordially responded to by all who cultivate science in this coun- 
try, and particularly by those who know the kindly feeling with 
which Englishmen are ever welcomed in Norway. 

** C’est le Storthing (la Chambre des Députés) de la Nor- 
vége, qui a donné les frais 4 l’expédition en Sibérie. On a fait 
cela dans un tems ot on a refusé les dépenses pour un chateau 
de résidence pour sa Majesté a Christiania. Dans un tems, oi 
une telle économie a été nécessaire, il est trés honorable, 
qu'une Chambre, composée de toutes les classes du peuple, 
méme d’un grand nombre de paysans, a unanimement résolu de 
donner les frais pour une expédition purement scientifique, 
dont les résultats n’auront jamais aucune utilité économique 
pour la patrie, et dont on ne comprenait pas la haute valeure 
scientifique. Regardé les ressources trés-bornés de notre 
pays, c’est une générosité presque sans exemple. 

**Comme la petite Norvége a fourni toutes les observations 
entre les méridiens de Greenwich et de Ochozk, et entre les 


“ 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH, 85 


paralléles de 40° et 75° de latitude boreale, il ne me semble pas 
une demande trop grande ou immodeste a |’Angleterre, si 
grande, si riche, si puissante, qui a nécessairement un plus 
grand intérét dans toutes les sciences combinées avec la navi- 
gation, de fournir toute la partie méridionale de la carte. Une 
telle entreprise doit réfléchir une splendeur ala nation, et payera 
a la fin les frais par des résultats aussi utiles pour les sciences 
que pour la navigation. I] ne faut plus dans notre tems laisser 
Yavancement des sciences au hasard. Par des observations 
fragmentaires et discontinués on a taché avec grande peine 
d@étudier les phénoménes magnétiques de la terre pendant deux 
ou trois siécles. Par deux ou trois expéditions litéraires, ar- 
rangées exprés pour ce but, on pourrait en peu d’années avoir 
une collection plus compléte, et d’une plus grande utilité pour 
la théorie.” 

The subject has in every way a claim on this country. The 
existence of four governing centres, and the system of the pha- 
nomena in correspondence therewith, was originally a British 
discovery. The sagacity of our countryman Halley was the 
first to penetrate through the complexity of the phenomena, 
and to discern what is now becoming generally recognised. En- 
gland was also the first country which sent an expedition ex- 
pressly for magnetic observation, namely, that of Halley in 1698 

and 1699. Whilst approving and cordially co-operating in 
magnetic inquiries of other kinds which have their origin in 
other countries, it is right that we should feel a peculiar in- 
terest in that in which we have ourselves led the way, espe- 
cially when its object is subordinate to none. 

As the research would require to be prosecuted in the high 
latitudes, a familiarity with the navigation of such latitudes 
would be important in the person who should undertake this 
service; and a strong individual interest in the subject itself 
would be of course a most valuable qualification. I need 
scarcely say that the country possesses a naval officer in whom 
these qualifications unite in a remarkable degree with all others 
that are requisite ; and if fitting instruments make fitting times, 
none surely can be better than the present. 

Viewed in itself and in its various relations, the magnetism 
of the earth cannot be counted less than one of the most im- 
portant branches of the physical history of the planet we in- 
habit ; and we may feel quite assured, that the completion of 
our knowledge of its distribution on the surface of the earth, 


would be regarded by our cotemporaries and by posterity as 


a fitting enterprise of a maritime people ; and a worthy achieve- 
ment of a nation which has ever sought to rank foremost in 
every arduous and honourable undertaking. 


. 


gist Sti} Woe) 4 


‘ TESatt F + 4 gah gues as 
wav PY Sriaa Tete, * 
Hes, 
ye teat aed 


yr" 


Bearh 
a Age! 
hd! 
ney ee 


- Sars 


Report on the various modes of Printing for the use of the 
Blind. By the Rev, Wituiam Taytor, F.R.S. 


Ir must be a matter of great satisfaction and pleasure to every 
one, who is anxious to alleviate the misfortunes of his fellow- 
creatures, to find that the British Association has been pleased 
to take into consideration the various modes of printing in tan- 
gible characters for the use of the blind; a subject which has 
long occupied the attention of many individuals, and lately of 
some public societies, but which has not made much progress 
till within the last seven years. Now, however, under such 
powerful influence, it is likely to receive that attention and as- 
sistance which will probably bring it to the highest state of per- 
fection which it is capable of*. 

The object in view is twofold, 1st, to print such elementary 
books as may assist in the intellectual education of the blind, 
and afford them amusement and occupation during the many 
solitary hours which they must of necessity, especially in after 
life, be doomed to pass; and 2ndly, to put into their hands the 
word of God in such a tangible shape, that they may be able, 
of themselves, to “ read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest ”’ that 
holy book which is able to make them ‘ wise unto salvation.” 

When the blind are unemployed, they brood over their mis- 
fortunes and draw such comparisons between their condition 


and that of their seeing brethren, as tend to disturb their peace 


of mind, and often to make them discontented : what a blessing 
then will printing in tangible characters prove to that unfortu- 


~ nate class of society, by opening to them new fields of delight, 


and placing within their reach treasures which otherwise they 
never could by their own exertions possess ! 

Lam sorry, however, it has not fallen to the lot of one better able 
to report upon this most interesting and important subject ; not 


that I want zeal in the cause, but on account of the difficulty of 
acquiring a full and accurate knowledge of what progress it has 
‘made and is now making in various parts of the world. I have 


not spared to avail myself of such information as I could collect 


* The Edinburgh Society of Arts, &c. were the first, as a public body, to take 


up this subject in this country, and by their great and praiseworthy exertions 
they have not only collected much valuable information relating to printing 


for the use of the blind, but have ascertained the opinion of almost every per: 
son known to have turned his attention much to the subject, as may be seen 
by their excellent report published in June last. : 


88 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


from the few sources which are within my reach*; but after 
all I shall stand in need of indulgence from those who may 
peruse these pages, as much valuable matter will unavoidably 
have escaped me, and some errors crept into the statement I 
have given. 


Origin of printing in characters in relief for the Blind. 


To enter into a complete history of the first rude attempts to 
form alphabets and to print raised characters for the use of the 
blind, would be uselessly to swell this report ; I shall, therefore, 
only briefly notice the earlier inventions, and hasten to the mo- 
dern improvements, which certainly have the largest claim 
upon our attention. 

So far back as the 16th century letters were cut in wood for 
the use of the blind; but instead of projecting as they now do, 
they were sunk or made hollow, on which account the fingers 
were unable to trace the forms of the letters unless they were 
of a very large size. 

In 1575 Rampazzetto published examples of letters carved in 
wood, iz relief ; but, as they were not separate, but like the stereo- 
typing of the present day, they were laid aside as inconvenient. 

In 1640 moveable characters were cast in lead at Paris by one 
Peter Moreau, but the expense, or difficulty of the undertaking, 
prevented his going on with it. 

Various other persons, at different times, have made characters 
and letters for the blind both in wood and metal, but not with 
much success till the year 1783, when punches were cut and 
matrices struck, in which characters were cast by Fournier, at 
the expense of M. Rouillé de |’ Etang, Treasurer of the Philan- 
thropic Society in Paris. These characters however, (from an 
erroneous notion that all objects or models for the use of the 
blind should be made of great dimensions), were considerably 
larger than was necessary or convenient; consequently a new 
set of punches was cut, and letters, nearly similar to those now 
in use in France, were cast in the foundry at Vaflard. Since 
that time many of the letters have been improved in their form, 
and the metal of which they were cast rendered more durable 
by altering the proportion of the ingredients it contained. 

Types for the blind differ from those in ordinary use, in that 
they are set up and read from left to right, whilst in those for 
printing with ink the reverse order is observed. Besides this the 
stem or body of the types used in France is made in the shape of 
a T, the letter being on the top or cross-piece which prevents 


* Chiefly am I indebted to the works of Dr. Guillie, Dr. Klein, Prof. 
Zeune, &c. 


ao Agit es 


err jee aor, 


REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 89 


the type falling through the bars of the frame in which it is 
placed, while the shank or tail goes between them. But this 
kind of type is very heavy and clumsy, and the lines of printing 
cannot be brought very near to each other, which tends greatly 
to increase the bulk as well as the expense of the books. 

In 1784 the first European institution for the instruction of 
the blind was established at Paris by Valentine Haiiy; and 
although many attempts to produce raised characters or letters 
for their use had previously been made, yet printing for the 
blind may be said to have been unknown till 1785, when 
M. Haiiy submitted to the Royal Academy of Sciences a me- 
morial, in which he explained the “‘ means he proposed to em- 
ploy for the instruction of the blind.’’ A committee was ap- 
pointed to examine this plan, who allowed that M. Haty was 


_the inventor of printing books in relief for the blind, and 


strongly recommended his invention to the approbation of the 
Academy. Since that time some change and improvement have 
been made in a few of the letters; for instance, the e is a little 
less liable to be mistaken for the c oro; the u not so narrow 
and therefore not so like to the a; the k also is opened to be 
less like the h, &c. I would here state that the French use 
both capitals and ‘‘ lower case,’’ and the form of the letter ap- 
proaches that of the Latin or Italian. 

“In the Paris Institution,” says Dr. Guillie, “‘ the blind pupils 
set and distribute the types and print the books themselves, and 
some who are expert will arrange about a dozen lines of an 8vo 
page in a quarter of an hour.”” Whether or not they have now 
adopted the common or screw press for printing, I am not able 
to say, but formerly the types were set in a frame (as before 


_ mentioned), the paper well wetted, laid upon them, and over all 
_ three or four folds of thick flannel ; it was then passed through a 


large wooden rolling press* and the impression taken out on the 
other side. In this manner a variety of books have been printed, 
amongst which are spelling books, grammars, geography, por- 
tions of the Scripture, short pieces of poetry, with miscellaneous 
extracts, &c.t 


_* The rolling press was used because it was thought that a sufficient pressure 
could not be given with the common screw press. In the former case only one 


line at a time is pressed by the roller, and consequently the whole force is sus- 


tained by that line, but in the latter the pressure is distributed over the whole 


page at once, and therefore must be very great to work a 4to or folio. But I 


believe the perpendicular pressure is now used in France, and was introduced 


_ some years ago by M. Clousier, printer to the King. 
ft In Ziirich there is an excellent establishment for the education of 
_ the blind, in which they print books in raised letters, &c., and have already 


__ Several books, such as a grammar, Scripture phrases, &c., which are given to 
the pupils gratis on leaving the Institution. 


— 


90 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


The paper used in printing in relief should be very good and 
strong, not liable to tear, tolerably thick and well-sized. If it 
be too thick the letter will not be sharp nor well-defined ; neither 
should the impression be too much elevated, or it will increasethe 
bulk of the book and be more liable to injury. About jy or 35 
of an inchis generally found sufficiently high for small type im- 
pressions. Alphabets and first books for beginners should be a 
little higher. ‘‘ This kind of printing,” says Dr. Guillie, “cannot 
be done on both sides the paper, as in taking off the second 
page the first would be destroyed*”. In this state printing for 
the blind remained till Mr. Gall of Edinburgh, about the year 
1831 or 1832, introduced what he calls a triangular, or rather 
angular, alphabet. ‘This is chiefly a modification of the com- 
mon alphabet, though some of the letters are entirely arbi- 
trary. For instance, the A is a triangle standing upon one 
of its angles; the B and D are triangles with two small ears 
or projections at the upper angle ; and the P and Qare also tri- 
angles, similar to the above, only they have the projections at the 
lower angle. The Ois a square standing upon one of its corners ; 
and the G is the same, only a little smaller, with a perpendicular 
tail to it about as long as one of the sides of the square. The 
C is an obtuse angle concave to the right hand. The E the 
same with an additional line bisecting the angle. The T is a 
perpendicular line with a very short one crossing it in the 
middle. The other letters partake in a great degree of the com- 
mon form, except that the R, S, and W are angular instead of 
curvedj. Mr. Gall conceives that curves are not so easily di- 
stinguishable by the touch as angles. 


“besitst die Anstalt einen Apparat, mit welchem eben so schnell, 
wie in gewéhnlichen Druckereien, Biicher in erhabener Schrift, fiir Blinde, 
lesbar gedruct werden. So besitzen wir z. B. ein Sprachbuch fiir Blinde, 60 
Seiten stark; ferner eine systematische Sammlung von Bibelspriichen, unter 
dem Titel, Biblisches Sprachbuch fiir Blinde * * * * * solcher Biicher werden 
den austretenden Blinden jedesmal unengeltlich mitgegeben.”—Orell on the 
Ziirich Institution for the Blind, &c., 1835, page 438. 

* An attempt however has since been made (I have been told) at Philadelphia, 
to print upon both sides by engraving or punching the lettersupon pewter plates, 
and passing two of these plates, through a rolling press, with a very thick paper, 
almost reduced to astate of pulp, between them, but I believe the plan was 
too expensive to be employed generally. Mr. Gall of Edinburgh has also 
printed on both sides the paper by arranging the types so that the lines on one 
side the leaf just occupy the spaces between the lines on the other. A little 
room is gained by this method, but as it requires much nicety in laying the pa- 
per upon the type to print the second page, lest the first should be injured, 
some timne must be lost in taking off the impressions ; which, to me, renders the 
advantage of such a plan very doubtful. 

; Mr. Gall has recently altered the form of some of his letters, and thereby 
greatly improved them. 


ee ee ees 


me Hy 


REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 91 


About that time several schools or asylums for the blind were 
established in America. In Philadelphia the Gospel of Saint 
Mark was published in a raised type and printed on both sides 
the leaf as before mentioned ; the letters are something between 
the Italic and written characters. I am not aware that much 
more has been done there; but at Boston printing in raised 
characters for the blind has been carried to a great state of per- 
fection under the direction and superintendence of that able and 
zealous friend to the blind, Dr. S. G. Howe. The form of the 
letter differs a little from the “ lower case ” used in this country, 
but the impressions are exceedingly sharp and good. Many 
books have been published there, and at a very cheap rate, as 
will appear from the following extracts from Dr. Howe’s ex- 
cellent letter to the British and Foreign Bible Society. 


From the “ Monthly Extracts from the Correspondence of the 
British and Foreign Bible Society.” 


From the Rev. Dr. Howe, Director of the New England Insti- 
tution for the Education of the Blind. 
‘“ Boston, U.S., Nov. 20, 1886. 

*T now forward you a box containing two complete copies of 
the New Testament of our Lord and Saviour in raised charac- 
ters, one bound in 4 vols. the other copy in 2 vols. For adults 
and persons who would use them carefully the copy in 2 vols. 
would be best; for children the one in 4 vols. 

“You ask, what would be the cost of a hundred or athousand 

copies of the New Testament? I answer that they may be 
_ printed and bound for 1/. 10s. But you will observe that the 
_ paper on which the copies I send you are printed is very tough 
_ and peculiar in its fabric ; it was made for the purpose, and is 
_ saturated with animal size, so that it will be very durable. If 
_ you depress one of the letters you will observe the paper will 
bi spring back again, which I fear will not be the case with the 
_kind of printing you sent tome. The cost of our Testament was 
. little over 2/. sterling, another edition might be had cheaper. I 
~ Tejoice to learn that an interest is beginning to be felt on the 
] subject of printing for the blind, for ijt has been the object near- 
est my heart for the last four years.”’ 
___ After urging the desirableness of using the common letter, 
_ Dr. H. proceeds : 
a « I have known of several cases where blind persons had 
learned to read at home: we had one boy enter our institution 
who knew how to read and spell in our first books, though he 
ras but seven years old and was born blind. His mother, a small 
mer’s wife, had procured a book a year before and taught him. 


92 SEVENTH REPORT—1837 : 


Again, there are many persons who lose their sight after having 
learned the common form of letters ; and they have little diffi- 
culty in recognising them by the touch, but would be discouraged 
by a new character*.”’ 

The Doctor, after stating some cases of bedridden persons, and 
persons of weak sight though not blind, reading the raised type 
with their fingers, goes on to say: ‘‘ We have about fifty in this 
institution who are of the age for instruction, and forty of them 
can read; twenty can read very fast, and will run through a 
chapter of the Testament in just the time it takes a seeing per- 
son to read twice the quantity,-observing all the stops. Some 
of our children at the age of six can read. 

«<* * * * * The elevation of the letters, the hardness and du- 
rability of the impression, the strength of the paper, the method 
of binding, all these are to be considered, experimented upon, 
and greatly improved. It is a wide and interesting field, and 
right glad am I that labourers have entered into it in England ; 
and I wish only that they may work with one common plan. 
I believe much more printing has been done for the blind in this 
Institution than in all England * * * having obtained the sanction 
of the American and Massachusetts Bible Societies, the Ame- 
rican Tract Society, &c. I have printed an abridgement of Mur- 
ray’s Grammar, a Spelling Book, a Hymn Book, The Dairy- 
man’s Daughter, Baxter’s Call, The Pilgrim’s Progress, Child’s 
First Book, second ditto, and last, not least, the entire New 
Testament ! 

“T have now in the press a Geography, and shall continue as 
long as I have health and the means to operate with. 

** With regard to any funds to be applied by your Society, I 
would earnestly recommend, and in the name of the blind im- 
plore, that they may be upon works which have not yet been 
printed for them, or which they cannot obtain for a long time. 
Their hooks must be few and the same work should not be print- 
edin different places, but different books, so that exchanges may 
be made; for instance, if you could send us fifty copies of the 
Psalms or* * *,we could send you fifty of the Acts or the Evan- 
gelists * * *, We should like very much to print an edition of 
the Psalms of David, say five hundred copies, for the use of the 
blind of England and of this country : the expense would pro- 
bably be from 225/. to 250/. if done up in the best and most du- 
rable stylet. Perhaps it would be more extensively useful to print 
them on our medium type, that is a size between the large type 


* This is much against the use of arbitrary alphabets. 
+ The Committee have voted 150/. and are to receive fifty or a hundred 


copies. 


REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 93 


on the title page of the Testament and the small type of the 
same. 

“Tf the British and Foreign Bible Society would undertake 

‘to appropriate funds for this purpose, and present to the blind 
of England and this country an edition of the Psalms, it would 
confer happiness and a blessing upon many. 

*°P.S. November 24. Our Geography is finished, and our 
press is now throwing off an edition of ‘ The Sixpenny Glass of 
Wine,’ printed at the expense of the American Sunday School 
Union. 

“1 hope your Society will allow us to send you the Psalms ; 
it would make one snug volume and be finished in four weeks.”’ 

In April 1832 the committee of the Society for the Encourage- 
ment of the useful Arts in Scotland, presented their report upon a 
method of printing for the blind invented by Mr. Hay of Edin- ° 
burgh, and in consequence of their recommendation the So- 
ciety, in the following year, offered their gold medal, value 20/., 
“for the best communication on a method of printing for the 
use of the blind.’’ The authors of the communications were re- 
quired to “‘ investigate what form and size of the letters or cha- 
racters, and what 2wmber of those should be adopted, with a 
view to constructing a general alphabet for the blind in Great 
Britain and Ireland; and secondly, the best and cheapest me- 
thods of printing such letters or characters in relief, so as to 
render them most easily and accurately distinguishable by the 
touch.” 

_ In consequence of this notice, communications with printed 
q and written specimens of alphabets, types, &c. were received by 
3 the Society. 

| 


rs 


For Competition. From Mr. Alexander Hay of Edinburgh ; 
_Mr. J. P. Walker, Glasgow ; Miss M. Banks, Edinburgh ; Mr. 
_ Mungo Ponton, Edinburgh; Mr. John Henderson, Edinburgh; 
Mr. John Richardson, Edinburgh; Rev. Edw. Craig, Edin- 
burgh; Mr. James Gall, Edinburgh ; Dr. Edmund Fry, Lon- 
~ don ; Mr. Richard Eaton, Coventry ; Mr. D. Macpherson, Edin- 
burgh; Mr. John Lothian, Edinburgh; Mr. Robert Milne, 
_ Edinburgh; Mr. John Johnstone, Glasgow; Mr. J. Jones, 
_ Bishop Wearmouth. : 

| Not for Competition. From Lady C. Erskine, Edinburgh, 
| two letters on the subject, but no alphabet; Mr. D. Vallance, 
| Lanarkshire, method of teaching the blind to read; Dr. R. K. 
‘Greville, Edinburgh, alphabet; J. Simpson, Esq., advocate, 
| Edinburgh, alphabet. 

| A Committee was appointed by the Society to consider and 
| Teport upon these several communications.—Now as “ twelve of 


¥ 


94 . SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


these proposed alphabets were composed entirely of arbitrary 
symbols, while three were merely modifications of the ordinary 
Roman and Italic characters, the first question that presented 
itself for their consideration” was whether some modification of 
the ordinary Roman or Italic alphabets in common use, or an 
entirely new arbitrary character, would be hest adapted for the 
use of the blind generally throughout the kingdom? This 
was a question of considerable difficulty, especially at that time, 
when so few experiments had been made upon the subject. The 
Committee however, in their Report of 1832, gave their opinion 
in favour of an arbitrary character. Since that time Mr. Gall 
published a little work, which seemed to show that his alphabet* 
was more legible by the touch and possessed greater advantages 
than any of the others. This increased the difficulty the Society 
had to contend with, and induced them to take the opinion of 
various persons experienced in the education of the blind. Con- 
sequently the whole of the communications were sent to various 
persons, and (among others) to me, in the spring of 1835. Most 
of these communications were exceedingly clever and interest- 
ing}. I read them with very close attention, and examined 
minutely the various specimens; and in July following returned 
them to Edinburgh, with a report stating what seemed to me 
the advantages and disadvantages of each. This report the 
Society soon after published, together with extracts from other 
reports, as well as from the communications and fac-similes 
of the various alphabets, and sent copies to the different insti- 
tutions, &c. 

Some years ago Mr. Lucas of Bristol contrived an alphabet 
chiefly from short-hand characters, and in his books uses nume- 
rous contractions or abbreviations, and thereby reduces the bulk 
of the book very much, but increases the difficulty of making out 
the words, &c.{ On the 12th of February 1836 a public meet- 


* Mr Gall's alphabet was composed of characters in some degree similar to 
the Roman, or that generally used in printing ; but he excluded all curves and 
circles, and formed his letters entirely of angles and straight lines, 

+ Many of these communications show great ingenuity and deep research in 
their authors, and contain so much valuable matter relating to the general edu- 
cation of the blind, that a publication of the whole or greatest part of them 
would be productive of much good to those for whose benefit they were written. 
But as this would be rather expensive (many of the communications being very 
long) and asthe Edinburgh Society of Arts has already done so much on this 
subject, it is scarcely reasonable to expect that body to encounter so costly an 
undertaking, unless they could, from some other source, be assisted in the fur- 
therance of their praiseworthy exertions. 

{ Mr. Lucas uses a new system of spelling, employing only as many letters 
as ave sufficient to give the sound of the word; thus, “ adu for adieu,” ‘ ni for 
nigh,” “ bote for bought,” &c. He also uses one letter for several words, as “n 


REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 95 


ing was held in Bristol, when a Society was formed, and denomi- 
nated “ the Bristol Society for embossing and circulating the 
authorized Version of the Bible for the use of the Blind.” 
Patron, the Lord Bishop of that Diocese; President, Lieu- 
tenant-Gen. Orde. 
_ Amongst other things it was then and there resolved, .Ist. 
*¢ That the system of embossed characters invented by Mr. Lu- 
eas for teaching the blind to read, is recommended by its sim- 
plicity, and has been proved to be efficacious by several public 
examinations of his pupils.’’ 2nd. ‘* That a portion of the Holy 
Scriptures be printed on this system of embossed characters as 
soon as sufficient funds shall be collected to meet the expenses 
of publication.”’ 3rd. ‘* Thatas it is the object of this meeting to 
enable the blind to read the Holy Scriptures, the support of the 
Bible Society, the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 
and other Religious Societies be solicited in behalf of this So- 
ciety.” 
ihen I attended the meeting of the British Association last 
year at Bristol, I had the pleasure of seeing Mr. Lucas, and 
witnessing two of his pupils, in the presence of several other 
gentlemen, read portions of the Scriptures printed in his cha- 
-racters. But the mere reading from a book well known to the 
pupil, in whatsoever character it might be printed, proves very 
little, for blind children will generally learn with great ease al- 
most any alphabet set before them; therefore it is necessary to 
compare the progress made with different alphabets, and to 
_ consider the swm of the advantages possessed by each before it 
_ can be determined which is the best*. 
_ At that meeting I had the honour of being introduced to Dr. 
_ Carpenter of that city, a gentleman who has evidently thought 
— much and long on this subject, and whose opinion and obser- 
" yations therefore cannot fail to be highly valuable. Dr. C. in 
his able letter to W. Fraser, Esq., Secretary to the Edinburgh 
_ Society of Arts, says, “I should, as Mr. Lucas does, employ 
_ for into, under, &c.” “x for example, exercise, &c.’”? (see Explanation of his 
_ system of printing for the blind.) 
_ The numerous inconveniences arising from such a plan (unless adopted by 
everybody, the seeing as well as the blind) are too obvious to need pointing 
out, and of too much consequence not to be strictly guarded against. Mr. 


cas has published the Gospel of St. John, and, notwithstanding all his nu- 
erous contractions and abbreviations, it is very little less than the same~ 


. pe inted by Mr. Alston in Dr. Fry’s type. 
__* Caution is necessary in making experiments on different alphabets. The 


ae may be interrupted in reading by holding his finger upon the word under 


it at that instant ; and if upon asking him to name it, it was found that he had 
i}. olin words, in a part of the sentence at which his finger had not yet ar- 
| 3 ed, this would show that he was reading from memory ! 


96 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


the leading letters beginning words of frequent occurrence, for 
the words themselves, as wh. for which; gl. for glory; pl. for 
pleasure, &c.’’ This certainly would tend to lessen the bulk of 
the book, but I think would not facilitate the reading ; for if 
words, printed in full, can be made out by, the first two letters, 
the remaining ones need not be felt, but the finger passed on to 
the next word. Besides, as so many of our words begin with 
the same two or three letters, the length of the word, when 
printed in full, would, at once, without feeling every single 
letter, show, if a /ong word beginning with pl, that it was not 
plan, plea, play, or any other short word, &c. and if short, that 
it was not plausible, plurality, plenipotentiary, &c. It will 
therefore be highly dangerous to make much use, if any, of ab- 
breviations. 

Feeling convinced that the letters recommended by Dr. Fry 
were the only ones likelyto be generally adopted, I ventured, in 
the beginning of 1836, to procure a quantity of type, cast from 
his punches, by Messrs. Thoroughgood and Co., London, and 
commenced printing for the use of the children in the Yorkshire 
school for the blind, and the experiment was most satisfactory. 
About the same time I found that Mr. Alston (treasurer to the 
Asylum for the Blind at Glasgow), a gentleman whose zeal and 
exertions in behalf of the blind must rank him among the best 
friends of that portion of society, had begun to use types of the 
same kind, only of a size between the two which I used. Soon 
after many specimens were printed by Mr. Alston, and amongst 
others the Book of Ruth, the Epistle of St. James, and the four 
Gospels, &c. 

A few months agotheSociety of Arts in Scotland awarded their 
prize of a gold medal in favour of Dr. Fry’s alphabet, but re- 
commended thetype to be fretted or roughened on the top to give 
the letters a dotted appearance, and, as they think, to render 
them more easily legible by the touch ; but of this I shall speak 
hereafter. They also recommend printing upon both sides of 
the paper. 

A few years ago Mr. Gall published the Gospel of St. John 
in his angular alphabet at 21s., and now the whole New Testa- 
ment in Dr. Fry’salphabet is offered for about 32s. by Mr. Alston, 
and I believe for less by Mr. Gall in his angular type. Such 
is the state at present of printing in raised characters for the 
use of the blind, at least as far as regards “‘ letter-press.”’ 


Mathematics. 


In mathematics very little has been done for the blind in the 
way of hooks, but various methods have been contrived for teach- 


REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 97 


ing common arithmetic and algebra, some of which are very 
simple and effective*. However, I shall not enter into a de- 

scription of them here, as they can scarcely be said to form a 

part of the subject of this report. 

Some embossed mathematical diagrams have been printed both 
in Germany and America, and I believe in France; and in theyear 
18281 published the diagrams of the first book of Euclid in an 
embossed form ; but the expense of the copper plates, engraving, 
&c. deterred me from going on with the work. At Boston, U.S., 
figures explanatory of mechanics, astronomy, &c., and some very 
beautiful maps of large size, have been printed ; also some chro- 
nological tables, &c. Globes and maps have long been made at 

_ Paris, and I believe in Germany, by gluing threads upon the 
lines, or pasting a second map over them ; but this cannot pro- 
perly be called printingt. é 

Music. 

Music has been much cultivated by the blind in general, and 
several palpable modes have been invented to facilitate their 
acquiring a knowledge of it. The French contrived a very in- 

' genious plan, which has been followed in other places. It is a 
board, with raised lines and pierced full of holes, in which are 
placed pegs of various shapes to represent the different notes. 
The same kind of board is now used in the Yorkshire school, but 
upon avery much smaller scale, having crooked pins for the notes 
instead of clumsy wooden pegs, and saw-cuts across the board 
in which to set bits of tin to represent the bars. For this im- 
provement we are chiefly indebted to a blind gentleman of 
York{. Iam informed that music has been printed from move- 

| able types in Germany, France and America, but I have seen 

_ only a small specimen from the last-mentioned country. In the 


_ * By help of one of the best of these my own private pupils (blind) have 
_ soon acquired a sufficient knowledge of the elements of algebra to enable them 
By 4 ae? quadratic equations with ease and readiness; and one has gone still 
further. 

The pleasure they generally derive from working problems of this kind is 

_ very great. 
_ Geometry also, when taught them in a way suited to their peculiar circum- 
_ stances, seldom fails to afford them great delight, but it must always be made 
4 interesting to them or they soon despair of learning it. 
Fy __ 4 Since writing this I have received from Dr. Howe a copy of a book of 
_ plates, or “ Diagrams illustrating a compendium of Natural Philosophy for the 

use of the Blind. Printed at the New England Institution for the Education of 
_ the Blind, 1836.” 
_ The diagrams seem to be taken from blocks of wood engraved after the 
_ Manner of copper. The work is admirably got up, and is a very valuable ad- 
dition to the books for the blind. 
x _t W. D. Littledale, Esq. 

VOL. Vi. 1837. H 


“ 


98 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, 


beginning of this year I published a selection of Psalm tunes, in 
an embossed form, printed from engraved pewter plates, using 
the common form of notes, cliffs, time, &c., which are thus ren- 
dered familiar to the blind, and enable them more easily to be- 
come teachers of music to those whosee. Thus I have given an 
abstract of what I have been able to collect on this subject ; 
but as I have not had an opportunity of visiting many of the 
institutions abroad, it is probable that much has been done, in 
the various branches here noticed, which has never yet come 
under my observation, and of which I am totally ignorant. 


A comparison between the advantages and disadvantages of the 
common Roman and arbitrary Alphabets. 

The great question ‘ whether it is better to employ the com- 
mon Roman letters or an arbitrary alphabet in printing for the 
blind,” has long engaged the attention of many who feel an in- 
terest in this subject, and numerous and ingenious arguments 
have been advanced on both sides. 

It has been contended that an arbitrary alphabet may be com- 
posed of such characters as to possess greater characteristic 
difference, he more legible hy the touch, and occupy less room, 
and therefore be altogether better for the blind than that in 
common use. This may be possible, but such an alphabet I have 
never seen. There are two things to be considered in forming 
a new alphabet before the shape of the letter or character be de- 
termined upon, viz. whether it is better to have the usual num- 
her of characters, or to use a few and to give to each a variety 
of positions to make up the difference. 

It has also been contended by those who advocate arbitrary 
characters, that giving a variety of positions to one character 
reduces the number of forms, and must therefore be less bur- 
densome to the memory. But as every new position does in 
effect become a new form, or something new to be remembered, 
the difference cannot be very great. Some persons hold that 
angular characters are more legible by the touch than such as 
are formed partly or altogether of curves; and the contrary has 
been held by others. 

The Edinburgh Society of Arts have recommended (as before 
stated) the fretted types, as being more easy to make out by the 
touch; but I tried four of the children in the York school with 
specimens of Mr. Gall’s characters both fretted and plain, and 
they all said they liked the plain best as they could read it with 
greater facility. The same was the result of Mr. Alston’s experi- 
ments at Glasgow, as communicated to me in a letter from him*. 


* Mr. Alston has lately greatly improved the paper on which he prints, and 
has also had some improvements made in a few of his letters. 


REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 99 


Abbreviations and contractions have been strongly recom- 
mended ; but if there is too much left to the imagination of 
the reader, wrong impressions will be often formed, and false 
ideas acquired ; and if a blind person has first to encounter a 
difficulty, and afterwards to be left in doubt whether he is right 
or not, he will very soon be discouraged, and lose all interest in 
that which otherwise would afford him not only occupation and 
amusement, but also delight and permanent advantage. Those 
who advocate the use of the common alphabet contend that it 
has not been proved to be less legible by the touch, or to require 
more space than others of the same sized letters or type, but 
evidently possesses many advantages over an arbitrary one ; 
amongst others, “it associates”’ (as Mr. Craig, one of the compe- 
titors for the Edinburgh medal, says) “the blind in their literary 
pursuits more closely with other men, and secures to them from 
all quarters an aid which they might not otherwise readily attain.” 
With spelling and other elementary books printed in the com- 
mon character, they can attend with great benefit any school 
with other children, and with them learn their lessons, and 
from them obtain the aid for which one scholar is usually in- 
debted to another. Moreover they may be taught at home by 
their parents, long before they are old enough to be trusted 
amongst a number of frolicksome seeing companions. These 
and many other advantages are incompatible with an arbitrary 
alphabet. In favour of the alphabet in common use it may be 
stated, that it has been employed by the French, the Americans, 
Germans, &c., though varying a little in some particulars from 
ours. The books printed at Boston are without capitals, but 
the French use both capitals and small letters, so also do the 
Germans, but they employ the Italian characters. Klein (Direct- 
| or of the Institution for the Blind at Vienna, in his most excel- 

lent book Lehrbuch zum Unterrichte der Blinden, page 65) says, 
_ ** Die Form der lateinischen Buchstaben ist am leichtesten durchs 
_ Gefiihl zu lesen, daher wahle man diese Schrift zum Lesen und 
_ Schreiben fiir Blinde. Einige Buchstaben miissen auch in dieser 
_ Schrift noch mehr vereinfacht werden, sowie auch alle unwesent- 
__ liche, bloss zur Verzierung dienende Ziiga und Striche wegbleiben 
_mussen.*” Thus it seems from so many nations adopting an 
_ alphabet well known among them, that the general opinion is 
decidedly against an arbitrary character. 

Klein in his preface to the above book allows it to be possible 


* Translation. The form of the Latin or Italian letters is the easiest to read 
by the touch, on which account they are to be chosen in which to print and 
Write for the blind. But some of these letters, even, must be simplified and 
deprived of all useless ornaments, Sc. 
¢ H2 


100 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


that characters may be contrived more simple, and in some re- 
spects easier to read by the touch, yet he considersthe common 
alphabet the best; and in teaching the blind employs the usual 
mode of instructing seeing children as far as possible ; for as 
long as the blind must live and mix with those who see, it is 
most desirable to connect the two together both in their educa- 
tion and pursuits; for by so doing that unfortunate class will be 
spared many a painful reflection on their condition, and escape 
the bitterness of an unfavourable comparison with their more 
fortunate brethren*. Besides blind persons may with a pencil or 
tracing paper write letters to their friends, and their friends may 
write to them by means of a stile or other blunt point, placing 
the paper upon something soft so that the letters may be raised 
on the other side; but this advantage, gratifying in the highest 
degree to the blind when they are able to practise it, would be 
greatly diminished, if not altogether destroyed, by the use of an 
arbitrary alphabet ; for then no one could correspond with them 
who had not learnt their system. 

Furthermore, the blind often become scientific men or poets, 
and probably from the improved methods of conveying instruc- 
tions to them, this may in future more frequently happen. Hew 
delightful then to correspond with others or to record their own 
thoughts by means of an alphabet generally understood! Mr. 
Alston, in one of his communications to me, states the great de- 
light his pupils enjoyed (who had learnt the common alphabet) 
in going into the churchyards and reading the grave-stones, &c. 

Arbitrary alphabets are more liable to errors of the press than 
the common, and less likely to be detected on account of their 
not being so familiar to the printer, &c., so that the blind are 
thereby exposed to the danger of being misled, and of acquiring 
erroneous notions, which in many cases might be of serious 
consequence. 

Assuming the reasons in favour of using the common alpha- 
bet to be satisfactory, it would appear that the Roman Capitals, 


* “ Daher habe ich getrachtet, so weit es nur moglich war, die gewohnlichen 
Unterrichts- und Hiilfs-mittel wie man sie fiir sehende Kinder gebrauchet, auch 
fiir die Blinden beyzubehalten, um diesen desto leichter Lehrer zu verschaffen, 
die sich durch neue Lehrmittel, in welche sie sich selbst erst einstudieren 
miissen, vielleicht hitten abschrecken lassen. Dieses bestimmte meine Wahl 
fir die GewounuicuEN BucustaBen, obgleich nicht zu laugnen ist, dass die von 


Hrn Wolke und von andern vorgeschlagenen einfachen, der Telegrafen-Schrift 


ahnliche zeichen zur fiihlbaren Schriftleichter sind. So lang der Blinde mit und 


unter Sehenden lebt, muss man suchen, ihn in seinem eigenen Benehmen und in — 


der Behandlung, so viel es nur méglich ist, den Sehenden ndher zu bringen, 
um ihm manchem Anstoss und manche schmerzhafte Erinnerung an seinem 
Zustand zu ersparen.” 


— 


ee ee ee ee ee eee 


REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 101 


as recommended by the late Dr. Fry, and now employed by 
Mr. Alston, offer the greatest advantages*. Being all of one 
height they form a regular line in the page, so that there is 
no danger of the finger of the blind reader straying into the 
line either above or below; an evil, which in many of the 
arbitrary alphabets would frequently occur, and which raises 
a very formidable objection tothemf. For if blind persons get 
puzzled or be led into error by reading, they will have no con- 
fidence in what they do, and will therefore never feel any pleasure 
or interest in reading, but take it up as a school boy does his 
task. This among other things renders it necessary to be very 
cautious, lest in attempting to reduce too much the bulk of the 
books for the blind it be carried so far as to frustrate the object, by 
making a book difficult to be read, and therefore useless to ninety- 
nine out of a hundred of those for whose benefit it was intended. 
It may not be amiss ta observe that when an alphabet or 
specimen of printing is submitted to the blind in any institu- 
tion for experiment, a few of the cleverest children, whose 
touch is delicate and acute, are selected to make the trial, and 
because these can easily make out what is submitted to them 
the experiment is thought to have been fairly made. Whereas 
the greatest proportion of blind persons will always be found 
amongst those who have to earn their living by manual labour, 
which blunts their touch and renders them incapable of reading 
a small-sized letter. 

Besides, as the literature for the blind can never be very ex- 
tensive, the grand aim should be to print chiefly such books as 
_ are most necessary ; for example, the New Testament, parts of 
_ the Old, Catechisms, Hymns, Moral Tales, Spelling Books, Easy 
_ Lessons, Fables, &c., andin atype sufficiently large to be easily 
_ read by the average, at least, of the blind. A “ large book” 
surely cannot bea “ greater evil’’ than one foo small to be read, 
and therefore useless. ‘The Gospels printed upon the plan of 
White’s Diatessaron would probably be a valuable addition to 
_ the books for the blind, as the substance of the four Evangelists 

_ would then be comprised in the smallest room possible. 
At present there is great excitement on this subject and much 


SA * As the small letter or “lower case” is in use among the seeing, it perhaps 
_ would be well to have a few books printed with that type for the blind; but if 
_ the letters are some to go above and some below the lines, as in the b, d, g, y, 
_ &e., the bulk of the book must necessarily be a little increased, as the lines 
Must not come so near each other that the tops in one line may interfere with 


‘the tails of those in the line above. 


4 ” + Besides, if capitals to begin proper names, &c. be used (which in my opinion 
Ly hm be of essential service,) the same form of letter willserve if made a little 
_ larger. 


Me 
” 


102 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


praiseworthy zeal in operation to further it; and,as opinions vary, 
many books are printed, in different alphabets or characters, for 
the use of the blind, each author contending that his plan must be 
the best. But this contention will soon cease, as some one system 
will be shown, by the preference of the blind themselves, to be 
decidedly superior, and all the others will be laid aside; for the 
blind will, when left to their own choice, use only that which 
they can read with the greatest facility and satisfaction. 

From what is here stated it seems that the alphabet best adapted 
for the use of the blind is not that which possesses superiority in 
some one particular, but that which is superior as a whole— 
that which offers the greatest swm of advantages. Now, pro- 
bably, this may not be the one which occupies the least space, 
for the bulk of the book is of much less importance than the ease 
with which its contents can be perused. Furthermore, as the 
object is GENERAL communication, the alphabet in common use 
must afford advantages which are incompatible with an arbitrary 
one ; for should a blind person become deaf, the only means of 
communicating with him would be by printing in raised letters, 
or by writing with the finger upon his head, back, &c.; and in 
such a case how limited would be his intercourse with others, 
if he had only learnt an arbitrary alphabet, compared with what 
it would have been had he been taught the one in common use! 
Tn the former case only very few could understand him, or be 


understood by him ; while in the latter almost every one could. 


communicate to him some intelligence of what was going on 
around him, and thereby contribute in no small degree to alle- 
viate the weight of his misfortune, and enliven the dreary gloom 
which must perpetually hang over his existence. 


- cities ae eee ee tll ee ee ee 


Account of the discussions of Observations of the Tides which 
have been obtained hy means of the grant of money which 
was placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose at 
the last Meeting of the Association. By J. W. Lussock, 
Esq., F.BR.S. 


Ar the last meeting of the Association held at Bristol I had the 
honour to communicate the results which I had then obtained ; 
I now wish to explain the manner in which the last grant of 
money which was placed at my disposal by the Association has 
been employed. 

1. I have engaged Mr. Jones to discuss 13,391 observations 
of the tides made in this place during nineteen years by Mr. 
Hutchinson, with reference to a previous transit, or that which 
precedes the time of high water by about 48 hours. These ob- 
servations are in the possession of the Lyceum at Liverpool, and 
they were granted with great kindness by the Committee of 
that Institution for the purpose of this inquiry. 

g. I have engaged Mr. Russell to extend the former discus- 


sion of the London Dock observations, by employing all the 


observations made from the 1st of September, 1801, to the 31st 
August, 1836, or 24,592 observations. Tables have been 


‘formed in precisely the same manner as those already sub- 


mitted to the Section at the meeting at Bristol. In some in- 
stances* irregularities have, in consequence of the additional 
number of observations, been eliminated, but altogether the 
agreement with the averages of nineteen years only (13,370 
observations) is much closer than I had anticipated. 

3. I have also engaged Mr. Russell to examine carefully the 


_ establishment and average height of high water, in order to 
ascertain the fluctuations to which these quantities are subject. 


Mr. Russell and Mr. Jones have spared no pains in order to 


" render the final results as accurate as the nature of the subject 


would permit, and I consider myself particularly fortunate in 
having been able to procure their assistance in these most la- 


_ borious calculations +. 


Even minute discrepancies between the results afforded By 


_ the Liverpool and London observations become interesting and 


* See the calendar month ‘inequality in the interval for January, the moon’s 


r parallax inequality in the height for parallax 56’, &c. 


+ The author placed before the Section the MS. books containing the de- 


tails of the work. 


104 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


deserve elucidation, particularly that in the parallax inequality 
for the interval to which I shall now briefly advert. 

Whatever may be the law of the moon’s parallax inequality, 
we may certainly conclude that it is proportional to the difference 
of the parallax from 57! (or to 8P); hence all the averages em- 
ployed to afford the inequality for H.P. 56’, 57', 58', &c., may 
be combined according to a method which I explained, Phil. 
Trans., 1836, p. 225. Mr. Russell has in this manner combined 
all the results afforded by the 13,391 Liverpool observations, 
and also those afforded by the 24,592 London observations, so 
as to produce for each place the inequality in the interval and 
height for H. P. 54’. Hence the Liverpool quantities which are 
given in the following table may be considered as the average of 
more than 1000 observations, and the London quantities as the 
average of more than 2000 observations. 


TaBLE showing the moon’s parallax inequality in the interval 
and in the height for H.P. 54’, as deduced from theory and 
observation at London and Liverpool *. 


Interval. Height. 
Moon’s | -—— | —————— —_—— 
Re Observation. Observation. 
NCOLy «|i LE WL CON s le en 
Liverpool} London. Liverpool] London. 
hm m ft ft. ft. 
OO UR ccc ncere’ lies aaeeients = BD) | a clecacacs | nccsevess —0°95 
0.30 | — 1:0 | — Or4 | ooo. aan. —1:16 | —1°28 |......... 
PUG Rateavese |\eesssans — AG | ccccccee | coccenees —1:09 
130 | —30 | — 26 J......... —1:14 | —1-17 |..... ... 
COUN A isesce |lpeeacs ped av) A #8: | seeddeds > ilivdabsence —1:07 
2°30 | — 5 | — Gel -| .....c5e. ey Nd fee ol Wi ee 
ab LO lteotoaccieet| ace coeaes eg! cesuesght|(cssccanes))|i——= 1:32 
3 30 | — 7:4) = 7-0) | i... .s0e. —1:09 | —118 }......... 
ALO aecosmacedliovetkes st —— Gi) cece cdscall eeeteneas —1:35 
4 30 | — 83 | — 7:7 | ..ceceree —1-10 | —1°21 |......... 
ee Ol rec ctasewerl| eataeiscs =— LOO coccescev | sessecece | — 1-67 
5 30 | —4:0 | —4°6 |......... —1-15 | —1°44 }......... 
Gi Oat teak: gevwsaess tes Mall cad aoisiaell enenay ss —1-60 
6 30.\-+ 4-0 | 1 4 |......20. aa i es ee 
Je Meckmatees|\csteessts Ml Case cedeesh| lanewceens —1:38 
7 30 | +83 | 47:5 | sce VO |) LOOT eid ace 
Be OU lev nawanailensec sees LS iiieuuaemn eel liens sass —1-14 
re Se me pea ray 
QEOO iltoeretcarss|hevnccsss SOY Wieneccaeed ieseaasnee —1:04 
9 30) +53 | +.5°6 |......... —1-11 | —1:07 |......... 
e AS Oat Nts te OF | dcssirllveeaees —1-02 
10 30 | +3:°0 | +24 |......... Be WW (Wt I pe ee Sen 
CON aaeeeeesel| cceaee eae — OT acieesucee lvepkacaens —0-93 
11 30 | +10 | +11 |......... = 116) = 02a eee 


* T have given a table similar to this in the Companion to the British Al- 
manac for 1838; but the argument of that table is the moon’s transit B. 


REPORT ON THE TIDES. 105 


In the above columns headed “ Observation” the irregulari- 
ties have been destroyed in the manner explained by me in the 
Bakerian Lecture, Phil. Trans., 1836, p.225. The quantities 
headed “London” have been reduced to transit A by means 
of certain tables also given in that paper, to which I shall again 
have occasion to allude. The London height inequality has 
been multiplied by 1°758. The quantities headed “‘Theory’’ were 
calculated by the Liverpool constants, 


log (4) = 9°56965, log (#) = 0°87130. 
The height is represented by the expression 
D + (E) {(A) cos (2 ~ — 24) + cos 24}, 


in which ¢ denotes the moon’s R.A. —sun’s R.A. wW de- 
notes the sidereal time — the moon’s R. A. 

I conceive that the best if not the only method of investi- 
gating alterations in the height of the land above the water 
in any given locality where the water is influenced by the tides, 
will be to examine carefully whether any alteration has taken 
place in the values of the constants D and (£) for that place, 
the height of high water being of course always reckoned from 
some fixed mark in the land. 

The nature of the discrepancies between the London and Li- 
verpool results is better exhibited in the following diagrams, 
where the quantities in the preceding tables have been laid down. 
The London interval curve, although agreeing in form with the 
Liverpool interval curve, differs from it throughout by several 
minutes. This difference seems to be very remarkable. The 
height curves agree closely, showing that the height inequality 
_ varies as the quantity EH, as I have supposed. Laplace says 
_ * Hiles (les marées] augmentent et diminuent avec le diamétre 
_ et le parallaxe lunaire, mais dans un plus grand rapport ;”’ but 
_ the diagram in the preceding page appears to confirm the truth 
_ of this passage only at neap tides. 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


106 


Scale of 1 foot. 


61 If OL 


6 8 ZL 


‘+ + * ywopuory 
+ + * Joodiaary 
ree Kroayy, 


Scale of 10 minutes. 


—_—SS vr.@ 6) 2 uopuo'y 
- + + * joodsaavy 
se fr00qZ 


CLEMO 6 58 Slee aia G 
*[eAroquy 


a I 


9 


REPORT ON THE TIDES. 107 


The inequalities due to the declination of both luminaries are 
so mixed up together that it is impossible to treat them in the 
same manner. 

The succeeding transits of the moon being denoted by the 
letters A, B, C, D, E, F; and F being the time of the moon’s 
transit which immediately precedes the time of high water at 
London, the discussion of the 24,592 London observations has 
been made with reference to transit B. I intended the transit 
Balso to be used by Mr. Jones in the discussion of the Liverpool 
observations, but when the work was much advanced I found that 
Mr. Jones had employed the transit A. However, the tables 
which I gave in a former paper (Bakerian Lecture, 1836) offer 
the means of easily transferring the argument from one transit 
to another. It appears from these tables that the interval be- 
tween successive transits may be considered constant with re- 
ference to the age of the moon or time of transit, and depending 


only upon the parallax and declination. Hence the following 
table is sufficient. 


TaB.e showing the interval between the moon’s transit and the 


next succeeding, with a given moon’s parallax and declina- 
tion. 


Moon’s Parallax. 


54’ } 55’ | 56’ 


15° | 18° 


By means of this table Mr. Russell transferred the quantities 
- furnished by the London calendar month inequality from transit 
_ B to transit A, so as to become immediately comparable with 
_ Mr. Jones’s Liverpool quantities. 


eee 


108 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


TABLE showing a comparison between the calendar month in- 
equality in the interval as deduced from theory, and from ob- 
servations at London and Liverpool. 


Apparent time of 
moon’s transit A. 
= 
P 
5B 
< 
Liverpool. § 
London. 
Liverpool. 
London.” 
Apparent time of 
moon’s transit A. 


noB 
o> 


Co _ & 
eseSoSoSoSoSoSo8o 


ANNAA SOR ROOD Nee OCS 
it) w iN) 


oy 
= 
mt 


Apparent time of 
moon’s transit A. 


Liverpool, 


B 


See ecccerlenecncees 


seeeveses| aseccces 


BINGO PR wWWH DR OOF 
oo _ o ww wo 
esos oS oS oS oSeoSoSc3 


CO fee rer ry 


Be eessaslseccesecs 


eee eerentleeesescas 


Peoevevceleoscccces 


Seerecereliasececes| ™ 


REPORT ON THE TIDES. 109 


TaABLE—continued. 


September. 


Apparent time o 
moon’s transit A, 


Liverpool. 
Liverpool, 


London, 


5 
OB 


+ 
bo 


eee acces] eovccsee 


eeeeeecee 


sececcccclsasnccces| ~| +O |lconseccceiseescsses 


esveccece|| SU L | ~~ EE Jewcevcces 
seecwecccleoseseses| f © VY |leeveevese|seeccsses 
seecesseet UD | “LU [eosccseee 
eesecccesisosecccos| | PF |lecacnecesiesseceses 
eeeeseres 
ee evcsesclecseeecos| —~ UY |leosveeies|soscccces 
eocceesee|| OU | ——2°L lseccccces 
eeecscealscecesecs| TOU |lconcceses| socessee 
eocceesse|| OU | — LD [osvscccee 
seesesccelsescesecs! | PY |leoase seslsusececne 
eecesnses|| SOO | FLO [cecceccee 
rer Orr ry 
eoosests|| S-DWO | FOL lsevcccece 
Coe eecaslseeeesces 


coecoe ee]| SF £O | TaD lcoccecces 


eeeecccceicescesces| EV |lscncesevel|scescsces 


seeeesveclscccsseee 


a eeceeceeleesescces 


eS eeeeceselececesece 


eeeceesaslsesccsccs 


Cee eeseealsesccsees 


eeccesees 


@oeceeeeelsscscsces 


seeeences 


eee eeecerlesscnsvee 


ee cceeeee 


eeecesoes 


Ceceeeeceleesenesee 


Ceecerces 


seeeeeree 


110 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


In the Philosophical Transactions, 1837, Part I., we have 
transferred the London quantities to transit A by merely shifting 
them to the left half an hour, which suffices approximately. 
Upon comparing in this manner the diurnal inequality at Liver- 
pool and London, I find that it is extremely different ; for if we 
examine the high water caused hy the same tide at Liverpool 
and London, we find that if @ and / denote two successive 
‘heights of high water at Liverpool, and a’, b' successive heights 
at London, if a > b, then generally a! < 4’. I do not think 
that this circumstance was known previously, although Mr. 
Wiewell, in his examination of the Coast-guard observations, 
noticed an anomaly of which the origin is similar. : 

It is remarkable that while at Liverpool the diurnal inequality 
in the interval is almost inappreciable, at London it is well de- 
fined. 

The results seem to prove that semidiurnal inequalities in the 
height are proportional to the quantity #, as might be expected 
from theory. See Phil. Trans., 1836, p. 223. 

If X, ¥, Z denote the forces acting in the direction of the co- 
ordinate axes upon the fluid particle of which the rectangular 
coordinates are x, y, %, and if 


: 
] 
i 
¢ 
! 
| 
; 
; 
. 
. 
‘ 
| 
L 


_ de _ dy eis 
saath # OY aes dt’ 

_ du du y iu Fo 
Ca eae dae dig 
dv dv dy dv 
pee ee se dhind 
ibe ee CT Aaa Fe 


then the differential equation to the surface of the fluid is j 
(X —w)da+(Y—v) dy +(Z—w') dz=0. 4 
See Traité de Mécanique, by M. Poisson, vol. ii. p. 669. | 
If Q isa certain function of 2,y,2, the coordinates of the 
fluid molecule, and of 2’, y', z', the coordinates of the centre of 
the distant luminary, 
dQ dQ dQ dQ dQ dQ 


=e ee peti af pet eee Saas! fp eo tS ato 
Oe eet dg l! tay oY tae ee 


— , ~,_¢Q@,,,, dQ, dQ,,, 
=Xde«+Y¥dy+t ada geet aie tae 


REPORT ON THE TIDES. 1 
The equation to the fluid surface is therefore 


dQ da dQ 
dQ —q,/de'—wda Rae PRE AST quite wi dz=0. 


Bernoulli’s theory of the tides, or as it has been aptly termed 
by Mr. Whewell the equilibrium theory, rests upon the assump- 
tion that the equation to the fluid surface is 


dQ =0, or Q = constant, 
that is, it requires that the quantity 
a@ ts! dQ...) | ! dQ a iw! 
qait® +uldx+ doin! +udy+ dsl dz’+wdz. . (A) 
may be neglected. It seems desirable that some attempt should 
be made to investigate the nature of this quantity, in order to 
show @ priori that the quantity 


wde+tudy+w'dz 


may be disregarded. Having given the general equation to the 
surface of the fluid, to find when the distance from the centre of 
the earth is a maximum (or the time of high water) is not a diffi- 
cult geometrical problem. In Bernoulli’s theory, when the ex- 
pression for the height is differentiated, in order to solve this 
question in the usual way various quantities are treated as con- 
stants which are not so strictly ; and in order to obtain a rigorous 
solution, it would be necessary to substitute in the expression for 
the height before differentiation, expressions for the longitude, 
latitude, and distance of the luminary in terms of the time or 
mean longitude. 
The general equations of the motion of fluids referred to rec- 
tangular coordinates are given by M. Poisson, Zraité de Mé- 
canique, vol. ii. p. 669, and in other works. 


ee Se ee ae 


= da. dy dz . . . . . (B.) 


¢ 
i 
g 
1 
eS ee ee sw (CQ) 
g 
dg 


EEN a 6 by cals ban dey Me! 


112 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Let « = r cos ¢ cosp y=rcos¢ sing z=rsin 9. 


In the problem of the tides ¢ may represent geographical la- * — 
titude, and y the sidereal time at the place. 


dr d¢ dp 

ize OF en te 

silat Yee Po ae 

Sear ** ieee tee 

"Sah ~ dy = see 
The general equations of motion referred to polar coordinates 
are 
dp _df dr rd? dp? 
edr dr dé dé — 700s" 6p 
dp 40 dd, drde_ ag dy 
pda, doe ery Tas dt r* sin > cos > dé 
dp. tt ie oleh d Grated d 6 
rg is r~ cos* > ; 27 COS” Pay diy ; 


—27 sin 4 cos o 5% SH, 


a5 
: 


Ifponit + 6, 


dp ay dé 

apy ath Ee th 93 

and if we neglect the quantities of the second order 
d¢dé d¢? 

ALAD ae &: 

dp dQ’ dr — 2 ns yea, yee dé 
edr dr az n-~r cos > 2 1 COBO a 


! dé 
ee a rT — n° * sin $ cos > — 2nr°sin cos > +5 


dé’ dr 
Ss SS peegsuie sora; Se 
= r cos’ > ae 2n 7 cos’ >a 


5 d¢ 
— 2n?* sin ¢ cos ange 


and the equation to the surface will be 


dQ dr 


dé 
een ee 24 —9D 22 2 a , 
1; ge ee od —2nr* cos* > ha 


“4a 


REPORT ON THE TIDES. 113 
pan. odd ge hog state a 
rete se n? 7? sin $ cos > aur sin $ CoS 6-75 d¢ 


. fd 2, af! peae 
+45, — Moos a7 —2m7 cos oa 
— 2nr%sing cos So bdu=0, 


which is in accordance with Laplace’s equation, Méc. Cél., vol. i. 
p.98. The remaining equations are to be deduced from the 


_ invariability of the mass of the element dm. 


ioe te fac oe Cae 


The elementary parallelopiped 
rcosodrdddp 
is bounded by the sides 
MA = dr, MB=rd4, MC =>7r cos ¢$ dp, 
the coordinates of the point M being 7, 4, p#, 
— A — rt+dr, 9, pK, 
—_—_ — B — 7r¢+44, & 
C — 7, $,¢+ dp. 
By reasoning similar to that employed in the Zraité de Mé- 


canique, vol. ii. p. 671, the following equation may be obtained, 
which is equivalent to a transformation of equation (D) : 


dg d.er d.og dion 2err _. sing 9) _ 
dt’ dr ie d¢ ij dy A Se cos > ec 


or 


dr. dq, dp 2r' snd JQ _ 
= rr en date 


For incompressible fiuids, when the effect of changes of 


_ temperature is neglected, ge! = 0 separately, and 


dv’ dq dp! 2” sing 


dr'do ‘dp r_ cose 


which equation agrees with that given by Laplace, Méc. Cél., 


vol. i. p. 101. 
PH If r denote the temperature, Fourier has shown that 
(dr d.ur. d.vr -d.wr K far 

* da * dy ak <, =C1 


and if e denote the temperature which corresponds to a given 


Cr <dis 
dat ay?t ed (E.) 


nperature , 


| VOL. vi. 1837. I 


e) 


| a 


1]4 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


e=e{l+h(r—b)} . .. . . (FB) 

K, C, and ’ being constants. Mémoires de l’ Institut, vol. xiii. 

p-519. When the temperature varies, the two last equations 
supply the place of the equation p! = 0. 

The left hand side of the equation (E.) is of the same form as 

equation (D.), p. 25; hence by the help of a known transform- 


ation it is easy to transform equation (E.) to polar coordinates, 
and we obtain 


dr d.r7r d.rq@  d.cp! rr sind |, 
dit dr de ag eee 
ap Spans en 2 
~ Crs dr r? cos? > \ dp? 


d.rr 
1 (dey is) (E.) 
To costa d¢ 


« The general equations of the motion of fluids have not yet 
been successfully applied to problems even of less difficulty than 
*uat of the tides, which is complicated by the irregular shape of 
the channel in which the tide-wave travels, and by the resist- 
ance which it meets with in its passage. An improvement, how- 
ever, of theory as regards single observations, or for the purpose 
of prediction, is scarcely wanted, except as regards the fluc- 
tuations of the establishment, on account partly of the inevitable 
difficulty attendant upon observations of the time and height of 
high water, and partly on account of the derangement produced 
by causes which are at present far beyond the reach of analysis, 
such as winds and the varying atmospheric pressure. But when 
the averages of numerous observations are employed, it is evi- 
dent that in the instance which I have adduced p. 20, and per- — 
haps also in some others, the equilibrium theory appears at 
least to be insufficient, Its general agreement with the pheno- — 
mena, to which I have adyerted on former occasions, is extremely 
remarkable, and the merit of Bernoulli’s investigation does not 
seem to have been sufficiently appreciated. But whether or not 
Bernoulli’s theory may soon receive improvement, at all events 
the approximation is generally so close that I have thought it 
desirable constantly to compare the results afforded by the ob- 
servations with those deduced from his expressions. More-— 
over, the results given in the tables have been laid down in dia- 
grams, by which means their relation to each other and to theo 
is better perceived. The advantages of this method, of which 


ee ae 


REPORT ON THE TIDES. 115 


remarkable instances might be adduced *, have long been felt, 
_ but there can be little doubt that its more general application 
_ to questions depending for their illustration upon extensive series 
of irregular numbers, particularly those of meteorology and sta- 
tistics (such as variations in prices, in the population, &c.), would 
_ greatly assist in developing relations at present obscure. 

It appears from our examination that the establishment and 
mean height of high water are liable to slight fluctuations, which 
baffle at present our attempts to obtain extreme accuracy in tide 
predictions. ‘This subject seems to deserve attention. 

I have now endeavoured briefly to advert to those parts of 
the subject which appear to require further elucidation, in the 
hope that they may attract the attention of those whose command 
of analysis may enable them to remove the difficulties which still 
remain to be surmounted, and I have mentioned some of the 
facts which appear to me to result from these laborious calcula- 
tions, which never could have been undertaken but for the interest 
which has been felt in the subject by some of the most distin- 
guished members of the Association, particularly by Mr.Whewell, 
and but for the pecuniary grants which have at different times 
been devoted to this object. I hope that when the results are 
earefully examined which have been published in the Philoso- 
phical Transactions, they will not: be found disproportionate in 
value to the great labour and expense which has been required 

‘for their attainment. 

I have lately received, through the kindness of M. Arago, the 
printed Brest Tide Observations from January, 1807, up to the 
end of December, 1835. It now therefore remains to be consi- 
dered whether by pursuing further this inquiry in the same 
manner other important facts can be elicited from the Brest ob- 
servations. I was formerly extremely anxious to obtain access 
to these observations: first, because I understood that they weret 

in print ; secondly, because the tide there is single ; thirdly, on 
account of the classical interest which attaches to these obser- 
_ vations, from being the foundation of the remarks connected 
_ with this subject by Laplace in the Mécanique Céleste ; and 
_ fourthly, because the Brest observations extend throughout the 
_ Same period as those made at the London Docks, which we have 
: _ employed in our former discussion, Bakerian Lecture, 1836. 
- But I am not inclined to think that a discussion of the Brest 

_ Observations would now lead to results presenting any important 


As 

_ * E.g. Sir J. Herschel’s determination of the orbits of double stars. 

_ + We have felt great inconvenience in employing MS. observations; more- 
ee if the observations which we used were in print, greater facilities would 

exist for verifying our results. 


: 12 


116 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


feature differing essentially from those which are afforded by the 
discussions which I have already completed of the London and 
Liverpool observations. But it would certainly be desirable to 
determine the semi-menstrual inequality in the height at Brest, 
that is, the constants D and E; this may be done from a year’s 
observations. I determined some time since the semi-menstrual 
inequality in the interval for that place. See Phil. Trans. As 
the Brest observations extend throughout the same time as those 
of the London Docks which we have employed, the same tides 
might be discussed, and thus the influence of local circumstances 
and the resistances which the tide meets with in its progress from 
Brest to London might be clearly ascertained. I confess, how- 
ever, I am not sanguine that any advantage would now be gained 
sufficient to compensate for the great labour and expense which 
the discussion would require. 


The explanation of the Signs used uv 
this Chart, is contained in pages 42 & 43. 


po pS 


40 360 
J.Gardner.sc. Regent Str. London 


CHART exhibiting the Observations of tlie Magnetic Intensity between fhe Latitudes of b60"N & Ga: 


The explanation of the Signs wend in 
ther art is mained tr pete 42 A 


a5d+ oL5d 


150 
+206 


+253 
+2152 


+200 


2 
1080 °1G2 


——_——_—— 


vA, 


Segre Uy Cainer Regent Seen 


] 
Bian 


£ 
im 


il 
He 
| Hath 
i 
ie 
iH i | 


Hn 
: | | 
ut if 


oe 


! 


i i 
ahi 


MI 
ih | nH i/ 


MAP of the WORLD divided into Hemispheres by a pline coinciding with th 


Tug Wht he meridians of 100° & 280° E.. of Greenwich perhibitan 


Wechibiting th qual distribuls ? the MAGNETIC INTENSITY in the two He maspheres 


SE 
wo. Hemis WA 


—_— 


Sage 72 


iH 
Ml 


ee 
ap Be igs i, 
LG isc 7 cis oe 


il i 
Ab Neri hi a 
| | iva 
| | | Hh UA 
7 e4€ ; ae Fina Se the iil il $s ————s He = 
Fi ie a a Aa | 
aes - a | i, ; 
| muni. 


“MOP OT aay Feu ONY Vy} bey TO SPUT  PVUIPPOST ¢ tt, nuvudpost 


“q 08 o£ og o¢ Or oF ve oT a ‘OSs Ore Ose Ot Ole 00s 06e OBE 


0% (9 ieee Oe 


oe 


or a 


poagasnssachos=Gelecnc| =” 
is = Si oe Perey oF 


Poa 
ean =| ; ee fie og 


T9se05, worn 


00L 


09 


7d 


GL 


OL 09 06 OF 08 0% Or 0 oe ~*~*«CRE 


(“$2417 J2uvUdpoOsS? pum ppUurjI0S2 ay fo ws27227,R4D. 


—— 


Lat 


Tsive 


yl pee ae ie SER gS eS a ee eee 


i. ae 2 ~ . ay 
——G"n yo. eur ovurpulposp cana eG hea O:— 2ULT = 7 Ome. 


COMPOSITION OF CAST IRON. 117 


On the difference between the Composition of Cast Iron pro-~ 
duced by the Cold and the Hot Blast. By Tuomas Tuomson, 
M.D., F.R.S., L.& E., &c., Professor of Chemistry, Glas- 
gow. 


Ar the meeting of the Association last year in Bristol, consider- 
able difference of opinion was entertained respecting; the ad- 
_ yantages said to be obtained by heating the air. before it is in- 
troduced into the furnaces in which iron is smelted, and it, was 

finally admitted by all parties that the only unexceptionable 

mode of determining the question would be to institute a set of 
experiments to determine the relative qualities of hot and cold 
blast iron, and to make a comparative set of analyses of each 
sort in order to determine whether any, and what, differences 
exist in their chemical composition... Messrs. Hodgkinson 
and Fairbairn, of Manchester, undertook to make a compara- 
tive set of experiments on each sort, and Mr, Fairbairn stated 
the result of their experiments in the mechanical section of the 

Association. A committee was appointed by the chemical sec- 
| tion to investigate the chemical composition of hot and cold 
blast iron. I had the honour of being named one of the mem- 
_ bers of that committee. I have accordingly made a certain 
-number of analyses, and my object in this paper is to state the 
_ results which I have obtained.. I do not know what has been 
_ done by the other members of the committee ; I was at too 
_ great a distance from all of them to enable us to operate to- 

gether; I therefore take it for granted that the object in view, 
when individuals living at such distances from each other were 
_ named together, was that each individual should make experi- 
_ ments on the.iron made in his neighbourhood; and that the 
section, by comparing together all the results, might have it in 
_ their power to come to a proper conclusion respecting this most 
portant subject. ) 
__ A great deal of cast iron, and a considerable quantity of bar 
_ iron is now made in the neighbourhood of Glasgow. Probably 
_ the amount last year was not far short of 200,000 tons. It is 
| well known that Glasgow is surrounded by one of the richest 
_¢oal-fields in Britain. The coal is not only abundant, but of 
excellent quality, and the iron ore fortunately exists in great 
abundance, stratified or in nodules in the coal measures. The 
Ore is always a carbonate of iron, never absolutely pure, and 
_ Varying considerably in this respect even when we examine dif- 


118 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


ferent specimens from the same bed. I have analyzed above 
thirty specimens at different times, generally selected with some 
care, as the object in view was to determine the average good- 
ness of various beds of this ore, that the smelter might have it 
in his power to choose the best for his purpose. 

In general some notion may be formed of the goodness of the 
ore by taking its specific gravity ; the heaviest samples being 
the best. But this rule is not without exceptions ; the specific 
gravity of some of the best specimens being diminished by an 
admixture of coal. The specific gravity of pure crystallized 
carbonate of iron is 3°829. Now the heaviest iron stone which 
I have met with in the neighbourhood of Glasgow has a specific 
gravity of 3°3801. It contains 83°85 per cent. of carbonate of 
iron. The remaining 16°15 parts consist of carbonate of lime, 
carbonate of magnesia, silica, alumina, and coal. A bed of iron 
stone near Airdrie is known by the name of Mushet’s black 
band, because it was discovered by that gentleman, or at least 
its value was first pointed out by him. It contains 85°44 per 
cent. of carbonate of iron, which exceeds that from Crossbasket 
above stated, yet its specific gravity is only 3:0553. It may be 
worth while to state the composition of this black band, because 
it will show the foreign bodies always present, in greater or 
smaller quantity, in the clay iron stone of this district. 

Carbonate of iron... .. 85°44 
Carbonate ‘of lime 20°. S80 2h. 9h) 594 


Carbonate of magnesia. . . . . 3°71 
Siliea hh" Soa ea ee RUE See 
Aliinainia <P o FW 00.09 ee A (ORGS 
Péroxide'of iron 40H 08 2 ht Ag. + O23 


Coaly' matter’ 200) o.oo. me 0. Sef) 3°03-——100'38 

The quantity of silica and alumina in this particular band is 
unusually small, amounting only to about 2 per cent. In some 
specimens of clay iron stone which I have analyzed the alumina 
and silica amounted to 45 per cent. Mushet’s black band con- 
tains no sensible traces of manganese. But in general that 
metal may be discovered, though never in great quantity, in the 
clay iron stone belonging to the Glasgow coal-field. There is 
a bed of iron stone near Johnston, which contains 84 per cent. 
of carbonate of iron; but its lime and magnesia being very 
small in amount, the silica and alumina together constitute 
12°4 per cent. and the coaly matter 14 per cent. 

The lightest specimen of clay iron stone which I have met 
with in the neighbourhood of Glasgow had a specific gravity of 
2°285 owing to the great quantity of coal, no less than 21°71 
per cent., with which it was mixed, Its constituents were 


—s eo eee ee ee eer a » 
» . ~ <2eag 


COMPOSITION OF CAST IRON. 119 


Carbonate of iron . . - . + - 29°03 
Carbonate of lime . . . - « - 52 
Carbonate of magnesia. « » - «+ 3°59 
Cee ii ues pigile tinai ley 2UZE 
ERA i oi)? cS ued bas a ee Ae 
imeninia’: ol! OTR ey Sele ihe 6 20°10—100°71 

If we abstract the coal, the carbonate of iron will amount to 
37 per cent. of the ore. In another specimen of the same band 
containing 54 per cent. of coal, I found 62 per cent. of carbonate 
of iron. 

It is remarkable that the proportion between the silica and 
alumina in the two specimens was quite different. In the first 
there were 121 atoms silica to 9 atoms of alumina, and in the 
second 124 atoms silica to 2 of alumina. This seems to show 
that the clay in the clay iron stone does not owe its existence 
to the decomposition of any mineral consisting of a definite 
compound of silica and alumina. ; 

The existence of these foreign bodies in the clay iron stone, 
from which the cast iron subjected to analysis was derived, will 
enable us to understand the source of certain substances from 
which no cast iron hitherto examined is free. The ore, before 
it is put into the furnace, is always roasted, which drives off the 
carbonic acid from the carbonate of iron, and thus reduces the 
weight of the ore, at an average, about 31 per cent. 

It is also mixed with carbonate of lime, which has the well- 
known property of fusing with clay into a liquid glass when 
sufficiently heated. This removes the clay from the ore, and 
enables the oxide of iron to come in contact with the ignited 
coals, which reduce it to the metallic state. I subjected the 
limestones used at most of the smelting houses round Glasgow 
to a chemical analysis. I need not observe that none of them 
was a pure carbonate of lime; for even the most transparent 
and colourless calcareous spar always contains a sensible quan- 
tity of foreign matter. The purest limestone I met with con- 
tained 94°6 per cent. of carbonate of lime. The foreign matter 
in all was silica, alumina, and peroxide of iron. In one only I 
found carbonate of magnesia, to the amount of 2 per cent., and 
in none could I detect the presence of manganese. 

The coal used for fuel leaves, when incinerated, from 1 to 10 per 
cent of ashes. They are composed chiefly of silica, alumina, 
and oxide of iron. Coal is seldom quite free from iron pyrites. 
This enables us to account for the presence of minute quantities 
of sulphur in some of the specimens of cast iron analyzed. 

When the Clyde iron works were established, about 50 years 
ago, to obtain 1 ton of cast iron ten tons of coals were required. 
This coal was previously converted into coke, by which process 


120 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


it lost rather more than half its weight. The matter driven off 
by coking constituted in fact a most important part of the fuel, 
being the substances now well known under the names of coal- 
gasand naphtha. By diminishing the force with which the air 
was driven into the furnace, and by taking care that thisair should 
be dry instead of moist, (in consequence of the water pressure 
originally employed,) and by some other minor improvements, 
the consumption of coals was reduced from 10 to 8 tons, or 
rather to 7 tons 13 cwt. for the production of one ton of cast iron. 

The quantity of limestone employed for smelting a ton of 
cast iron was 105 cwt. 

In the year 1833, when the mode of heating the air was 
brought to a state of tolerable perfection, and when the tempe- 
rature of the air introduced was considerably above 607°, as it 
melted lead at the distance of an inch from the orifice, and the 
melting point of lead is known to be 607°, at that time coal 
was employed without being previously coked, and the quantity 
requisite for smelting a ton of cast iron was 2 tons 19 cwt., 
namely, Tons. Cwt. 

For the furnace’:.) -) wr... 2 0 72250 
For heating theair . . « . »« . O 8 
For the steam engine . . .. . Oll 219 

The quantity of limestone used was reduced from 103 to 7 
cwt.; and the product in iron was greater, and the daily quan- 
tity produced from a furnace was increased from 6 tons to 9 tons. 

The expense of a ton of cast iron was in 

ASQOM HY WS hee. wid SEA 
TESS! AE a ah int at ot QED 
Produce in a month from 3 furnaces in 
$8294 iene ts |. oS) 600, tons esata 
TVBSS>. ao Wee Pod oot ov) 2 1010 : 

When the Clyde iron works were originally established two 
furnaces produced only 14 tons of cast iron weekly. The pro- 
duce was gradually increased to 30, 40, or even 70 tons a week ; 
but after the introduction of the heated air the produce was as 
much as 130 tons a week. Indeed it was raised to almost 200 
tons a week, but that was by the addition of another furnace. 

Various explanations have been given of the way in which 
the heated air acts to produce these advantages. If we attend 
to the facts which I have just stated the true explanation will 
I think easily suggest itself. 

When iron is smelted by the cold blast the coal requires to 
be coked, but when the hot blast is employed coking is unne- 
cessary. In the latter case one half the quantity of coals is suf- 
ficient that is required in the former. Is it not evident from 
this that the whole oxygen of the air of the hot blast combines 


ea i el id ig ee 


COMPOSITION OF CAST IRON. 121 


with the fuel as soon as it enters into the furnace, and that the 
oxygen of the air of the cold blast is not all consumed immedi- 
ately, but makes its way upwards, and is gradually consumed in 
its ascent, producing a scattered heat which is of no use in 
smelting the iron, but merely serves to consume the fuel. When 
the hot blast is used the combustion is concentrated towards the 
bottom of the furnace ; with the cold blast it is much more dif- 
fused. Hence the reason of the saving of the coals in the former 
case, which constitutes the great advantage attending the new 
method. 

This greater concentration of the combustion must subject 
the iron to a greater heat than when the combustion is more 
scattered. This accounts for the smaller quantity of limestone 
necessary for separating the clay; for the higher the tempera- 
ture the smaller is the quantity of limestone necessary for the 
fusion of the clay. Hence also the greater rapidity of the pro- 
cess, and consequently the additional quantity of cast iron ob- 
tained from a furnace in a given time. 

I think then we may conclude, that when the hot blast is 
usedthe heat is more concentrated, and consequently higher than 
when the cold blast is employed. 

I shall now state the result of various analyses of cast iron, 
No. 1, smelted by means of cold, and also by means of hot air 
in the different iron works round Glasgow. These analyses 
were made in my laboratory, partly by myself and partly by Mr. 
John Tennent, upon whose accuracy and skill I could completely 
rely. All the iron works round Glasgow employ ut present 
nothing but heated air, except the Carron Company, who are 
in the habit of making cast iron, No. 1, both by the hot and cold 
blast. -I applied to the manager of the Carron works, and he 
very kindly supplied me with specimens of cast iron, No. 1, 
made by both processes. These specimens I carefully analyzed, 
and considered the comparison of the two specimens as very 
satisfactory, because the nature of the ore and the process was 
exactly the same in both cases, and because the Carron Com- 
pany have the reputation of making cast iron of the very best 
quality. I had specimens of cast iron, No. 1, from the Clyde 
Iron Works which I had obtained before the new process was 
known, and consequently when nothing but the cold blast was 
employed; and I had also specimens of cold blast iron from 
Muirkirk, and some which had been given me as Swedish cast 
iron. 

I shall now point out the differences which were observed 
between cast iron, No. 1, made by the cold and the hot blast. 

1. The specific gravity of cast iron smelted by the cold blast 
is less than that of cast iron by the hot blast. 


122 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


The following are the specific gravities of eight specimens of 

cold blast iron :— 
Ist. Muirkirk. ..). . « «6 (6 6°410 
Phd. Dittoa os) 66) MSS 
Srd. Ditto.) a aS 
Ath itera oh a ee ee 
SU a CGE ai. el a fe 2 OOS 
6th. From pyrites . . . . . . 6°9444 
Vths: BromGarron> o)a5 2. i SPRSS 
8th. Clyde Iron Works . . 7°0028 

The specific gravity of the Muirkirk iron is s considerably less 
than of that smelted at Carron and the Clyde Iron Works ; the 
mean of the 8 specimens is 6:7034. 

It has been hitherto supposed that the difference hetween cast 
iron and malleable iron consists in the presence of carbon in the 
former, and its absence from the latter ; in other words, that cast 
iron is a carburet of iron. But inallthe specimens of cast iron 
which we analyzed we constantly found several other ingredients 
besides iron and carbon. Manganese is pretty generally pre- 
sent in minute quantity, though in one specimen it amounted 
to no less a quantity than 7 per cent. ; its average amount is 2 
per cent. Si/icon is never wanting, though its amount is exceed- 
ingly variable, the average quantity is about 1} per cent. ; some 
specimens contained 3+ per cent. of it, while others contain less 
than a half per cent. Aluminum is very rarely altogether absent, 
though its amount is more variable than that of silicon. Its ave- 
rage amount is 2 per cent. ; sometimes it exceeds 43 per cent.,and 
sometimes it is not quite =,,5th part of the weight of the iron. 

Calcium and magnesium are sometimes gel but very 
rarely, and the quantity does not much exceed }th per cent. 
In a specimen of cast iron which I got from Mr. Neilson, 
and which he had smelted from pyrites, there was a trace of 
copper, showing that the pyrites employed was not quite free 
from copper; and in a specimen from the Clyde Iron Works 
there was a trace of sulphur. The following table exhibits the 
composition of six different specimens of cast iron, No. 1, ana- 
lyzed in my laboratory, either by myself or by Mr. John Tennent. 


Muirkirk. | Muirkirk.|Muirkirk,| Pyrites. | Carron. Clyde. Mean, 

Tron siscasses 90°98 | 90°29 | 91°38 89-442 | 94:010 | 90°824 | 917154 
Copper ...... ——_— | —_ | — 0-288 | —— —— 
Manganese...| _—— 714 2°00 —— 0-626 2°458 2:037 
Sulphur ...... — |= —__ | — _— —_— 0°045 
Carbon ...... 7°40 1:706 | 4°88 3°600 3°086 2°458 3°855 
DIHCR sescccces 0°46 0°830 | 1:10 3°220 1-006 0:450 1177 
Aluminum . 0:48 0016 | —— 3°776 1032 4602 1651 
Calcium ...... —— 0:018 | 0°20 _— —_— — 

— — 0°340 


Magnesium —_— | —_— | — 


COMPOSITION OF CAST IRON. 123 


The constant constituents of cold blast cast iron, No. 1, are 
iron, manganese, carbon, silicon, and aluminum., The occa- 
sional constituents are copper, sulphur, calcium, and magne- 
sium. ‘These occur so rarely, and in such minute quantity, that 
we may overlook them altogether. 

The constant constituents occur in the following mean atomic 
proportions :— 


Ber aes ION oS) Sarkis Lie = 77°00 
i atom manganese. . . . ay ay 
4-36 atoms carbon. . ... . = 3:27 
B wee SiCONe ah aire .et/c-,) a == LFOO 


14 aluminum - 1°40—84°42 

If we unite the iron and manganese, and consider them as 
acting the part of basis, to which the carbon, silicon, and alun:i- 
num unite in definite proportions, we have 224 atoms iron and 
manganese; 63 atoms carbon, silicon, and ahupedeitin or 34 
atoms iron and 1 manganese ; 1 atom carbon, silicon, and alumi- 
num. When we compare the different specimens analyzed, we 
observe a considerable difference in the constitution of each. 
In one specimen the iron and manganese were to the carbon, 
silicon, and aluminum, in the proportion of 2-41 atoms of the 
former to I of the latter ; in another specimen as 8°87 to 1. 
Now both of these specimens were from Muirkirk.. These dif- 
ferences doubtless depended partly on the ore, partly on the 
fuel, and partly on the heat employed. They account perfectly 
for the different properties of cast iron. 

But the mean of the whole gives cold blast cast iron, No. 1, com-— 
posed of 33 atoms iron, 1 atom carbon, silicon, and aluminum ; 
and the proportions of these three constituents are very nearly 
4 atoms carbon, 1 atom silicon, and 1 atom aluminum; so that 
the cold blast cast iron of this country consists of 21 atoms 
iron, with a little manganese, 4 atoms carbon, | atom silicon, 1 
atom aluminum. 

2. I examined only one specimen of cast iron, No. 2. It was 
an old specimen, said to have come from Sweden, but I have 
no evidence of the correctness of this statement. Its specific 
gravity was 7°1633 higher than any specimens of cold blast 1 iron, 
No, 1. Its constituents were, 

AGH phir nhs a) baile fe fils y Gad 


Manganese 33. j% Us h%e 2s). «> 1 0°708 
er ONh. ( <.rone ae fens me ae, A OOD 
Bslicom : ( -4Sistielibe osbhisll.. dso wi kiZ6Z 
Peianiinuin °°.) pee ae ote ok te Ose 
Sulphur... - - + 0:038—99°414 


The presence of sulphur i in this specimen leads to the sus- 


124 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


picion that it is not a Swedish specimen; for as the Swedish 
ore is magnetic iron, and the fuel charcoal, the presence of 
sulphur in the iron is very unlikely*. 

In this specimen the atoms of iron and manganese are to 
those of carbon, silicon, and aluminum in the proportion of 42 
to 1, instead of 33 to 1, as in cast iron, No. 1. 

The atoms of carbon, silicon, and aluminum approach the 
proportions of 7, 2, and 1, so that in cast iron, No. 2, judging 
from one specimen, there is a greater proportion of carbon com- 
pared with the silicon and aluminum, than in cast iron, No. 1. 

Mr. Tennent analyzed a specimen of hot blast iron, No. 2, 
from Gartsherry. Its specific gravity was.6°9156, and its con- 
stituents, Atoms. 

Tron’-..* . . . ©. 90°542 > |. 25°86 hee 
Manganese . . . 2°764 0°78 

Carbon '... = 3:094 4°05 
Silicon . . . . 0°680 0°68 
Aluminum . . . 2°894 2°31 
Sulphur. . . . 0:023 0°011 


99°997 
So that it resembles cast iron, No. 1, in the proportion of its 
constituents.. The carbon is almost the same as in cold blast 
iron, No, 2, but the proportion of aluminum is four times as 
great, while the silicon is little more than half as much. The 
atomic ratios are, carbon 4°; silicon, 0°67 ; aluminum, 2°28. 
3. Five specimens of hot blast cast iron, No. 1, were analyzed. 

Two of these were from Carron, and three from the Clyde Iron 
Works, where the hot blast originally began, and where, of 
course, it has been longest in use. The specific gravity of these 
specimens was found to be as follows :-— 

Ist. From Clyde Works. . . . 7:0028 

9nd. From Carron. ... .  .« . »  g#O7aE 

Srd.. From‘ Carron’) '.099° 30.9550 $PO721 

4th. From Clyde Works. . . . 7°1022 


Mean . . 7:0623 
It appears from this that the hot blast increases the specific 
gravity of cast iron by about ;jnd part. It approaches nearer 
the specific gravity of cast iron, No..2, smelted by cold air, than 
to that of No. 1. 
The following table exhibits the constituents of these 4 speci- 
mens. 


* I have been told by Mr. Mushet that the Swedes add sulphur to their iron, 
No. 2. 


IEA I 


ra eo 


desea ame 


COMPOSITION OF CAST IRON. 125 


Clyde. Carron. | Carron. Clyde. Clyde. 
Tron -cecccccseeces 97:096 | 95°422 | 96°09 94:966 | 94:345 
Manganese......... 0°332 | 0336 | 0-41 0160 | 3120 
ATDON seeseeeeeees 2°460 2:400 2:48 1560 1°416 
Silicon .sseesseeeee 0:280 1820 1:49 1322 0°520 
Aluminum ......... 0°385 0°488 0°26 1374 0°599 
Magnesium......+.. — —_— — 0°792 | —— 


ns | ce | | | 


100°55 | 100-466 |100°73 | 100°174 | 100: 


The mean of these analyses gives us, 
Atoms. 
Dri)! ee we 9584 or 27-31 bes 
Manganese . . O°87lor 0°249 
Carbon. .*.. © 2°099 or 2°79 
Silicon. . . . 1°0860r 1°086 -1 
Aluminum . . 0°422o0r 0°337 


101°285 
Or, in the proportion of 6% atoms of iron and manganese to 1 
atom of carbon, silicon, and aluminum. In the cold blast cast 


iron, we have, Iron. Carbon, &c. 
InNo.l ... . . 3} atoms I atom. 
Bran Nos Bodh). yen ce oe AE i 
In hot blast . . . . 63 1— 


Thus it appears that when iron is smelted by the hot blast its 
specific gravity is increased, and it contains a greater proportion 
of iron, and a smaller proportion of carbon, silicon, and alumi- 
num than when smelted by the cold blast. 

The atoms of carbon, silicon, and aluminum are to each other 
nearly in the proportions of 12, 5,and2; so that the proportion 
of silicon compared with the carbon is nearly twice as great in 
the hot blast iron as in the cold blast. 

These are consequences that might have been anticipated from 


the theory of the process, as I have explained it in a preceding 


part of this paper. 

As to the qualities of the two kinds of iron I do not consider 
my experiments as calculated to enable us to draw any conse- 
quence of much importance. Hot blast iron is obviously purer 
than cold blastiron. It is said by several of the Glasgow steam 


_ engine makers whom I have consulted on the subject, that the 
_ iron by the hot blast is not so tough as that made by the cold 
_ blast ; and one very extensive house in Glasgow, in order to ob- 
_Viate this objection, is in the habit of adding a little Welsh iron 


to the hot blast iron before casting, and this I have been assured 
by the manager of the works obviates the defects. 


126 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


4. An analysis of a specimen of cast steel, manufactu « in 
the neighbourhood of Glasgow, from the best Dannemors ..on, 
was made by Mr, Tennent, and perhaps it may be worth while 
to state the results obtained. v 

Its specific gravity was 7'8125, and its constituents, 


Atoms. 
PURE i Sec uaiy a) = "oaae tae 
Manganese . . ». « . 0°:190 
RAtDOH.6itvl are, O8BS, <1; 


99°866 
Or it contains 56 atoms of iron united to 1 atom of carbon. 
He could not detect the least trace of either silicon or aluminum 
in this steel. Is it not probable that the reason why Danne- 
mora iron answers so well for making steel is that it contains 
no sensible portion of silicon and aluminum ; and that the pre- 
sence of a notable quantity of these substances in British iron 
is the reason why it is so ill fitted for being converted into good 
steel ? 
APPENDIX. 


A quantity of hot and cold blast iron was made in the same 
furnace at the Level Furnaces, Brierly Hill, Staffordshire, with 
the same proportions of ironstone and limestone, with the addi- 
tion of one-half more coal, necessary to compensate for the defi- 
ciency of power in the furnace when blown with cold air. These 
products were tried with the following results : 

1. Two bars of cast iron {ths inch square were melted in a 
crucible from pig iron, No. 1, the first cold blast and the second 
hot blast ; both broke when exposed to a pressure of 2040 lbs. 

2. Zths inch cable bolts were made from the hot blast iron 
No. 1. These cable bolts were exposed to the Liverpool proof, 
namely, a weight of 12 tons 5 ewt., without sustaining any al- 
teration; even a weight of 17 tons 18 ewt. produced no bad 
effect. 

Another chain without studs 3ths inch in diameter, made from 
the same hot blast iron, was proved to 22 tons, 7 ewt. 1 qr. 2 lbs., 
or to 12 tons, 11 ewt. 1 qr. 2 lbs. above the Liverpool proof, 
without sustaining any injury. These trials show that hot 
blast iron is at least as strong as cold blast iron. 


ae 


LOMO LOLA: 


DETERMINATION OF CONSTANT OF NUTATION. 127 


ber. 


rae 


Notice of the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by 
the Greenwich Observations, made as commanded by the 
British Association. By the Rev. T. R. Rozinson, D.D. 


Ir is now a century since Bradley, by his brilliant discoveries 
of the aberration of light, and the nutation of the earth’s axis, 
became the founder of accurate astronomy. By them he not 
merely explained the seemingly anomalous movements which, 
though noticed by others before him, were first established by 
his observations on authoritative evidence, but he also demon- 
strated that a degree of precision, which the other astronomers of 
that time could scarcely conceive, was perfectly attainable. From 
the commencement of his career to the present day the impulse 
thus given has never failed, and each successive year has brought 
improvements to the construction of astronomical instruments, 
to the methods of observing, or, what is equally important, to the 
reductions by which these observations are made available to 
science. 

Yet it must be acknowledged that in respect of both aberra- 
tion and nutation nothing was added to the researches of Brad- 
ley till within a few years, when Struve, Brinkley, and Richard- 
son resumed the inquiry as to the first, and contracted within 
very narrow measures the limits of its uncertainty. The second, 
of these astronomers also investigated the constant of nutation, 
and his result is generally adopted by British astronomers. In 
Germany, however, the authority of M. Besselhas given currency 
to a different value of this important element, deduced by 
Von Lindenau, and though the two differ only + of a second, 


(7760.000 “66 AGG of the telescope used in observing,) such is the accu- 
? ? 


racy now required that even this evanescent discordance is felt 
asa disgrace toastronomy. ‘This stigma I trust is now removed 
by the work which the powerful aid of the Association has en- 
abled me to perform, and of which it is my present object to give 
a brief notice to this section, the fuller details requiring a dif- 
ferent mode of publication. 

When an observer directs the telescope of his circle to a star, 
the distance from the pole or the zenith which he obtains is but 
crude ore, and much labour is required to obtain its precious 
contents. The refraction of the atmosphere prevents us from 
seeing it in its true place ; its effect must be computed and cor- 
rected ; the light by which we see it takes time to travel through 


128 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


the telescope, which itself moves with the earth, and thus aber- 
rates from the true direction ; this too has been brought under 
our dominion. The stars themselves, though we call them fixed, 
are most of them in motion, each with its own proper movement, 
and with a period to which even geological cycles are probably 
but as moments. And the points of our own globe, to which 
we refer their positions, are anything but invariable; they are 
agitated with perpetual changes, some of great duration and 
extent, others minute in quantity and rapid in recurrence, all of 
which must be appreciated and known before we can record 
any history of the heavens at a given epoch. 

Of these disturbances of the earth’s axis the greater terms 
have long been known under the name of the precession of the 
Equinoxes, and our present knowledge of their laws and amount 
is satisfactory ; of the remaining three, appropriately called 
nutations, one completing, its course in a fortnight and never 
reaching ;',th of a second, is sufficiently determined by theory ; 
another, semi-annual in period, and } asecond at its maximum, 
is also given by theory, and, independently, by Brinkley’s ad- 
mirable observations. ; 

The third is of much greater magnitude, being about 9”, and 
running through its changes in the time of a complete revolu- 
tion of the moon’s nodes, something more than 18 years; and 
its exact determination is the object of this communication. It 
is obvious, that if a star’s distance from the pole be determined 
when the effect of this nutation increases it most, but without 
making any allowance for zts effect, and if 94 years after, when 
of course the distance is most diminished, it be again observed, 
the difference of the results will be twice the total effect of nu- 
tation on that star, and from this the entire or the constant of 
nutation is of course known. But if after a second lapse of 
93 years, when all has returned to its primary condition, we 
have a third set of observations, the conclusion is made much 
more certain; for thus all doubt is removed that might come 
from any proper motion of the star if it returns to its original 
place; or if not, the difference detects that proper motion, and 
gives its amount. Therefore, to succeed in this inquiry, it is 
necessary to have observations extending through at least the 
whole period of the nodes, made with the same instrument, and, 
if it were possible, by the same observer, or at least according 
to the same system. In quantities so minute as those we are 
considering, in operations so delicate in themselves, and so easily 
vitiated by errors that can scarcely be suspected, all precautions 
are necessary ; and with the exception of the observations made 
at Greenwich, while the late Mr. Pond presided over that ob- 


——— a 


ee 


eek)» mp, 


DETERMINATION OF CONSTANT OF NUTATION, 129 


servatory, there are none existing which even approach the ful- 
filment of these conditions. ° Even in them there is much ob- 
jectionable, but many years must elapse before they can be 
surpassed. 

The Greenwich circle was for the first 12 years employed to 
measure distances from the pole ; afterwards from the zenith ; 
the zero of the former being given by comparing the observed 
and calculated places of known stars, the latter by combining 
direct and reflected observations. This in the present inquiry 
needed no change, but the other was inadmissible, and I re- 
stricted myself to the pole star alone. Of it 4000 observations 
were computed, by the aid of Bessel’s admirable tables, retaining 
his values of declination, nutation, and proper motion, but with 
mine of aberration and refraction. Of the results more than 
2000 could be combined above and below the pole to give the 
zero of polar distance. The others served to keep watch in the 
interval between these conjugate observations, and show if any 
change took place in the instrument. After 1826, observations 
of Polaris were less numerous, but the index corrections given by 
it were then combined with reflected observations. 

The other stars were selected on this principle, that their 
altitudes should be such as to free them from the uncertainty of 
refraction ; and that those observations only should be employed 
in which at least 3 of the effect of nutation is exerted in polar di- 
stance. Of such there are but 15 to be found in the Greenwich 
collection with sufficient frequency, and even-of these three 
have not yet completed their cycles. Four of them are not 
found in Bessel’s tables, but are similarly reduced ; and in all 
correction has been made for that slight nutation of which I 
_ spoke as of a fortnight’s period. They afford about 8000 re- 
— sults, gut only 6000 have been available, 1000 from an accident 
_ which occurred to the instrument in 1820, and vitiated the work 
of almost two years, and the rest from occasional want of 


_ corresponding observations of Polaris. 


Each of these observations should be exactly represented by 
the calculated place of the star, were there no errors of observa- 
tion or of reduction, and the difference gives their effects, In 
the present case we consider only three things as doubtful ; the 
place of the star at some given epoch, as given by the catalogue 
employed, the star’s motion, and Lindenau’s nutation. The re- 
_ sidue thereforeis properly equated to these three quantities, and 
_ the equations are divided into three groups, corresponding to the 
~ maxima and intervening minimum (or vice versd) of nutation. 
- The three resulting equations determine these three errors, two 
~ of which are peculiar to each star, but the correction of nutation 
VOL. VI. 1837. K 


130 . SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


is common to all, and each set should give it the same value. This 
is not rigorously the case, and the difference proceeds partly from 
accidental errors in bisecting the star or reading the divisions, 
but still more from causes which are as yet unknown, and whose 
influence is but beginning to be noticed. Lastly, the corrections 
thus obtained must be combined into a general mean according 
to the most probable method, attending to their different weights. 
In some stars nutation appears with a larger coefficient, some 
have been more frequently observed, and both these circum- 
stances must be duly estimated in taking the mean. 
These are my results. To increase Lindenau’s nutation : 
710 observations of y Draconis give + 0-28 


776 —- a Lyre om 20° 54 
705 — « Cygni — + 0°03 
452 a Arcturus — + 0° 33 
369 —_— 6 Urseminoris— + 0° 35 
224 ——— 6 Tauri — + 0°35 
284 —— Aldebaran — +0°31 
2359 ——— a Arietis — +031 
279 —_ a Corone — + 0° 61 
287 ——_ Pollux — + 0°54 
267 ——— Castor — + 0.52 
190 2a a Persei — +0°77 
To diminish it : 
397 observations of » Urs give — 0-29 
403 ——— Capella — —0°31 
393 —— Polaris — —0° 01 
The mean of all being, 
+. 0.1257 
8° 977 


Lindenau = 9-234 
differing only 0-016 from the number selected by Mr. Baily 
for the admirable catalogue which has already been so useful to 
astronomy, and which I trust by the aid of the Association may 
soon be increased far beyond its present extent®. 

It remains to consider what errors may be supposed to affect 
this conclusion. Some may object that I have used with Mr. 
Baily the constant of aberration 20°36, instead of employing 
20°50, which Mr. Richardson has so ably deduced from the 


* Since reading this notice to the Association I have received the Green- 
wich observations for 1836, which enables me to complete the cycle for # 
Cygni, and to determine the proper motions of Castor and Pollux more cor- 
rectly. These, and some other changes of less importance, have slightly changed 
my result, which is now considered by me to be 9°239, 


9S ER INT PG INET GD AO i? 


pid ‘ntsc 


he ee 


EP tte os eee 


DETERMINATION OF CONSTANT OF NUTATION. 131 


Greenwich observations themselves. I fully admit its weight, 
but must remark, Ist, that for the star common to our compu- 
tations, the maximum of aberration obtained differs too widely, 


in one case more than a second; secondly, that the mean of 
20:5038 


Richardson and De Lambre gives, __225, almost identical with 
4 


20°370 
Brinkley and Struvé 20350; and, thirdly, that the use of Mr.R.’s 
20°360 


constant would scarcely have changed my-result. In the case of - 
y Draconis, the most important in my list, I performed the 
computation with this value, and the change it produced was 
only >,55 of a second. , 

As to the casual errors depending on the circumstances of 
observation, I find for this star, that the probable error of one 
observation = + 096, and therefore, by the theory of proba- 
bilities, it comes out an even het, that. as far as such errors are 
concerned the result given by it is not uncertain to 0°"04, and 
Lyre has nearly the same probable error. Therefore, the slight 
discordances in my results proceed from other, and, as yet, un- 
known causes. Similar and greater discrepancies occur in Mr. 
Richardgson’s investigations, but it is curious that in Brinkley’s 
researches on nutation, Capella, and « Cygni give results less 
than the mean; « Lyre, 6 Tauri, and Castor above it. 

It might seem that a more accurate conclusion is attainable 
by assuming the proper motion of the stars as known from 
comparison of Bradley’s observations with those of recent date. 
This supposition would give the constant 9°181, 0°05 less than 
that given above; but I think it inadmissible, for these motions 
may not be uniform, and there may be changes in the instru- 
ment, the refraction, the observer, nay, even in the direction of 
gravity, as affected by local circumstances, which are functions 
of the time. Something of this sort does actually appear here. 
It is well known that Pond latterly believed in the existence of 
a general southern motion of the stars ; and though Brinkley has 
shown most fully that this is imaginary, yet it is remarkable 
that the corrections of Bessel’s proper motions, which my work 
has given, are, except in one instance, all negative. I infer from 
this that the Greenwich circle is undergoing some progressive 
change of figure, which makes it show polar distances too great 
for about 30 degrees south of the zenith; but if this be the case 
it is not likely long to elude the sagacity of Mr. Airy. 

The declinations which I obtain from these Greenwich obser- 
vations differ considerably from those deduced by Pond himself, 

K 2 


132 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, 


and given in the N, A. for 1834, but they agree closely with 
those of Bessel; they give the following corrections : 
Cor. N. A. Cor. Bessel. 
y Draconis. . . —097 . . —0°08 
@ lyre ot ee. ee 
a Cyeni se. = OEE i ag 
Arcturus. eer et OB Oo er SE 
6 Urse Minoris . —O6l . . +0:10 
 TAMr see ee a Le iT ae 
Aldebaran . . . —1°80 . . — 0°08 
a “Arietis FeO 4) Ao 148 Oe 0 Og 
a Corone .. . —1'70 . . —0°06 
Bolla se EEE oe Me 
Castor . .. . —9205 . . —013 
a Persei. . . . —1°80 . . — 0°99 
4 Ura sd OPER 9 49480 
Capella sti) 1h 8) oo) ay Saree 
Polaris . . . . —OOl . . —0°04 


Mean — 1:34 — 0°02 
This seems to show that the difference between these cele- 
brated catalogues arises solely from the different methods of re- 
duction employed, and may excite a wish that the whole of 
Pond’s Greenwich catalogue should undergo a similar reyision. 


- EXPERIMENTS ON VEINS AND MINES. 133 


Report of some Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic 
Veins, and the Temperature of Mines. By Ropert WERE 
Fox. 


In fulfilment of the commission with which I was last year in- 
trusted, it was my intention to have made some experiments on 
the electricity of metalliferous veins on a larger scale than I have 
yet done, and to have endeavoured to produce changes in the 
composition of bodies, by the long-continued action of electric 
forces, derived from this source. Other engagements have, 
however, interfered with the execution of these plans, and the 
only experiments of this nature which I have recently made 
have been confined to Coldberry and Skeers lead mines, situated 
near Middleton Teasdale, in the county of Durham. In the 
former, I obtained no decided results; and in the latter, the gal- 
vanometer indicated very feeble electrical action. There are 
seven E. and W. lead veins in this mine, contained in limestone, 
which are shifted from three to five fathoms to the right hand 
by a cross vein, having nearly a northern and southern direction. 
The cross vein contained more or less galena near some of the 
places of intersection ; and a connection was made, by means of 
copper wires, between portions of orein the cross vein, and others 
in one of the most productive of the east and west veins, when 
there appeared to be a feeble action from N. to W. (see ground 
plan, fig.1). The parts connected, a and 4, were about twenty 
fathoms distant from each other, and fifty fathoms under the 


~ surface. } 
A small stream of water gushing Fig. 1. 
out of the vein was at 50° Fahr. N 


The ore in this mine was far from 
abundant, at least it did not occur 
in such large masses as are best a" 
calculated for experiments of this 
description ; and the wire was not 
sufficiently long to admit of obser- 
vations being made on the relative 
electric states of parallel veins. 

These experiments, together with 
others which I made some years 
ago in other lead mines near Mold W 
in Flintshire, tend to induce the 
belief that the electric action ismuch 
more feeble in lead veins when con- 
tained in limestone and sandstone s 


Cross Vein. 


Lead Vein. 


134 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


than in copper veins included in the lower rocks, such as granite 
and “ sillas’’ or clay slate. And here it may be remarked that 
the sulphurets of copper are more electro-negative than galena, 
which circumstance may have had some influence on the results. 

I wished to have made experiments on the electricity of some 
of the coal-beds which have been traversed and charred by the 
great basaltic dyke in the county of Durham, but my time and 
engagements did not well admit of my doing so. It is well 
known, that when coal is reduced to the state of a cinder it be- 
comes a good conductor of voltaic electricity, although coal, in 
its natural state, does not possess this property, or even anthra- 
cite. A friend of mine having kindly sent me some specimens 
of the altered coal taken from Cockfield Fell Colliery, I found 
that most of them were incapable of conducting voltaic electri- 
city, which unexpected circumstance may, perhaps, be attri- 
buted to their having undergone a degree of vitrification,—pene- 
trated, possibly, by some siliceous matter, which their appearance 
indicated; and I am rather confirmed in this opinion from 
having since found that one of the pieces of native cinder from 
the same place is as good a conductor of electricity as coke, and 
it has a less vitrified appearance than the others. Here then 
we have the evidence of electricity in favour of the powerful ac- 
tion of the heated basalt on the contiguous coal deposits. 

I have, on various occasions, endeavoured to show that the 
high temperature observed in the lowest parts of deep mines is 
in a great degree independent of accidental or extraneous causes 
not existing in the earth itself, and, indeed, that it is more often 
diminished by them than the reverse. It occurred to me that 
this point might be decided by burying the bulbs of different 
thermometers at various depths below the deepest excavations 
of mines, and I am indebted to the agents of Levant Tin and © 
Copper mine, and of the Consolidated Copper mines, for having 
carried this plan into effect for me in their respective mines. 
The former mine is situated on the coast, in the parish of St. 
Just, and is worked in granite and “killas.”’ Its depth is about 
230 fathoms from the surface, and 200 fathoms below the level 
of the sea. A thermometer four feet long, and inclosed in a 
brass tube, had its bulb sunk in a hole three feet beneath the 
““ sump,” or bottom of the deepest shaft, whilst another shorter 
thermometer was placed very near it, with its bulb inserted in 
a hole only about an inch deep. The former, which may be 
distinguished as No. 1, indicated a temperature of 80°, and the 
latter (No. 2) of 78°°5, both of them having been previously com- 
pared with a standard thermometer, and the needful correction 
applied. This part of the mine is in granite. The thermome- 
ter was afterwards placed in like manner in “ killas,’’ at the 


EXPERIMENTS ON VEINS AND MINES. 135 


western extremity of the deepest level or gallery, about 190 
fathoms under the sea level, and four feet from the lode, when 
No. 1 showed a temperature of 78°, and No. 2, 72°°5 ; a stream 
of water which flowed into another part of this level to the east- 
ward of the shaft, and in granite, was at 78°°5, and the air in 
the level only 67°. 

The Consolidated Mines are situated in the parish of Gwen- 
nap, and nearly thirty miles to the 
eastward of Levant. The depth is 
290 fathoms from the surface, and 
237 below the level of the sea at 
half-tide; the rock is “killas.”’ 
There is a “‘ cross-cut,’ or gallery 
proceeding from the bottom of the 
deepest shaft (Pearce’s), marked 
P.S. in the section Fig. 2, at right 
angles to the lode, which it inter- 
sects at N., the lode underlying to- 
wards the north L.N. The thermo- 
meters No. 1 and 2 were placed at a, 
24 fathoms from N.., the bulb of the 
former in a hole three feet deep, 
and that of the latter in another an 
inch deep, the holes having been 
filled round the thermometers with 
clay, &c. Under these circum- 
stances No. 1 indicated a tempera- 
ture of 85*°3, and No. 2 of 84°. 
The thermometers were then simi- 
larly arranged at 4, ten fathoms 
from N., and No. 1 gave 86°°3, and iy 
the other 85°. These experiments re r s 
were made before the cross-cut was 
completed as far as N. When, however, the lode was inter- 
sected atthat place, both thermometers were placed in the manner 
already described in the lode itself at c, when No. 1 indicated 
a temperature of 92°, and No. 2 of 88°. Here the thermo- 
meters were kept only two hours, but in all the other experi- 
ments in both mines they remained in their places more than 
twenty-four hours ; and when No. 1 was taken out of the deep 
holes, and allowed to stand awhile in the “ cross-cut,” the mer- 
cury always fell at leasta degree. Only two men were at work 
at a time in or near this part of the mine. The increase of 
temperature in the lode, may, I conceive, be attributed to the 
greater facility afforded by it for the ascent of currents of warni 


136 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


water from more considerable depths, and the difference between 
a and / to their relative proximity to the lode. The tempera- 
ture of 85°°3 is at least 35° above the mean of the climate, and, 
therefore, it gives a ratio of increase equal to one degree in 
49°6 feet, if calculated from the surface; and Levant Mine, 
which was 80° at the bottom, one degree in 46 feet, or they give 
one degree in 48 and 44 feet respectively, if estimated from ten 
fathoms under the surface. . 

The thermometers were likewise placed in holes, as before, 
in a superior level in the Consolidated Mines, 130 fathoms be- 
low the surface, when No. 1 indicated a temperature of 61°, 
and No. 2 of 61°°6. This difference in favour of the short ther- 
mometer was probably due to the influence of ascending currents 
of warm air and vapour on the surface of the rock; and such an 
explanation is not inconsistent with the opinion that the general 
temperature of the upper parts of the mine had undergone a dimi- 
nution of its criginal amount, in consequence of the excavations 
below having interfered with the ascent of warm water, and pro- 
moted the drainage from above of that which was comparatively 
cold. For these reasons, and from the results obtained at the 
deepest parts of mines of various depths, I consider that the 
temperature of 61° is much below what it would have been had 
there been no inferior excavations ; and I have evidence that in 
1822, when the mine was only 150 fathoms deep, the water at 
the bottom of one shaft was at 76° and of another at 80°. 

It is clear, I think, from all the experiments which have been 
made on the temperature of mines, that causes which are more 
or less local, and exist in the earth itself, have a powerful influence 
in modifying its degree, and in producing those anomalous results 
which have always characterised observations on subterranean 
heat. When it is considered how much the crust of the earth 
abounds with fissures or faults, and that warm water has a con- 
stant tendency to ascend through cooler portions of that fluid, 
and thus to produce upward and downward currents in the fis- 
sures and veins, it would indeed be surprising if such discrepan- 
cies did not exist even in the same vicinity, to say nothing of the 
greater or less influence of water percolating from the surface. 
Upon the whole, I am strongly of the opinion that the effect of 
the simple conducting power of rocks on the temperature, at 
depths hitherto attained, is very much superseded by that of the 
transporting property of water to which I have alluded. Indeed, 
I have long taken this view of the subject, and it has appeared 
to me to account very satisfactorily for the fact of the more 
compact rocks, ,such as granite, having been often found at 
rather a lower temperature than “killas” at given depths, and 


EXPERIMENTS ON VEINS AND MINES. 137 


both of them inferior in this respect to large porous lodes or 
veins*. ‘Thermal springs may likewise, I conceive, be referred 
to the same cause, and it is well known that they are generally 
connected with fissures or faults; moreover, I may here remark 
that this property of fluids must more or less influence the 
temperature of water in Artesian wells, so that thermometrical 
experiments made in them are often rather calculated to prove 
the existence of subterranean heat than to ascertain its ratio of 
increase in descending from the surface. 


Since the foregoing report was read at the geological section, 
I have obtained some results relative to the temperature of 
Tresavean Copper Mine from Captain Oats, who kindly made 
the experiments for me. The mine is worked almost wholly 
in granite, and is situated in the parish of Stythians, about three 
miles to the S.W. of the Consolidated Mines. The bulb of the 
thermometer No. 1 was buried 2 feet 10 inches, and that of No. 
2 one ineh under the surface of the rock at the different stations, 
their stems having in all cases been surrounded by clay pressed 
into the holes. The following were the results : 


Depth in fathoms. Experiments made. 
from from Inair. Inthe rock. 
surface, sea level. No. 1. No. 2. 
, ° ° ° 
26 . ... In pranite 15 fathoms N. of lode, and 40 fathoms 53:3 57: 598 
AVON MAS, Aeasdecscacecs eco cnaincsveussles ebnahenie 
ec i 
200. 170 ae lode, rock do., ‘‘ killas,” and three fathoms } 17:9 76+ 155 
YOM SYANite ......sececeeoes seeeescecenseececceccesess 
200 170 In do. 10 fathoms from do. ....cceccccceesceees dederease tet LUG, eon 
250 196 ee eopienet in granite, and 60 sage from §3°2 82:5 82 
2 
262 208 Inlode,do.,in7 fathoms from do. , being the bottom 855 82:5 82: 
GLiMMEMNINC wpe beeteces ckeadaesescesnecinacvcndes 


_ The last result gives a ratio of increase of 1° in 48 feet, cal- 
culated from the surface. It will be seen that the elevation of 
the latter, in reference to the sea-level, varies considerably in 
different parts of the mine. 


* See Philosophical Magazine and Annals, 1831, vol. ix., p. 94. 


} ‘ “ 
ri 
. 
‘ 


Ay Ay Nev 


~ 
Pai Pps 
‘ ~- 
> +, 
7 - . 
We? 
. 


Sagbare cere 


ep eae } SJ 


iA Sana es 


REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 139 


. 


Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section 
of the British Association, appointed to investigute the 
Composition of Secretions, and the Organs producing them. 


Part I, 


Tue Committee appointed by the Medical Section of the British 
Association to investigate the chemical composition of glands 
and their respective secretions, have been prevented by different 
circumstances (amongst which have been the lamented death of 
one of their number, and the disturbed health of another) from 
rendering a complete report on the subject referred to them. 
They are desirous however of making such a statement of their 
progress as may invite the co-operation of animal chemists in 
the extensive and somewhat difficult field in which they find 
themselves engaged. 

The manifest object of the investigation proposed to your 
committee has been to obtain, through the medium of animal 
chemistry in its present improved state, some further insight 
into the mysterious and vital process of secretion. 

The terms in which this inquiry is proposed seem to give to 
it a particular direction, the reason for which may not be very 
obvious ; and as they were suggested by one of your committee, it 
may not be amiss to assign here the reasons which occasioned this 
| course to be pointed out: before proceeding to do so we will 
| offer one remark in opposition to a generally received opinion 
| respecting the process of secretion. It seems to be considered 
that in as much as this process is one in which vitality is con- 
cerned, it is removed from the province of chemistry ; from this 
Opinion we totally dissent, seeing that whatever changes are 
produced in the proportion and mode of combination of the 
Minents of which bodies are composed, must, when not merely 
mechanical, be essentially chemical, and that the introduction 
of an agent, though it be no less important than the influence of 
life, does not in any degree detract from its chemical character. 
We have merely to consider that the elements both act and are 
acted upon under peculiar circumstances, which offer some ana- 
logy to what is seen when chemical elements are exposed to the 
influence of caloric or electricity ; their inherent properties are 
not destroyed, but they are modified when they are placed under 
these influences ; and as the investigation of chemical changes, 
in which the two influences just mentioned are concerned, has 
tended greatly to improve our knowledge in respect to them, so 


140 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. : 
we may reasonably hope that a similar result may be obtained 
from the investigation of the processes of nutrition and secretion — 
going forward in living bodies, by regarding them as strictly — 
chemical, even in those very modifications which vitality pro- 4 
duces. When it is considered that during the activity of life 
the process of nutrition is constantly maintaining, even in the 
solid parts of animal bodies, molecular changes by which old ; 
materials are removed and new ones deposited, we must be led 
to presume @ priori, that as the rejected particles are taken away _ 
in a state of perfect solution, they must find their way into those _ 
fluids which proceed from the particular part. In ordinary | 
textures (by which we wish to be understood those which are © 
not called glandular) we fee] no hesitation in admitting that the — 
rejected particles are carried away in the lymph and venous 
blood ; but in glandular structures, and in parts which like them — 
yield a peculiar secretion as well as return lymph and venous 
blood to the system, we have a third course into which some 
of the rejected particles may be expected to find their way. — 
Now though it may be difficult or almost impossible to detect 
either in the venous blood or the lymph, any peculiarities which | 
the addition of the rejected particles may give to the venous — H) 
blood and lymph proceeding from particular parts, the case_ 
may be different when we investigate a particular secretion in — 
which it seems probable that these particles may exist in a 
larger proportion, having a less admixture of the whole or some 
of the constituents of the general circulating fluid. The mani- 
fest properties of some secretions seem to lead to a similar con-_ 
clusion & posteriori. The varieties which we find in pus ae 
duced in different parts of the body are among the most pal-— 
pable examples of this kind. Pus from the brain has a peculiar 
consistence and colour resembling greenish cream, even where — 
there has been no breaking down of the substance of the brain, — 
by which that material might be grossly blended with it. When 
pus is formed in the immediate neighbourhood of the alimentary 
canal, and especially of the lower part of it, it possesses so strongly — 
the iecl odour, that it had been confidently believed that faeces 
had been mixed with it, until the absolute impossibility of such 
an occurrence had been demonstrated. Pus formed in the im- 
mediate neighbourhood of the toes possesses the peculiar odour 
of those parts, and a similar remark sometimes applies to matter 
formed in the axille. 

The peculiar odour exhaled by different species of animals, 
and even by different individuals of the same species, dependent 
on differences of age and sex, appears to be another illustration 
of the principle which has been here suggested: for although 


| 
| 
: 


REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 141 


such peculiar odour may in some instances be referred to a spe- 
cial local secretion, as in the instances of the civet cat and musk 
deer, it cannot have escaped the observation of those who have 
been in the habit of dissecting the bodies of recently killed ani- 
mals of different species, that these exhale not from one part 
only, but from every part internal as well as external, modified 
indeed by circumstances, a peculiar smell which is characteristic, 
and belongs both to the solids and fluids. 

- Another illustration of the influence of the character of parts 
upon the secretion which they produce may be seen about the 
mouth, where a slight excoriation or sore is apt to produce a 
considerable quantity of thin fluid secretion, which one can 
searcely fail to regard in conjunction with that secretion which 
is poured into the mouth from the internal surface of those 


parts. The copious secretion from a blistered surface, when the 


subcutaneous cellular membrane is cedematous, is perhaps a 
phenomenon of the same character. 

The chemical composition of secerning organs may influence 
that of their products independently of the particles which they 
may absolutely impart from their own structure. It may do 
so by a process similar to that which Thenard has pointed out 
as taking place when deutoxide of hydrogen comes in contact 
with fibrin ; a process which that great chemist several years 
Since pointed out as likely to throw light on the function of 
secretion. This idea has since been developed by Berzelius, 
who calls their action of contact the catalytic action, and argues 
that probably the contact of the blood with certain surfaces of 
the organs may produce some alteration in the arrangement of 
elements, and that the secretions may be thus catalytically 
formed from the blood. 

_ It is probably to the operation of this principle that we may 
ascribe some phenomena, which, in addition to the circumstances 
which have already been mentioned, render it desirable to ascer- 
tain with accuracy the composition of solid parts in conjunction 
with that of their secretions. In some healthy, and in not a few 
morbid actions, we see that a new product, whether fluid or solid, 
is verymuch influenced by the character of the surrounding parts. 
Thus in the condensed cellular membrane in the neighbour- 
hood of bone it sometimes happens that masses of bony matter 
are deposited, but are perfectly detached. The numerous in- 
stances which we see of ossification at the origins or insertions 
of muscles are probably referable to the same principle; although 


| it must be admitted that these examples are not unexceptionable, 


| Since in them we have a continuity of structure. As a further 
| illustration it may be noticed, that after the fracture of a bone, 


| 


| 


142 _ SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


the process by which the new bony matter necessary for union 
is produced, is often morbidly carried on in the matters which 
inflammation has deposited in the surrounding structures. The 
most striking illustrations are undoubtedly those which are pre- 
sented by the heterologue structures, probably because of their 
being much more readily produced accidentally than the ana- 
logue. Thus we see that the natural structures in the neigh- 
bourhood of malignant tumours are apt to degenerate into a 
substance in some respects resembling that of the original tu- 
mour. In the neighbourhood of those tumours which are of 
slow growth, and of cartilaginous hardness, we often find the 
surrounding structures, but more especially the cellular memn- 
brane, partaking of the same character of hardness, though ne- 
cessarily wanting the structural arrangement which characterizes 
the tumour itself. In the same way we find that those tumours 
which are composed of a soft and brain-like substance are sur- 
rounded by natural structures, which degeneration has converted 
into a nearly similar substance, or which have a similar matter 
deposited intersticially. Again, in those tumours which are 
remarkable for their black colour, and to which the name of 
melanosis has from this cireumstance been applied, the sur- 
rounding structures become more or less deeply tinged with a 
black or dark-coloured material. This disease also presents us 
with a good illustration of the principle in a mode precisely the 
converse of the preceding example. There is, perhaps, no organ 
so liable to be affected with melanosis as the eye; and it may 
not unreasonably be suspected that it is the natural and healthy 
production of black pigment, performed by the choroid coat of 
this organ, which is the chief cause of this predisposition. 

The anatomical structure of a secreting organ is one of the 
conditions in which it is essential to consider in an inquiry into 
the phenomena of secretion, although it cannot be imagined that 
it affects it by any merely mechanical separation. If it were 
possible, it would be desirable to ascertain, and to indicate by 
definite terms, the comparative degrees of vascularity, the pro- 
portion in which the ramifications of the three vascular systems 
are combined, and the rapidity of circulation. The comparative 
innervation of the part, although probably no less important, is 
perhaps still less exactly ascertained. To improve our knowledge 
on this point, it would be particularly desirable to ascertain not 
merely the number of nerves sent in proportion to the size of the 
organ, but also their origin, and the proportion in which they are 
derived from the ganglionic and cerebro-spinal systems ; the de- 
gree of sensibility which they impart to the organ, the degree 


of uniformity or variation of function which may be observed in — 


REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 148 


the organ, and the conditions by which it may be influenced in 
this respect ; also whether the nutrition resulting from the com- 
bined action of the vascular and nervous systems is steady or sub- 
jected to periodical or other variations. 
_. Although we are at present very much in the dark upon most 
of these subjects, we may be convinced from various examples 
that the characters of a secretion are influenced by the texture of 
the organ which produces it. In those adventitious cysts which 
are liable to be formed in different parts of the body, but which 
are most frequent as well as most distinctly formed in the ova- 
ries and in their vicinity, we find, that whilst they are of a thin and 
delicate texture the secretion is thin and aqueous or serous, but 
that when they have become a little thickened their secretion is 
thick, viscid, and mucous oralbuminous. A similar transition, 
but in a less marked degree, may be-seen in the serous mem- 
branes natural to the body, and also in the mucous membranes. 
Where these are thin and delicate, us in the case of the con- 
junctiva, and in the extreme branches of the bronchial tubes, 
their secretion approaches very closely to that of the serous 
membranes, whilst the thicker membranes which line the vari- 
ous portions of the alimentary canal produce large quantities of 
mucus. When chronic inflammation has thickened these mem- 
branes the quantity and viscidity of the mucus produced is noto- 
riously increased. 
_ In investigating the causes which operate in the production 
of animal secretions there are doubtless several points to be 
considered beside the chemical composition and anatomical 
structure of the parts producing them, and the composition of 
the fluid from which they are derived. Even after the secretion 
has been poured forth from the living solid, it is certain that it 
undergoes important changes by which its character is in many 
respects altered. Although these changes are in part to be 
ascribed to the material remaining under the influence of the 
living structure by which it is surrounded, and which may act 
both by abstraction and addition, nevertheless there are some 
modifications more immediately depending on the inorganized 
secretion itself. Such changes seem to be more particularly 
within the undisputed limits of animal chemistry in its present 
State, and we may reasonably expect to find their parallels or 
analogues in the changes which take place in dead matter apart 
from the living body. While some of these changes are un- 
doubtedly brought about by the influence of air and moisture, 
_by which the addition or subtraction of elements may be effected, 
in other instances the change seems to be more particularly 
Bs 5 


144 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


brought about by the alteratian in the arrangement of the pre- 
viously existing elements. 

Amongst the changes taking place under one or other of these 
conditions in inorganic or dead matter, and wholly removed 
from the influence of life, and to which some parallels may pro- 
bably be found in changes effected within the living body; the 
following examples may. be pointed out by way of illustration. 
None are more notorious and familiar than those which take 
place in wine and other fermented liquors when kept in well- 
closed bottles. In some of these instances it may be said that 
the change is only mechanical, and the result of very slow de- 
position ; yet there are unquestionably cases in which no depo- 
sition takes place; and the change, be it what it may, is un- 
doubtedly effected in the chemical combination of the ultimate 
elements. Between these extremes there are mixed cases, as 
when crystals are deposited and gases liberated to occupy the 
upper part of the containing vessel. Amongst the long-neg- 
lected bottles which may sometimes be seen in a chemist’s labo- 
ratory, we may occasionally observe the results of very slowly- 


effected changes in the combination of the enclosed elements | 


exhibited in remarkable precipitates and in alteration in colour. 

In the mineral kingdom, and more especially in rocks of 
voleanic origin, and possessing a cellular character, we may ob- 
serve the most remarkable transfer and chemical combination 
of elements in the products, often beautifully crystallized, by 
which the cavities become more or less filled, notwithstanding 
the firm and apparently impenetrable character which the rock 
may possess. Amber may be adduced as another example fur- 
nished by the mineral kingdom, for it is doubtless whilst apper- 
taining to this class that it has received the characteristics which 
distinguish it from the recent resins to which it is not only 
closely allied, but from which it is in all probability really de- 
rived. In this instance we have a material as impervious to 
water as the volcanic rocks before-mentioned. But the obvious 
change produced is in some respects different. Instead of a 
new substance, separated in distinct portions, the result of a 
transfer to sensible distances, we find an uniform change of 
substance throughout. There is perhaps no change in dead 
matter which is more interesting, from its relation to the sub- 
ject before us, than the conversion of all the soft parts of animals 
into the peculiar fatty substance called adipocere,: which takes 
place under exposure to certain circumstances, of which immer- 
sion in moisture appears to be the most important. It is wor- 
thy of note that this change seems to take place nearly alike in 


REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 145 


different textures, such as skin, muscle, cellular membrane, and 
adipose substance ; yet as it can hardly be supposed that they 
are all equally prone to it, it seems probable that its having 
commenced in one tissue tends to determine its taking place in 
others in contact with it. 

As a connecting link between changes resembling those just 
adduced, and those which occur in living organized bodies, may 
be mentioned the well-known fact, that many fruits gathered 
long before their living connection with the root would have 
naturally ceased, notwithstanding undergo those changes which 


render them ripe, or in other words, bring them to a state of 


maturity. In the leaves of plants, a short time before they lose 
their connection with the branch, and also when they have been 
detached from it, a chemical change takes place, which produces 
the Xanthophylle or yellowcolouring principle on which the hues 
of autumn in great measure depend. Before we can apply the 
principle of these changes to the assistance of our investigation 
of the changes effected in living bodies, it is important that the 
laws which regulate them should be further elucidated. The 
labours of some of our continental chemical brethren have already 
considerably advanced the subject. Without swelling this pre- 
liminary report with an analysis of what they have done, it will 
be sufficient for our present purpose to adduce, without attempt- 
ing any chemical explanation, some of the apparently parallel 
phenomena to which we invite the attention of those who may 
be disposed to co-operate in this kind of research. As farina 
or starch may be converted into gum, and both farina and gum 
into sugar, and these into various acids, or into alcohol or ether, 
so it would appear that other principles may be changed ac~- 


cording to a particular course of succession, though some of the 
possible links may not be always essential.. The very possibi- 


lity of such successive changes renders it necessary to take into 
consideration another element, viz., time; and in our inquiry 
into the production of different secretions, we must, besides in- 
vestigating the anatomical and chemical composition of the 
secreting organ, and the qualities of the matter when first pro- 
duced, as compared with its ultimate state, not fail to take ¢éme 
into the consideration. The first rapidly produced. secretion 
from a mucous surface is: nearly serous. Newly and rapidly 


formed mucus is thin and aqueous. when compared with that 


which has been long detained upon the surface of the secreting 
membrane. When milk is too frequently drawn. from the lac- 


_ tiferous glands it is thin and watery compared with that which 


is allowed to be longer retained. The production of pus is 


another example, and one in which the changes may be followed. 
VOL. VI. 1837. L 


146 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


by the eye through their whole course. When pus has been 
well removed from a suppurating surface its place is soon sup- 
plied by a thin and watery secretion. This afterwards becomes 
viscid, but without being visibly particled; it afterwards be- 
comes manifestly particled and turbid, and ultimately thick, 
opaque, and cream-like. There are perhaps no secretions which 
are more interesting than those in which a fatty or resinous 
matter is produced. They may be contrasted with the produc- 
tion of oily matter in living vegetables, and with the conversion 
into adipocere in dead animal matter. The most recently pro- 
duced secretion of a sebaceous follicle is nearly or quite aqueous, 
but it soon appears to be albuminous or caseous, and. does not 
appear to possess any oleaginous property. This it soon after 
acquires when it becomes the natural unguent to the skin. 
When the secretion fails to escape it accumulates, and a col- 
lection of grumous fatty matter is formed. In the early embryo 
the situation of the adipose substance is occupied by small grains 
of an opake whitish substance, which appears to be rather al- 
buminous or caseous than truly adipose. The production of 
cream in the lactiferous glands, when the milk is allowed to be 
well formed, appears to be another physiological instance. The 
next is of a pathological character. It is well known that in or 
near the ovaries it occasionally happens that encysted masses are 
found, containing fat, bone, teeth, and hair. Although the 
whole of these materials are not necessarily found in the same 
specimen, fatty matter appears to be invariably present. These 
extraordinary productions are generally referred to conception, 
and are indisputably closely allied to, if not identical with, it. 
Now in the natural ovum but a comparatively small portion of 
fatty matter exists, and certainly none in the situation in which 
the peculiar fatty matter which forms so large a portion of these 
encysted formations is met with. It would therefore appear 
that when growth as well as development has been suspended 
in these irregular efforts of the nisusformativus, there commences 
a conversion of the collected elements into a fatty substance by 
the introduction of anew chemical arrangement of the elements. 
Even this change is progressive, and it would appear that the 
fatty matter when formed is susceptible of further change ; for 
in some of these collections the fatty matter appears clean, 
nearly white and uniform; in others it approaches the character 
of cholesterine ; and in one instance we have met with it, having 
a bright yellow colour, and astrong, penetrating, empyreumatic 
or bituminous odour, bearing considerable resemblance to an 
unctuous yellow substance, found as a mineral production in 
Scotland some few years since, and placed in the possession of 


REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 147 


Professor Jameson. Next to these changes taking place in the 
liying body, yet probably, except in the case of foetal fat, beyond 
the limits of organization, it may perhaps be allowable to place 
the pathological degeneration of some tissues into fat. The 
muscles of the limbs and the contractile fibrous coat of an en- 
larged and thickened bladder have been found converted into 
this substance. The most frequent, as well as the most re- 
markable of these fatty degenerations is the production of fat 
livers, which has attracted the special notice of some foreign 
pathologists. It is comparatively rare in this country, and but 
few very well marked instances have been met with amongst 
many hundred inspections performed during several years at 
Guy’s Hospital; yet what have appeared to be approaches to it 
have not been very rare. This degeneration essentially belongs 
to the acini, which are generally, if not invariably, enlarged in 
size, paler, and less supplied with blood than in the healthy 
state, and have nearly or wholly lost their power of secreting 
bile. In the advanced cases, the specific gravity of the liver be- 
comes less than that of water, and fatty matter forms by far the 
largest part of its composition, whilst in other cases in which 
this degeneration has taken place fat has only formed a small 
per centage. Now it is not very uncommon to find in cachetic 
patients, who have long been unable to take exercise, a consi- 
derably enlarged liver, dependent on the great hypertrophy of 
the acini, which, though wanting the essential characteristics of 
the fatty degeneration, are paler and more homogeneous than 
in the healthy liver, and have more or less lost the power of 


producing bile. It is perhaps not too wild a speculation to 


imagine, that in this impaired condition of the organ it may not 
be able to resist the tendency to those changes which inorganized 


‘animal matter undergoes when placed in circumstances favour- 


able to their production. This leads us to another remark, ap- 
plicable to other cases, and which seems to reconcile the specu- 
lations which we have allowed ourselves to offer with facts 
which will doubtless be readily admitted. . 

The different tissues, while they retain their healthy condition 
unimpaired, resist these common tendencies more or less forci- 
bly, and apparently in each in a peculiar manner, and they are 
consequently enabled to maintain their own peculiar composition, 
notwithstanding the incessant molecular changes effected by 
nutrition ; and where they happen to be secreting organs, the 
same uniformity is preserved in their products. But when they 
are impaired by disease or accident this isolating faculty is in- 
jured or lost. Thus in the experiments of Majendie, Foedera, 
Segellas, Meyer, Tiedemann and Gmelin, and others, with refer- 

L2 


148 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


ence to absorption, transudation, and’ imbibition, we meet with 
some results, obtained in the injuredbodies of animals employed 
in these inquiries, which are not perfectly similar to those pha- 
nomena which may be observed when the corresponding organs 
of perfectly healthy and vigorous animals are concerned ; fluids 
possessing various properties being seen to enter into the circu- 
lation, and to penetrate membranous and other textures in the 
experiments alluded to, whilst in the latter case they meet with 
impassable barriers. The diffusion of a diseased process, as in 
the instances of the degeneration of structures in the vicinity of 
malignant tumours, alluded to at page 10, does not appear to 
take place until these structures have been impaired by inflam- 
mation, when the new product to which this disturbance of 
function gives rise presents the character possessed by the ad- 
ventitious structure. This view of the case, if correct, tends to 
strengthen our opinion, that inflammation is not to be regarded, 
as some have supposed, as a condition of exalted vitality, but 
quite the reverse. It also directs us, in our inquiry after the 
chemical attributes of vitality, to fix upon the precise attractions 
which it is engaged in counteracting. 


Tuos. Hopexin, M.D., &c., &c. 


REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 149 


Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of 
the Glands, §c., of the Human Body. By G. O. Rexs, M.D., 
F.G.S. 


Part II. 


THERE are but few analyses recorded of the glands of animals, 
or of those solid products of disease which it seems desirable to 
submit to the searching powers of chemistry. If we refer to 
the observations of Berzelius, and the various analyses of Fromm- 
herz and Gugert, performed on some of the glands from the 
human subject, we cannot but be struck with the great difficul- 
ties which must attend any attempt at quantitative examination 
by the method of analysis adopted by these chemists. It is my 
intention to propose a form for the analysis of the various solid 
parts of the human frame, and so to establish a settled method 
in proceeding, which shall enable us to make such comparative 
experiments as may assist in the detection of any aberration 
from the healthy condition of any single organ. 

A diseased condition of an animal part must consist either in 
the increased or decreased proportion or absence of some one 
of its constituent parts, or in the addition of some adventitious 
principle to its component elements. As both these conditions 
are frequently present (since the latter implies the existence of 
the first), it becomes of the greatest importance to be able to de- 
tect not only the existence of any new principle in the diseased 
part, but likewise the quantity of each constituent which is pre- 
sent in health, as by that means we are enabled to ascertain 
what normal constituents or portions of a constituent of the gland 
have been displaced to make room for the morbid matter which 
has been deposited. For this purpose we must have recourse 
to quantitative analysis, and I hope to be able to show that most 
of those difficulties are surmountable which appear to have de- 
terred many from prosecuting this line of investigation. I have 
been much encouraged to hope for a useful result from this in- 
quiry, by considering how many valuable indications of disease 
have been afforded us by the most simple uses of chemistry 
when applied to the urine: here we observe that ascertaining 
the proportion of water alone has given rise to much philoso- 
phical reasoning and valuable information, as regards the eco- 
nomy of the organismus; and asteady and indefatigable inquiry 
into the existence of albumen in the urine led Dr. Bright to a 
discovery, the importance of which is every day becoming more 


150 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


obvious, and which has deservedly stamped him as one of the 
most ingenious observers in the medical profession. 

I think it is hardly too much to hope that, could we procure 
a sufficient number of experiments on the proportion of water 
only in various glands, or in a single gland in any one disease 
as compared with the healthy condition, we might be able to 
arrive at some valuable information in the history of such affec- 
tion. 

The great difficulty in the prosecution of this inquiry lies in 
the obstacles that are so frequently occurring to the performance 
of post-mortem examinations, and the time which is allowed to 
elapse before the inspection is made; these difficulties, however, 
are lessening every day, and at most public hospitals we have 
ample opportunities for research. 

The analysis of the blood and the secretion of glands has been 
a subject of interest and attention to the chemical world, and I 
have long wondered how it has happened that the methods of 
analysis applied to such matters have never been used to inves- 
tigate the chemical nature of the solid parts of animals. It is 
this which I would propose, viz. the adaptation of those rules 
of analysis used for the examination of the blood to the investi- 
gation of the chemical nature of the glands of the human body. 
When we look to the analyses of animal fluids, as performed by 
the best chemists, we perceive that the constituents of such 
matters (at least those which are purely animal) are considered 
as determined by their solubility or insolubility in certain men- 
strua ; the principal of these being water, alcohol, and ether. 
Thus we havea principle, considered as a distinct component of 
the blood, which is sometimes called osmazome; this is noted 
by quantity in healthy blood, and the result used for comparison ; 
but let us consider its right to the character of a distinct prin- 
ciple, and we shall at once be constrained to allow that such 
character is entirely the result of a single property, viz. its so- 
lubility or insolubility in certain menstrua, these being used to 
separate any one of the components of the fluid from the rest. 
That any of these component parts may be compounded in 
themselves is very easily credible and as easily proved ; thus the 
extractive matter of urine, frequently estimated as though it were 
a proximate element, is divisible, when subjected to further che- 
mical reactions, into three separate forms of extractive. I merely 
quote this instance to show how impossible it is (in most cases) 
to look upon animal analysis in any other light than as a means 
of performing comparative experiments. There is one very 
important step needed, however, before we can proceed to ex- 
amine the glands of the body on the same system that is used 


REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 151 


for the blood and secretions; this consists in fixing some de- 
terminate character to the extractives we may separate by means 
of the various menstrua employed in the analysis, for we require 
experiments to show that alcohol will extract the same matters 
from any gland that it is capable of separating from the dried 
blood ; indeed it is not impossible that every gland may have a 
set of extractives peculiar to itself. For this inquiry I would 
especially beg attention and co-operation, as it is a subject so 
extensive as to require a multitude of experiments before we 
can expect any results applicable to pathology. 

It is toa chemical knowledge of the nature of the various ex- 
tractives that we must become indebted for ascertaining any of 
those divarications from health which it will be the ultimate ob- 
ject of the inquiry to detect: such a knowledge must be the 
result of careful examinations and comparisons of several healthy 
specimens of each organ; so that we may be able to decide upon 
the true nature of any of these animal extractives. A standard 
of comparison for the quantitative analysis of diseased organs 
will require several quantitative experiments on each organ in 
health before the normal average can be determined. I will 
now proceed to show the practicability of a method of analysis, 
which, if adopted, I do not doubt will develope some valuable 
results to the profession. I have before stated, that in the ana- 
lysis of the blood we use three principal fluids as separators of 
its constituents, viz. ether, alcohol, and water. It is on the 
dividing action of these fluids that I wish to proceed, and should 
propose that the analysis thus divide the substance submitted 
into four parts, viz. lst. That which is soluble in ether. 2nd. 
That which is soluble in water only. 3rd. That which is solu- 
ble in water and alcohol. 4th. That which is insoluble in all 
the three menstrua. This method, which is used for the blood, 
will be found very applicable to solid matters, which, as regards 
analysis, may be considered as partially dried serum. I do not 
wish it to be understood from this that we must expect to sepa- 
rate the same principles from each gland as we do from blood, 
by means of the same menstrua, but merely that the same pro- 
cess may be used ; for, as I have before stated, each gland may 
have extractives peculiar to itself; but having partially divided 
the constituents of the gland by means of the same menstrua 
that are used for the analysis of the serum, we are better able 
to examine their properties, and, moreover, have the valuable 
advantage of forming comparisons with the constituents of 
serum, some of which will undoubtedly be present in every or- 
ganized substance of the human frame. I will now notice in 
order the different divisions of our analysis, as formed by the 


152 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


solubility or insolubility of animal constituents in ether, water, 
and alcohol. 

1st. Those constituents of animal matter which are soluble in 
zther. 

Under this head we have the various fatty matters of the 
glands for consideration ; and, if this plan of analysis be extended 
to the products of disease in the various parts of the body, we 
shall find much matter of interest in the examination of this 
extract. The various modifications of fat, as occurring in dis- 
eased parts, and their secretions, have scarcely procured the 
attention they deserve from chemists. The peculiar nature of 
the fatty matters of the blood affords every facility for an easy 
passage into several varieties of that substance, and we find a 
series of very interesting changes in the secretions, excretions, 
morbid secretions, and growths of the human body. Thus cho- 
lesterine, which was once supposed to be the result of the 
secreting action of the liver, has been found in the fluid of hy- 
drocele, in ovarian tumours, &c. When the nature of the fatty 
matter of blood is known, it ceases to be a subject of surprise 
that cholesterine is so generally distributed, for the chemical 
reactions of the crystalline fat of the blood are almost identical 
with those procured from cholesterine, and probably but very 
slight means are needed for the reduction of one to the other. 
I may mention that cholesterine differs from the crystalline fatty 
matter of the blood in affording an ash having an alkaline reac- 
tion on test paper, whereas the crystalline fat yields an acid 
ash owing to the presence of phosphorus. In every other reac- 
tion, however, these substances are so much alike that it is 
almost impossible to distinguish them. I find that the alkaline 
ashes of cholesterine are in about the proportion of 2°5 per cent., 
containing an alkaline, carbonate,and muriate, traces of sulphate 
and phosphate, and also phosphate and carbonate of lime. 

The other forms of fatty matter met with in animal analysis 
are adipocere and common animal fat. I now come to the 
second division of our analysis, viz. : 

2nd. Those constituents of animal matter which are soluble 
in water only. 

In the analysis of the blood, the extractive procured as soluble 
in. water only consists apparently of albumen in combination 
with soda. The extractive procured by similar treatment of 
any of the glands of the body will require examination, and 
constitute an important part of our inquiry, as it probably may 
be of different nature in each gland. This extractive, as pro- 
cured from blood, is precipitable by acetic acid, the precipitate 
consisting of albumen in a gelatinous form. 


REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 153 


3rd. Those constituents of animal matter which are soluble in 
water and alcohol. 

The extractive procured from blood, as soluble in water and 
alcohol, is that to which the name of osmazome has been given 
by chemists; it is called extrait de viande by the French, as 
procured from the blood it is precipitable of a brown colour by 
infusion of galls; the precipitate thrown down by subacetate 
(or di-acetate) of lead is soluble in an excess of that reagent. 
These reactions are sufficient to guide us in making our compa- 
rative experiments. 

4th. Lastly, we shall notice those constituents of animal 
matter which are insoluble in all the three menstrua employed in 
our analysis. 

This residuum, as procured fromthe serum of blood, consists 
of albumen, but is of different constitution in the various glands 
and solid parts of the body; thus the more firm portions of each 
gland are made up of the insoluble structure of blood vessels 
and absorbents, with more or less of the albuminous net work 
of the cellular tissue, making up the parenchyma. It will be 
necessary for us to set down these various parts under a single 
head, as we do not possess any means of separation; still, although 
we are thus prevented from ascertaining any deficiency or excess 
in any single one of these insoluble constituents of the gland, 
yet we shall very probably be able, by comparison of the three 
together with the similar combination in healthy specimens, to 


_ arrive at data which may be useful to us. 


Having now glanced at the probable contents of each extract- 
ive, I shall proceed to describe particularly each step in the 
prosecution of the analysis. 


Directions for the analysis of solid animal matters. 

A certain weight of the animal substance, sliced as minutely 
as convenient for manipulation, is to be carefully dried over a 
water-bath till it ceases to lose weight, the dry residuum being 
weighed ; the loss experienced is to be noticed in the analysis 
as “ water.” 

The dried animal matter is now to be digested, with three 
times its bulk of rectified ether, for four or five hours ina closed 
test tube, the mixture being shaken frequently. This ether being 
poured off, a second portion is to be added, and allowed to digest 
on the animal matter in a like manner. We thus procure an 
zthereal solution A, and a residuum B. 

A. The zthereal solution being allowed to evaporate todryness, 


the fatty matters deposited are to be dried over a water bath, Fats. 


and their weight ascertained. 
B. Water, at a temperature of 212°, and equalling six times the 


Insoluble 
albuminous 
matter and 
vascular tis- 
sue. 


Extractive 
soluble in 
alcohol and 
water. 


Extractive 
soluble in 
water only. 


154 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


bulk of the solid matter, is to be digested on the residuum for 
half an hour ; this liquor being poured off, a second portion is to 
beadded and similarly digested; this mixture is now to be thrown 
ona filter, and washed with boiling distilled water, until the per- 
colating fluid ceases to afford a precipitation by a solution of 
nitrate of silver*. The first and second digested liquors, and 
the washings being added together, are now to be evaporated 
over a water bath till dry, and till no more weight can be lost 
by further use of the bath heat. 

We thus procure an aqueous extract C, and leave on the filter 
an insoluble residue D. The weight of extract C must be taken. 

D. The residue on the filter is now to be dried, its weight ascer- 
tained, and set down in the analysis as insoluble albuminous 
matter and vascular tissue. 

C. The aqueous extract is next to be acted upon by digestion 
for a quarter of an hour, with four times its bulk of alcohol, at 
a boiling heat. The solution so formed being poured off, a 
second portion of alcohol is to be similarly digested, the mixture 
then thrown on a filter, and the liquor allowed to percolate. The 
two portions of fluid being added together are next to be eva- 
porated to dryness over the water bath. We thus procure an 
alcoholic extract KE, and leave on the filter an extractive F, which 
is not soluble in alcohol. The former is to be dried and weighed, 
and estimated as “‘ extractive soluble in alcohol and water,” 
and the latter, similarly prepared, is to be estimated as “ extract- 
ive soluble in water only.’’ The added weights of these two 
extractives should equal that of the extract Cf. 

In conclusion, I must express my regret at having been pre- 
vented by a variety of circumstances from bringing forward ana- 
lyses of glands, either healthy or affected by some well-recog- 
nized degeneration. I have, I hope, made some amends by 
proposing a set form of examination, by the adoption of which, 
analyses, though executed by a variety of persons, may be made 
serviceable as comparative experiments in any single inquiry. 
The adoption of some such form is quite necessary before the 
objects of the Association can be answered ; for they have pro- 
posed a subject far too extensive to be developed, otherwise 
than by a multitude of experimenters, all working by the same 
rule of analysis. 


* No washings are to be commenced until all the liquor of digestion has first 
passed through the filter. 

N. B. The silver test can be used on a single drop of the filtering fluid. 

+ These extractives, as also the insoluble albuminous tissue, must be incine- 
rated, the ashes examined, and noticed in the analysis. 


7 


REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 155 


Second Report of the London Sub-Committee of the British 
Association Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of 
the Heart. 


Tue Committee appointed in London by the British Associa- 
tion for the Advancement of Science, to investigate the Motions 
and Sounds of the Heart, have the honor to lay before this meet- 
ing a short account of some investigations of the abnormal 
sounds of the heart and arteries in which they have been recent- 
ly occupied. 

Before describing these, the Committee would remark, that 
although their last inquiries have not been specially directed 
to that subject, yet they have had many opportunities of verify- 
ing the conclusions on the natural sounds as presented in their 
report of last year; and these conclusions not having been since 
shaken by any experiment or rational objection, it may be con- 
sidered as fairly established, that the first or systolic sound of 
the heart is essentially caused by the sudden and forcible tight- 
ening of the muscular fibres of the ventricles when they contract ; 
and that the second sound, which accompanies the diastole of 
the ventricles, depends solely on the reaction of the arterial 
columns of blood on the semilunar valves at the arterial orifices. 
It further appears that the first sound may be increased by an 
additional sound of impulsion against the walls of the chest, 
under certain circumstances of posture, of increased action of 
the heart, and of certain stages of the respiratory movements. 
It is also obvious that the character of the first sound may in 
some measure depend on the closure of the auriculo-ventricular 
valves, and on the quantity of blood ; inasmuch as these deter- 
mine the nature and time of the resistance against which the 
muscular fibres of the ventricles tighten. So, likewise, the vigour 
of the ventricular systole, the quantity of blood propelled by it, 
the sudden and complete character of the diastole, the fulness of 
the arterial trunks, as well as the perfect, mobile, and mem- 
branous condition of the semilunar valves,—will determine the 
character and loudness of the second sound. An experimental 
illustration of the effect of one of these conditions was observed 
by the Committee in the great diminution of the second sound 
by the free division of the carotid artery, which would greatly 
diminish the arterial tension. 

As additional illustrations of the production of a sound, like 
that of the heart, by muscular contraction, the Committee have 
noticed that which accompanies the action of the panniculus 
carnosus of the ass during life, and the quivering contraction 


‘ 


156 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


of various muscles immediately after death. The sound produced 
in the latter case, in nature and frequency, closely resembled the 
first sound of the heart of the foetus, or of small animals. 

In investigating the morbid sounds of the heart, the atten- 
tion of the Committee has been chiefly directed to the causes of 
those remarkable and various phenomena called murmurs, which 
are either added to, or supersede the natural sounds of the heart, 
and which were happily compared by ZLaennec to the familiar 
noises of blowing, filing, rasping, sawing, purring, cooing, &c. 
This inquiry consists of two parts: 1. What is the essential 
physical cause of the phenomena in question ? and 2. How does 
the apparatus of the circulation develope this cause in the various 
instances in which these phenomena are known to occur? To 
the first of these questions the experiments of the Committee 
supply what they trust will be deemed a satisfactory answer. 
The second is to be fully answered by extensive clinical and 
pathological observation, rather than by direct experiment ; and 
although a few physiological illustrations will be cited to this 
point, yet the Committee do not profess to do more than to open 
this inquiry to allthose who have the means of pursuing it. 


Experiments on the production of sound by the motion of water 
through tubes. 


A Caoutchouc tube, eighteen inches long, and three-eighths of 
an inch in diameter, was attached to the stop-cock of a reservoir 
in which there was water to the depth of eight or ten inches. 

When the water flowed unimpeded through this tube (all 
the air being first expelled,* and the lower end of the tube kept 
under water in a vessel below) no sound was heard ; but on press- 
ing any part of the tube so as to diminish its caliber, a blowing 
sound was heard, at and below the point of pressure, and this sound 
became louder and more whizzing as the pressure was increased. 
The loudest sounds were obtained at the lowest end of the tube, 
where they were sometimes quite musical ; and by increasing the 
pressure or the current at regular intervals, a periodic increase 
and raising of the sound were produced, closely resembling the 
murmur sometimes heard in the neck, to which the French have 
given the name of “ bruit de diable.” 

_ A pin being stuck transversely through the tube, a slight blow- 
ing was heard ; which was made louder on substituting for the pin 
a bit of split goose-quill. A stronger blowing was produced by 
a double thread across the diameter of the tube, especially when 


* As long as any air remains in the tube, aloud crepitation accompanies the 
current. 


REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 157 


the thread was rather loose ; anda still louder and shriller sound 
ensued when a knot of string was fastened to the thread. 

The same tube being adapted to the stop-cock of a water-sup- 
ply pipe, through which the current could be left to pass with 
great force, it was found possible to imitate every variety of 
blowing, whizzing, and musical murmurs, by varying the pressure 
on, or impediment in, the tube, and by altering the force of the 
current. When the current was strong, the least impediment 
caused a murmur ; but with weaker currents, greater obstructions 
became necessary for the same effect. A partial obstruction, 
which with a weak current gave a blowing sound, produced, with 
a stronger current, one of a more whizzing character. Grating 
or rasping sounds were best obtained by the effect of a strong 
current on aknotted thread across the diameter of the tube. The 
musical or uniform sounds resulted from a moderately strong cur- 
rent through a considerable impediment : increasing the force of 
the current, or the degree of obstruction, rendered the sound 
whizzing and imperfect ; diminishing the current or the obstruc- 
tion, converted it into a simple blowing. When asound was of 
an appreciable pitch, its note was high in proportion to the force 
of the current and the amount of the obstruction ; a fine forcible 
stream producing the highest note. Sometimes, however, with 
a strong current, a loud trumpet note would be set up, which 
wasnotaltered in pitch, but only in force, by changing the strength 
of the current. This kind of note produced vibrations of the 
tube below the impediment, perceptible to sight and touch, and 
the length of this portion of the tube seemed to affect the cha- 
racter of the note. This phenomenon precisely represented the 
purring sound and tremor sometimes perceptible in the heart 
and arteries. Musical sounds of a more variable character, like 
the cooing of a dove, the humming of an insect, or the whistling 
of wind, were produced with a weak current passing through a 
tube much obstructed. The pressure of a column of water only 
two or three inches high, was sufficient to give acute whistling 
notes, which were sustained, although varying, even when the 
water that passed only fell in drops. 

Bending the tube to an angleproduced a murmur, butno sound 
resulted from any curve that did not infringe on the caliber of 
the tube. A circular constriction by a thread drawn round the 
tube caused a murmur, which was blowing or whizzing accord- 
ing to the force of the current. 

_ When the tube with a weak current was pressed on at two 
points, the murmur was heard at the point where the pressure 
was greatest; and by increasing the pressure at one point the 
pressure was stopped at the other. When the current was strong, 


158 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


it was easy by a pretty equal pressure to cause a murmur at 
both points. 

With a stout Caoutchouc tube, two feet long and one inch in 
internal diameter, the same results were obtained, but in a more 
remarkable degree, in consequence of the increased size of the 
tube. When the current was strong and the pressure on the 
tube considerable, sounds were produced loud enough to be heard 
without applying the stethoscope or the ear ; and the vibrations 
of the tube below the obstruction were so strong that they threw 
the water in little jets from the outside of the tube. 

In making this experiment, the pressure of the water sudden- 
ly distended a portion of the tube into a globe about three inches 
in diameter, constituting a good imitation of a circumscribed 
true aneurism. As long as the force of the current was suffi- 
cient to keep the walls of the dilated portion tense, no sound 
was heard in them ; but when these walls became flaccid, the 
passing current caused a kind of fremitus in them. Pressure 
on the dilatation, or bending the tube so as to form an angle at 
this point, also sometimes occasioned a murmur. 


A globular India-rubber bottle, three inches in diameter, being — 


adapted to an aperture in the side of a tube half an inch in dia- 
meter, so as to form an elastic sac communicating with it, a 
current was directed through it and all the air expelled. The 
same was done witha tube three-eighths of an inch in diameter, 
and a bottle of an inch and a half. In some positions of the 
tube, the current in passing the lateral ‘sac caused a fremitus ; 
but in others, as when the tube was straight, there was no sound. 
A sudden increase of current, or the removal of external pressure 
from the sac, occasioned a whizzing by the entry of water into 
the sac. Independently of the current, sudden forcible pressure 


caused a whizzing with the expulsion of the fluid, anda similar — 


whizzing attended the rapid reflux into the sac, on the removal 
of the pressure. 

Some of these experiments were repeated with water, rendered 
somewhat viscid with size. The results differed only in requi- 
ring a stronger force of current to produce the same effect. 


Remarks and conclusions. 


From all these results, it is sufficiently plain that a certain re- 
sistance or impediment to a liquid current is the essential phy- 


sical cause of all murmurs produced by the motion of fluids in | 


tubes. That any condition of the walls of the tube beyond the 
impeding point is not, as it has been supposed, essential to the. 
production of these sounds, is proved by the fact that they may 
be produced by a partial obstruction at the terminal orifice of 


REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 159 


the tube, or at the mouth of a gum elastic bottle, where there 
is no tube or wall beyond to cause them: usually, this is the 
situation where they can be most readily produced, because 
here the current has acquired its greatest momentum, and finds 
a free exit beyond the obstructing point. The more flaccid state 
of the portion of a tube beyond a partially obstructed point is a 
necessary effect of the scantier supply of water beyond the im- 
pediment. It is therefore a necessary concomitant of the ob- 
struction and its sound, but is not the cause of the sound. When, 
however, the sound occasioned by the obstruction is strong, its 
vibrations may be communicated to the whole contents and walls 
of the tube beyond, which will then vibrate i system with it, 
and be capable of modifying its note, just as the tube of a reed 
instrument affects the note which is exclusively generated in the 
reed. On the other hand, when the sound generated in the ob- 
struction is weak and varying, the condition of the tube or walls 
beyond it will not affect it. 
In short, the laws of the production of sound by liquids so 
nearly resemble those which regulate the same phenomenon 
in air, that illustrations for the one may be taken for the other. 
_ It may be proper to advert to an objection to this view, that 
a murmur is sometimes caused where there is no impediment 
to the course of a liquid, as when it passes suddenly from a small 
into a large tube, or into a sac. Now it is not true that in 
such a case there is no impediment, for the liquid in the large 
tube or sac, having less velocity, must in itself be an impediment. 
Besides this, the course of the smaller swift current becomes 
changed by spreading into the larger channel; and instead of 
running smoothly parallel to the tube, now strikes its walls at 
an angle, causing a series of impulses and resistances, which, if 
forcible and rapid enough, constitute the vibrations of sound. 
It may be remarked, however, that this modification of a moving 
current is not so constantly attended with the production of 
sound as the direct obstacle presented by a narrowing of or pro- 
jection into the caliber of the tube. A current issuing from a 
tube or orifice into a larger vessel or sac, is also capable of pro- 
ducing a sound by impinging against an opposite surface. 


Experiments on the production of murmurs in the living body. 


About two inches of the length of the common carotid artery 
of a young ass was laid bare. Different degrees of pressure, 
either by the stethoscope or by a probe passed under it, occa- 
sioned a variety of murmurs, blowing, sawing, filing, and musical 
cooing at each pulse. When the stethoscope was merely placed 


160 ' SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


in contact, without pressure, no murmur was heard; but when 
the heart acted strongly, a simple impulse and sound. 

The artery was scratched for a few seconds with the point 
of a scalpel; it gradually became sensibly smaller for the length 
of half an inch about that point. A strong solution of salt being 
applied, the contraction increased, but it was still of a gradual 
and tapering kind, and the stethoscope could detect no murmur 
in it; but very slight pressure on it caused a whizzing. The 
pulse at this contracted portion was felt to be much harder and 
sharper than above or below it. Fy 

A small incision being made into the artery, a jet of blood 
issued, and a whizzing, sometimes in pulses, sometimes conti- _ 
nuous like the bruit de diable, was heard beyond the orifice, 
but not at the portion of the artery nearest to the heart, the sound 
being, as usual, carried in the direction of the current. The in- 
cision being made larger, the blood spouted to the distance of 
more than six feet, and the animal died in ten minutes after this _ 
last incision ; the beats of the heart were frequent, short, and 
pretty loud, but without a second sound, and to the last with- 
out amurmur. They continued for nearly two minutes after 
the respiration and consciousness had ceased, becoming gradu- 
ally slower. 

The Committee repeated the observation that has often been 
made before, that a murmur can easily be produced by press- 
ure on the subclavian, carotid, or femoral artery of the hu- 
man subject. This murmur is generally of a grating or filing 
character, and is prolonged in proportion tothe degree of pressure. 

Whilst making the observations on the carotids, they found 
that a continuous murmur of very remarkable and variable cha- _ 
racters could be produced by pressure on the jugular veins, espe- 
cially in the angle formed by the sterno-mastoid muscle with 
the clavicle. The most common sound thus produced was like — 
the humming of a gnat or fly ; but occasionally it resembled the — 
whistling of the wind, the singing of a kettle, the cooing of a — 
dove, and sometimes it was perfectly what the French have called — 
the “bruit de diable.”’ Dr. Ogier Ward of Birmingham had pre-_ 
viously come to the conclusion that this sound is produced in 
the jugular veins, and the observations of the Committee con- — 
firm this inference: but they do not agree with this physician — 
in the opinion, which he adopts from MM. Andral and Bouil- — 
laud, that the presence of this sound denotes a chlorotic state _ 
of the system, for which steel is indicated, or that it is essentially © 
a morbid symptom at all. It may be produced in the healthiest 
subjects by moderate pressure applied to the lower part of the 
jugular veins, and is then found to be modified by various cir- 


a 


2 ieee ’ 


RaC.5 aon diet eee ee eee 


eS 


» 
REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 161 


cumstances which can only affect the venous current. Thus it 
may be arrested or diminished by pressure on the vein above, 
by the horizontal posture or hanging down the head, and by 
forced efforts to expire with the glottis closed. It may be restored 
in increased degree by suddenly desisting from any of these acts 
or circumstances. The occasional pulsatory or remittent cha- 
racter of this sound seems to depend on the momentary increase 
of pressure caused by each pulse of the neighbouring artery ; 
and when, as sometimes happens, these pulses are attended with 
a whizzing, this is in a measure incorporated with the venous 
sound, and increases the periodic swell. The size and down- 
ward current of the jugular veins peculiarly adapt them for 
the production of sound, but probably sounds may be pro- 
duced in most other large veins when circumstances accele- 
rate the current through them. The Committee have detected 
an obscure murmur in some of the large superficial veins of 
the arm and thigh. This murmur is not in pulses, and is to 
be distinguished from muscular sounds by its being confined to 
the situation of the veins, and its being immediately arrested by 
pressure on the vein. Occasionally a pretty Joud murmur or 
fremitus is to be heard on either side of the upper portion of 
the sternum, which, from its resemblance in character to the ve- 
nous sounds, may be supposed to have its seat in the large ve- 
nous trunks that lie underneath. 
Although it appears from these facts that the venous sounds 
_are not necessarily signs of disease, yet the circumstance proved 
__ bythe Committee, that water is thrown into sonorous vibrations 
| more readily than a fluid of a more glutinous character, renders it 
| probable that these and other sounds depending on the motion of 
_ liquids in the apparatus of the circulation may be more easily 
_ produced where the blood is thin and deficient in quantity ; and 
__ under these circumstances they may occur in the neck from the 
_ mere pressure of the muscles on the jugular veins. 
__ The Committee had planned several experiments for the 
_ further elucidation of the second part of the inquiry, By what 
changes, functional and structural, does the apparatus of the 
circulation develope the physical causes of the abnormal mur- 
murs and sounds in the various instances m which they are 
known to occur? This part of the inquiry, so important for the 
_ elucidation of several obscure points in pathology, diagnosis and 
. practice, the Committee propose to resume, if the Association 
_ should think proper to recommend them to continue their labours. 
ip Signed Cuartes J. B. Wituiams, M.D., F.R.S. 
~~ | R. B. Topp, M.D., Professor of Physiology 
: and Pathology, King’s College, London. 
M 


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VOL. VI. 1837. 


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ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 163 


_ On the present state of our knowledge in regard to Dimor- 


phous Bodies. By Prof. Jounston. 


Tue subject of the following Report is one in regard to which 
our knowledge is yet in its infancy. It has arrived, however, 
at that state in which a detailed exposition and critical exami- 
nation of all the facts hitherto observed, is likely to lead to new 
inquiries, to call new observers into the field, and thus more 
rapidly to dissipate the obscurity with which it is invested, It 
will not be uninteresting also in after years to look back upon 
the facts actually established, the views entertained, and the 
speculations hazarded at the present time,—to mark how far 
the phenomena were rightly interpreted,—what glimmerings of 


truth were mingled with the early speculations,—at what rate 


this department of knowledge had subsequently advanced, and 
how far this advance had been promoted or retarded by the 
hypothetical views of its first cultivators *. 


Lp 


1. When the forms and dimensions of crystallized bodies 
began to be accurately observed and recorded, it was soon re- 
cognized that these might be classed among the most distinct 
and specific characters which solid bodies possessed. Observa- 
tion seemed at first to show that each substance, simple and 


* How much the progress of science depends on the mode in which pheno- 


mena are interpreted by the first observers is strikingly illustrated in the case 
_ of certain experiments of Robert Boyle. He observed that when copper, lead, 


iron, and tin were heated to redness in the air, a portion of calx was formed, 
and there was a constant and decided increase of weight.—(Experiments to 
make Fire and Flame ponderable, London, 1673.) This experiment he re- 

ted with lead and tin in glass vessels hermetically sealed, and found still an 
increase of weight, but observed further, that when “ the sealed neck of the re- 


tort was broken off, the external air rushed in with a noise.’—(Additional ex- 


periments, No..V., and a discovery of the perviousness of glass to ponderable 
parts of flame, Exp. III.) From this he-reasoned correctly, that in calcination 


the metal lost nothing by drying up, as was generally supposed, or that if it did, 


“by this operation it gained more weight than it lost.” —(Coroll. II,) But 
this increase of weight he attributed to the fixation of heat, stating it as ‘“ plain 


_that igneous particles were trajected through the glass,” and that “ enough of 
them to be manifestly ponderable did permanently adhere.” Had he weighed 
his sealed retort before he broke it open, he must have concluded that the metal 
_had increased in weight at the expense of the inclosed air. He stood in fact 


on the very brink of the pneumatic chemistry of Priestley; he had in his 


hand the key to the great discovery of Lavoisier. How nearly were those 


hilosophers anticipated by a whole century, and the long interregnum of 


Philogiston prevented! On what small oversights do great events in the his- 


tory of science as of nations depend! 
M 2 


164 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


compound, assumed, on crystallizing, a form peculiar to itself, 
and that this form constituted an unfailing specific character,— 
(Haiiy.) Crystals belonging to the regular system presented 
the only apparent exceptions. 

2. After a time, however, the generality of this conclusion 
was further narrowed by the doctrine of isomorphism, which 
showed that form alone, even when not tessular, was insufficient 
in many cases to determine the chemical constitution of a body*. 
Still, in these new exceptions, the form indicated the nature and 
constitution of a substance within certain limits, that it was a 
member of this or that isomorphous group, elevating crystalline 
dimensions in such instances from the rank of a specific to that 
of a generic character. Even this place, however, they did not 
long retain undisturbed. 

3. Founded on the principle that the molecules of crystalline 
bodies have themselves a regular crystalline form, the doctrine 
of isomorphism hitherto recognised, that for each substance, 
simple and compound, this form was one and invariable ; though 
not necessarily a specific that it was a constant character. 


4, The earliest measurements of artificial crystals had been _ 


made on such as were formed in ordinary circumstances of tem- 
perature and by the most usual methods of manipulation, 
Occasionally, however, crystals formed at higher temperatures 
or under peculiar circumstances attracted attention; and in 
certain cases these new crystals were found to differ in form or 
dimensions from the ordinary form of the same substance, to — 
such an extent that they could not be derived from each other — 
by the ordinary laws of crystallization. Thus sulphur crystal- — 
lized from fusion differs in form from the natural crystals and — 
from those deposited from solutions of sulphurt. And as the — 
resources or results of analytical chemistry were multiplied so — 
as to place beyond doubt the chemical identity of different spe- 
cimens, the examples of such differences gradually increased in — 
number. Natural substances also were met with, crystallized — 
under circumstances not well understood and generally beyond — 
our imitation, which, though shown to agree in chemical con- 
stitution, yet differed wholly in form. Graphite and the dia- | 
mond, both forms of pure carbon ;—arragonite, and calc spar, 
both pure carbonate of lime, are groups of this kind. 

5. To mark the singular character possessed by these bodies, 
they have been distinguished by the term dimorphous, and the — 
abstract property by that of dimorphism. 


* Mitscherlich, dn. de Chim. et de Phys., XIV. p. 172. 
+ In bisulphuret of carbon, or in quadri (?) sulphuret of hydrogen, 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 165 


6. It appears, therefore, that the crystalline form of a body 
is not only not a specific character, but that it is not even a 
constant character. It might also appear at first sight that 
this new result of observation would materially weaken the evi- 
dence in favour of isomorphism; that though two bodies (A 
and B) do assume the same form, or replace each other in cer- 
tain circumstances, yet since one of them (A) is capable of 
assuming two incompatible forms, they may not in all cir- 
cumstances either assume the same form or be capable of mutual 


replacement. 


7. A further observation, however, though it does not obviate 
entirely, as we shall afterwards have occasion to remark, the neces- 
sity of attending to this argument, yet establishes a beautiful con- 
nection between dimorphous and isomorphous bodies, and points 
to some more general law, probably of molecular arrangement, 
by which both classes of phenomena are regulated and linked 
together. Certain groups of isomorphous bodies have been met 
with, each individual of which groups is dimorphous or capable of 
assuming two incompatible forms (A and B), yet in their second 
form (B), as in their first (A), they are stillisomorphous. Thus 
carbonate of lime and nitrate of potash are both dimorphous, 
and one of the forms of nitre is isomorphous with calc spar, the 
other with arragonite, which are the two forms of carbonate of 
lime. Such groups have been distinguished by the term ésodi- 
morphous. All the known groups of this kind will be inserted 
in a subsequent part of this report (16). 

8. The principle of dimorphism thus recognised, is one of 
great interest in the present state of chemical physics. Con- 


‘nected on the one hand with the crystalline doctrine of isomor- 
_ phism, and on the other, as we shall hereafter see, with the 
‘chemical doctrine of isomerism, it may be regarded as standing be- 


tween the two, and as likely to throw light on the cause of both. 
9. The case of dimorphism, which was earliest known to che- 


mists and mineralogists, is presented by carbonate of lime in 


the two incompatible forms of arragonite and calc spar. Stro- 
meyer attempted to account for the difference between these 
two minerals by showing that arragonite always contained car- 
bonate of strontian to the amount of from 4 to 4 per cent., and 
from 7 to 4 per cent. of water*; aud the presence of these sub- 


* Untersuchung tiber die Mischung der Mineralkérper und anderer damit 
verwandten Substanzen. Gottingen, 1821. In this work are ten analyses of 
arragonites, undertaken in confirmation of his previously published opinion, 
which had been controverted. Great credit was due to Stromeyer for his 
beautiful analyses, but there is now no reason to believe that either strontia or 
water are necessary constituents of arragonite. 


166 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


stances was considered by many chemists to afford a plausible 
explanation of what was then regarded as a very singular ano- 
maly. A few years after the publication of this opinion, how- 
ever, Mitscherlich observed a similar difference between the 
form of sulphur crystallized from fusion, and that in which it 
occurs in the mineral kingdom* ; and as in this case it was easy 
to prove the absence of any foreign body, it became necessary to 
attribute the difference to some other cause than that advanced 
by Stromeyer, to explain the production of arragonite. The pro- 
secution of the inquiry soon put into the hands of Mitscherlich 
other examples, and since that period scarcely a year has passed 
without adding some new facts to our growing knowledge. 

10. The following table contains a list of all the substances 
hitherto described as dimorphous, and it embodies nearly every 
thing we at present know in regard to the chemical and physical 
differences which the several forms of these substances present. 
See opposite table. 

11. To this list might have been added anatase and rutile, were 
it not that some doubt still exists as to whether both of these 
minerals consist of titanic acid only. They crystallize in square 
prisms of different dimensions and having different cleavages. 
The bichromate of potash appears also to be dimorphous, cry- 
stallizing from fusion, in a form which it does not retain on 
coolingt. I have also obtained from a London manufacturer 
crystals of iodide of potassium in square prisms three-eighths 
of an inch (? in.) in length, which are frequently deposited 
along with the ordinary cubical crystals from the concentrated 
solution. On resolution and evaporation they give only cubes. 
They exhibit. traces of double refraction, which, however, the 
opacity of the crystals renders very indistinct. Mr. Brooke, to 
whom I have submitted them, is unable to pronounce decidedly 
as to their form, from the want of well-defined secondary faces. 
Like the capillary red oxide of copper from Cornwall, they may 
be only an aggregation of cubes. Dufrenoy{ states that cast 
iron has been observed in cubes and in rhomboids, but the 
statement is of too uncertain a kind to be deserving of much 
confidence §. Among the ordinary crystals of sulphate of pot- 
ash with two axes, Sir David Brewster states that he observed 
some six-sided prisms with only one axis of double refraction. — 


* Poggend. Annalen VII. p. 528, (1826.) 
+ See Table LV. p. 26. 
t An. de Chim. et de Phys., LVI. p.198. ' 
§ It was formerly considered that the sulphates of zinc and magnesia belonged 
to the group of dimorphous sulphates, but later observations of Mitscherlich 
have shown that the supposed second form contains only 6 atoms of water. 


i i i i 


Tanre I.—Exhibiting a list of all the known dimorphous bodies, and the observed differences in the physical properties of the two forms of each substance. 1837. Seventh Report of British pena = 
eventh Report of Britis! tion, to. 


7 
Symbol or Formula. Crystalline Form. Form occurs. ‘How obtained, or where. Density. Hardness. Relations to Light. Relations. 
7 ‘Opake or transparent. (eine Tanaes yaipoweri| Wo ioataliys EE Solubility in 100 pls. of Water, Characteristic or Remarks, ‘Authorities. : 
|. Elementary Bodies peta j 
Salphur, 5 Rt. Rh. Pr. M on M 10159 Haid. Native and from solution of S in CS, ... 205001 Kr) 15 to 2:5 | i i 
4 } Oblique Rh. Pr. of 90° 327. By fusing A .. 7] Same erystal fused 1-9889 ||? 2 Dose tasentie Gaal Seen rellow: Het 2:115 Br,||Non-conduct, 9 
Carbon,. Reg. Octohedron. «...s Native in diamon 35 to 3:55 10:0 | Transparent .. Q Prot WEEE EME | fy »| Mittcherlich, Pog. tm. vii. p. S28. 
| P sevneeees Adamantine 2-487 Br.| Nou-conduct, ) i couldaredly howe ahamise tales taRATpaS al Tat ST oe EDL 
ae he ; the particles are minutely divided and separat fall (HS UbaerTS 
In ee EMRE omy ssssesssrsssens] DO. in graphite, occurs in ironfurnaces| 2°3285 Kr. 2/0891 H. |'1- to2- | Opakeortranslucent ...| Black by reflected...| Metallic ssssssss++-.+s Berdiival| Conductor a differences. ee ara eden rugcoon call Leo aeae oo 
SS i | |. Pr. . I fer blithe) Do. “ony ? 2 Do, Do. is 
Disulphuret of Copper, Cu or Cuy$ hey pase Tespettaledstieys th aie Coppers, Found xativs _ oF 25103: | Opake.. Les 2 0 According to Brooke the fibrous red oxide of Cornvall is only an aggregation of cubes Suckow, Pog. An., 1835, p. 528. 
BI} RAD EEOn . y ? - Do. 5 Sapte ce 
Sulphuret of Silver, ‘ Cube in Silver glance. Found native 5 . 4 3 0 
‘Ag or Ags § 7196 2 to.25 | Do. , iB ft 
— i } BS or Ag,S Rhombeid 5 Do. in AgS+CugS from Riidelstadt ? > Do. De " ie wipe Hoe Gvslah te 8% 
3 Mn $ Rhomboid Nore in Earope HOU BES lds Steel grey F Th ‘| hid? p. 187; ander, Poy.dn,xL.p-313, 
: t eee 0. in Mexico 2 ? Do. jave inserted thisasdimorphous on the auth: l nds 
| pes FeS. Cubes. . saesnetan Do. in iron pyrites 4-6 to 5032 6 to 65 | Do. Bruss yellow .....-...| Metallic Del Rio, Silliman, xxx. p. 386. 
| : . ; 2 Rt. Rh. R, Mon M/ 106° 2 Do. in white do... 4678 Do, | Do. .| Pale whitish yellow 
Biniodide of Merc } Nl; " poled ae aaa re Someone eee solution of HgI, in KI 4 5°2009 Kr. ? ‘Transparent Red. . ai an B generally undergoes more rapid decomposition in the air than A, 
ee - PU dL Neat J. R seseereeese teen ? 2 i ins i ° ‘ = 
li arnccareniess nate a Ch P. eines B acai : j Do. Yellow 5 ¢ yellow sometimes retains its form at 60° F,, but a touch suflices to set the particles in motion.) Mitscherlich, Pog. du., xxviii. p. 116. 
HgCl, i 7 ? ‘These two fi i i i i 
: B i Octohed. with rect. base By sublimation ssessssssseees 54032 Kr.|| 2 | Do. ate 0 They, have nulreifou vt forza Cte Duets a cia 
| Arsenious acid, Reg. octohedrons Commonly .. Do. and occurs nativ Native 3698 RD) > Cryst. t nas op.3| itsenentines -| At 60° 5pts. 212° 50: : 
; As,0, Ren, P: - a v ‘Tryst. transp., mass op. ? 0 Adamantine 60° 1-25 212° 11°50 Gui. 5 4 r, a 
ese ‘ t Rh. Proves os Rarely..... Occurred in a smelting furnace (Wahiler}| Glacial 3699 1. 3-729 Hr. ? Transparent like glass* 0 Splendent, glassy HBC ep 50 Gi) Solution of opake mass in ELC] eruita no light on cooling’ slowhy/ and cryutallsng issscsteirsse||Ht Rose; Pog. dm xxv p41. 
ee) BN sa 3 ead ; i a ,| At 0°96 212°97 Gui. | Solution of glassy mass gives out much light on crystalliaing; the crystals are octohedrons,/ 
ide of Antimon: 4 } Sh,0, vey en pais ce Generally et Native’ in\ vit antimon: 366 25 to 30 Translucent al 0 Adarantine G and in mass opake, The glassy acid is therefore either the form B or in a third state Wohler, An, de Chem., li. p. 201, 
| 111. Compounds of 3 Elements ae y oF ° 4 pe () 0 bined icant tetas scossssssssnsens} Wahler, Ibid. 
| “Carbonate of Lime, GeO. Rhomb. of 105° 4” M... Abundantly ........1+.| Native in eale spar... 2716 R. 2721 M, 3:0 | Do. 0 : e i ¢ i 
1s Rt. Rh. Pr, of 116° 16 3] Leas commonly. Do. invarragonite.... 2949 R 3°5\to.4-0'| Do. ° .| No action at red heat, sp. heat = 0:2046 N,] 0 Form and action of heat. CaG thrown down from cold solutions is calc spar, from hot onite,| Rose, Pog. dn., xiii. p. 366, 
: : . Decrepitates at do,, ‘sp. heat = 0-2018 NV, 0 Do.cxhibits anomalous epoptical figures; on decropitation assumos the form nnd density of calc spar) Erman, Berlin ‘Trans’ 1832, p. 1. 
Carbonate of Magnesia, | Rhomb. of 106° 15" ..... Abundantly Native in bitter spar... 2384 Sito Hell | Semltransparent er 0 vio i I P y P hi 1 1832, p. 1. 
Mg0+C0, { é ; 1 pearly, Jeceveccareeesaeee 0 When the solution in C is evaporated to dryness the arragonitic crystals are obtained mixed with| 
| Rt Rh. Pri... Rarely... Evaporating a solution of MgC in C.. 2 2 Do 4 0 > { fs , 
|. Sarbanes stem, Fe0-+C0, Te ett Commonly « Nativein brown sar 36to3:829 | 35 to 45 | Opake Yellow-brown ......| Vitreous, pearly. 4 eA en Hie accra icles 
—-.. . Rh. Pr. 108° 26%, jo. in junckerite 3815 4 | Do. . i neat ; ; i 
| ese ares Rhomboid 104° 634°? Dest tutta cleite 5 u Phe inurae eer 0 The dimensions of the prisms of junckerite aro unfortunately left in doubt ..... sso] Dufrenoy, An. de Chim. et de Phys.) 
———— b0+CO, Rt. Rh. Pr. of 117° 14’, Ku Do. in white lead spar 6-465 3:0 to 3'5 | Do, 0 4 i MEO MS HELS ‘ 
FUE Pe Goa IT Tesiie chee See re & mee a 0 The faces of the plumbocaleite are gencrally rounded. It occurs at Wanlockhead, Scotland... Johnston, Brewster's Jour., vi. p. 79- 
KO4NO, Kr: At 60°F. 14°3. 212°F, 100...| Crystals permanent. A drop of a sat, sol. gives on evap. prism eryst, and rhomb, tables of 102° 50’, 
| : Rhomboid of 106'36, Fm. By evaporation in small quantity 2 2 Do. 0 at ETA which change their form when rul pressed, or touched with a prismatic crystal ee Rk Inst. ye S 
| ORR. wa 3 eae : ; beeen eae fore soluble than A....« Frankenheim, Pag. dn., xl. p. 447. 
|. } PhO-+-Cr0, ook Say st v , 004 25 to 3 Remar legal red. Vesta 9 Brooke, Johnston, London ‘and Edin} 
J ? ? n . ae il. Mag, May 1838. 
, Rt. Rh. Pr. M on M/ 91° 10/ Bi By evaporation at common temperatures| 2 ? o| | COXOOU suseccesveseonenc|Suneenndexsuieyeesteneetees |i i i 
| NiO+S0,+7HO Square prim Exposing A to the sun's rays or crystal ; 5 De. asasasaosensuacssasess crsssnrersrsessene] At 60° 33 pts sevssssrseneeesses Mitscherlich. 
ll Seiectsterce's lizing from warm or acid solutions... - 
| Sees tes cecal] mots. |HREm Ee eres eon See : eal a : 8 
Bisulphate of Potash, i ; Vase > ‘ ‘| 0 d, 
| 2 2 . : Rhombie octohed. (form of sulphur) Mf BYEXSDOMALONIS sectstee : 2 2 Do. 0 "| At 219° 200 pts srsscssessessss{f have inserted this substance on the authority quoted, No mention is there made of a difference in| Mitscherlich, Pog. dn., xxix. 198. 
| KO+S0,+HO+S0, 1 : i i Xraberiittelse, 1837, p. 12 b jeudant iv.7 
| oa Ob. Rh. Pr. (form of Felspar) M. By fusing A A aa > ? Do. 0 R the quantity of waterin the fused salt, which Berg. Ars! heriittelse, , p-126, states to be the case| wisest ie \t Chim. Phys. iv. 72 
} NaO0+P30;+4HO Rt. Rh. Pr. of Mon M’ 93° 54°. By spontaneous evaporation... ? 2 Do. 0 Largely ROILHTe Do. 
or NallaP-+2H LDo. of 78° 30 Rarer Do. ? 2 Do 0 
a b & Sesaurecotenearisasi} DOi ? 2 b bereooreitrebovenctrncet pon eeepc Do. ai invasecttne Tone ereerrorenn Do. 
Ca. 8} AL rn | = < 5 5 
| Ca,Si¢-* Le Reg. dodecahedron ssceesseeseersesesees » | COMMONLY vssereeeereeees! Found native s.-seeceesseee roe red 36 to 42 6°5 to 7’5 | Transp. &translucent | Yel.-brown, bl., gros- Vit, TESIMOUS sssssesselscrssseerrceererersas|terserserersennsss| Before blow-pipe melts quietly 0 Garnet after fusion is probably prismatic. Magnus found that grossulaire (sp. gr. —) and the 4 = 
= . penne m ay A f a slain ereenaliye! a ¥ greenish yel. vesuvian from Baikal (sp. gr. —) had both the same sp. gr. (—) after being melted| Magnus, Poggendorff, xxvi. p. 489. 
| GBersistOases on) an quare pi oo 0. 0. B to 34 5 10. ++ Do, p Swells up with evolution of bubbles, K.... 0 »+:| Kobell (Berz. Arsb. 1829, p. 201.) 
| . tt }co, aplie joo, Heise Rh. prism... ese Do. Do. 3646 J. 40 0 Vitreo-resinous Decrepitates rere 0 eee Brooke, Children. 
. s Right Rh. prism Gorm of arragonite) ..,| Do. Do. 37 J. Scratches A\ ak a Do. ‘ Do. much 0 ‘Thomsondescribes Miller, ohnston, Pail Mag. sare 
Sulp) ote “ Acute rhomboii . r F fe ‘ lative, brown, Brooke, Encyclop. Metropolitan. 
ulphato Tricarbonate of Lead...) PLS 3PHC REE }) Brooke srs reeesern] Found mative at Lea ills senssnnae 63 25 ret 0 ee ae NT eeAoES EOL a 
W., Wollaston; Fm., Frankenheim ; R., Rose. 


* It is not certain that the glassy arsenious acid lias the form assigned to it, but if not there must be three varieties or modifications of this compound. + Haidinger says an oblique rhombic prism, which, according to the subsequent measurement of Brooke, is incorrect. Bk., Brooke; Br., Brewster; H:, Haiiy; Gui, Guibourt; Hr., Herapath; K.,Kobell; Ku. Kupfer; Kr., Karsten; Le. Levy; M, Mitscherlich, N,, Neumann; R. D., Roger and Dumas; Sk., Suckow ; 


aS 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 167 


If these were crystals of sulphate they would indicate a dimor- 
phism in this salt also— Edin. Phil. Jour., vol. i. 

Other substances likely to prove dimorphous are inserted in 
Table III., and it is not impossible that some of those forms 
now considered pseudo-morphic, may hereafter appear to be true 
cases of dimorphism. 

Several observations suggest themselves on a glance at this 
table. 

12. The number of substances contained in it, and of which 
the dimorphism has been discovered in so short a time, renders 
it very doubtful whether the crystalline form assumed by any 
given substance is one only and invariable. 

13. The several forms of the same substance possess different 
physical properties,—different colour, hardness, density, or 
relations to heat and light. This is true of every pair of di- 
morphous bodies in the table, yet in all of them the chemical 
relations remain unchanged. ‘The only trace of an exception, 

yet observed, is in the different solubilities of the two forms of 
arsenious acid and in the different behaviour of garnet and vesu- 
vian before the blow-pipe. These chemical differences, how- 
ever, are too obscure to demand much attention in this place ; 
were they distinct and well-defined, the compounds which ex- 
hibit them, should be removed from the class of simply dimor- 
phous to that of isomeric bodies *. 

It appears, therefore, that dimorphous bodies exhibit in their 
several forms physical differences only, the chemical relations 
remaining unchanged. To this remarkable characteristic of 
such bodies we shall have occasion to advert when we come to 
_ inquire into the cause of dimorphism and its connection with 
_ isomerism. 

14. Inthe relation between the first and second forms of several In dimor- 
of the groups in the Table, a striking analogy presents itself, phous com 
In the carbonates of lime, of magnesia, of lead, and of iron, and in P97 ete. 
_ the nitrate of potash, the first form being a rhomboid of nearly ment is di- 
equal dimensions in all, the second form is aright rhombic prism ™orphous. 
similarly related in dimensions. In arsenious acid and oxide of 
antimony, the first form is the regular octohedron, the second a 
right rhombic prism. In each form these substances are iso- 
morphous, or they are isodimorphous. 


* Though alike in chemical constitution, the two forms of arsenious acid 
and garnet may be the result of isomerism. In minerals represented by so 
complicated a formula as garnet and vesuvian, it is impossible to say that the 
elements are not very differently arranged, that they are not, in fact, different 
substances. 


168 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Il. 


15. Of Isodimorphous Groups.—In my report on the ac- 
tual state of chemical science, published in 1832, p. 433*, I 
drew attention to the remarkable fact that two substances 
known to be dimorphous, the carbonates of lime and lead, cry- 
stallized each in two forms, the analogous pairs of which were 
also isomorphous. ‘To distinguish this new character I sug- 
gested the term isodimorphous, and I stated as probable that 
we should *‘ soon be able to embrace the whole of the isomor- 
phous groups to which calc spar, and arragonite severally 
belong in one large isodimorphous group.” This expectation 
has already been partly verifiedt, while other groups have been 
discovered connecting other systems of crystallization also, and 
holding out the promise of large accessions to this branch of 
knowledge as observations become more extended. 

16. The following table comprises all the groups of these 
substances, and all the members belonging to these groups with 
which we are at present acquainted. 


* Report of the British Association, vol. i. 
+ See especially the interesting paper of G. Rose, (Pog. An. xlii. p. 366), 
whose experiments are still in progress and promise new accessions to this list, 


as well as to our knowledge of the circumstances under which the several forms 
are produced. 


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Relation 
among sy- 
stems of 
crystalliza- 
tion. 


Relation 
between 
form and 
density 
&e. * 


170 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


17. Remarks on the Table of Isodimorphous Groups. —One 
of the most striking facts exhibited by this table is the existence 
of an intimate relation between certain forms not mutually de- 
rivable ;—between the several systems of crystallization. That 
these systems are zatural is proved both by geometrical consi- 
derations, and by the fact that the same substance crystallized 
in forms belonging to different systems possesses different phy- 
sical properties (13), yet the isodimorphous groups show that 
there is a relation, not accidental but constant between crystals 
of a given dimension in one system and crystals of a given di- 
mension in another system. ‘Thus in the first group the 
Rhomboid of 105° to 107° is related to the Rt. Rh. Prism of 116° to 118° 


Regular Octohedron —————_ Rt. Rh. Prism of 139° in the second. 
Do. é ——————. Rhomboid__ of 71°30 in the third. 
Square Prism —————_ Rt. Rh. Prism of 91°10 in the fourth. 


18. The form of the crystal is dependent on the form and ar- 
rangement of the crystalline molecules; instead however of © 
necessarily agreeing in form with either of those observed in the 
crystal, the phenomena of dimorphism show that they probably 
differ from both, and by their union in the direction of one or 
other of two axes of attraction of nearly equal force build up 
one or other of the observed crystalline forms. If the connec- 
tion between the system of crystallization indicated by the table — 
be really of this kind; if forms constantly related in dimension, 
but belonging to different systems, may be formed by the collo-— 
cation of molecules of one constant form, it is not impossible 
that this relation may hereafter be expressed analytically ; that 
more general formulze may be obtained involving the properties 
of two or more systems, and by means of which the form and 
dimensions of the molecules may be deduced from those of the 
dimorphous crystals which are made up of them, and which we 
can measure. 

19. While tracing the connection of the forms of dimorphous 
bodies we are naturally led to inquire if any relation be obser- 
vable between the form assumed and the physical properties — 
which accompany it. Our data are still too few and imperfect 
to enable us to give any satisfactory answer to this inquiry. 

In regard to density, the observations recorded in Table I. 
would indicate that the same substance— 

Sulphur in the form of a Rh. Octohed. is more dense than in that of an Ob. Rh. Prism. 


Carbon Reg. Octohed. Rhomboid. 
Bisulphuret of Iron ; 

and } Reg. Octohed. —_—— Rt. Rh. Prism. — 
Arsenious Acid 


Carbonate of Lime 
and Rt. Rh. Pr. —— Rhomboid. 
Baryto Calcite 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 171 


or that in these forms the molecules are nearest to each other 
in the following order :— 

Reg. Octohedron and Cube. 

Rhombic Octohedron ?. 

Rt. Rhombic Prism. 

Oblique Rhombic Prism ?. 

Rhomboid. 

The hardness of the several forms seems to follow a similar 
order, the denser of two forms being also the harder. This is 
certainly the case with the diamond and the arragonitic forms of 
carbonate of lime and baryto calcite, but the observations we 
possess on this point are still too few in number, and made, in 
general, with too little attention to minute accuracy*, to justify 
us in founding any general conclusion upon them. 

20. It will be observed that the several members of each 
group in the above table are represented by analogous formule 
with a substitution in each of one element only,—a metal. The 
first group, with one exception, is represented by the general 


formula RC or RO+CO,, and the fourth group by RS +7H Isomor- 
or RO+RO,+7HO in which not only the entire sum of the Phous 


i ct A 5 Toups, pro- 
negative and positive equivalents is equal, but the sum of those ably ak. a 


ineach member of the formulz is also equal. Thus in the first of morphous. 
these formulese RO+ CO, the negative are to the positive equiva- 
lents as 3 : 2, and in the two parts RO and CO, they areas 1:1 
and 2:1. This is the case with all the neutral carbonates of 
Protoxides, whether isomorphous or not. In the second for- 


_ * M. Frankenheim has observed in regard to the hardness of crystallized 

bodies, native and artificial, that three orders of differences are to be observed : 
1° On the same line in opposite directions. 

2° On the same face in diferent lines. 

3° On different faces of the same crystal. 

He finds that two directions or faces of the same crystallographic value have 
always the same hardness, and that isomorphous bodies very different in abso- 
lute have similar relative hardnesses. This is the case, for example, in regard 
to nitrate of soda and calv spar, the absolute hardnesses of which are so unlike. 

These orders of differences he found to be intimately connected with the 
natural joints of the crystals, so that the hardness is least. 

1° Inrelation to different faces; on the faces of the joints themselves. 

2° On each face in the line perpendicular to the intersection which the prin- 
cipal joint would give of that face. 

__ 3° On the same perpendicular, in a direction from the obtuse to the acute 
dihedral angle of the intersection.—Frankenheim Traité sur la cohesion des 
corps. Extract Biblioth. Univ., June 1886. 

By considerations drawn from the relations ‘of the pelar forces, supposed to 
reside in the crystallographic axes of crystallized bodies, M. Voltz has endea- 
voured to show that the hardness must vary on different faces and in different 
directions, and according to certain laws (/’Jnstitut., 9th August, 1834). : 


Like forms 
generally 
follow like 
formule. 


172 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


mula RO+RO,+7HO the same ratio prevails among the several 
members in both the substances as yet known to belong to the 
isodimorphous group it represents. 

Now as we know that there are several carbonates isomorphous 
with the first form of the first group in our table, and several 
with the second, all of which are represented by the same for- 
mul, there is reason to believe that they also are dimorphous, 
and that our knowledge of them might be represented as fol- 
lows: 


| Rhomboid. Rt. Rh. Prism. 
Carbonate of Manganese ...| Found native....| Not known. 
ING sdoses estes Do. seof!, Db. 
Baryta...s.ss Not known...... Found native. 
————— Strontia ...... Do, sacl 1G. 


and so with the rest of the isomorphous carbonates. 

In like manner we are justified in looking forward to the en- 
largement of the fourth group by the addition of the other iso- 
morphous neutral sulphates and seleniates of protoxides with 
seven atoms of water. It was supposed that the sulphates of 
zinc and magnesia had been met with in two forms, but later 
observations of Mitscherlich have shown that the second form 
contains only six atoms of water. 

21. It is generally true, so far as observations have gone, that 
isomorphous substances are analogous in constitution ; the ratio 
of the positive and negative equivalents in the whole formule, 
and in their several members, being the same. The converse 
of this, however probable it may be, is by no means so generally — 
established. A knowledge of the principle of dimorphism how- 
ever, and especially of that of isodimorphism, enables us to un- 
derstand how bodies may be isomorphous and yet not present 
themselves to us in ordinary circumstances under the same 
forms. Thus the chromate and molybdate of lead are represented 
by formule, which are analogous in every respect, and contain — 
the common base oxide of lead, and yet they occur in nature in © 
different forms. If we suppose them to be dimorphous, then — 
the ordinary form of each may be considered as representing — 
the second or rarer form of the other, and including tungstate — 
of lead, which is isomorphous, with the molybdate, we have the 
following isodimorphous groups :— ; 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 173 


Formula. Square Prism, Oblique Rh. Prism. 
Tungstate of Lead... PbCr | Common form ...| Not known. 
Molybdate ........+00. Pb Mo Do. aie BOTS 
Chromate .........06 Pb Cr | Not known... Common form. 


As an illustration of this point we might have taken the sulphate 
and chromate of lead, of which not only are the formulz every 
way analogous, but in which both the acid and the base are 
known to be isomorphous and capable of replacing each other, 
or we might have made one group of the sulphate, chromate, and 
molybdate, which all present themselves in different forms. I 
have however taken the case of the chromate and molybdate, 
because I think the probability of the two forms of these com- 
pounds being a real isodimorphism is very much strengthened 
by a specimen in the possession of my friend Mr. Brooke, of 
London, which he showed me as a molybdate of lead (a square 
prism the form of the molybdate) having the colour of the 
chromate. I am not without hopes of obtaining a fragment for 
the purpose of determining if it does not really contain chromic 
acid*. The case of substances represented by the general for- 
mule presenting themselves in more than two incompatible 
forms will be considered in a subsequent section of this reportf. 

22, But all the members of isodimorphous groups, much less 54, gin 
of groups simply isomorphous, are not necessarily represented with unlike 
by formule every way analogous. Of this the fourth member formule. 
of the first group in our table, the nitrate of potash, presents a 
striking example. In the formula for this salt (KO+NO,) 
neither the ratio between the positive and negative elements in 
the entire compounds, nor in the acid it contains is the same 

_with that which exists in the carbonates (RO +CO,) which form 
_the other members of the group. 


___ Among isomorphous bodies, known to assume only one form 


(monomorphous), it was early observed by Mitscherlich{ that 
potash (KO) might be replaced both in neutral and acid 
salts by ammonia with an atom of water (H;N+HO), without 
change of form, though neither the number of equivalents nor 


__ * Since this report went to press I have examined a fragment of this speci- 
men, and found it to be chromate, which has enabled me to insert this compound 
in Table I. among the other known cases of dimorphism. See Lond. and Edin. 
Phil. Mag. for May 1838. 

+ See p. 197. 


t Berz. Arsberiittelse, 1833, p. 136. 


174 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


the number of elements, nor the ratio between the positive and 
negative constituents was alike in the mutually replacing com- 
pounds. As, however, ammonia with an atom of water may be 
represented by (H,N +O) the oxide of ammonium ; this case was 
fairly considered as byno means decisive that isomorphous bodies 
are not necessarily analogous in constitution and represented by 
analogous formule. It may be, as many chemists have thought 
probable from other grounds, that potassium is itself a com- 
pound metal, and that potash, were its true constitution under- 
stood, may be analogous with ammonia. 

Other compounds, however, were discovered, agreeing in form, 
yet represented by formulz not reconcilable according to re- 
ceived views. Of these the earliest known were, that nitrate of 
soda and nitrate of potash, not then observed to be dimorphous, 
were severally isomorphous with cale spar and arragonite, and 
other examples have since been added chiefly by the researches 
of Mitscherlich. All the known groups of this kind are repre- 
sented in the following Table. TI call them monomorphous, to 
indicate that as groups with unlike formule they are not all 
known to assume more than one form. 


sod Mane 


175 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 


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176 


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ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 177 


The seventh group has been inserted on the authority of 
Kohler, whose paper may be consulted with advantage, and some 
doubt may be supposed still to hang over the isomorphism of 
silica and chabasie, though on this similarity of form I have 
elsewhere* founded an explanation of certain optical phenomena 
observed by sir David Brewster in some varieties of chabasie, as 
well as of certain differences in chemical constitution, which 
specimens from different localities have been found to present. 

23. Attempts have not been wanting toreconcile some of thedis- Are these 
cordant formule exhibited by the above isomorphous -groups, formule re- 
but hitherto without much success. Thus Dr. Clarke has en- "UC" 
deavouredt to reconcile the formule for anhydrous sulphate of 
soda (NaO + SO,) and permanganate of baryta (BaO + Mn,0,), 
forming the sixth group in the above table by supposing 

1° That the equivalent of sodium is double of that generally 


received or Na, soda being Na, and an equivalent of the anhy- 


drous sulphate of soda Na,O,+ 8,O¢. 

2° That the acids combine directly with the metals and not 
with their oxides, and consequently that the rational formule 
for the two salts in question are respectively (representing Na, 


by Na) Na+S,0, and Ba+Mn,O, or Na+S and Ba+Mn 

in which state the formule correspond, and the isomorphism of 
the two salts becomes intelligible. 

_ The first of these hypotheses must be rejected, I believe for 
reasons which will find their natural place in a succeeding 
paragraph (26), the second is so completely opposed to all ex- 
‘perimental evidence that chemists could hardly be expected to 
regard it with a favourable eye even though the first hypothesis 
to which it serves as a sequel were not deemed inadmissible. 
_ Great violence to received opinions must not be offered for the 
_explanationof a single apparent anomaly. Each groupin thetable 
would probably require one or more specific hypotheses to recon- 
cile the formule of the several substances which compose it, and 
_ these hypotheses, as appears in the following section, might often 
os conflicting, showing that we are still far from a glimpse of the 
truth. 
_ Why should it be thought necessary to reconcile the formule 
| of isomorphous bodies, except that, carried away by the beauty 
| of the doctrine of Mitscherlich, we have generalized too hastily ? 
| Ifthe same substance may crystallize in two or more different 


* Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag., vol. ix. p. 166. 
+ Records of Science. 
VOL, VI. 1837. N 


178 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


forms, why may not the converse hold? why may not different 
substances crystallize in one and the same form? We must 
allow instances to accumulate before we make any serious at- 
tempts at explanation. 

24. It may be proper here to notice a paper by Persoz, in the 
Annales de Chimie et de Physique, No. 1x. p. 145, in which, to 
reconcile the discordant formule of certain substances he sup- 
poses to be isomorphous, he advances the hypothesis that bodies 
unite by equivalent volumes, and not by equivalent atoms ; and 
that compounds may be isomorphous which contain equal 
volumes, either simple or compound. Thus, though the re- 


ceived formule for the sulphates and carbonates RS& RC be 
different, they may be considered alike if we suppose the acids 
to be composed respectively of 2 vols. sulphurous acid + 1 vol. 
oxygen, and 2 vols. carbonic oxide + 1 vol. oxygen, and the 
neutral sulphates and carbonates may be isomorphous. So also 


may the nitrates and hyponitrites (RN & RN) be isomorphous 
since the acids are composed of, 


The nitric . . . of 4 vols. nitrous acid + 1 vol. oxygen 
hyponitric of 4 vols. nitric oxide + 1 vol. oxygen. 


This hypothesis exhibits an unfortunate waste of ingenuity, 
since it has been proposed to explain two supposed cases of ~ 
isomorphism, which have in reality no existence. On the au- — 
thority of Kobell, verified by Voltz, he states that the forms of 
sulphate of barytes (BaO+SO,) and arragonite (CaO+CO,) — 
are identical*, though the inclination of the lateral faces of the — 
Rt Rh Prism in the former is 101° 42’, in the latter, 116° 10’. 
They are, indeed, what Kobell calls homoiomorphous} ; but so 
are numerous other substances, the formule of which it would 
be idle to attempt to reconcile. Because also the nitrate of 
lead (an octohedron) crystallizes without change of form in a 
solution of hyponitrate (PbO+N,O3), he concludes that these 
two salts are isomorphous; and to explain this imaginary 
identity of form between a sulphate and a carbonate, a nitrate 
and a hyponitrate, the hypothesis above stated is had recourse 
to. In the same way he states, that it is impossible to mistake 


the analogy of form between common Borax (NaB +10H) 


* An. de Chim. et de Phys., LX. p. 119. : 
t See Schweigger’s Jahrbuch, vol. iv. p. 410, also Reports of the British — 
Association, vol. i. p. 429. y 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 179 


and common soda (NaC + 10H)*, and the octohedral forms of the 
same salts with five atoms of water. Had he been aware of any 
of the real cases of monomorphous groups having discordant 
formule inserted in the list above given, or had he referred 
to them only, his reasoning, however hypothetical, would not 
have been so undeserving of a place in the excellent and elabo- 
rate memoir of which it forms a part. 

25. The chemical constitution of the two metallic sulphurets Seen 
which compose the third of our ¢sodimorphous groups, suggests ° ee 
considerations nearly related to those which have just been de- 
tailed. If they are really unlike in constitution, and are repre- 
sented severally by RS and R,S, then they ought to be included 
in our list of bodies which are like in form but unlike in for- 
mula. It is proper to state, therefore, why they are represented 
as isodimorphous. 

In a former report; I have illustrated the application which 
has been made of the doctrine of isomorphism in determining 
which of several possible multiples of a given number should 
be considered as representing the true equivalent of substances 
in regard to which we have at present no other means of arri- 
ving at a satisfactory conclusion. That alumina, peroxide of 
iron, and oxide of chromium crystallize in the same form, and 
are capable of replacing each other, as in the alums, is con- 
sidered satisfactory evidence that their elementary constitution 
is analogous—that the ratio of the oxygen to the metal is the 
same in all, and that the general formuia R,O, represents the 
‘composition of each. The whole doctrine of replacement, so 
beautifully applied to the elucidation of mineral compounds, de- 
pends on the same principle. No substances have ever yet 
heen observed to replace each other in atomic proportions, and 
without change of form, which are not also represented by the 
| same general formule. ‘The nearest approach to an exception 
“yet known is the fact established by Mosander, that peroxide of 
iron in the titanic irons may replace titaniate of the protoxide of 
iron (Fe,O, may replace FeO +'TiO,) ; but the exception is only 
‘im appearance, for Fe,O, may be represented by FeO + FeO,, in 
which case the formule are still analogous. Ammonia with an 
atom of water and potash are the only substances in our list of 
monomorphous substances with unlike formule which have 
been observed to replace each other, and we have already stated 


* The form of borax is an obliq. Rh. Pr. PM 101° 30’! MM 86° 40’ } Brooke 
That of common soda ditto PM 108° 45' MM 76° 12’ : 
+ Report of the British Association, vol. i. p. 422. 
N 2 


180 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


the theoretical considerations by which the force of this objec- 
tion is for the present, at least, suspended. 

If, then, replacement in atomic proportions without change 
of form imply an absolute analogy of constitution, the sulphu- 
rets of copper and silver possess this analogy. In grey copper 


(fahlerz), represented by the general formula, RR + 2CutR, the 


Cu in the second member of the formula is often replaced by 


Ag (in the silver fahlerz) without change of form. If we sup- 


pose Ag and Cu to be capable of replacing each other, all the 
varieties of the grey copper may be represented by the same 


formula RAR + RAR. But if they replace each other, the forms 


of these sulphurets as they occur in nature uncombined should 
be identical. This has not hitherto been observed to be the 


case. The sulphuret of silver (Ag) is an octohedron, that of 


copper (Cu) is arhomboid. By fusion, however, that of cop- 
per is obtained in octohedrons, while that of silver is rhomboidal 


in the double sulphuret (Ag +Cu) from Rudelstadt*. There is 


every reason, therefore, for believing that these two compounds 
can replace each other, and that they are not only isomorphousf, 
but that they form an isodimorphous group, as represented in 
the table. 

It appears, then, in the present state of our knowledge, to 
follow that the two sulphurets in question are analogous in con- 
stitution, and must both be represented by the same formula, 


Ror R. It is an interesting coincidence with this result, that 


the atomic weight of silver deduced by Dulong and Petit from 
their researches into the specific heats of the metals, is only one 
half of that which is generally received. From this agreement, 
and because it involves fewer changes, it is probable that the 
compounds in question are both disulphurets and represented by 


the formula R. 
* Rose, Pog. An. xxviii. p.427. Sander, id. xl. p. 313. 


+ If isomorphous, the formula for Polybasite Cu hy +4Ag9 = might be 
As As 
expressed by Re. For the analysis of Polybasite, formerly confounded with 


brittle sulphuret of silver (sprédglaserz), see Pog. An. xxviii. p. 156. 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 18] 


26. But this conclusion involves several important modifica- 
tions in the received views regarding the atomic weights of other 
substances, elementary and compound. 

It was observed by Mitscherlich that the sulphate of silver 


(AgS) and anhydrous sulphate of soda (NaS) agree in form, 
from which it is inferred that oxide of silver and soda are iso- Equivalent 
morphous. But if so, they are analogous in constitution ; and ae 
if the equivalent of silver be halved, that of sodium must be 
halved also, their formule being respectively Ag,O and Na,O. 
Since, also, potash is isomorphous with soda, and may replace 
it, as in the alums, the rhomboidal nitrates, &c., this oxide also 
must be expressed by K,O. And, on the other hand, gold heing 
isomorphous with silver, the oxide of gold will be Au,O3, which 
agrees also with the results of Dulong and Petit, and with the 
electronegative properties sometimes exhibited by this compound. 

It is unnecessary in this place to dwell on these changes. 

They are indicated by the isodimorphism of the sulphurets of 
copper and silver inserted in the table, but they have not yet 
been incorporated with received knowledge by any of the lead- 
ing chemists of Europe. The establishment of a very few facts 
more will render any further hesitation unnecessary*. 

27. The halving of the atom of potash supplies us with a mode Analogy be- 
of establishing an analogy between the formule for the earthy Saas = 
carbonates and that of the nitrate of potash. If potash be KO i> Carbon- 
and nitric acid, as it is represented by foreign chemists, N,O,, _ and 
Brae itrates. 
then nitre is K,0+N,0; or R’R, or, putting together the posi- 


tive elements R,O,, or 2R,O,. In the carbonates RR we have 
also by putting together the positive elements R,O,, or the for- 
mula for the nitrate of potash is analogous with that for the 
carbonates as a whole, though the expressions for neither of the 
immediate constituents of the two classes of compounds have 
any analogy. 

How far it may hereafter prove true that compounds, as 
such, may be isomorphous and analogous in constitution, while 
their several components disagree both in form and in constitu- 
tion, is at present almost wholly conjectural. I have advanced 
this mode of establishing an analogy between the nitrates and 
carbonates, partly with the view of drawing attention to the 
possible recognition of such a principle as our knowledge ad- 
vances, and partly of illustrating what I have already stated 
(22) as to the special hypothesis necessary in almost every case 


* See London and Edin. Phil. Mag., April 1838. 


Plesiomor- 
phous dif- 
ferences. 


Cause of. 


182 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


for reconciling the formule of substances such as those inserted 
in Table III. That an extension of the general conditions ne- 
cessary to isomorphism must by-and-by take place, the num- 
ber of bodies we are already able to insert in this table is suffi- 
cient proof*. 

28. It would be improper to dismiss the consideration of the 
tables of dimorphous and isodimorphous groups without advert- 
ing to the differences in the angular dimensions of the several 
substances comprised by these groups. It is true generally of 
isomorphous bodies, that the angular dimensions of their crystal- 
line forms do not exactly correspond, but only approach to each 
other often very closely, as in the chromate and sulphate of 
potasht, but sometimes differing nearly two degrees, as in same 
of the earthy carbonates. These differences have been much 
dwelt upon, especially by English crystallographers, to some of 
whom they have appeared sufficiently great and constant to 
warrant the rejection of the term iso and the substitution of 
plesio morphism in its stead{. The fact of bodies replacing 
each other is inconsistent with a mere approach in their forms, 
while the circumstance that no constant difference has been 
observed among the forms of the several members of the same 
isomorphous group with different acids or bases, shows, I think, 
satisfactorily, that these differences do not necessarily imply 
unlike forms in the crystalline molecules. If the silicates or 
sulphates of two oxides be almost identical in form, while their 
carbonates differ by more than a whole degree, the difference 
between the forms of the oxides not being constant in the ana- 
logous classes of compounds, may at least have their origin in 
a cause extrinsic to the forms of the substances altogether. 

29. It is well known that Mitscherlich attributed these differ- 
ences to some peculiarity in the chemical affinities, specific to each 
substance or to the several substances entering into a com- 
pound. On this very probable opinion it is unnecessary to 
dwell. He has lately, however, thrown out a suggestion in re- 
gard to the nature of this specific modification of the affinities, 
or rather how it operates, an examination of which will be 
neither uninteresting nor out of place§. 

Supposing the molecules of bodies—their mutually replacing 
equivalents—to be equal in size, and to be placed at like dis- 
tances, the densities of these bodies should be as the weights of 
their equivalents. That the densities are not so related in na- 


* See London and Edin. Phil. Mag., May 1838. 

+ Brooke, Annals of Philosophy, August, 1823, and January, 1824. 

t See Report on Chemistry, Reports of British Association, vol. i. p. 428. 
§ Poggendort’s Annalen, vol. xli. p. 216. 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 183 


ture will appear on comparing those of almost any pair or 
group of isomorphous bodies. ‘The molecules, therefore, of the 
analogous compounds, even of bodies which may replace each 
other, are often separated by unlike spaces. 

Now in two isomorphous substances exhibiting this differ- 
ence, the increased distance of the molecules in the less dense 
may either be equal in every direction, in which case, though 
the densities are not related as the equivalents, the crystalline 
form and dimensions of each would remain alike, or the in- 
crease of distance may be different in the direction of the 
several axes of the crystal, in which case the angular dimen- 
sions of the two substances in a state of crystallization would 
more or less vary. 

Heat is known to expand regularly crystallized bodies un-. 
equally in different directions, enlarging the acute angles and 
imparting a tendency towards the cube or other forms belonging 
to the regular system. The suggestion of Mitscherlich is, that 
chemical affinity acts in the same way as heat, drawing in or 
binding together the molecules more closely in one direction 
than another, so that if, at the temperature at which two isomor- 
phous compounds crystallize, the affinity between the elements 
in the one be only a small degree greater than in the other, a 
difference more or less great must result between the dimensions 
in the so-called plesiomorphous bodies, that is, the crystals must 
be plesiomorphous only. And this suggestion is the more probable 
inasmuch as it accounts for the fact that the plesiomorphous dif- 
ferences do not prevail equally among all the analogous com- 
pounds of the same acids or bases; the difference between the 
affinities of two bases, A and B, for an acid C, being probably 
unlike, not only in amount, but in sign*, to their difference for a 
second or third acid D or E. 

The close relation which exists between chemical affinity and 
heat would predispose us to receive with favour the hypothesis 
in question ; but we can so far test it by observation, since it 
implies that in any isomorphous group those substances whose 
crystalline dimensions most closely approximate should have 
their densities also most nearly in the ratio of their atomic 
weights ; and conversely, those which have the acute angles of 

their crystals the greatest, should also have their densities fur- 
thest below what this ratio would indicate. 

* In the difference (of the affinities?) of baryta and strontia for the sulphu- 
ric and carbonic acids, we have this disagreement both in quantity and in sign. 

In the Rt. Rh. Prisms of these substances we have the obtuse angle in 


Sulphate of baryta = 101°-42! Carbonate of baryta = 118°:30! 
———_ strontia = 104™00! ——-_ strontia = 117°-32’. 


184 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 
30. In throwing out the suggestion Mitscherlich compares 


only the carbonates of lime and magnesia. I shall take a greater 
number of these carbonates in order to test it more closely*. 


Equivalent. Observed | Calculated | pig Angle of the Dif. 


specific grav. |specific grav. rhomboid. 
Cale spar o.seesssees 632-456 (2-721 | cesses | ceeees 105-4 Mit.| °..... 
Carb. of Magnesia...) 534:790 {2-884 2:30 =| 0584) 106°15 Mohs, 1-11 
Tron......... 71565 = |3°829 3:097 |0°75 | 107-0 1:56 
2 ; ; : 106-30 Phil. | 1-26 
ZANCssccseses 779663 + |3°379 3354 | 0-025 107-40 Woll. | 2:36 
Manganese | 722:337  |3:592 3:107 | 0°485) 106-51 Mohs.| 1-47 


A general agreement with the hypothesis is observable in 
these substances. The densities are all greater than they should 
be, compared with that of calc spar, and the acute angles of their 
crystals less, but no ratio is observable between the differences 
of density and of angle indicated by the 5th and 7th columns. 
The observed densities are those given by Mohs, as taken from 
crystallized specimens, but there is no evidence that the speci- 
mens measured were in any case those of which the density was 
also taken, so that in the absence of more correct data our test 
cannot be rigidly applied. Different crystals of the same sub- 
stance have not only different densities but also different an- 
gular dimensions. Breithaupt states that the crystals of horn- 
blende vary as much sometimes as 5°, those of pyroxene as 2°, 
and no doubt the density would vary in proportion. The same 
observer found the density of a calc spar of 105°°8’ to be 
2°741, and of another (tautokline) of 106°°10’ to be 2°968t, 
both of which cases are accordant with the notion that even in 
the same substance plesiomorphous differences may arise from 
condensation or expansion analogous to that produced by a di- 
minution or increase of temperature. All these examples show 
that our determinations of the angles and densities of crystal- 
lized bodies must be ranked among wncertain knowledge till 
accurate observations of both are made from one and the same 
specimen. Such results would enable us to try, it might be 


* Taking that of cale spar, in which the acute angle is greatest, as a stand- 
ard, the specific gravities of the other substances are compared with it and cal- 
culated from it. 

Sp. grav. of calc spar 
At. wt. of calc spar 

+ Karsten found in two specimens of pure cale spar that the one with the 

less angle had a density of 26978, that with the greater of 2°7064. 


X at. wt. of A= sp. grav. of A. 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 185 


would compel us to reject, the suggestion we are now consider- 
ing. 
31. Before quitting this part of my subject I cannot refrain 
from laying before the reader a tabular comparison of the physical 
and chemical properties of some of the metallic oxides repre- 
sented by the general formula R,O;, though none of them is yet 
known to be dimorphous, as they present a beautiful example 
of the analogies which exist among isomorphous bodies, and as 
their densities exhibit a relation to their plesiomorphous differ- 
ences entirely the converse of that which Mitscherlich supposes 
| to exist among the earthy carbonates. 


Equivalent. Sule ot tbe Hardness.| Lustre. | Colour of Crystal. 


“Corun- | Ox. of 
dum. | chrom, 


of 


Corundum lj 321-167 | 86:6 Mohs. 9 | Vitreous | { Blue, vel.» me: aie 3°33 
'|Peroxide ‘ 85°58 Mohs. ; ' k ; : 
eer iran... ¢ {489213 |{86-10 Phat, | 5°5t063| Metalic | Steel grey ......] 5:9 | 4-88 

Oxide of ! ; - 
| Grereium |501°319 | 85°55 Rose ..... Be Thee | Blac ste a 6-09 


The same difficulty presents itself here as in the former ex- 
ample from the uncertainty of the determinations, but in these 
substances it is clear either that heat does not expand them so 
as to make them approach the cube, or that the difference of 
the chemical affinities considered as the cause of plesiomor- 
phism does not act in the same way as heat does. Peroxide 
of iron and oxide of chromium are much less dense than they 
ought to be, compared with corundum, and yet the acute 
angle of their rhombs is less; or, comparing the first two 
substances in the table with oxide of chromium their specific 
gravity is greater than calculation gives it, while their acute 
angles are less. Can it be that heat in expanding these acute 
thomboids makes them diverge from, while obtuse rhomboids 
it brings nearer to, the cubical form ? 

III. 

32. Of Analogous Chemical Groups, the members of which 
taken singly are Monomorphous, but which as Groups are 
Dimorphous.—In the remarks already made on the table of 
isodimorphous groups (21) I have adverted to the observation 
that like crystalline forms generally follow like chemical for- 
mule, and I have illustrated by one example in what way this 
observation leads us to infer and to look for dimorphism in sub- 
stances not hitherto observed in more than one form. Almost 


186 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


every group of isomorphous bodies presents us with additional 
illustrations. Not only may we expect that entire groups shall 
prove to be dimorphous, of which we as yet Anow only one or 
two really to be so, as the carbonates of which those of lime 
and lead, and the sulphates of which that of nickel is the type ; 
but groups also not even recognised as yet to be isomorphous, 
though their chemical formule are analogous. Thus the tung- 
state of lime and that of lead occur in square prisms, that of iron 
and manganese (wolfram) in oblique rhombic prisms, but since 


all these compounds are represented by the same formula R Tu, 
the form which one assumes should not be impossible to the 
other. We know that lime and protoxide of lead are dimor- 
phous in their carbonates ; we may expect them to be so also 
in their tungstates, and since lime and the first oxides of iron 
and manganese are capable of mutually replacing each other, 
wolfram may be looked for in square prisms. It has indeed 
been frequently observed by mineralogists of this form. At 
Huel Maudlin, in Cornwall, at Schénfeld, and elsewhere in 
Saxony* it has occurred in square prisms, but these are univer- 
sally stated to be pseudomorphous, to be casts of previous cry- 
stals of tungstate of lime. I have never had an opportunity of 
examining any of these crystals, but as bearing on the very in- 
teresting question how far second forms at least may be inferred 
from chemical formule, the supposed pseudomorphism of the 
square prisms of wolfram is deserving of a close examination.{ 

But if dimorphous substances may be so numerous, why are 
they not so in ordinary circumstances, or why have they not 
been more frequently observed? Ten years more can scarcely 
pass without adding greatly to the number of known cases of 
dimorphism, and suggesting some probable reply to this and 
other similar questions. If the chemical affinities which two 
bodies are capable of displaying towards each other may lie 
dormant, even when the bodies are in juxta-position, till the 
proper hygrometric or thermometric conditions be attained, so 
may it be with the molecular attractions by which particles are 


* Allan’s Manual of Mineralogy, p. 219. 

+ Since the above was written I have seen Cornish specimens of this mineral 
in the collection of Mr. Brooke. They are in octohedrons, some of them beauti- 
fully perfect; the greater part of them, however, more or less hollow, and cer- 
tainly presenting the appearance of after crystals. Still we are not to despair of 
finding crystals of wolfram belonging to the pyramidal system, and our search 
may perhaps be stimulated by the character of its twin crystals, which seem 
to indicate that though this mineral presents itself in the form of oblique prisms, 
it may in reality have rectangular axes.—See Arystallographie von Gustav Rose, 
p- 119, and Whewell’s Report on Mineralogy, p. 332. 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 187 


drawn together and built up into regular forms. And as ele- 
mentary or compound bodies belonging to the same natural 
family, though possessing in common many properties, the same 
in kind, yet have them in different degrees, and exhibit them 
under different circumstances, so may we expect crystallizable 
substances, analogous in chemical constitution, and possessing 
like physical properties, toexhibit those properties, indegrees and 
under circumstances specific toeach. Under the same circum- 
stances there may be slight differences between the crystalline 
dimensions as there are between the chemical affinities of two 
bodies ; they may both be dimorphous, but under circumstances 
so widely different as hitherto to have escaped our observation, 
just as certain oxides of chlorine, iodine, and fluorine, which 
we believe to be possible, have hitherto baffled the attempts of 
the most refined manipulation. 


IV. 

33. Of bodies assuming two or more series of unlike physical 
properties, hut of which the crystalline form belonging to each 
series has not yet been determined.—In addition to those sub- 
stances, the dimorphism of which is established by direct mea- 
surement, there is a considerable number, the dimorphism of 
which is rendered exceedingly probable by the fact of their oc- 
curring, in two or more states, physically different. If dimor- 
phism imply a difference in physical properties, as well as in form, 
we may at least be prepared to look for a difference of form 
when marked physical differences present themselves*. 

The following table contains all the substances generally 
known to exhibit such physical differences. 


* Dumas proposes to include all in one group under the name Poly- 
morphous. ‘ Mais pour embrasser tous les phénoménes du méme genre il faut 
dire Polymorphisme sans restreindre a deux le nombre de modifications qu’un 
corps peut présenter, et comprendre dans la méme catégorie toutes les sortes de 
changemens qui peuvent affecter les propriétés physiques.” Lecons sur la 
Philosophie Chimique, p. 303. I think it better, however, to distinguish be- 
tween what we know and what we only suspect; to call those substances in 
which two crystalline forms have been observed certainly dimorphous, those in 
which they have not been observed as probably so. The term polymorphous will 
become necessary as soon as it is established that the same substance does 
erystallize in three or more incompatible forms. 


1°. 


2°. 


3°. 


4°. 


5°. 


6°. 


188 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


TABLE 


Exhibiting the characters of those substances which are known 
stalline forms in both states 


Formula. How obtained. Density. Hardness. Fracture. 
Sulphur A & s A by subliming, B by|1:99 to 2:05| 1°5 to 2°5 ...| Conchoidal a 
B ccasscseeres fusing Sulphur or granu- ‘ 
lar } 
GC) Rissaccenenees .-| By pouring Sulphur ? Soft and tena-|...-.scescescereee| 7 
at 200C. into Cold cious 
Water .' 
Phosphorus P Distilling Acid Phos-| 1-77 Séctile cheers icant 
Berea Posi phate of Lime with ‘4 
Charcoal ¥ 
———_Bhrrseccecsereevere : 66°C. Sef iscrcdtostsogse os ir: Sustcvecanecena 
Fusing A at { 150F. 
and suddenly cool- 
ing 
Sulphuret off Sb. S; Found native, also by|4°5 0 4°7 |...scceccssececesleeeeees sCeaeeussts 
Antimony A heating B 
Do. (Ker- |..... Gonscosacce By suddenly cooling|4°15 Harderthan A| Conchoidal... 
mes) B...... A when fused, or 
by precipit. from 
Antimonial Solu- i 
tions 
Bisulphuret Hgs, By subliming B...... 8:098 2° CON2D eeonen DO. seseeveen 
of Mercury 3 
(Cinnabar) 
A 
Do.(Ethiops]........+ee+ee08 «| Throwing down H}.......cseesses ? Granular...... 


Mineral) B from its solutions 


by HS, or cooling 


A suddenly 
Bichromate | KO+2CrO, | By fusing Chrome|2°6027 ? Kr.)....... geteseen Sol deateaien mms oc ee 
of Potash A 


Tron with Nitre... f 


B Do. Fusing A and allow- 2 ae |b seescoeccsees ; 
ing it to cool 4 
Sulphate o KS+ Cus Fusing the two Salts|......sesceeceee ? ? : 
Potash and together 
Copper A 


Do. Formed when_ the] ..ccccsscscees ? ? 
fused mass cools to 
about 60°F., 15°5C. 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 189 


IV. 


to exist in two states physically different, but of which the cry- 
have not been determined. 


Colour in mass, |Colourin powder.) Transparency. Characteristic or Remarks. Authorities. 


‘| Yellow ......) Yellow ...... Transparent | See Table I. 


BOWN  ......|-000ee cebu avers .| Opaque ...... After about 24 hours the sul- 
phur generally becomes 

: hard and brittle 

Pale Yellow...| Yellow ...... Transparent | It is only when very pure, 
and repeatedly distilled, 
that it becomes black by 
sudden cooling. On refu- 
sion it becomes yellow 

Black ......... ? Opaque ......!. ep esescebcoce ce “KCASEEE EA O-Eee cue 


Thenard An. de Chimie, 
Ixxi. p. 109. 


Dumas Traitéi. p. 247. 


Fuchs Annal. de Phar- 


Lead grey ...| Greyish black} Opaque ...... Thesecond state B. Fuchs has 
mac., xi. p. 282. 


distinguished by the term 
Amorphous, a term, as it 
appears to me, by no means 


applicable 
Do. ...| Reddish Thin lamine| 
brown transpar. ; 
deep hya- 
cinth red * 
Cochineal red} Scarlet red ;} Semitranspa- |.......... Bape eaecewasvts Secawaclssa’s Fuchs, Ibid. 
Carmine rent 
when heated 
Black .........| Black ......... Opaque ?...... Gmelin attributes the black} Gmelin’s Handbuch, i. 
colour to the presence of| p. 1290. 
sulphur 
Red............) Yellow ......| Transparent | The fused Bichromate on| Liebigand Poggendorf, 
cooling shoots out into} Wéorterbuch,i. p. 151. 
crystals, which again fall 
to pieces after the tempe- 
rature has sunk to 60°F. 
|} Yellow DOs onseer Do. 
_ while hot 
‘Dark green...| Green..... ... Do. On cooling, the fused mass 
: crystallizes, contracts, and 
finally expands, swells up, 
= and falls to powder eS 
‘Pale green ...| Do. ........ Do. Eads ertunetareeceeattmscts sace .-.| Herschel, Berz. Arsbe- 


rattelse, 1832, p. 142. 


190 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


To this list glass has some claim to be added. Its physical 
properties when annealed, and when suddenly cooled, are known 
to be very different, and in the second of these states it is said by 
Guérard* to be possessed of double refraction. As itis doubt- 
ful, however, how far any specimens of glass used in the arts may 
be considered as definite chemical compounds, we cannot as yet 
draw any certain conclusions from their properties in different 
circumstances. Common charcoal and graphite are also sup- 
posed by some chemists to be modifications of carbon sufficiently 
distinct to awaken the suspicion that this substance may assume 
even a third crystalline form. 

34. The appearances presented by the bichromate of potash 
when cooling from fusion, and by the double sulphate of potash 
and copper, are very interesting. In both cases the change com- 
mences, as in the yellow crystals of biniodide of mercury, at 
one edge of the mass, and gradually spreads over the whole. As 
in the biniodide, the changed is in all probability ahetoromorphous 
state, and the same will, I think, prove true of all the substances 
contained in the present table. They are necessarily placed apart 
in the present state of our knowledge till their forms in the 
changed condition shall have been determined. 

The chance, so to speak, of their proving dimorphous is much 
strengthened by the analogy in constitution between the bisul- 
phate of potash, which is known to assume two unlike forms, and 


thedouble sulphate in the table. The formula of the one KS + HS 


is the exact counterpart of that of the other KS + CuS, the 
copper in the latter replacing the hydrogen in the former. Led 
by this analogy, I have sought for the same phenomena in other 
compounds of the same class. Sulphate of potash fuses rea- 
dily at a bright red heat with the anhydrous sulphates of zine and 
of nickel, but on cooling the same change does not present it- 
self, at least under the same circumstances. Under conditions 
slightly varied we may expect all the compounds represented by 


the general formula RR+RR to occur in two states. physic- 
ally different. 


* Pog. Annal., xxxviii. p. 233. 

+ The probability of the change in question being connected with dimorphism 
is strengthened by a recent observation of Mr. Talbot, (Lond. and Edin. Phil. 
Mag., Feb. 1838, p. 149) that a thin film of nitre, on solidifying from fusion, 
undergoes, when the temperature falls to a certain point, a change quite analo- 
gous to that exhibited by the bichromate and double sulphate in the table, and, 
as in those substances, diffusing itself from a point over the whole mass. In 
nitre the appearance is no doubt connected with the two forms it is known to 
assume. 


} 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 191 


35. Differences of a less permanent and definite kind are ex- 
hibited by various substances, as by some of the metallic oxides 
at different temperatures, which obscurely point to a second state 
analogous to that we are now considering as belonging to them 
also. Thus the protoxide of lead PbO when cold is of a pale 
yellow, when hot of a bright red; the scales of litharge often 
retain this hue at common temperatures. 

It would be premature at once to explain this and similar ap- 
pearances by a supposed dimorphism ; they are deserving how- 
ever of a close attention, and though obscure at present, the 
study of them may lead us to new results. 

36. Many compound, especially saline, substances, when ex- 
posed to the air or slightly heated, undergo a change analogous 
to that we are now considering, due, however, not to a mere 
change in the arrangement of the molecules, but to an alteration 
also in the chemical constitution. When a crystal of sulphate 
of zinc with seven atoms of water is heated under alcohol it as- 
sumes a new form, but it loses at the same time an atom of 
water ; the same is said also to be the case with sulphate of 
magnesia. The blue acetate of copper with six atoms of water if 
heated to 90° or 100° F. changes without apparent change of 
form into the green acetate with one atom of water. On ex- 
amination, however, the apparently unchanged crystal is found 
to consist of a congeries of minute crystal of an entirely differ- 
ent form*. The mellate of ammonia, according to Wohler, un- 
dergoes an equally striking change by simple exposure to the air. 
One of the most curious facts of this description is that observed 
by Herman in regard to the chloride of lithium. When this 
salt is allowed to deliquesce in the open air large four-sided 
prisms are formed. If one of these prisms be taken up in the 
fingers, and then laid on blotting paper, it becomes opaque at the 
point of contact, and the opacity gradually spreads over the 


| whole crystal. If now moved it falls into a powder, which 


again deliquesces in the air and crystallizes}. Changes of this 
kind connected with loss of water are no doubt very numerous. 

37. An appearance observed by Biot, in reference to grape- 
sugar, appears worthy of a place in the present section. He 


States}, that the juice of the grape, before it has been crystal- 


lized, causes the plane of polarization of a polarized ray passed 
through it to deviate towards the left, while after crystallization 
its solution causes the same ray to deviate towards the right. 


_| By crystallization the chemical constitution is unaltered (?), 


* Wohler, Poggendorff, Annal., xxxvii. p. 166. 
+ Pog. Annal., xv. p. 480. t Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, i. p. 596. 


192 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


and yet if the optical property is to be depended upon, the ar- 
rangement of the molecules in the natural juice must have dif- 
fered very materially from their arrangement in the artificial 
solution. Unfortunately we cannot depend on the purity of 
the natural juice, and therefore it would be premature to draw 
from this phenomenon any of those curious consequences in 
regard to the value of optical characters and the possibility of 
the dimorphous molecular arrangement of a solid body follow- 
ing it into its state of solution—which the absolute chemical 
purity of the sugar in the natural and artificial liquids would 
render justifiable. 
W. 


38. Of crystallized bodies not known to assume more than 
one form, which yet exhibit unlike physical properties in dif- 
ferent portions of their mass.—There are certain mineral sub- 
stances, the crystalline form and chemical constitution of which 
are known and constant, which nevertheless in their action on 
light exhibit phenomena apparently inconsistent with the idea 
that the several parts have the form and composition of the 
whole. As these phenomena are closely related to those of 
dimorphism, and may possibly be identical with them, I shall 
here introduce a notice of the more remarkable cases in which 
they occur. The greater number of these observations have been 
made and published by Sir David Brewster. 

Apophyllite—In a paper published in the Edinburgh Phil. 
Trans., vol. ix. p. 317, Sir David has shown that the crystals 
of certain varieties of apophyllite consist of different portions 
acting differently on light: ‘* An individual crystal, with one 
axis, being symmetrically united with several individual crystals 
with two axes, so as to constitute a regular crystal.” Ina 
single fragment of a crystal of this substance Sir John Herschel 
also found three portions, each possessing distinct and pecu- 
liar properties.—Whewell’s Report on Mineralogy, p. 353. In 
the amethyst he has described an analogous structure. 

Analcime.—This mineral occurs usually in icositetrahedrons, 
made up of twenty-four individual pentahedrons. These penta- 
hedrons exhibit “‘ a species of double refraction, previously 
found in no other mineral.” They possess “ planes of no 
double refraction, having a definite and invariable position, and 
a portion may be extracted from each separate pentahedron 
which has no axis at all.’’* 

Chabasie——Some specimens of this well-known mineral, 
when examined by polarized light, appear to consist of success- 


* Edinburgh Philosophical Transactions, 1824. 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES: 193 


ive layers deposited around arhomboidal nucleus, possessed of 
positive double refraction. This refraction, however, is seen 
“to diminish in succeeding layers from a positive state till it 
disappears altogether ; beyond this neutral line it becomes ne- 
gative, and again gradually increases towards the boundaries of 
the crystal.’ * 

Diamond, topaz.—A similar observation has also been made 
by Sir David in regard to the diamond, which he found to con- 
sist occasionally of a succession of layers possessing different 
refractive powers and different densities ; and in the 2nd vol. 
of the Cambridge Transactions he has described the Brazilian 
topaz as consisting of “a central lozenge, surrounded with a 
border of a different kind, sometimes with additional varia- 
tions.” 

Traces of double refraction have also been observed by the 
same distinguished philosopher in many substances, the cry- 
stals of which, hitherto observed, belong only to the regular 
system, Among these are potash-alum, rock-salt, fluor-spar, 
and diamond. In connexion with the doctrine of dimorphism, 
these observations are all of value, not so much fro» the posi- 
tive information they give, as from their showing us what to 
look for. 

39. The conclusion we are at first sight inclined to draw from 
phznomena such as those above described, is, that such mine- 
rals, though to the eye homogeneous, are in reality made up of 
parts unlike in chemical constitution as they are in optical pro- 
perties ; and to this conclusion Sir David Brewster appears in- 
clined to give his assent. Mr. Whewell, in his report on 
Mineralogy}, thus expresses himself: “There would be some- 
thing utterly perplexing in this complexity in the structure of 
Objects apparently so simple, if we were to conceive such a kind 
of composition as formed of independent portions adhering to- 
gether; but we ought probably rather to conceive these rela- 
tions of parts as the result of a peculiar state of the equilibrium 
of the elastic ether which exists within the body, and on which 
its optical properties depend.” 

_ This explanation appears to apply very happily to optical 
differences exhibited by the several parts of a crystal as a whole, 
which disappear when it is broken into fragments, as is the 
case in the dodecahedral crystals of the sulphate of potash § ; 


* London and Edinburgh Phil. Mag., Sept. 1836, p. 166. 
+ Report of Meeting of the British Association at Liverpool. 
t Reports of British Association, vol.i. p. 340. 
§ Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. i. p. 6. 
oO 


VOL. VI. 1837. 


194 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, 


but it does not seem to account for the fact that portions of the 
pentahedrons of analcime may be extracted which possess no 
double refraction, or for the properties of the several parts of 
the crystals of chabasie and diamond above referred to. The 
state of the elastic ether in these separate portions must de- 
pend on a difference either in the nature or mutual disposition 
of the ponderable molecules around which it exists; otherwise 
the optical properties could be of little value as indices either 
of chemical constitution or of crystalline form. In other words, 
if the optical properties observed in these minerals reside in the 
crystalline molecules, and not in the mass, the properties of 
the different parts must depend on a difference either in the 
chemical properties or in the mechanical arrangement of the 
ultimate molecules of which they are made up. 

I think it very likely that in some instances the former cause 
operates, in other cases, the latter. The introduction of an 
isomorphous substance of unlike chemical and optical relations 
may produce such differences as are observed in chabasie* ; a 
different arrangement of the, molecules, without change of com- 
position ; a dimorphism—in fact—may produce the singular dif- 
ferences of the several portions of analcime. The double re- 
fraction observed occasionally in alum and other regular cry- 
stals, points, as it appears to me, to an advanced period of our 
knowledge, when these and many other substances crystallizing 
similarly will be proved to be dimorphous. 


VI. 


40. Of epigene and pseudomorphous crystals.—In a former 
section I have adverted to the subject of pseudomorphous cry- 
stals, and to the possibility that some of the forms considered to 
be such may hereafter prove to be cases of dimorphismt. In 
connexion with the present subject, therefore, as well as in 
itself not void of interest, I shall here insert a list of the best 
known and most common cases of epigene, or changed crystals, 
and pseudomorphous crystals, or casts, which either occur in 
nature or can be formed artificially. 


* This principle I have illustrated in a short paper in the Lond. and Edinb. 
Phil. Mag. for Sept., 1836. , 
+ This opinion, in so far as regards the last substance (Serpentine) in the 
above list, has been recently supported by Dr. Tamnau, of Berlin, (Pog. Ann., 
xlii. p. 462,) who assigns several weighty reasons for considering the supposed — 


false forms of this substance from Snarum, in Norway, to be the true form of 
the mineral itself. 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 195 


List of Pseudomorphous Mineral Substances. 


Name, Form. Replacing. Localities and Authorities. 
RUUANEP, /adtckeccscaccke ubes and octohedrons| Fluor Spar ......+0ss.0e. Cornwall, Devonshire, 
Rochette, Erzgebirge. 
ssreeseeeees] Rhombs. and prisms «..| Calc Spar ...ssssee.e+---| Fontainbleau, Haytor. 
(Haytorite)............ Ob. ? rh. prism ...... «. Sphene, Datholite?...... Haytor, Devonshire. 
eee Cubo octohedrons ......| Galena ............+++++.| Rochette, (Dumont). 
Veeeesceeece Rt. rh. prisms ......... Sulphate of Baryta...... Do. , do. 
a basteccesies Ob. rh. prisms ......... Gypsum(lenticular) ...| Mont Martre. 
Oxide of Tin ......... PYISMS eees.e. Felspar and Quartz......| Cornwall. 
Oxide of Antimony | Rt. rh. prism ........ .--.| Sulphuret (Sb2 $3)......| Saxony, (Kobell). 
Peroxide of Iron Octohedrons .....,......|Magnetic Iron (Fe+Fe)| Do. do. 
(Martite) ana 
Hydrateddo.(Fe+H)| Cubes and do. .........| Iron Pyrites (Fe S,) ...| Do. do. 
Cin ies Rt. rh. prisms....e....00s Carbonate .....scccscsees Styria, Carinthia. 
Pyrolusite Mn ......| Rt. rh. prism sssseseeeeee Manganite (Mn+-H)...| Saxony. 
WPREBRUTO 22. cc senssnc ac, DO cca esa, tir shah 2 Carbonate of Lead...... 
Carbonate of Lead...| Do. scccccsccssccceceseee Sulphate of Lead ...... 
Galena (Blue Lead) Hexagonal prism ...... Chloro Phosphate ...... Cornwall, Brittany. 
Mixture of Carbonate] Reg. octohedrons ...... Galena ...... aesieeb eevee! Do. 
and Phosphate 
Copper Pyrites ...... IPYISTIS. Uidevessenencessvss Lenticular Carbonate | Cornwall. 
yh and Specular Iron 
Malachite, green Car-| Ob. rh. prism............| Blue Carbonate Chessy. 
bonate (Cu°C+H) 2CuC-+H) 
Malachite ............, Reg. octohed. and rh. Red Oxide of Copper...) Do. 
dodecahedrons 
Blue Carbonate...) Do. 3 aees Do. «| Do. 
BIN eles Sa svcneels<sccccesesesbee Mave senshi ae; Anhydrite ........sscc00. Pesey. 
DMs oscidonc2.\ssivesus ceased ccivicedecesose Sulphate of Strontia...} ? 
Sulphate of Baryta...| Rt. and ob. rh. prisms | Carbonate and Baryto | Hexham, Alston. 
Calcite 
Wolfram... Biavevccss Square prisms ......... Tungstate of Lime...... Cornwall, Saxony. 
Prehnite .............. Icositetrahedrons ...... Analcime .......eseseee Dumbarton (4llan). 
Hornstone ....... i Cale Spar ......ccceeeee. Schneeberg, Saxony. 


--+-| Do., Quartz, Pearl Spar| Goepfersgriin Bayreuth. 
OMVINE "2.07. cccaseccusess Snarum, Norway. 


__ 41.Pseudomorphic crystals are generally distinguished from re- 
gularly crystallized bodies by the absence of the external smooth- 
ess and lustre by which true crystals are characterized, by ex- 
ibiting no internal structure or cleavage, unless very rarely 
that of the substance of which they have the external form, and 
frequently by containing cavities or portions of the mineral they 
Teplace. In most of the examples contained in the above list, 
the parasitic formation of the crystals is easily recognized by 
one or more of these tests ; but there are some which betray 
no such marks of their origin, but, on the contrary, possess all 
02 


196 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


the external characters of true crystals. Among the latter may 
be mentioned the cubes of quartz found at Rochette, in the pro- 
vince of Liege, which are so perfect as to have been mistaken 
by Haiiy for the primary rhomboids*, and which are inferred 
to be parasitic chiefly from the occurrence in the same locality 
of hollow prisms, obviously casts of previous crystals of calc 
spar. Similar observations apply to many of the quartz cry- 
stals found at Haytor, while the want of internal structure is the 
chief reason why the hornstones and steatites of Germany, the 
cubical chalcedonies of Transylvania, and the rhomboidal from 
Iceland, are classed among pseudomorphous crystals. 

The octohedral peroxide of iron (Martite) is one of those 
minerals which retains the cleavage as well as the form of the 
mineral (magnetic iron) from which it is derived. The perfec- 
tion of these crystals has induced Kobellt to consider them as 
an example of dimorphism, though, perhaps, rather hastily. It 
is not unlikely that some of the supposed parasitic may be true 
crystals ; but the possession of a distinct cleavage is not alone 
sufficient to prove that any given crystals are so. Calc spar, 
after being calcined and deprived of its carbonic acid, still re- 
tains its form and cleavages. 

42. We can imitate nature in the production even of apparently 
perfect changed (epigene) crystals. Native crystals of peroxide 
of iron, heated in a current of sulphuretted hydrogen, give at 
212° F. sesquisulphuret Fe,S,, and at a higher temperature. 
Bisulphuret of iron FeS,, and the new compounds retain the 
lustre and cleavage of the original crystals.{ A similar result, 
without change of form, is obtained from the carbonate of iron. 
Crystals of bicyanide of mercury at ordinary temperatures may 
by the same means be converted into black shining crystals of 
bisulphuret. By simple exposure of the salt to the air, me- 
tallic gold may be obtained in the form of the double chloride 
of gold and ammonia. Nitrate of silver occasionally undergoes 
a similar decomposition. Many of the salts of lead, silver, and 
other metals may likewise, by the agency of sulphuretted hy- 
drogen, be converted into sulphurets without losing their form, 
and very many of the hydrated salts of the earths and metallic 
oxides part with their water without suffering disintegration. 

Still, in connexion with these numerous changes, natural 
and artificial, one question suggests itself. Are there any limits 
to the number of forms which the same substance, a metallic. 


* Geologie de Liege. Par Dumont. P.147. 
¢ Neues Jahrbuch der Chim. und Phys, (1831) vol. ii. p. 195, 


* Berzelius, Arsberiittelse, 1826. 


_ Tungstate... PbTu 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 197 


sulphuret for example, may be made to assume by bringing 
more powerful chemical affinities into operation? Bicyanide 
of mercury is completely decomposed by dry sulphuretted hy- 
drogen; bichloride only on the surface. If the latter be pre- 
viously moistened, it is entirely decomposed ; but during the 
action of the gas, it gradually falls to powder. The phenomena 
in the latter case are owing to the existence and previous form- 
ation of a compound of the two salts, a sulpho-chloride, and 
not, necessarily, to any inability of the bisulphuret to assume 
and retain the form of the bichloride; yet it is not impossible 
that there may exist some unknown relation between the true 
form of a body and those false forms which it is capable of as- 
suming and retaining in any degree of perfection. 


VII. 


43. Of Trimorphous hodies—Though we are as yet unac- 
quainted with any cases in which bodies actually assume more 
than two incompatible forms, yet, as I have already remarked, 
thereisno reason to consider such an occurrence as at all unlikely. 
On the contrary, there are strong reasons for believing that future 
observations will make us acquainted with three or more forms 
of the same substance, geometrically distinct. ‘The analogous 
compounds, for example, of isomorphous bodies ought to as- 
sume the same form, and yet we are familiar with many groups 
of such compounds which, though their individual members 
are not known to assume more than one or two irreconcileable 
forms, yet, as groups, are tri, or even tetrakimorphous. In 
a former section I have illustrated, by reference to one or two 
cases, in what way the probable dimorphism of individual com- 
pounds may be inferred from that of the chemical group to 
which they belong; the same mode of deduction renders tri- 
morphism almost equally probable. Thus the sulphate, chro- 
mate and molybdate of lead, present us with three forms: 

Sulphate... PbS aRt. Rh. Pr. 103° 42! 


Chromate...PbC Ob. Bh. Pr. 93°30! 99° 10! 


Molybdate . . bee Bias aries 


exhibited by substances represented by the same general for- 


mula RR, and which, for anything we know to the contrary, 
may all be assumed by each other. 


198 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Again, carbonate of lime presents itself in three forms : 


Vrs =; aM. 
Rhomboid in calc | Rt. Rh. Prism in | Ob. Rh. Prism in 
spar arragonite and Rt. | Obliq. Rh. baryto 


Rh. baryto calcite | calcite ; 


and though the third form in this case may result from the 
combination of the rhomboid of calc spar with the Rt. Rh. 
prism of heavy spar, yet it is not impossible that it may arise 
from a true trimorphism. 

44. Even simple substances are not exempt from the suspicion 
of assuming more than two forms. Thus, in many of its combi- 
nations with their metals, sulphur belongs to the regular system 
to which the metals themselves also belong. It is not easy to 
see how regular forms should result from the union of a cube 
with either of the known forms of sulphur; it may be con- 
sidered probable, therefore, that in certain circumstances sul- 
phur may be isomorphous with the metals which belong to 
the regular system. 

Further, it is not unworthy of notice that, among substances 
assuming regular forms, iron pyrites (FeS,) and glance cobalt, 
Fe tS: +e bAs, alone exhibit the so called pyritohedral 
faces. And though we cannot draw any certain conclusions in 
relation to our present subject from the phenomena exhibited 
by bodies belonging to the regular system; yet the circum- 
stance now mentioned seems to indicate a connexion between 
the two minerals not common even among such regular forms. 
This connexion is most likely to be such as that which exists 


among the octohedral minerals RR, of which magnetic iron is the 


type, and among the garnets, namely, that the analogous mem- 
bers of the formule by which their chemical constitution is re- 
presented are respectively isomorphous, that is to say, that in 


the two minerals FeS, and R 3 arsenic and sulphur are 


2 
isomorphous, and may replace each other. In addition, there- 
fore, to the two known forms of sulphur, there are two others 
in which we may still expect to find it, or sulphur may be ¢eéra- 
Aimorphous. 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 199 


Rt. Rh. Prism. Ob. Rh. Prism. Rhomboid. Cube. 


Native Sulphur, | After fusion, Iso- | When it replaces | When _isomor- 
Isomorph, with morph, with Arsenic or An- hpous with the 
Todine. Selenium.* timony. other metals. 


It is not to be disguised, however, that the reasoning in all 
these cases is at best only probable. The supposition even,—ofa 
fourth form in the case of sulphur depends on a previous one, 
that in a regular crystal of cobalt glance, arsenic can exist in the 
rhomboidal form, the only one in which it has hitherto been ob- 
served (by Breithaupt). If arsenic and antimony, like the oxides 
of the latter and the arsenious acid, be dimorphous, one of their 
forms belonging to the regular system, then the mutual replace- 
ment of these two metals and of sulphur in tessular forms, only 
strengthens the argument for the third or cubical form of sul- 
phur, which is itself also hypothetical. 

Still the facts above detailed, and we are acquainted with very 
many of an analogous kind, are deserving of much consideration. 
They open up views of great interest, and seem to indicate the 
line along which the advance of certain knowledge is destined 
to proceed. Received with caution and due distrust they will 
materially aid the observer, by teaching him what to look for 
and how to find it,—received at once as true they will at best 
form the foundation of an imperfectly verified system of opinions, 
and may probably lead to error. 


VIII. 


45. Relation of dimorphism and molecular arrangement in 
general, to temperature, electricity, and mechanical pressure. 
—Hiaving in the preceding sections exhibited nearly all the facts 
connected with dimorphism with which we are at present ac- 
quainted, it may be proper before inquiring into the cause of 
dimorphism to take a short review of the several circumstances 
by which the assumption of the one or the other form is known 
to be affected. 

Of these circumstances the influence of temperature is the Influence of 
most apparent. The various substances which have come un- *™peta- 
der our consideration as capable of existing in two forms or 
states, are almost uniformly characterized by a preference to one 
form or state in ordinary circumstances or at ordinary tempe- 


* Sublimed and crystallized from its solution in sulphuric acid (Frankenheim) 
Pog. Annalen, vol. xl. p. 459. 


200 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. . 


ratures, their second form in many being produced, in some being 
stable, only at higher temperatures. Thus the crystals of sul- 
phur from fusion gradually become opaque, and appear to change 
internally to minute individuals of the common form. The yel- 
low biniodide of mercury even more rapidly changes into the 
red. ‘The change of form? undergone by the bichromate of pot- 
ash and the double sulphate of potash and copper, and of colour 
by the protoxide of lead, the oxide of zinc, the binoxide of mer- 
cury, titanic acid, and other oxides, generally takes place before 
they arrive at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. What- 
ever be the way in which heat acts, therefore, it is obviously an © 
important agent in the exhibition of the one or the other form 
by dimorphous bodies. 

By an elevation of the temperature, more or less great, the 
first form is changed into the second, in sulphur, disulphuret of 
copper, the biniodide and bichloride of mercury, arsenious acid, 
oxide of antimony, carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, 
sulphate of nickel, bisulphate of potash, seleniate of zinc, and 
probably the garnet. Of these substances, however, the new 
form assumed is permanent in all, with the exception of sulphur 
and the biniodide of mercury. 

Common charcoal readily assumes the form of graphite at a 
temperature below that at which cast iron melts ; of the tem- 
perature at which diamond is formed we as yet know nothing. 

46. The phenomena attendant on the production of the several 
forms renders it extremely probable that they are specific in 
each substance to specific ranges of temperature,—that the form 
assumed depends upon whether the substance is allowed to 
crystallize within the one range or the other,—that at tempera- 
tures near the limit of each range a very slight cause will set the 
particles in motion, for the production of either form as in the 
biniodide of mercury,—and that at greater distances from this 
limit, either above or below the temperatures to which it belongs, 
the form is permanent only because the particles have not the 
power of moving, being coerced as in suddenly cooled glass 
(Rupert’s drops), and requiring time as in sulphur, or the aid of 
heat as in arragonite, or in the process of annealing glass and 
metals, to enable them to overcome the restraint and to assume 
the other form. 

Connected as these phenomena appear to be with certain © 
ranges of temperature, they cannot be ascribed to the agency of — 
heat as a cause, otherwise the presence of this agent in greater 
or less intensity should produce similar effects on all crystalli- 
zable bodies ; they must rather be attributed to some peculiarity 
in the molecular constitution of the substances by which they 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 201 


are displayed, being merely developed under certain thermal 
conditions. 

- 47. The changes that take place in solid bodies at different tem- 
peratures, whether in form or in colour, are in general easily ob- 
served. In liquids, on the contrary, changes in the molecular 
arrangement are not so obvious, though there is little reason to 
doubt that they frequently take place. Of this fact melted sul- 
phur presents the most striking illustration with which we are 
acquainted. At 230° F. it is very fluid; at 430° F. viscid and 
tenacious; and again at 480° F., and upwards, of great fluidity. 
Changes of a different kind are exhibited by hyponitrous acid 
(NO,), which at 60° F. is of a green colour, while at — 4° F. 
it is wholly colourless*. On the other hand, a solution of iodide 
of starch, which at 200° F. is colourless, becomes blue as it cools. 
These differences can only arise from some change in the mole- 
cular arrangement induced by, or consequent upon, the change 
of temperature, precisely as in the case of some of the solid sub- 
stances above describedt. Analogous phenomena have not yet 
been observed in other fluid bodies, either because the change of 
position in the molecules takes place at temperatures to which 
fluids are not often exposed, or because it is not often accompa- 
nied by changes in the physical properties, such as can be readily 
observed :—it may be also because they have not hitherto been 
looked for. It is not unlikely that liquids, whether permanent 
or obtained by fusion, would at different temperatures differently 
affect the course of a prolonged ray if tested by the beautiful 
‘method of Biot. 

48. Even in gaseous bodies the relative position of the molecules 
does not appear to be the same at every temperature. ‘The va- 
pour of nitrous acid (NO,), at the temperature of 100° F., is 
of a deep red, while at 212° it is black and opaque} (Brewster). 
It may indeed be said that in this case decomposition takes 


* Mitscherlich, Lehrbuch der Chemie, vol. i. p. 342. 

+ In the Lecons sur la Philosophie Chimique par M. Dumas, which has 
come into my hands since the text went to press, is a paragraph (p. 305) almost 
werbatim with the above. Headds, ‘‘C’est sans doute aux mémes influences qu’il 
faut rapporter la propriété que l’eau posséde d’avoir un maximum de densité 
4 4°C, au lieu de continuer a se contracter 4 mesure qu’elle se refroidit.”—p. 
$36. He seems to have been unaware of the property observed by Sir D. 
Brewster in the vapour of nitrous acid, as in resuming the facts he had stated, 
he says, “‘ Vous voyez qu’on arrive a conclure que dans les gaz l’influence de 
Ja forme des molecules parait nulle oupresque nulle; qu’elle semble au contraire 
ee dans les solides, et qu'elle se fait également sentir dans les 

uides.” 

1 According to Sir David Brewster, a tube, filled with the red vapour at 100° 
and sealed, becomes black when heated to 212° F. i 


202 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. ; 


place (2 N=N-+N) at the elevated temperature, and that as the 
whole cools combination again takes place; the opacity being 

in some way caused by the mixed vapours. But this decompo- 
sition is by no means probable, and if it were, the change in co- 
lour, &c. is still unintelligible, so that, in the present state of our 
knowledge, the fact remains as an interesting indication of the 
probable effect of high temperatures on the internal molecular _ 
constitution even of gaseous bodies, an effect of which future ob- 
servation may be expected to furnish us with other examples. 

49. Of Electricity.—It is not improbable, that like heat, elec- 
tricity also, to which it is in so many ways related, may have an 
influence in modifying the arrangement of the crystalline mole- 
cules, so as to cause the development of one or other of the two 
forms. 

Mr. Crosse* states, that by passing a weak current of electri- 
city through solutions of carbonate of lime he obtained rhom- 
boidal crystals of cale spar at the negative electrode, and that on 
one occasion, along with these, he obtained also very fine pris- 
matic crystals, which he took for arragonite, near to the positive _ 
pole. It would be very interesting to find this statement con- 
firmed by other observers. iq 

Influenceof 50. In an early part of thisreportwehaveseenreasonto conclude _ 

Pressure. that the cause of dimorphism acts in such a way as to alter the “ 
density of the substance, or the distance at which its crystalline 
particles are placed. It is therefore interesting to inquire how _ 
far such an alteration, induced by purely mechanical means, as 
by pressure, would affect the form so as to impart to any given 
substance the characters of adimorphous body. In so far as the 
optical properties are concerned, the experiments of Sir David 
Brewster, recorded in the Philosophical Transactions for 1830, _ 
p- 87, seem to indicate that such characters may be imparted by 
mechanical agency. He found that a mixture of white wax 
and rosin, which in mass and in ordinary circumstances exhibits " 
no doubly refracting structure, yet has that structure developed _ 
in it by simple pressure between two plates of glass. Thesame — 
philosopher has also observed that in mineral substances the 
optical phenomena are changed in intensity by subjecting them 
to mechanical pressure, in the same way as they are known to 
change when exposed to a diminishing temperature. 

These facts tend to confirm the opinion above expressed, that 
heat has no specific action in producing physical changes in 
crystalline and other bodies—that it acts merely as any other 


Sialé. ceive ae 


* Reports of the British Association, vol. v., Appendix, p. 47. 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 203 


mechanical cause, the difference of the effects produced in each 
case being due to the specific properties of the substance itself. 


IX. 


51. Cause of Dimorphism.—From what has been stated in 
the previous part of this report in regard to the infancy of our 
knowledge in this department, it will be evident that we are 
not yet in a condition todo much more than merely hazard 
conjectures as to the cause of dimorphism. Our observations, 
however, are already so multiplied that some of the earliest con- 
jectures may now be safely laid aside. I shall briefly notice the 
several explanations which have hitherto been given. 

52. Presence of a foreign hody.—When the phenomenon 
of dimorphism was first recognised in carbonate of lime, it ap- 
peared most easy to account for the difference between cale spar 

_and arragonite by supposing that the latter actually contained 
some other ingredient besides carbonic acid and lime. And 
though the experiments of Thenard and Biot failed in showing 
the presence of any other constituents, yet the detection of 
strontia by Stromeyer seemed to set the matter at rest, and the 
failure of the French chemists was attributed to their deficiency 
in analytical skill. Now, however, that we can change arra- 
gonite into calc spar, and by a proper regulation of the tempera- 
ture can cause one and the same portions of several other sub- 
stances to assume either of two known forms, the influence of 
foreign bodies in these cases can no longer be admitted. It is pos- 
sible that the presence of such bodies might produce a change 
of form, but they cannot be considered necessary to the pro- 
duction of a dimorphism, or to afford any insight into the pro- 
bable cause of the pheenomenon. 

53. Influence of circumstances.—In the preceding section 
we have seen that the assumptior of one or other form by di- 
morphous bodies is very much influenced by circumstances. 
Hence dimorphism has been said to be dwe to the different cir- 
cumstances under which a substance crystallizes. But this is 
only to look on the surface of the change, and would imply that 

you have only to vary the circumstances in order to produce 
another and another form, and that thus the number of forms 
in which a substance may exhibit itself is limited only by the 
number of changes that can be effected in the circumstances. 
Tt implies also that similar circumstances, or a similar change of 
circumstances, should produce a similar effect on all substances : 
but neither of these things is the case, so far as observation has 
gone ; there must, therefore, be something in the internal struc- 
ture of the mass, in the form, the mechanical arrangement or 


204: SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


physical relations of its molecules, which incline it to assume 
one or other of a certain number of forms, and to assume each 
only under certain fixed conditions. Were these conditions 
fully understood, some light would be thrown on the internal 
cause ; or were the form and relations of the molecules known, 
we might be able to specify what crystalline forms they are fitted 
to build up, and under what conditions. It is stopping short 
however to attribute the phanomena to the circumstances under 
which they are displayed; for though we may not be able at 
present to see far beyond them, yet we should be ready to 
perceive and to avail ourselves of the first glimpse of light. 

54. Change in the intensity of the axial forces.—The optical 
phznomena exhibited by certain crystallized bodies, as the topaz, 
when raised to a high temperature, and of others when submitted 
to mechanical pressure, have suggested to Sir D. Brewster the 
idea that under the new conditions, a change takes place in the 
relative intensity of the axial forces resident in the molecule, 
and that of this change the new phenomena are a consequence. 
And as his beautiful researches have shown that the optical 
phenomena are almost universally true indices of the crystal- 
line form, he attributes the phenomena of dimorphism to a more 
or less permanent change in this relative intensity of the forces, 
caused by the circumstances in which the bodies happen to be 
placed during crystallization. If the attractive forces in the di- 
rection of two axes, A and B, be respectively + and —, and if by 
an alteration of temperature the intensity of the one be elevated 
and the other depressed, so that they change signs and become 
respectively — and +, itis easy to understand how, if at liberty 
to move, the molecules in which this change takes place should 
make a partial revolution, and build up a crystalline mass of a 
new form. But this only removes the difficulty a step further 
back ; it merely explains how heat and other circumstances may 
produce the phenomena, it does not affect to explain why. The 
true question still remains behind, What specific relations, me- 


se 


chanical or physical, exist among the molecules of each sub- ~ 


stance, that the same circumstances do not affect all alike? 


55. Union of the Molecules in the direction of different axes. : 


—This difficulty is in some measure got over by the supposition 
of Voltz*. He supposes the crystalline molecules of all bodies 


to be possessed of three unequal axes, in which reside polar — 


* Transactions of the Nat. Hist. Soc. of Strasburg, 1833. The only know- — 
ledge I have of M. Voltz’s views is derived from L’Jnstitut, 29th March and — 


8th Aug., 1834, and from a paper by Mr. Dana, in Silliman’s Journal, xxx. 


p- 294; it is not impossible therefore that in endeavouring to give a clear state- _ 


ment of his views I may have unintentionally misrepresented them. 


7 
. 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 205 


forces, the intensity of which is inversely as the lengths of these 
axes. Further, that these molecules may unite in the direction 
either of the like or of any of the unlike axes, and that upon the 
junction or approximation of the axes in which they reside the 
opposite polar forces unite and neutralize (?) each other as in 
a chemical compound. 

On these suppositions the influence of circumstances is of a 
less vital character than on that of Sir D. Brewster. They do 
not alter the relative intensity of the forces, they only affect 
the mechanical condition—the relative position it may be—of 
the molecules, so as to allow them to approach and unite in the 
direction of one axis rather than another. 

If the molecules be united in groups three and three, so that 
the unlike axes unite : 

Oss : 


c 
Cc Wate SSB 
ls Shapes CON Ea 


a+b+c.a+h+c.a+h+e 
the resultant axes and the forces resident in them are all equal, 
or the crystal belongs to the regular system. According to 
Voltz all regular forms are built up in this way. 
Again, let them unite in pairs thus, 
Bee NOL Jaa |, oft 
We ey. cat B 


FG 5 Oe . D+ 
and we have a square octohedron, or some other form belonging 
to the pyramidal (2 and 1 axial) system. 
_ If they unite in equal numbers in the direction of each axis 
RRA 258 SO 

BR eM aie ee C 


Date e262 

we have a crystal belonging, like the molecules* themselves, to 
the prismatic (1 and 1 axiai) system. 

_It is easy to see that certain dimensions being given for one 
of these forms, the dimensions of another may be calculated 
from them on the above suppositions. M. Voltz has so far veri- 
fied his principle as to deduce the dimensions of the rhomboid 
of calc spar from those of the right rhombic prism of arragonite, 

and the form of rutile from that of anatase. 


7 7 Itis not necessary that the molecules, to meet the views of M. Voltz, should 


be considered as regular prismatic forms. An oblate ellipsoid has three unequal 
axes, which would answer all the conditions, 


206 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


In regard to the difference of physical properties exhibited by 
the unlike forms of the same substance, M. Voltz considers that 
the axes as well as the forces resident in each being independent 
in magnitude, the physical properties in the direction of the 
three axes must always differ in a greater or less degree. The 
density, hardness, refraction, reflection, dilatability by heat 
and compressibility along the unlike axes being unequal in the 
molecule, must vary also in the crystalline mass with the way in 
which the molecules are grouped together to form it, and hence 
the physical properties of the mass will depend in some mea- 
sure on the system of crystallization to which its form belongs. 

These views of M. Voltz may not be correct, yet they are 
deserving of much consideration. They may embody only a 
part of the truth, or they may hereafter prove to be wholly in 
error ; yet they have more the air of a vera causa than any of the 
other hypotheses we have considered, and they may be instru- 
mental in pointing the way to something still more satisfactory. 


X. 

56. Extent of Dimorphism.—Is dimorphism or heteromor- 
phism universal; may all substances assume two or more in- 
compatible forms? ‘To this question we cannot at present give 
a direct reply ; there are considerations, however, partly theo- 
retical and partly drawn from observation, which seem to render 
it probable, that if not all, at least a very great number of cry- 
stallizable substances are heteromorphous. 

57. According to any of the suppositions (53, 54, 55) by © 
which dimorphism has been accounted for, as above stated, the 


power of assuming more than one form ought not to be restricted 


to any number or to any class of bodies whether simple or 


compound. If it be caused by change of circumstances, all _ 


substances may be placed in new conditions; if to a change 


in the relative intensity of the axial forces, all ought to be more or 


less liable to such a change ; while the theory of Voltz implies, 
that all being made up of molecules with three unlike axes, may ~ 


assume one or other of a much more numerous suite of forms — 


than observation has hitherto givenus reason to suspect inany one 
known substance. Still these explanations are all hypothetical ; 
and though we ought not altogether to lose sight of the conclu- — 
sion to which they would direct us, we are not justified in allowing — 
such theoretical views to do more than awaken in our minds a 
suspicion that all substances may ultimately prove to be dimor- 
phous. 

58. Again, if we turn to the department of observation, and 
consider how little the forms of bodies have been studied, how 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 207 


much less even the relations of these forms to temperature and 
other circumstances of an unusual character have been attended 
to, we shall see cause to believe that the number of bodies capable 
of assuming two or more forms must be vastly greater than we 
can as yet be aware of. 

59. In the great majority of cases we have yet to learn where 
and how to look for the second forms of bodies. This is stri- 
kingly illustrated by the beautiful observation of Frankenheim in 
regard to the crystallization of nitrate of potash from its solu- 
tion in water. As the evaporation proceeds crystals of two 
kinds are distinguished, prisms of the ordinary form and six- 
sided plates of the second form ; but as the prisms are prolonged 
they come in contact with the plates, give rise to an immediate 
movement among their particles, and incorporate them with 
their own mass, so that the ultimate result of the crystallization 
is an unmixed crop of crystals of the common form. 

In most cases of crystallization it is only the final result we 
can observe or have hitherto regarded—may there not be very 
many cases in which changes analogous to those observed in 
nitre may take place, a knowledge of which would enable us 
greatly to enlarge our list of dimorphous bodies ? 

60. An analogous observation of Ehrenberg* suggests the 
same question, and makes an affirmative reply still more pro- 
bable. In examining the crystallization of common salt under 
the microscope, he states that the first crystals formed were 
generally six-sided tables, in the centre of which a cubical point 
would suddenly appear and gradually increase in size, while the 
tabular crystal dissolved around it and at length disappeared. 
The hexagonal crystals had much resemblance to the hydrated 
tables observed by Mitscherlich at very low temperatures, so 
that the present does not appear to be a case of dimorphism. 
Still it points in the same direction as the observation of Frank- 
enheim, tells us to keep an eye on the same class of phenomena, 
instructs us not to rest satisfied with a knowledge of the final 
form of a crystallized body, but if possible to follow the march 
of the molecules, to note the successive stages at which they 
seem to rest for a time, and to mark the transformations they 
may undergo before they reach that form. 

_ 61. The circumstances also, the range of temperature for 
example, within which a certain form can exist, is sometimes 
very limited. Thus a solution of carbonate of lime in carbonic 
acid, if allowed to evaporate and crystallize in the cold gives 
only calc spar, if evaporated on the sand bath it is almost en- 


* Pog. An. Z. R, vi., p.» 240. 


208 ‘SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


tirelyarragonite. Chloride of calcium precipitated by carbonate 
of ammonia in the cold gives calc spar, if both solutions be 
boiling the result is arragonite ; and yet at a low red heat arra- 
gonite is again changed into calc spar. Thus it would appear 
that the conditions as to temperature in which the molecules 
may unite to form calc spar are various and recurrent, and that 
so far as we yet know arragonite is not formed ata temperature 
below perhaps 80° or 100° F., and cannot exist above 700° or 
800° F. It may be necessary therefore to observe the forms 
assumed by bodies at many different temperatures, not perhaps 
very remote from each other, before we shall be able to pro- 
nounce as to their ability to assume more than one form. 

The application of the microscope to the examination of the 
phenomena of crystallization promises to add much to our know- 
ledge. In the hands of Ehrenberg, Frankenheim, Gustav Rose, 
and Talbot it has already given us much interesting information, 
but a rich harvest awaits the further use of this new instrument 
on a field hitherto almost untouched by it. 

62. But the clearest and most extended inference in regard 
to the number of individual substances which are likely to prove 
dimorphous (trimorphous perhaps or polymorphous), is to be 
drawn from the existence of a dimorphism in certain chemical 
groups, the individual members of which are only monomor- 
phous, or conversely from the known existence of dimorphous 
individuals in large strictly chemical and isomorphous groups. 
In a former section (section iv.) we have discussed the probabi- 
lity of a heteromorphism being observed in all the members of 
the groups of the first class, and of all the members of those of _ 
the second class proving isodi or isotrimorphous, and we have _ 
seen strong reason to believe that this expectation will not ulti- — 
mately be disappointed. How great a number of individuals — 
these observations when made will add to the substances in our | 
first table need not be pointed out; it is sufficient that in the — 
circumstance here alluded to we see another reason for believing — 
that in nature the assumption of two or more incompatible forms _ 
is very far from being a rare phenomenon. 

63. Theory and observation therefore unite in suggesting — 
that dimorphism, instead of being an exception, as it still in’ 
some measure appears, to the ordinary laws of crystallization, 
may prove to be a general, perhaps a universal consequence of — 
those laws. The utility of the present report consists mainly — 
in its bringing together the scattered fragments of our certain 
knowledge—in pointing out the inquiries they indicate, and the © 
conclusions to which they lead, and in its setting up a landmark 
to which it may be interesting, perhaps curious to refer in a fu- 


. 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 209 


ture and more advanced state of the science, when observation 
shall have verified some, perhaps falsified the whole of our most 
likely predictions. 


XI. 


64. Relation of the Crystalline doctrine of Dimorphism to 
the Chemical doctrine of Isomorphism.—The differences hither- 
to observed between the properties of the two forms A and B of 
any dimorphous body are physical only ; if we impart to them 
unlike chemical relations also, they become tsomeric. 

65. The fact that two or more substances may consist of the 
same elements united in the same proportion, and have the same 
atomic weight, and yet possess unlike properties, chemical as well 
as physical, is at least as new to chemistry as the doctrine of 
dimorphism is to crystallography. Both classes of phenomena 
are due to a mechanical change in the relative position, distances, 
&c. of the particles of bodies ;—for what we call chemical differ- 
ences are only physical differences of a higher order. Those of 
isomerism, however, are more general, implying or carrying 
along with them those of dimorphism. Isomeric bodies in their 
several states not only exhibit different chemical properties, but 
assume also unlike crystalline forms, though the relations among 
these forms have not as yet been examined with that care which 
the subject deserves, and would probably well repay. 

66. Without affecting to understand how these two orders 
of differences are actually produced in nature, we can yet con- 
ceive how they might be produced under certain given conditions. 
For let the crystalline particles of which sensible crystals are 
immediately built up be prismatic—have three unlike axes— 
then according to the views of Voltz dimorphism may be ac- 
counted for. But let these crystalline particles be themselves 
groups (and we are certain that such a particle of a compound 
body must contain more than one, some many molecules), the 
Several members of which may be collocated at different distances 
or in different relative positions, and we have, independent of and 
beyond the supposed cause of dimorphism, another means of 
producing changes of a profounder character, which may affect 
the chemical relations of the crystalline particles while it alters 
also the relative lengths of their several axes. It is immaterial 
whether the ultimate molecules have the form of prisms, of ob- 
late ellipsoids, or of spheres; it is necessary only that by their 
collocation they may produce prismatic crystalline forms, and all 
the known phenomena can be conceived: According to this 
view, there is a strong analogy between the two classes of phe- 
nomena as regards the mode by which they are produced—the 

VOL. vi. 1837. P 


Can ele- 
mentary 
bodies be 
isomeric ? 


210 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


one change commencing as it were where the other ends, and 
basing itself upon it. 

67. Thereare other analogies also between these two doctrines. 
Isomerism like dimorphism is dependent on circumstances, is 
developed in certain cases by change of temperature. Thus ac- 
cording to Lowig* the racemic (paratartaric) acid is changed 
into the tartaric by simple fusion. The crystals of anhydrous 
cyanuric acid (3Cy+60+3H) distilled at a heat below redness 
into a vessel cooled to the freezing temperature, gives a liquid 
hydrated cyanic acid 3 (CyO + HO), which on attaining the tem- 
perature of the air changes into a colourless solid—the inso- 
luble cyanic acid. During these changes there is no escape or 
loss of any of the elements. The polymeric carbo-hydrogens 
seem to change into one another, in a certain order, by an ele- 
vation of temperature; the sugars, gums, and starches also 
pass into each other by a slight alteration of circumstances, 
and future observation will doubtless make us acquainted with 
the conditions necessary for the production of the several mem- 
bers of the known and of many other as yet unknown isomeric 
groups. 

68. Connected as these two classes of phenomena seem to be 
in their probable origin, and by the kind of circumstances under 
which they are developed, they may be expected to throw some 
light on each other. Thus if substances may appear in more 
than two or three isomeric states, be isotri or tsopolymeric, why 
may they not also be ¢7i or polymorphic? In whatever degree 
we consider these two classes of appearances to be analogous, 
in the same degree will be strengthened the probability we have 
already seen to exist, that the forms which the same body may 
assume are not limited to two or even three. 

69. Again, if simple substances, like sulphur and carbon, 
may assume two incompatible forms, may they not present 
themselves in two isomeric states? If they are susceptible of 
that internal molecular change to which dimorphism is due, why 
not also of that deeper change, as we suppose it, to which iso- 
merism is owing—by which difference in chemical relations is 
produced ? 

An affirmative answer to this question will probably be the 
next great step in chemical science, advancing the knowledge 
of our time at least as far as the discovery of the alkaline me- 
tals carried forward the chemistry of the time of Davy. 

70. Meanwhile the probability of such a discovery does not 
rest merely on a supposed analogy between the phenomena of 


* Pog. An., xiii. p. 588. 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 211 


dimorphism and isomerism ; there exist also other observed ana- 
logies which point to that reduction in the number of received 
elementary substances which must necessarily follow the esta- 
blishment of the supposition that elementary bodies are suscep- 
tible of isomerism. 

Thus certain compounds, like cyanogen, known by the name 
of radicals, exhibit all the chemical relations to the elementary 
bodies by which simple substances belonging to the same class 
(chlorine, bromine, &c.) are distinguished ; the latter therefore 
may likewise be compound. 

Again, the chemical and physical relations of the several states 
of isomeric bodies are sometimes (cyanogen and paracyanogen) 
at least as distinct from each other as those exhibited by the 
several elementary substances comprised in almost any of the 
natural groups*. This consideration adds weight to the hypo- 
thesis that the latter are not simple. 

71. The speculations of chemists in regard to the probable 
diminution of the number of received elementary bodies have 
hitherto run only in the channel of decomposition. Nor is 
this surprising, since up to the present time the greatest ac- 
cessions to our knowledge have flowed to us through this chan- 
nel. It has been often supposed that any given elementary 
substance A, as happened with the alkalies and earths, may 
prove to be made up of two others known or unknown; and 
that in any two of them, if the constituents prove the same, 
they may be united together in different proportions. The 
idea of a possible transformation has hitherto hardly been 
thought of ; and yet the doctrine of isomerism, rich already in 
its numerous discoveries, has shown that any number of the re- 
ceived elementary bodies may be made up of the same elements 
united in the same proportion. That they are so made up is in 
no degree the less probable, that under no circumstances have 
we ever observed any two (as iodine and bromine) to be trans- 
formed into each other, since even of the isomeric groups few 
are yet known, the members of which are mutually convertible 
by methods as yet understood or at our command. 

Regarding the question under this new point of view, it will 


appear that the study of the several kinds of physical and che- 


mical properties which the same portion of matter may assume, 
and of the circumstances which influence the development of 
one or other of these kinds, if it do not ultimately solve, is not 
unlikely to throw considerable light upon this, the most inter- 
_ * Cyanogen is not more like to paracyanogen than oxygen is to sulphur; 


less so than chlorine is to iodine. See Transactions of the Royal Society of 
Edinburgh for 1836, vol. xiv. 
P2 


212 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


esting problem now present to the minds of chemical philoso- 
hers. 

:! 72. Are the elementary substances isomeric? is another form 
of the question, dre the received elements really compound ? 
inasmuch as it indicates a desire to diminish the number of the 
simple substances ; but it is a very different question as regards 
the way in which the number is supposed to be capable of di- 
minution. 

For this diminution by the process of decomposition the hopes 
of chemists rest almost entirely on the application of galvanism 
or some similarly powerful agent, directed by the skill of a Davy 
or a Faraday; it may be however that the patient study and 
pursuit of the kindred classes of phenomena we have been con- 
sidering, shall in some brighter moment show that substances 
considered elementary are yet mutually convertible without de- 
composition ; while the question may still remain unsettled, per- 
haps untouched, whether any of them be compound or not. Are 
the received elements isomeric? is thus preliminary to the ques- 
tion, Are they compound ? and in the case of some of them may 
receive the earlier answer. 

73. It may indeed be that all our sepposed elementary bodies 
are in reality such, and therefore wholly beyond the resolving 
energy of electricity or any other agent, and yet the study of 
their changes and reactions in the laboratory, in conformity 
perhaps with new views or modes of investigation, may at some 
future period so enlarge our dominion over the molecules as 
shall cause them at our bidding to assume this or that arrange- 
ment—to appear with the properties of chlorine or iodine—of 
cobalt or nickel—of rhodium, iridium, or osmium. 

Such speculations are not only of high interest—they are of 
use also in suggesting new investigations—in urging the expe- 
rimenter to try new methods in the hope of being guided to new 
results. I have ventured to introduce these speculations at the | 
close of the present report, with the view of showing the con- | 
nection of isomeric and dimorphous differences with the highest 
questions and objects of research in the existing state of inor- 
ganic chemistry. The path along which they lead us is as yet |) 
dark and obscure, but it is certain to guide us to rich and open 
fields, perhaps to some hill top from which new domains may | 
be descried, and from which the descent is easy to new con-| 
quests. . 

74. In the advance of the sciences of observation it is seldom} 
that the same instrument has been the means of producing two! 
great revolutions in the same department. The balance in they 
hands of Lavoisier overturned the phlogistic theory ; but though} 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. S18 


the surest weapon of the modern chemist, it is doubtful if it can 
ever again produce such an overthrow of received opinions. By 
its aid Dalton and others established the atomic theory ; but this 
was rather a splendid addition to our knowledge than the refu- 
tation of a prevailing creed. By the aid of the galvanic battery 
Davy effected the brilliant revolution with which his name is 
associated. The line of Faraday’s researches, though directed 
towards a similar end, and strewed along its whole course with 
beautiful results, has yet led him to no higher dominion over 
refractory matter ; and though we have much to hope for from 
the wonderful weapon he has learned to wield so skilfully, we 
have reason also to fear lest if we trust to this weapon alone we 
should ultimately be disappointed. With the goniometer Mit- 
scherlich has gained for science those remarkable branches of 
knowledge, to the actual state of one of which it has been my 
object to draw the attention of British philosophers in the pre-- 
ceding report ; and it isnot alittle remarkable that the progress 
of these branches of knowledge seems likely to be arrested by the 
same question which electricians since the days of Davy have 
often asked themselves, Are the elementary bodies really simple? 
Which of these branches of inquiry is destined to solve the dif- 
ficulty—will the honour be shared by each—or must a third 
branch arise, bearing a new weapon to carry away the glory from 


both ? 


I cannot close this report without noticing more fully than I 
have yet had an opportunity of doing how very much this de- 
partment of knowledge has been indebted to Professor Mit- 
scherlich of Berlin. To this distinguished philosopher we owe 
the first recognition of the principle of dimorphism, as well as 
the subsequent discovery of many of the most interesting exam- 
ples of its manifestation with which we are yet acquainted. In 
reading his various memoirs on this and kindred subjects, it is 

_ difficult to determine whether we should admire most the inge- 

 nuity and extreme beauty of his researches, the brevity and 
clearness with which his most important results are announced, 

_ the grave and philosophic air which pervades his deductions, 
_ or the unity of purpose observable even in the most seemingly 

_ insignificant of his published investigations. The order of his 
_ memoirs exhibits not only the progress of his own inquiries, but 

_ at the same time of the branches of knowledge he has created. 
_ Inhis own walk he has trodden almost alone, and there is perhaps 
_ in our time no other example among the sciences of observation 
_ of an entire department depending for so many years on the 

Single labours of one individual. It is to be presumed that many 


214 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


understand the researches of Mitscherlich, that some at least 
are qualified to go forward in the same path with himself, yet 
no one has ventured to shoot out into the main current of his 
inquiries or to dispute with him the honour of leading the ad- 
vance. It is certain indeed that in al/ the necessary qualifica- 
tions,—in knowledge of the subject, andin devotion toits advance- 
ment, as well as in intellectual gifts and acquirements, no living 
philosopher could replace the present leader. Could any other be 
expected to prosecute it so zealously as he whose mind has given 
it birth? 

We may be permitted therefore to wish and hope that the 
labours of this distinguished observer may be long continued to 
us, that he may win new laurels to himself and add new domains 
to the sciences he has already so greatly enriched. If the pre- 
sent report make his discoveries more familiar to the rising phi- 
losophers of our own country, or lead into the field of dimorphism 
one mind yet undecided what path of science to choose, its main 
objects will not be wholly unattained. 


Desiderata.—1. To determine the physical differences which 
exist between the incompatible crystals of the same dimorphous 
substance. (See blanks in Tables I. and IV.) 

2. Within what limits of temperature is each form stable ? 
within what other (?) limits may each form exist. (61.) ? 

3. In general we are acquainted only with the final result of 
crystallization: do bodies not pass through (so to speak) one 
or more forms as they crystallize till they ultimately assume 
one more stable than the rest? The microscope will aid this 
inquiry. (60.) 

4. In isomorphous groups of which one member is dimor- 
phous, to observe if, under certain circumstances hitherto neg- 
lected, the other members may not also be dimorphous. If 
mineral substances, specimens from different localities should 
be studied and measured. (20.) 

5. In groups represented by like chemical formule,—but 
the several members of which do not all assume the same form 
(32.),—to determine if the several known forms belonging to 
the group do not also belong or may not be assumed by each 
member of the group. (32.) 

6. When two series of unlike physical properties (33.) are 
assumed by the same chemical substance, to observe if each 
series includes a different crystalline form. 

7. In the present state of the doctrine of isomorphism it is 
of importance to collect and tabulate examples of like form in 


ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 215 


substances represented by unlike formule. (See Table III.) 
They seem to point to a modification of received opinions. 

8. In cases of reputed pseudomorphism to examine minutely 
the circumstances under which the changed crystals occur, and 
the nature of the crystals themselves ; some of them may prove 
to be cases of dimorphism. (40.) 

9. To observe by the aid of the microscope or otherwise the 
change which fusible substances undergo in the different stages 
of cooling after solidification. Some (5. 6. Table IV.) sub- 
stances appear in cooling to pass through, as it were, interme- 
diate forms which they cannot retain, before they reach that 
state of crystalline arrangement which is proper to the stationary 
temperature. If one substance be known to exhibit such trans- 
- formations, to inquire if all substances represented by the same 
formulee may exbibit them. 

10. What difference of molecular arrangement, as indicated 
by the optical properties, exists in the viscid state of melted 
sulphur compared with the limpid states it assumes at a higher 
and at a lower temperature (47)? Are analogous phenomena, 
differences of colour, density, fluidity, &c., observable in other 
fluids at different temperatures ? Can any other gases exhibit- 
ing like changes be added to the solitary example of nitrous 
acid? (48.) 

In connexion with this subject every accurate measurement 
of a crystal, every nice determination of the hardness or density 
of a well crystallized specimen, and above all every careful 
analysis of specimens previously measured and weighed is of 
great value. For though not immediately available in clearing 
up any obscure or disputed point, they will form a sound basis 
for future reasonings, will indicate new analogies among cry- 
stalline compounds, and will gradually lead us forward to wider 
generalizations. 


Durham, 1838. 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 217 


Special Report on the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of 
Dukhun, under the British Government. 


[In spelling Oriental words, the @ is the a in all, the u as in hut; the rest 
have the usual English sound. ] 


Tur General Committee of the British Association which met 
at Cambridge in 1833, did me the honour to pass a resolution 
that I should prepare for publication my manuscripts respect- 
ing the Statistics of Dukhun (Deccan). I have been anxious 
to respond to so flattering a desire at an earlier period, but 
having placed my manuscripts in the hands of a distinguished 
person, as auxiliary to his scientific labours, I have been de- 
terred from reclaiming them until the objects for which they 
had been placed at his disposal were realised. 

In responding at last to the call of the British Association, 
I feel very considerable embarrassment in adapting my ma- 
terials to the space which can be afforded to me in its annual 
volume. The materials, in fact, are very voluminous; and 
the nature of my subject embracing multitudinous details, 
figured statements, and lengthened tables, makes it a work 
of no ordinary difficulty to digest, abridge, and condense them 
without involving my subject in obscurity, and exposing my- 
self to the imputation of inefficient inquiry from the hiatus 
which must appear. I beg, therefore, distinctly to state, that 
| the absence of information observable in the following Report, 
| is attributable, not to paucity of matter, but to the want of a 
| sufficient field in which to display it. 


Extent and Physical Circumstances. 


I propose to give but a meagre sketch of the statistics of 
Dukhun; a mere enumeration of its population, products, 
| manufactures, revenues, civil divisions, &c., with little more 
| comment than may be necessary to ensure perspicuity. 
| Inthe execution of my public duties as Statistical Reporter 
to the government of Bombay, my researches made me ac- 
| quainted with the statistics of the four collectorates of Duk- 
| hun, denominated the Poona, Ahmednuggur, Candeish or 
| Khandesh, and Dharwar Collectorates; facts were also col- 
| lected respecting the territories of the Rajah of Sattarah, and 
| some few details came to hand illustrative of the state of the 
possessions of the southern Mahratta Jagheerdars, which are 


: 


218 SEVENTH REPORT—183/. ; 


under British protection. In adverting to the whole of these 
territories, although I shall name them separately in describing 
their extent, physical circumstances, and civil divisions, it will 
only be to notice where they differ from each other. 

The whole of the above territories, containing 3,285,985 
inhabitants, spread over 48,987 square miles, and averaging 
67 inhabitants to the square mile, lie upon that elevated 
plateau, which has an abrupt termination on the western side 
of India, in what are usually denominated the Ghats, but 
which plateau gradually declines, occasionally by a succession 
of low steps, as is seen by the courses of rivers to the Coro- 
mandel coast, excepting in Khandesh (Khind meaning a gap or 
trench, and Desh a country,) where the river Tapty disem- 
bogues to the westward, from the peculiar configuration of the 
narrow valley in which this collectorate lies, Some of the 
platforms on the summit of the Ghats have an elevation of 
5000 feet above the sea, but the general level of the main 
plateau of Dukhun is about 2000 feet high near the Ghats, 
and scarcely exceeds 1000 feet in the eastern limits of the col- 
lectorates. ‘The whole territory is mountainous near to the 
Ghats, and has numerous valleys, some of them narrow and 
tortuous, others broad, open, and flat. At from thirty to fifty 
miles eastward from the Ghats, most of the mountain spurs — 
which produce the valleys terminate, and the country becomes — 
open and tolerably level for considerable distances, with an 
occasional step down to the eastward; the country, in fact, — 
being made up of beds of trap, the beds extending the 
further to the eastward the lower they are in the series. — 
There is much forest and underwood and jungle along the — 
line of the Ghats; but to the eastward the country is open, 
and there is a want of wood; parts of Khandesh and Dhar- — 
war are exceptions to this description. The western tracts 
along the Ghats are called the Mawuls, in contradistinction — 
to the open country, which is called the Desh or Des. 4 

It may be as well to state here that all lands in Dukhun~ 
are classed within some village boundary or other, and this 
boundary is maintained with such jealousy and tenacity by 
the inhabitants, as to lead to frequent feuds and bloodshed on ~ 
the slightest invasion of village rights. The village consti-_ 
tution and the occupancy of lands will be mentioned under 
land-tenures. : 

Rivers.—The rivers of Dukhun, which in the monsoon flow 
with a magnificent volume of water, in the hot season present a 
broad gravelly bed, with only a thread-like stream in many of — 
them, but from natural barriers of rock in the bed of the 


Se En ARN ean ne Dir R NET 1A See A PW Petty 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 219 


Beema, Godavery, Kistnah, and other large rivers of Dukhun, 
extensive sheets of water, called Dho or Dhao, are formed, 
which abound with fish. 

Roads and Bridges.—The roads in Dukhun, with the ex- 
ception of two great military roads, are untouched by art; and 
few of the rivers can boast of a bridge. 


Geology. 


Previously to entering into descriptive details, I will state in 
a few words, that the whole country comprised within my 
boundaries is composed of distinctly stratified trap rocks, 
without the intervention of the rocks of any other formation. 
Whether at the level of the sea, or at the elevation of 4500 
feet, in all and every part beds of basalt and amygdaloid are 
found alternating, whose superior and inferior planes preserve 
a striking parallelism to each other, and, as far as the eye can 
judge, to the horizon. Barometrical measurements and the 
course of rivers indicate a declination of the country to the 
east-south-east, and south-east; from the town of Goreh, 
latitude 19°-03 and longitude 74°05, on the Goreh river, 
following a mean course for the river until it falls into the 
Beema, and subsequently, continuing a mean course for the 
Beema, until its junction with the Seena river, the distance 
is about 200 miles, and the declination 671 feet: there may 
therefore be a trifling dip of the strata; but as a succession 
of low terraéés occur in that distance, the apparent horizontal 
position of the strata may be unaffected by the above dif- 

ence of level. 

Dr. M‘Culloch, describing the overlying or trap rocks, 
says, ‘these masses are generally irregular, but sometimes 
bear indistinct marks of stratification*.” As Dr. M‘Culloch’s 
language implies the rare occurrence of stratification, instead 
of its being a distinctive feature, at least, of the Indian branch 
of the trap family, I deem it necessary to quote the few 
authors who have written on Indian geology, in confirmation 
of the fact I have stated +. 

. Classification of Rocks, p. 466. 

’“These mountains (the Vindhya range), like every other in Malwa, 
appear to be distinctly stratified, consisting of alternate horizontal beds of 
dasalt or trap, and amygdaloid. Fourteen of these beds may, in general, be 
jreckoned, the thinnest at the top, and rapidly increasing in thickness as they 
lower in position, the basalt stratum at the bottom being about 200 feet thick.” 
| Again, at page 327, he says, “In the upper plains of Malwa, every point of 

view presents the same uniform and distinctly streaked appearance noticed in 
jthe Vindhya range.”—Captain Dangerfield, in Geological Notices of Malwa, 
in Appendix, No. 2, to Sir John Malcolm’s Central India, pp. 322, 327. 


220 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Ghats.—The Dukhun rises, by a succession of terraces or | 
steps, very abruptly from the Konkun: its valleys and table- ~ 
lands have a mean elevation above the sea of about 1800 feet. 
The Konkun is a long strip of land, from thirty to fifty miles 
in breadth, lying between the Ghats and the sea: the mean | 
elevation of this strip is less than 100 feet; but it is bristled | 
with isolated hills or short ranges, some of which attain an 
elevation equaling that of the Ghats. Numerous shoulders or 
salient angles are thrown out from the Ghats, from the western 
or Konkun side, and by means of these the ascent to Dukhun 
is affected; with what difficulty, will be understood when I 
state that the military road of communication between Bombay 
and Poona, up the Bore Ghat, rises nearly 600 feet ina mile. | 
The western portion of my tract along the crest of the Ghats — 
is exceedingly strong: spurs of different lengths extend from 
the main range to the eastward and south-east, leaving many 
narrow tortuous valleys between them, some of which have 
the character of gigantic cracks or fissures; other valleys, 
although occurring less frequently, when looked at from the 
neighbouring ranges appear as flat and smooth as a billiard-_ 
table, even to the Ghats; but when traversed, are found to 
be cut up by numerous narrow and deep ravines. Stupendous 
scarps, fearful chasms, numerous waterfalls, dense forests, and 
perennial verdure, complete the majesty and romantic interest 
of the vicinity of the Ghats. As the spurs extend to the 
east and south-east they diminish in height, until they dis 
appear on approaching the open plains in my eastern limits, 
between the Beema and Seena rivers. The area of the table 
land on their summit often exceeds that of the valley between | 
them ; such is the case with the spur bordering the left bank 
of the Beema river for forty miles from its source, occupying, | 
in fact, the whole country between the sources of the Beema 
and Goreh rivers. 

The spurs are rarely tabular for their whole length, but 
narrow occasionally into ridges capped with compact basalt, — 
and subsequently expand into extensive table lands. The 
spur originating in the hill-fort of Hurreechundurghur af 
fords a good example. The fort is about eighteen miles in~ 
circumference. On the east, it presents a salient angle to the 


Dr. Voysey, in a paper on the Geological and Mineralogical Structure of 
the vicinity of Nagpoor, says, ‘‘ From the summit of the hill of Sitabuldee the 
difference in the outline of the rocks eastward is very perceptible. ‘The flat- 
tened summits and long flat outline, with the numerous gaps of the trap hills, | 
are exchanged for the ridgy, peaked, sharp outline of the primary rocks.” | 
—Physical Class of the Asiatic Researches, p. 127. ao | 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 221 


neighbouring mountain; absolute contact, however, only com- 
mences at about 400 feet from the top of the scarp, leaving a 
gap and an extremely narrow ridge, over which lies a difficult 
footpath of communication between the valley of the Malsej 
Ghat and that of the Mool river. The spur then widens; 
some lateral ramifications shoot out, on one of which is 
situated the fort of Koonjurghur. At the Brahmun Wareh 
pass it narrows considerably, but not into a ridge ; it subse- 
quently expands into the extensive and well-peopled table 
land of Kanoor and Parneir, twenty-four miles long by twenty 
broad, having diminished in height by a succession of steps 
from 3894 feet in Hurreechundurghur, to 2866 at Brahmun 
Wareh, 24'74 at Parneir, and 2133 on the terrace of Ahmed- 
nuggur. From Ahmednuggur the spur bends southwards 
until it is finally lost in the neighbourhood of Sholapoor. It 
is, in fact, the margin of a great plateau, which has a mean 
elevation of about 300 feet above the valley of the Godavery 
river, and over which the rivers Goreh, Beema, Seena, &c. 
take their course. The basaltic caps of the ridges appear 
more or less columnar from numerous vertical fissures; the 
weathering of these exposed rocks produces pillars, spires, 
towers, houses, and other forms of works of art. Another 
feature of these spurs is the occasional occurrence on their 
table lands of small hummocks or conical hills with a trun- 
eated apex. Dr. Voysey mentions ‘ groups of flattened 
summits and- isolated conoidal frusta” in the Gawelghur Trap 
Mountains. One of the longest of the spurs originates in 
the Ghats north-west of Sattarah, and runs nearly east-south- 
east about 100 miles towards Punderpoor. 

_ The spur immediately south of Poona, on the ramifications 
of which are situated the formidable fortresses of Singhur 
(4162 feet) and Poorundhur, (at nearly the same elevation) 
has an extent of ninety-five miles. 

_ Valleys. — Much having been said respecting valleys of 
excavation, I think it may be acceptable to offer a few obser- 
yations on the valleys between the spurs. I shall describe 
only those that present the greatest contrasts to each other. 

_ Valley of the Mota River.—The valley of the Mota river, 
| south of Poona, originating in a mass of hills on the edge 
of the Ghats, is so exceedingly narrow that for some miles 
the bases of the opposite hills frequently touch each other, 
leaving at intervals little horizontal plots of a pistol-shot in 
width ; these plots occur in terraces, on lower levels, as they 
| extend eastward. 

Vale of the Under.—The valley of the Under river, north- 


222 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


west of Poona, presents a perfect contrast to the last. It is 
level for twenty miles, running east and west to the very edge 
of the Ghats; and a person can stand at the head of the. 
valley, upon the brink of a scarp, rising almost from the 
Konkun. Here, at the source of the river, it is nearly six 
miles wide. The river Under runs down the valley 150 feet 
below the level of the cultivated lands. 

If these valleys be valleys of excavation, the present rivers 
could scarcely produce such, were we to suppose their powers 
of attrition in operation from the origin of things even to the 
end of time ! 

Those of a fissure-like character might have resulted from 
the upheaving of the beds of trap from below the sea, and the 
consequent probable fracture of the surface; but the same 
explanation will not apply to those ‘valleys associated 
with the preceding, broad, flat, and margined by scarped 
mountains, which valleys are as wide at their origin at the 
crest of the Ghats, and at the sources of the rivers which run 
through them, as in any part of their length. 

Terraces.—As the rise from the Konkun to the Dukhun is 
by terraces, so the declination of the country eastward from the 
Ghats is by terraces ; but these occur at much longer intervals, 
are much lower, particularly in the eastern parts, and escape the 
eye of the casual observer. In the neighbourhood of Munchur, 
on the Goreh river, there are five terraces rising above each 
other from the east to the west, so distinctly marked that the 
parallelism of their planes to each other and to the horizon 
gives them the appearance of being artificial. An artificial 
character also pervades the form of many insulated hills; 
some of which, viewed laterally, appear to have an extensive 
table-land on the summit; but seen endways, look like trun- 
cated cones. Conoidal frusta, in the Gawelgurh range, have 
been already noticed. Other insulated hills are triangular in 
their superficial planes, as the forts of 'l'eekoneh (three-cor- 
nered) and Loghur. 

Escarpments.—Stupendous escarpments are occasionally met 
with in the Ghats. In these instances the numerous strata, in- 
stead of being arranged in steps, form a continuous wall. At 
the Ahopeh pass, at the source of the Goreh river, the wall 
or scarp is fully 1500 feet high; indeed, on the north-west 
face of the hill fort of Hurreechundurghur, the escarpment can 
scarcely be less than double that height. On the other hand, 
the steps are sometimes effaced, and a hill has a rapid slope. 
This originates in a succession of beds of the softer amyg- 
daloids, without any basaltic interstratification; their superior 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 223 


angles disintegrate and a slope results. But most usually 
three or four beds of amygdaloid are found between two strata 
of compact basalt ; the former disintegrates, leaving a slope, 
which is not unfrequently covered with forest trees, forming a 
picturesque belt. ‘The basaltic scarp remains entire, or it 
may be partially buried by the debris from the amygdaloids 
above ; but its great thickness usually preserves it from obli- 
teration, and it rises from the wood below with majestic 
effect, its black front being finely contrasted with the rich and 
lively green of its sylvan associate. It is these strata, arranged 
in slopes and scarps, repeated three or four times, and 
so commonly met with in insulated and other mountains in 
Dukhun, that constitute the amazing strength of the hill 
forts of the country, leaving a succession of natural walls 
encircling a mountain. This feature did not escape the ob- 
servation of Captain Dangerfield in Malwa, who says, ‘‘ From 
the great difference in the resistance made to decomposition 
by these trap and amygdaloid beds, their exposed ends acquire 
a very distinct degree of inclination and character; the amyg- 
daloid forming a great slope and affording a loose mould 
covered with vegetation, the trap retaining its original per- 
pendicularity and dark bareness.” 

In the alternation of the strata there does not appear to be 
any uniformity ; but the general level, thickness, and extent of a 
stratum are preserved, as in sedimentary rocks, on both sides of 
a valley; the basalt and hardest amygdaloids being traceable 
for miles in the parallel spurs or ranges; but the imbedded 


_ minerals, and even the texture, vary in very short distances. 


Columnar Basalt.—A great geological feature of Dukhun is 


a the occurrence of columnar basalt. The basalts and hardest 
_ amygdaloids run so much into each other that the line of sepa- 


ration is not always readily distinguishable, excepting, of course, 
the lines of horizontal stratification. I observed the prismatic 
disposition more marked and perfect in the basalt strata than 
in the amygdaloids, and the more or less perfect development 
of determinate forms was dependent on the compactness and 
limited constituents of the rocks. Basalts and amygdaloids, 
however compact, with many imbedded matters, rarely formed 


columns. Perfect columns were generally small, of four, five, 


or six sides; but the prismatic structure sometimes manifested 
itself in basaltic and amygdaloidal columns many feet in 


diameter. A bare mention of the places where they occur 
_ would testify to their extended localities, but these are too nu- 


merous for insertion in this report. 
Schistose Structure.—Following the preceding formation, I 


224 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


may mention, that in some few places a schistose structure 
was met with, but its extent was limited to a few yards; the 
lamellze were vertical, from an inch to three inches in thickness, 
being perfect tables, with parallel bounding planes. ‘The rock 
in which this structure occurs is a simple, indurated, gray 
clay, which flies into fragments under slight blows from the 
hammer. At Dytneh, near Serroor, some very perfect speci- 
mens have led the inhabitants to connect mystic influences with 
so artificial a development of inorganic-matter. The spot is 
daubed:- with oil and red lead, and venerated. 

Basalt en Boules.—Another characteristic feature, is the 
general diffusion of those rounded or oval masses of compact 
basalt, with concentric layers like the coats ofan onion, which 
the French geologists denominate Basalt en Boules, and our- 
selves, nodular basalt*. 

Dykes.—I now pass to the basaltic dykes, several of which 
came under my notice in different parts of the country. They 
are all vertical, and I did not observe that they occasioned any 
disturbance or dislocation in the strata of basalt and amyg- 
daloid, through which they passed. 

The gentlemen whose geological memoirs I have quoted, 
rarely advert to the subject of trap dykes, and their notices 
are very brief. Captain Dangerfield says, ‘The trap of the 
southern boundary of Malwa is much intersected by vertical 
veins of quartz, or narrow seams of a more compact heavy 
basalt, which appears to radiate from centres.” Beyond the 
continuous trap region of the peninsula, Dr. Voysey notices 
a basaltic vein in syenite, near the Cavary river at Se- 
ringapatam, which must have been propelled upwards, as it 
broke through an oblique seam of hornblende in the syenite, 
and carried the pieces up above the level of the hornblende 
vein. ‘On the eastern coast,” Mr. Calder says, ‘from Con- 
dapilli northward, the granite is often penetrated, and, ap- 
parently, heaved up by injected veins or masses of trap and 
dykes of green stone.” 

Ferruginous Clay.—The next distinctive feature is the 


* Dr. Voysey says, “The nodular wachen or basalt is one of the most 
common forms of trap in the extensive districts composed of the rocks of the 
family south of the Nermada (Nerbuddah) river. It occurs perpetually in the 
extensive and lofty range of mountains (the Gawalghur) situated between the 
Purna and Tapti rivers, and appears to form their principal mass. It is found 
equally abundant throughout the whole of Berar, part of the provinces of 
Hyderabad, Beder, and Sholapoor, and appears to form the basis of the great 
western range of trap hills which separate the Konkun from the interior of the 
Dukhun,”—Physical Class, Asiatic Researches, pp. 126, 189. 


- 
oe 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 225 


occurrence of strata of red ochreous rock; in fact, M‘Culloch’s 
ferruginous clay underlying thick strata of basalt or amyg- 
daloid, precisely as is seen to be the case in the Giant’s 
Causeway in Ireland. It passes through every variety of tex- 
ture, from pulverulent, friable, and indurated, to compact 
earthy jasper. The stratum is from an inch in thickness to 
many feet. The rock makes a red streak on paper, with the 
exception of the very indurated kinds, and does not affect the 
needle: it is pulverulent near the basaltic columns at Serroor, 
friable under subcolumnar red amygdaloid, near the source 
of the Seena river, indurated under basalt at Kothool. Al- 
though hard, it is here so cellular as to have the appearance 


of sponge, and, reduced to powder, looks like brickdust. 


Pulverulent Limestone.—Limestone is met with in the 
Dukhun only in three states—pulverulent, nodular, and 
crystalline. ‘The first occurs in thin seams on the banks of 
rivers and water-courses, and at the base of hills in debris: 
the seams are from an inch to three feet in thickness, covered 
by a few feet of black earth; sometimes in whiteness it re- 
sembles pounded chalk, and is then used by children to smear 
their writing boards. 

Nodular Limestone.—The nodular limestone, which is the 
well-known kunkur of India, (kunkur being a native word for 
nodule,) occurs like the preceding, disseminated or diffused 
in the soil, and also on the surface. I have never seen the 
nodules of a regular crystalline form; they vary in size from 
a marble to a twelve-pound shot, and many of them are ex- 


_ ceedingly irregular in shape, particularly those dug from the 


banks of rivers; they are sometimes obscurely lenticular; they 
are so abundant in certain localities that they appear as if 
showered upon the earth, and disguise its colour. Dr. Bu- 
chanan mentions the same fact in Rajmahl. When upon black 
soil they are usually minute, and tolerably uniform in size ; 


on other soils their form is variable. In the Ghats, neither 


pulverulent nor nodular lime is met with. It is unnecessary 
to particularize the localities of the nodular kind, as it is of 
common occurrence eastward, from the hilly tracts of the 
Ghats, and is the only source of lime for mortar; a class of 


—o" making a livelihood by collecting the larger nodules. 


hen carefully burnt they make an excellent cement. 

Captain Dangerfield describes the occurrence (in Malwa) 
in some parts, particularly near the bottom of the small hills 
and banks of the rivulets, of a thin bed of loose marl or 


coarse earthy limestone. Captain Coulthard says, ‘‘ In Sagar 
_awhite patch of this limestone mouldering by the weather is 


VOL. VI. 1837. Q 


226 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


the source from whence come the particles of kunkur mixed 
with the black basaltic earth of the neighbouring valley, in such 
proportion as to add increased fertility to it; and, if a rivulet 
meanders through that valley, (and such is generally the fact), 
patches, made up of aggregated particles of the same, will 
here and there be found; and this it is which the native 
families pick out and work into lime.” Captain Coulthard 
refers the origin of the nodules to limestone rock underlying 
basaltic strata, but I cannot trace them to such a source, not 
having seen strata of compact limestone, properly so called, in 
the Dukhun. The only specimen of compact limestone met 
with by me, was in the bed of the Beema river, near Pundur- 
poor ; it was an insulated, amorphous, gray mass, four or five 
feet in diameter. I looked upon it as an aggregation of the 
pulverulent particles of lime disseminated in the neighbourin 

banks. . 

Crystalline Limestone.—Lime in a crystalline state occurs 
only as an imbedded mineral in the amygdaloidal strata in 
quartz geodes, and in the nucleus, or compact part of masses 
of mesotype or stilbite. It is rare compared with the preceding 
varieties. 

Loose Stones.—Another feature of Dukhun is the occurrence 
of immense quantities of loose basalt stones, as if showered upon 
the land; also masses of rock heaped and piled into mounds, 
as if by the labour of man. Their partial distribution is not 
less remarkable than their abundance. For the most part the 
stones have a disposition to a geometrical form, and it is by 
no means rare to meet with prisms of three or four sides and 
cubes almost perfect; stones with one or two perfect planes 
are very common. Their texture is close-grained, and the 
colour verging to black. 

Rocky Heaps.—The singular heapsof rocks and stones above 
noticed occur at Kanoor, Patus, Kheir, between Kurjut and 
Meerujgaon, and at other places in the Mawals, or hilly tracts 
of the Ghats. The heaps are from twenty to seventy feet in 
diameter, and the same in height. When composed of rocky 
masses, without small stones, blocks of three or four feet 
in diameter, and with a disposition to determinate forms, are 
piled upon each other, constituting rude pillars. In certain 
parts of the country from fifty to sixty of these heaps are seen 
within the area of a couple of square miles, and it excites sur- 
prise that the intermediate ground is destitute of stones. 

Sheets of Rock.—Mention must not be omitted of the constant 
recurrence of sheets of rock of considerable extent at the sur- 
face, and totally destitute of soil; this is particularly the case 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 227 


in the Mawals, or hilly tracts along the Ghats. They abound 
with narrow vertical veins of quartz and chalcedony. When of 
sufficient thickness the vein splits in the centre, parallel to 
the surface of its walls, the interior being drusy with quartz 
crystals, The walls consist of layers of chalcedony, cachalong, 
horn-stone, and semi-opal. ‘These veins supply the. majority 
of the siliceous minerals so abundantly strewed over Dukhun. 
Strueture and Mineral Composition of the Trap Rocks. 
—The structure and mineral composition of trap rocks in 
Dukhun vary exceedingly in short distances, even in the 
same stratum; nevertheless, the predominant character does not 
disappear, although the basalt, in a continuous bed, may pass 
several times from close-grained, compact, and almost black, to 
grey, amygdaloidal, and externally decomposing. The same 
observation applies to the amygdaloids. A variety of compact 
basalt, of an intense green colour, is susceptible of a brilliant 
polish, and rivals the celebrated Egyptian kind. It is of great 
weight and remarkable hardness; the natives use it to work into 
idols for their temples, pedestals to the wooden columns to their 
mansions, and slabs for inscriptions. The bulls, of the size 
of life, always placed before the temples of Mahadeo, are 
cut out of this variety at Raseen, Wurwund and the renowned 
Boleshwur. Some of the pedestals in the gateway of the 
Mankéswur palace at Teimboornee, look like mirrors. In 
the temple of Pooluj, south of Punderpoor, there is a slab six 
or seven feet long, and two and a half broad, covered with an 
inscription in the Kanree language; and in Punderpoor the 
streets are paved apparently with the same basalt. At 
Jehoor, and near Ahmednuggur, is found a compact kind, 
like the last, but not so heavy; it has a crystalline character, 
and sharp fracture, and has angular siliceous pebbles im- 


bedded: an occasional pebble is found loose in its cell. In 


the Happy Valley, near Ahmednuggur, the basalt is compact 
and smooth, with reddish flat transparent crystals imbedded. 
It opposes a feeble resistance to the hammer, and flies into 
fragments, some of which have right angles. The basalt, 
even of the true columns, is not of a uniform texture in 
different localities ; at times it is blackish or grey, and very 
small, granular, or compact; at others, earthy and ferru- 
ginous, particularly externally. The base of the amygdal- 
oids is clay, with more or less hornblende disseminated; 
they embrace the cellular, porphyritic, hard, friable, and 
decomposing. I endeavoured to class them agreeably to the 
prevalence of quartz, chalcedony, lime, mesotype, or stilbite, 
as imbedded minerals, but ~— the method of very limited 
Q 


928 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


application ; sometimes one mineral only is imbedded, occa- 
sionally two, and often the whole. 

In Hurreechundurghur quartz amygdaloid prevails ; at Akla- 
poor, on the Mool river, it is characterized by mesotype, that 
mineral being imbedded in large masses, and the radii (six or 
seven inches) are the longest I have seen; at Nandoor it 
is porphyritic, with several crystalline specks of lime ; near to 
Ahmednuggur is seen a cellular, indeed spongiform kind, 
which is hard, and the cells are empty. A small cellular and 
pisiform variety is found in the wonderful cave temples 
of Ellora; and some of the sculptured figures appear as 
if marked by the small-pox. This observation is partially 
applicable to the Boodh and Hindoo cave temples of Ele- 
phanta, Salsette, Karleh, Joonur, the Naneh Ghat, and the 
Adjuntah Ghat, all of which are excavated in basaltic or 
amygdaloidal strata. The stilbite, or heulandite amygdaloid, is 
of very common occurrence; but the most prevalent kind 
is that in which all the minerals noticed above are asso- 
ciated. The stone usually selected for building is of various 
shades of grey or bluish grey; has hornblende disseminated 
in very small crystals; works much easier than some of the 
compacter basalts, but takes a good polish. ‘The entire 
temples of Korrul and Boleshwur, with their innumerable 
alto-relievo figures and laboured ornaments, are built of this 
variety of trap, which is, in fact, a greenstone, although 
less crystalline than the European rock. There is a variety, 
selected carelessly, also used in building, which has the struc- 
ture, and nearly the external characters of the last, but which 
in weathering exfoliates, and the buildings fall to ruin: such 
is the case with the great temple in Hurreechundurghur. 

I must not omit mention of two remarkable rocks which, as 
far as my reading extends, have not been noticed by authors 
on European geology. The first is an amygdaloid, in which 
compact stilbite is imbedded in a vermicular form; one of its 
localities is the insulated hill on which stands the temple 
of Purwattee, in the city of Poona; and it is met with in 
many other places. Captain Dangerfield* observed the same 
peculiar stratum near Sagar. He says, “There occurs an 
amygdaloidal or porphyritic rock, consisting of a compact 
basis of wacké, in which are imbedded in great abundance 
small globular or uniform masses, but more usually long, 
curved, cylindrical, or vermiform crystals of zeolite.” 

The other rock occurs as a thick stratum of amygdaloid, 


* Malcolm’s Central India, p. 328, 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 229 


at the elevation of 4000 feet, in the hill forts of Hurreechundur- 
ghur and Poorundhur, and in the bed of the Goreh River at 
1800 feet, near Serroor. The matrix resembles that of the 
other amygdaloids, but the mineral imbedded is a glossy 
felspar in tables resembling Cleavelandite, crossing each other 
at various angles, and so abundant as to occupy a moiety 
of the mass. I have only remarked it in the above localities, 
and it does not appear to have come under the notice of the 
gentlemen I have quoted elsewhere. 

Minerals,—Minerals are not uniformly dispersed in Dukhun. 
In one part quartz predominates, in another chalcedony ; and 
these are more or less associated with jaspars, agates, horn- 
stones, heliotrope, and semi-opal or cachalong. In other places, 
particular members of the zeolite family prevail, nearly to the 
exclusion of the siliceous class; and elsewhere there is a 
diminution of minerals amounting almost to privation. Ame- 
thyst quartz is rare in Dukhun; when met with it constitutes 
the crystal lining the interior of geodes of agate. I have not 
seen it in veins. 

Pseudomorphous quartz is common; the most frequent 

impression is that of rhomb spar. Lime occurs only in three 
crystalline forms; rhomb, dog-tooth, and the dodecahedron. 
The first is found on the surface, and imbedded in masses of 
quartz and compact mesotype; the two latter forms are asso- 
ciated with ichthyophthalmite in cavities in the amygdaloid 
strata. ‘That comparatively rare mineral ichthyophthalmite is 
very common at Poona. 
_ Natural Salts.—Only two kinds of natural salts came under 
my notice, namely muriate and carbonate of soda; both are 
not uncommon; the first near to Ahmednuggur, Koond, 
Mawleh, and other places ; the latter at Kalbar Lonee. Salt- 
petre is artificial in Dukhun. 

Ores.—No other ore than that of iron is found in Dukhun. 


It occurs as a nodular hematite, associated at the source of the 


Kistna with laterite. This ore produces the celebrated 
Wootz steel. 

Organic Remains.—I did not meet with organic remains of 
any kind whatever; and Captain Coulthard in Sagar, Major 
Franklin in Bundelkund, and Captain Dangerfield in Malwa, 
were equally unsuccessful; and Mr. Calder, in his General 
Observations on the Geology of India, says, ‘ But hitherto the 
most striking phenomenon in Indian geology is the almost total 
absence of organic remains in the stratified rocks and in the 
diluvial soil.” Very recently shells are understood to have been 


230 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


found by Dr. Malcolmson on the edge of the great trap 
region in the province of Nagpoor. The organic remains 
from the base of the Himalaya mountains are well known. 

Thermal Springs.—I am not aware of thermal springs in the 
collectorates of Poona, Ahmednuggur, and Dharwar; but in 
Khandesh, in the pergumahs of Arrawud and Amba, in the 
Sautpoora mountains, are the hot springs called Soonup Deo and 
Oonup Deo; the first is so hot that the hand cannot be borne 
in it, agreeably to the testimony of Colonel Briggs. Hot 
springs are numerous in the Konkun, bursting through trap ; 
and they are met with in Canara, and in many other parts of 
India and Ceylon. 

Extent of the Trap Region.—The trap has been traced con- 
tinuously to Neemutch, lat. 24°:27, N. at 14°76 feet above the 
level of the sea, from a fluctuating southern line, which extends 
down as low as the 15th degree of latitude, but one end of which 
terminates on the western coast, between the 16th and 17th 
degrees of latitude; and the eastern end of the line runs up to 
Nagpoor, at 1000 feet above the sea. The longitudinal extent 
of the trap, between the above latitudes, would appear to be 
from the western sea coast (excluding Goojrat) to the 82nd 
degree of E. longitude ; there is thus evidence of a continuous 
trap formation covering an area of from 200,000 to 250,000 
square miles!! However extraordinary this extent may appear, 
it is an undoubted fact that offsets from this great region ex- 
tend even to the Ganges! I am not aware of any facts to 
guide the judgement in the estimation of the age of the trap 

ormation. 

Laterite.—Laterite is met with at the source of the Kistna 
river at 4500 feet above the sea, and its extensive occurrence 
all round the peninsula of India in the narrow tract of land at 
the foot of the Western and Eastern Ghats is well known. 

Nodular Limestone.—Kunkur, or nodular limestone, occurs 
everywhere in Dukhun, indeed all over India. 

Granite.—Although granite does not occur in the four col- 
lectorates of Dukhun, unless in the extreme southern limits of 
Dharwar, it is the chief rock eastward of Nagpoor, and it 
bursts through the surface in so many places in the peninsula 
of India as to have induced Dr. Voysey to express a belief that 
the basis of the whole peninsula is granite; an opinion involving 
the necessary deduction, when the extent of the trap region 
is also considered, that the whole peninsula of India, and the 
island of Ceylon, roughly calculated at 700,000 square miles, 
is of igneous origin. 


4 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 231 


Sedimentary Rocks.—There are not any sedimentary rocks 
in Dukhun, nor am I aware of any south of Broach, excepting 
such as have probably originated in the consolidation of com- 
paratively recent alluvium. 


Climate. 


A detailed account of the atmospheric tides, and meteor- 
ology of Dukhun having been published in the Philosophical 
Transactions, I shall limit myself to a description of such broad 
features as characterize the climate. The Ghats and the 
Desh have distinct features. The tract along the line of the 
former has a lower mean temperature, much more moisture, 
greater prevalence of westerly winds, a more limited range of 
the thermometer; but a greater prevalence of fogs before, 
during, and after the rains, but not in the winter months ; 
and, finally, is characterized by the absence of hot winds. 
The Desh, on the contrary, has the air excessively dry in the 
hot months; a great diurnal and annual range of the ther- 
mometer, a comparatively small fall of rain in the monsoon, 
the frequent occurrence of hot winds, and the rareness of 
fogs. 

iiatometer.—'The mean monthly pressure of the atmosphere 
is greatest in the winter months of December and January ; it 
gradually diminishes until July or August, the most damp 
months, when it is at its minimum; it gradually increases again 
until the cold months. The greatest diurnal oscillation re- 
corded by me in several years’ observations was *1950, or less 
than two-tenths of an inch; the smallest oscillation ‘0150. The 
mean rise of the barometer from sunrise to 9—10 a.m. for three 
years was ‘0445, thermometer + 7°15’. The mean fall from 
9—10 a.m. to 4—5 p.M., for four years, was ‘1066, thermometer 
+ 5°21’; and the mean rise from 4—5 a.m. to 10—11 p.o., for 
one year, is ‘0884, thermometer — 7°°2’. The maximum range 

_ of the barometer at Poona, in the year 1830, at 1823 feet 
above the sea, was only ‘672, or not seven-tenths of an inch. 
The mean height of the barometer for that year was 27°-9254, 
and the mean height in the monsoon was 27°°8447; so that the 
constant moisture of the monsoon only occasioned a mean 
diminution of pressure of ‘0807, or less than one-tenth of an 
inch. At Madras, for twenty-one years, the mean height of 
the barometer was 29°-958! inches ; at Calcutta, the means of 
three years make it 29°764. M. Arago, at Paris, by nine 
years’ observations, reduced to the level of the sea, makes the 

_mean height 29:9546 inches, being almost identical with the 
mean height at Madras. 


232 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, 


Atmospheric tides.—There are four tides of the atmosphere 
in Dukhun, as indicated by the movement of the barometer ; 
two diurnal, and two nocturnal: the diurnal rising tide is from 
4—5 a.m. to 9—10 a.M., and varies from ‘0200 inches to ‘0500 
inches; the falling tide is from 9—10 a.m. to 45 p.m, and 
varies from *1950 inches to ‘0150 inches. The nocturnal 
rising tide is from 4—5 p.m. to 10O—11] P.m., and varies from 
0450 inches to 1140 inches; the nocturnal falling tide is 
from 10—11 p.m. to 4—5 a.o., and is about :0442 inches. This 
order was never deranged or inverted in one single instance 
in many thousand observations. 

Temperature.—The climate of Dukhun is subject to very 
considerable variations of temperature ; more, however, in the 
diurnal than in the monthly or annual ranges; indeed, less so 
in the last particular than in Europe. In 1827, the extreme 
range of the thermometer at Edmonton was 75° Fahrenheit ; 
at Cheltenham, 64°°6. In St. Petersburgh, the thermometer 
has been as low as 35°°7! below zero, and as high as 91°4; 
the range, therefore, 127°:1, At Berne, the annual range has 
been more than 75°. In 1826, I observed a range of 53°4, 
viz., from 93°°9 on the 12th March, to 40°-50 on the 15th 
January at sunrise. In 1827, the maximum range observed by 
me was 48°°8, viz., from 96°°8 on the 28th March, to 48° on 
the 12th December at sunrise. In 1828, the maximum oc- 
curred on the 7th May, being 101°, and the minimum was 56°, 
the range, therefore, 45°; but, for a very short time, the ther- 
mometer rose on the 7th May, between two and three o’clock, 
to 105°; and this was the more remarkable as I was then en- 
camped on the edge of the Ghats at the source of the Beema 
river, at an elevation of 3090 feet above the level of the sea. 
This instance of unusual height of the thermometer, however, 
is not confined to Dukhun, for we learn from M. Arago, that it 
has been higher than 101° Fahrenheit in the shade in Paris. 

Monthly means.—The monthly means do not differ more 
than from 13° to 17° from each other. In 1826, the dif- 
ference between the hottest month (May, 83°:28), and the 
coldest (January, 65°-90), was only 17°38. And in 1829, 
March was the hottest month, and November the coldest, ° 
their difference of means being 15°°66. 

Diurnal range.—The greatest diurnal range in 1826 was 
on the 5th March, being 37°°30, from 50°°5 to 87°8. In 1827, 
it was 39°°5, on the 12th December, from 49°°5 to 89°. In 
1828, it was 34°°8, on the 16th July, from 56° to 90°°8. In 
1829, the maximum diurnal range was 37°°5 in December. 
The minimum diurnal range occurs in the monsoon months of 


3 / 


_ June, July, August, and September ; indeed, occasionally, on 
some days in those months, the mercury does not move at all. 
Mean Temperature.—In 1828, Dr. Walker, at Ahmednug- 
gur, at an elevation of 1900 feet above the sea, made the 
mean temperature 78°; and though I was living in tents, and 
moving about the country, I made it only 77°'93. Of course, 
on higher or lower levels this mean temperature will be di- 
minished or increased. It is necessary, however, to note one 
remarkable fact, namely, that the mean temperature of places 
on the table-land of the continent of India is much higher than 
the calculated mean temperature of the same places agreeably 
to Mayer’s formula. The calculated mean temperature of 
Ahmednuggur is 72°27, observed 78°; of Poona 72°78, ob- 
served 77°°7; of Mhow, in Malwa, 69°86, observed 74°: 
temperature of a spring in the hill fort of Hurreechundurghur 
69°°5, calculated temperature 65°°45. 

The results of several years’ observations indicate that the 
annual mean temperature of 9°:30 a.M., is nearly identical 
with the mean temperature deduced from the maxima and the 
minima. 

With respect to the greatest diurnal, and the greatest 
monthly range of the thermometer, the winter months have 
a range nearly in a quadruple ratio to the monsoon months. 
The latter have mostly the temperature very equable, the 
difference of the monthly means rarely exceeding 3°, and the 
greatest diurnal range in five years only once amounted to 
13°6, The latter end of March, and April, and May are the 
hottest periods of the year, from the position of a nearl 

vertical sun, the intensity of whose influence is but slightly 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 233 


modified by the occasionally cloudy weather: the temperature 
falls in June, and continues nearly stationary until the end of 
September: it then rises in October, but falls at the end of 
the month, until its annual minimum in December or January. 
It is low the early part of March, but rises suddenly after the 
middle of the month, occasioning a difference of 6° or 8° 
| between the means of February and March, which is more 
than double that of other consecutive months in the year. 
The rise in October is also sudden, but does not occasion so 
great a difference of means as between February and March. 
It will thus be remarked that the temperature does not fol- 
low the sun’s declination, owing to the interference of the 
monsoon. 
Moisture.—A remarkable feature in the climate of Dukhun 
is the small quantity of aqueous vapour generally suspended in 
| the air, compared with the proximate climate of Bombay and 
| 


234 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


the coast, or even the hilly tracts of the Ghats. My obser- 
vations were made with Daniell’s hygrometer, and extended 
over several years. There is a gradual increase of moisture in 
a cubic foot of air, from the most dry month, February, until 
June and July. Hence the moisture remains nearly stationary 
until the beginning of October, when it diminishes somewhat 
rapidly and regularly until February. The annual mean dew- 
ing point is greater at 94 A.M. than at sunrise or at 4 P.M., but 
this does not uniformly hold good in each month of the year. 
In 1826, the highest dewing point was at four o’clock on the 
2lst October, being 76°, temperature of the air 84°°5, a 
cubic foot of air holding 9°945 grains of water. The lowest 
dewing point was on the 4th December, at sunrise, being 44°, 
temperature of the air 56°, a cubic foot of air containing 3°673 
grains of aqueous vapour; but the lowest dewing point did 
not indicate the driest state of the atmosphere, as a dewin 
point of 45° in November, with a temperature of 87° at 4P.M., 
gave only 3°587 grains. 

The most moist month was July; the mean weight of water 
in a cubic foot of air was 8°775 grains, and the point of satu- 
ration was only 4°85 from the dewing point. The greatest 
monthly range of the dewing point was, in October, 30°, and 
the smallest range, 7°, was in July and August. The monthly 
range was not coincident with the movements of the barometer 
and thermometer; but there were curious approximations. 
The extreme dewing points differed 32°. The dewing point 
has been as high as 76°, temperature of the air 79°, a cubic 
foot of air containing 10°049 grains of aqueous vapour; but 
this is a rare occurrence. An instance occurred of the dewing 
point being obtained at 3° below the point of the congelation 
of water, the temperature of the air being 62°, and a cubic foot 
of air holding 27146 grains of water. There is also an instance 
of a dewing point, in February, 1828, being 61° below the 
temperature of the air, viz., from 90° to 29°, but I never after- 
wards succeeded in determining anything like so great: a 
depression. 

In January, 1827, there was a range of the dewing point of 
38°, and the extreme range of the year was 47°, viz., from 29°, 
temperature 62°, in January, to 76°, temperature 79°, in June. 
In 1829, the mean dewing point for the monsoon was 69°'62, 
temperature 75°'83 ; the cubic foot of air containing 8°191 grains 
of water. In 1830, the observations are only complete for 
9-10 a.m.; the mean dewing point was 61°°9, temperature 
78°°4, and a cubic foot of air contained 6°351 grains of water ; 
the extreme range of the hygrometer was 47°, the lowest 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 235 


dewing point 31°, temperature 50°, in December. It might 
be supposed that the hottest months in the year, March, 
April, and May, would also be the driest; but such is not the 
fact. The powerful action of the sun on the ocean, in the 
middle of March, raises a large quantity of aqueous vapour, 
which continues to increase in the ratio of the sun’s progress 
north: the westerly winds waft this vapour into Dukhun; 
much of it is arrested by the Ghats and hilly tracts eastward 
of these mountains ; accounting for the sensible moistness of 
the air, the frequent night fogs, and deposition ‘of dew in this 
line, in the end of March, and in all April and May. The 
supply of moisture diminishes in proportion to the distance 
eastward from.the sea, to the limits of the Coromandel coast 
monsoon. We in consequence find the Ghats, Poona, Ahmed- 
nuggur, and the Bala Ghat, all with very different dewing 
points in the hot months. 

The hygrometric state of the air in Bombay and Dukhun is 
remarkably contrasted: in fact, there is more aqueous vapour 
suspended in the air in Bombay in the hot months, than there 
is at Poona at any time during the monsoon. In April and 
May, 1826, in Bombay, the monthly mean dewing points were 
respectively 72°84 and 75°°59, temperature 83°°48 and 84°52, 


_ a cubic foot of air holding 8°988 grains, and 9°748 grains of 


water suspended; whilst July, the most rainy month during 


the monsoon, at Poona, had only a mean of 8°775 grains of 


water suspended. In 1827, the means of ten days’ observations 
in Bombay, in April, gave 10'243 grains of aqueous vapour in 
a cubic foot of air; and the greatest mean quantity at Poona 
was in June, and it amounted only to 8931 grains. In 1828, 
in the month of March, the following were the dewing points 
in consecutive days, travelling from Bombay to Poona; Bom- 
bay, 10th March, 4 p.m., 11:205 grains of water in a cubic 


_ foot of air; at Poona, at the same hour, on the 14th March, 


2273 grains. At Bombay, on the 10th, at sunrise, and at 94 
A.M, the dewing points were respectively 72° and 71°, tem- 
perature 75° and 81°°5, a cubic foot of air containing 8°873 
grains at the former hour, and 8°487 grains at the latter hour. 
The following morning at Kundallah, on the top of the Ghats, 
1744: feet above the sea, at the same hours, the dewing points 
were 36° and 40°, temperature 72° and 78°, equivalent only to 
2690 grains, and 3:004 grains of water in a cubic foot of air. 
In the afternoon of the same day, at Karleh, 2015 feet above 
the sea, seven miles east of Kundallah, a cubic foot of air held 
2954 grains, and on the 12th, at 4 p.m., 2°611 grains of 
aqueous vapour. On the summit of the hill fort of Loghur, 


236 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


338i feet above the sea, and 1366 above Karleh, the dewing 
point at sunrise on the 13th, was 5° Fahr. below the freezing 
point, temperature of the air 67°, and a cubic foot of air held 
only 1-995 grains of water ina state of vapour. These facts 
fully establish the remarkable discrepancies between the hy- 
grometric state of the air in Bombay and Dukhun, and that 
too within a difference of a few miles of latitude and longitude. 
A comparison of the absolute falls of rain in Bombay and in 
Poona, for the years 1826-7-8, shows an agreement (to a 
certain extent) in their ratio to the hygrometric state of the 
air at Poona and Bombay, above noticed. The mean fall of 
rain at Bombay in those years was 93°62 inches, and at Poona 
26'926 inches, or 283 per cent. only of the fallin Bombay. 
Rain.—In Dukhun the rains are light, uncertain, and, in all 
years, barely sufficient for the wants of the husbandman, and 
a slight failure occasions much distress. ‘They usually com- 
mence at the end of May, with some heavy thunder showers 
from E. to S.E., the lightning being terrific and frequently 
fatal, and the wind furious; but they do not set in regu- 
larly until the first ten days in June, and continue until the 
end of September from the W. to the S.W., and break up 
with thunder-storms from the E. to the S.E. before the 
middle of October. During the remaining months of the 
year an accidental shower or two may fall from the Coro- 
mandel monsoon; and the further the distance eastward from 
Poona, the greater the chance of showers in the cold months, 
The monsoon temperature is equable and agreeable, and the 
rain occurs almost always in showers, rarely continuing un- 
interruptedly for a day or more, as is common on the coast 
and in the Konkun. ‘The greatest quantity of rain falls in the 
months of June and July. The greatest fall of rain in any 
one day was 2°58 inches, on the 6th July, 1826; at Bombay, 
on the 24th June, 1828, there fell 8°67 inches ; and at Hurnee, 
on the 15th June, 1829, there fell 8-133 inches in 24 hours. 
The mean annual fall of rain for all England, from many 
years’ observations, appears to be 32:2 inches, but the means 
of different counties vary from 67 inches in Cumberland to 
19 inches in Essex. yf: 
The clouds supplying the monsoon rains in Dukhun would 
appear to have a low elevation, as I have frequently seen 
through breaks as they were passing swiftly from west to east, 
a superior stratum, apparently stationary, or moving slowly in 
a contrary direction, and gilded by the sun’s rays. 
Winds.—The great features in the observations respecting 
the winds, are the prevalence of winds from the west and westerly 


g 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 237 


quarters, east and easterly quarters, and the extreme rareness 
of winds from the north and south, and the points approxi- 
mating to them; and these features appear to be constant in 
successive years. In 5229 observations the wind blew from 
the west, or points adjoining, 2409 times; and in this number 
the S.W. (305), and N.W. (122), amount only to 427. From 
easterly points 949 times, including 246 from the N.E. and 
S.E., thus leaving 703 from the east. From the north 115 
times, and from the south 36 times only. Another feature is 
the frequent absence of wind, particularly at sunrise, and 
more so in the months of January, February, March, October, 
and November than in other months of the year. ‘The cessa- 
tion of wind from May to September inclusive is comparatively 
rare;,and, generally, throughout the year the absence of wind 
at 4:p.M., may be looked upon as unusual. In my records 
there are 1720 observations of ‘‘ No wind,” and 847 of these 
belong to sunrise, 452 to J—10 4.m., and 304 only to 4 p.m. 
The observations were continued through five years, three 
times daily ; sunrise, 9—10 a.m., and 4. p.m. There is consi- 
derable uniformity in the direction of the wind in the same 
months in consecutive years. The westerly winds begin to pre- 
vail in March, alternating with easterly winds, which blow the 
latter part of the night; but the easterly winds disappear as the 
monsoon approaches, and do not re-appear again till October. 
In October the winds are variable, and the records of ‘* No 
wind,” increase suddenly and rapidly. A few easterly winds, 
however, about the end of the month, indicate the change which 
is to take place; they gradually increase, and with those from 
the N.E. and S.E., almost entirely supersede the winds from 
the westerly points during the cold months. 
_ In March, from the sun’s approach, the interior land during 
the day gets heated ; an influx of air from the sea coast com- 


_ mences daily after 10 a.m.; but as the earth, at this period, 


| 


cools more rapidly than the sea at night, the interior is cooler 
than the coasts, and there is a reflux of air towards the 


ocean; the easterly and westerly winds thus alternate day and 


night. This alternation, however, diminishes in the ratio of 
the sun’s increasing power; and when the earth gets so 
thoroughly heated that it cannot reduce its temperature by 
radiation below that of the sea, the consequence is the preva- 
‘lence of winds from the westerly points to the almost entire 
exclusion of those from easterly points. In June the westerly 
winds set in regularly. There are occasional instances of the 
wind blowing with much steady violence from the west for 


238 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, 


many hours in the hot months with a sunny sky, In the early 
part of March some unaccountably cold winds, affecting vege- 
tation even, have been known to blow. 

Hot Winds.—The well-known hot winds of tropical conti- 
nents do not prevail near the Ghats; but the same wind, which 
is pleasant in their neighbourhood, may become a hot wind as it 
travels to Ahmednuggur and Arungabad. The east wind is 
characterized by its extreme dryness, and it is dangerous 
to sleep exposed to it. 

Whirlwinds.—Those curious whirlwinds noticed by travellers 
in Africa, and which in the deserts are dangerous, are of com- 
mon occurrence in Dukhun in the hot months. A score or more 
columns of dust, in the form of a speaking trumpet or water- 
spout, may be seen rapidly coursing over the treeless plains, 
marking a vortex of heated air. They are sufficiently powerful 
to unroof a thatched house, strike tents, and whisk away all 
light matters. 

Hail Stones.—Hail stones of considerable magnitude some- 
times fall in the thunder-storms of the hot months. 

Dews.—Dews appear plentifully after the monsoon, and 
during the nights of the cold months; but their frequent local 
occurrence has often excited surprise. 

Fogs.—¥Fogs are of so rare occurrence in the Desh, or 
country eastward of the Ghats, that I have only nineteen 
records of them during five years. Along the Ghats they 
are much more common; and during April and May, for 
three or four nights in the week, fogs drift rapidly to the 
eastward from the Konkun, or low country at the foot of the 
Ghats. On some nights no drift takes place, and the fog 
remains resting on the Konkun; and, seen from the crest of 
the Ghats at sunrise, has the appearance of a sea of milk. 
As the sun rises the fog creeps up the chasms of the Ghats, 
and finally disappears by 10 a.m. 

Salubrity of the Climate.-—With respect to the salubrity of 
the open parts of the country, it will only be necessary to state 
that, in my little camp, consisting of more than a hundred souls 
(natives), I had not a single death of an adult during six years; 
nor a case of illness (excepting one) that I did not cure without 
regular medical aid. Dr. Walker, long civil surgeon in the 
city of Ahmednuggur, found the casualties in 1828 in that city 
(exclusive of losses from spasmodic cholera) to be only 1°82 
per cent., or 1 in 55°1 persons; and, including cholera, 2°48 
per cent., or 1 in 402 persons. Dr. Lawrence, in charge of a 
regiment of natives 1000 strong, lost only 0°85 parts of an 


4 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 239 


integer per cent, per annum, or about five men in 600 during 
the years the regiment was in Dukhun. 
Parts of Khandesh have not credit for the same salubrity. 


Botany. 


Under this head I shall confine myself to a simple enume- 
ration of the agricultural and garden products, and wild fruits. 
To enter into the botany of Dukhun generally would be 
misplaced in this digest. And first with regard to cultivated 
native fruits; they are forty-five in number, viz. 

Cultivated Fruits.—Amba, Mangifera indica*; Oombur. 
Fieus glomerata; Phunnus, Artocarpus integrifolia®; Cheents, 
Tamarindus indica®; Ambarra, Spondias Mangifera*; Hur- 
parewree, Cicca disticha; Ramphul, Annona reticulata®; See- 
taphul, Annona squamosa; Raeebor, Zizyphus jujuba; Jam- 
blee, Calyptranthes caryophyllifolia; Awlee, Phyllanthus 
emblica ; Bail, Aigle Marmelost; Wowulee, Mimusops elengi; 
_ Narlee, Cocos nucifera®; Jamb, Eugenia Jambos*; Mohha, 
Bassia latifolia ; Toot, Morus alba‘; Shatoot, Morus indicak ; 
Choonchoo, Morus 1; Kurumbul, Averrhoa Carambola®; 
Kuweet, Feronia elephantum™; Bhokur, Cordia latifolia ; 
Anjeer, Ficus Carica®; Daleemb, Punica granatum, (two 
kinds)P; Weer, Citrus limon4; Chukotur, Citrus decumanus* ; 
Maloong, Citrus medica’; Nareeng, Citrus aurantiumt, of these 
there are several kinds; Ambut neemboo, Citrus acida"; 
Sakur neemboo, Citrus limon var.*; Peroo, Psidium Pyri- 
Jerum’; Peroo tambra, Red Guava; Kajoo, Anacardium 
occidentale” ; Gondnea, Cordia myxa ; Tarh, Borassus flabel- 
liformis; Phopy, Pupeea Carica; Badam, Terminalia ca- 
_ tappa; Sooparee, Areca faufel*; Kujoor, Phoenix dactili- 


| fera; Kel or Kail, Musa paradisiaca®, there are several 


species or varieties. Sonkel, Musa sapientum; Draxhs, Vitis 
_ Finifera**, 'There are seven species of grapes in Dukhun, the 
_ Mahratta names of which are Kalee, or black; Ahbee, or 
watery; Phukree, or Muscadina; Saheebee, Bedana, or seed- 
less’; Sooltanee ; and Suckree, or sugary. Khurbooz, Cucumis 
_ Melo® ; Phoot, Cucumis momordica ; and Kulungrah, Cucur- 


* Mango. » Jack fruit. ° Tamarind. 4 Hog-plum. 


© Sweet-sop. f Bengal quince. ® Cocoa nut. h Rose apple. 
+ White mulberry. k Red mulberry, 1 Small mulberry. 
~™ Country gooseberry. * Wood apple. ° The garden fig. 
P Pomegranate. 4 Lemon. » Shaddock. * Citron. 
-! Orange. " Lime. * Sweet lime. y Guava. 
% Cashew nut. *@ Betel nut. bb Date. ce Plantain. 


dd Grapes, ee Musk melon. 


240 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


bita Citrullus*. ‘There are several species or varieties of the 
melons. 

Wild Fruits.—The wild fruits are twenty-two in number, 
viz. Beebah, Semicarpus anaeardium™; Cher, Chirongia sa- 
pida; Ratambee, Garcinia ¢; Torun, Zizyphus albens ; 
Kurwund, Carissa Carandas and diffusa, both of them excel- 
lent fruits ; Seendee, Phenix Sylvestris, or Elate Sylvestris4 ; 
Jungle Jaeephul, Myristica dactyloides®; Peempree, Ficus 
comosa; Rahbor, Ziz2 syphus Xylopyrus ; Bunkeil; Musa tro- 
glodytar um‘, two varieties; Gooloom, Loranthus bicolor ; 
Lotowl, a genus and species not determined; Ambgoolee, 
Eleagnus , a very nice fruit, tasting like a gree heery, 
Ulloo, Vanqueria spinosa ; Temboornee, “Gardenia, 
Thurtee, Capparis erythrocarpus; Neptee, Capparis aphylla:; 
Wagatee, Capparis Zeylanica; Makur Neembonee, Citrus 
§; Wuhr, Ficus Indica; Loheer, Ficus Fos: 
noble tree, 80 to 100 feet high 

The above comprise the wild fruits of Dukhun; many of 
them are not only passable, but very palatable, particularly 
the Ambgoolee, the Kurwund, and the Char. The Ratambee, 
or wild mangostein, is in extensive use as an acid seasoner, 
and is met with for sale in most markets in a dried state. The 
wild nutmeg is frequently imposed upon the ignorant for the 
real nutmeg. The oil of the Beebah is used for marking 
linen, like indelible ink ; but the kernel roasted is agreeable. 
The wild lime (Citrus) is only met with in the Ghats; it forms a 
handsome dense tree, but the cultivated fruit is so abundant that 
the wild is not made any use of. Many of the above fruit 
trees produce good timber. With respect to the mango, 
which is met with both cultivated and wild, it is considered by 
the people less as a luxury, than as an auxiliary to the neces- 
saries of life, or as a substitute for them in seasons of scarcity; 
for the mango is in fruit, and seldom fails an abundant crop, 
at a time when the earth is parched up by the heats of May 
and beginning of June. 

Agricultural Products.—A brief notice only of the agricul- 
tural products can be given. The harvests are of two distinct 
kinds: one is the Khurreef, or rainy season harvest; the other 
is the Rubee, or dry, or cold, or spring season, harvest. 

Wet Season Harvest.—This harvest produces twenty- 
two kinds of grain and pulse; but the products of the Desh, © 


* Water melon. b The marking nut. ¢ The wild mangostein. 
4 Wild date. e Wild nutmeg. f Wild plantain. 
8 The original apparently of some of the species of Citrus in Dukhun, 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 241 


or open country, are different from those of the Mawuls, 
or hilly tracts along the Ghats. The following are the pro- 
ducts of the monsoon crop in the Desh: Jondla, Andropogon 
Sorghum, and of these there are many varieties ; Sujgoora, 
Panicum spicatum; Rahleh, Panicum Italicum; Bhadlee, 
Paspalum pilosum ; Kodroo, Paspalum frumentaceum; Mukka, 
Zea Mays*; Moog, Phaseolus Mungo; Ooreed, Phaseolus 
radiatus; Tooree, Cytisus cajan; Muht, Phaseolus aconiti- 
folius ; Teel, Sesamum orientale, two kinds; Ambaree, Hi- 
biseus Cannabinus ; Oolgeea, Dolichos bifloris ; Waal, Doli- 
chos spicatus ; Rajgeerah, Amaranthus oleraceus candidus ; 
Chuwluya, Dolichos catiang ; and Gowarya, Dolichos fabe- 
Jormis: there are thus seventeen products of the monsoon 
harvest of the Desh. The first six are bread grains, and are 
reduced to flour; Teel and Rajgeerah are eaten unground; 
Ambaree is a cordage plant, the rest are pulse, and are cooked 
in a variety of ways. Tooree is the universal substitute for 
the split pea of Europe; it is much more agreeable than the 
pea, and is more commonly used. 

The produce of the rainy season harvest in the hilly tracts 
is Dhan, Oryza sativa», seventeen or eighteen kinds; Natch- 
nee, Eleusine coracana, or Cynosurus coracanus ; Sawa, Pa- 
nicum miliaceum; Wuree, Panicum miliare; and, finally, 
Karleh, Verbesina sativa. All these require a superabun- 
dance of water. The rice, which is the chief support of the 
people of the hilly tracts, is sown in the valleys, because it can 

_ be constantly flooded. Karleh is an oil plant only ; the others 
are sown on the sides of the mountains, in places inaccessible 
_ tothe plough. They are either used whole, or are reduced to 
_ flour for bread. Rice is never reduced to flour. 
_ It is not to be understood, that the above products, as 
_ separated into those of the hilly tracts and Desh, are rigidly 
_ confined to those tracts; where the physical circumstances 
permit of it, they are indiscriminately cultivated in both tracts. 
__ Phe returns of some of the above plants are prodigiously great. 
I have seen a plant of Paspalum frumentaceum with twenty 
peeks radiating from a common root, and with thirty-three 
_ Spikes of grain, giving the astonishing return of 61,380 for 1; 
_ asingle head of Andropogon Sorghum gave 2895 for 1; eight 
stalks of Panicum spicatum from a single root 16,960 for |; 
and a single head of-Panicum Italicum produced 1850 for 1!! 
_ Dry or Spring Season Harvest.—The next harvest is that 
eof the Rubee, or dry or spring season of the Desh. In this 


1 ay eh 


| ‘ 2 Indian corn. » Rice. 
VOL. vi. 1837. R 
| 
| 
| 


242 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


harvest, of twenty-three products, there are four species of fine 
wheat, viz. Guhoo Bukshee, Triticum spelta ; Kupleh Guhoo, 
Triticum ; Kateh Guhoo, Triticum - -; and Poh- 
teeyai, Triticum , called bellied wheat, from the seed 
being very much swelled out in the middle. Urburee, 
Cicer Arietinum; Shaloo, Andropogon saccharatum; Juw, 
Hordeum hexastichon® ; Watanah, Pisum sativum”; Kurdee, 
Carthamus Persicus ; Juwus, Linum usitatissimum; Mohuree, 
Sinapis racemosa, and two other kinds; Taag, Crotolarea 
juncea; Yerund Tambra, Ricinus communis* ; Yerund Eerwa, 
Ricinus viridis; Oos Tambra, Saccharum officinarum® ; 
Oos Poonda, Saccharum €; Oos Pandra, Saccharum 

f; Oos Bét, Saccharum, &; Shet Wallook, 
Cucumis ————, the literal meaning is field cucumber ; Paw- 
teh, Dolichos —,; Tumbakoo, Nicotiana tabacum; Shet 
Kapoos, Gossypium herbaceum®; Bhoeemoong, Arachis hy- 
pogew. 

The above are chiefly produced in the Desh, in the dry 
season. Urburee, Cicer arietinum, is the universal substitute 
for oats for horses; and, excepting in the rains when green 
grass is obtainable, the juicy, sweet, and nutritious stalks of 
the Shaloo, Andropogon sorghum, and varieties, is their 
only forage. Oil is expressed from the seeds of Kurdee, 
Juwus, Mohuree, and Yerand. Juwus is not used for its 
flax. Although there are four kinds of sugar-cane, and much 
raw sugar is produced, the processes of refining are not 
carried on. ‘The bark of Taag is used for ropes and coarse 
canvas. The returns from the wheat are very considerable ; 
I have a specimen of Kupleh Guhoo, with twenty-five stalks 
from one root, giving a return of 1450 for 1; ten stalks are 
very common; a specimen of the Kateh Guhoo, also in my 
possession, with fifteen stalks from a single root, giving a 
return of 480 for 1. The average on tolerable land is eight 
stalks or ears to a plant. The tobacco from some parts of 
the country is reckoned very fine. 

The dry season harvest of the hilly tracts is almost entirely 
confined to Mussoor, Ervum hirsutum; and Pawta, a variety 
of Dolichos Lablab. 

Garden produce.—The produce of the gardens is of great 
importance to the natives of India, from their poverty limiting 
them very much to a vegetable diet, corrected by aromatic 
seeds and condiments. Most of the plants cultivated in the 


* Barley. » Peas, ¢ Castor oil. 4 Red sugar cane. 
© Variegated sugar cane. f White sugar cane. & Reed-like sugar cane, 
Field cotton. i The earth nut. 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 243 


gardens of the Desh are also produced in the gardens, where 
they exist, (which is rarely) of the hilly tracts. ‘The products 
are forty-six in number, viz., Dhunya, Coriandrum sativum? ; 
Mehtee, Trigonella fanugrecum; Shepoo, Anethum sowa ; 
Bureeshep, Anethum feeniculum’; Wowa, Ligusticum agi- 
vaen; Hulwee, Lepidum sativum; Meerchya, Capsicum an- 
nuum®; of this there are many species. Patee, Allium cepa, 
red, white, and yellow; some of which are so mild as to be 
used as vegetables. Chakweet, Chenopodium album ; Chooka, 
Rumex Vesicarius®; Wahlea, Basella rubra and alba; Aaloo, 
Arum campanulatum; Tandoolja, Amaranthus polygamus ; 
Maat Tambree, Amaranthus oleraceus, Var.; Paluk, Beta 
Bengalensis ; Mohtee gohl, Oxalis monadelphus ; Gohl, Por- 
tulaca oleracea ; Pokulla, Amaranthus, ; Poodna, Mentha 
viridis ; Chundun Butwa, Chenopodium, —— ; Bhang, Can- 
nabis sativa’; and Nagwail, Piper Betel. The most valuable 
of the above plants produce aromatic or pungent seeds; most 
of the rest are pot-herbs held in considerable estimation. 

Edible roots.—The next division of garden produce is de- 

nominated Mool Bojee, which literally means ‘ root-greens,” 
properly edible roots. Mooleh, Raphanus sativus® ; Rutalee, 
Convolvulus batatas®; Kohn, Dioscorea purpurea or alata’; 
Gajur, Daucus carotai ; Lussoon, Allium sativum*; Soorun, 
Arum, ; Rungeh, Dioscorea fasciculata; Alluh, Amo- 
mum Zingiber', 

Fruit vegetables.—A further division is made of Phul bajee 
_or fruit greens, which means fruits eaten as vegetables, viz., 
Bhendee, Hibiscus esculentus ; Wangee, Solanum melongena™, 
several species or varieties; Gewree, Dolichos, ; the seeds 


_ are eaten as pulse, and there are several varieties; Dorkee, 
Cucumis acutangulus ; Gosaled, Luffa pentandria ; Karlee, 
_ Momordica Charantia ; Tondlee, Momordica monadelphia ; 
| 


Q Purwal, Trichosanthes anguina ; Purwar, Trichosanthes cucu- 
merina; 'Turkakree, Cucumis usitatissimus ;" Kateh Wallook, 
Cucumis sativus, warty, prickly cucumber; Doodh Boplah, 
Cucurbita longa ; Boplah-tambra, Cucurbita Pepo, red pump- 
kin } Specimens of this fruit are sometimes more than eighteen 
inches in diameter; Kohwall, Cucurbita alba; Dhendsee, 
Cucurbita, ; Kasee Boplah, Cucurbita lagenaria. 

_ Such are the cultivated garden products of the natives: it 
will be seen that they are rich in the cucurbitaceous family, 


_ * Coriander. » Sweet fennel. © Chilly. 4 Onions. 
© Blister sorrel. f Hemp. & Radishes. h Sweet potatoe. 
i Yam. i Carrots. k Garlic. 1 Ginger. m Ege plant, 


® Common cucumber. 


R2 


244 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


and not less so in the aromatic and pungent plants; and the 
edible roots are various. Edible leaves, used as greens, are 
very numerous, particularly those produced spontaneously. 
My limits do not permit me to give even the names of wild 
plants producing greens, fruits used as vegetables, or edible 
roots; the flowers of some plants are used as greens; such as 
the Angustee, Auschynomene grandiflora; the Shewga, Hy- 
peranthera morunga, or horse-radish tree; and those of the 
Kanchun, Bauhinia purpurea; the foot-stalks of the flowers 
of the splendid Convolvulus candicans are used in a similar 
way. ‘The tender twigs of the common bamboo are good as 
greens, and they are also made into a pickle. The flower, 
stalks, and roots of the Lotus (Nympha esculenta) are reck- 
oned fine ; but I must stop. 

Grasses.—The grasses are innumerable, and are not less 
distinguished for their beauty than their variety. One of the 
most common is that highly nourishing grass the Agrostis 
linearis, which, it appears, is a native of Cornwall, under the 
name of Panicon dactylon. In biting the knots or joints of 
the Ghateea (Andropogon Martini?) there is a strong, pungent, 
aromatic, and oleaginous exudation. The well-known aromatic 
Khus Khus (Andropogon muricatus) is abundant in Dukhun, 
as well as the sacred grass Durb, Poa cynosuroides. In 
speaking of the grasses it may be as well to say that it is not 
the practice of the natives to make hay from meadows; they 


allow the grass on waste lands to become perfectly dry, and — 


then cut it down with the sickle, as a substitute for hay. 

Wild cordage plants.—The spontaneous cordage plants are 
the Gayal, Agave vivipara; the Kaswuree, Sida patens ; and 
some others. 

Wild oil plants.—The wild oil plants are the Kurunj, Gale- 
dupa arborea; and the Kurd Kangonee, a small tree of the 
class and order Pentandria monogynia. 

Wild tanning plants.—The plants used in preparing leather 
are the Chambar Heerda, Terminalia Chebula; Rahn 'Turwur, 


Cassia auriculata; the Sadrah or Aaeen, Terminalia alata 
glabra; and the Baubul, Mimosa arabica, the bark of which 5 


is in great repute. 


Medicinal plants—The medicinal plants are numerous. — 
Amongst the most useful are the Khyr, Mimosa catechu ; the — 


Seegeekaee, Mimosa abstergens ; many species of Datura; 
Kuntuh Kareeka, Solanum jacquini ; Sagurgotta, Cesalpinia 
bonduccella; Korpur, Aloe succotrina; Dadmaree, Euphorbia 
tiruculli; Gooleea Eendrawun, Cucumis colocynthis; Reeta, 
Sapindus detergens; Sahl Phul, Boswellia thurifera; Baw- 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 245 


cheea, Psoralea corylifolia ; some of the Ocimums, and many 
of the Asclepias family. Of the powerfully scented plants, 

the Michelia Champaca, (Champa), Pandanus odoratissimus, 
_ several species of Jasmine, Polyanthus, Rose, &c., abound. 

European fruits.—Very few of the European fruits are cul- 
tivated in Dukhun; indeed, those produced are almost con- 
fined to peaches and strawberries, both of which are as fine 
as in Europe. All the European vegetables thrive, such as 
cauliflowers, cabbages, asparagus, spinach, and_ broccoli. 
Potatoes, when properly attended to, are also good. Carrots, 
turnips, and radishes are indigenous. 

Flowering plants.—It is not within my present view to attempt 
an enumeration of the wild flowering plants of Dukhun, many 
of which are splendid and curious. Nothing can exceed the 
magnificence and beauty of the vegetation in the Ghats 
during the monsoon. The brilliancy of the Erythrine, the 
Cassie (particularly the Cassia fistularia,), the lofty Bombaz, 
the varieties of the Liliaceae, Canne, Convolvulacee, and Mal- 
vacee, would surprise and delight a European florist. 

In the Desh, the dwarf Cassia auriculata, with its numerous 
yellow flowers, enlivens the whole country ; and the numerous 
species of Mimosa (particularly the Mimosa odoratissima), 
perfume the air. 

The Dukhun produces few ferns and no heaths, and none 
of the coniferous family, excepting Cupressus; the Musci 
_ (true mosses) are rare; there are many of the Euphorbiacee ; 
no oaks, elms, or hazels, or indeed any of the Amentacee, ex- 
 cepting Salix tetrasperma ; multiplied genera and species of 
_ the Jasminee, Labiate, Composite, Umbellifere, Legumi- 
_ nose, and Cucurbitacee ; the Crucifere are not abundant ; 
_ but the Capparides are very much so. The rosaceous plants 
are rare; but the Solanacee (Luride) are very abundant ; 
_ although the potatoe is not indigenous. 

Such is the meagre sketch of the botany of Dukhun; for 
the elaboration of which there are abundant materials at the 
India House, in a Hortus Siccus collected by myself. 
I must not omit to notice that the Sandal-wood tree, San- 
_ talum album, is met with, both in the cultivated and wild state. 
__ Timber itrees.—The Warsa, Bignonia quadrilocularis ; the 
Tamarind, Tamarindus Indica; the Jack, Artocarpus integri- 
_folia; and the Bauhinee, produce excellent wood for fur- 
-niture; and all the species of Mimosa furnish hard durable 
wood for tools and machinery. 
Fh 
Wi, Zoology. 
_~ Like the account of the botany, the zoology must be con- 


246 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


fined to little more than a mere catalogue of the beasts and 
birds of the country. 

The inhabitants of Dukhun have the Georgian form of 
skull: their stature is low, but not very slender; the colour 
of the skin is brown, with shades running into yellow and 
white in the higher classes, and black in the lower; the females 
are not distinguished for beauty or fertility, the average number 
of births to a marriage being less than in Europe ; more males 
are born than females, and, unlike Europe, they preponderate 
through all periods of life. 

Quadrumana.—Of the monkey tribe I met with only two 
kinds, Semnopithecus Entellus and Macacus radiatus. A 
new species described by me, Cercopithecus albogularis, was 
not from Dukhun. 

Cheiroptera.—Three species of bats, Wurbagool, Pteropus 
medius ; Nyctinomus plicatus ; and Rhinolphus Dukhunensis. 

Plantigrada.—Chuchoondur, Sorex Indicus, or musk-rat ; 
Aswail, Ursus labiatus, or labiated bear; Juhl Manjur, Lutra 
Nair, otter. 

Digitigrada.— Of these animals, the first is the Kolsun or wild 
dog, Canis Dukhunensis, which was first described and brought 
to Europe by myself; Landguh, Canis pallipes, wolf, a new 
species ; Kholah, Canis aureus, jackal; Kokree, Canis Kokree, 
a new species of fox; of the Viveride, the Juwadee Manjur, 
Viverra Indica or civet cat of Dukhun; Moongus, Herpestes 
griseus, Mungoose ; Ood, Paradoxurus Typus. The Hyena, 
Turrus of the Mahrattas, Hyena vulgaris, is common in Duk- 
hun, and is capable of domestication like a dog. The Felinide 
are numerous, not only in individuals, but in species, excepting 
the lion, which is not met with. Puttite Wagh, Felis tigris, 
royal tiger; Cheeta, Felis leopardus or genuine leopard, is 


rare ; but the Beebeea Wagh, or panther, Felis Panther, is 
most abundant. Cheeta, Felis jubata, or hunting leopard, ~ 


is common. Mota Rahn Manjur, Felis chaus; Lhan Rahn 
Manjur, Felis torquatus, or lesser wild cat; the preceding 
being considered the larger wild cat. The species of the 
genus Felis here terminate. Of the rat family there is the 


Ghoos, Mus giganteus, or Bandikoot rat; Chooa, Mus de- 2 


cumanus, or Norway rat; Mus musculus, the mouse; and a 


very pretty field mouse of a bright chestnut colour, which is a_ ; 


new Mus oleraceus, also a second new mouse, Mus platythrix. 
Of the squirrel family there are only two species ; the first, a 
splendid animal as large as the Sczwrus maximus, of a chest- 
nut colour, with a whitish tail; I have called it Sctwrus Elphin- 
stonit, the Mahratta name is Shekroo: the other species 
is the Khurree, or Sciurus palmarum. The porcupine, Sayal, 


a 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 247 


is a new species, which I have called Hystrix leucurus. The 
hare, Sussuh, which abounds in Dukhun, is the Lepus nigri- 
collis of F. Cuvier. That very curious animal, the Pangolin, 
Manis crassicaudata, is common ; the Mahrattas call it Kuwlee 
Manjur, or tiled cat, the scales being imbricated as tiles on 
the roof of a house. The Dookur, or wild hog, Sus 
scrofa, abounds: every village also has a number of tame 
hogs, which are the public scavengers, but all property in 
them is abjured by the inhabitants. The Dukhun is cele- 
brated for a breed of fine horses with a dash of the Arabian 
blood in them: the pony also is bred to a great extent to 
carry baggage. The Ass, Gudha, Equus asinus, is not much 
larger than a good-sized Newfoundland dog; it is not met 
with in the wild state. 

Ruminantia.—The Dromedary, Oont, Camelus dromeda- 
rius, is rarely bred in Dukhun, but is in general use; the two- 
humped camel is unknown. Of the other Ruminants, the first 
is a beautiful little creature called Peesoreh, Moschus memina; 
the next is the Sambur, Cervus equinus, of the size of a small 
cow; the third is the Baikur, Cervus muntjak: allthe above are 
inhabitants of dense woods. Of the antelopes there are four 
species; Bahmunee Hurn, Antilope cervicapra; Kalesepee, 
or black tail, a new species, Antilope Bennetti; Antilope 
quadricornis; and finally, the Rooee, Antilope picta, or 
Nylgau: the two former are only found on the open plains; 
the two latter prefer the woods, but are sometimes seen on 
the plains. Goats, Bukree, Capra hircus, abound; and 
_ sheep are so extensively bred in Dukhun, that flocks of many 

thousands are constantly met with grazing on the uncultivated 
lands; the wool is coarse and crisp; the price of a sheep is 
from two to four shillings; they afford excellent, although 
‘small mutton. The Pohl is the Brahmany bull, with its re- 


_ markable hump, Bos taurus var. Indicus, and is a noble 


_ animal; when put into the yoke, or when employed in car- 
rying loads, he is called Byhl, and he loses his hump and his 
fine appearance. The cow does not yield much milk. Cattle 

_ are extensively bred, as it is chiefly by their means the transit 
of merchandize is effected. The female buffalo, Muhees, 
Bos bubalus, is highly valued for the quantity of milk she 
gives. The male, called Tondgah, is used in the hilly tracts 
in ploughing the muddy fields for rice. The above is the 
‘catalogue of the Mammalia of Dukhun, and a few comments 
will suffice respecting it. The musk-rat is a pest, from its in- 
fecting with its nauseous odour everything with which it 
‘comes into contact, even a bottle of wine, although corked. 
The bear is harmless. The wild-dog hunts in troops in the 


248 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


woods, and runs down the fleetest of the ruminants. The 
wolves sometimes attack women and children, but never men. 
The jackals are in large troops, and do much damage in the 
vineyards. The fox is mostly solitary or in pairs. The 
moongus is useful in destroying snakes. ‘The hyzna is 
cowardly, entirely nocturnal in his movements, and never at- 
tacks live animals. The royal tiger and the leopard are for- 
midable to man and beast; but the people consider themselves 
safe against the attacks of the panther and smaller cats, when 
armed with a good stout stick. The Mus giganteus under- 


mines buildings. Of the rest of the wild animals it is not 


necessary to say more, than that they, like those just enu- 
merated, are most of them objects of the chase with the 
Mahrattas, who are capital horsemen, and many of them 
keen sportsmen. 

Birds.—The birds are very numerous; many of them not 
less useful to man, than agreeable from their plumage. Song- 
birds are, however, rare. My catalogue contains #32 species 
of the several orders, families, and genera. : 

Raptores.—There are 13 genera of the first order Rap- 
tores,—Vultur Indicus, Vultur Ponticerianus, Vultur Benga- 
lensis, Neophron Percnopterus, Haliaétus Ponticerianus, Cir- 
caétus brachydactylus, Aquila chrysaéta, Aquila bifasciata, 
Hematornus Bacha, Accipiter Dukhunensis, Accipiter Dus- 
sumieri, Astur Hyder, Falco Tinnunculus, Falco Chicquera, 
Circus pallidus, Cireus variegatus, Milvus Govinda, Otus 
Bengalensis, Strix Javanica, Strix Indranee, Ketupa Les- 
chenaulti, and Noctua Indica. Of the above order there are 
two new Accipiters, one new species of Circus, one Mélvus, 
and a Strix. The Neophron is the Ractamah of Bruce, the 
sacred vulture of the Egyptians, and it is a most useful sca- 
venger, removing all offal matters. The golden eagle is the 
same as that of Europe, and so is the Fuleo Tinnunculus ; 
and the harriers are scarcely distinguishable from the Euro- 
pean birds. The falcons, hawks, and goshawks, are used 
by the natives in hawking. 

Insessores.—There are 53 genera, and 116 species of the 
order IJnsessores. Few or none of these can be said to be 
useful to man, and only two of the species are songsters :— 
Merops viridis, Hirundo filifera, Hirundo Jewan, Hirundo 
concolor, Hirundo erythropygia, Cypselus affinis, Capri- 
mulgus monticulus, Caprimulgus Asiaticus, Caprimulgus 
Mahrattensis, Haleyon Smyrnensis, Alcedo rudis, Alcedo 
Bengalensis, Ceyx tridactyla, Muscipeta Paradisi, Muscipeta 
Indica, Muscipeta flammea, Muscipeta peregrina, Muscicapa 
melanops, Muscicapa Banyamus, Muscicapa Poonensis, Mus- 


— 


mete car 


Sine ee le ee, 


a ™ -' 
Oo fre artieak oy 


ee t.% 


cad 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 249 


cicapa ceeruleocephala, Muscicapa picata, Rhipidura albo- 
frontata, Rhipidura fuscoventris, Dicrurus Balcassius, Di- 
erurus corulescens, Hypsipetus Ganeesa, Collurio Lahtora, 
Collurio erythronotus, Collurio Hardwick, Lanius Musci- 
eapoides, Graucalus Papuensis, Ceblepyris fimbriatus, Ceble- 
pyris canus, Oriolus galbula, Oriolus melanocephalus, Oriolus 
Kundoo, Turdus macrourus, Turdus Saularis, Turdus cya- 
notus, Petrocincla Pandoo, Petrocincla Maal, Petrocincla 
einclorhyncha, Timalia Malcolmi, Timalia Somervillet, Ti- 
malia Chatarea, Ixos jocosus, Ixos cafer, Ixos fulicatus, Po- 
matorhinus Horsfieldiz, Iora Tiphia, Sylvia montana, Sylvia 
sylviella, Sylvia Rama, Prinia socialis, Prinia inornata, Or- 
thotomus Bennettiz, Orthotomus Lingoo, Budytes citreola, 
Budytes melanocephala, Budytes Beema, Motacilla variegata, 
Motacilla Dukhunensis, Megalurus ruficeps, Anthus agilis, 
Saxicola rubicola, Saxicola bicolor, Saxicola rubeculoides, 
Saxicola erythropygia, Phenicura atrata, Pheenicura Sueciea, 
Parus atriceps, Parus xanthogenys, Alauda Gulgula, Alauda 
Deva, Alauda Dukhunensis, Mirafra phenicura, Emberiza 
melanocephala, Emberiza hortulana, Emberiza cristata, Em- 
beriza subcristata, Linaria Amandava, Ploceus Philippensis, 
Ploceus flavicollis, Fringilla crucigera, Lonchura nisoria, 
Lonchura cheet, Lonchura leuconota, Passer domesticus, Pas- 
tor tristis, Pastor Mahrattensis, Pastor roseus, Pastor Pago- 
darum, Corvus culminatus, Corvus splendens, Coracias Indica, 
Buceros, several species, Paleornis torquatus, Paleornis me- 
lanorhynchus, Bucco Philippensis, Bucco caniceps, Picus 
Mahrattensis, Upupa minor, Leptosomus Afer, Eudynamys 
orientalis, Cuculus canorus, Cuculus fugax, Centropus Phi- 


_ lippensis, Chloropsis aurifrons, Cinnyris lepida, Cinnyris 


eurrucaria, Cinnyris Vigorsii, Cinnyris minima, Cinnyris 


_ Mahrattensis, and finally, Cinnyris concolor. The above 


catalogue requires very few observations. The weaver-bird, 


_ Ploceus Philippensis, is remarkable for its pendent nest, woven 


_ in the most curious and ingenious manner from fibres of grass. 


_ Not less curious are the nests produced by the tailor-birds, 
_ the Prinia socialis and the Orthotomus Bennettii, which sew 


leaves together to inclose their nests, with the skill of a veri- 
_ table knight of the thimble. The lark, Alauda Gulgula, has 
the habits and delightful song of the skylark of Europe; 
and two or three species of the genera Budytes and Mota- 
cilla have sweet notes: the Collurio Lahtora has also a sweet 
note. The Muscipeta Paradisa and Indica are distinguished 
for their beautifully elongated tail-feathers. The Coracias 
Indica is characterized by its splendid colouring; and not 
‘less so is the Cinnyris Vigorsii, The cuckoo is the identical 


250 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


bird of Europe, and so is the sparrow. In the above list I 
have named many new species of Jnsessores, and have intro- 
duced one new genus. 

Rasores.—That order so highly useful to man, the Rasores, 
does not contain one single species in Dukhun that is not 
valuable as an article of food. There are 12 genera and 40 
species. Ptilinopus Elphinstonii, Columba mana, Columba 
tagrina, Columba humilis, Columba rasoria, Columba Cambay- 
ensis, Columba Ainas, Meleagris Gallopavo, Pavo cristatus, 
Gallus giganteus, Gallus Sonneratii, Gallus domesticus, Gal- 
lus morio, Gallus crispus, Numida Meleagris, Coturnix dac- 
tylisonans, Coturnix textils, Coturnix Argoondah, Coturnix 
Pentah, Coturnix erythrorhyncha, Perdix picta, Francolinus 
Pondicerianus, Francolinus spadiceus, Pterocles exustus, Ptero- 
cles quadricinctus, Hemipodius pugnax, Hemipodius Taigoor, 
Hemipodius Dussumier, Otis nigriceps, and Otis fulva. Of 
the above, Turkeys and Guinea fowls are not indigenous, and 
it may be doubted whether the gigantic cock be a native. 
The original of the domestic fowl is most abundant in the 
woods of the Ghats. The real partridge, Perdix picta, is 
found in the valleys of the Ghats. What is usually denomi- 
nated a partridge in Dukhun, is the Francolinus Pondi- 
cerianus; it is numerous, and affects cultivated lands and 
garden grounds. The common quail of Europe is a native of 
Dukhun; and three new species, which I have described, as 
well as the Coturnia textilis, literally swarm. ‘That noble 
bird the Otis nigriceps is met with in large flocks, and the 
floriken is by no means scarce. 

Grallatores.—Of the fourth order, Grallatores or Waders, 
there are 25 genera and 46 species, and very many of the 
species are common to Europe. Grus Antigone, Ardea 
Egretta, Ardea Garzetta, Ardea Asha, Ardea cinerea, 
Ardea nigrirostris, Ardea Malaccensis, Ardea Caboga, Ardea 
Grayii, Ardea Javanica, Ardea cinnamomea, Botaurus stel- 
laris, Nycticorax Europeus, Phenicopterus ruber, Platalea 
leucorodia, Platalea junior, Ciconia leucocephala, Ciconia 
Argala, Anastomus Typus, Tantalus leucocephalus, Ibis re- 
ligiosa, Ibis ignea, Ibis papillosa, Ibis falcinella, Totanus 
ochropus, Totanus Glareola, Totanus hypoleucos, Limosa 
Glottoides, Limosa Horsfieldii, Gallinago media, Gallinago 


minima, Rhynchea picta, Pelidna Temminchii, Parra Si-— 


nensis, Gallinula Javanica, Rallus Akool, Porphyrio Sma- 
ragnotus, Fulica atra, Cursorius Asiaticus, Vanellus Goensis, 
Vanellus bilobus, Charadrius pluvialis, Charadrius Philip- 
pensis, Himantopus melanopterus, and Cidicnemus ecrepitans. 
Of the above, the Lbis religiosa is undoubtedly the sacred or 


——— 


on") . 4 a 1 ei 


ide eee a 


oe 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 251 


mummy Jbis of the ancient Egyptians, according to Cuvier’s 
description. ‘The species of the family of the Ardeide are 
varied and beautiful. The snipes are those of Europe, as 
well as most of the species of the Scolopacide, and some of 
the Rallide. 

_ Natatores.—The last order, Natatores or swimmers, con- 
tains 13 genera and 20 species, and, as in the preceding 
order, several of the species are common to Europe. Plec- 
tropterus melanotus, Anser Giria, Tadorna rutila, Anas stre- 
pera, Rhynchaspis virescens, Mareca pecilorhyncha, Mareca 
fistularis, Mareca Awsuree, Querquedula Circia, Querquedula 
Crecca, Fuligula rufina, Fuligula , Fuligula cristata, 
Podiceps Philippensis, Phalacrocorax Javanicus, Plotus me- 
lanogaster, Sterna acuticauda, Sterna similis, Sterna Seena, 
and Viralva Anglica. The geese, ducks, and teals abound 
most in the cold season, and are at that period excellent 
eating. ‘The domestic goose and duck of Europe is not in- 
cluded in the above list, but both are extensively bred in 
Dukhun. That rare English bird the Viralva Anglica is 
very common in Dukhun. I did not meet with the Pelican, 
although it is a native of India. 

Ichthyology.—The rivers of Dukhun abound with fish, and 
some of them are not only palatable, but very fine flavoured, 
eeecwary the Tambra, a new species of Cyprinus, and the 

aam, Macrognathus armatus; the Singhala or Pimelodus is 
also in very general use by the people, but is not esteemed by 

_ Europeans. The fish observed by me consisted of forty-six 
_ species; two belonged to the sub-order Apodes, three to 
Thoracici, and forty-one to Abdominales. The whole were 
_ comprised in twelve genera. There was one Murena, one 
_ Macrognathus, one Chanda, one Ophiocephalus, one Gobius, 
_ two species of Szlurus, nine of Pimelodus and sub-genera, one 
Ageneiosus, one Mystus, twenty-four of Cyprinus and sub- 
genera, one Essox, and three species of Cobitus. It is re- 
_ markable that the fresh water Essox of Dukhun so closely 
resembles the salt water species of England, as to be scarcely 
distinguished from it, not only in external characters, but in 
the colour of its bones. 
_ Reptilia.—Reptiles are numerous in Dukbun. The Trionyx 
Andica abounds in the rivers, and there are two smaller 
species. Many genera of the Saurian family are met with 
’ from the four to five feet Monitor, to the minutest Lacerta. 
Serpents of all kinds, from the gigantic Boa Constrictor to the 
small and beautiful carpet snake. The first, however, I have 
only seen carried about the country by people who exhibit 


252 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


the feats of the reptile in swallowing small animals. — Inde- 
pendently of the deadly Cobra da Capello, (Coluber Naag) 
there are some other poisonous species, but in general the 
snakes are harmless. 

Crustacea.—Of the Crustacea, I shall have only to notice 
the Kenkra, Thelphusa cunicularis, a new species which per- 
vades the valleys and table-lauds of the Ghats, and whose 
numbers are so great that their burrows riddle the earth; 
they remain quiet in their holes during the cold and dry 
seasons, but, in the monsoon, they are abroad in such num- 
bers, that travellers drive over them, ride over them, and 
trample upon them in the high roads: they are not an article 
of food with the natives, but are, I believe, wholesome. 

Testacea.—There are some few genera and species of land 
and fluviatile shells, the largest of which is a Unio; but they 
do not call for notice. 

Entomology.—Like all tropical climates, the Dukhun teems 
with insects. The domestic fly is a pest at certain seasons ; 
the most rigid precautions and the greatest cleanliness cannot 
secure the most fastidious person from the inroads of the 
bed-bug ; and there is no getting beyond the ‘‘ maximum leap 
of a flea” ; the fact is, these plagues are not only the constant 
companions of the people, but the flea inflicts serious injury 
on poultry, dogs, and cattle. Domestic, and indeed wild 
animals are subject also to the attacks of a small blue tick, 
(Acarus,) which multiplies upon them in such an incredible 
manner as to affect the vital functions and produce paralysis 
and death. There are three species of honey-bee in Dukhun, 
the honey from the whole of which is remarkably fine. It 
boasts also its lac insect, Coceus laccus ; and several silk-pro- 
ducing moths, particularly the Kolesurra, Bombyx Paphia. 

The most destructive of the insect tribe is the white ant, 
Termes, which, working under cover with the most inde- 
fatigable perseverance, finds its way everywhere, and every- 
where occasions loss and injury; books, papers, clothes, 
leather, wood, &c., are indiscriminately devoured. Several 
species of genuine ants are also a great nuisance. A species 
of sphex makes its earthen nest within the locks of the doors, 
and blocks up the key-holes. The musquito, Culex, is not 
quite so troublesome in Dukhun as on the coast. The scor- 
pion, of which there are two or three species, so abounds in 
the stony lands of Dukhun, that on encamping my regiment, 
on the march from Punderpoor to Ahmednugegur in 1818, I 
had from two to three hundred brought to me in the course 
of a day by my men: their sting produces intolerable pain for 


imtie’ 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 253 


a few hours, but is not dangerous unless to the diseased and 
weakly. The centipede does not attain the growth of its type 
in South America, nor is it very numerous. 

As in other countries, the Coleopterous order is the most 
numerous. Some of the genera are remarkable for their 
habits, (Copride,) and some are remarkable for their beauty 
(Buprestide). Amongst the Lepidoptera many are very hand- 
some, both in the diurnaland nocturnal families (Papilio Hector 
and Bombyx Atlas). In the Hemipterous order, the Ci- 
micide abound, and are cursed with all imaginable abominable 
smells. In the order Orihoptera, the Gryllide are numerous ; 
but the locust is unknown as a scourge. In this order also, 
the multiplied and strange forms of the Mantis and Phasma 
are very striking. 'The Blatia is troublesome and injurious. 
The Hymenoptera includes some valuable and interesting 
genera. Of the Apterous insects I have already spoken. 
The Neuroptera are both numerous and beautiful, some of 
the Libellula and Myrmeleons particularly so. Of the Dz- 
ptera, the genera Musca, Oulex, Bombilius, Hippobosca, and 
Tipula, exhibit the greatest number of species and individuals. 
In Arachnida the genera are endless. The prevalence of 
scorpions I have spoken of. 


Civil Divisions. 
The British territories in Dukhun are divided into four 


collectorates, Poona, Ahmednuggur, Dharwar, and Khandesh 
or Candeish. Over each of these there is a European civil ser- 


c vant of the Company, with several European assistants, for the 
_ purpose of collecting the revenue. These gentlemen are armed 
_ with magisterial powers, and can call upon the military au- 


thorities for assistance. These collectorates are divided into 


Talooks (great divisions), provinces, Pergunnahs (counties), 


and Turrufs (hundreds) ;* and ‘native officers called Mam- 


_ lutdars, aided by inspectors of cultivation, accountants, trea- 


surers, and a police force, are placed over one. or more 
Pergunnahs. All these terms are of Moosulman introduc- 
tion; the ancient Hindoo civil officers being differently named, 
and their territorial divisions were Prant, Deshmookee, and 
Naikwaree. The aggregations of habitations are called Sher 
(city), Kusbeh (market-town), Mouzeh or Gaon (village), and 
Waree (hamlet). The cities and towns may comprise several 
villages, and they have their suburbs called Peit. The vil- 


_ lage constitution is noticed under land tenures. 


_ * Provinces, counties, and hundreds are not the exact equivalents of the 
native territorial divisions, but they afford sufficiently approximate types. 


254 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Poona Collectorate.—The Poona Collectorate is the nearest 
of the four collectorates of Dukhun to Bombay: its bound- 
aries towards the coast approach within about fifty miles of that 
presidency, but they do not descend the Ghats into the strip 
of land at the foot of the Ghats, called the Konkun (Concan). 
This collectorate has an area of 8281 square miles, including 
the lands held in military tenure (Jagheer). It contains 
550,313 inhabitants, 1897 towns* and villages, and 114,887 
houses; averaging 66:45 inhabitants to a square mile, 4°79 to 
a house, 247:36 to a village, exclusive of the population of 
Poona. The chief town is Poona, recently the capital of the 
Mahratta empire, containing a population of 81,315 souls. 
The other principal towns are Tullegaon (2050 males, 2007 
females), Joonur (4218 males, 3759 females), Kheir (1999 
males, 1794 females), Goreh (1154 males, 1145 females), Ootoor 
(2521 males, 1928 females), Narraingaon (1286 males, 1180 
females), Alley (1396 males, 1064 females), Sassor (1880 males, 
1696 females), Jeejooree (885 males, 860 females), ‘Tullegaon, 
Turruf Paubul (1710 males, 1427 females), and some others ; 
but the most populous of the number, as is seen above, contains 
only 7977 souls. There are, excluding Sholapoor, 8 pergun- 
nahs and 82 turruffs in the Poonah collectorate. In Sholapoor 
sub-collectorate there are 4 talooks, 19 pergunnahs, and 12 
turruffs ; but as divisions which in the other collectorates are 
called turruffs, are here called pergunnahs, there are few tur- 
ruffs. My limits will not permit of detailed descriptions of 
these pergunnahs, although there are many physical facts of 
interest connected with some of them. 

The following number of towns and villages constitute the 
different pergunnahs and talooks: Sewnere 190, Indapoor, 
86, Kheir 236, Pabul 65, Poorundhur 130, Beemthuree 92, 
Hawailee 165, the Mawuls 233, Sholapoor 122, Mohol 145, 
Indee 236, and Moodebehal 226. This makes a total of 1926, 
which is 29 villages more than was previously stated, but this 
is owing to depopulated villages being included; of this 1926, 
47 towns and 14293 villages belong to the British; 4 towns 
and 2644 villages are held in free gift (Eenam), and 3 towns 
and 178 villages are held on tenure of military service (Su- 
rinjam). 


Hili forts.—In the Poona Collectorate are situated many a 
remarkable hill forts, impregnable in fact if properly defended, — 
from their geological structure, which consists of beds of 


basalt, with vertical edges, alternating with beds of amyg- 


* Trifling transfers have taken place between the different collectorates, so 


that this may not be the exact amount at the present moment. 


oe le Maye AG 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 255 


daloids, whose edges form a talus. Many of these in their 
superficial plane manifest a strong disposition to a trigonal 
character. Such is the case with ‘Teekonee (the word being 
almost Greek,) or three-angled, Koaree, and some others. 
Koaree is situated at the edge of the Ghats in the civil 
division called the Powar Khoreh; its summit is 2910 feet 
above the sea; and some parts of the rock within its area are 
so powerfully magnetic, as to draw the needle quite round the 
compass. The hill forts of Singhur, Poorundhur, and Wu- 
zeerghur are seen from Poona: the summit of the first is ele- 
vated 4192 feet above the sea, and the second 4471 feet. 
The hill-fort of Sewnair, in which the celebrated Sewajee was 
born, is situated close to the city of Joonur (Jooneer). Jewdun, 
is on the edge of the Ghats, a few miles westward of Joonur, 
and Hurreechundurghur, which is said to be eighteen miles in 
circumference at its base, is situated a few miles N.W. of 
Joonur. But I have not space to enumerate all these points 
of defence provided by nature,—Loghur, Eesapoor, &c. &c. 

Boodh cave-temples.—Some works of art must not be over- 
looked. The first is that magnificent cave-temple situated in 
the civil division called Naneh Mawul; it is usually denomi- 
nated the cave of Karleh (Carlee), from being within two 
miles of a village of that name; the temple is associated with 
many cave-chambers. The other Boodh excavations are 
pierced in the hills around the city of Joonur, under the hill- 
fort of Joonur, and at the crest of the pass into the Konkun 
_ from Joonur, called the Naneh Ghat. Numerous inscriptions, 
in so antique a form of the Sanscrit alphabet as not to be 
readable by modern Sanscrit scholars, abound in these caves.* 
_ These astonishing works of art, resulting from the labour of 
| ages, and which are met with, not only in the Poona Col- 
| lectorate, but in many other parts of India, would seem to 
| indicate that the country was once inhabited by a Boodhist 
| hn although it has so entirely disappeared, that not a 
| solitary worshiper of Boodh remains in the peninsula of India. 
In the Under Mawul, at the village of Mhow, there is 
an extraordinary large Wuhr-tree (Ficus Indica); it has 
‘sixty-eight stems, most of them thicker than a man’s body, 
and, with the exception of the original stem, the whole of 
them originate in roots let down from the branches; it was 
~ alae of affording shade, with a vertical sun, to 20,000 men, 
being 201 feet long by 150 feet broad. At the town of Mun- 


3 
__* Within the last year, those indefatigable and learned orientalists, Principal 
Mill, Mr. James Prinsep, and Mr, Stevenson have succeeded in reading most 


_| of the inscriptions which are found to relate exclusively to Boodhism and 
| Boodhists. 


256 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


chur, in the pergunnah of Pabool and Turruf Wurgaon, 
there is a Baubel-tree (Mimosa Arabica,) of surprising mag- 
nitude; at eighteen inches from the ground the trunk mea- 
sures nine feet and half an inch in circumference; its head is 
ramous and dense, and it gives a vertical shade covering 5964 
square feet: this species produces gum arabic. In the turruf 
of Chakun, pergunnah Kheir, near to Mahloongah, on the 
slopes of some hills, the shrub or small tree, producing the gum 
olibanum, (Boswellia thurifera), is met with; and it is seen 
also in other parts of the country. At Mahloongah there is a 
garden of flourishing cocoa-nut trees; and considering that 
they are at 2000 feet above the sea, and 100 miles inland, 
the fact is sufficiently remarkable: clumps of them are also 
met with at Pabool and other places. . 

Rivers.—The rivers flowing through the Poona Collectorate 
are the Mota, the Mola, the Inderanee, Under, Beema, Goreh, 
and Kokree, and some smaller streams. All these have their 
sources in the Ghats, within the limits of the collectorate; 
they converge to the Beema, which falls into the Kistnah, and 
thus finally reach the Bay of Bengal. The rivers are only 
navigable during the monsoon, and then only partially. Boats 
with sails are not seen upon them. 

Ahmednuggur Collectorate.—The Ahmednuggur Collect- 
orate adjoins the Poona Collectorate on the east and north. 
Part of its frontier is along the Ghats; the rest is bounded 
by the Chandore range of hills on the north, and by the 
Nizam’s territories on the east and S.E. 

Ahmednuggur has an area of 9910 square miles ; it con- 
tains 666,376 inhabitants, dispersed in 2465 towns and villages, 
averaging 263°47 inhabitants to a village, (exclusively of the 
population of Ahmednuggur) ; 67°24 inhabitants to a square 
mile ; 136,273 houses and 4°89 inhabitants to a house*, 

Ahmednuggur is divided into 14 talooks, 36 pergunnahs, ~ 


and 51 turruffs. Talook Ahmednuggur contains 157 towns — 


and villages, Kurdeh 172, Sungumnair 226, Akoleh 194, 
Newassa 359, Nasseek 280, Sinnur 107, Chandwur 153, Pato- — 
deh 255, Wun Dindooree 175, Barsee 124, Kurmulleh 82, — 
Jamkheir 90, and Kortee 115. The total of these is 2488, — 
instead of 2465; the difference originates in 23 depopulated 


villages being included. Of the above, 43 towns and 18583 
villages belong to the British ; in 27 towns and 5543 villages 


the British government has a quit rent, these villages being 
called Doomaleh,} alienated. Only one village in free gift 
* This return is for 16 pergunnahs only. 


+ The proper meaning of Doomaleh is “ two properties,” the chief part of 
the revenue being alienated, but the government having a quit rent. 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 257 


was returned to me, and one town and three villages in military 
or feudal tenure; but the villages in free gift (Kenam) are 
included in the Doomaleh villages. 

The chief town is Ahmednuggur, with a population of 
17,838 souls in 1822: men 5953, boys 3350, total males 9303 ; 
women 5976, girls 2559, total 8535. The other chief towns 
are Kurdeh, Nasseek, Chandore, Sungumnair, Parnair, &c. ; 
but their population I cannot state, as the total amount of the 
population of pergunnahs only was sent to me by. the col- 
lector*. The most populous pergunnah would appear to be 
Nasseek, containing 71,581 inhabitants. The least populous 
pergunnah was Soagaon, containing only 9400 inhabitants. 

Htivers.—The rivers running, through the collectorate are 
formed by numerous streams originating in the Ghats and 
Chandore range,—such as the Peera, the Mool, the Doornah, 
and the Gooee, which converge to that noble stream the 
Godavery, which also has its rise in this collectorate, near 
Trimbuck, and flows to the eastward to the Bay of Bengal. 
The Seena is the only river of consequence which does not 
originate in the Ghats. - It has its course at the edge of the 
plateau on which the city of Ahmednuggur stands, about ten 
miles north of the city, and flows in a S.S.E. direction into 
the Beema. 

There are several remarkable hill forts in the western part 
of the collectorate, such as Trimbuck, &c. Ahmednuggur 
_was once the capital of the Ahmed Shahee dynasty of kings. 

_ Khandesh or Candeish Collectorate.—The area of the pro- 
_ vince or collectorate of Candeish, deduced from a map in the 
_ Deputy Surveyor General’s Office, including tracts belonging 
_ to foreign states and to Jagheerdars, is 12,527 square miles. 
_ Itis bounded on the north by the Sautpoora mountains; on 
the east by the. province of Berar, belonging to the Nizam ; 
on the south by the Indyadree range of mountains, which 
_ separate it from Ahmednuggur; and, on the west, by Dang 
_ and Raj Peeplee, which bring it into contact with Goojrat. 
_ It is literally a Khind or Khund, a great gap between ranges 
_ of mountains, whence its name of Khandesh or Candeish. 
_ Some of the northern and western parts are little better than a 
_ jungle, and the whole province is miserably depopulated. The 
_ populated part of the collectorate belonging to the British, 
_ derived from the returns of the lands of 1982 populated villages, 


' 


* The population returns forwarded by me not having been filled up, in 
» consequence of a census of the population having been made by the collector 
__ himself within three years preceding. 
VOL, vi. 1837. 8 


258 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


give an area of 6760 square miles, with a population of nearly 
55 inhabitants to the square mile; but supposing 1684 
alienated and deserted villages to have a proportionate quan- 
tity of lands, the area will be 12,504 square miles, with 383 


inhabitants only to the square mile, and this I believe to be — 


very near to the truth. It is curious that the area derived 
from the village lands should approximate so closely to the 
area determined trigonometrically. 

The collectorate is divided into sixty-six pergunnahs, some 
of which do not contain more.than one village each, whilst the 


largest, Nandgorbar, has 259 towns and villages, Nowapoor, 


236, Sooltanpoor 232, Rawere 160, Jamnair 144, Amulnair 
140, and Bhamere 150, including deserted villages, The total 
number of towns and villages is 83666; but of this number 330 
are pyegusta, which means that the villages are deserted, but 
that part of the lands are cultivated ; 999 are entirely deserted ; 
but great confusion and uncertainty prevails in the details, for 
of this number there are 51 whose limits are unknown, 12 
whose sites are unknown but names known, and 135 whose 
names and sites are unknown but a record remains of their 
number. ‘There are 237 populated Jagheer, or alienated vil- 
lages; and many amongst the Pyegusta, and deserted also, be- 
long to Jagheerdars, so that it does not appear that more 
than 2032 populated villages belong to the British*; of this 
number 1968 sent in population returns. The most populous 
town in Khandesh was Nandoorbar, and it had only 6429 inha- 
bitants ; and only one other town (Chopra) had a population of 
6000. The towns and villages average only 178 inhabitants, 
and each house averages 3°96 inmates. The total of the 
inhabitants is 478,457. 

From the village lands in Khandesh being kept universally 
in Beegahs, the amount of land under cultivation is readily 
determined. It would appear that 15,958 acres were watered 
by perennial streamlets. Lands so watered are called Paht- 
stul, and are the most valuable of all, as the supply of water 
is mostly permanent, and the chief labour required is to open 
the channels and let it flow over the lands; 46,064 acres were 
watered from wells, and lands so watered are called Moht- 
stul ;+ 600,556 acres were under field cultivation, and are not 


* In the Collector's revenue return for 1827-8 the number of villages is 
stated to be 26974, so that 3353 of the deserted villages had become inhabited, 
independently of 330 uninhabited villages whose lands were included in the 
return. 

+ Paht means a water-channel, and Moht means a well-bucket; implying 
in the first instance that lands are watered from streamlets, and in the second 
instance from wells. 


; 
| 
i 
‘ 


ects 


— ~ 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 259 


watered,—these lands are called Zerhaeet. ‘The per centage 
of cultivated and waste lands in this collectorate is as 
follows :— 


Watered by perennial streams 


Watered from wells ..... 15*32 per cent. 
Field cultivation ....... 
MWreste md OP err 84°68 do. 

100 eee 


Rivers.—The River Tapty runs through the whole length 
of the collectorate, and, unlike the rivers of the other collect- 
orates, disembogues into the Gulf of Cambay, below Surat ; 
the water-shed of the country being in fact from the east to 
the west, instead of from the west to the east; there are some 
exceptions in rivers which rise in the Western Ghats, or the 
Chandore range, and run to the east for some distance, then 
sweep round ina segment of a circle and join the Tapty; such 
are the Guirna, Roharee, the Moosum, &c. ‘Timber is floated 
down the Tapty in the monsoon. 

Boodh Cave Temples.—Near to the Adjunta Pass, through 
the Chandore range, from Ahmednuggur into Khandesh, are 
a multitude of those astonishing remains of Boodhist art, 
consisting of excavations in the mural faces of the trap rocks, 
the interior walls of which excavations are covered with bas- 
reliefs ; indeed, with fresco paintings also, illustrative of the 
arts and social relations of life, like the paintings on the tombs 


of the Egyptian kings. 


Dharwar Collectorate.—Agreeably to information obtained 
from the Revenue Survey Department, that part of the 
southern Mahratta country, bounded on the north by the 
Kolapoor territory and the Kristna river, on the east by the 
Nizam’s dominions, on the south by Mysore and the Toom- 


_ boodra river, and on the west by Soonda and the Syhadree 


Ghats, comprises an area of 11,747 square miles, namely, 


Square Miles, 
aaa SHI an a whree 8378°439 
Do. Manowlee Talook, from the Kolapoor territory 390°4'74 
Sawanoor Jagheer ........0-e0000006 74750 

Spawuntwaree territory ..........- eee. 188934 


Seman torrtopyi ge sate Lisi ies ues oe ey 47-930 
Gudjundurghur jagheer ..............  69°344 
Putwurdun and other jagheers ........... 2597-167 
Total. ... . 11747-0388 

s2 


260 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


The Talooks of Cheekooree, 354: square miles, and Munowlee, 
390 square miles, have been added to Dharwar, so that the 
area of the collectorate now amounts to 9122°913 square miles ; 
but 39 per cent. of this consists of wood and jungle, and uncul- 
tivated lands, and 61 per cent. appears upon the returns as 
cultivated. 

Dharwar is divided into 22 Talooks and 137 Turruffs, 
Mahls, Summuts, or Khiryats,independently of the subdivisions 
of the Talooks of Cheekooree and Munowlee. The Talook of 
Dharwar has 136 towns and villages, Meesreekoht 133, 
Purusghur 59, Nowlgoond 43, Hoongoond 170, Dumbul 96, 
Bunkapoor 115, Nuwee Hooblee 97, Ranee Beednoor 139, 
Kettoor 81, Sumpgaon 70, Beereeh 135, Rhone 77, Bagul- 
koht 141, Hangull 173, Goottull 123, Badamee 148, Padsha- 
poor 202, Kohr 182, Talooks of Cheekooree, and Munowlee 
225. To the above are to be added 189 villages, 47 of which 
sent in population returns, although their names were not in 
the government lists; 108 were not included because they 
were Jagheer or Eenam villages; and 34 were depopulated 
and overlooked. The total number of villages in the collect- 
orate amounted to 2734; of this number 2491 were populated, 
and 243 were deserted. Of the above, 1899 British villages 
sent in returns, 225 did not send returns; 155 were deserted, 
but their lands were under cultivation by neighbouring vil- 
lagers; 230 alienated villages sent in returns, 137 alienated 
villages did not send in returns; and 88 deserted villages had ~ 
not their lands under cultivation. With the aid of some 
trifling estimates the total amount of population appeared to 
be 838,757, averaging 91:94 inhabitants to the square mile, 
336°71 to a village, and 4°48 to a house. Of the 119 British 
towns, there are only three whose population exceeds 10,000 
souls, viz. Dharwar 11,802; Belgaon 11,037; and Mujeed- 
poor 15,387. One town has above 8000 inhabitants, (Bagul- 
koht) ; two with 6000; one 5000; thirty-six with from 2000 
to 4000; and seventy-seven with from 1000 to 2000 souls. 
All the village lands being kept in definite measurements, it 
appeared that the cultivated land of the whole collectorate 
was 61°11 per cent., and waste only 38°89 per cent. 

Rivers.— All the chief rivers of Dharwar flow to the eastward; 
they have their source in the Ghats, and join the Kistnah. 
The principal are the Gutpurba, the Malpurba, and the 
Wurdah : the falls of the Gutpurba, near to Gokauk, are said 
to be strikingly fine. 

Hill Forts.—Dharwar, like the other collectorates, has to 
boast of its hill forts. 


ae 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 261 


Viewing Dharwar, whether with respect to its numerous 
towns and well-peopled villages, the comparative density of its 
population, the size of its farms, the quantity of land in culti- 
vation, the amountof its revenues, the lightness with which they 
press supposing they were raised as a poll tax, the indications 
of manufacturing industry (so languishing elsewhere) in the 
number of its weavers, and its superior means of school 
instruction, it is unquestionably the finest of the British pos- 
sessions in Dukhun. 


Population. 


The great feature in the population of Dukhun is the 
excess of males over females in a greater proportion than 
exists in Europe. By the last census in England there 
were 100 males to 93 females. In the British possessions 
in Dukhun, in a population from which returns have 
been received of 2,302,902 souls, there are 100 males .to 
87°36 females, and this difference obtains, with very little 
variation, throughout the different casts. It is subject to 
modification, however, by a very singular fact, exhibited in 
the excess of grown up women over men wherever the 
returns distinguish the adults from children; but the excess 
of male children over female leaves the ultimate prepon- 
derance in favour of the males. From Sir Stamford Raffles’, 
History of Java, the same relative proportion of the sexes 
would appear to exist in that island. He states that the pro- 


portion of males and females born in Bantam, and over the 


whole of Java, is nearly the same as in Europe, and as is found 
generally to exist wherever accurate statements can be ob- 
tained. From the information he collected in a very careful 
survey of one province, the preponderance seemed to be 
on. the side of male children to an extraordinary degree; 
the male children being about 42,000, and the female 35,500, 
i.e. 100 males to 84°52 females. He says also there were 
formerly great drains on the male population, and which, in 
advanced stages of life, might turn the balance on the other 
side ; indeed, in some of his returns this is shown to be the 
case. 
In Dukhun, wherever the means have been afforded to me 
of ascertaining, I have found the preponderance of male over 
female children to be marked, not only in births, but as long 
as they continue to be classed as children; although a great 
mortality, at a subsequent period, makes the grown up 


_ females outnumber the grown up males. 


Males and females.—In the Poona Collectorate in 1826 the 
births of males in 32 turruffs were 100 to 94°27 females, 


262 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


or very nearly 20 males to 19 females. The result of 
eighteen years’ very careful observations for all France, from 
1817 to 1834 inclusive, gives 17 males for 16 females; and as 
this is derived from more than seventeen and a half millions of 
births, it is worthy of every confidence. Taking each year of 
the above period, the extreme variation was from 15 males to 
14 females, as far as 19 males to 18 females. My deduction 
varies so little, that we may fairly say the same law equally ob- 
tains, whether in a tropical or an extra-tropical climate. 
Amongst illegitimate births in France it would appear that the 
number of females approximates more nearly to males than in 
the legitimate births; the numbers, according to the French 
tables, being 24 males to 23 females: reducing all these to a 
common denomination, we have in the 

Poona Collectorate .. 94°27 per cent. of female births. 

In France, the average 


of 18 years, legiti- -94°11 do. do. 

mate sss Sane 
In France, legitimate 93:83 do. iat 

for'l'yeary 0s .%% LS ee 
In France, legitimat i ea be to 

94°73 do. do. 

for L-year i. 18% 
In France ¢dlegitimate, : 

average of 18 reuse. oP ae ot: 


It would thus appear that amongst illegitimate children 
there are nearly two more females born to every hundred 
males than amongst legitimate births. 

In the abstract of the census of the population of the 
Ahmednuggur Collectorate, taken in 1822, the boys were to 
the girls as 100 to 62°16; a singular disproportion, there being 
in the whole collectorate 96,447 boys, and only 59,956 girls; 
but the men were to the women only as 100 to 102718, 
the number of men being 146,750, and the women 149,945. 
In the city of Poona, in 1822, the boys were to the girls as 
100 to 73°26, a greater disproportion than Sir Stamford Raffles 
found in Java; at the same time the adult men were to the 
women as 100 to 10340. In the classes only of the Brahman 
priests, mendicants, and traders, were the men found to ex- 
ceed the women. In the city of Ahmednuggur, in 1826, there 
were 100 boys to 67°62 girls, but 100 men only to 106-06 
women; but the ultimate relation of males to females was as 
100 males to 92°46 females. 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 263 


The following table shows the proportion of males to 
females in the different collectorates, and their principal cities 
and towns : 


Collectorates. saree Cities and Towns. aes fe 
Poona Collectorate...| 100 to 88 |Poona...... abesbceeesas 100 to 94 
iihieltetdeeruy do....) 100 to 86 |Ahmednuggur ...... 100 to 92 
Khandesh do. ......... ~ 100 to 85 |Joonur... ..scceseceeees 100 to 89 
Bieter (is Seen «| 100 to 89 |Dharwar .......s.0s000. 100 to 98 

Belgaon .....+0. Sacetvs 100 to 91 
Bagulkoht .........+ 100 to 101°25 
Gunness Part ......... 100 to 161°14 


Births, Deaths, and Marriages.—Returns of births, deaths, 
and marriages, in an available form, were received only from 
82 turruffts of the Poona Collectorate, comprising 1109 towns 
and villages, but not including the city of Poona, containing 
81,315 inhabitants ; my information, therefore, on these sub- 
jects must necessarily be circumscribed, but the little there is 
is valuable from its novelty. Some returns came to hand from 
the Collectorate of Dharwar, but they were merely additions 
of the totals of irregular numbers of villages, (from 2 to 12,) 
and I hesitated to trust to results which I could not test 
by the original returns. Respecting births, deaths, and mar- 
riages in the Ahmednugegur and Khandesh Collectorates, I am 
totally without information, excepting a solitary return of 
deaths in the city of Ahmédnuggur in 1828, which is worthy 
of every confidence, as it was compiled by ‘my friend Dr. 
Walker, late Civil Surgeon at Ahmednuggur. 

_ Births.—In the Poona Collectorate the average births, in a 
population of 250,300, amounted only to one in 50°52 persons, 
or not quite two per cent.; the Brahmans having the smallest 
proportion, (1 in 57-29), and the Moosulmans the greatest pro- 
portion, (1 in 40°80) ; the range of births in the different tur- 
ruffs was from 1 in 15°70 to 1 in 153-60 persons; and, on the 
whole, the hilly tracts had a greater number than the plains. 

Deaths.—The deaths were 1 in 37:34 persons in the 32 tur- 
ruffs, or 2°67 per cent., indicating a*somewhat alarming dimi- 
nution in the population ;* the range varied from | in 17-21 
_ tolin 70 persons, the fewest deaths being in the hilly tracts. 

It must be considered, however, that the spasmodic cholera 


* The deaths in the kingdom of Naples for 1836—87 was 1 in 87 and a 
fraction. 


264 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


was raging in the country in that year, and that the deaths 
from that unaccountable and dreadful malady in two turruffs 
amounted to nearly 5 per cent., and in one turruff to 6 per 
cent. of the whole population. It is to be presumed, there- 
fore, in the absence of cholera, the births would exceed the 
deaths, as was in fact the case in some of the Mawuls, or 
hilly tracts, where it was known the cholera did not penetrate. 
In deaths the Moosulmans were the greatest average sufferers, 
(1 in 20°15) and the low casts were the least sufferers, (1 in 
42°94). 

As Dr. Walker found that the cholera in the city of Ahmed- 
nuggur increased the usual deaths 0°66 per cent., the loss 
being 2°48, whilé the cholera raged, and only 1°52 per cent. 
when the scourge ceased, it is but fair to infer that such would 
have been the case in the country at large ; and this element, 
applied to the mortality in the Poonah Collectorate, would 
reduce the annual loss to 2°01 per cent., or one death in 
50 persons, which would indicate a greater degree of healthi- 
ness than all France, all Belgium, or the town of Glasgow, 
the loss in all these places being 1 in 39 and a fraction. 

Marriages.—The average number of marriages in the 
Poona Collectorate is proportionably more than in England 
and France, being | in 125°87 souls; the proportion in En- 
gland being 1 in 128, and in France 1 in 130°4 inhabitants. 
The range in the different turruffs is from 1 in 40°11 to 1 in 
493-77 ; but in 14 turruffs the average is considerably under 
that for England. The Shoodruhs (Mahrattas proper) and 
Moosulmans are almost identical, in their proportional number 
of marriages, namely, 1 in 116-21 and 1 in 116°86, and they 
have the greatest number of marriages; the low casts have 
the fewest marriages. The births in 1826 being only 4954 
and the marriages 1998, the average of children to a marriage 
was 2°48 or not quite 21. In France the average is 3°72 
children to a marriage; in England and Wales 3°55. In 
Java the births were 1 in 39, deaths 1 in 40 persons. 

The constituents of the population in the different collect- 
orates were 


Constituents of the Population. 


Shoodruhs, &c./Atee Shood- 
Brahmans. Rajpoots, |Mahratta Cul-| ruhs, or low | Moosulmans, 


tivators, &c. casts. 
Per Cent.| P@r Cent.| Per Cent. | Per Cent. | Per Cent. 


POOUA, sc a-0te05 11°58 0-41 73°85 | 9°78 4:38 


_—_——_ | OY | 


Dharwar ...... 4°48 0:60 74°53 11°895 8495 


~4 ¥ 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 265 


In the above'analysis the chief features are the permanent 
and nearly equal proportions of the Shoodruhs or Mahratta 
cultivators and other genuine Mabhrattas, which obtain in the 
different collectorates; the fact being, that three-fourths of 
the population are of that most useful class the Shoodruhs ; 
and it will be seen by the notice on agriculture, how large 
a proportion of them are engaged in tillage. In the Poona 
Collectorate, as might be expected from its having been the 
chief seat of a Brahman government, there is a considerable 
number of Brahmans; every ninth person, in fact, being a 
Brahman. In the other collectorates scarcely one in twenty 
persons is a Brahman. Genuine Rajpoots are little known in 
Dukhun, and I should doubt whether or not the 3: per cent. 
of Rajpoots, in the returns from Khandesh, should be added 
to the Mahratta population ; who, by the bye, have some pre- 
tensions to being descended from the Rajpoots. The propor- 
tion of low casts,* men who are only engaged in vile or discredit- 
able offices by the natives, although otherwise employed by 
the British, does not differ very much in the different collect- 
orates; the increase in the Khandesh collectorate is attri- 
butable to large tracts of the country being inhabited by 
Bheels, who are a low cast; in fact, less than every seventh 
person is a low cast; in Poona about every tenth, and in 
Dharwar about every eighth. The Moosulmans are few in 
number in the Poona and Ahmednuggur Collectorates, not 
being one-twentieth of the population in the first, nor one- 


_ fifteenth in the second; but, in the Dharwar Collectorate they 
displace the Brahmans, and amount to nearly one-eleventh. 
_ Although the Moosulman power has been paramount nearly 
_ throughout all India for centuries, it is believed they have 


never constituted one-fifteenth of the whole population. In the 
abstract of the population returns from the Ahmednuggur Col- 
_lectorate, the casts are not distinguished; but, in a return of 


* 1828, from the city of Ahmednuggur, the Hindoo inhabitants 


are distinguished from the Moosulman; and it is found that 
there is the very unusual proportion of one Moosulman to 3°45 


_ Hindoos, or 29 per cent. of the whole population. This is to 


* The low casts comprise all that part of the Hindoo population which 
cannot claim to be Shoodruhs, such as Mahrs, Dhers, Maangs, shoemakers, 
_skinners; Ramoosees, Beruds, and Bheels. The Mahrs and Dhers are the 
_ Scavengers, the Maangs, executioners; shoemakers and skinners speak for 
_ themselves; the Ramoosees and Beruds are born thieves, or are thieves by 


cast, and they are usually employed for the protection of villages, on the 


principle of setting a thief to catch a thief. The Bheels are supposed to be 
' the aborigines of the countries where they are found. 


266 . SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


be referred to the fact of Ahmednuggur having once been the 
capital of the Ahmed Shahee dynasty of Moosulman kings ; 
with these exceptions, although I have not detailed returns to 
guide me, I believe that the constituents of the population of 
the Ahmednuggur Collectorate do not differ in their propor- 
tions from those of the Poona Collectorate. In the census of 
1822, the families in the fifteen pergunnahs in the Ahmednuggur 
Collectorate, with a population of 409,279 souls, were enu- 
merated, and it appeared that there were 4°53 persons to a 
family. With respect to the styles of building in the Ahmed- 
nuggur Collectorate, it will be fully illustrated by the facts, 
that the ¢i/ed houses amount only to 10°84 per cent. of the 
whole; the thatched houses to 32°27 per cent.; and the mud 
flat-terraced houses to 56°89 per cent. 

Bearing in mind the clouds of horse that covered the Duk- 
hun in the war of 1817, it is sufficiently remarkable that in 
1822, in the whole Collectorate of Ahmednuggur there were 
only 405 full-grown horses, 1298 full-grown mares; the total, 
including colts and fillies, being only 2500; the ponies amounted 
to 12,632, of all kinds. 

Proportions engaged in agriculture.—In 1828, in this col- 
lectorate, 1878 British villages contained 41,948 cultivators or 
farmers, and a population of 512,818 souls, and allowing five 
persons to a cultivator’s family, 40°89 per cent. of the people 
were engaged in agriculture. In Poona there were 52,668 
farmers, being a per centage of 55°50, with five persons to a 
family. In Dharwar 60,701 cultivators, being a percentage of 
41‘76*, and in Khandesh 44°608 cultivators, being a per 
centage of 53°16 occupied in agriculture. It is to be under- 
stood these proportions have reference to the population of 
British villages only, and not to the whole population of each 
collectorate. Moreover, as these proportions are derived from 
the registered farmers only, and as they are in the habit of sub- 
letting their lands, I have no hesitation in expressing my 
opinion that exact returns would prove that three-fourths of 
the population are directly engaged in agriculture. In the 
Poona Collectorate, families were not enumerated, excepting 
in the return from the city of Poona, and here families average 
4°82 persons; each house in Poona averaged 6} persons; but, 
for the whole collectorate 4°79 persons to a house; so that it 
is probable the returns of the number of houses would give 
the number of families. In Khandesh the proportion of in- 


* Including some returns of alienated villages, an estimate makes it 48 
per cent. 


ree 


Ahmednuggur) 16553 | The census of 1822, in the 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 267 


habitants to a house falls short of the other collectorates, 
being only 3:96 persons. In Dharwar the number is 4°48 to 
a house, for the whole collectorate; but the towns exhibit 
other figures ; namely, Belgaon 5:24, Chabee 5°78, and Gun- 
ness Pait 5°77 inhabitants to a house; England and Wales 
has 5°60. ‘The average inhabitants to the square mile, in the 
different collectorates, has been noticed under the head of 
civil divisions; and the fewness will disappoint European ex- 
pectations; but there is plainly a great mistake in the common 
estimation of the denseness of the Indian population. Bengal 
proper is said to have 203 inhabitants to a square mile, and 
Orissa, in the cultivated parts, agreeably to Mr. Stirling, the 
commissioner, has 185; but, for the whole area of Orissa, the 
average is only 143 inhabitants to the square mile; England 
has 192. 

Southern Jagheerdars.—The Southern Jagheerdars have 
917 villages, with an estimated population of 263,236 souls. 

Rajah of Sattarah’s territories.—The Rajah of Sattarah, in 
his territories, has 1703 towns and villages, with an estimated 
population of 488,846 inhabitants. 

With the data in my possession I am enabled to give an es- 
timate of the population of the late Peshwa’s territories in 
Dukhun; it affords a closer approximation to the truth than 
has hitherto been obtained. 


3 ae ie Total inha- 
‘owns an . umber of| bitants in 
Villages, Explanations! inhabitants. |eachCollect- 
orate. 


Collectorate. 


Ahmednuggur Collectorate, in 
16553 towns and villages, exclu- 
sive of the city of Ahmednugegur, 
each village averaging 263-47 in- 
habitants, gave .....sseessee vededers 453,098 
, 228 228 British villages of Talooks, 
Kurmulleh, and Korteh, from 
which population returns were 
not received, averaging 263-47 
MOUS) GIVE spas qnctusesseansensedscase 58,753 
5863 | 586% alienated towns and vil- 
lages, from which returns were 
not received, averaging 267-47 
souls, will give ...... bevtitcvcvacess 154,525 | 666,376 
23 |Depopulated villages 


2488 |Total villages in the Ahmed- 
‘nuggur Collectorate. 


SS 


268 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Oe 


Total inha-' 
Number of | bitants in 
inhabitants. |jeachCollect- 
orate. 


‘Towns and 


Collectorate. Villages. Explanations. - 


Poona Collec-| 8953 | Inthe collector’s revenue state- 


torate. 


of the city, give — esee..se- ee occ 
212% alienated villages sent in 
population returns ....- sesseveess 
56 alienated towns and vil- 
lages, and 4 British villages, did 
not send in returns, averaging a 


would have been 151,145 

155 alienated towns and vil- 
lages of the Sholapoor sub-col- 
lectorate at 226:1¢ souls each ... 40,838 | 550,313 
Depopulated villages. 
Total towns and villages in the 
Poona Collectorate. 


In the collector’s revenue state- 
ment for 1828, there were 26973 
villages; of this number, 1968 
British towns and villages sent 
in population returns in 1826, 
averaging 187°39 inhabitants to 
a village, equal to... cecoccess 

64 villages, refused returns, at 
127 souls each ........ ieemess Sasees z 


Khandesh 
Collectorate. 
1968 


368,781 
8128 


not inhabited, making a total o 
2362 villages. ‘To make up the 
number in the collector’s revenue 
statement therefore, 3353 villages 


populated since the population re- 
turns were sent in,at 127 soulseach 
14 Jagheer villages sent in 
YELUITIS crcoseeccecccceercevecesersuee 
Jagheer, or alienated villages, 
did not send in returns, at an 
average of 187:39 souls each 
Depopulated villages, lands not 
cultivated. 
Total towns and villages in the 
Khandesh Collectorate. 


42,608 
2623 


56,317 |478,457 


Collectorate. 


lectorate. 


tarah’s terri- 
; tories. 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 269 


a 


Towns and 


Villages. 


Dharwar Col- 


1899 |number, 1899 British towns and 


225 


155 
230 
137 


88 


————|under cultivation. 


2734 
917 


1703 


12,155 
1,279 


——s 


13,434 


Total inha. 

Number of | bitants in 
inhabitants, |eachCollect- 
orate, 


Explanations. 


In the collector’s revenue state- 
ment for 1828, there appeared 
2279 towns and villages; of this 


villages sent in population re- 
turns, averaging 348 inhabitants 
toreach village (10. 20!0 022 saxsteesene 
225 British villages in the ta- 
looks of Cheekoree and Munow- 
lee did not send in returns; es- 
timating their population from 
the revenue they yield, falling as 
a poll-tax as in other parts of 
Dharwar, there are ........ soaton 
British depopulated villages, 
lands under cultivation. 
Alienated villages sent in po- 
pulation returns ..... pesaaatebaer 
Alienated villages did not send 
in population returns, at the 
lowest average of population, 
ZO AD GAC a condyaseonansassesiovns 
Deserted villages, lands not 


65,805 


79,727 


32,373 | 838,757 


The area of the Southern Jag- 
heerdars’ territories is 2978-125 
square miles at §8-39 inhabitants 
to the squaré mile, the lowest 
average of the Dharwar Collect- 
orate gives by estimate ......... 

1703 towns and villages under 
the Sattarah government, with 
an estimated population of 287-05 
inhabitants to a village, which is 
the mean between Dharwar and 


263,236 | 263,236 


Ahmednuggur, will give ......... 488,846 | 488,846 
Populated villages. 
Depopulated villages. 
Total. 3,285,985 


270 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


ABSTRACT OF THE ABOVE. 


Number of Average | Average to a 


Collectorate or Area. * to the | village for the | Average to 
Territory. _|squaremiles. Tilegan’ Population. equare whole Collect. a house, 
. ‘ate, 


Poona ..,......| 8281 1926 | 550,313 | 66:45 | * 247-36 4:79 


————_——. | -——— 


Ahmednuggur| 9910 2488 | 666,376 | 67°24 | + 263-47 4:89 


— S| —_——_ ————— 


Khandesh ..,| 12,527 3666 478,457 | 38°19 178°39 3:96 


Dharwar ......| 9122 2734 838,757 | 91:94 336°7 4:48 


———~-_ |————. 


| 


Southern Jag- 
heerdars...... 2978 917 263,236 | 88°39 287-05 |Not known. 


—_—_ 


Rajah of Sat- 
tarah’s terri- 


tories ..s.ss0+e 6169 | 1703 | 488,846 |79-25 | 287-05  |sot known. 
Total .....e6.| 48,987 | 13,434 | 3,285,985 167-07 | 270-34 


Average number of inhabitants to a village for all the col- 
lectorates, 270°34. 

The above population does not include the army, camp 
followers, Bheels, or the wandering tribes. 

It would appear there are 1279 uninhabited villages in the 
four collectorates of Dukhun, principally in Khandesh; making 
a total of 10,814 towns and villages in the British possessions, 
and of 13,434 in the late Peshwah’s territories in Dukhun; 
exclusive of those belonging to the Kolapoor state. 

Total alienated villages in the four collectorates, 1695}. 
Total British populated villages, 78394 ; total deserted, 1279. 
Total villages in the four collectorates, 10,814. 


Education. 


Education, as a regular system, is certainly unknown amongst 
the people in Dukhun. The few schools existing are wholly 
disproportioned in number to the population ; and even were 
they more numerous, the present general poverty of the Koon- 
bees,§ and the imperious calls upon them for the services of 
their children in agriculture, and in attending their cattle, 


* Exclusive of the population of the city of Poona. 

+ Exclusive of the population of the city of Ahmednuggur. 

+ Of this number, 1279 are depopulated, and the depopulated villages of 
the Southern Jagheerdars and Rajah of Sattarah’s territories are not known 
to me. 

§ Mahratta cultivators. 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 271 


would disable them from letting their children profit by in- 
struction, even though gratuitous. In a stage of civilization 
which is by no means contemptible, the general illiterateness 
of the cultivators is remarkable. It might have been supposed 
that the pressure of the inconveniencies and the risk of loss 
attending the solving their constantly recurring arithmetical 
computations, whether in settling their assessments with go- 
vernment, in ascertaining the amount of their produce, or in 
computing its saleable rate to ensure a profit, or in their 
money transactions with each other, would have stimulated 
some families of the past or present generations to have pur- 
sued steadily a course of instruction for their children, which, 
by its example and the visible beneficial results attending it, 
would have originated a thirst of knowledge, and advanced 
the march of intellectual improvement. 'The Shoodra, however, 
is led to believe by the wily Brahmans that letters and science 
are not within his province, and the farmer is content to go on 
mastering his arithmetical difficulties with the assistance of his 
fingers, and relying upon the village clerk for the keeping his 
accounts with the government, and on his ability, judgement, 
and secrecy in the management of his private correspondence, 
which, it may be supposed, will not be very important or volu- 
minous. Were it ascertained, I believe not one cultivator in 
a hundred would be found able to write, or count up to 100 
but by fives; and my daily unreserved intercourse for hours 
with numbers of this class of persons has given me facilities for 
forming this opinion. And yet the Koonbees are far from 
_ wanting intelligence ; they are not slow in observing; they are 
_ quick in communicating, and the rationale of an agricultural 
| process is frequently explained with a simplicity and effect 
| which we might not always meet with in the educated En- 
| glish farmer. There would not be any difficulty in teaching 
| the Koonbees, provided the instruction were gratuitous, and 
_ that the farmer could spare his children; and several im- 
_ portant effects might attend this instruction: the mind of the 
_ cultivator would be invigorated with new ideas; enlarged views 
_ Of action would break in upon him; a spirit of improvement, 
_ €nterprise, and innovation might spring up, in place of the 
apathetic routine that at present prevails in rural ceconomy, 
| and in the social relations of life; and an amelioration, both 
_ physical and moral, would take place in his condition. But 
“at present the little education that exists is confined to the 
4 Brahmans and to the shopkeepers, Shaitees*, and Mahajuns.+ 


* Heads of trades, ¢ Bankers, 


272 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


The Koolkurnees*, or accountants and village-clerks, are 
always Brahmans; many of them are shrewd and very quick, 
and possessed of infinite ingenuity in avoiding the detection of 
a fraud or mistake in their ;papers; many of this class, how- 
ever, I found too stupid to keep an individual’s account, much 
less the complicated details of a village assessment. The 
shopkeepers being generally people from Goojrat, keep their 
accounts in the Goojratee language. The character in universal 
use for business is the Mohr in the districts. The following will 
show the number of schools, as far as the returns received 
from the collectors will permit,—not any account of schools 
was received from the collector of Ahmednuggur. In the Col- 
lectorate of Dharwar there is one school to 2452 inhabitants ; 
in Khandesh there is only one school to 4369 souls; and, in 
the Poona Collectorate, deducting the population of the city 
of Poona, there is one school to 3337 souls. It is fair to infer 
therefore, that as Dharwar supports proportionably so many 
more schools than the other collectorates, that information is 
more generally spread amongst the people, and that they are 
better able to manage their affairs than others less instructed ; 
and the breadth of cultivation, and general manufacturing and 
commercial industry of the people, would seem to justify the 
inference. 


Irrigation. 


Preliminary to speaking of agriculture, it is necessary to 
state that lands are watered artificially in two ways. First, by 
conducting streamlets from running rivers or brooks. Lands 
so watered are called Paatsthul, from Paat, a channel, and 
Sthul, a field.} These streamlets do not always last through 
the hot season; and though this species of irrigation, while 
available, is infinitely less onerous and less expensive to the 
cultivator, affording also a more plentiful supply of water than 
the well watering and great returns; yet it is not so certain, and, 
on the whole, is less permanently efficient than well watering. 
The second method is by well watering. Lands so watered are 
called Moht Sthul, from Moht, the water-bucket, and Sthul, a 
field. There is a good deal of trouble attending this method, 
and it requires the continual expense of the support of two or _ 
four bullocks, the wear and tear of materials, and the keep of — 
one man, who, however, can readily manage two buckets, and _ 
two pairs of bullocks: at the same time it requires also a boy 
in the garden or field to open and shut the different channels. 


* Village clerks and accountants. 
+ Literally “ firm land.” 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN, 273 


sy ae oe 
co 
“o 


This is the most common method of irrigation in the districts 
reported on. Usually only two bullocks are attached to each 
bucket ; in some instances, however, where the wells are deep, 
four bullocks are attached to each bucket. The cattle pull 
down an inclined plane and discharge the water, and readily 
walk backwards up the plane to the highest part of it; on the 
bucket being refilled, they go down the plane again; the 
driver sings to them and rides down on the rope. ‘The pro- 
‘cess is suspended for an hour or two during the middle of the 
_ day. The accompanying drawing illustrates this process, and 
_ does not require any explanation. A very considerable quan- 
_ tity of water is brought up by this method. ‘The buckets in 
use vary little in size, and the wells, probably, range from 25 
to 45 feet deep; some experiments of mine, therefore, to 
ascertain the quantity of water brought up from a well 35 feet 
deep in a certain time, may be considered as an average of the 
efficiency of this method of irrigation. I found a moht (of six 
-paahls) average a delivery of 198 wine bottles of water each 
time. The bottle contained 28 ounces of water, apothecaries’ 
measure, consequently the bucket contained 5544 ounces wine 
measure, 231 quarts, or 57 gallons 3 quarts. There is a 
singular uniformity of time between the delivery of two 
buckets, seldom exceeding seventy seconds; a man and a 
pair of bullocks, therefore, in an hour deliver 2931 gallons of 
_ water; and, labouring seven hours a day, give 20,517 gallons 
_ wine measure; and the same man with two pairs of bullocks 
_ delivers 41,034 gallons of water ; a quantity infinitely exceeding 
_ what Europeans usually believe to be drawn up by the simple 
-_ means employed. At eight pounds troy to the gallon, the 
veight of water drawn up by one pair of bullocks in one day 
ill be 164,136lbs. troy; and bytwo pairs of bullocks,328,272lbs. 
oy. This account appears very considerable, but my ex- 
eriments have been repeated with care; and, on the whole, 
he delivery of water may be rather underrated than over- 
ated. . 
Near the village of Piroorgoot, 1 observed a simple method 
watering a field. The bed of a nullah, or rivulet, with very 
w banks, had been dammed up; three pieces of wood, like 
gin, were put over the water; a scoop was suspended by a 
e to the apex of the gin, and a man scooped out the water 
o his field. The labour was great, and the supply of water 
mall. This apparatus is called Dohl. 
__ It would appear to be of considerable importance to encou- 
__ Yage the making of wells, as the only means of increasing the 
| very limited exports of the Dukhun. 
VOL. vi. 1837, - 


274 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Agriculture. 


Some general observations will be necessary, as the crops 
and agricultural process in the Mawuls * differ materially from 
the crops and agricultural process in the Desh.} The princi- 
pal crop of the Mawuls is that of the rains, and the most 
valuable of its produce is rice}. The severe labour attend- 
ing the preparation of the rice ground in the hot weather 
is great, and in the rains the cultivator has to trample up to 
his knees in water and mud ploughing the rice field, pro- 
bably in a deluge of rain, but with his head and back most se- 
curely protected by the Eerluh §, however much exposed the 
rest of his body may be. The transplantation is performed 
under similar exposure. The other monsoon grains of the 
Mawuls are the Sawa, Wuree, and Natchnee, and Karlee, 
or Kalee Teel|| which is an oil plant of the only other monsoon 
product. 

The labour attending the cultivation of these grains, in a 
very unfavourable climate, at the time they are grown, falls 
very severely on the people, but they are compensated for 
their labour and suffering by good returns of that valuable 
produce rice; and the returns of the other grains are great, 
and the crops seldom fail. 

The Koonbees, or farmers of the Mawuls, also have an 
advantage which those of the Desh are not always assured of, 
ji. e. the certainty of finding a market for one of their products, 
rice. 

Dry Season Crop (Mawuls.)—The dry crop of the Mawuls 
does not call for any mention in this place. 

Dry Season Crop (Desh.)—With respect to the Desh, the 
most valuable is the Rubbée, or spring crop§. ‘The agricul- 
tural processes in both crops is certainly defective, less owing to 
the ignorance of the cultivators, who are well aware of the 
advantage of a ploughing adapted to the character of the soil, 
of good manuring, complete weeding, rotations of crops and fal- 
lows ; than to their necessities, which compel them to rack their 
land; they cannot generally afford to purchase a sufficiency of 


* Hilly districts along the crest of the Ghats. 

+ Flat country, eastward of the Mawuls. 

t Vide No. 118, wet crop, Mawuls. 

§ Eerluh, or basket-work hood, covered with leaves and quite impervious to 
rain. 

|| Wet season crop (Mawuls.) 

{ Consisting of wheats, gram, barley ; Shaloo, (Andropogon Saccharatum) ; 
Dhal, (Cytisus cajan), oil-plants, &c. 


ti 
s ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 275 


manure, they have not any stable-yards, and the dearth of 
fuel compels them to burn much of their cow-dung ; and, with 
a singular fatuity and injurious caution, they sow half a dozen 
grains and pulses together in the same field, which necessarily 
impede the growth of each other, exhaust the soil, and give 
limited returns. The professed object is to assure, in the oc- 
casional uncertainty of the monsoons, some kind of return at 
least for their labours, which might have been wholly unpro- 
ductive had one grain only been sown. In short they want to 
have half a dozen strings to their bow instead of one. 

Wet Crop (Desh.)\—The grains so sown ripen in succes- 
sion, and two of them remain on the ground between nine and 
ten months; that is to say, from the beginning of June to the 
end of February. In their management of the plough, the 
Koonbees do not want dexterity. Their cattle have all 
names, know theiit names, and are obedient to them; with 
four bullocks to a plough, the leaders are guided entirely by 
the voice, and I have frequently seen quite a youth managing 
alone very cleverly his plough and four bullocks. 

In the Desh, in manuring land, the cart called Jang or 
Janjeea, is used; it consists simply of the common cart with a 
quite flat basket tied on the top of it, made by the Koonbees 

_ from the twigs of the Neergoondee, (Vitex trifolia,) or of the 
_ twigs of the 'Tooree, (Cytisus cajan.) The manure generally 
_ consists of the sweepings of their houses, which, from being 
__ usually cow-dunged every day and daily swept, are not trifling, 
_ and from the ashes also from their hearths. 
Crops are carted to the Kulleh, or farm-yard, from the fields 
_ bytheGarra. This consists of an upper horizontal rude frame- 
_ work supported on a thick axle-tree, and is removeable at 
5 pleasure. The wheels are of solid wood, small, placed under 
_ the frame-work, are not sufficiently far apart, and consequently 
_ subject the cart to upset, which is but too frequent an occur- 
rence. Wooden pegs and thongs keep the whole vehicle to- 
_ gether, and there is no more iron about the cart than the tire 
_ round the wheels and the hollow cylinders within the naves. 
This vehicle, considering the circumstances of the Koonbees, 


is expensive, costing from eighty to one hundred rupees, 
and it is only the most substantial among them who have 
arts. Having carted their grain, the Koonbees remove it to 
_ the Kulleh, or farm-yard. 

| Farm-yard.—The grain is stacked round a spot in the open 
air in a corner of one of their fields. This spot is circular, and 
has been prepared by beating and cow-dunging; a pole, called 
_ Tewrah, is fixed in the centre of it. In the reedy grains the 
_ T2 


276 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


heads are broken off by women, and strewed round the pole* 
to the depth of 5 or 6 inches. In the ligneous pulses, the 
extreme twigs, bearing the legumes, are broken off and 
strewed round the pole; and in the herbaceous leguminous 
pulses and straw-culm grains, the whole plant is put on the 
floor : six, or eight, or more bullocks (I saw sixteen at Munchur) 
are tied side by side, half on one side of the pole and half on 
the other ; they are muzzled and driven round the pole, tread- 
ing out the grain. This process usually occupies two men, 
and it is called the Mudinee. It is neither inefficient, nor 
dilatory. It would appear to be of great antiquity, and 
widely practised; in Deuteronomy, xxv. 4. we read, ‘‘ Thou 
shalt not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out the corn.” 

Winnowing.~-We are now brought to the winnowing the 
grain. ‘This is dore in the Kulleh; and when there are suffi- 
cient members in the family of the farmer after the first tread- 
ing, the process is carried on simultaneously with the 
Mullnee. ‘The process is very simple, but certainly not very 
efficient, as it is dependent on the wind blowing. In case the 
wind blows very hard, the grain is blown away; and in case the 
wind is not strong enough, the husks fall with the grain. A man 
stands upon a tall three-legged form, called the Wawhree, and 
pours the grain taken up from the treading ground, out of 
the winnowing basket (oopunwutee). The full grain falls per- 
pendicularly and is pretty free from husks, but the lighter 
grain falls obliquely, and is partially mixed with the husks. 
A man sits at the base of the stool or form with a broom 
(aatuee) in his hand to assist in removing the chaff from the 
edges of the mass of fallen grain. After all is done, however, 
it is requisite to pass a good proportion of the grain through 
the sieve, (Chalun). After the grain is winnowed it is carried 
home and laid in store. 

Preserving Grain.—There are various ways of preser- 
ving the grain. Where the soil is sufficiently dry, cham- 


bers are dug in the earth for it; but the most usual plan in © 


the districts is to preserve it in large baskets, called Kuneeng, 


made of twigs of the Neergoondee, (Vitex trifolia,) or of those 


of the Tooree, (Cytisus cajan). These baskets are plastered 
with cow-dung inside and out, and are perfectly impervious to 
rain or damp. Where the habitations are sufficiently large, 
or the baskets few in number, they are lodged in the house, 
but not unfrequently are placed outside of the house within 
reach of any pilfering hand. A few stones are put under each 


* Tewrah. 


RAED AIS vt mm My 


' 


a 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 277 


basket; the lid, in case it has a lid, is sealed down with cow- 
dung, and in case it has not a lid, a plaster of cow-dung a 
couple of inches thick is put over the grain; a little cap, or 
roof of grass, is put over the basket, and it is left exposed till 
required, being deemed equally protected from the elements 
and man. In the Mawuls, in the hct months, the whole of the 
grain baskets of the village, full of grain, may be seen assembled 
in front of the village temple, and left to the custody of the 
village god. The roofs of all the houses are of grass in the 
Mawuls, and the dread of fires (the people having no chimneys 
to their houses) induces them to put their monsoon and winter 
stores in a place of safety, the extreme dryness of the period 
rendering accidents by fire frequent. It is not an unfrequent 
practice with the Koonbees of the Mawuls to unroof their 
houses for the months of April and May. 

In addition to the baskets for the preservation of grain, 
earthen jars, called Kothee, made by the people themselves, 
are met with to hold grain, but they are not common. 

Preparing Grain for Food.—The preparation of grain 
for food is the last process. Husk grains, such as rice, 
Wuree, (Panicum miliare); and Sawa, (Panicum frumen- 
taceum); and the Johr, or husked wheat, require to be 

_ pounded to remove the husks. This process is entirely 
_ within the province of the women: the implements used may 
be called the pestle and mortar; the mortar is called the 
_ ookul, and the pestle, moosul. The mortar in the Mawuls is 
_ frequently very rude in form, being a rough stone with a hole 
scooped in the middle of it to receive the grain. Inthe Desh, 
_ however, the mortar is of wood, of a good form, and some- 
_ times carved. The moosul, or pestle, is always of wood, four 
or five feet long, tipped with iron, and in thickness and weight 
_ suitable to the strength of the person to use it. The final 
__ process is the grinding the corn; this also is the duty of the 
women, and two of them are usually employed at the mill. 
_ Christ says, ‘‘ There shall be two women grinding at the mill ;* 
one shall be taken and the other left.” 

Hand Mill.—The mill is portable, and is called Jatuh: it 
_ Consists of two flat circular stones, fourteen or eighteen inches in 
_ diameter, placed one on the other; the lower one has an upright 

__ peg in it, the upper one has a hole in the centre through which 
_ the peg of the lower stone passes, and the upper stone is made 
_ to perform an horizontal rotatory motion round the peg by 
means of another upright peg near its margin. The grain is 
put in at the hole in the centre. This form of mill must be 


* Matth. xxiv. 41. 


278 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


very ancient, for I saw remains of such mills in the ruins 
of Pompeii, and one nearly perfect in the ruins of the Roman 
villa of Sir William Hickes’s estate near Cheltenham, Glouces- 
tershire. 

Raw Sugar Mill.—Under the head of agriculture it will be 
necessary to speak of the Gool, or raw sugar-mill. Sugar 
cane is not so much cultivated as it might be, and it is seldom 
found but at populous villages. I have seldom seen more 
than two mills at a village; and as the screws and accom- 
paniments are somewhat expensive for the circumstances of a 
cultivator, the mills are seldom found belonging to him, but 
he is a renter of them for the term requisite. The mills are 
in the open air, and consist of two vertical screws which are 
sunk in a square chamber excavated in the earth; one of them 
is moved by a double lever so much elevated above the level 
of the field as to admit of bullocks being attached to the ends 
of the lever. The cattle go round incessantly in a circle and 
work the mill. The bits of sugar cane are passed twice be- 
tween the screws, and the juice runs out into a wooden or 
copper vessel placed to receive it. The fire-place (Choo- 
langun) and great iron pan (Kurhuee), to boil the juice in, are 
close at hand; a ladle to stir and skim the juice as it boils, 
and some circular holes in the ground to receive the juice 
when sufficiently thick, complete the material and close the 
process. The work is continued night and day till the cane- 
field is exhausted. Sugar is not refined in the Dukhun, 

Oil Mills.—Although the oil mills belong to a class of per- 
sons who are not agriculturists, the Koonbee is quite depend- 
ent on them to turn his numerous oil seeds to account ; some 
mention therefore of them is necessary under “ agriculture.” 
The body of the mill is generally of stone, and the machinery, 
even when of the rudest construction, shows a good deal of 
ingenuity and an acquaintance with some of the mechanic 
powers. It is entirely the work of the village carpenter. 

At Neelsee, a Kohlee village in the wilds on the brink of 
the Ghats, the body of the mill is of wood, the lever works in 
the hollow of an upright cylinder, and by the great weight at- 
tached to its upper end constantly presses against the sides of 
the hollow and forces the oil from the seed which is put into 
the mill. The whole expense of the machinery of this particular 
mill was only five rupees *. In the Desh the body of the mill 
is of stone, the machinery is the same as in this mill. It is 
worked by a bullock. 

Average Size of Farms.—There are not any farms of large 


* About ten shillings. 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 279 


size under the management of a single farmer; the largest 
I recollect meeting with was about 200 acres, but in ge- 
neral they average very considerably less in size. In the 
Poona Collectorate the average size was 29 beegahs*, in 
Ahmednuggur 35 beegahs, in Dharwar 43,8, beegahs, and 
in Khundesh 23,58, beegahs. The average rent of a farm 
in Poona was less than 48 shillings per annum; in Ahmed- 
nuggur about 86 shillings; in Dharwar 64 shillings; and in 
Khandesh, where a good deal of the land cultivated is garden 
land, 74 shillings per annum. In Poona the average rent per 
beegah is within a fraction of two shillings; in Ahmednuggur 
about two shillings and six pence per beegah; in Dharwar 
not quite eighteen pence ; and in Khandesh, where there is 
proportionably a good deal of garden land, it is somewhat 
more than three shillings a beegah. ‘The average for the 
whole of the lands of Dukhun is two shillings and ninepence, 
one-eighth per English acre, or one rupee and fourteen reas 
per Dukhun beegah. 

Proportion of Yoke Cattle to each Farmer.—Generally in 
the population returns there were great omissions of the draft 
or yoke cattle of the cultivators; no very satisfactory state- 
ment can therefore be given of their agricultural means in 
this kind of stock. Inone Talook, or county, of the Dharwar 
_ Collectorate, the yoke cattle were filled in, with the exception 
__ of two or three village returns, and the proportion is only 
__ 1°88 bullocks to each cultivator; but as the ploughs are 3733 


— innumberin the Talook, at two bullocks to a plough, the pro- 
_ portion should be 2°89 bullocks (uearly 3) to a cultivator: the 
_ returns must be defective, for I am satisfied, although a farmer 


_ may not have two bullocks to each of his ploughs, and he has 


es generally a heavy plough and a light one, yet he has always 


_ two bullocks at least for one of his ploughs. 

Inthe Ahmednuggur Collectorate the yoke cattle are not 
distinguished from the pack or carriage cattle, but the whole 
_ amount is very considerable, being 212,008. In the Poona 
_ Collectorate the returns give 24 yoke bullocks to each farmer, 


but the farmers near to the city of Poona are much better off, 


averaging 31 bullocks each. Only a portion of the returns 
ging 2% yap 


_ from Khandesh had the column of draft or yoke cattle filled 


e. Pp; it is impossible, therefore, to give the proportion to each 
farmer for the whole collectorate; but as far as the returns 
_ went, it appeared that each farmer averaged only 1°62 bul- 
locks, not quite 14. 


_ * The Dukhun beegah is three-fourths of an English acre. The rupee is 
valued at two shillings. 


280 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, 


Milch cattle.—The proportion of milch cattle, on which so 
much of the comfort of the people depends, whether rural or 
urban, in the Dharwar Collectorate, is greater than in the 
other collectorates, being one cow or milch buffalo to 2°45 souls. 
In Poona it is 1 to 5°24 persons; in Ahmednuggur 1 to 3:04 
persons ; and in Khandesh | cow or buffalo to 2°26 souls. 

Ploughs.—As 1 have before stated, ploughs are of two 
kinds, the Nangur or heavy plough, and the Hulka Nangur or 
light plough; the same obtains with respect to drill ploughs, no 
grain being sown broadcast, the heavy drill plough being called 
Mogurh, and the light Pabhar. The proportion of ploughs 
in the Dharwar Collectorate is 1°41 to each cultivator, or 
nearly three ploughs to two farmers; the number of ploughs in 
the returns being 99,883, and the number of cultivators 70,488. 

Carts.—Were a judgement to be formed of the state of the 
roads, and of the facility of communication and transit by 
wheel carriages, from the proportion of carts to the farmers, 
the estimate would be low indeed.* In the Dharwar Collect- 
orate there is only one cart to thirteen farmers. ‘The carts 
are universally of two wheels. 

Pack cattle-—The unusual number of pack bullocks, which 
carry loads on their backs, in the Dharwar Collectorate, would 
seem to indicate that they are the chief means by which agri- 
cultural and other produce is transported from place to place. 
In Khandesh there is the least number of pack cattle, and the 
greatest proportional number of carts. In Poona a great 
number of pack cattle, and only one cart to eleven farmers. 
The proportion in Ahmednugeur I do not know. 


Land and other Tenures. 


Lands are held under a great variety of tenures in Dukhun, 
some by virtue of offices which are hereditary, some as here- 
ditary freehold property, some in free gift from the state, 
some in Jagheer or military or feudal tenure, some on a quit 
rent, and in many other ways; but a rapid notice of the dif- 
ferent tenures, and of the office-bearers holding lands, will 
best assist to give a clear idea of their quality and number. 

In the first place, the proprietary right of the soil was 
(and is) in the people, and not in the sovereign. The sove- 
reign could assess the land as he pleased, and assign away a 
part or the whole of the revenue arising from the land-tax 
or assessment, either in free gift (EKenam), military tenure 
(Jagheer), or quit rent, or in any other way ; but he could not 


* It is nevertheless true, that had the farmers carts, they could rarely use 
them from the want of roads, unless in the dry season. 


3 i 


; ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 281 


justly take away a man’s land either for his own purposes or 
to give it to others; although, as a despotic prince, like all 
other princes of India, he had the undoubted adility to do so 
at his pleasure: yet few instances are known of this oppressive 
_ exercise of their power, and there are many instances on 
record of their purchasing land from their subjects. I have 
laid before the public translations of official documents, in 
which the sovereigns have been parties, containing the most 
irresistible proofs of the people having the uncontrolled right 
to dispose of their lands as they pleased, by gift, or sale, or 
devise, or in other ways. These translations are too lengthened 
to be introduced in this report, but they will be met with in 
the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and 
Treland. 
All lands in Dukhun were classed within some village 
boundary or other; and to this day these boundaries are 
guarded with such jealousy by the inhabitants as to be pro- 
ductive of broils and bloodshed on their slightest invasion. 
The village lands were divided into family estates, called 
Thuls, which bore the name of the family, and the estates 
bear the name to this day, although the family be extinct or 
Gutkool, as it is called; and half the estates in Dukhun are 
_ now Gutkool, but preserve their family names. These estates 
__ were hereditary and freehold, burthened only with the sove- 
_ reign’s land-tax, and assessments for village expenses, as a 
_ gentleman’s estate in England is burthened with land-tax and 
_ assessments for highway and poor-rates, &c.; there were not 
any tithes, but in each village there were lands assigned for 
_ religious objects, either to temples or to sacerdotal persons. 
_ Every village had a constitution for its internal government ; 
_ it consisted of the Pateel or chief, assisted by a Chowgulla ; 
_ the Koolkurnee, or village accountant, kept the village records 
and details of assessment and revenue; and there were twelve 
hereditary village officers, the well-known Bara Bullooteh, 
whose numbers were complete or otherwise as the population 
of the«villages was capable of supporting them. All these 
officers and the chief land-owners formed a village council, 
- called Pandreh, which managed the external and internal re- 
lations of the village, whether with respect to raising the 
_ government assessments, managing its police, or in settling 
_ civil disputes, excepting in cases where Panchaeits or juries 
f five persons were specifically appointed to arbitrate by 
mutual consent of the litigating parties. And it is somewhat 
| remarkable that this isolated and internal government has 

withstood the shocks of all the changes of dynasties, invasions, 


~ 


282 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


rebellions, and the destructive anarchy which have so fre- 
quently disgraced the annals of India. 

A certain number of villages constituted a Naikwuree, over 
which was an officer with the denomination of Naik. Ejighty- 
four villages constituted a Deshmookee, over which was an 
officer called a Deshmook, or governor,* possibly equivalent 
to our lord-lieutenant of counties; this officer was assisted by 
a Desh Chowgulla; and for the branch of accounts there was 
a Deshpandeh or district accountant and register. The links 
connecting the Deshmooks with the prince were Sur-Desh- 
mooks, or heads of the Deshmooks; they were few in number. 
It is said there were also Sur-Deshpandehs. The Sur-Desh- 
mooks, Deshmooks, and their assistants, Naiks, Pateels, and 
Chowgullahs, indeed all persons in authority, were Mahrattas; 
the writers and accountants were mostly Brahmans. Such 
was the state of things under the ancient Hindoo govern- 
ments. The Moosulmans on their conquest, in the civil di- 
visions of the country, introduced the terms of Soobeh (a 
province), Pergunnah (county), Tallook (manor, lordship), 
and Turruff (a division of a county). The Hindoo hereditary 
officers were deprived of their authority, (excepting those in 
the village constitution,) but, very liberally, they were not de- 
prived of their tenures; and their places were supplied by 
Zemindars,t Maamlutdars, Sheristehdars, Havaildars, &c. 

I have stated that the family estates were called Thuls, 
from the Sanscrit Sthul, ‘firm land;” and in case the family 
became extinct or Gutkool, from the Sanscrit Gut, ‘ gone, 
passed away,” and Kool, ‘‘a race or family,” the property did 
did not pass to the sovereign, but it was at the disposal of the 
Pateel solely, or the village corporation conjointly, to do as 
they pleased with it; and I have multiplied proofs in my pos- 
session of freeholds having been created in such estates of 
extinct families, by letters of inheritance, called Meeras Putra, 
which were granted by the Pateel or village authorities for a 
sum of money; and such letters became title-deeds, similar to 
those of an estate in England. The law of succession by pri- 
mogeniture not obtaining amongst the Hindoos, these estates 


* Called also Desaee or Deshaee in some parts. 

+ Mistakes, very serious in their consequences, have been made with 
respect to the supposed rights of Zemindars. They were introduced by the 
Moosulmans, superseding the ancient Hindoo Deshmooks and Desaees, and 
were government officers for the collection of the revenue, and for the civil 
government of districts. In Bengal, the British considered them proprietors 
of the soil, and constituted them as great freeholders; sweeping away the vil- 
lage freeholds. 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 283 


became necessarily much divided, and the individual holders 
were called by the Hindoos Thulwaee or Thulkuree; and the 
light in which the Moosulmans looked upon such proprietors, 
when they took possession of the country, is sufficiently mani- 
fest by the term they applied to them, namely, Meerasdars, or 
patrimony-holders, from the Arabic word Meeras, “ patri- 
mony, ‘‘heritage,” and Dar, ‘a holder;” and this is the 
term by which such proprietors are distinguished at the 
present day. The Meerasdars were of two kinds; the de- 
scendants of the original proprietor, whose surnames and the 
name of the estate or thul were identical, and those who had 
obtained a share of the estate by purchase or otherwise, whose 
surnames were not the same as that of the estate. In no in- 
stance, that I am aware of, have the former class documentary 
proofs of their right; with the latter class documentary proofs 
are not uncommon. 

There is further proof of the Moosulmans having ac- 
knowledged hereditary rights in the term they applied to the 
Deshmooks, Desaees, Deshpandehs, and others, namely, 
Hukdar. Huk, in Arabic, meaning “right,” and Dar “a 
holder ;” these persons in virtue of their offices having lands 
in tenure and fees in money and kind in the districts in which 
these duties lay. The Meerasdars considered that they might 
be temporarily dispossessed of their freeholds in case of non- 
payment of the government assessments and dues, but they 
claimed to resume them whenever they had liquidated their 
debts; and they did not consider the question of these freeholds 
compromised by the government doing justice to itself, any more 
than the existence of freehold property would be questioned 
in England because the owner might be compelled to yield 
up his property in payment of arrears of land-tax, poor- 
rates, &c, 

Meerasdars.—Meerasdars set a very high value upon their 
lands, and they clung to them with that feeling of personal and 
family pride which are characteristics of freeholders in Eu- 
rope; even under the most grinding oppressions of their own 
government and its local officers, it was only when driven to 
despair that they abandoned them. The Meerasdar had to 
pay the government land-tax, all fees in kind to the district and 
village officers in common with the tenant at will or leaseholder; 
moreover, he had to pay a tax applicable to himself only, called 
Meerasputtee, a kind of smart-money for the distinction his 
freehold gave him ; this was levied every third year. Such was 
the Meeras tenure of land. His advantages were, first, the di- 
stinction; next, his being a constituent of the Pandreh, orvillage 


284 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


corporation, which the mere renter was not; and thirdly, in 
some parts of the country where such taxation existed, he 
was exempt from marriage fees, widows’ marriage fees, buffalo 
tax, hearth tax, and he may have paid a diminished per 
centage, in the rights of district officers levied in kind. Of late 
years, from the low prices of agricultural produce and the 
comparatively heavy money assessments, Meeras-land has 
scarcely had a saleable value. The terms Meerasdar and 
Wuttundar have usually been considered identical, but in 
some village papers I observed them classed separately; and, 
on asking for an explanation, was told that the Wuttundars 
were hereditary office-bearers, or the relations of hereditary 
office-bearers with the possible right of succession, whilst the 
Meerasdars were merely hereditary landholders; a Wuttundar 
would necessarily be a Meerasdar, but a Meerasdar was not 
necessarily a Wuttundar. 

Oopuree.—From the extinction of numerous Mahratta fa- 
milies who were in possession of estates, a considerable por- 
tion of the land in Dukhun is without proprietors, and much 
of it is rented to Oopurees or annual tenants by the Pateel or 
village corporation, under native governments; but, under the 
British government, by the collector or his officers. ‘The 
term Oopuree means ‘‘a stranger,” or a renter of land in a 
village in which he has not corporate rights: of course, Mee- 
rasdars can let their lands to each other, but they do not become 
Oopurees. The Oopuree holds his lands on the Ooktee, or 
“word-of-mouth tenure, which is a verbal agreement for one 

ear. 

Kowl Istawa.—The third tenure is that of Kowl Istawa; 
Kowi means a contract, and Istawa is applied to lands let 
under their value. In practice, to induce cultivators to break 
up land that has long lain waste, a lease is given of three, five, 
seven, or nine years; the first year a trifling rent is fixed, and 
it is annually increased, until in the last year of the lease the 
full rent is paid; this tenure is highly desired, and great 
abuses exist under it: the permanently assessed cultivator is 
prompted to quit his village, and abandon even his hereditary 
Jands, and get Kowl Istawa lands in another village; and the 
moment the favourable lease is up he changes his location, 
and endeavours to obtain similar terms elsewhere: the prac- 
tice, therefore, is detrimental to the permanent revenue, detri- 
mental to the sound advancement of agriculture, and detrimental 
to the cultivator himself in encouraging vagrant habits. 'The 
local authorities also are found to be great occupiers of Kowl 
Istawa lands. 


‘ 


x 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 285 


Owand tenure.—Any inhabitants of a village, cultivating 
lands in a neighbouring village, but not residing in that vil- 
lage, do so on the Owand tenure. The rate and terms are 
the Ooktee, and with respect to the village such cultivator is, 
in fact, an Oopuree, but his distinctive appellation is Owand- 
Kuree. 

The above are the tenures on which the government land 
revenue is raised, which in the four collectorates of Dukhun 
amounts to 82°372 per cent. of the whole revenue; this per 
centage, however, includes some trifling rents from government 
lands, gardens, orchards, grass lands, and sheep grazing, quit 
rents, fees, Hukdars, and extra cesses. 

Tenures involving alienations of lands.—I have now to 
speak of tenures which involve alienations of lands, from a 
few beegahs in a village, to whole districts: these are Jagheer 
and Henam in Khandesh; Surinjam, Eenam, and Doomalla 
in the Ahmednuggur Collectorate; Henam, Surinjam, and 
Eesaphut in Poona; and in Dharwar, Jooree Eenam, Surwa 
Eenam, and Jagheer: at least, such terms appeared in the 
population returns sent to me, and in the public papers which - 
I have. 

Jagheer.—Jagheer, which is a Persian word in its origin, is 
applied to lands given by government (or the government 
share of the rents) for personal support, or as a fief for the 
maintenance of troops for the service of the state: some ser- 
vice is implied in the personal as well as in the military 
Jagheer. In the Collectorates in Dukhun upwards of 400 
“populated villages appear to be alienated in Jagheer. 

Eenam.—EKenam is a word of Arabic origin, meaning a 
* gift,” ‘‘ present ;” and lands so held should be entirely free 
from tax to government; but a subsequent explanation of 
various tenures will show that Kenam has a much wider sig- 
nification than is generally supposed. This tenure is very 
extensive in Dukhun; for independently of the grants of whole 
towns and villages to individuals, of which there are 231 


alienated in the Poona Collectorate alone, and the other Col- 
w. 


_lectorates have a proportional share; independently also of 


_ grants for temples and religious institutions, almost every 


village has Kenam land held by the Pateel, Koolkurnee, and 


_ Mahrs, and very commonly the Deshmooks and Deshpandehs 


have also land rent free appertaining to their offices in the vil- 


_lages of their districts. ‘The Bara Bullooteh, or twelve village 


_artizans and officers, have often Kenam lands, but their Eenam 


____ is qualified by the imposition of some professional service, and 


it pays also a quit rent. Many of the Eenams are very 
curious in their objects; for instance, at th village of Wan- 


286 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


gee, Pergunnah Wangee, Poona Collectorate, 15 beegahs of 
land to a mendicant for reading stories before the goddess 
Dawai at her festival; 15 beegahs to the tabor players at the 
temple ; 30 beegahs to the tumbling and dancing women at 
the temple; the clarinet and double-drum players had respect- 
ively similar Eenams; the gardener, for the supply of flowers, 
had 30 beegahs or 223 acres. These Eenams existed un- 
touched under the bigoted Moosulman government, and still 
remain. 

Surinjam.—Lands held in Surinjam involve the condition 
of military service: the term is of Persian origin, meaning 
“ furniture,” “‘apparatus,’” implying that the lands are to defray 
_ the expense of equipment: in fact, Surinjam is synonymous 
with military Jagheer. In the Poona Collectorate 181 vil- 
lages appear to be alienated in Surinjam. 

Doomalla.—Doomalla, in the etymology of the word, means 
“two rights” or ‘ properties,” from Do two, and Maal pro- 
perty: the term is only found in the list of villages of the 
Ahmednuggur Collectorate, applied to villages and lands 
granted to individuals, on which government has a reserved 
right. In this sense the tenure appears to be that of quit 
rent, and the term is synonymous with the Jooree Eenam of 
the Dharwar Collectorate. In the Ahmednuggur Collectorate 
58134 villages appear as Doomalla, but this, no doubt, includes 
Jagheer and Kenam villages. 

Eesaphut.—In the Poona Collectorate the term Eesaphut 
is applied to 374 villages: it is probably a corruption from the 
Arabic Zeaphut, meaning ‘‘ feast,” ‘‘ entertainment.” Lands 
so held are rent free, and may have been given to assist in 
celebrating festivals. 

In the Dharwar Collectorate the terms Jooree Eenam, 
Surwa Eenam, and Jagheer occur: the first corresponds to 
the Doomalla of Ahmednuggur, and is, in fact, a quit rent 
tenure; the second means “all gift,” from Swrwa “all,” and 
Eenam “gift,” there not being any tax or fee upon these 
lands : Jagheer has been explained before. 

Tenure of Deshmook and Desaee.—It is a general belief that 
these officers were coeval with the establishment of the land 
institutions of the Mahratta people.* Deshmooks were the 
civil governors of districts, collectors of the revenue, and 
executive officers of the government. The name is probably 
a corruption of the Sanscrit Deshuk, a governor or ruler. In 
early times they were exclusively Mahrattas, and not Brah- 
mans or Moosulmans. The importance of the office is at- 


* I mean, of course, long antecedent to the Moosulman invasion, 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 287 


tested by the fact that, in the earliest mention of the chiefs of 
the present great Mahratta families, they are styled Desh- 
mooks of such and such districts. ‘Their rights were here- 
ditary, and saleable, wholly or in part, like those of every 
other hereditary office or right: the right of alienation is 
proved by different casts being now associated in the office. 
At Ahmednuggur a third of the Deshmookee belongs to a 
Brahman, and two-thirds to the ruling Mahratta family at 
Nagpoor. Similar instances are very numerous. In some 
cases a Deshmook is also Pateel of one of the villages in his 
district. The rights and emoluments of the Deshmook are 
very extensive, but not uniform throughout the country ; they 
had a per centage on the revenue varying from one to five 
per cent. In the Poona Collectorate the mean charge for 
Deshmooks and Deshpandehs amounted to 3:06 per cent. of 
the gross revenue, but on the nett revenue it amounted as 
nearly as possible to six per cent; although these persons are 
now non-efficient, their authority being superseded. As a 
single illustrative instance, it may be as well to state, that at the 
village of Ankoolsur, Talook Ahmednuggur, out of a village 
revenue of 4533 rupees, the Deshmook received 265 rupees, 
and the Deshpandeh 15U rupees; the former sharing 5:84 per 
_cent., and the latter 3°31 per cent. Their next advantage 
2 is in some of them enjoying villages in free gift; the third, 
, in possessing Eenam land in most of the villages in their dis- 
| tricts, sometimes to a large amount. At Mohol Talook 
__ Mohol, the two sharers in the office of Deshmook have ‘each 
4650 acres of free (or Eenam) land. The fourth right of the 
_ Deshmook is a portion of grain from each village, called 
_ Googree, from all the land under cultivation. In addition to 
_ the above, from some villages they were entitled to a sheep 
and some butter annually; from some villages a dress, from 
_ others a turband, and where sugar-cane was cultivated, they 
had a portion of the raw sugar. They possessed the above 
_ advantages on the tenure of executing the duties previously 
2° lam They were to a district what a Pateel is to a vil- 

lage. 
i Re Vipandehi-—'The Deshpandehs are contemporary in their 
institution with the Deshmooks; they were the writers, ac- 
_ countants, and registers of districts; they were always 
_ Brahmans. The terms appear to be derived from the Sanscrit 
_ Desh, country, and Punnah, to do business. They were to 
_ districts what Koolkurnees were to a village: they had, and 
have nearly the same rights and emoluments as the Desh- 
_ mooks, but in a diminished ratio of from 25 to 50 per cent, 


ia 


288 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


The offices of Deshpandeh and Koolkurnee are sometimes 
found united. Their duties are in abeyance, but, like the 
Deshmooks, they enjoy their rights. 

Paieel.—The next and the most important tenure of all is 
that of Pateel or headman of towns and villages. Pateel is a 
Mahratta term, and may be derived from the Sanscrit Putiruh, 
“deed,” “lease,” the Pateel anciently having had the disposal 
of all vacant lands in his village by deed or lease. Originally 
the Pateels were Mahrattas, but sale, gift, or other causes 
have now associated in the office various casts, and there are 
sometimes six or seven or more sharers in the office,—Brah- 
mans, Mahrattas, Moosulmans, Shepherds, Lingaeets, &c., 
and these not holding in equal proportions. I have elsewhere* 
given a translation of a very remarkable and curious Mahratta 
document, proving in the most distinct manner the right of 
the Pateel, not only to sell his family or hereditary property, 
and the lands he held in virtue of his office, but also the 
lands of extinct families, and his other emoluments and ad- 
vantages; but, in doing so, he also alienated part of his dig- 
nity, rights, and authority as Pateel: the honours went with 
the lands. ‘The rights and emoluments of the Pateel are very 
numerous; free land, fees of grain on the cultivation, called 
googree, presents on investitures, on granting letters of in- 
heritance, on marriages ; annual presents from the shoemaker 
of shoes, from the potmaker of pots, from the shopkeepers of 
cocoa-nuts, &c., market fees, all the sheeps-heads offered in 
the temple of Dawai! daily service, and supply of wood and 
water by the Mahr and the potmaker; precedence in all re- 
ligious or other festivals, in communicating with government, 
and with others. ‘The details of the translation before noticed 
show with what jealousy the Pateel maintained all the minutest 
rights and dignities. Of such importance and so profitable 
was the office, or in such estimation was the dignity of Pateel 
anciently, that princes of the Mahratta empire established 
themselves wholly or in part in the office in various towns and 
villages; Holkur, for instance, at Munchur; Seendeh (Sin- 
diah) + at Jamgaon; the Nagpoor Bhosleh at Ahmed- 
nuggur, and Powar of Dhar at Multun and Kuweeteh. There 
are traditionai accounts of a share of the Pateel’s office 
having been sold for 7000 rupees. 

The right of the Pateel to dispose of the village lands not 
occupied by hereditary proprietors, together with his respon- 


* Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 
+ This prince has six out of seven shares in the office; nevertheless the 
poor Mahratta who has the seventh share has precedence of the prince. 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 289 


sibility for the government revenue, involves the proof that 
e the government assessment was anciently Mozehwar, or by 
the whole village, and not by direct agreement between the 

government agents and individual farmers. The village, in 
4 fact, was assessed at a certain fixed sum, which was called the 
Tunkha, which means an assignment; and this Tunkha appears 
in village accounts to this day, although no longer a standard 
of assessment, as the British government settles directly with 
the farmer, and has also abrogated the right of the Pateel and 
the village corporation to dispose of waste lands ; in alienated 
villages, however, these rights remain. Although the trans- 
lation before noticed gives a minute detail of the rights and 
emoluments of the Pateels of Kuweeteh, it is to be under- 
stood they are not uniform either in number or value through- 
out the country. An idea of the value of the Googree, or 
right to a share in the grain-produce of cultivated lands, may 
- be formed from the fact, that at Kurjut, Ahmednuggur col- 
lectorate, in 1827, there were 8491 beegahs of land under 
cultivation, and the Pateel was entitled to 128 seers for every 
120 beegahs; he received therefore, 9057 seers of grain, a 
sufficiency for the annual support of 25 persons. 

The duties of the Pateel were, to be responsible for the 
revenue of the village, to superintend its police, and regulate 
its internal economy. He had power to seize, imprison, and 
fine offenders. 

With regard to joint proprietary in the office, independently 
of shares being held by different casts and families, the Hin- 
doo law of inheritance, which gives equal shares of all property 
to all children, necessarily made many joint owners in a family; 
but as the executive duties are only performed by the head 
_ of the family, this person is called Mokuddum, “chief” or 
_ “leader ;” and the term of course is applicable to the head of 
_ each proprietary family, who is designated in the village papers 
__ ashalf Mekuddum, quarter Mokuddum, or seventh Mokuddum, 
according to the share of the Pateelship held by the family. 
_Koolkurnee.—The next village tenure is that of Koolkurnee, 
_ from the Sanscrit Kool “to count,” and Kroot ‘to do,” “‘make;” 
literally an accountant. The office is of very great import- 
ance, for the Koolkurnee is not only the accountant of the go- 
_ vernment revenue, but he keeps the private accounts for each 
_ individual in the village, and is the general amanuensis; few 
_ of the cultivators, the Pateels frequently inclusive, being able 
_ to write or cypher for themselves. In no instance have I 
_ found the office held by any other cast than the Brahmanical. 
__ The office is sometimes united with that of Deshpandeh, and 

_-—«*VOL,« vi. 1837. U 


290 SEVENTH REPORT—1937. 


not unfrequently to that of Johesee or village astrologer. The 
-Koolkurnee, like the Pateel, has Eenam land, sometimes salary, 
fees of grain, and miscellaneous rights of butter, raw sugar, 
&c., rarely having equal rights, either in number or value, 
with the Pateel, but commonly averaging from 25 to 75 per 
cent. below. Where the villages are very small, there is only 
one Koolkurnee for several villages, as in the case of. Turruff 
Muhr Khor, Poona collectorate, where the duties of this in- 
dividual extend to one small town and eleven villages. He is 
here paid by a money rate for every 30 beegahs of land under 
cultivation ; it varies from 1 rupee the 30 beegahs to 3 rupees. 

Unlike the Deshmooks and Pateels, no instance came to my 
knowledge of shares of the office being alienated from the 
family ; the numerous sharers being all connected by ties of 
blood, who each in turn take their annual duties; and these 
sharers are sometimes so numerous, that at one town the exe- 
cution of the duties only came to the same individual after a 
lapse of 20 years. The executive duties should be confined 
to the same person. 

Mahrs Tenure.—A very important tenure in villages is that 
of the low-cast people, called Mahr by the Mahrattas, and 
Dher by the Moosulmans. ‘They have Eenam lands in all vil- 
lages, divided into Hurkee and Arowlah; the former is rent 
free, and generally bears a small proportion to the latter, 
which pays a low quit rent. The Mahrs conceive that they 
have the right to mortgage or otherwise dispose of lands held 
for the performance of specific duties to the village and the 
government, and numerous instances of mortgage came to my 
knowledge ; but whether they can wholly alienate their lands 
or not, they cannot absolve themselves and their descendants 
' from their duties: these are to cut wood and grass for go- 
vernment officers and travellers, to act as guides, as porters to 
carry baggage from village to village, and to go as messengers ; 
they have to attend strangers and see to their wants being 
supplied, and if the strangers be of consequence, they or the 
Ramooses have to look to the safety of their baggage at night. 
‘They are the guardians of all village land-marks ; they are the 
Pateel’s messengers, (something like parish beadles,) and it is 
their duty to carry the collections to the treasurer of the dis- 
trict; they have to pass on all news or information received, 
whether written or verbal, whether by sign or by token, to all 
the surrounding villages, and it is perfectly astonishing the 
rapidity with which intelligence is diffused by their means. 
It is no uncommon thing for a distant public event to be whis- 
pered about in towns before any account of it has been received 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 291 


by the government post. Occasionally the answer to my in- 
quiries respecting the duties of the Mahrs was, that they were . 
to do every thing they were ordered, whether by the Pateel, 
the village corporation, or by the government. There are 
many families of them in every village: in some villages they 
have to pay a tax to government called Rabta Mahr, and this 
is in lieu of personal service in cutting wood and grass for the 
officers of government, but it does not absolve them from their 
other duties. So strictly is it their province to cut wood and 
grass, that their signature to all village or public documents is 
a sickle or hatchet to cut grass and wood, and a rope to tie 
them up. In addition to their Eenam lands, the Mahrs, in virtue 
of their office as one of the Bara Bullooteh or twelve village 
officers, craftsmen, and professions, receive fees in kind from 
all the cultivators; the fee in kind is a per centage upon the 
produce, but it is not uniform in amount throughout the Duk- 
hun. These twelve village officers are divided into three 
classes, according to the supposed importance of their services 
to the village; the first class in some villages received 50, the 
second 20, and the third 10 or 15 bundles or sheaves of Joaree, 
(Andropogon sorghum,) stalk and grain included upon every 
1000 cut down; and the same proportion of other grains. 
Many farmers in various parts of the country assured me that 
they put by 25 per cent. of their produce for the village crafts- 
men and professions ; and as the Mahrs from their usefulness 
share in all those classes, their returns must be considerable ; 
the individual benefit depending of course upon the magnitude 
of the body constituting this class of persons in the village. 


_ As low casts do not cultivate their Eenam lands, they derive 


less advantage from them than other Eenamdars, but make 


the best terms they can with the Koonbees to cultivate their 


| lands and fees, 


_ lands for them. The Mahr does not pay any tax to govern- 
_ ment upon his Bullooteh. In the whole of the duties of the 
_ Mahrs, whether for government, the village, or individuals, 
_ they are not bound to go beyond the village next to their 
_ own; here they hand over their charge and return.* 


_ Bara Bullooteh Tenure.—The twelve craftsmen or pro- 
fessions which were originally in every village were, the Sootar 
(Carpenter), Chambar (Shoemaker), Zohar (Ironsmith), and 
Mahr ; these constituted the Torlee Khas or first class. In 
the Mudlee Khas, or second class, were the Pureet (Washer- 


ba man), Koombar (Pot-maker), Nahwee (Barber), and Maang 


_* In speaking of the duties of the Mahrs I ought to have used the past 


_ tense instead of the present in some cases, government having partly absolved 


them from duties, the performance of which is their tenure for holding their 


U2 


292 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


(Skinner and Rope-maker). And in the third or Dhaktee 
Khas, the Kohlee (Waterman), Johesee (Astrologer), Gooruw 
(cleaner of, and attendant at the temple), and the Sonar 
(Silversmith) ; and, since the Moosulman rule, the Moolana or 
Moosulman priest and schoolmaster has been added. These 
persons, in their several lines, and according to their several 
abilities, were to do for the cultivators individually and the 
village collectively whatever might be required from them; 
and they were paid by an annual per-centage in kind upon the 
produce of the farmer; and this was called their Bullooteh, 
whence the term Bara Bullooteh: the fee being called Bul- 
looteh, and the receiver of it Bullootehdar. Very rarely could 
I get either farmer or Bullootehdar to state specifically what 
the one gave, and the other was entitled to receive; it de- 
pended very much upon the crops, and also upon the extent 
of services performed for each individual cultivator. These 
craftsmen have frequently small portions of Kenam lands, and 
part of their Bullooteh goes to government as a tax. 

Shet Sundee Tenure.—Lands were given to a kind of militia 
in the districts in place of pay, for the performance of certain 
duties, principally in the protection of their villages: this te- 
nure is called Shet Sundee from Shet “a field,” and Sunnud 
*‘a grant;” constituting the holders, in fact, a landed militia. 
Although this tenure may have been general at one period, 
I only observed lands set apart as Shet Sundee in five Per- 
gunnahs of the Poona collectorate, and I remarked it also at 
Kurmulla, Ahmednuggur collectorate. 

Tenure of Chowgulla.—There are several other tenures, of 
which a brief notice only may be given. The Chowgulla is 
the Pateel’s assistant; he is found in most villages; sometimes 
he has a trifling grant of land, but most commonly grain-fees 
from the landholders. This personage is called Buglah where 
the Kanree language is spoken. 

In some Turruffs a Havildar is met with; the term is of 
Arabic origin, from Hawala “charge,” “ custody,” and Dar 
*‘ agent,” “holder.” This officer was introduced by the Moosul- 
mans as a supervisor in the collection of the revenue of a cer- 
tain number of villages. He replaced the Hindoo Naik, who 
is still met with in some of the hill districts. The Havildar 
was paid by half a seer of grain from each beegah under culti- 
vation ; and for the Hindoo officer the same is levied, under the 
name of Naikwaree. At Kanoor, Ahmednuggur collectorate, 
the Naikwaree is 12 seers of grain on every 30 beegahs under 
cultivation. 

Tulwar.—In the southern villages bordering on the Kanree 
tracts, I met with the village or Turruff officer called Tulwar ; 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 293 


but the term is unknown to the genuine Mahrattas. His du- 
ties assimilate him to the Havildar and Naik of more northern 
tracts. 

Tenure of Ramooses.—Between the parallels of latitude 17° 
and 19° north, and longitude 73° 40! and 75° E., there are few 
villages in Dukhun without their Ramooses. These vagabonds 
are thieves by birth and cast, which is abject; most of the 
villages have them in employ to guard the village from robbery. 
In some villages they have Henam lands, but they are generally 
paid in fees of grain upon the cultivation. ‘There is a perfect 
community of interest amongst the fraternity, however di- 
spersed; and as they are dissipated, idle, and reckless, they not 
unfrequently assemble in bands, take to the hills, and commit 
depredations in the country. and it is necessary to chase them 
back to their villages by means of the regular troops. They 
are expert sportsmen and good shots. 

Bheels.—Where the Ramooses are wanting, their places are 
mostly supplied by the Bheels, or by the Kohlees; the former 
are low casts, the latter are Shoodrahs. Their duty is to 
afford protection to the villages, and they have either Eenam 
lands or fees in grain. In many parts of the country, parti- 
cularly in Khandesh, the inhabitants of entire villages, and 
even districts, are Bheels, or Kohlees (Coolies). 

Sheteh.—Sheteh is the person by common consent admitted 
to be the head and spokesman of the mercantile and trading 
classes, in places in the districts where they are in sufficient 
numbers to require one; and as combination is universal, he 


is of some importance in the districts as their organ in regu- 


lating prices. The Sheteh is assisted by the Mahajun, which 
properly means a banker; but, as the colleague of the Sheteh, 
he is an inferior personage in the districts: both these people, 
in some towns and villages, have trifling EKenam lands and 
claims for money and grain; but on what tenure of service to 


the community is not very apparent. 


Sur Pateel, and Sur Deshmook, and Sur Desaee.—I should 
scarcely have introduced any mention of the Sur Pateel, and Sur 
Deshmook, and Sur Desaee, as it has not come to my notice 
that they hold lands in tenure, but their names frequently 
occur in village accounts as Hukdars,* or entitled to certain 
rights in money, grain-fees, &c. One of the Sur Pateelships 
is vested in the great family of Eshwunt Rao Dabareh, of 
Tullegaon; and one of the Sur Desaeeships in the ancient fa- 
mily called Chaskur. Captain Grant Duff, in his History of 
the Mahrattas, makes mention of several Sur Deshmooks, and 


* Huk “a right,” and dar “a holder.” 


294: SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


says, that Arungzebe allowed the old Sur Deshmooks 2 per 
cent. on the revenue. But the Sur Deshmookee of modern 
times which appears in all village accounts, was 10 per cent. 
of the Moghul revenue, exacted by Sewajee from the Moosul- 
mans; it was levied over and above the land tax. The suf- 
ferers, therefore, by Mahratta violence were the Mahratta 
cultivators; and on the whole of the possessions of the Moo- 
sulmans coming into the hands of a Mahratta government, the 
Sur Deshmookee should have been abandoned, but it remains 
te this day; for instance, at Jehoor, near Ahmednuggur, the 
Tunkha, or government revenue or assignment, from the town 
was 10,817 rupees, 2 qr., Sreas ; the Sur Deshmookee 1350 ru- 
pees, Sqr., dreas ; but the Kumal, or total sum raised from the 
cultivators, including village expenses and Hukdars, was 
19,363 rupees, 3 qr., | reas: so that the Moosulmans origin- 
ally took little more than half of the revenue now raised from. 
the town, that is to say, the Moosulmans took 10,817 rupees; 
then came Sewajee, the Mahratta, and wrenched from 
them 10 per cent. of their revenue, which should have been 
1081 rupees. The Moosulmans, instead of paying it out of 
10,817 rupees, clapped the demand of Sewajee upon the town 
as an additional burthen ; and instead of honestly fixing it at 
1081 rupees (10 per cent. of 10,817), they adroitly took oc- 
casion to exact a little more from their Mahratta subjects. 

Many individuals have shares in the village revenues under 
the names of Mokassa, Sahotra, Babtee, and Nargowra. The 
most intelligible way to describe these, is to say that persons 
have money assignments, amounting to a definite per centage 
on the revenue, under these names. In their origin, Mokassa 
is 66 per cent., Sahotra 6 per cent., Babtee 25 per cent., and 
Nargowra 3 per cent. of the Chout, or fourth of the whole Mo- 
ghul revenue, which was extorted from the Moosulmans by 
the Mahrattas. Sewajee and his chiefs shared it amongst 
themselves ; the chiefs had the Mokassa for military services ; 
the Sahotra was given to the Punt Suchew, one of Sewa- 
jee’s ministers ; the prince’s own share was the Babtee; and 
the Nargowra, which is synonymous with Sur Pateel, or chief 
of all the Pateels, was at the disposal of the prince. As these 
grants were hereditary, the equal division of property and 
rights amongst children has occasioned the reduction of some 
of the shares to the most trifling amount where families have 
multiplied. 

Such are the tenures that came under my notice; and it is 
necessary to state that, with the single exception of Surwa 
Eenam or “entire gift,” there was an obligation of specific 
service on the individual or parties enjoying advantages under 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 295 


the several tenures; the non-performance of these duties in- 
volved the forfeiture of their rights; but independently of such 
forfeiture, all grants whatever (unless specified to the contrary) 
were resumable by the sovereign or other grantee, Grants 
for religious purposes were rarely recalled; but for other ob- 
jects they were frequently abrogated, particularly Jagheer, 
Surinam, and Hukdar grants. To such an extent did this 
exist under the Peshwa’s government, that the Hon. M. El- 
phinstone, in his report as commissioner, enumerates as an 
item of revenue, Wuttun Zubtee, or sequestered lands of Zu- 
mundars, which yielded annually 50,000 rupees. 


Revenue. 


A few figures perspicuously arranged, are more efficacious in 
affording just impressions of the resources of a country, their 
ramifications, pressure, and availability, than the most laboured 
verbal details. In 1827—28 the assessments in the four col- 
lectorates of Dukhun amounted to 8,435,244 rupees, 3 qr.79 reas, 
being a diminution of 539,399 rupees, 2 qr. 80 reas in the re- 
venue of Fuslee 1231, a.p. 1822, as stated in Mr. Chaplin’s 
report; from this sum also were to be deducted the remissions 
of 415,000 rupees, 1 qr. 25 reas in the Ahmednuggur, and 
416,320 rupees, 3 qr. in the Poona collectorate in 1827—8, 
amounting to a total diminution of 1,360,725 rupees, 3 qr. 
05 reas, or 15°16 decl. per cent. of the revenue of 1822. 

The revenue of 1827—28 in its constituents is shown in the 
following table :— 


; : Fuslee 1237.—Revenue, A,D, 1827—28. 
| Denomination 2 
of Revenue. 


Poona Nuggur Dharwar Khandesh 

Collectorate. Collectorate. Collectorate, Collectorate. 
ai rupees, qr. reas.| rupees. qr. reas,| rupees. qr. reas.| rupees. qr. reas, 
3 Land revenue 1,516,823 ... 37 {1,815,837 ... ... |1,945,8238 2 08 |1,664,904 3 32 
|Sahyer* Soar 231,262 1 ... 59,007 3 78 | 334,668... 85 | 181,710 3 ... 

 |Customs ...... 241,114 1 25 | 159,150... ... | 141,524 2 46] 155,560 3 
q Selih bess rake LARARR Si desth ok ee acfneen cl, Bae Gs S68 
Mitoial ......... 1,992,000 2 62 |2,033,994 3 78 (2,421,516 1 89 |1,987733.... ... 


a Grand Total 8,435,244 rupees, 3 qr. 79 reas. 


* Sahyer is the revenue raised from shops, markets, liquors, &c. Sahyer is 
a “market” in Sanscrit. 


296 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


From the preceding table it will be seen that in the several ~ 
collectorates, although of very disproportionate superficial 
extent and population, in Ahmednuggur, Poona, and Khan- 
desh there is a close approximation in the total amount of their 
revenues, although with some difference in the value of their 
great branches. 

The following table exhibits the proportion per cent. of the 
great branches of the above revenue. 


Proportion per cent. of the great branches of revenue. 
Denomination 


Of rae Poona Nuggur Dharwar Khandesh 
Collectorate. | Collectorate. | Collectorate. | Collectorate. 
per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. 
Land revenue 76:12 89-275 80-335 83°76 
Sahyer ......... 11-62 2-900 13820 6:63 
“|Customs ...... 12-10 7825 5845 782 
Miscellaneous 0:16 ae <7 1:79 
100. 100. 100. 100, 


There is considerable uniformity in the respective propor- 
tions of the land revenue in the different collectorates. Poona 
has the smallest, but it is compensated for in the magnitude of 
the Sahyer and customs. In Ahmednuggur the proportion 
of the land revenue exceeds that of Poona by 13 per cent, but 
this is counterbalanced by the singular smallness of the Sa- 
hyer branch. In the land revenue of Dharwar and Khandesh 
there is a sufficient approximation to a mean per centage for 
the four collectorates, which averages 82°30 decls. per cent. 
The whole revenue of England being £52,000,000, has only a 
land revenue of £2,000,000, or 3°846 decls. per cent. The 
whole revenue of France being £40,000,000, the land revenue 
is 12,000,000 or 30 per cent. 

The following table shows (in 1827—28) the amount of the 
land revenue in each collectorate, the number of cultivators, 
the average rent of farms, the number of British populated 
villages, and the average revenue of a village: the last column 
is intended to show the pressure (including land Sahyer and 
customs) of the assessments and taxes, viewed as a capitation 
tax. 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 297 


Number 0! 
? eres Average re- Number | Average | Land revenue, Sahyer. 
|, Names ae meee Lg vane per | Land Revenue. | of Culti- | rent of | Customs, &c.. viewed’ 
» {Collectorates. 'p iis "| village. vators. farms. as a capitation tax. 
rup. qr. rs.}| -rup. qr. rs. rup. qr. rs.|rup.qr. rs. | £.5. d. 


ee 


1469% |1253 1 981,516,323 ... 37) 52,668 |28 3 16) 4 1 78 | 0 8 103 


1878% |1082 2 99)1,815,837 ... ... 41,948 |48 1 15| 3 3 77 | 07 10$ 
23673 
2104 
78193 


839 3 7/1,664,905 ... ... 44,608 |37 1 33) 4 1 92) 08 113 


924 2 33)1,945,323 2 80} 60,701 |32... 19} 3 1 60|06 93 


887 3 32)6,942,388 1 77| 199,925 |34 2 90/4... 02|/08 0 


The population, inclusive of Sholapoor and Cheekoree and 


Munowlee, of the Company’s possessions in Dukhun, but ex- 
clusive of alienated villages, is 2,105,886 souls, and the gross 
revenue 84,435,245 rupees; equal, therefore, to 4 rupees, O qr. 
02 reas per head. 


In forming the above table, the collectors were good enough 


to supply the number of villages and cultivators in 1827—28, 
and the amount of the land revenue was obtained from the 
Accountant-General’s office. In striking the average revenue 
per village, I have omitted, in the division of the Dharwar col- 
lectorate, 175 villages, (subsequently reduced to 155,) which 
I found by the population returns lately completed were un- 
inhabited, but parts of whose lands were under cultivation by 
neighbouring villagers, and therefore included by the collector 
in his list. In Khandesh 330 villages have been struck out 
under similar circumstances. In Poona and Ahmednuggur, 
villages of this class are very limited in number, and I have, 
_ in consequence, not made any deduction on their account. 


To give a fair average of the village revenues in the Poona 


collectorate, 151,241 rupees, including a share of the customs, 
have been deducted from the whole revenue for the city of 
Poona previously to striking the average. The manner in 
which the Poona capitation tax is struck is as follows :— 
1108 towns and villages sent in population returns, containing 
331,615 inhabitants, averaging 226 souls and a fraction to 
avillage. The population of the city of Poona (81,315 inhabit- 
ants) being deducted before striking the average ; of these vil- 
lages 2123 are alienated, leaving 8954 British.villages with a 
population of 283,567, including Poona. These in 1827—28, 
yielded a gross revenue of 1,261,711, averaging 4 rupees, 1 qr. 
78 reas to each person. 


The capitation rate in the Ahmednuggur collectorate is ob- 


be tained as follows: In 1827—28, 18773 towns and villages 


298 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


were on the collector’s list; they contained 494,669 souls, esti- 
mated from the average number of inhabitants to a village, 
namely, 263°47, struck from the census of 1822, to which the 
present population of the city of Nuggur is to be added, 
namely, 21,208, The revenue from the collectorate was 
2,033,994 rupees, 3 qr. 78 reas ; equal, therefore, to 3 rupees, 
3 qr. 77 reas per head. 

In Dharwar the averages have the following elements :—in 
1827—28, 2279 British towns and villages produced a revenue 
of 2,421,516 rupees, 1 qr. 39 reas. This included the villages, 
revenue, and population of the Talooks of Cheekoree and Mu- 
nowlee, received from the Kolapoor state; population returns 
were not received from these Talooks; their revenue from 225 
villages, namely, 197,406 rupees, 3 qr. 29 reas, is therefore 
deducted from the total revenue of the collectorate, leaving 
2,224,199 rupees, 2 qr. 10 reas, and 2054 villages. From the 
latter are to be deducted 175 depopulated villages, but having 
a small part of their land cultivated by neighbouring villagers, 
leaving 1879* British villages, with a population, agreeably to 
the census, of 653,892 souls, giving 3 rupees, 1 qr. 60 reas 
per head. 

There is some difficulty in ascertaining how the revenue of 
Khandesh would fall as a capitation tax, in consequence of the 
increased number of villages (3353) rendered productive since 
1825—26, (the date of the population returns,) their population 
not being known. In 1825—26 the inhabited villages amounted 
to 2032, and 330 were Pyegusta, i. e. deserted, but having 
part of their land cultivated by neighbouring villagers. Sup- 
posing the new villages to be peopled in the same ratio as the 
old ones, the number of inhabitants in the government villages 
in 1827-28 would have been 443,548, which is 24,031 souls more 
than I have put into the population returns; and as the revenue 
was 1,987,733 rupees, the people averaged an individual pay- 
ment of 4 rupees, 1 qr. 92 reas: nevertheless, I have reason to 
doubt the actual increase in population to the extent I have 
given Khandesh credit for; and should it have remained sta- 
tionary, the revenue as a poll-tax would amount to 5 rupees, 
1 qr. 40 reas per head. 

With respect to the branch of revenue called Sahyer, it will 
be seen that the different collectorates raise it in very unequal 
proportions. The unusual lowness of it in the Ahmednuggur 
collectorate is of difficult explanation. The following table 
shows the number of persons of each class paying this tax, the 
amount paid, and the average per head. 


* Subsequently increased to 1899, with a population of 660,852. _ 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 299 


Number of taxable 
ee Amount of taxes. Average pe ' 


Sahyer. | Bullooteh.| ~ 


gr. rs. | rup. gr. rs. 


rup. 
Poona ..seeseeeees 14,551 8481 | 231,262 1 00/10... 16 
Abmednugeur 9,287 4980 59,007 3 78 | 4... 54 


Collectorates. 


| | | 


Dharwar ......... 29,046 | 2811 |334,668 ... 45 | 10 2 02 
Khandesh ...... 9,147 | 2348 |181,711 ... ... 11 1 83 


It is consequently found, that Ahmednuggur, with a greater 
number of taxable persons in the Sahyer branch than in Khan- 
desh, averages a payment per head of little more than one- 
third of what the shopkeepers, trades, and Bullooteh pay in 
Khandesh; and the tolerable uniformity in the individual 
averages of the collectorates of Poona, Dharwar, and Khan- 
desh, proves that their Sahyer taxes are raised equitably. I 
have to notice, that in village papers there is a want of uni- 
formity in the classification of the extra cesses, sometimes 
articles being placed under the heads of Sahyer which bear upon 
the land, and others again being classed with the land which are 
money commutations for labour, 

From the definite character of the elements in the preceding 
table, great confidence may be placed in the correctness of de- 
ductions from it. The numbers of taxable persons in 1827—28 


__ were supplied to me by the collectors, and the amount paid is 


> 
& 


_ extracted from their Jummabundy settlements for that year. 


Customs.—The customs vary considerably in the different 


 collectorates; those of Poona, being above 12 per cent. of its 


whole reyenue, may be looked upon as high, but their mag- 
nitude manifests a favourable commercial industry. Contrary 


_ to expectation, Dharwar, which has indications of internal 
_ comparative prosperity, has the lowest revenue from customs, 


with a greater population, a greater revenue, and falling lighter 
upon the people than in any of the other collectorates, and with 
more than ten times the number of manufacturers * to be found 


in Poona and Khandesh, nevertheless shows a commercial 
return 52 per cent. less than that of Poona, and even 254 per 
cent. below the exhausted province of Khandesh. It seems 


anomalous that the proportional per--centage of the customs on 
the whole revenue in Ahmednuggur and Khandesh should be 


* Thirteen thousand and forty-five weavers. 


300 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


identical, the population of the former being 23°75 per cent. 
greater than that of the latter, while a parity seems to exist in 
the wants and export resources of the people of both. 

Expenses.—I have put into juxtaposition some of the items 
of expense in the collectorates, and their rate per cent. on the 
gross revenue; but the want of a systematic classification of 
charges under common heads throughout the collectorates, 
renders a rigid comparison, item for item, unattainable. The 
information is extracted from the Jummabundy returns of the 
collectors for 1827—28. A government form for this paper 
for common adoption would render the multitudinous details 
involved in it more available for comparison by inspection than 
in the present forms. The total expenses of two of the collect- 
orates only is given in the following tables. 

Few comments are necessary, as the charges and the rate 
per cent. they bear upon the gross revenue of each collectorate 
are seen at a glance. 


TABULAR VIEW OF THE EXPENSES. 


Expenses 1827—28. 
Denomination of 
expenses. 


Poona Nuggur Dharwar Khandesh 
Collectorate. Collectorate. Collectorate. Collectorate. 


Yup. oy qr. Sts: rup. qr. rs. rup. qr. rs. rup. qr. rs. 


RoxshWemniensan : 136,659 ... 12 | 149,761 2 26 | .. «. «. | 388,016 ... ... 


peaven Seele tease tans woe wee eee | 246,174 3 80) 157,202 2 ... 


socesseeceseces| OIsIIf GD SO | cae eee eee | cee cee eee | BdyIIO wee sae 


61,005 3 00 |115,876 125 |... we wn err 


Contingent charges, 
including presents ese eve ove | 101,055 3 22 | 190,768 3 39 


Shet Sundee or native 
MINA Se eadaeecenbance 34,4385 2 43 Se Comhee BP eee oct 


a | | | 


Pensions, Eenams ... ORIN Eis 466,493 3 89 | 33,522 2 94 


Collector’s salary ... aes] peasaaa sonal OG000 - Gd | LisgAal come 


European Judicial...) ... «2. we. | 53,946 2 58 


Native Judicial ...... aia in tet nae 229,366 2 73 cee i, eee eas], COOUD ler aamem § 


Total ..occcccnesesavees 288,098 ... 98 | 875,754 1 26 


Remissions ....... seeee] 416,320 3 ... [415,005 1 25 None. 
To H. H. Seendeh Ben bak ose. axe oe sees ice . ae | 90,796 3 33} 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 301 


TABULAR VIEW OF THE PROPORTION PER CENT. OF 
EXPENSES. 


Proportion per cent. of the expenses on the whole 
revenue in the several Collectorates. 


Denominations of expenses, 


Poona Nuggur Dharwar Khandesh 
Collectorate. | Collectorate. | Collectorate. | Collectorate. 

, per cent. | per cent. | percent. | per cent. 
Village, land and Sahyer expenses 6:86 7:36 wind 19-52 


a | J | 


Native establishment for collections AAS asa 10°17 7:92 


Mokassa 281 Ja a 2-28 


EDU GATS: «.anvsssevcgucccesesogesscesces 3:06 5°70 


Contingent charges ...... sss wel 4-96 7:87 17-08 


——$——— | q|]\ qc“ |_uem i .._ 


Shet Sundee, militia .............6. 1-73 
Pensions, Eenams ....... sata baad ans sae 8-18 1:39 2-29 


2-93 4-69 4-67 

Ngai uses (|| 888 tan 
11:27 bis 4-52 
1446 | 4303 | 2412 | 5943 

2089 | 20-40 | None | None. 

35:35 | 63-43 2412 | 5913 — 


For the proper understanding, however, of some omissions 
in the above abstracts, short notices are called for. 

Under the items of “ village, land and Sahyer expenses,” 
_ *Shet Sundee,” “‘ Mokassa,”’ and “* Hukdars,”’ there are blanks 
inthe Dharwar collectorate, the whole land expenses amount- 
ing to 24°12 per cent.; it is to be presumed the charges under 
_ these heads have merged in the “ Native establishment for 
_collections.’”” Under Khandesh there is a blank for the Huk- 
_dars; the expense of these persons is no doubt included in 
_“yillage, land, and Sahyer expenses.”” Under Nuggur there 
are blanks under “ Mokassa” and “ Shet Sundee;” they must be 
included in the ‘‘ Land and village expenses.” Of the omissions 
in the Poona abstract it is unnecessary to speak, as they are 
_ intentional. : 

' The charges, revenue, magisterial, and judicial, upon the re- 
venue of Ahmednuggur in 1827—28, amounted to 43°03 per 


302 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


cent., and remissions were granted in that year to the amount 
of 20°40 per cent.; the total deduction from the revenue was 
63°43 per cent. In Khandesh, without any remissions, the 
charges were nearly six-tenths of the whole revenue. In 
Poona I have only shown the charges which are strictly and 
permanently fixed upon the land in all the collectorates, which 
are not mutable, and therefore scarcely susceptible in justice 
of modification ; these amount to 14°46 per cent: they com- 
prise village expenses, militia, Mokassa, and Hukdars. In 
Dharwar, the collector’s establishment has been added to the 
above, and it brings the charges strictly bearing on the land to 
24°12 per cent. on the revenue. 

A review of the above tables and abstracts suggests the fol- 
lowing observations. The collectorate of Dharwar, having the 
smallest area? (with the exception of Poona) of the collect- 
orates of Dukhun, has the greatest population, and produces 
the greatest revenue, which bears lightest by average upon the 
inhabitants individually.» Judging from the lowness of the 
customs, it has the weakest indications of commercial industry ; 
nevertheless, the manufacturers, particularly the weavers, ex- 
ceed those of the other collectorates in the ratio of 100 to 11, 
or 89 per cent. The shopkeepers and tradespeople are very 
numerous, and their individual taxes® rise to the average of 
those of Poona and Khandesh. Finally, the means of the 
people (remissions not being called for) must be more efficient 
than in the other collectorates, and a proportional ratio of 
imports and exports might have been looked for. 

Khandesh has the largest superficial extent,’ a population © 
29 per cent. less than that of Poona, or granting an increase 
to its population 15°32 per cent. less, with a revenue never- 
theless equal to that of Poona, bearing in consequence with 
unusual pressure upon the people, its average being 5 rupees, 
1 qr. 40 reas to each soul; involving the fact that the assess- 
ments in this collectorate are greater than in any of the others. 
Admitting, however, the estimated increase to the population 
previously noticed, (which certainly exceeds the truth,) the 
average individual payment will still exceed that in the other 
collectorates. It is possible this apparent pressure may be 


* 9122 square miles, including the cultivated area of the Talooks Cheekoree 
and Manowlee. 

b 838,757, including the estimated population of the Talooks of Cheekoree 
and Manowlee, 3 rupees, 1 qr. 6 reas per head. 

¢ 10 rupees, 2 qr. 2 reas. d 12,527 square miles. 

© 371,404, but supposed this year to be 443,548 in government villages, 

f 4 rupees, 1 qr., 92 reas. 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 308 


referred to the extent of its garden cultivation, which is much 
greater than that of Dharwar, and, as far as I can judge from 
observation, that of Poona and Ahmednuggur also. In Khan- 
desh in 1826, there were 82,697 beegahs* of garden-land, 
being 9°36 per cent. of the whole cultivated land, the garden- 
land in Dharwar not amounting to one-half per cent. In the 
Nuggur and Poona collectorates, in the towns of Kurmalleh, 
Kurjut, Angur, and Rawgaon, the proportion of garden to 
field-land in cultivation was 545 per cent. only. But, under 
all circumstances, the villages of Khandesh average” the least 
revenue in Dukhun ;. it stands third in the number of its cul-: 
tivators,° but second in the amount of the rent of its farms.9 
The magnitude of this rent, it is inferred, originates in the 
comparative high rate of assessment per beegah, and not in the 
greater size of the farms. I have not the number of beegahs 
of land in cultivation in 1827-28 in Khandesh, but justify my 
inference from the following data :—In 1826 there were 37,311 
cultivators, and 883,548 beegahs under cultivation, averaging 
23°68 beegahs to each farm.® Last year, there were 44,608 
cultivators, and supposing them to hold individually the ave- 
rage number of beegahs of 1826, the result will be as 


cult.  beegahs. cult. beegahs. 
37,311 : 88,348 : : 44,608 : 1,056,345 ; 


and as the land revenue of 1827-28 was 1,664,904 rupees, 
the rate per beegah is therefore 1 rupee, 2 qr. 30 reas, which 
exceeds® that of the other collectorates from 50 to 100 per cent. 
__. Inthe Sahyer branch of revenue the increased pressure is still 
_ visible upon the people; it exceeds the mean pressure of Dhar- 
_ war and Poona 10°35 decl. per cent., and that of Ahmednuggur 
_ in the extraordinary ratio of 63°91 per cent. 
The customs’ per centage on the whole revenue is identical 
with that of Ahmednuggur, although, in the present state of 
Khandesh, it could not have been looked for. 
_ Ahmednuggur stands second in superficial extent.2 The 
_ land revenue is only inferior in amount to that of Dharwar, 
_ although it has the least number of cultivators: in all the col- 
_ lectorates. The average rent of farms therefore is the greatest ; 


b r 
bs 
% 


_*, 62,023 acres. b 839 rupees, 3 qr., 7 reas. c 44,608. 
4 37 rupees, 1 qr., 33 reas. 
_ © Beegahs 883,448, __ 23°68 f Rupees 1,664,904 mu. ar. rs. 
Cultivators 37,311. _ : Beegahs 1,056,345 1 2 30 per beegah, 
8 Poona and Nuggur 3 qr. 58 reas per beegah, including garden-land. The 
whole of Dharwar 2 qr. 94 reas per beegah, including garden-land. 
h 9910 square miles. i 41,948 cultivators, 


3804 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


and from averages struck in different villages in various parts 
of the Desh in this collectorate, I would refer it to the 
increased size of the farms rather than to enhanced assess- 
ments. 

In a table, which will be met with in treating of the condi- 
tion of the people, farms are made to average about 45 beegahs 
each; and the assessments, including extras, do not amount 
to a rupee per beegah.? In the hilly tracts the farms are neces- 
sarily much reduced in size, and an average for the whole col- 
lectorate would bring them down probably to 35 beegahs each ; 
41,948 cultivators therefore would occupy 1,468,180 beegahs 
of land, which, divided into the land revenue, (1,815,837 ru- 
pees,)? give 1 rupee, 95 reas per beegah. I am rather disposed 
to rely upon the general average, than upon the average struck 
from the examination of the papers of a few towns in the most 
favourable parts of the country. 

The very low amount of the Sahyer, which is only 2°90 per 
cent, of the whole revenue, has been already adverted to. 
The taxable persons,° nevertheless, under this head, exceed - 
those of Khandesh. 

The customs bear a fair proportion to the whole revenue. 

The average revenue? per village may be subject to a slight 
modification, as in the number of British villages, amounting to 
18784, furnished to me by the acting collector, which paid 
revenue last year, deserted villages are not distinguished, part 
of whose lands are under cultivation ; and the want of popula- 
tion returns disables me from ascertaining them. 

The revenue, viewed as a poll tax,° bears easier than in any 
other collectorate, excepting Dharwar. The means to insure 
an approximate accuracy in this calculation have been ey. 
explained. 

Poona has the smallest land revenue, and the smallest super- 
ficial extent.£ Previously to the addition of the four Talooks 
of Sholapoor, Mohol, Moodeebeehall, and Indee, agreeably 
to information furnished by the Survey Department, it com- 
prised an area of 4990 square miles only. Neither the extent 
nor population of these Talooks being known, it was necessary 
to estimate them; the process was conducted by analogy, 
which has been explained elsewhere; 2888 square miles 


b Rupees 1,815,837 — ™P. ar rs. 
Beraahs 1,468,180 — aaah 95 per beevah. 
¢ 14,267. d 1082 rupees, 2 qr. 99 reas. 
€ Revenue as a poll tax, 3 rupees, 3 qr. 77 reas. 
Area 7878 square miles. 


2 2s, 8d. per acre. 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 305 


resulted from the calculations, giving the Poona collectorate an 
area of 7878 square miles. Poona has the greatest number of 
_ cultivators? excepting Dharwar ; and this is to be attributed, not 
to the extended cultivation, but to the Mawul, or hilly tracts, 
occupying a great deal of the collectorate, where the farmers are 
_ multiplied and the individual agricultural operations of very li- 
_ mited extent. In the whole Turruff of Mhurkhoreh the farms 
average only 13 beegahs each; but in the eastern and south- 
eastern parts of the collectorate they have the same average as is 
given to Ahmednuggur. From the above facts the farms might 
be expected to average a very low rent, as is found to be the case. 
The following estimate justifies the inference that the land 
assessments are comparatively not very onerous. 


In the Desh, or Table Land, the farms average. . 45 beegahs. 
Tn the Mawuls, or hilly tracts. .......... 13 do. 
2)58 


Mean average of farms... . 29 beegahs. 


In 1827-28 there were 52,668 cultivators, which multiplied 
by 29, the average number of beegahs to each farmer, will give 
1,527,372 beegahs of land under cultivation; and as the land 
revenue of 1827-28 amounted to 1,516,323 rupees, 37 reas; 
the assessments would only be at the rate of 3 qr. 97 reas per 
beegah,° including garden land and extras. There are still 
however some marked features which are not satisfactory: the 
_ villages average a greater revenue (excluding the city of Poona) 
_ than in the other collectorates, although the average village po- 
_ pulation is less for that part of the Poona collectorate, whence 
_ population returns have been received. 

_ The 574 villages of the sub-collectorate of Sholapoor average 
_ 1272 rupees, 1 qr. 12 reas each,‘ including customs. The magni- 

_ tude of the average of the remaining villages may be attributed to 
_ the great amount of the customs ;° but deducting a suitable pro- 
_ portion of the customs! for the inhabitants of the city of Poona, 
and the whole of the revenue of the city, Sahyer,» land,i and 
_Abkauree,* and mint!; villages (always excluding the four 
- talooks of Sholapoor) still average 1241 rupees, 1 qr. 76 reas 


© Rupees 1,516,323 
* 52,668,  » 94 acres. eet 1,527,872 


4 Revenue of sub-collectorate of Sholapoor 730,289 rupees, 1 qr. 93 reas. 


=3 qr. 97 reas per beegah. 


_ © 215,361 rupees, 2 qr. 37% reas. f 61,756 rupees, 1 qr. 63 reas. 
® 81,515 inhabitants, 4 56,202 rupees, 3 qr. 50 reas. 
+ 27,981 rupees, 814 reas. k 12,000 rupees. 1 3301 rupees. 


| vou. vi. 1837, . x 


306 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


each, which is higher than in any other collectorate ; and as the 
villages in this part of the collectorate average a fraction more 
than 226 inhabitants,? the taxes, assessments, and customs, 
after deducting the share for Poona, 151,241 rupees, fall upon 
the people with the unexampled pressure of nearly 53 rupees 
per head,¢ while the people in the city’ average only L rupee, 
3 qr. 44 reas per head, including a proportional share of the 
customs, and the city, Sahyer, and land-tax, &c. 

For the whole collectorate of Poona, including the four talooks 
of Sholapoor, by a process previously explained, the assessments 
average 4 rupees, 1 qr. 78 reas per head, which closely approxi- 
mates to that of Khandesh. 

Poona has the greatest number of taxable persons® after 
Dharwar in the Sahyer branch of the revenue, and ranks 
second in the total amount of the sum raised, which falls with 
a less pressure individually than in Dharwar and Khandesh, but 
sreater than in Ahmednuggur. The manufacturers, as contri- 
butors to the Sahyer, are very limited in number. 

The proportion that the customs bear to the whole revenue 
is a very striking feature: they are derived principally from 
imports, a good part of which passes on to the eastward; much 
is consumed in the city of Poona, and the rest is dispersed into 
the districts. I have observed that imports from the coast 
have gradually cheapened in their retail price within the last 
three or four years, owing, no doubt, to the combined causes of 
increased importation and scarcity of money in Dukhun. 

The collectorate of Dharwar, whether viewed with respect 
to the quantity of land under cultivation; the size of its farms;' 
the amounts of its revenue; the lightness with which it falls 
upon the people, considered asa poll-tax;% the magnitude of its 
Sahyer; the comparative denseness of its population; its nu- 
merous towns? and tolerably well-peopled villages ; the facility 
offered for instruction in the number of its schools, and the mani- 
festations of manufacturing industry in its numerous weavers,' 
is unquestionably the finest British province in Dukhun. 

Dharwar Land Revenue.—The land revenue, in its pro- 
portion to the whole revenue, stands third in the Dukhun col- 
lectorates, being 80°336 per cent. ; but this apparently inferior 
station is to be attributed, not to the diminished quantity of 


4 §94 villages with inhabitants, 202,252. b 1,110,470 rupees. 

© 5 rupees, 1 qr. 96 reas. 

4 Inhabitants of Poona 81,315. Taxes and proportionate share of customs 
&e. 151,241 rupees. 

e 23,042, f 32-74 acres, or 43:65 beegahs. 8 3 rupees, 1 qr. 60 reas. 

h 119, i 13,345. 


ON 'THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 307 


land under cultivation, which far exceeds that in the other 
collectorate, (i. e. 61°11 decls. per cent. of the whole lands, 
leaving only 38°89 decls. per cent. of waste,) but to the lowness 
of its land assessments, amounting only to 2 qr. 94 reas per 
beegah, including all extras falling on the land. The process 
by which this average assessment was struck is as follows. In 
1827, agreeably to the population returns, the land in occupa- 
tion of a cultivator averaged 32°74 decls. acres, or 43°65 decls. 
beegahs ; in 1828, in the Jummabundy settlement, there were 
60,701 cultivators, which, multiplied by 43°65 decls. gives 
2,649,598. 65 decls. beegahs of land under cultivation. These 
divided into the land revenue, 1,945,323 rupees, 2 qr. 8 reas, 
give 294 reas per beegah, a low rate, which neither the exami- 
nation of village accounts, nor a similar process, will give in 
Poona, Ahmednuggur, nor Khandesh.” This light assess- 
ment, equal only to 1s.113d. per acre, is certainly advantageous 
_ in insuring the realization of the revenue; but when put into 
comparison with the rent of land in England, shows the unpro- 
ductive and limited character of Indian agricultural resources. 

The Sahyer branch of the revenue is highly favourable, 
amounting to nearly 14 per cent. of the whole, and, though so 
productive, falls as a tax lighter on individuals than in Khan- 
desh. The customs, being 2 per cent. lower than in Khandesh 
and Ahmednuggur, is at variance with the tolerably efficient 
character of the general resources of the Dharwar. 

From the examination of village papers I find that remissions 
were very rare under native governments, and the facility with 
which they are granted under the British government, and their 
magnitude, testify strongly to its paternal character. Great 
caution, however, is requisite in granting them, not less on ac- 
_ count of the government than on account of the cultivator him- 
self. If obtained with facility, and without rigid and sharp 
_ examinations, and some personal inconvenience to the applicant, 
_ (from the habitual indolence of the native character,) his ordinary 
_ industry, which always requires stimulating, would be paralyzed, 
_ applications multiplied, labour diminished, and the farmer would 
_ trust to the forbearance of government rather than to his own 
exertions. There is another reason for caution in the strong 
_ motives that the native agents have for urging remissions, with 
a view to intercept them in the transit of accounts through 
_ their hands. 
_ The collector cannot possibly personally ascertain the truth of 


. 


ee Pe ee Ce) is 


_# 2,808,064 acres in 1827. 
| __» Ahmednuggur 1 rupee, 95.reas; Nuggur and Poona, partial average, 3 qr. 
| 58reas; Khandesh 1 rupee, 2 qr. 80 reas per beegah, 

4 x 2 


308 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, 


one-hundredth part of the claims set up; he must leave this la- 
bour to his servants, and it can scarcely be believed they will not 
avail themselves of the opportunity to turn the discretion given 
to them to private profit; in fact, I know such to be the case. 

In an examination of the papers of the villages of Muhrkoreh, 
Poona collectorate, I found that many of the cultivators had paid 
instalments of their assessments (for 1827-28) previously to re- 
missions being granted, which exceeded the amount they were 
required to pay after the deduction of the remissions ; the 
poverty of some of the cultivators, consequently, must have 
been misrepresented. I ascertained also that part of the 
remissions of 1827-28 had been intercepted. Remissions are 
unavoidable in all calamitous visitations of Providence, which 
are not of confined or local operation, and which affect the re- 
turns of the earth ; but to insure the benefit of the remissions 
to the cultivator, they should be made in a definite per centage 
on his total assessment, and the amount should be proclaimed 
more than once, and by different persons, in the public place of 
every village. 

A few words in conclusion will suffice with respect to the 
great branches of the revenue. It is seen that 82°30 deels. per 
cent. of the whole is derived from the land: already the supply 
of agricultural produce exceeds the demand, and the farmer has 
a difficulty in finding a mart. In the present state of agriculture 
therefore, this branch of revenue is at its maximum, and will 
probably decline until supply and demand be adjusted. 

The prospects of improvement in the Sahyer branch are 
not more favourable than in the land revenue. 

The trades pay to the full extent of their means at present, 
and manufactures cannot increase when the European import- 
ers of cottons can afford to undersell the native manufacturers. 
Indeed I believe little more than coarse Sarhees* for women, 
and common tent cloth, are now manufactured in the British 
provinces in Dukhun. 

The improvements in customs should usually depend upon in- 
creased wealth and commercial industryin the people. Theextent 
of imports will only be commensurate with the means of pur- 
chase. If therefore the opinions I have advanced on the land 
revenue and Sahyer be well founded, with respect to the 
limited means of persons paying taxes under those heads, the 
customs will be influenced by causes affecting them. 

Any general improvement in the revenue would séem 
to require the creation of exportable articles in agriculture, 
horticulture, or manufactures; and to effect this desirable 


*. 


® Dresses, 


7 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 309 


object, the introduction of persons with capital, enterprize, 
ingenuity, commercial tact and industry, is necessary ; essen- 
tials, of which the country is at present destitute. 

The manner in which the revenue yielded by a village is 
partitioned, is well exemplified in Neembawee, Pergunnah, 
Kurdeh, Ahmednuggur collectorate. The village is in Jagheer 
to Bala Sahib Rastea, one of the great Jagheerdars. The 
shares in the village are called amuls*, and there are six of 
them; Rastia has three, Suchew? Punt one, and the Honour- 
able Company two. The whole shares are considered as an 
integer of 123 parts. 

Sun, 1236.—A.D. 1826. 
Rastia has the Jagheer®............. iS. ja oO 


Sur Deshmookee and Nuzzurt,. ............ 93 
neue ormemaniiters) 5. jdt, Seg bl Pa 74 


80 
Suchew Punt has the Sahotra............. 23 
23 
The Honourable Company has the Mokassa . .. . . 15 
and the Neem Chowthace, or half of the tribute 
BME GUILDER ciel a/b (atc ols oleae deere teens 
—— 20 


Total 133 


In addition, the fixed money rights on the village are— 

Rupees. 
Sur Pateel Dabaree of Tellegaon. ............ 5 
Kundeh Kurdehkur Deshmook .............. 101 
Amrut Row Joonurkur Deshpandeh ........... 101 


Besides the Pateel and Koolkurnee, Chowgulla, Bullooteh, who 
have their fees. 


: It would seem very desirable to abolish the above absurd 
_ verbal distinctions, and to fix the rights of individuals as simple 

money dues, without reference to J agheer, Nuzzur, Kussur, &c. 
__ The revenue of Dukhun, contrasted as capitation tax, with 
that of England, France, and America, would appear to be 
as follows. In England, the gross revenue of 1828 was 
£50,700,000 ; poor-rates, parish rates, lighting, watching, 


* Amul, “rule,” “ sway.” 
» Suchew, “friend,” “minister ;” one of the eight ministers of the Rajah of 


 Sattara, 


' ¢ A fief, 
4 Nazar, “ sight,” “look,” a present made on introduction to a person. 
© Kasr, “a fraction.” 


310 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. | 


£12,000,000; contributions of congregations to their clergy, 
colleges, schools, &c. about £17,300,000 : total £80,000,000 4. 
The population being 20,000,000, the tax per head is £4, In 
France, the taxation, including provision for the clergy, schools, 
&c. is £40,000,000; the population 30,000,000; equal therefore 
to £1. 6s. per head. In America the population is between 
10,000,000 and 11,000,000, and the taxation £5,000,000, or 
not quite 10s. per head. The revenue of Dukhun, viewed as a 
capitation tax, is 8s. per head. 


Assessments. 


Assessments and land measurements are so intimately con- 
nected, that it would not answer any good purpose to treat 
of them. in separate sections. With respect to the portions of 
land variously denominated for the purpose of assessment, I 
am clearly of opinion that the prevailing denominations 
amongst the Hindoos were not descriptive of superficial extent, 
and that the assessments were founded on the productive 
power of the land without reference to its quantity, and were 
uniform only for similar denominations of land in a village. 

The Moosulmans, no doubt, endeavoured to be more system- 
atic; they measured garden lands, and probably in some few vil- 
lages, the field lands, under the denominations of Kundhee, Mun, 
Tukeh, Piceh, Seer, &c. with a view to the general conversion 
of such terms into the uniform and appreciable term of Beegah; 
but the Hindoo terms not applying to quantity, the beegahs of 
different villages could only be equal when there existed an 
accidental identity in productive power in the unmeasured 
Mun or Kundhee, &c, of land in one village with the measured 
Mun, Kundhee, &c. intended as common types. This will © 
account for the varying extent of the beegah in field cultivation 
in Dukhun. How little successful the Moosulmans were in their 
attempt to supersede the old terms, is proved in the limited 
extent to which the assessments by beegahs obtained when we 
took possession of the country. It may be well doubted whe- 
ther we shall be more successful in our introduction of acres : 
the ramifications of ancient usages amongst a people are in 
general too deeply fixed to be eradicated by legislative enact- 
ments. A plant may be cut off by the surface, but there is 
always a latent disposition to reproduction from the untouched 
roots. Whatever may be our success, a revenue survey was 
imperatively called for under the indefinite Hindoo land deno- 
minations, to enable a collector to regulate his assessments 
with a shadow of equity. 


* Speech of Colonel Davies in the House of Commons, May 8, 1829. 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. ~ 311 


_ With respect to the denominations under which land is as- 
sessed in the comparatively limited space of my inquiries, their 
variety and absurdity demonstrate a wanton bizarreness that 
could scarcely have been looked for in a people reputedly sim- 
ple and uniform in their opinions and economy, ‘The assess- 
ment on a beegah is definite as it depended on positive mea-~ 
surement, and I have remarked that it obtains at, and in the 
neighbourhood of the established seats of Moosulman author- 
ity, as at Ahmednuggur, Purunda, Sholapoor, Mohol, Bar- 
lonee, Wamoree, Tiacklee, &c. The Chahoor and Rookeh, as 
at Alkootee, Kheir, Wangee, Taimbournee, Kurkumb, Angur, 
Mahreh, Kurmalleh, Kurjut and Meerujgaon, being multiples 
of the beegah, are intelligible. ven the Doree or rope, used 
at Hungawarreh and Neembee, as it implies measurement and 
superficial extent, is admissible. The old Hindoo terms, 
Kundhee and Mun, at Ranjungaon, Jamgaon, Parnair, &c. &c. 
as they are founded on positive properties, furnish sufficiently 
precise ideas. But the Tukeh, with its constituents. of Suj- 
gunnees and Piceh, (copper coin,) at Dytna and Ankolner, 
the Seer of weight and its Nowtanks or 3 Seer, as at Koorul and 
Wangee, and the Pyhnee and its Annas® at Serrolee, Bruhmun- 
warreh and Muhr, are not reducible by any operation of the 
mind to an appreciable portion of land, whose produce shall 
admit of the government share on it being equitably assessed. 
The assessment by the hatchet, rude as it is, still involves the 
idea of as much copse-wood land as one hatchet can clear, and 
one man can sow and reap in the year. To add to the confusion, 
similar denominations of land are not made up of common and 


uniform constituents. The Tukkeh at Kothoul is raised from 


the Rookeh, each of which is supposed to contain 10 beegahs, 
or 73 acres. At Ankolner the Tukkeh is composed of Suj- 


- gunnees, Piceh and Rookeh ; the Rookeh being equal only to 23 
_ beegahs, or 1$ acres. At Lakungaon there are 10 Tukkeh to 


one Pyhnee, and as the Pyhnee is said to contain 30 beegahs, 


_ the Tukkeh here contains only 3 beegahs instead of 480, as at 
_ Tellegaon; or 240, as at Ashtee. 


In respect to the Mun at Ranjungaon, it is rated at 10 
beegahs ; at Jamgaon, belonging to Seendeh, it is not reducible 


. - into beegahs at all; at Parnair 64 beegahs only are equal to 


the Mun. The Pyhnee at Seerolee has the Chahoor of 120 


_ beegahs as a typical standard, 4 Pyhnees being equal to one 
_ Chahoor, or 120 beegahs ; at Muhr the Pyhnee of 30 beegahs is 
considered as identical with the Kundhee of 20 Muns, reducing 
_ the Mun therefore to 13 beegahs. 


® One-sixteenth of a rupee. 


312 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Under such complex definitions and involved contradictions, 
my limits will not permit me to give further explanations, 
but which my lengthened tables afford. 

The principal assessment necessarily falls on the land, and 
it is raised on the various land denominations above noticed ; 
the land in the first instance being separated into the two great 
classes of Bhaghaeet, or garden-land; and Zerhaeet, or field- 
land. Both these terms are evidently of Moosulman intro- 
duction, Bhaghaeet being a word of Persian origin, meaning 
“wardens,” ‘orchards ;” and Zerhaeet, of Arabic derivation, 
meaning a “ sown field,”’ “ sown land.”’ 

There are marked traces of the Jand assessment having once 
been systematic in the Sostee or permanent rate, which was 
uniform and unchangeable for all lands of the same denomi- 
nation. This rate is found in most villages, it is distinctly 
stated in the accounts, and separated from subsequent and in- 
creased assessments, and its existence is a proof that assess- 
ments formerly were not on the superficial extent, but on the 
productive power of the soil; since, as lands were not all equally 
fertile, more of the unfertile land must have been held than 
of the fertile, to enable the cultivator to pay a fixed sum in 
quantity of grain for a piece of land under a common denomi- 
nation. The Sostee Dur, or permanent assessment, was the 
pride of the Meerasdar, but unhappily not his safeguard. 
The various governments which have passed away do not 
appear ever to have raised the permanent rate, but they rendered 
the advantages derivable under it abortive from gradually 
adding extra cesses ; their excuses in the first instance being 
unlooked-for contingencies. The cesses were originally mostly 
in kind, and temporary ; but the exigencies of government, or 
the facility with which they were raised, made them perennial, 
and their pressure upon the cultivator has been enhanced, par- 
ticularly under our government, by the cesses in kind being 
commuted into money payments. ‘The Moosulmans, on intro- 
ducing measurements, must necessarily have subverted the 
Sostee, or uniform rate, since the same rate could not have 
been equitable for beegahs of land of different qualities. We 
find, in consequence, that when the lands are classed in bee- 
gahs otherwise than as constituents of Hindoo land denomi- 
nations, that there the assessments are on the quality of the 
soil, and vary accordingly. 

Gardens being dependent on the local advantages of a suit- 
able supply of water and some depth of soil, usually met with 
in hollows or on the banks of rivers, it might be expected that 
considerable uniformity would prevail in the quality of garden- 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 313 


Zl 
land, and that it would rarely be divided into classes ; such is usu- 
__ ally found to be the case. Most commonly all garden-land apper- 
_ taining to a village pays the same rate per beegah ; and where 
_ classification exists, it is founded, not on the quality of the 
_ land, but on the extent of the supply of water. 
; The first great feature, in this respect, is whether the garden 
4 is watered from small streams conducted from rivulets or rivers, 
or whether it is watered from wells; in the former case it is 
called Paatsthul,? and in the latter Mohtsthul.» Most Pahts 
failing in the dry months of March, April, and May, the 
former land is usually assessed at a lower rate than the latter, 
as at Tellegaon and Parnair; but where the Paht supply is 
perennial, as at Dytna, both descriptions of land pay the same 
_ rate. Dependent on these primary distinctions, are modifi- 
_ cations, affecting garden assessments: land with a perennial 
and sufficient supply of water, whether from pahts or wells, is 
called Wohol-Waho, or fully watered, and pays the highest 
rate; this rate, unless on rice land, and isolated spots, where 
fruits of considerable value are raised, such as grapes and 
golden plantains, &c., as at Joonur, within my observation, 
has never exceeded 6 rupees per beegah,° including sugar-cane 
land. The other classes of land are comprised in the Kord 
_ Waho or not fully watered. It is readily intelligible that a well 
_ may supply a sufficiency of water for great part of a garden 
_ within a reasonable distance of the well, but that the extremities 
_ may be inadequately watered, and this affords just grounds to de- 
mand a lighter tax for the extremities: two classes should 
result from such circumstances, i. e. fully watered and not 
fully watered, and such is generally the case where distinc- 
tions are made at all: but at Ahmednuggur there is an af- 
fectation of discrimination, which has determined that gar- 
_den-land receives its watering in the proportions of “ fully,”’ 
_“thirteen-twentieths,”’ “ three-fifths,” and “ one-half,” and 
such lands are respectively assessed at 5 rupees, 34 rupees, 3 
_ rupees, and 23 rupees per beegah. The assessment on garden- 
land at present is unequal, and the whole requires revision. 
_ There is every motive to make garden-cultivation assessments 
light with a view to insure to each cultivator, if possible, his 
well and little plot of garden ground. Gardens produce all 
the year round; they are comparatively unaffected by the 
_ droughts which destroy field crops; and independently of the 
_ constantly saleable garden stuffs, fruits, and aromatic seeds, 
_ there is usually room for a beegah or more of bukshee or johr 


e ~® From Paat “a channel,” and Sthul “ a field.” 
> From Moht “a water-bucket,” and Sthul ‘a field.” © 16s, 8d. per acre. 


314 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, 


wheats, which require watering, and a plot or two of sugar- 
cane. ‘To his garden the cultivator is indebted for many of the 
little enjoyments his situation is susceptible of. In some in- 
stances, in the Mahloongeh Turruff, Poona collectorate, I 
found cultivators paying their entire assessments, and reaping 
profit by their garden produce of chillies* alone, which were 
sent into the Konkun. 

Usually it has been deemed sufficient to arrange Zerhaeet or 
field-land into four elasses, as at Jehoor, namely, Awul (best), 
usually black land, Rehsee (modified black), Burrud (dashed 
with lime and some decomposing greenstone), and finally, 
Khurrud (stony, thin, and poor). The first, throughout the 
country, does net average more than 1 rupee the beegah, the 
second #, the third +2, and the last ,8, of a rupee per beegah ; 
but at other places there are other distinctions. In the Ma- 
wuls, or hilly tracts along the Ghauts, lands are classed as 
Bhat, Khatan, and Wurkus, the first being rice land, the 
second wheat and grain land, and the third being on the slopes 
of hills, producing the dry grains Sawa> and Wuree ;¢ there 
being a great deal of red soil also in these tracts, it is di- 
stinguished by the term Tambut or copper-coloured. The Awul, 
or best, where it occurs, is called Kalwut (black), and the rocky 
and stony Maal. 

These explanations are sufficient to show that where assess-. 
ments on the quality of the land have been introduced, uni- 
formity has not obtained in distinguishing the qualities; they 
show also that the people were satisfied to limit the qualities to 
four gradations; but at Ahmednuggur, the Shaikdar or in- 
spector of cultivation has had the microscopic ability of vision 
to mark twelve shades of difference in the field-land. The ac- 
counts are, in consequence, a mass of perplexity, and it is very 
probable the revenue is frittered away in distinctions which the 
cultivator never dreamt of, and never profits by. 

Field-landg, on which the cultivators sink wells, are not as- 
sessed as garden-lands. At Kanoor, Nuggur collectorate, I 
found lands so circumstanced had been free from any extra 
assessments from a period beyond the memory of man. 

The above notices are sufficient to show the anomalous cha- 
racter of the money assessments strictly on the land. Not only 
are they arbitrarily fixed on the productive power of the land, or 
on measurements, real or supposed ; but lands of the same deno- 
mination and quality are differently assessed in neighbouring 
villages without apparent cause. 


@ Capsicum annuum, and other species. 
> Panicum frumentaceum. © Panicum miliare. 


— 


ain 


aoe 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 315 


The average of all the rates at many towns and villages in all 
parts of the country, derived from personal inspection of the 
village accounts, gives 3 rupees, 41 reas for a beegah of garden- 

land, or 8s, 33d. for an English statute acre. The average of 
\ field-land is 3 qr. 93% reas per beegah, or 2s. 73d. per Eng- 
lish acre. 

To determine an approximate average assessment per beegah 
in Khandesh, I may use elements, which although not just, may 

be expected to give results not very far from the truth; namely, 
the total number of beegahs of land under cultivation in the 

ep mation returns in 1826, and the land revenue in 1827-28: 

_ the former is 883,548 beegahs, and the revenue 1,664,904 ru- 
pees: the average rate per beegah is 1 rupee, 3 qr. 54 reas, a 
~ much higher rate than exists in the other collectorates. 

These assessments comparatively with those of all Kuropean 
countries, of most Asiatic countries, and relatively to the va- 
luable nature of the garden produce, comprising, independently 
of the ordinary fruits and vegetables, grapes, oranges, sugar- 
cane, cotton, two kinds of fine wheat, and aromatic and pungent 
seeds,—the field produce also embracing all the bread grains, 
gram, and other pulses,—are unquestionably very low; and were 
there no extra cesses even in the present depreciated value of 
_ agricultural produce, could not only be borne by the cultivater, 
but he might flourish under them even with the burthen of 25 
_ per cent. on his produce—fees paid to the Hukdars and Bul- 
 lootehdars. These rates, however, are considerably enhanced by 
| extra cesses called Puttees, many of which were levied for con- 
; tingencies and particular exigencies, or resulted from the con- 
1] version of voluntary offerings in kind into compulsory money 
| payments. 

Et These cesses are no less than 62 in number in the three. col- 
 lectorates of Poona, Ahmednuggur, and Khandesh, and the 
_ whole of them are for different objects; many of them result 
from local circumstances, and are therefore of a local bearing. 
The majority of these Puttees are not of uniform operation in 
_ the three collectorates, but one or more of them up to a score 
- may be found in every village. 
_ A few observations on the origin, character, and practical 
Bp rects of some of these Puttees may be necessary. Most of 
| them profess to bear directly on the land, such as those for 
) grain, forage, and ropes to government, grain to Ramooses, 
- Hayildar, Gosawees, and Meeras tax, tax for sugar, &c.: other 
_ taxes which originally fell upon tradespeople, such as_ those 
~ for skins, shoes, wool, blankets, and oil, are no longer derived 
from their legitimate sources, but fall upon the cultivator. 


> 


~ 


316 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Milch cattle, fowls, mango trees, and pumpkin beds respect- 
ively continue to supply the means to pay the taxes for Ghee, 
thickened sour milk, fowls, and fruits. Some of the Puttees 
involved personal labour, such as those for grass cut and fur- 
nished gratis to government, for firewood, for dinner plates 
composed of leaves sewn together, for monsoon great coats 
made of wicker work and leaves, and for sticks to pound rice 
with. The Rabta Mahr, spoken of under “ tenures,”’ is in lieu 
of personal services. Some of them in their name indicate their 
professedly temporary character, such as the Eksalee, or for 
one year, and yet they have been perpetuated. The Shadee or 
marriage cess at Angur, Pergunnah Mohol, and Ashtee Per- 
gunnah Oondurgaon, amounted to nearly 12 per cent. of the 
whole revenue of the towns, and could only have been for a 
passing event. The Wurgut at Wangee and Ashtee, which 
was raised by the village authorities for village expenses, is one 
of these unjustifiable taxes. At Ashtee, the scene of the battle 
of Ashtee and capture of the Sattarah princes, in 1818, the 
Wurgut was 1405 rupees, in a revenue of 6386 rupees, or 22 per 
cent.; of this sum government took 900 rupees, leaving 505 
rupees to the villagers for their expenses. ‘This Puttee at the 
town of Kurjut, Pergunnah Kurreh Wullet, is 6 annas per rupee, 
or 373 per cent. on the land and Sahyer assessments, and Bur- 
goojur or tax on betel gardens. At Rawgaon, the Wurgut 
amounted to 144 annas per rupee on the land assessments and 
taxes, or more than 90 per cent. The Kaateh Mornawul, or 
pecuniary punishment, inflicted on a village for a Mamlehdar’s 
running thorns into his feet on perambulating its lands, should 
have had some limits in its duration. ‘The Puttees for sturdy 
Gosawees, Havildars, Ramooses, Naikwarees, should have 
ceased when there were no longer Gosawees to beg with arms 
in their hands, or Havildars, Naiks, and Ramooses to exercise 
respectively certain functions. 

The fractional apportioning the above taxes to the cultiva- 
tors, involving also the compound operation of providing reduced 
shares for the privileged classes, the fractional deductions, 
in a certain ratio in case of remissions, the fluctuating amount 
of the individual shares dependent on the fixed commutation 
cesses, being yearly divisible amongst a variable numberof cul- 
tivators, the mutable character of the Seerusteh Butta, which 
necessarily changes with the yearly varying total assessments 
of the village, and which Seerusteh Butta is not determinable 
until all other assessments be fixed, combine great evils, and, 
unless to the most practised, patient, and persevering investi- 
gator, present an inextricable mass of confusion. The evils 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 317 


are, that a cultivator, be he lettered or not, cannot by possibi- 
lity know what he will have to pay the ensuing or even the 
present year, because fixed sums, payable by the village, are 
divisible amongst a varying number of cultivators. Even if 
fixed sums were divisible amongst a fixed number of cultiva- 
tors, the limited progress in arithmetic of the poor people 
would utterly disable them from determining their respective 
fractional shares; for instance, of 4 rupees for skins and 
shoes, 1 rupee for beit,* 43 for ghee, and 1,5, for leaf plates, 
&c. &c. In the whole course of my personal inquiries amongst 
this class for more than six years, I never met with one Koon- 
bee who could or would give me a detail of his assessments or 
their amount; the constant reply was, “The Koolkurnee 
knows.”’ -This very uncertainty of their means and liabilities 
makes men improvident and careless. 

The next evil is, that the Koolkurnee, in apportioning the 

fixed sums, and the Seerusteh Butta, the commutation money 
for grain, for ghee, sugar, pumpkins, &c, &c. is assured of 
impunity in defrauding the cultivators, from their want of habi- 
lity in their accounts, even if they were aware of the value and 
amount of the cesses and the number of persons they were to 
bear upon. It is almost waste of labour to give the cultivator 
a note from government of what he will have to pay, as in nine 
instances out of ten he cannot read it; his expounder is the 
Koolkurnee, or the Koolkurnee’s relations, and they read it 
agreeably to their own calculations. 
_ The above is an exposition of the assessments as they now 
_ bear on the land, which produces 82°30 per cent. of the whole 
revenue. The remaining portions of the revenue, which appear 
in village papers are usually classed under the term Sahyer, 
and are in fact taxes. The two principal heads of Sahyer are 
_ Mohturfa, properly “‘ Arhan,” or taxes on shops, houses, and 
professions ; and Bullooteh. 

Operation of Sahyer Taxes.—An idea of the operation of 
_ these taxes will be formed by the following details from 
_ Wangee, Pergunnah Wangee. 


_ Wanees, or sellers of grain and groceries, from 4 to 
_ 6 rupees a shop; oilman, for one oil-mill in 


aL iss Sal Cara So rae On 6 rupees. 
Beevers, per loom Seed ee. eo. 8 de, 


_ Other tradesmen pay proportional taxes. The threshold 
_ tax is called Oombraputtee, from Oombra, threshold: it is 
" generally a rupee per house. 


j 
y 
4 
: 


a _ At Tellegaon, Pergunnah Paubul, Poona collectorate, the 


* Beit, “a present,” 


318 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


_ taxes on trades are fixed on a scale of annas relatively to the 
visible means and profits of the tradespeople. The anna is 
considered equivalent to 34 rupees. The trades are taxed from 
ath anna to 2 annas, or 7 rupees, which is the highest sum 
for one shop. 

The highest tax on one weaver is half an anna, or 12 rupee ; 
oilman, highest rate one anna, or 3} rupees ; the sdddler, dyer, 
and butcher, at half an anna each, or 1% rupee; fishermen, 
dealers in sweet potatoes, and makers of bridles, 1 rupee each ; 
the community of braziers, 10 rupees. All the Momeens who 
are Moosulmans and weavers of turbands taxed in the lump at 
25 rupees ; shepherds at 14 rupees. These taxes are not raised 
on any systematic principles of application. 

Bullooteh Tax.—The Bullooteh is a tax levied on the per- 
sons called the Bara Bullooteh, or artizans and functionaries 
twelve in number, who are important personages in the village 
constitution. 

The taxes on the Bullooteh are generally deemed to be on the 
exercise of their profession; but this is a mistake, as the 
astrologer and Guruw, or sweeper of the village temple, pay 
Bullooteh tax, although not artizans; and I have known indivi- 
duals of a trade (in one instance a boy the survivor of a family) 
paying from 20 to 25 rupees per annum, which they could not 
possibly do from the gain of their handicrafts. 

The fact is, the Bara Bullooteeh have annual grain fees from the 
cultivators ; and government, in former times, deeming these 
fees more than commensurate with the value of the labours per- 
formed, took a part of them in money. The taxes on the Bul- 
lootehdar, are therefore indirectly derived from the land; some 
of these taxes fall very heavily. At Wangee three carpenters 
pay 36 rupees Bullooteh tax, Wurgut 9 rupees, and house tax 3 
rupees for three houses. At Tellegaon, Turruff, Paubul, the 
Bullooteh taxes are yet higher: carpenter 50 rupees, shoe- 

makers 60 rupees, Guruw or sweeper of the temple 30 rupees, 
barber 24 rupees, washerman 8 rupees, Moolana, or Moosul- 
man priest, who also gets Bullooteh, 8 rupees; but the culti- 

vators are numerous, and the lands of Tellegaon under cultiva- 
tion extensive: The Bullootehdar on the whole therefore reaps 
a rich harvest, in spite of government participating in his fees, 
from the cultivators. It is unnecessary to multiply instances of 
the bearing of the Sahyer taxes. Taxes for the sale of spirituous 
liquors, and the amount of customs or transit duties, rarely 
appear in village papers, as those branches of the revenue are 
mostly farmed. 

My limits do not permit me to give a detailed statement of 
the manner in which village accounts are kept under a native 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 319 


government. It would much assist to illustrate the internal 
ceconomy of a village and many local usages, but I have not space. 
I can only say that the whole accounts of a village are kept on 
a ribbon of paper, about five inches wide and some yards long, not 
rolled up but folded in lengths of twelve inches or more: one of 
these is required for each year. At Wangee it is called Gao 
Jarah, or village search ; at KurmullaJhartee Akaar, or figures 
or signs of search; at Barlonee it has the compound term of 
 Lownee Putruck, (detail of cultivation,) and Zameen Jarha, 
_ (land search); at Rawgaon it is called Wussool Jarha, or 
search of collections: occasionally it is 4kaarbund, or roll of 
signs, items, figures: These varying names result from the 
_ union of two papers which are usually kept separate; namely 
the Zhul Jarha, or roll of lands by family estates; and the 
 Lownee Putruck, or roll of cultivation and assessments. 

_ In closing the notice of assessments, a few words are neces- 
sary to explain the method of keeping village accounts. Atthe 
head of the paper called Gao Jarha is the name of the village, 
the Pergunnah and Soobeh it is in, the year and the name 
of the government it is under; this is followed by the Tunkha 
or Moghul money assignment upon the village, the Moosul- 
_ mans having fixed each village to pay a definite sum, leaving 
_ the whole details of assessment and distribution to the Pateel 
and villagers; then follows the total quantity of land belonging 
to the village: deductions are made for land in boundary 
_ disputes, for Kenams of all kinds, whether to the temples, 
to the village officers, to the Deshmook or Deshpandeh, or 
_ to individuals, the quantity to each being carefully marked ; all 
these being deducted, the remainder is distinguished into 
_ garden and field-land ; then follows a roll of the cultivators, with 
_anumber of columns to record the quantity of land held upon 
each tenure, and the amount payable for each; a column for 
the share of the extra assessments, previously noticed, inclu- 
_ ding the share of village expenses, which is always consider- 
able; also columns for totals of the different heads. Then follow 
rolls of the Bullooteh, shopkeepers, trades, and others subject 
to fixed taxes, with columns for the proportion of tax upon 
the particular trade; the Bullooteh, the house-tax, and share 
of extra assessments, which these people pay although they are 
not landholders. 

__ An abstract of the preceding details is now made, called the 
Ekunder Tereej. The contract for the transit duties, if not 
farmed, is added; and the Kumall, which means “total,” “all,” 
_“whole,’’ is put at the bottom. Then follow the deductions under 
_ the heads of money—EKenams, Hukdars, village, and other ex- 
_ penses, every item of which is detailed. Amongst the expenses 


320 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


are village festivals, dinners to government officers, donations to 
brahmans, feeding pilgrims, interest on money borrowed, ex- 
penses of the Pateel and village officers when attending the go- 
vernor of the district, oil in the temples, the Moosulman saint’s 
tomb (if there be one) coming in for its share of donation or 
annual allowance, strange as it may appear, from Hindoo cul- 
tivators. I regret much that my limits do not permit me to 
detail the expenses, many of which are very curious, and illus- 
trate habits and customs, The expenses being deducted from 
the collections, a balance is struck, which, under native govern- 
ments, /eft the Tunkha, or government original assignment, 
together with any extra assessment, if levied, such as Sur Desh- 
mookee, Chouth, &c. &c. To show how large a proportion of 
the village collections did not go to government, in one village, 
whose accounts I translated, the Tunkha, or government share, 
was 5500 rupees; and the Kumall, or total collections, 8522 
rupees; so that 3022 rupees, or more than 35 per cent. of the 
whole, went in village expenses, Hukdars, (Deshmooks and 
Deshpandehs,) and other claims. 
Wages. 

The amount of wages of agricultural labourers is of so much 
importance to the class constituting the major part of the 
community, and it assists the judgement so materially in 
estimating the condition of the people, that I shall offer all the 
details I was able to collect in the Dukhun bearing on the 
question. 

Farmers’ Artificers’ Work executed for Fees in Kind.— 
The trifling artificers’ and mechanics’ work required by the 
farmer being performed by the village artisans, in virtue of their 
offices and for fees in kind, it will not be necessary to enlarge 
on the remuneration for their labour: but to afford distinct 
ideas of its value, at the end of this paper I shall put into 
juxtaposition the rates paid by the Peshwah’s government and 
the British government to artificers, mechanics, and others. 

I made my inquiries on the subject of wages in towns and 
villages, the most distant from each other, to prevent the mistake 
of the adoption of local rates for those of general operation. 

Wages of Hushandmen and other Labourers at Nandoor.— 
At Nandoor, a British town in the Ahmednuggur collectorate, 
in March, 1827, I found that yearly husbandry servants got 
from 12 to 20 rupees* per annum and their food; a smart 
active man got about 15 rupees per annum and supplied him- 
self with clothes. 


® From 24 to 40 shillings. 


oie ee 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 321 


__ Day labourers, when paid in cash, get 14 anna per day, or 
3 of two shillings, (about two pence farthing,) supplying them- 
selves with every thing: but day labourers are never paid in 
money unless when grain is very dear. 
é _ Quantity given. — The most usual plan in harvesting crops 
ods to give each labourer three sheaves of whatever grain he is 
cutting down ; and provided he ties up the sheaves and stacks 
them, he gets five sheaves a day. 

Value of Wages in Kind, converted into Money.—The grain 
in five sheaves, in ordinary seasons, amounts to about two seers. 
At the price of Bajree*, in March 1827, at Nandoor, namely 42 
seers per rupee, the value of the labour was one penny and {;4,ths 
per day. Joareet, at 56 seers per rupee, was ;5;>ths of a penny 
per day, or rather more than three farthings, Wheat, at 18 
seers per rupee, would have been two pence ;65,, or something 
less than two pence three farthings per day. Allowing the 
grain in five bundles to be double the quantity stated, which is 
rather possible than probable, the highest wages in harvesting 
_ wheat would not have been five pence halfpenny per diem. 
_ When men are employed in ploughing or harrowing, nine 
times out of ten, they are paid two seers of Bajree for their day’s 
_ work, from daylight to night, allowing one hour for dinner. 

_ At Kanoor.—At Kanoor, a town in Jagheer, Ahmednuggur 
 collectorate, in March 1827, I found that the two Pateels had 
_ each a permanent domestic servant in his employ; one paid 
_ his man 15 rupees per annum and his food; the other gave 
15 rupees per annum, food, and five articles of wearing 
_ apparel, the value of which was 33 rupees. 
_ Wages at Dywuree.—At Dywuree, Nuggur collectorate, 
_ in November 1826, the cultivators did not pay their day- 
labourers in money, but gave them five sheaves of grain for 
_ every hundred cut down; a very able man indeed might cut 
down two hundred sheaves in a day, which would give him 
four seers of grain, the value of which (Bajree) in November, 
1826, was about ;%,ths of a rupee, or three pence English. 
| Wages at Dytna.—At Dytna, Nuggur collectorate, in Fe- 
_bruary 1827, I found a man getting 25 rupees per annum, 
his food and a blanket, his son being also in employ at six 
‘Tupees a year, food and clothes; but this was looked upon as 
high, and the individuals getting such wages fortunate: the 
village belonged to a Gosawee ¢ who paid his people well. 
| Wages of Women Day Labourers. — At Chambergoondeh, 
a large town belonging to Seendeh, Nuggur collectorate, in 


of 


V4 * Properly, Sujgooreh, Panicum spicatum. 
____ t Properly, Jondleh, Andropogon Sorghum. t Gosawee, a religieux, 
q 


322 SEVENTH REPORT—1837- 


November 1827, women weeding in fields got ,th of a rupee 
per day, or one penny halfpenny, and worked from sunrise to 
sunset. 

Wages at Kurkumbh.—At Kurkumb, a Jagheer town in the 
Poona collectorate, in December 1827, I found a husbandry 
servant getting only twelve rupees per annum, and food twice a 
day: noclothes. A man watching a field of grain was amonthly 
servant at three rupees a month, without food or clothes. 

Highest Wages at Kurkumh.—From the authorities of the 
town I learned that the highest rate paid for the cleverest 
gardener’s assistant or ploughman was 25 rupees per annum 
and daily food, but without clothes. The monthly rates for 
agricultural servants were from 2% to 3 rupees, without food, 
or clothes, fee, or advantage. 

Pay of Seypoys at Angur.—At Angur, a British town in 
the Poona Collectorate, on the 9th of January, 1828, in looking 
over the village accounts, I found two village seypoys charged 
respectively three rupees and two rupees for a month’s pay. 

Wages of Women Labourers at Poona.—On the 21st July, 
1827, I found a great number of women weeding in gardens in 
the neighbourhood of the city of Poona; they received each 
six pice in money, or ;§,ths of two shillings, (two pence one-third 
per day,) and worked from daylight until dark. This may be 
considered high wages, and its amount is to be attributed to 
the paucity of field labourers in a great city. 

Wages at Pait.—At Pait, a Jagheer town in Pergunnah 
Kheir, in the Poona collectorate, on the 16th February, 1829, 
in my evening excursion, I overtook twelve or fourteen men 
and women with bundles of wheat in the straw on their heads ; 
on inquiry I found they had been employed as labourers in 
pulling up a field of wheat at Pait. Their wages had been five 
sheaves for every hundred gathered ; two or three of the men 
only had got five sheaves each, the majority of them only four, 
and the women none more than three. Five sheaves they said 
would yield about four seers of wheat, and as wheat was 
selling in Pait at 28 seers per rupee, each man with five 
sheaves received for his labour nine pice, or 34d. English. These 
poor people belonged to the town of Owsuree, five miles 
distant from Pait; they had therefore a march of ten miles to 
make besides their day’s labour. 

Wages at Joonur.—At the city of Joonur, at the end of 
February 1829, I found a brahman cultivating the Hubbus 
Baugh (about 80 beegahs of land) ; he employed numerous la- 
bourers. While I was encamped near his garden, fields of wheat, 
and gram, and Booee Moong*, &c. were harvested. For the 


* Earth-nut, Arachis hypogea, 


pees prevent 
Sanit : ® os 
Denomination o, a Grains, pulses, 28 a3 
° 64 4 g an Sea a 
_ | artificers, servants, &c. be BES other articles, 3 oe 3 g 
se S65 a oe 
5A SH 5e| 53 
Qa 
=) P 5 S 


a i 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 323 


wheat and gram and bread-grains the men got five sheaves 
per cent. In the field of Booee Moong there were between 
fifty and sixty women employed; and I learned that, in this 
particular product, from the labour and tediousness of digging 
it up, and the cheapness of the produce, the labourers were 
allowed one-fourth of the whole. In cutting down sugar-cane, 
gathering fruits or vegetables, and indeed where the produce 
was too valuable to give the labourer a share of it, the Brahman 
paid a man eight pice a day (little more than 2$d.) and a woman 
four, and they worked from daylight until dark, with an allow- 
ance of one hour for dinner. 

The above data are gathered from places widely separated in 
the Poona and Ahmednuggur collectorates ; and although in dif- 
ferent years, are remarkable in their uniformity ; they supply 
therefore just estimates for the general rates of wages, and it may 
be fairly stated that the highest money wages paid by the natives 
to any husbandry or domestic servant is four rupees per 
month, with which he finds his own food and clothes, and 23'5 
rupees per month is the pay when the master supplies food and 
clothes; and the most favourable wages to a man day-labourer 
are eight pice per diem *, and to a woman five pice f. 


Artificers’ and servants’ wages, and price of Bread-grains 
under the Peshwa’s and British Governments. 


Rates of hire for a month of thirty days| Prices of grains, pulses, and other 
of artificers, servants, and labourers] articles, the ordinary consump- 
in Dukhun, under the British govern-| tion of artificers, servants, la- 
ment in 1828, and Peshwa’s govern-| bourers, &c. at Poona in Duk- 
ment in A.D. 1814. hun, under the Peshwa’s go- 

vernment, being a mean of five 
years from 1811 to 1815, and 
under the British in 1828. 


Monthly Pay. Seers per Rupee, 


| 


Rupees, Rupees. iSeers, rat 
2 


| __|Maistry, or head 25, 35, 40 15 . |Rice, Putnee ......| 16 


. 9 Maistry, or head 


carpenter ...... Do. Ambemor ...| 13 94 
Second orunder do.| 23 & 25 12 Do. Rajawul......| 14 12 


Wheat, Buckshee | 18 1433 
cnrpnte, net} 30, 85, & 45|15,20, 40|/D®  Potee......| 20 


= Joaree (Andro- oe 
xf worker ...... vee pogon S: newb 82 214 
ng a tly 
* About 23d, About 14d, 


xy 2 


Puturwut, stone- 
MASON... eeeee. 

Bhooee Hamalls... 

Muccadum, or 
chief of Hamalls } 


15 


The above table shows a marked enhancement in the wages 
of all classes of handicrafts and servants, although grain be- 
came from 20 to 50 per cent, cheaper under the British than 


12 


7,8,&9 |6,7,&8 


10 


824 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 
Table continued. 
Monthly Pay. Seers per Rupee. 
ag: ethan 2. 2 3 Bata, pulses, 38 23 
artificers, servants, &c. BES Be other articles. Bo 5a 
za zs ee| Ee 
P =) Pe PS 
a fy 
C Rupees. Rupees, B Seers,| Seers. 
arpenter, com- = ; 3 ajree (Panicum 
ne worker ae asad Cea heat } 28) Listes 
Two Sawyers ...... 15 & 22 8 Dhall  (Cytisus\| 16 11.86 
Maistry, or head 25 & 30 20 COPA) fies cneate \ neo 
smith ......... Hoe Ghee (clarified 21] 1 
Smith .......cse00) 15 & 222 | 12 | butter) ww. } morhs 
Head armourer .. 30 20 
AYMourer ...seee0e 15 12 
Fileman ........06 15 12 
Hammerman .,.....|6, 8, & 132 = 
Maistry, or head 
leather worker ou a 
Leather raed 92 9 
harness maker i 
Puckalee, or wa- } 15 9 
TerMAan corccecee 
Bricklayer .........] 93, 12 10 } 
Head bricklayer, 25 & 35 | 15 & 20 
MAISELY ..ceceeee 
Maistry, or head 
tailor, fine i 15 14 
WOFKer ...eeceee 
WEAROT Geach og ceusiennes 93. 6 
Man labourer ....... 5&7 5 
Woman do..........| 33 to7 3 to 4 
IBOY dO: sexasckensss 33 3 
Muccadum, or 
chief of Duly | 15 & 20 8 
bearers ..,...+0. 
Dooly bearers......| 7 to 9 6 
Horse keepers...... 8 5 __|Served two horses junde/r Peshwa. 
Camel men.........| 7 to 9 5 Served two camels} DJo. 
Tattoo, or pack 
pony permonth, i 12 15 
with driver ... 
Camel with driver. 30 30 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. $25 


under the Peshwa. In the wages of the numerous servants of 
European gentlemen the same advance has taken place. The 
superior cheapness in some grains has extended to more than 
100 per cent. 

In the above notices the rupee has been considered equal to 
two shillings; the seer of weight equal to 1]b.15 oz. 8 drs. 
183 ers. avoirdupois, or 2lbs. 4 oz. 6 grs. troy; and the seer 
of capacity to 2lbs. 6 oz. 3 drs. 24 grs. 92 dec. avoirdupois of 
Jerwail rice; its cubic contents, 72 in. 2 dec. of water at a 
temperature of 75° Fahrenheit, at a temperature of 60° there- 
fore being equal to 48 per cent. less than two imperial quarts, 
or very nearly one quart. Rigidly, the seer is 4:17 dec. per 
cent. larger than an imperial quart. 


Manufactures. 


Celebrated as was India for its costly and ingenious cotton 
fabrics, little more than the memory of them now remains. 
The machinery of England has enabled ler manufacturers to 
take the raw material out of the hands of the grower, and return 
it to the continent of India, worked up in various ways, with- 
out even affording an opportunity for the application of a prop 
or stay to the sinking industry of its once flourishing manufac- 
turing classes. As far as relates to Dukhun, its cotton and 
silk fabrics are confined to coarse dresses for women, tent- 
cloths, some silk handkerchiefs, and trifling pieces of silk for 
bosom cloths for women. From an examination of the cotton 
and silk goods for sale in the markets of Poona, in July 1829, 
it appeared that every product of the loom, without any excep- 
tion, with any claim to notice from texture, costliness of 
material, or ingenuity in the design or workmanship, was an 
import into the collectorates from native states not under 
the British government. Turband cloths, varying in length 
from 24 to 60 cubits, in breadth from three-quarters to 14 
cubits, and in price from one rupee up to sixty rupees each, 
were from Peytun, Bheer, Narrainpait, Tahr Putruh, Wus- 
wunt, Nandergaon, and Shaghur, in the Nizam’s dominions ; 
Boorhanpoor and Jehanabad, in Seendeh’s (Scindiah’s) domi- 
nions, and Chundaree in Malwa, while those made in the 
city of Poona did not exceed three rupees each in value. The 
only valuable Doéruhs or loin cloths, in length from 20 to 22 
cubits, breadth 2} to 23 cubits, and in price from'10 to 40 
rupees, were from Muheshwur, in Malwa; the rest were from 


the Nizam’s, Holkar’s, and the Rajah of Berar’s (Nagpoor) ter- 
a ritories. Shahpoor and Belgaon, in the Dharwar collectorate, 


produced some loin cloths of the value of 25 rupees; those from 


326 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, 


Poona did not exceed three rupees in value. The Dooputtehs or 
Shelehs, cloths for throwing over the shoulder and enfolding the 
body, in value from 10 to 200 rupees, were from Peytun, Jehana- 
bad, and Boorhanpoor ; those from Poona were of the value of 
five rupees only. Loogreh or Sarhehs*, varying in length from 
13 to 20 cubits, in breadth from 1% to 23 cubits, and in price 
from 14 rupee to 80 rupees, had a wider field of production, 
even Poona producing these dresses, from one or two looms 
only I believe, of the value of 80 rupees. New Hooblee, 
and Shahpoor, in the Dharwar collectorate, produced some 
dresses of the value of 30 rupees. Cholkun or bosom cloths 
are manufactured at the above places : the highest value of one 
would appear to be 10 rupees, and the lowest about three- 
pence. The silk handkerchiefs were chiefly from the Car- 
natic. 

The price of the above articles is influenced partly by the 
colours, partly by the fineness of the fabric, but chiefly by the 
quantity of gold and silver thread worked up in them. 

Some cotton carpets are manufactured at Ahmednuggur, 
and in the Jail at Poona, but do not call for notice. 

Turbands are dyed of twenty-one colours, but I have not 
space to give the names; few or none of them are fast colours, 
with the exception of black and red. 

The only woollen manufacture in the collectorates is that 
of a black smooth blanket, (Aumlee) the colour being that of 
the wool. In general the blanket is coarse, but there is 
a very fine fabric from Bijapoor. The low state of manu- 
factures is otherwise attested by the fact that, in the Poona 
collectorate, in the population returns sent to me, the weavers 
only amounted to 0°35 per cent. of the people, or one weaver 
for every 280 souls; in Khandesh 0°57 per cent., or one to 
every 173 inhabitants; and in Dharwar 1°80 per cent., or one 
in 55 inhabitants, which is prodigiously above the other col- 
lectorates. I estimate the proportion in the Ahmednuggur 
collectorate to be the same as that in Poona. 


Transit Duties. 


The transit duties are farmed; the stations for collecting 
them are numerous ; the rates, although fixed, are unjust, as 
they are not levied on uniform principles with respect to defi- 
nite tracts of country. The Carrier is not only interrupted at 
irregular intervals by British stations, but the alienated 
towns, sO numerously interspersed in the British territories, 


* Women’s dresses, 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 327 


endeavour to levy duties; moreover, he is perplexed by the 
money claims of hereditary district officers upon the duties, 
independently of the customs-farmer’s dues. How the con- 
flicting interests are arranged I do not know; but they are so 
various and troublesome, that the merchant is commonly driven 
to the expensive necessity of contracting with a class of people, 
called Hoondeekuree, who undertake for a fixed swm to pass 
all the merchandize through a country to its destination, 
paying all duties ; constant practice, adroitness, and bullying, 
enabling them to arrange with the collectors better than the 
merchant could. 

All transit duties should be abolished; their amount in the 
interior of a country materially affects consumption, and is 
therefore injurious to trade. 


Coins. 


The only coins in use in Dukhun are silver rupees, half ru- 
pees, and copper pice. The rupees are of many mints, and have 
a different value in relation to the copper coin, resulting from the 
age of the rupee, and the number of punches or marks it may 
have on it made by the Shroofs or money-changers in passing 
through their hands*; the same rupee, of the same standard, 
and same mint, has not the same value im copper in neigh- 
bouring districts; this value fluctuates at the pleasure of the 
money-changers. On what principles they regulate the rela- 
tive values I do not know. The multiplicity of coins of dif- 
ferent mints, and the gradations of coins of the same mint, 
are great evils. It is unnecessary to enumerate these coins, as 


_ they are in the Bombay Almanac. 


Weights and Measures. 


A very considerable diversity prevails in every district, and 
often in neighbouring villages, in the weights and measures in 


_ use, whether of weight, length, or capacity ; this diversity goes 
- so far, that the subdivisions are often found not to be in a 

_ determinate proportion to each other. All this confusion is 
_ referrible to the want of an ancient permanent standard ; to the 
abrasion or decay of the weights and measures tolerated by go- 
_ vernment, the knavery of the owners of the weights, and the 
apathy or connivance of the district authorities t. Everywhere 


* These marks occasion a depreciation of one or more per cent. 
‘+ So great are the discrepancies, that they range from 41 per cent. below to 


q 100 per cent. above the Poona standard. 


328 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


the apparatus of metrology is characterized by clumsiness in con- 
struction ; rough stones are commonly substituted for stamped 
metal weights, and joints of the hollow bamboo for authorized 
definite measures of capacity. The seer of weight was directed 
by the authorities at Poona and Ahmednuggur to be of eighty 
Ankoosee rupees, and such a weight may be in use where the 
district officers are located, but in very few other places. With 
respect to measures of capacity, not only has each village its own, 
but I might almost say that each shopkeeper has his own, for it is 
rare that the weights and measures of any two shopkeepers are 
identical; and when it does occur it must be referred to acci- 
dent. Even the stamping of weights and measures by govern- 
ment officers has not been effectual to insure uniformity ; for ina 
table that I drew up of the discrepancy between the weights 
and measures of some scores of places all over the country, 
very many of the weights and measures had the government 
stamp upon them. 

One feature of the measures of capacity is, that, with some 
exceptions, those of villages are always larger than those of 
towns and cities. The extent to which this fraud has been carried 
in military cantonments and large bazaars immediately under 
British control, is shown in the fact of the reduction of the 
Serroor cantonment seer, one-twentieth below the standard of 
Poona city, one-fourth below the standard of Ahmednuggur city, 
and two-elevenths below the measures of neighbouring districts. 
But in Bombay it is still more glaring, the origin of whoseweights 
and measures is unquestionably referrible to the Dukhun and 


Konkun ; and yet the Bombay measure of capacity is 41 per. 


cent. less than that of Poona, and about 33 per cent. less than 
that at Panwell in the Konkun, the nearest great mart to 
Bombay cn the continent. The diminution in the seer of weight 
in Bombay is even more striking. I found the standard seer 
of weight in the collector’s office in Bombay to weigh 4970 
grains troy only, while the Panwell seer weighed 13,110 
grains, and the Poona seer weighed 13,800 grains, troy. The 
Panwell seer therefore was 163 per cent. and the Poona seer 
177 per cent. larger than the Bombay seer. The knowledge of 
these facts is of importance to the European and native mer- 
chant, as well as to the general consumer. 

The evil of a progressive diminution in the weights and mea- 
sures of Dukhun is arrested in the cities of Poona and Ahmed- 
nuggur and the neighbouring cantonments, by standards being 
kept in the collectors’ offices ; but as they are not founded on 
any scientific principles by which they could be restored if lost 
or lessened, their safe custody is of great moment. The seer 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 329 


of weight is directed to be made of a certain number of pieces 
of the current silver coin, and can therefore be tested without 
difficulty ; but there is not any test, saving the solitary standard 
in the collector’s office, for the measure of capacity. It will 
be seen that I have given the weight of water of a certain tem- 
perature these measures contain, and this determination may be 
of use at a future period. 

Grain measures.—The largest measure of capacity in use is 
the Adholee, of two seers ; its name means “‘ the half,” it being 
the half of the Puheelee, of four seers, which is not in use. 
This measure is in the form of an hour-glass. I found the 
_ Poona city standard to contain 36,400 grains troy, of water, 
at a temperature of 75° Fahr., or 5 Ibs. 3 oz. 3 dr. 54 grs., or 
_ 144:4 cubic inches; and at a temperature of 60° Fahr. it con- 
_ tained 36,462 grains troy, being 48 per cent. less than an im- 

perial gallon, or very nearly two quarts ; rigidly, the seer is 4°17 

per cent. larger than an imperial quart. It is curious that the 
_ first subdivision of the Adholee is not one-half but one-fourth, 
or half a seer, a seer measure being very rarely in use; then a 
: quarter of a seer, and finally, one-eighth.* In some places 
there are what are called male and female 4dholees, one being 
_ alittle larger than the other ; retail traders buy with the largest 
and sell by the smallest. The multiples are 2 4dholees 1 Puheelee 
or 4 seers, 12 Puheelees 1 Mun (Maund), and 20 Muns 1 
Kundee (Candy); bat in some places there are 16 Puheelees 
to the Mun: and along the Ghats, and in the Konkun, there 
_ are only 3} seers to the Puheelee. Determined by the weight 
_ of the contents of the ddholee of well-dried Jerwail rice, the 
_ Kundee would be 20 cwt. 1 qr. 26 lbs. 10 oz. 12 drs. 16 grs. 
 avoirdupois. 
_ It is necessary to mention that the flour of all grains is sold 
_ by weight and not by measure. 
Oil, spirits, and milk, are sold by different measures of ca- 
pacity. These are all professedly founded on the seer of 
_ weight; but their discrepancies may well render it doubtful. 
_ At one place I found the seer of oil measure to contain 26 ru- 
_ pees’ weight of water, at others, 66 rupees’, 80 rupees’, &c. The 
_ forms of these measures are various. The same observations 
_ apply to spirit measures. The seer of milk in one place con- 
| tained 88 rupees’ weight of water, in another 93, and elsewhere 
up to 109 rupees’ weight. 

_  Weights——The standard seer of weight in Poona weighs 80 
_Ankoosee rupees or 13,800 grains troy, or 1 lb. 15 oz. 8 dwts. 


€ 


MO eRe pki S00. 


—- 


FRM 02 


ae 
2 
. 


* Sellers of sweetmeats have +!,th of a seer. 


330 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


182 grs. avoirdupois ; but the most common seer in use in Duk- 
hun is one of 76 rupees; the divisions are ddh seer (half), Pao 
seer (quarter), 4dh pao or Nowtank (one-eighth), and Chettank 
(one-sixteenth). For the convenience of calculation, the seer is 
divided into 72 tanks or tollahs, and one-eighth, of course, is 
Nowtank or nine tanks, and one-sixteenth is Sarhee chartank 
or 43 tanks, which is corrupted into Chettank. The multiples 
are Panch seer (five seers), the mun of 40 seers equal to 
78 lbs. 13 oz. 11 drs. 11 grs. avoirdupois, or 95lb. 10 oz. troy 
exactly; the Pullah of 3 muns, and the Kundee of 20 muns. 
But I have shown how far the weights really in use differed from 
the above, and in the tract lying between the Seena and Beema 
rivers, the weight called the Bureedee had not even the same 
constituents or multiples as the Poona weights. 

Goldsmiths’ weights.—The lowest goldsmiths’ weight is no- 
minally the mustard seed, but the lowest I met with was the 
Goonj, a seed of the Abrus precatorius, the mean weight of 
which was 1°91410 grains troy: 96 goonj make a tollah, which 
should therefore weigh 183°7536 grains troy; but as the tollah 
is the 72nd part of a seer of 13,800 grains, it should weigh 
191,666 grains troy; the goldsmiths’ weights in use conse- 
quently are below the nominal standard. Eight goon or four 
waals* make one massah, and twelve massah one tollah. I 
put the goldsmiths’ weights to the same test in different parts of 
the country, I did those of capacity, and found that two weights 
of the same denomination in different shops were seldom uni- 
form. The scales used by goldsmiths are called Kantah, and 
are of metal; those used by dealers generally are called Tajwa 
or Tagree, and are made of leather or parchment. 

Itinerary and Long Measures.—Distances between places 
are estimated by the Kohs (coss), I cannot say measured, for I 
believe the actual determination of distances between places was 
as little attended to by the native governments, as the facilitating 
communications through the country by the construction of 
roads and bridges. I think the Kohs averages about two miles 
English, varying, however, from 13 to 2} miles. In Mahratta 
writings long measure is raised from the barleycorn; 8 Juw or 
barleycorns make a Boht or finger, 24 fingers a Haft or cubit, 
(18 inches), 4 cubits a Dunoosh (a bow) or fathom, measured 
by a man’s outspread arms, and 8000 cubits or 2000 fathoms a 
Kohs. The Kohs therefore would equal 24 English miles and 
40 yards. In Sanscrit 2 Kohs make a Guwyotee, and 2 of the 
latter make a Yojun or 9 miles and 160 yards; but these terms 


* Waal is the seed of the Cesalpinia sappan. 


*” 
af 
oe '\ 
rt " 
: 
q \ 


ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 331 


are unknown to the common people. In fact, however, the 
measure of length originates in the well-known Haht or cubit, 
determined by the mean length of five men’s arms, measured 
from the elbow-joint to the end of the middle finger: the Haht 
or cubit so determined, is a little more than 18 inches in length ; 
this is divided into 2 Weets or spans, into 6 Mooshtees or fists, 
and each fist into 4 Bohts or fingers, and the latter into 8 
barleycorns each. Tailors and sellers of cloth use a Guy, 
which is divided into 16 Ghirra, each of 14 Tussoo, each. Tussoo 
of 2 Bohis, and as each Boh is equal to a fraction more than 
_ # of an inch, the Gu would be a little more than an English 
_ yard, 
_ Superficial Measure.—The only land measure of any exact 
_ and appreciable extent is the Beegah, which is of Moosul- 
- man derivation, but by some referred to the Sanscrit word 
Weegruhuh, although this word is not applied to land measure- 
ments ; and as all genuine Mahratta terms applied to the ca- 
_ pacity, extent, or capabilities of land, are not referrible to the 
_ beegah or its multiples, I must consider the Beegah of Moosul- 
man introduction. Like itinerary measures, it is raised from 
the Haft or cubit of a fraction more than 18 inches in length ; 
5 Hahts and 5 Mooshtees (fists or palms) make 1 Kattee or 
stick, 20 square Kattees or sticks make 1 Paand, and 20 
_Paands a Beegah; reduced to English measurements, the 5 
_Hahts and 5 Mooshtees will be equal to 105 inches in length, 
and the square of this sum will be 11,025 inches in a square 
Katiee or stick, and 20 Kattees a Paand equal to 220,500 
‘inches, and 20 Paands a Beegah or 4,410,000 square inches ; 
_ and as the English statute acre contains 43,560 square feet, the 
| Beegah is to the acre as 703 is to 100, or as 211 to 300, being a 
| trifle more than seven-tenths of an acre. But as the Haht or 
| cubit is a fraction more than 18 inches, the Beegah may fairly 
_ be considered equal to three-fourths of an acre: but I very much 
| doubt whether any other than garden lands were actually mea- 
sured by the Moosulmans ; and in converting the Hindoo terms 
| Kundee, Mun, Doree, and fifty other denominations, into Bee- 
 gahs, it was done by estimate; and this explanation will account 
for the variable size of the Beegah in different parts of the 
| country, which the British survey has discovered. The only 
multiples of the Beegah, to my knowledge, are the Rookeh of 
6 Beegahs or 44 acres, and the Chahoor of 120 Beegahs or 90 
acres: these terms are of Moosulman origin. 
Adverting to the past and present state of the knowledge of 
tive governments in politics, political economy and science, 


— ee ..hCl 


\ 
i 


332 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


it would be idle to refer the origin of their weights and mea- 
sures to scientific principles, immutable standards, or even to 
any uniform, although arbitrary system. Their long measure is 
derived from the human arm, and their weights from a seed. 
In these derivations they have not been a whit more irrational 
than the good people of England, whose standard measure of 
length, the Ulna or Ell, is derived from the arm of one of their 
kings, (Henry the First), and their weights from grains of 
wheat. There is a great coincidence between the native 
weights and measures and those of antiquity. The first five 
subdivisions of the scripture measures of length are identical 
in their derivation, and nearly so in their length, with those of 
Dukhun ; namely, the finger, fist or palm, span, Haft or cubit, 
and fathom ; both also have the cvincidence of being destitute 
of a measure equivalent to a foot.. The foot was a constituent 
of the ancient Greek and Roman measures ; but in practice 
these nations used the finger, palm, and cubit; and the Pecus 
or great cubit of the Greeks was precisely of the length of the 
Dukhun cubit, namely, a fraction more than 18 inches. The 
ancient grain and liquid measures of England were raised from 
weight from a pound troy. For a very long period I had be- 
lieved the measures of capacity in Dukhun to be entirely arbi- 
trary ; but in the southern part of the country between the Seena 
and the Beema rivers, I met with ddholees with stamps on — 
them, directing that they should contain a certain weight of — 
grain ; for instance, at Punderpoor the Addholee was to contain 
as much Johr Guhoon (wheat), as would weigh 200 Ankoosee 
rupees, at Mohol 160 rupees’ weight of Joaree (Andropogon — 
Sorghum), at Taimbournee 131 rupees’ weight of Joaree, and at — 
Kothool, near to Ahmednuggur, 200 Ankoosee rupees’ weight — 
of Bajree (Panicum spicatum). 1 know not whether this slight — 
indication of systematic deduction of measures of capacity from 
those of weight is attributable to the Moosulmans or to the 
Hindoos. The places where they were met with, with one © 
exception, had until recently, been for ages under a Moosulman 
government (the Nizam’s), but it might have been practised be- — 
fore the arrival of the Moosulmans. It does not appear to have © 
occurred to the natives to use the weight of water, as the least — 
changeable standard by which to fix the capacity of a measure. — 
Army .—The army consists of some of the royal troops paid — 
by the India Company ; of European regiments of artillery and — 
infantry belonging to the Company, and of native regiments of 
cavalry, infantry, and pioneers, armed, clothed and disciplined 
in the same manner as the Kuropean troops. The army is 


‘ ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 883 


ated into divisions commanded by General Officers and 
diers-General, and the divisions are divided into brigades, 
hich are so stationed as to co-operate in the readiest and 
Me rand o . . : 

ost efficient manner in emergencies, for the protection of the 


co ntry and the maintenance of the civil power. 
stice.—Not having been able to get blank forms filled up 
e India~House with the necessary data respecting crimes 


_ punishments, I abstain from any notice of judicial matters. 


Bis ; 
W. H. SYKES, Lt.-Colonel, F.R.S., 
~ Late Statistical Reporter to the Government of Bombay. 


334 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


CONTENTS 


OF THE SPECIAL REPORT ON THE STATISTICS OF THE BRITISH 
COLLECTORATES OF DUKHUN, (DECCAN). 


Page 
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS, « ccnccsovcvsoscccsscrsccccsssssscvencoecessunesmaina li, 


Extent and Physical Circumstances. 
Area, Elevation, Rivers, Roads, Bridges .....sesseeececasecseccsersesseesene 218 


Geology. 
(GOES esocntboore dududedvcvwandsrecdecscavecuresses Seacececpevacssesavevessovedenenel MUEU 
Valleys, Terraces ......ssscscccesss Sustastessducccnnanaccacneacs evassnaneePuneuess 221 
Escarpments, Columnar (ae SG Mae as Sete? S ocbscvehn tek oeee 222 
Schistose structure, Basalt en boules, Dykes, Ferruginous clay ......... 223 
Pulverulent limestone, Nodular limestone ...... ...+0++. Dessgekend Pe tit ode 225 
Loose stones, Rocky heaps, Sheets of rock......... aeoeaene Seas osawaediee ae 220 
Structure and mineral composition of rocks ........seeeeseee caaaeeta een aaee 227 


Minerals, ores, Natural salts, no organic remains, Thermal springs, 
Extent of trap region, Laterite, Granite, Sedimentary rocks ........ 229 


Climate. 
Barometer, Atmospheric tides, Temperature .......sssesseseseeees sevsseseeee 231 
Monthly means, Diurnal range, Mean temperature, Moisture scsssvese 202 
Rain, Winds, Hot winds, Whirlwinds  ...........+ cokresscred ceseeenass eaters 236 
Hail, Dews, Fogs, Salubrity of the climate ........... coscdtecetesCnecan EO 

Botany. 
Cultivated fruits .csessecscsccssoncseceesescesseseees Soros 288) 
Weald fits <1. c0eewesincninccondacswesnse dos deesntevscavavsestasietnoe onc Porc Ey eel) 
Agricultural products, Products of wet season harvest ....sssssscsesses Pe eel, 
Do. Dry or spring season harvest ........ss+s00+ Saresesanest ans ee 
Garden produce, Edible roots, grapes, &C.......0++seeeeees scecoswanas) wonde 242 
Spontaneous oil, tanning, and medicinal ee European fruits, 

Flowering plants, AMA DEN trEUS ce. cnaessconnececenceesacsnoes ceeseadevaeeeyeteaat 

Zoology. 
Quadrumana, Cheiroptera, Plantigrada, oe srs éuswostvecse-ent cosespinno Gm 
Birds, Insessores .......sseseessees éctocacon ATE ee Oe 
Rasores, Grallatores, Natatores ......ssscsecsesesecseees Mr Ce 250 


Ichthyology, Reptilia, Crustacea, Testacea, Entomology . désdoscdsavauleehy MO 


CONTENTS OF STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 


Civil Divisions. 


* 

i Poona Collectorate, Pergunnahs, Towns, Hill-forts, &c. ..sccsscesscoseees 
Ahmednuggur Collectorate: Talooks, Pergunnahs, Towns, prvi &e. 

_ Khandesh Collectorate: Pergunnahs, Towns, &. .csscesssesssessceeees 

* Rivers, Boodh cave temples .....ssssseccsseeeeeeeee ids evarsauxen cde eeniinite 

Dharwar Collectorate: Talooks, Pergunnahs, Towns, "Rivers, Hill- 

g forts, &e. COTTE OER O eee TEE ROOT EEO EHR eH HOE OE EOOE SORE E SEE Deeeeeseesbeeeeebeesees 


Population. 
Proportion of the sexes, Constituents of ee Casts, Births, 
Deaths, and Marriages Sea ppebatenn coduucencn ccvgareser vues Soiiestasapanc scaee 


Proportion engaged in (ea to the square mile, to a house, in 
WAM eB AOWNS ii Jeicecdesccees sla lecseccccees 


Pe ea eseesersesesseseseeseseses 


Education. 
Proportion of schools in the different collectorates, &c. 


Irrigation. 
Different kinds of, Quantity of water supplied by the well-bucket ...... 


Agriculture, 


_ General observations, Agriculture of the wet season CYOp ssssssecseseaes 
_ Do. Dry season crop (Mawuls), Dry season crop (Desh, Mawuls), Wet 
season crop (Desh), pi ble Treading out, Farm yard, Win- 
NOWING .......406. Ane yt Tees avulvaueenechensapnas con osensecteederaeteass 

Preserving grain, Preparing grain for food, Pounding, Grinding, Sugar 

mill, Oil mill ......... sea@irnoaread tes Sdsinaplncandanececandncecs musgunesciey 

4 Average size of farms, Proportion of os cattle, milch cattle, 

ploughs, &c. ....sss.seee0e Scaetncodtnskbsecoctharr 


i 


Seeesereeeeeeesvessssoseeese . 


Land and other Tenures. 


Estates hereditary and freehold ........c..,csseececsecseeeees spreebonosceeee Sus 
~- Meeras tenure, Kowl Istawa, @yrond. ee involving alienation of 
lands, J agheer, Eenam, Surinjam, Dyomalla; Eesaphut ......... oacey 
-Deshmook and Desaee, Deshpandeh, Pateel, Koolkurnee............0ss008 
\ Mahrs tenure, Bara Bullooteh, cae Choweulla, Havildar, Tulwar, 
BEPPDATINGOSCE..cecevecevereveveceveviacedavevesescccsessceacses itaetecaseecs oeese 0c 
Secels, Sheteh, Sharers in village revenues censure Bangsde Meeaieae telteeaies 
Revenue. 

_ Amount and account of, Per centage of branches of...... ROGnOLc Onc. CBOcKK. 
be as a capitation tax; Average village revenue; Shops, Excise, 
EISEATYS 5c. pine on ca dcRseaneatcsacuu ate: chidszodeeuateeraG cee uece vas ST 
Tabular view of expenses ‘and charges — revenue, Number of culti- 
-_ vators, Size of farms, XC. ..seeecsessseessenreresssecrseerenseess ddvcesscsesss 

Land revenue in the different collectorates Seeaaeruncechtadewceasantseertoy 


535 


Page 
254 
256 
257 
259 


259 


261 
266 


267 
270 


270 


272 


274 


274 
276 
278 


280 


283 
286 


290 
293 


296 
297 


300 
306 


336 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Assessments. 


General observations, Various names applied to different Pear of 


land for assessMeNt .....secesceeeeeneeee (i cdeteesssacvenddadestee aes eases 
Chief assessment on land, Sostee or permanent "assessment, Varieties 
of assessment ......00e Rosuadeadedeuebayecvecatnese =e sseacaccdsecdvocseusente : 
Perbacek wr fll Abana 625! .43006ces aedsee-astdccsseesencece Seevucesseecaee eee 
Average per beegah garden and field, Extra cesses, names Of .,...2..0+ 7 
Shop taxes, &., Evils of extra assessments dezessevvoussacnecvousdben sehemes 
Description of village ACCOUNLS ANG Papers « <aseracceucecssnscevevenseusueces 
Wages. 
Agricultural labourers’, Artificers’, &c., in kind or rooney se eeeseascesens 
Table of rates of all classes of servants and artificers secvceceecnscescece 
Manufactures, 


Names and prices of the few remaining ......scsscssssossssserecessconccevcees 


Transit Duties. 
Pransit duties, how paid .scscicssedivosstvcascssekevdsacdusonsevcyestuaucebeene 


Coins. 
Silver ANG COPPEM ccsoscevas'escodecssnesdeocoesdesisencevs dncncedsysussavevarsNeaeee 


Weights and Measures. 


Of capacity, grain, oil, milk, and spirit. Weights: goldsmiths’... 
Itinerary, long, and superficial measures ; nh and measures, how 
GiVIGEA”.« .csvatssennpeveranvecbanqecuvscrddaasancuuddectessssduncenastocesesseaeme 


Army. 
Constitution; ‘Stations’, 4.555 iecassdsaggecaesvausacsdcccedesopevecvssalelgoweaeee 


Page 
310 


311 
311 
313 
317 
319 


320 
323 


325 


“326 


327 


327 
330 


332 


a i hs el 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 337 


On the relative Strength and other mechanical Properties of 
Cast Iron obtained hy Hot and Cold Blast. By Eaton 
Hopexinson, Esq. 


[With a Plate.) 


From the great abundance of the ores which produce iron; 
from the fortunate circumstance of these ores being frequently 
found in the neighbourhood of coal and limestone, by which 
they are reduced to the metallic state; from the great strength 
of the metal, and the facility with which it can be moulded 
into any form required—its uses in the arts have become very 
extensive. Every discovery, therefore, tending to facilitate 
its production, or to improve its quality, must always be re- 
garded with great interest, whilst distrust and suspicion are 
likely to be felt respecting any process by which that quality 
may be supposed to be impaired. 

The recent and very general introduction of a heated blast 
into the smelting furnaces has consequently, as might be ex- 
pected, given rise to much discussion, and at the same time 
to great difference of opinion. Iron masters in one part of the 


country had come to a conclusion that the new process greatly 


deteriorated the quality of the iron produced, and they rejected 
it accordingly. Gentlemen from other neighbourhoods, on the 
contrary, maintained that no deterioration of the metal resulted 
from the process, which was admitted by all to diminish the 
expense of its production. i 
These very different conclusions, drawn by persons largely 
connected with the manufacture of cast iron, caused the honour 


__ of an application from the British Association for the Advance- 


ment of Science, at its meeting held at Dublin, to my friend 

Mr. Fairbairn and myself, requesting us to make a series of 

experiments tending toward the determination of this matter. 
We intended to commence the inquiry immediately, but there 


_ was found to be great difficulty in obtaining irons suitable for 


the purpose; a matter which will be adverted to in Mr. Fair- 


3 bairn’s report, where a description of the irons used will be 
_ given. 


In the prosecution of this research it was conceived desi- 


rable to subject the metals operated upon to more than one 
_ species of strain, in order to elicit their peculiar properties ; 
_ and accordingly they were generally broken in the following 
_ three modes :— 


_ Ist. By tension, or tearing the metals asunder in the direc- 
tion of their length. 
VOL. vi. 1837. a eal 


338 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


2nd. By compression, or crushing specimens of different 
lengths, and various forms and sizes of base. 

drd. By a transverse strain, and this under different forms 
of section. 

In this last mode of fracture some bars have been broken 
under various temperatures, and others have been loaded for 
a very long time with weights, nearly as large as would have 
broken them at once, and they are still bearing the loads. 

The experiments on the transverse strain (excepting those 
on the Carron iron, No. 2, the Devon, and the Buffery, of 
which I read an account at Bristol) were made by Mr. Fair- 
bairn, who undertook also the experiments on the effects of 
temperature and time. I was desirous that he should try the 
effect of time upon loaded bars, being convinced that it would 
do little or nothing to destroy their power of bearing a dead 
weight; having arrived at this conclusion from experiments 
made in a different way upon malleable iron. As I was pre- 
sent at many of Mr. Fairbairn’s experiments, I may mention 
the great care and ability with which they were made; they 
will form the subject of the next paper. 

The experiments on the tensile and compressive forces of 
the metals, and those on the transverse strain read at Bristol, 
were made by myself and are given below. 

Tensile strength of Hot and Cold Blast Cast Iron.—To 
determine the direct tensile strength of the different kinds of 
cast iron made use of in these experiments, a model was made 
of the same form as I had previously used in some experiments 
on cast iron, of which a notice was given in the Cambridge 
volume of the Association. The castings from this model were 
very strong at the ends, in order that they might be perfectly 
rigid there, and had their ¢ransverse section for about a foot 


in the middle of the form annexed = >. This part, which 


was weaker than the ends, was intended to be torn asunder by a 
force acting perpendicularly through its centre. The ends of 
the castings had eyes made through them, with a part more 
prominent than the rest in the middle of the casting where the 
eye passed through. The intention of this was that bolts pass- 
ing through the eyes, and having shackles attached to them 
by which to tear the casting asunder, would rest upon this 
prominent part in the middle, and therefore upon a point 
passing in a direct line through the axis of the casting. 
Several of the castings were torn asunder upon the machine 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 339 


for testing iron cables belonging to the Corporation of Liver- 
pool. Others were made in the same manner but of smaller 
transverse area; these were broken by means of Mr. Fair- 
bairn’s lever, which was adapted so as to be well suited for the 
purpose. 

The form of casting here used was chosen to obviate the 
theoretical objections made by Tredgold and others against 
the conclusions of former experimenters. 'The results are in 
the following table : 


Results of Experiments on the Tensile Force of Cast Iron. 


. Area of | Break. | Strength oP ‘i 
Patt section| ing | per square} Mean in lbs. per 
Description of Iron. _ in weight} inch of square inch. 
inches. | in }bs, | section. 


—_—_ 


| Carron Iron, No. 2, Hot Blast .....ssescseereee eee] 4°031 | 56000 ions | Tons. cwts. 


Do. do. GO. ccnnnaesns coeseasense 1°7236] 22395 | 12993 $|13505=6 03 
Do. do. GO. sesseveersecseeeeeeee| 1°7037/ 23219 | 13629 


» 


"| Carron Iron No. 2, Cold Blast ..ssscssssseceeess .| 1°7091] 28667 | 16772] |1gg93_7 9 
Do. do. dO. sscseseceeecseseeeeee| 1°6331| 27099 | 16594 i. 


Carron Iron, No. 3, Hot Blast .......cseeseeseeeeee| 1°7023] 28667 | 16840 Be. 
Meer) do, x, | 0; scanesageassusosccons|: 1°6613) 31019 igor f|i755=7 18% 


| arron Iron, No. 3, Cold Blast ......csssseseseeseee| 1°6232) 22699 pi 14900=6 7 


| Do. do. GO. seseeseseeeeeesevevee| 1°6677| 240483 | 14417 


“Devon (Scotland) Iron, No. 3, Hot Blast ..,...|4°269 | 93520) 21907 |21907=9 153 


ee ee 


| Buffery Iron, No, 1, Hot Blast..s.sssssesseseeseeee) 3°835 |51520| 13434 |13434=6 0 


Do. do. Cold Blast ....ssesseseseseee|4°104 | 71680 | 17466 |17466=7 16 


Coed-Talon (North Wales) Iron, No. 2, Hot Blast] 1°586 | 25818} 16279 16676=7 9 
;; Do. do, do. 1645 | 28086 | 17074 (Wiig 


Do. do. Cold Blast| 1-535 | 30102| 19610 
Do. do. do. | 1568 | 28380 Lp de Ars es 


__ Compression, or the power to resist a crushing force.—In 
these experiments I shall confine myself to the resistance of 
short specimens; crushing, with few exceptions, only such as 
will break without bending. And if I should appear to pursue 
this and some other matters beyond the strict limits of the in- 
qu iry respecting the strength of hot and cold blast iron, I trust 
it will be excused, as my wish is to obtain some fixed principles 
where we have nothing but doubt and uncertainty. 

_ The tensile strength of cast iron is still a matter of dispute: 
the few direct experiments by Mr. Rennie and Captain Brown 
4 Z2 


340 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


give from 7 to 9 tons per inch, results not widely differing 
from those above ; they are noticed with some suspicion by Mr. 
Tredgold (Essay on Strength of Cast Iron, pages 91 and 92), 
who concludes from reasoning on the transverse strength of 
cast iron, according to the theory which he had adopted, that 
the direct tensile strength must be 20 tons or more. Mr. 
Barlow too, whose reasoning has better foundation than Tred- 
gold’s, concludes, whilst he gives these gentlemen’s results, 
that the strength must be upwards of 10 tons per square inch, 
(Treatise on the Strength of Timber and other Materials, art. 
128), Iam not aware of any objection which can be brought 
against the tensile results given above, except some slight 
error which Mr. Barlow conceived (in his earlier work on the 
Strength of Timber, &c.) might arise from the use of testing 
machines, and that, in this case, would affect but four of the ex- 
periments; all the rest were made upon Mr. Fairbairn’s lever. 
I hope to explain the cause of this difference of opinion among 
our ablest inquirers at a future meeting. 

The resistance of materials to a crushing strain is equally 
a matter of doubt. Rondelet found (Traité de l Art de batir) 
that cubes of malleable iron, and prisms of various kinds of 
stone, were crushed with forces which were directly as the 
area, whilst from Mr. Rennie’s experiments, both upon cast 
iron and wood, it would appear that the resistance increases, 
particularly in the latter, in a much higher ratio than the 
area, (Mr. Barlow’s Treatise, Art. 112). 1 have endeavoured, 
by repeating with considerable variations the ingenious ex- 
periments of Mr. Rennie, to arrive at some definite conclu- 
sions. 

In order to effect this, it was thought best to crush the 
object between two flat surfaces, taking care that’ these were 
kept perfectly parallel, and that the ends of the prism to be 
crushed were turned parallel and at right angles to their axis, 
so that when the specimen was placed between the crushing 
surfaces its ends might be completely bedded upon them. 
For this purpose a hole 13 inch diameter was drilled through 
a block of cast iron about 5 or 6 inches square, and two steel 
bolts were made which just filled this hole, but passed easily 
through it; the shortest of these bolts was about 1} inch long, 


and the other about 5 inches; the ends of these bolts were © 


hardened, having previously been turned quite flat and per- 
pendicular to their axis, except one end of the larger bolt 
which was rounded. The specimen was crushed between the 
flat ends of these bolts, which were kept parallel by the block 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 341 


of iron in which they were inserted. See fig. 
where A and B represent the bolts, with the 
prism C betweer them, and D E the block of 
iron. During the experiment the block and 
bolt B rested upon a flat surface of iron, and 
the rounded end of the bolt A was pressed 
upon by the lever. There was another hole 
drilled through the block at right angles to 
that previously described; this was done in 
order that the specimen might be examined 
during the experiment, and previous to it, to 
see that it was properly bedded. 

_ The accompanying sketch will show more clearly the mode 
of performing the experiment, in which the lever was always 
kept as nearly horizontal as possible. Other apparatus, not 
here shown, were used to lift up or lower the lever during the 
experiments. 


E _ The results are given in the following tables : 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


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344 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


By comparing the results in the two preceding tables, it will 
be seen that, where the length is not more than about three 
times the diameter, the strength for a given base is pretty 
nearly the same, as has been shown by Mr. Rennie and others. 
In that case, the prism, in cast iron at least, either does not 
bend before fracture, or bends very slightly, and therefore the 
fracture takes place by the two ends of the specimen forming 
cones or pyramids, which split the sides, and throw them out; 
or, as is more generally the case in cylinders, by a wedge 
sliding off, starting at one of the ends, and having the whole 
end for its base, as has been before mentioned; this wedge 
being at an angle dependent upon the nature of the material. 
In cast iron, this angle is, as will be seen further on, such that 
the height is somewhat less than 3 of the diameter; if the 
height of the specimen is less than the length of the wedge, 
the resistance is somewhat increased, and if the height be 
greater than from three to four times the diameter, the resist- 
ance, on account of the flexure of the specimen, will be de- 
creased. In estimating the strength of the iron from the above 
tables, I shall mostly confine myself to such specimens as vary 
from about the length of the wedge to twice its length, avoid- 
ing such results as are reduced by flexure. Taking then the 
results from the cylinders and prisms of different dimensions 
of base, giving the means, with the number of experiments 
from which they were taken, we have the following abstracts : 


FROM TABLE J.—HOT BLAST. 


Number | |Mean crush- 
Diameter of cylinder. _ | of expe- |Mean eg ing weight per General mean per square inch, 
riments, | 8 WSO: square inch. 


Ibs. Ibs. |} 
x 3 6426 | 130,909 
4 | 14542 | 131665. | } 1214685 Ibs. = 54 tons 63 
4 5 | 22,110 | 112,605 ene 
+e = 64 1 | 35,888 | 111,560 
Prism, base ‘50 inch 
square. 3 | 25,104 | 100,416 f 100,106 ee 
do. base 1:00 x26 2 | 26,276 | 101,062 wes 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 345 
FROM TABLE II.—COLD BLAST, 


| 
A A . Number | Mean crush- 
Diameter of cylinder in of expe. |Mean pmeb- ing weight per General mean per inch, 
parts of an inch. riments. |#98 Weight. | scuare inch. 
25 tS = Eee 
Ibs. Ibs. p 


6088 | 124,023 
14,190 | 128,478 


e 125,403 lbs. = 55 tons 193 
7 | 24,290 | 123,708 

2 

2 

3 


cwt. 


+ orfy Ble 


SS |e) 


2 
Equilateral triangle 


side “S66. 32,398 | 99,769 
Squares, 3 inch the mis 
| side. 24,538 | 98, ‘ih 
Rectangles, base 1:00 i allsee lbs. = 44 tons 183 
xX 243. 26,237 | 107,971 a 
Cylinders -45 inch di- | 
ameter and *75 high | 
(not in table). 2 | 15,369 96,634 | J 


The prisms, whose- bases were triangles, squares, rectan- 
gles, and the cylinders, last mentioned, were all cut out of the 
centre of a bar 1} inch square. 

It will be noticed that the cylinders in both the tables give 
much higher results per square inch than we have just found 
from the specimens cut out of the 14 inch bar. This the 
writer is inclined to attribute to no other cause but that they 
were mostly turned out of small cylinders cast for the purpose, 
which caused them to be harder than those from the middle 
of a larger mass. 

We will defer speaking of such comparative results as affect 
the general question of hot and cold blast iron, till all the evi- 
dence is obtained which the present paper will afford; drawing 
however, as we proceed, such other conclusions as seem to be 
made out from the experiments. 

Taking the mean crushing weight per square inch » as just ob- 
tained in the abstracts from the different cylinders in the Ist and 
énd tables, and retaining only the three first figures, we have 

From Ist table, diameter 43 253%, 32 Strength ) 131, 132, 118, 112. 
From 2nd _ do. aaiee ees og 124, 128, 124. 

The strengths per Square inch in each of these lines 
approach to an equality, particularly in the latter, where the 
areas of section vary as 1: 4; and the strength per inch is in 

_both cases represented by 124. In the former line the 
cylinders of 3 and 18 inch diameter give strengths varying as 
131 to 112 per square inch. The areas here vary nearly as 
1: 6°5, and the falling off in strength is about one-sixth. This 
ah diminution in the power of the larger cylinders to resist 
crushing, may be accounted for from those having been cut 


346 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


out of a larger body of metal than the small ones; a matter 
which we have seen greatly reduces the strength. 

Admitting, then, that the strength per square inch in each of 
the preceding cases would have been the same if the iron had 
always been of equal hardness, we must conclude that ‘the 
resistance of short cylinders of cast iron to a crushing force is 
directly as the area.”* 

If we refer to the abstract from tables 1 and 2 for the mean 
strengths per square inch, as given by the equilateral triangle, 
the square, the rectangle, and the cylinder, we shall find them 

in the latter, 99,769, 98,152, 107,971, 96,364; 

in the former, 100,416, 101,062. 
The strength, 107,971 and 101,062, as given by the prisms 
whose base is a rectangle, is the greatest ;t and this may be 
accounted for from their superior breadth to that of the other 
specimens, and consequently, from their having in them more 
of the outside and harder part of the bar, out of which they 
were cut, than the others. In the other forms the difference 
of strength is but little; and therefore we may perhaps admit 
that “* difference of form of section has no influence upon the 
power of a short prism to bear a crushing force.” 


Mode of Fracture. (See Plate.) 


When a rigid body is broken by a‘ crushing force, which is 
prevented from acting after it has effected a rupture, it will be 
found not to be crumbledor reduced to a shapeless mass, but 
to be divided according to mathematical laws, and sometimes 
into very interesting forms of fracture. The accompanying 
plate will show how the fracture was effected in a variety 
of cases, and that these were all subject to one pervading law. 
The figures in the plate are of the same size as the specimens. 
Fig. 1 represents a cylinder before it was crushed; fig. 2 

* Conceiving it desirable that this matter should be left without a doubt, 
and as Mr. Fairbairn had some very good teakwood which had been many 
years in store, 12 cylinders were turned whose diameters were ¥ inch, 1 inch, 
and 2 inches, 4 of each; the latter 8 out, of the same piece of wood; the 


height in each case was double the diameter: the strengths were as below. 
Cylinders 3 inch dia. Cylinders 1 inch dia. Cylinders 2 inches dia. 


23385 10507 38909 
2543 | Mean 9499 | Mean 89721 | Mean 
2543 | 2439 10507 | 10171 41294 | 40304 
23835 10171 . 41294 


These quantities, taking the means, are nearly as 25,100 and 400, whichis the 
ratio of the areas, and therefore the strength is nearly as the area, though this 
varies as 4 and 16 to 1. 

+ Rondelet (Zraité de ? Ari de bdtir, book 9, page 150) found that prisms of 
stone, whose base was a rectangle, as above, bore somewhat Jess than those 
with square bases of the same area. 


dG. 


8 
: 


7 Report Brit. Assoc. — TLNI p 3 


base. 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 347 


represents a wedge broken off from the same cylinder, the 
point of the wedge being flattened by the crushing apparatus 
after the fracture. ‘There is a small crack in this wedge indi- 
cating a disposition to slide off in another direction, or rather 
to form a double wedge, nearly equilateral, having the diameter 
of the end of the cylinder for its base, and its height about 
half that of the former. The operation of this double wedge 
would be to split the cylinder and throw out its two sides. 
Figs. 3 and 4 represent another cylinder before and after 
crushing ; in fig. 4, a double wedge formed at each end threw 
out the opposite sides. Figs. 5 and 6 represent a cylinder 
before and after crushing ; in the latter, as in fig. 4, the ends 
of the figure have formed the bases of imperfectly formed 
cones, whose tendency has been to separate the sides. Fig. 7 
is intended to represent one of these cones, the vertex of 
which is a sharp edge or point. Fig. 8 represents another 
cylinder of rather soft iron; the pressure was removed in the 
commencement of the fracture, and the circumference was 
found to be surrounded with parallel cracks both ways; the 
angle of these cracks with the base being that of the usual 
inclination of the wedge. Fig. 9 represents the appearance 
of a very short cylinder after fracture ; the vertex of the cone, 
formed upon the end not shown, has split the end here repre- 
sented, leaving a part in the middle unbroken; the opposite 
end is sound for a much greater central area than this, but 
its edges are a little broken. 

Fig. 10 represents a rectangle ;* and fig. 11 its appearance 
after fracture. One end of the specimen has been formed into 
a pyramid A, sharp pointed at D, which has split the opposite 
base and thrown off the end B, and the part C very nearly. 
The sides and angular piece at the end are lost. 

Fig. 12 represents a short rectangle before crushing ; figs. 
13, 14, 15, the different appearances of specimens of the same 
size after fracture. In fig. 14 the fracture has been caused 


_ by a sliding off in the way of the diagonal; in fig. 15 the 


specimen slided off in the direction bc, as before, and was 
cracked through its whole length in the direction ad; in fig. 
13, the top of the specimen formed the base of a wedge which 
had split the bottom, and the bottom itself had formed the base 
ofa wedge. Fig. 16 represents a rectangle of the same base 
as the preceding, but of double the height. Figs. 17, 18, 19, 
20, represent its appearances as shewn by different specimens 
after fracture. Fig. 20, in which the parts are separated, 
shows a wedge AC D, which has for its base the bottom of 


* The prism is, in this and many other places, designated by the form of its 


348 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


the prism; this wedge has, commencing at its vertex C, a 
sharp line C D, { inch long; and by the operation of its sides, 
the wedge has removed the parts E. and F, and separated the 
sides G and H, which before joined together at the top and 
formed part of the upper side of the prism. The part AB, 
adhering to the lower part of the wedge, and which had 
formed part of the side-of the prism, was nearly separated by 
the action of another wedge formed by the lower end of the 
part G, which formed a wedge not represented by the 
figure, but whose vertex formed a sharp line about ‘43 inch 
long in the direction IK. This wedge occupied the space 
between B and C D, and its tendency was to split off from the 
principal wedge the only remaining portion A B. 

Fig 21 represents a prism of the form of an equilateral 
triangle, and fig. 22 is its appearance after fracture. ‘The 
tendency is here, as before, for opposite wedges to be formed, 
which split off the angles and separate the sides. Figs. 23, 
24, 25, give direct representations of the three sides. 

Angle of Wedge.—We have seen that when bodies are 
subjected to a crushing force, their fracture, if they do not 
break by bending, is caused by the operation of a cone or 
wedge, which seems, under various circumstances, to slide off 
at nearly aconstant angle. Ifa prismatic body, as for instance 
a short cylinder, be subjected to a crushing force, there 
seems no reason why fracture should take place one way more 
than another; there is usually too in soft irons a bulging out 
in every direction round the cylinder, which shows that it is 
equally strained all round: a matter which is otherwise exem- 
plified in fig. 8. If then the cylinder be longer than the wedge, 
or than the two cones which are always in operation at the 
ends during crushing, it is evident that the angle of the wedge 
and cones, which is the same, will depend upon the nature of 
the material, and the cones must be isosceles. Cylinders 
longer than the wedge usually slide off in one direction with- 
out showing the cones, but some examples in other forms 
have been obtained; as for instance, in the fracture of a rect- 
angular specimen whose base was 1°00x°26, and its height 
50 inch (Table I.), the rupture took place by wedges, which 
appeared to be isosceles, being formed at the top and bottom 
of the ends of the specimen, and dividing the sides in the 


middle, (as in the fig. -) 


In cases however where the height of the specimen was not 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON, 349 


equal to that of the two opposing or double wedges, then these 
cones and wedges could not be isosceles after fracture com- 
menced. It is shown by several of the figures (figs. 4, 6, bd, 
13, 20, &c.) how fracture takes place, and that in such eases 
the wedges do not meet directly and crush their opponents, 
but have sharp points and slip past each other to effect the 
destruction of the piece of which they are formed. It is evi- 
dent therefore that the angles, which the sides of these wedges 
make with their base, cannot in this case be equal; this is 
shown by the rectangles one inch high, and it was found to 
exist in a higher degree in the fracture of those of half the 
height. In these the angle with the base was further reduced, 
through an almost necessary tendency of the specimen to divide 
itself in the diagonal; though the angle there was less, on 
account of the compression of the prism, than the natural 
angle in this material. The angle of the wedge as obtained 
from different specimens is as follows : 


Cylinders. 

. DO FAO 1 OTFl pfgo I , 
oe, No. 2, 54 fon 1, 10’, Mean 55° 11! 
Bae, es Nee os". iy 56°, 58°, 56°, Do. 57° 8! 
Coed-Talon, No. 2, 55°, 56°, 56°, 531°, 53°, 49° Do. 53° 40! 
Mean angles from cones 562°, 542°, 571° - Do. 56° 10! 


Mean from the whole, being 21 cylinders of various) - 5° gal 
lengths. ° : : : : - Nn ee 


Rectangular prisms 1 inch high, Carron Iron, No. 3, angles 
made by the sides of the double wedge, with the base. 
Cold Blast 54° 
58 
1 ae 
aot Blast By by ti h, 53° SMean 56° 43! 


5410 
60 
Rectangular prisms } inch high, Carron Iron, 
48°, 51°, 52°, 54°, 57°, 52°, - Mean 52° 40/ 


Mean angle from the above rectangular prisms . 54° 41! 


Prisms, Base +50 x °50 inch. 
Carron Iron, No.2. . . 53°, 54° » Mean 53° 30! 


350 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


From the preceding examination of the angles obtained from 
specimens of different forms and lengths, it appears that amidst 
great anomalies, there is, taking the mean results, a considerable 
approach to equality, as is more particularly shown from the 
angles of the cylinders and rectangular prisms; and this approach 
would doubtless have been greater and the anomalies less if the 
specimens had always been longer than the wedge. The defect 
in the angle from this cause is evident in the shorter rectangular 
prisms, and has been alluded to before. 

We may assume therefore, without assignable error, that in 
the crushing of short cast iron prisms of various forms, longer 
than the wedge, the angle of fracture will be the same. This 
simple assumption, if admitted, would prove at once, not only 
in this material but in others, which break in the same manner, 
the proportionality of the crushing force in different forms to 
the area; since the area of fracture would always be equal to 
the direct transverse area multiplied by a constant quantity de- 
pendent upon the material. 

The preceding experiments on crushing have been confined 
to one sort of iron, the Carron No. 2, hot and cold blast. The 
results from other irons are given in the following table :— 


51 


3 


- 
. 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRO? 


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352 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Ratio of Tensile to compressive forces in Cast Iron. 


Having obtained the forces per square inch necessary to 
tear asunder and to crush masses of cast iron of the kinds 
previously enumerated, we will seek for the ratio of these 
forces, taking the breaking weights from the preceding table 
and that on tension. 


Compressive force | Tensile force 


Description of metal. per square inch. | per sq. inch. Ratio. 
Devon Iron, No.3. Hot blast 145,435 21,907 6-638 : 1 
Buffery Iron, No.1. Hot Blast. 86,397 13,434 6-431: 1 
do. No.1, Cold Blast. 93,385 17,466 5°346: 1 
Coed-Talon Iron, No.2. Hot Blast. 82,734 16,676 4-961 :1 
do. » Cold Blast, 81,770 18,855 4-337 : 1 
Carron Iron, No,2. Hot Blast. 108,540 13,505 8-037 : 1 
do. » Cold Blast. 106,375 16,683 6376 :1 
Carron Iron, No.3. Hot Blast. 133,440 17,755 7515: 1 
do. ss Cold Blast. 115,442 14,200 8-129: 1 


Before quitting the subject of compression, I may mention 
that, in experiments upon various bodies besides cast iron, a 
tendency to form cones or pyramids in the fracture was ob- 
servable, showing that the same laws were in operation in these 
as have been developed in the experiments upon cast iron. For 
instance, in the crushing of short cylinders of bone obtained 
from the thigh of an ox, fracture always took place by cones 
or wedges, In marble the same result was frequently obser- 
vable, though less obvious than in iron, through a disposition 
to split in the direction of the strata. 

On the power of timber of various kinds to resist a crushing 
force, I have, through the liberal views of Mr. Fairbairn, made 
a considerable number of experiments, with an apparatus si- 
milar to that employed in the crushing of cast iron, but much 
larger. In this material, though fibrous, fracture always 
took place by wedges sliding off, or by cones or wedges 
splitting the prism in the manner of cast iron, though at a 
much less angle with the horizon than in that metal. In the 
crushing of malleable iron likewise, short specimens always 
bulge out in the middle through the operation of the opposing 
cones or pyramids formed at their bases. 


As this principle is found to obtain in the crushing of short — 


bodies so widely different as bones, marble*, timber of all kinds, 


* Rondelet (Traité de l Art de bdtir) crushed stones of various kinds, and © 


has given the forms of pyramids obtained from crushing prisms with square 
bases. 


—_—_ 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 353 


cast iron, malleable iron, we may therefore assume that it is in 
operation in the crushing of all rigid bodies, and consequently 
that, in any particular one, the resistance will be as the area 
of its section. 

I may perhaps mention that this subject ought to be studied 
in conjunction with optics and crystallization. The singular 
structure of the mineral called analcime, or cubizite, as shown 
by polarized light, and given by Sir David Brewster, Optics, 
chap. xxv., has so much the appearance of some of our frac- 
tures, as to lead one to conceive that it may have arisen from 
compression. 

Transverse strength.—It is to ascertain the resistance of 
materials to a transverse strain that the efforts of experiment- 
ers have chiefly been directed. One reason for this seems 
to be the great facility with which bodies can be broken this 
way comparatively with others, which require large weights or 
complex machinery, and often considerable attention to theo- 
retical requirements. 

In making the following experiments, it has been the au- 
thor’s aim, whilst he kept in view the inquiry respecting hot 
and cold blast iron, to make the results subservient to some 
other purposes, besides giving an extended view of the appli- 
cation of these irons. 

‘ As the inquiry was a comparative one, and required that a 
_ number of experiments, and those similar to each other, should 
_ be made upon each iron from any particular place, several 
models were made, and castings, both of hot and cold blast 
_ iron, obtained from them; and as it seemed desirable to trust 
in these experiments as little as possible to theory, some bars, 
one inch square, were always obtained from the same model. 
From these, and from others, a satisfactory comparison of the 
relative strengths of the irons would have been obtained with- 
out the use of theory, could the castings have always been got 
_ of the exact size of the model; but as small deviations in this 
_ respect were unavoidable, theory was employed to effect the 
slight reduction in the results of each bar to what they would 
_ have been if the bars had been of the exact dimensions of the 
- models. 

__ All the bars used in these comparisons are uniform and of 
_ the same length, and the theoretical assumptions with regard 
_ tothe strength and deflection are of the simplest and most 
_ generally admitted kind. They are as below, the strength in 
_ rectangular bars is taken as the breadth multiplied by the 
_ square of the depth, and the ultimate deflection is supposed 
__ to be inversely as the depth. To these there has been added 
a VOL vi. 1837. QA 


354 : SEVENTH REPORT—1837. » Ne 


another, namely, that the power of bearing an horizontal im- 
pact from a given weight is measured by the strength of the 
beam multiplied by its ultimate deflection. This last assump- 
tion supposes that all cast-iron bars of the same dimensions 
in our experiments are of the same weight, and that the de- 
flection of a beam up to the breaking weight would be as the 
pressure. Neither of these is true, they are only approxi- 
mations ; but the difference in the weights of cast-iron bars of 
equal size is very little, and taking them as the same, it may 
be inferred from my paper on Impact upon Beams (Fifth Re- 
port of the British Association), that the assumption above 
gives results near enough for practice. 

After the following tables, therefore, there will always be 
given a summary of the strengths and deflections, reduced to 
what they would have been supposing the bar to be of the 
exact size of the model; and attached to these there will be 
the other values mentioned above, representing the power of 
the beam to bear impact. 

The modulus of elasticity is set down that it may serve as 
a measure of the comparative stiffness of the irons. It is given 
in pounds per square inch. 

The ultimate deflection attached to each experiment was 
derived from the results last obtained, and as these results 
were usually more numerous than those set down, the deflec- 
tion cannot often be calculated from those which remain, but 
is nearer to the truth than those which might be obtained from 
the remaining ones. 

In all the future experiments, the bars were cast 5 feet 
long, and were supported on props 4 feet 6 inches asunder, 
except it is otherwise mentioned, which will only be found in 
two cases. 

In the prosecution of the experimental part of this research, 
it gives me great pleasure to acknowledge the efficient manner 
in which my views were carried into execution by Mr. John 
Patchett, an intelligent pupil of Mr. Fairbairn. 


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1837.° 


SEVENTH REPORT 


356 


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H AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 


ON STRENG1 


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“i 


\ 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 361 


Note.—I have been favoured by Mr. Fairbairn with the an- 
nexed examination of the structure of this and the following 
Irons :— 

‘The Carron No. 2, cold blast iron, when viewed with the 
microscope, presents a dull grey colour, finely granulated with 
an appearance of greater porosity in the centre than round the 
extreme edges of the fracture. It is a free working iron, easily 
cut with the turning tool, but indicates stiffness under the file. 

‘Carron No. 2, hot blast. This iron has nearly the same 
character in its working properties as the above; it files with 
rather more freedom, and possesses an appearance of greater 
fluidity than the cold blast. Colour, a greyish blue, accom- 
panied with a greater degree of uniformity in its crystalline 
structure than the cold blast. 

*‘ Buffery No. 1, cold blast, is finer grained than either of the 
Carron irons. It is chiefly composed of minute granules in- 
termixed with small brown specks; it works with less freedom 
than the hot blast, and cuts with difficulty under the tool. In 
this respect it is much akin to the Milton iron (described in 
Mr. Fairbairn’s paper). . 

* Buffery No. 1, hot blast, has a similar appearance to the 
Carron, No. 2, cold blast; it has more lustre than Buffery 
No. 1, cold blast; the crystals are widely separated in the 
centre, but more compact as they approach the outer edge of 
the bar. 

“This appearance is nearly peculiar to the whole of the hot 
blast irons.” 

Remarks upon the Experiments in the preceding Tables.— 
In devising the preceding experiments the writer had several 


_ objects in view, which he will now proceed to state. It has 
been remarked above that the first five experiments on the hot 


blast iron, and the first three on the cold blast, in the tables 


_ above, were made after the others. These will therefore be 
_ passed over for the present, and we shall commence with ex- 


periments 6 and 7, which, like most of the others, are on bars 
from the same model in both tables. The object of these ex- 
periments was to show the influence of form of section in beams 
of cast iron; and it will be seen from the results, that when 
the rib was downwards, the casting broke with 280lbs. in the 
hot blast iron, and 266lbs. in the cold blast. When the rib 
was upwards, the breaking weights were 980lbs. and 1050lbs. 


respectively; the bars bearing nearly four times as much one 
_ way up as the other. These results are contrary to the opi- 
-nions of some leading writers, as Tredgold and others, who, 
_ from their principles, would maintain that the strength should 
¥ 


362 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


be equal in the two cases. An experiment of this kind I gave 
in a paper on the strength and best forms of iron beams (Me- 
moirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, 
vol. v.), and it formed indeed the basis of the inquiry in that 
paper. 

I had remarked in some of the experiments upon the Carron 
iron, and more particularly the Buffery following, that the 
elasticity of the bars was injured much earlier than is generally 
conceived; and that instead of it remaining perfect till one- 
third or upwards of the breaking weight was laid on, as is 
generally admitted by writers (Tredgold on Cast Iron, Article 
59, &c.), it was evident that 1th or less produced in some cases 
a considerable set or defect of elasticity, and judging from its 
slow increase afterwards, I was persuaded that it had not come 
on by any sudden change, but had existed, though in a less 
degree, from a very early period. I mentioned the fact and 
my convictions sometime after to Mr. Fairbairn, and expressed 
a desire to have bars cast of greater length than before to ren- 
der the defect more obvious. 

All the future experiments on a transverse strain, whether 
made by myself or Mr. Fairbairn, have tended to prove the 
matter. 

We passed over the experiments placed at the beginning of 
Tables 1 and 2: referring now to them, it will be seen, that in 
3 out of 6 experiments, I16lbs. produced a visible set, whilst 
the breaking weights in these cases were 469, 462, 518: in 
other words, the elasticity was injured with , of the break- 
ing weight, or less. In experiments 4 and 5, Table I., which 
were on longer bars than the others, cast for this purpose, 
and for another mentioned further on, the elasticity in the for- 
mer experiments was sensibly injured with 7lbs., and in the 
latter with 14lbs., the breaking weights being 364lbs. and 
1120ibs. In the former of these cases a set was visible with 
=, and in the other with 4, of the breaking weight, showing 
that there is no weight, however small, that will not injure the 
elasticity. 

In two other bars, from the same model, which were laid 
against vertical supports at the same distance asunder as be- 
fore, the force being applied horizontally by means of a pulley, 
7lbs. showed a defect of elasticity in that which had the rib 
submitted to tension, and 21 in the other. 

The mode used to observe when the elastic force became 
injured was as follows. When a bar was laid upon the sup- 
ports for experiment, a “‘straight edge” was placed over it, 
the ends of which rested upon the bar directly over the points 


. 
. 
: 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 363 


of support. These ends were slides which enabled the straight 

edge to be raised or lowered at pleasure. In this manner it 

was easy to bring it down to touch in the slightest manner a 

piece of wood tied upon the middle of the bar. A candle was 

then placed at the side of the bar opposite to where the ob- 
server stood, by the light of which, distances extremely minute 
could be observed. Should it be asked why this had not been 
noticed before, the answer of the writer would be, that most 
experimenters have used bars shorter in proportion to their 
_ depth than are here employed, and therefore the set was much 
less obvious than here ; and in deep bars or beams it is almost 
imperceptible till the weight laid on is considerable. 

From what has been stated above, deduced from experi- 
ments made with great care, it is evident that the maxim of 
loading bodies within the elastic limit has no foundation in 
nature; but it will be considered as a compensating fact, that 
materials will bear for an indefinite time a much greater load 
than has hitherto been conceived. 

When a body is subjected to a transverse strain some of its 
particles are extended and others compressed ; I was desirous 
to ascertain whether the above defect in elasticity arose from 
tension or compression, or both. Experinfents 4 and 5 show 
this; in these a section of the casting, which was uniform 


c 
throughout, was the form ©] . During the experiments the 
a b 


broad fiat part a 6 was laid horizontally upon supports; the 
vertical rib ¢ in the latter experiment being upwards, in the 
former downwards. When it was downwards the rib was ex- 
tended, when upwards the rib was compressed. In both cases 
the partab was the fulcrum; it was thin and therefore easily flex- 
ible, but its breadth was such that it was nearly inextensibleand 
_ incompressible comparatively with the vertical rib. We may 
_ therefore assume that nearly the whole flexure which takes place 
in a bar of this form arises from the extension or compression 
_ of the rib, according as it is downwards or upwards. In ex- 
_ periment 4 we have extension nearly without compression, and 
_ in experiment 5 compression almost without extension. These 
experiments were made with creat care, and their results are 
generally in accordance with those from two others alluded 
_to above, but not inserted. They show that there is but little 
difference in the quantity of the set, whether it arises from 
_ tension or compression. 

_ The set from compression however is usually somewhat less 
4 than that from extension, as is seen in the commencement of 
_ the two experiments, and near the time of fracture, in that 


364 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


submitted to tension. The deflections from equal weights are 
nearly the same, whether the rib be extended or compressed, 
(as was shown by Duleau in experiments upon triangular bars 
of malleable iron,) but the ultimate strengths, as appears from 
above, are widely different. 

It is to be hoped that the observations made above will ob- 
viate objections which have been offered against a form of cast 
iron beam arrived at by the writer, ina paper alluded to above. 
From this paper it appeared that a beam bore the greatest 
weight from the same quantity of metal when the strengths of 
its bottom and top ribs were as 6 or 63 to 1, and this was found 
in the subsequent experiments of the writer to be nearly the 
ratio of the tensile to the compressive strength of the iron. 

To ascertain the correctness or otherwise of the assertion of 
Emerson, so often shown to be true in theory, that if a small 
portion be taken from the vertex of a beam whose section is a 
triangle, the part will be stronger than the whole, castings 
were formed both from the hot and cold blast iron (experi- 
ments 8, 9, 10, in the one, and 8, 9, in the other). They were 
all from the same model and ground to the exact size, and the 
part taken off in the frustums was j5th of the whole height 
of the triangle. The breaking weights of the whole triangle, 
in the hot blast iron were 672 and 812 lbs., mean 742 lbs. and 
of the frustum 728 lbs. In the cold blast iron the whole tri- 
angle was broken with 815 lbs., and the frustum with 677. 
The difference in the transverse strengths of the hot and cold 
blast Carron irons, No. 2, is very small, the ratio between them 
being 99 to 100. (See recapitulation at the close of this re- 
port.) We may therefore assume their strengths to be the 
same, and taking an arithmetic mean between all the strengths 
we have strength of triangle 766 Ibs., strength of frustum 
702 lbs. ‘The frustum is therefore weaker than the triangle. 

It is often asserted by practical men that if the hard skin at 
the outside of a cast iron bar be removed, its strength, com- 
paratively with its dimensions, will be much reduced; to try 
this, four bars, 14 inch square each, were made, two of hot and 
two of cold blast ; they were then planed in the middle to one 
inch square nearly : their results are in experiments 11 and 12 
in Table 1, and 10 and 11 in Table 2. Their strengths were 
fully equal to those of bars 1 inch square, which were cast with 
them but not inserted. 

It is generally admitted that the strength of a rectangular 
beam, whose length and breadth are given, is as the square of 
the depth. To ascertain how far this important law agrees 
with experiment, castings were formed both in the Carron and 


: 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 365 


Devon irons ; they were 1 inch broad, and had their depths 1, 3, 
and 5 inches, the distance between the two supports being as 
usual, 4 feet Ginches. It is evident then, that if the strength 
of each of these beams, when reduced to the exact size, be 
divided by the square of the depth, the quotient should be the 
same in each case. Hence, taking the mean reduced strength 
of the 1-inch bars for the first number in each iron, the reduced 
strength of the 3-inch bars divided by 9 for the second num- 
ber, and the reduced strength of the 5-inch bars divided by 
25 for the third number, we have 

In Carron, No. 2, hot blast . 452 427 402 


Do. cold blast. . 453 417 414 
In Devon Iron, No. 3, hot blast 537 576 617 
Do. cold blast 448 377 405 


472 449 459 
If we compare the numbers in each line, they differ widely ; 
but taking the mean, they approach nearly to equality. We 
eet Sweeties admit that the strength is as the square of the 
epth. 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


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367 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 


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— 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


368 


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ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 369 


__ The last experiment in both the preceding tables was upon a 
___ beam of the best form of section, according to the writer’s expe- 

_ riments, (Manchester Memoirs, vol. 5.) the top and bottom 

rib being nearly in the ratio of the tensile to the compressive 
forces of the metal, as mentioned above. ‘The intention was 
to compare the strength of the beam with that of a rectangular 
one of the same weight, length, and depth. For this purpose 
the beams were cast uniform throughout, and in comparing the 
strength of that in the hot blast iron with the mean from the 
strengths of the two preceding rectangular beams, reduced as 
above, we find that the breaking weight of these is 19,108 lbs., 
and the beam of best form was broke with 25,817 Ibs. In the 
cold blast Devon iron the difference in strength is much greater. 
The rectangular beam, from the mean of the two experiments 
on the beams 3 inches and 5 inches deep, when reduced as 
above, gives 11,183 lbs. for the breaking weight, whilst the 
beam of the best form required 22,227 lbs. to break it. 


VOL. VI. 1837. 2B 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


370 


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ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 


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372 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, 


General Abstract of transverse strengths. 

In the following abstract the transverse strengths of hot 
and cold blast irons to bear pressure and impact will be given, 
together with the ratio of these strengths. 

The comparison will be made between the results of bars 
from the same models, taking the reduced results, where such 
reduction has been made. 


Carron Iron No. 2. 


Strength of Irons. Power to bear impact. 
Ratio of strengths. Z| Ej . Ratio. 
Cola Blast Tron. | Hot Blast tron, [FBEstrenethofColal 8 | ee |The power ot Col 
presented as 1000. || S gt sented as 1000. 
a 492 469 1000 : 953-2 || 686 677-2| 1000 : 987-1 
Q 509 456 1000 : 895-8 || 711| 6493} 1000: 913-2 
= 429 465 1000 : 1083-9 || 493 | 532-0] 1000 : 1079-1 
Bt 449 475 1000 : 1057-9 || 1481 | 1598-7 | 1000 : 1079-4 
3 457 429 1000 : 9387 || 2601 | 2744-2 | 1000 : 1055-0 
Fs 3750 3843 1000 : 1024-8 || 141) 154 1000 : 1092-2 
@ 10957 : .1 || 8891 | 3087 1000: 9103 
J 10362 { a 19 } 10058 1000: 970-1 eee ee | ee Nees 
—-——. 359 | 458-6 | 1000 : 1277-4 
Mean| 1000: 989-1 —=——$ = 
— Mean 1000: 1005-1 
= 266 280 1000 : 1052-6 
28 1050 980 1000 : 933-3 
Beh 315 17 p742 1000: 910-4 
me 677| 728 1000 : 1075-0 
5 


Mean} 1000 : 992:8 


General Mean} 1000 : 990-9 


Devon No. 3 Iron. 


448 504 1000 : 1125-0 || 353-9} 589-2 | 1000 : 1664-8 
448 570 1000 : 1272:3 || 489-5/1761-7 | 1000 : 3598-9 
890 1456 1000 : 1635-9 || 921-8/2747 | 1000 : 2980-0 
1702°3/4935 1000 : 2899-0 

3389 5183 1000 : 1529:3 ——_ 
10133 15422 1000 : 1521-9 Mean 1000: 2785-6 


| === —— eee 


Mean 1000 : 1416-9 


Buffery No. 1 Iron. 


491 464 1000 : 945-0 || 721-19) 721-5} 1000 : 1000-4 

437 437 1000 : 1000:0 |/2341°6 [2163-2] 1000 : 923-8 

462 409 1000 : 885-7 ————- 

3057 2975 1000 : 9731 Mean 1000; 962-1) 
3424 2903 1000: 850-1 —_—_—_ —_— 


Mean 1000: 930-7 


é 
- 


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ie aS 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 373 


Having now subjected the irons which are tried in this paper 
to a variety of strains, and given the results under their pro- 
per heads, a summary of the whole will be added, with remarks 
to show the general bearing upon the question of Hot and Cold 
Blast Iron. 

Recapitulation. 

Taking only the means from all the experiments in the present 
paper, and attaching to each value a number, in a parenthesis, 
indicative of the quantity of experiments from which it has 
been derived, we have as below :— 


Carron Iron No. 2. 


Rati : 
Cold Blast. | Hot Blast. | Cold Blast by 1000 


Tensile strength in Ibs. per 
Square inch........s.ceceeeeeees } Aes (2) 13505 (3) | 1000: 809 
Compressive strength in lbs. 


per inch from castings torn 106375 (8) | 108540(2) | 1000 : 1020] x 
ASUNGET »..seeeeeeeeeeneeee tenes = 
room prisms of cata 100631 (4) | 100738 (2) | 1000 : 1001 5 
Do. from cylinders ..........s.08 125403 (13); 121685 (13); 1000: 970 J a 
Transverse strength from all 
the experiments ..........00 AEN (he eee CLD) soetseens (13) 1000 : 991 
‘| Power to resist impact .....ccscc0.|  ceseecees (Diane saneoes (9) | 1000 : 1005 
Transverse strength of barsone 
inch square in Ibs............. aT Ke) 463 (3) | 1000: 973 


Ultimate deflection of do. in in.| 1:3138(3) | _—_-1387 (3) | 1000 : 1018 


Modulusof elasticityinlbs. per 
square inch .........00. saneanes } 17270500 (2) |16085000 (2) | 1000: 931 


Specific gravity ...... HS Peper 7066 7046 1000 : 997 


Devon Iron No. 3. 
Ea ESE TMS a BEN EP Da ae Ne A 


Tensile strength ......... Sepneses|caerscens sesseeeee] 21907 (1) 
Compressive strength ......sssselecceecsscessceesen 145435 (4) 
Transverse ditto from the ex- 

Beats ne } hae Giikeeten: (5)| 1000 : 1417 
Power to resist impact ..... see-es|eoecee neha (A) |esseeeeeeees (4) | 1000 : 2786 
Transverse strength of bars 

One inch square ...........006 } HAS (2) 537 (2) | 1000 : 1199 
Ultimate deflection ditto......... 79 (2) 1:09 (2) | 1000 : 1380 
Modulus of elasticity ditto ...... 22907700 (2) |22473650 (2)| 1000: 981 
Specific gravity ............ peat. 7295 (4) 7229 (2)| 1000: 991 


a 


Buffery Iron No. 1. 
ie ar ae Gn he a 


Tensile strength ........ssessesees 17466 (1) 13434 (1) | 1000: 769 
Compressive ditto..........sssssees 93366 (4) 86397 (4) | 1000: 925 
Transverse itt ...ssseccssseecees|eecessveeees (D) faaees Hiektntes (5)} 1000: 931 
Power to resist nay gyitich peeee sec duae (2): [uedabacencns (2) | 1000: 963 
‘Transverse strength of bars 

one inch Wbiiare sialbi salle ABB XS) 436 (3) / 1000: 942 
Ultimate deflection ditto ......... 1:55 (3) 1:64 (3) |, 1000 : 1058 
Modulus of elasticity ditto ...... 15381200 (2) |13730500 (2) | 1000: 893 
Specific gravity .........cssssscasees 079 6998 1000 : 989 


374 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Coed-Talon Iron, No. 2. 


| Cold Blast. Hot Blast. Cold Beet by 100s, 
Tensile strength .....sesceseseeee | 18855 (2)| 16676 (2)| 1000: 884 


...| 81770 (4)| 82739 (4)| 1000 : 1012 


Compressive do . 
ve) 6955 (4) 6968 (3) | 1000 : 1002 


Specific gravity 


Carron Iron No. 3. 


Tensile strength .......csseseerees 14200 (2)| 17755 (2) | 1000 : 1250 
Compressive ditto..s.c:ceseeseesees 115442 (4)| 133440 (3)| 1000 : 1156 
Specific gravity ....s.csessveeseesees 7135 (1) 7056 (1)| 1000: 989 


Of the three columns of numbers in the table above, the first 
is the strength or other quality in the cold blast iron; the 
second is that in the hot blast; and the third is the ratio of 
these quantities. 

The results in this table contain nearly the whole information 
relative to the question of hot and cold blast iron that the pre- 
ceding research affords ; and before adverting to them it may 
be mentioned that it is usual for the makers of cast-iron to di- 
vide it, when taken from the furnace, into three classes, called 
Nos. 1, 2, 3, differing from each other in the appearance and 
qualities of the material. No. 1 contains the softest and richest 
irons, those which have the largest crystals; No. 3, the 
hardest and densest irons, those with the least crystals; and 
No. 2, irons intermediate between the former two descriptions. 
Beginning with the No.1 iron, of which we have a specimen from 
the Buffery Iron Works, a few miles from Birmingham, we 
find the cold blast iron somewhat surpassing the hot blast in 
all the following particulars—direct tensile strength, compress- 
ive strength, transverse strength, power to resist impact, mo- 
dulus of elasticity or stiffness, specific gravity ; whilst the only 
numerical advantage possessed by the hot blast iron is that it 
bends a little more than the cold blast before it breaks. 

In the irons of the quality No. 2 the case seems in some de- 
gree different ; in these the advantages of the rival kinds seem 
to be more nearly balanced. They are still, however, rather 
in favour of the cold blast. 

Referring to the No. 2 iron, from the Carron Works in 
Scotland, we find the tensile, compressive, and transverse © 
strengths, together with the modulus of elasticity and specific 
gravity, all higher in the cold blast iron than the hot blast, whilst 
the ultimate deflection and power of sustaining impact are 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 375 


greater in the hot blast. The cold blast iron is the better, but 
the difference is very small. 

In the iron No. 2, from the Coed-Talon Works in North 
Wales, the tensile strength is greater in the cold blast than 
in the hot ; but the resistance to compression is higher in the 
latter than the former, and that is the case with the specific 
gravity. 

So far as my experiments have proceeded, the irons of No. 
1 have been deteriorated by the hot blast ; those of No. 2 ap- 
pear also to have been slightly injured by it; whilst the irons 
of No. 3 seem to have benefited by its mollifying powers. 
The Carron iron No. 3, hot blast, resists both tension and 
compression with considerably more energy than that made 
with the cold blast; and the No. 3 hot blast iron from the 
Devon Works, in Scotland, is one of the strongest cast-irons 
I have seen, whilst that made with the cold blast is compara- 
tively weak, though its specific gravity is very high, and higher 
than in the hot. The extreme hardness of the cold blast De- 
von iron above prevented many experiments that would other- 
wise have been made upon it, no tools being hard enough to 
form the specimens. The difference of strength in the Devon 
irons is peculiarly striking. 

From the evidence here brought forward, it is rendered ex- 
ceedingly probable that the introduction of a heated blast into 
the manufacture of cast iron has injured the softer irons, whilst 
it has frequently mollified and improved those of a harder 
nature; and considering the small deterioration that the irons 
of the quality No. 2 have sustained, and the apparent henefit 
to those of No. 3, together with the great saving effected by 
the heated blast, there seems good reason for the process be- 
coming as general as it has done. 

Additional evidence will be obtained from the experiments 
in the next paper. 


: 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CASTIRON. 377 


On the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained 
from the Hot and Cold Blast. By W. Fairsarrn, Esq. 


Tue collecting of material for ascertaining the comparative 
values of iron, made from the hot and cold blast, has been a 
work of no small labour and expense. The chief difficulties 
arose from the greater part of the works in this country having 
only one sort of iron: large quantities of both sorts were ob- 
tained ; but, excepting those irons experimented upon, none 
could be found for comparison, nor any on which we could de- 
pend for analogous results. 

Nearly the whole of the Scotch irons are now prepared by 
the hot blast; and, with few exceptions, we may consider those 
of this country and Wales produced under circumstances pre- 
cisely similar. The great saving effected in the process of 
smelting by heated air, is in itself a sufficient inducement for 
its extended application; and in those districts where the iron 
is not deteriorated, there cannot exist a doubt as to the advan- 
tages derivable from its introduction. In confirmation of this opi-. 
nion, it may be important to know, that one-half or three-fourths 
of the British ores are now reduced by heated air. In the Staf- 


_ fordshire and Shropshire districts it has become almost univer- 


sal; and in North and South Wales the old process is rapidly 
giving way to the more economical application of the hot blast. 


_ In Yorkshire it has been tried with indifferent success, first at 


the Low Moor Iron Works, near Bradford, and more recently at 
the Milton Works, near Sheffield. The proprietors of the for- 
mer establishment persevered for some time in the use of the 
hot blast, but after repeated trials and experiments (part of 
which are briefly detailed in this Report), they abandoned the 


_ process, as injurious to the material, and reconstructed the old 


apparatus for the cold blast. 

I believe at the present moment they use air at the tempera- 
ture of the atmosphere: it is forced from the blowing cylinder 
into a dry receiver, and from thence into the furnace. Whether 
the failure which took place at the Low Moor was owing to 


some peculiarity in the ores, or from the presence of sulphur in 


the fuel, I am unable to determine. It is however obvious, that 
a considerable deterioration of strength was the consequence ; 
and from that cause, and that alone, I am informed, the hot 


blast was discontinued. 


At the Milton Works, the heated air is still in use; and al- 


378 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


though the iron produced is inferior in strength to that made at 
the neighbouring works, the Elsicar, where the cold blast is used, 
it is nevertheless much improved by the introduction of a small 
proportion of the Ulverstone ores, about 6 per cent., in combi- 
nation with those found in the district. 

Notwithstanding the unfavourable circumstances attending 
the application of the hot plast in the reduction of the York- 
shire ores, the same results were not obtained in its application 
to the Scotch iron. In those a deterioration takes place less 
frequently, as will be seen from the experiments. 

Taking a general mean of the experiments in both cases, the 
difference is not considerable ; and, with the exception of the 
Yorkshire irons, I should consider the results in no way unfa- 
vourable to the hot blast: as respects fluidity, appearance, &e,, 
I should rather deem them favourable than otherwise. 

Previous to commencing the experiments, it was considered 
desirable to collect as large an assortment of iron of both kinds 
as possible; and in order to avoid an improper selection, direct 
application was made to the iron masters in the first instance, 
and subsequently numerous samples were received through the 
medium of persons whose interests were in no way identified 
with this inquiry. 

In this way we kept clear of preconceived opinions, and col- 
lected a mass of material of almost every description, Out of 
nearly one hundred specimens, only six could be found answer- 
ing the description of hot and cold blast ; viz. the Carron, Devon, 
Buffery, Coed-Talon, and perhaps the Elsicar and Milton,* 

The difficulties thus enumerated, and the scarcity of the com- 
parative metals, have of necessity confined our investigations to 
the above-named irons: they are consequently more limited 
than we could wish; but, at the same time, of such a nature as, 
I trust, will lead to important results. 

As an account of the greater portion of the irons collected could 
not be introduced into these Reports, I was nevertheless induced 
to examine them minutely ; and having tested the whole by care- 
ful experiment, the results will be found in a distinct form in 
the sixth volume of the Manchester Memoirs, now in the press. 


* Since the above was written, it was deemed expedient to renew the appli- 
cation to the Carron Company for further supplies of their iron, in order to in- 
vestigate its nature with increased attention, in addition to the experiments of — 
last year. Mr. Hodgkinson expressed a wish to renew his experiments on the 
tensile forces of this iron, and also to repeat those with sections of the T form, 
which were found defective in former experiments. For this purpose a second 
application was made, through Mr. Murray of Glasgow, to the Company, who 
immediately furnished the necessary samples. Other sorts, the Muirkirk, the 
Coed-Talon No. 3, including the Carron No. 3 irons, have been obtained, and 


their results will be given in the present paper. 


alia tial 


a a 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 379 


After the request of the Association, expressed to Mr. Hodg- 
kinson and myself, that an inquiry should be instituted into the 
comparative merits of iron made from hot and cold blast, nearly 
ten months elapsed before the necessary materials could be ob- 
tained. In fact, the experiments would have been of the most 
meagre description, for want of samples, but for the friendly co- 
operation and assistance of Mr. Murray, of the Monkland Iron 
Works. To that gentleman we are indebted for the whole of the 
Scotch irons, exclusive of other valuable information relative to 
the fuel and analysis of the ores; I have therefore great plea- 
sure in thus publicly expressing my acknowledgments. 

Before entering upon the experiments, I made application to 
the greater part of the works from whence iron was received, 
for information relative to the nature of the ores, fuel, flux, &c. ; 
also for such analyses as the proprietors might be enabled or 
disposed to furnish, including the temperature of the air used in 
the process of smelting. 

To these inquiries I received replies which, although of great 
importance in themselves, could not with propriety be intro- 
duced into this report.* 

During the progress of the investigation, it was found desi- 
rable for Mr. Hodgkinson and myself to divide our labours ; 
and in order to examine the different irons with the utmost 
care, the experiments were classed and apportioned in the man- 
ner described in Mr. Hodgkinson’s report. 

This division was attended with considerable benefit, as it ex- 
cited a closer investigation of the subject ; and the whole of the 
experiments being made at my works, gave a facility for com- 
parison that could not otherwise be obtained. 


* Mr. Murray, of the Monkland Iron Works, has, however, supplied me 
with the following particulars relative to the Scotch irons, viz. the Carron and 
Devon irons, which are derived, like most of the Scotch metals, from argillaceous 
carbonate of iron, and are found in the coal-basins of the country. Some of 
the poorer ores are found in balls imbedded in argillaceous schistus, and worked 
or turned out with the coal; but the principal is a seam of black hand, at a 
depth of 15 to 25 fathoms under the splint, or fifth seam of coal, of the Lanark- 
shire basin. This iron-stone varies from 9 to 15 inches in thickness, and con- 
tains from 35 to 40 per cent. of iron. Two-thirds of this ore is generally used 
to each charge, and one-third of the poorer balls and bands containing from 
20 to 25 per cent.—Dr. Colquhoun analyzed the black band ore, whicn gave 


_ Carbonic acid....... bencadatghep eased sa WIUIING « odescaceucsqatecssocatavseapecUroa 
Protoxide Of i0N.....sceeeeseeeee 53°08 | Peroxide of iron.........scceecseeess 0-28 
STEN Casali a cp we anv. wehavnoaersdea decay 8:38 | Calcareous or bituminous matter. 3:08 
Magnesia...sccsccssssersecsseeseee 1°77 | Moisture and loss....cscsessesseeeee 1°41 

Abaca ie daaksl ksawssaddsenegsahk 1:40 100-000 


The specific gravity of this ore is 3°0553, colour close brown. The ore con- 


tains an intermixture of imbedded bivalve shells, 


380 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


In describing the following experiments, I will first give the 
tables and results on the transverse or more usually investigated 
species of strain, where the experiment was made without loss 
of time, and which may be considered a continuation of the 
same class of experiments by Mr. Hodgkinson. We shall then 
proceed to experiments on the Coed-Talon bars, in relation to 
time or indefinite strain. Afterwards we shall exhibit others on 
the effects of temperature ; and finally close with a general sum- 
mary of results. 

Before presenting the experiments in their tabulated forms, 
it may be necessary to supply a brief description of each class, 
in order to show the methods adopted, and how the results 
were obtained.—For this purpose, a number of models were 
prepared, to be 1 inch and 14 inches square; and the metals, 
both hot and cold blast, were run into the form of those mo- 
dels. But as there is generally a slight deviation in the size 
of the casting from that of the model, the dimensions of the 
bars were accurately measured at the place of fracture, and the 
results reduced (when practicable) by calculation. to what they 
would have been if cast to the exact size of the model. This 
was done to ensure more accurate comparisons in the strength 
and other mechanical properties of the bars. The mode of re- 
duction is described in the preceding report. 

In addition to the methods herein adopted to determine the 
strength, tenacity, and value of the different irons made from 
hot and cold blast, I conceived it necessary to institute a series 
of microscopic observations ; to examine with great minuteness 
the appearance of the fracture, and by magnifying the crystals, 
to elucidate such visible indications of the fluidity, strength, 
and ductility of the irons, as would distinguish the qualities of 
the different numbers known in commerce by the name of No. 
1, 2, and 3 iron. 

I also pursued in other respects a close and minute examina- 
tion of the different specimens of hot and cold blast iron, and 
by turning, filing, grinding, &c., endeavoured to discover their 
properties in relation to each other, and their adaptation to the 
arts. 

As the Carron No. 2 irons, hot and cold blast, were among 
the first we obtained, I have, in the description of the fractures 
attached to each table of experiments, made the Carron No. 2 
cold blast iron the basis of comparison. It may therefore be 
proper to give here the following short description of it. 

This iron, when viewed with a microscope, presents a dull 
grey colour, finely granulated, with an appearance of greater 
porosity in the centre than round the extreme edges of the frac- 
ture. It is a free-working iron, easily cut with the turning 
tool, but indicates stiffness under the file. 


ExPERIMENT 1. 
Depth of bar, 1:042 
readth of do. 1°021 
Distance between 
supports, 4 ft. Gin. 
Weight of bar, 5 ft. 
long, 163 lbs. 


“Weight in Ibs. 
Deflection in 
inches. 
Defiection, 
Load removed. 


1.*. Ultimate de- 
lection, = 1:394. 
Broke 13 inch 
|from the centre. 


‘ 


| 


| Gin. between 


EXPERIMENT 2. 


Depth of bar, 1°061 
Breadth of do. 1:018 
Distance between 
supports, 4 ft. 6 in. 
Weight of bar, 5ft. 
long, 16 lbs. 2 oz. 


Weight in lbs. 
Deflection in 
inches. 
Deflection, 
Load removed. 


.. Ultimate deflec- 
tion, = 1-452. 


| Experiment Ist, bar 4 ft. 


{Experiment 2nd, bar 4 ft, 
| Gin. between supports..... 
| Experiment 8rd, bar 4 ft. 
| 6 in. between supports..... 


Experiment 4th, bar 2 ft. 
3 in. between supports..... 
xperiment 5th, bar 2 ft. 
3 in. between supports..... 


Broke at the cen- 


EXPERIMENT 3. 
Depth of bar, 1°04 
Breadth of do. 1:02 
Distance between 

supports, 4 ft. 6 in. 
Weight of bar, 5ft. 
long, 15 lbs. 9 oz. 


Z|) | ¢8 
fe su4|.2o 
-= |.2%|/og 
| 28 | Seo 
‘Oo Oo As 
e/a TS 
28 | -072| ... 
56 | 125) + 
112 | -269]-011 
168 | -420) -024 
224 | -584 | -042 
280 | -748 | 064 
336 | -924) -085 
392 |1:105 | -123 
448 1-315 | -185 
462 |broke 


.. Ultimate deflec- 
tion, = 1:364, 


Broke 34 an inch 


tre. 


Modulus of 

Specific | elasticity in 
gravity. | lbs. per square 

inch. 
6:951 

supports. .... } 6:916 14680000 
} 6:916 13947000 

} 7:038 14285000 

Mean...| 6-955 14304000 


from the centre. 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON, 


ExrrERIMENtT 4, 
Depth of bar, 1-076 
Breadth of do. 1:04 
Distance between 
supports, 2 ft. 3 in. 


Fs Ge a a 
ca . > 
2 | 2838 
» [s) o Vv 
Pea dea SP 
°o oO Q 3 
B |A 4 
112] -028 

224 | -060 

336 | -092 | + 
448 | -125 | 006 
560] +162 | -008 
672 | -203 |-010 
784 | -242 | -016 
896 | -290 | -025 
952 | 316 

1008 |broke 


.". Ultimate deflec- 


tion, = ‘341, 
Broke 12 inch 
from the centre. 


.. Ultimate deflec- 


381 


Taste I.—North Wales Iron.—Coed-Talon No. 2 Pig-Iron, Cold Blast. 


EXpERIMENT 5. 
Depth of bar, 1-062 
Breadth of do. 1:009 
Distance between 
supports, 2 ft, Sin. 


a |S Pas 
als als = 
s Fol. 
3) 3s] 36 
oo |e | Beg 
‘oO vo QA os 
BIA 4 
112 | -030 

224 |-064 | 4 
336 |-096 | -005 
448 |-134 | -007 
560 | +172 |-010 
672 |-215 |-014 
784 |-258 | -020 
896 | -308 | -028 
952 |broke 


tion, = °332. 
Broke = an inch 


z 
from the centre. 


The microscopic appearance of this iron is a deeper grey colour than is exhibited 
in the Carron No. 2 cold blast; itis also more open than it is in the centre of the bar, 
with a diminution of the crystals as they approach the exterior skin. It is less ductile 
than the hot blast, and inferior to it in the power of resisting impact. 


: Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square. 
ee 


Breaking} Ultimate z roduct 6 x 
si deflection g z sisting i a 
@). (d). pact. 
404-2 | 1-453 587-3 
403-1 | 1540 | 620-7 
4188 1-419 594-2 
408-7 | 1-470 | 600-7 
‘367 807-2 
353 295°3 
360 296°2 


382 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Taste II. 
North Wales Iron.—Coed-Talon No. 2 Pig-Iron, Hot Blast. 


EXPERIMENT 1. EXPERIMENT 2. | EXPERIMENT 5. EXPERIMENT 4. 


Depth of bar, 1:071|| Depth of bar, 1-057] Depth of bar, 1°044|| Depth of bar, 1/065 
Breadth of do.1‘000|| Breadth of do. 1:010|, Breadth of do. ‘994|| Breadth of do. 1'002 
Distance between || Distance between | Distance between || Distance between 
supports, 4 ft. 6 in. supports, 4 ft. 6 in.|| supports, 2 ft. 5 in.|| supports, 2 ft. 5 in. 
Weight of bar 5 ft.!| Weight of bar, 5 ft. 


long, 153 lbs. long, 16 lbs. 

2/8 (et ¢/8 /e3l sls |st. 8/8 bes 
eleales| 2leglesi e\sel2el a lggles 
~ |ea/88l 2/38/88] 2 )esl\88] 8 Sei 88 
a |og|/ar e |osg|as = |osgi|ax ae | oglu 
on | GB | Org on | Gs | Org ep | GS | Org || “on a8 Ong 
S1qQ |As Sig |FAsii Bla AS Sig |As 
5 aie Pe fa = Hi & 4 
28 | -065|... || 98! -071| ... |i 112 |-081 | ... || 112 |-080 

56 | -130\-005 || 56 | -130!-005 || 924 |-070 | ... |! 224 |-066 

126 | -325|-025 || 126 | -329|-030 || 336 |-109 | + || 336 |-103 |-005 


182 | -508) +052 || 182 | -507| ‘056 || 448 | +152 | 007 || 448 | -144 | -007 
238 | -700)-085 || 238 | -698/ +089 |) 560 | -200 | ‘012 || 560 |-188 | ‘011 
294 | -910) +120 || 294 | -910) +124 || 672 |-251 | -020 
350 | 1-149} -170 || 350 | 1-153) 184 || 784 |-307 | -030 || 784 | -290 | 028 


406 | 1-420) -245 || 406 | 1-435) +265 || 840 | 343 896 | 355 | -045 
434 | 1-570) -295 || 462 | 1-764| 370 || 896 |broke 952 | -390 

448 | 1-654 469 |broke 950 |broke 

462 |broke 

.*. Ultimate deflec-|| .», Ultimate deflec-|| .«. Ultimate deflec-|| .-. Ultimate deflec- 
tion = 1-738, tion = 1-808. tion = *375. tion = *407. 
Broke 3 of an inch|| Broke 4 an inch|| Broke at the cen-|) Broke 3 of an inch 


from the centre. || from the centre; | tre. from the centre, 


In this iron the crystallization is more perfect, when contrasted with the cold blast 
from the same ore; it presents larger granules than it, accompanied with more lus- 
tre over the whole surface of the fracture. It is a free, kindly-working iron; easily 
cut with the chisel, and files with a sense of adhesion to that instrument. 


Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square. 


Modulus of ; 3 Product b 
Specific | elasticity in Breaking | Ultimate | X d, or 


i ight |deflection| power of 
gravity. | lbs. per weig ver 
square inch.|. (°)+ (d). reaeing 


Experiment Ist, bar 4 ft.]| 6970 2. F ; 
6in. between supports cveee 6-956 } TATOO |: EG ge ig 


Experiment 2nd, bar 4 ft. aH : : : 
Goa between ctppertss. f| 6977 | 19835000 | 4156 | 1911 | 7942 


Mean...| 6-968 | 14322500 | 409-2 1-882 


Experiment 3rd, bar 2 ft. 835°5 392 
8 in, between supports... f [|e 

Experiment 4th, bar 2 ft. 862°3 434 
3 in. between supports... fen a ee 

Meatiies|ecscsssesssslersceseoseeeees| 848°9 “413 


RR ET 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON, 383 


Comparative results of Coed-Talon Iron No. 2. 


Distance between supports 4 ft. Gin. and 2 ft. 3 in. 


Strength of Cold Blast Iron. | Strength of Hot Blast Iron. Ratio of strengths. 


se Mean 402-8] Mean 

5 408-7 4156 f 409-2 1000 : 1001 
418°8 
837-2) Mean 835-5) Mean 


836°6 { 836-9 8623 [ 848:9 1000 : 1014 


Mean ratio of strengths, 1000 : 1007 


Results of products, and ratio to resist impact. 


Product of strength by ulti- 
mate deflection in Cold 
Blast Iron. 


Product of strength by ulti- 
mate deflection in Hot 
Blast Iron. 


Ratio of products, or of 
power to resist impact. 


7496 | Mean bi: 

7942 [ 7719 1000 : 1285 
307-2) Mean 327-5] Mean ee 

374-2 [ 3508 1000 ; 1184 


295'3 [ 296-2 


Mean ratio of powers to sustain impact, 1000 : 1234 


Modulus of elasticity in ths. for a base of an inch square. 


Cold Blast Iron...... 14680000 
DO. sc acccess duasuscssce es 13947000 


Mean... 14313500 


Hot Blast Iron...... 15810000 


Mean... 14322500 


___ Note.—The modulus of elasticity was taken in this, as well as in other cases, from 
the 4 ft. Gin. bars, and from the deflection caused by 112 lbs. 


tate « 


384 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Tas_e ITI. 
North Wales Iron.—Coed-Talon No. 3 Iron, Cold Blast. 


Experiment 1. Experiment 2. ExXpeERIMENT 5. ExrERIMENT 4, 


Depth of bar, -996\|Depth of bar, 1:035||Depth of bar, *996|Depth of bar, 1°035 

Breadth of do. 1:005||Breadth of do. 1°017||Breadth of do. 1°015|| Breadth of do. 1°017 

Distance between Distance between  ||Distance between _ || Distance between 
supports, 4ft. 6in. || supports, 4ft. 6 in. || supports, 2 ft. 3in.||. supports, 2ft. Sin. 


h(i (gg CO i afm = a PE om) ge 
eae oot a | Seo her! ae Tes = zy/.88 
2 \eelee] = [esl Ze] = esl zZ8 = | ge| Be 
©) e2/Sai & lee|Sy & |ee/se] B | 2B) se 
File ARSE A POSE a 1A 5 ie ares 
28 | -067| ... 28 | -060| ... 112} -030 | ... 112 | -031 

56 |} 131} + 56 | -117| + 224/-068 | ... 224 | -060 

112 | +257/-010 || 112 | -231/-012 || 336):102 | + 336 |:092 | + 
168 | -400)-018 || 168 | :357|-023 || 448|-140 | + || 448} -122 |-005 
224 | -542/-030 || 224 | -491/-036 || 560)°178 |-006 || 560/-156 | -007 
280 | -695|-047 || 280 | -623/-050 || 672-217 |-008 || 672/-189 | 009 
336 | +850) °064 || 336 | °762)-069 || 784/-256 |-012 || 784 | +221 | -011 
392 | 1-022) -090 || 392 | -910|-089 || 896|-300 | -020 || 896 | -257 | -017 
448 | 1-204|-121 |} 448 | 1-070} -112 || 1008 | -549 | -031 || 1008 | -300 | -022 
504 | 1-400) 164 || 504 | 1-238) -148 || 1064 /°377 | ... || 1120| -340 | -031 
532 | 1-520 560 | 1-425) -191 || 1120} -408 | -045 || 1176 |broke 

560 |broke 1176 | -439 

- || 1204 |broke 

.. Ultimate deflec-||Broke with  thel|.. Ultimate deflec-|].:. Ultimate deflec- 
tion = 1°617. weight, 560 Ibs.,|| tion = °453. tion = °359. 
Broke at $ of an in.|| when putonagain.||Broke at the cen-|/Broke at the cen- 


from the centre. tre. tre. 

On comparing the Coed-Talon No. 2, cold blast, with the No. 3 cold blast iron, 
it will be found that the strength and also the power to resist impact is decidedly in 
favour of the last iron ; in the first instance the proportions are as 537°8 to 408°7, in the 
latter, 831°2 to 600°7, being a ratio of nearly 24 per cent. in favour of the No. 3 iron. 

The colour of this iron is a dull grey, with considerable uniformity in its crystal- 
line texture. It is a stiff iron, rather difficult to cut, and accompanied with a hard 


sensation under the file. 
Results reduced to those of hars 1:000 inch square. 


: Product 
wg, | Modulus of Breaking Ultimate | 5 ¥ ¢, or 
Specific | elasticity |"). deflection | | ower of 
gravity. | in lbs. per 6) in inches Last 9 
square inch. : (d). impact. 
Experiment Ist, bar 4 ft. 6 bea ' F 7 
_ in. between supports... 7124 17276800 | 561-7 1-610 904°3 
Hapenment Sud, tar27) 6) 16927200 | 514-0 | 1-475 | 758-1 
in. between supports 
Mean...) 7194 | 17102000 | 537-8 1542 | 831-2 


Experiment 3rd, bar 2ft=.3])) | une thei . 
in. between supports ...f} “"" 
Srcig ave wae and gh Speen a ere 10790 | -3715 | 401-0 
in. between supports ...f} “"" | * 
1137°3 | °4113 470-2 


IMERMocs|-- > cteces Ame ese nee 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 


TABL 


E IV. 


385 


North Wales Iron.—Coed-Talon No.3 Iron, Hot Blast. 


EXxprrIMEnt 1. Experiment 2. EXPERIMENT 3. ExrerIMENt 4. 
Depth of bar, 1:002;|Depth of bar, 1°011|/Depth of bar, 1:015)|Depth of bar, 1°017 
Breadth of do. 1:005,|Breadth of do. 1:002||Breadth of do. 1°015||Breadth of do. 1°005 
Distance between ||Distanee between /||Distance between _||Distance between 

supports, 4 ft. 6 in. || supports, 4 ft. 6 in. || supports, 2ft. Sin. |! supports, 2ft. Sin. 
Frida Ro oreareannanesst 

Se ime is | ieee a ree ae ee | a Oe = 

S Balse|l «|e Siok aati oi soil ve ee! B.8 

3 |. 20/s§ Sai SRO I i= = | Sol ss = lee.o | eS 

2 /ssie2e2] 2)/ssleei sl esiaei| 2 i|seiee 

eo |e2(S5] 2 l/es/Sg| Sl les|(Sul & |aes/ sy 

Ela (AS Sia jAsi | [AS =F la jAs 

4 H|| = 4q 4 

28 | -078 28 | :071 112 | -037 112 | -035 

56 150} -007 56 | °1438) + 224/-073 | ... 224 | -070 

112 | +296) -012 || 112 | -290/-011 || 336}-109 ; + 336 | +108 

168 | -458|-022 || 168 | -450)-026 || 448)-147 |-005 || 448/-146 | + 

224 | -621)-038 || 224 | -611)-041 560 | -182 |-006 || 560}-183 | -007 

280 | +793) -054 || 280 | -780)-060 || 672 |-221 |-008 || 672 | -220 |-009 

836 | -978|-074 || 336 | -957/-080 || 784]|-260 |-O011 || 784] -261 | -011 

392 | 1-170) -100 || 392 | 1:142]-103 || 896] -302 |-017 || 896} :°304 | -018 

448 | 1-380) -134 || 448 | 1°340)-138 || 1008 | -349 |-022 || 952)-328 | ... 

476 | 1-488 476 | 1-450 1064 | 378 1008 } -352 | -025 

504 |broke 504 |broke 1092 |broke 1064 | -380 

1120 |broke 


.. Ultimate deflec-||.. Ultimate deflec-||.-. Ultimate deflec- 
tion = 1°588. tion = 1°547. tion = °390. 
Broke $ of an inch||Broke 3 an in. from|/Broke $ of an inch 


from the centre. 


the centre. 


from the centre. 


.. Ultimate deflec- 
tion = °404. 

Broke 1 inch from 
the centre. 


The Coed-Talon No. 3, hot blast, is a much clearer iron, with larger crystals than 
the cold blast, No. 3. It presents a more varied appearance in its crystalline 
form, with the usual porosity in the centre of the fracture. The colour is more bril- 
liant than that of the last-mentioned iron. This is in many respects similar to the 
Carron No. 2, cold blast. It is reduced by the file and chisel with more ease than 
the iron last examined, 


Results reduced to those of bars 1°000 inch square. 
Product 


_p_ | Modulus of | Breaking | Ultimate | 8 x d, or 
Specific | elasticity weight deflection| power of 
gravity. | in lbs. per (6). (d). | resisting 
square inch. impact. 
Experiment Ist, bar 4 ft. 6 h t 
in. between supports vee em ae) oie a eee 
Experiment 2nd, bar 4 ft. 6 6967 p , F 
in. between supports 959 f UAGsa200) |) 402-4 peri pit 
Mean...| 6970 | 14707900 | 495-8 | 1577 | 782-2 
E iment 3rd, bar 2 ft. 3 
xperiment 3rd, F : 3 i 
Gal ciween sippatis’”, plete abs Hi 1044-0 | +3958 | 413:2 
| Experiment 4th, bar 2 ft. 3 , : 
saRetwéen supports Saades! Ml Peta 10775 | -4108 442-7 
Mea eal sere Bu ls Recanes 1060°7 | -4033 427-9 


SS Suey sa enema el wom RO: ae SRD ee Seber bee elo | 3 bade EL 
VOL, vI. 1837. zo * 


386 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Comparative results of Coed-Talon No.3. 
Distance between supports, 4 ft. 6 in. and 2 ft. 3 in. 


Strength of Cold Blast Iron.| Strength of Hot Biast Iron. Ratio of strengths. 


561°7 an, 499-5 : 
2140} 537'8 492.1 495°8 1000 : 922 

1195°7 : 1044-0 4 
jo7o0 f 11878 10775 f 10607 1000 : 932 
Mean ratio of strengths...... 1000 : 927 


Results of products and ratio to resist impact. 


Product of strength by ulti- | Product of strength by ulti- 


mate deflection in Cold Blast mate deflection in Hot Ratio of products, or of 


power to resist impact. 


Tron. Blast Iron. 
ee OORT 794-7 | 09, 
7581 f S12 eg } 782-2 1000 : 941 
589°5 1 arn. 413-2] jor, 
to10 $470 2 se }427 9 1000 : 910 
Mean ratio of powers to sustain impact ...... 1000 : 925 


Modulus of elasticity in lhs. for a hase of an inch square. 


Cold Blast Iron...... 17276800 
PITGY caveccsciecdissess 16927200 


Mean...... 17102000 


Hot Blast Iron ...... 14732600 
WaGHO sate nee ce encase = 14683200 


Mean...... 14707900 


If we carefully examine the different experiments in these and the preceding tables, 
it will appear obvious that the hot blast is in every instance the weaker iron, and 
whether it is viewed in the long or short specimens, the same marked difference in 
strength is apparent. It is also clear that the No. 3 hot blast is an iron of greater 
power than the second quality made by hot blast from the same ore. On contrasting 
the tables, it will be found that the No. 3 iron exceeds the No. 2 in its power to resist 
a transverse strain nearly one-fifth, and considerably more in its resisting power to 
sustain impact, this being in the ratio of 1000 to 766. 

I have pointed out the defect of the No. 2 iron, not so much for comparison be- 
tween the hot and cold blast, as from a desire to show the difference which in general 
exists between the two qualities. In preparing castings for the purpose of supporting 
great weights, it will be necessary to have reference to the No. 3 iron, as the best 
adapted for the purpose; it will be found safer than the richer sorts, and should 
therefore form a considerable part of the mixtures of these descriptions. 

The ratio of difference between the hot and cold blast Coed-Talon No. 3, and the 


Coed-Talon No. 2, is considerable. In the No. 2 we have the hot blast in the trans- . 


yerse strain a mere fraction stronger, and its power to sustain impact as 1000 to 
1234. On the other hand, the No. 3 cold blast stands prominently forward in the 
ratio of 1000 to 927 for the transverse strength, and 1000 to 925 for the resistance to 
impact. I offer no opinion as to the cause of these discrepancies ; they are correctly 
given in the experiments, and I must leave the reader to draw his own conclusions, 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 387 


Tas. V.—English Iron.—Elsicar No. 1 Pig Iron, Cold Blast. 


EXPERIMENT 1, EXPERIMENT 2, EXPERIMENT 3. | EXPERIMENT 4. 


Depth of bar, 1:033||Depth of bar, 1-042|\Depth of bar, 1:023)Depth of bar, 1:+016 
Breadth of do. 1°025||Breadth of do. 1:030)|Breadth of do. 1-006 Breadth ofdo. °990 

Distance between Distance between Distance between ‘Distance between 
supports, 4ft. 6in. || supports, 4ft. 6in, || supports 2ft. 3in. || supports 2ft, 3in, 


Weight of bar 5 ft.||Weight of bar 5 ft, 


168 | -444| -048 |] 168 | -410 
224 | -571| -044|) 448 | -182] -005 || 448] -141| -007 
: 280 | -740| -063 || 560 | -170| -008 || 560} -181| -010 
336 | -979!| -114|| 336 | -918| -090|| 672 | -215) -011)|) 672] -229) -018 
392 |1°185 | -148 |} 892 1-112] -122 || 784 | -260| -017 || 784] -276| 022 
448 |1-390| -190 || 448 |1°320} -161 || 896 | -310)| -025 |) 896} 330} -030 
476 |broke 476 |broke 952 |broke 952 | +355 
1008 |broke 


S 
to 
© 


long, 154 Ibs. long, 153 Ibs. 
: 3 3 3 é 3 Fs 3 
2 | 8 -2 | 8 so sie al lh so FO ee ae 
eldelfe) 2 ldalfe) 2 eal el = lael ds 
S (Se fel 2 1sa| sel S  eet\ se] 2 lss| se 
Slei/Sc| Beal Sz] Bl eel/ Sz Blea / Fs 
o o as o o qs o o Qs C) o qs 
Pies leh ele |e) & aol el eis. | 8 
56 | +151 56 | 129] ... 112.| -030} ... 112] 032] ... 
112 | -291| -030]| 112 | -260| -010|| 224 | -062| ... 224) 066) + 
5 336 | 095) + 3836 | +101] -005 


bo 
bo 
_ 
Oo 
1 
_ 
r= 
eer} 
Ne 


.*. Ultimate de-||/.°. Ultimate de-|}.*. Ultimate de-||’.°. Ultimate de- 
flection = 1:496.|| flection = 1°424. || flection = ‘334.}| flection = ‘381. 
Broke 1 inch from || Broke at the cen- || Broke 3 of an inch || Broke § of an inch 
the centre. tre. from the centre. || from the centre. 


It must be observed that the Elsicar is entirely cold blast iron, and is here 
compared with the Milton hot blast. Both irons are from the same ores, and are 
generally obtained under the same circumstances. In their relative properties there 
are, however, some slight discrepancies, arising from an admixture of 5 per cent. of 
Cumberland ironstone, introduced into the Milton iron during the process. The 
Elsicar is blown from coke, with cold blast, whilst the Milton is produced from 5 
parts coal and 1 part coke, with hot blast. 

This iron has a vitrified and glutinous appearance over the entire section of the 
fracture ; there is great uniformity,—the crystals being nearly the same in the centre 
as those next the outer skin of the bar. It has a grey colour, intermixed with blue. 
Its working properties are of the first order, the action of filing being accompanied by 
a soft adhesive sound. 


Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square. 


Product 


: tae Breaking Ultimate 6X d,or 
Specific in Ibs. per | Weight deflection | power of 
gravity. square Ne ee (6). in inches | resisting 
: ; (d@). impact. 
Experiment Ist, bar 4 ft. 7056 ; 
6 in. between supports... 7-017 | 13410000 | 435-2 672°8 
Experiment 2nd, bar 4 ft. J x, 5 
6 in. between supports bin PAY) PAROROOO) 1A BGr6 se 
Mean... 7-030 | 13981000 | 430-4 652-2 
oS see CE ee ee 
Experiment 3rd, bar 2 ft. s 
ie din, between supports nts Ih] seis A Seed BD Me fs ides 3092 
xperiment 4th, bar 2 ft. ‘ 2 
3in. between supports va rere ech ay Pate 9868 3817 | 


Sage || kecceees * 345°4 


388 


Tas. VI.—English Irons.—Milton, No. 1 Pig Iron, Hot Blast— 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Yorkshire. 


EXPERIMENT 1. 
Depth of bar, 1°064 
Breadth of do. 1-064 
Distance between 

supports, 4 ft. 6 in. 
Weight of bar 5 ft. 


EXPERIMENT 2, 
Depth of bar, 1058 
Breadth of do. 1:020 
Distance between 

supports, 4ft. Gin. 
Weight of bar 5ft. 


EXPERIMENT 3. 
Depth of bar, 1090 
Breadth of do. 1°047 
Distance between 

supports, 2ft, 3in, 


EXPERIMENT 4. 
Depth of bar, 1°067 
Breadth of do. 1040 
Distance between 

supports, 2ft. 3in. 


long, 161b. 9 oz. long, 161b. 8 oz. 


mo | gs .2 jae o ee ieee ls 2 a aw 
el) ae | See a eee Wee) cbt ic |) peal h aoeeinae 
cal gg|ss ‘o 2 o | 8 a S3i|se & ESlis 
2 |/Sa/22] ¢ |SSlsel es | esl] s2] 2 |e eek 
> |22/Sc | @ |e l(Ss| & | 2E/Sc] ek Ss 
o o ag 3) x as @ 2 as 2 2 Aas 
ele |PSi eis [Ps e je |*si ele |78 
42 | -103} + 42 | 103} + || 112 | -033 112 | -033 
112 | -294]| -010 || 112 | -298| -006 || 224 | -066 224 | 070) + 
182 | -499| -038 || 182 | 518] -033 || 336 | -103| -004|| 336 | -110)| -004 
238 | -685 | :065 || 238 | -710| -056 || 448 | -143} -007 || 448 | -153| -006 
294 | -892| -094 || 294 | -922| -090]| 560 | -186| -009|| 560 | -200) -009 
350 |1-:126| -139 || 350 |1-160| -135 || 672 | -236| -015 || 672 | -250)| -016 
406 |1-382 |broke|| 406 |1-480| -209 || 784 | -286| -024|| 784 | -306)| -025 
420 \broke 896 | -350) -038 || 896 | -372| -041 
952 |broke 924 |broke 
Broke 3 of an inch ||.". Ultimate deflec-||.". Ultimate deflec-||.". Ultimate deflec- 
from the centre. |} tion = 1-492. tion = ‘379. tion = °388. 
Broke 14 inch from||Broke at the cen-|\Broke } of an inch 
the centre. tre from the centre. 


The general appearance of this iron is the usual central porosity of crystallization, 
which no doubt takes place in consequence of a greater degree of rapidity in the 
cooling on the outside than within. In the larger descriptions of castings these marks 
are particularly observable, as the interior mass retains its fluidity for some time after 
the exterior has assumed the solid form: the phenomena of crystallization are there- 
fore completed under different influences, and hence arises the great and prominent 
difference which exists in the granulated surface of a large fracture. The working 
powers of the Milton iron are much akin to the Carron No. 2, cold blast: it possesses 
less lustre than the Elsicar, but has greater fluidity than appearances would indicate. 


Results reduced to those of hars 1:00 inch square. 


Product 
‘ heesced Breaking | Ultimate | 3 ay a, a 
Specific in Ibs, pe c, weight deflection power of 
gravity. square inch. (0). in ian paris 
Experiment Ist, bar 4 ft. 7-016 
6 in. between supports ... 6:977 | 11701000 | 387-1 1-471 495°8 
Experiment 2nd, bar 4 ft. ' : ae ’ 
6 in, between supports we 6-936 | 12248000 | 367 i igi 5809 
Mean...| 6°976 | 11974500 | 352°5 1-525 538°3 
Experiment 3rd, bar 2 ft. ; : ‘ 
3 in. between supports oe } cognate arene psi 413 316-0 
Experiment 4th, bar 2 ft. : : ne 
3 in, between supports aa } "AAI? oer 730°4 414 323°0 
MECRIE cecil) cuesw~a9 || weteeses ne 7728 ‘413 319-5 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CASTIRON. 389 


Comparative results of Elsicar Cold Blast Tron, No. 1, and 
Milton Hot Blast, No.1. 


Distance between supports 4 ft. 6 in. 


Elsicar. 


Strength of the Cold Blast Iron. | Strength of the Hot Blast Eron. 


Milton. 
Ratio of the Strengths. 


Mean. * - Mean. 
435-2) yan, 3371] ono. 
oe } 430-4 367.9} 352°5 1000: 819 
904-2 | oyx. 7653 | ro, 
wee } 945:2 reo ta728 1000: 818 
Mean ratio of strengths ...... 1000 =: «818 


The products, and ratio to resist impact. 


Product of strength by 
ultimate deflection in 
Cold Blast Iron. 


Product of strength by 
ultimate deflection in 
Hot Blast Iron. 


Ratio of products, or 
of power to 
resist impact. 


Mean. Mean. 
672°3 | y 495-8 | - ao, i 
6316 f 652-2 580-9 [2883 1000 : 825 
309°2 ; 316-0 : F 
sary rade oasb \ 319-5 1000: 925 
Mean ratio of powers to sustain impact ... .. 1000. =: «875 


Modulus of elasticity in lhs. for a base of an inch square. 


Elsicar Iron (Cold Blast) 13410000 
Ditto ditto 14552000 


Mean 138981000 


11701000 
12248000 


Mean 11974500 


Milton Iron (Hot Blast) 
Ditto ditto 


The Elsicar and Milton being the only Yorkshire irons ob- 
tained answering to the description of hot and cold blast, it 
may be proper, in this part of my report, to state that I have 
been favoured with a series of experiments made at the Low 
Moor Works, near Bradford, by Mr. Dawson, one of the pro- 
prietors. In the year 1830 the hot blast was‘tried in the re- 
duction of the ores of the Bradford district. A number of bars, 
1 inch square, were cast from iron produced in the cold blast 
furnace of 1829, and a similar number of bars were cast, of the 
same dimensions, and from the same model and furnace, with 
hot blast, in 1830. Each of the bars was broken with weights 


390 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


placed on the centre, and supported on beams or bearers 3 feet 
asunder. The results are below : 


Mean breaking weight of the Cold Blast bars 947 lbs. 
Mean ditto ditto Hot Blast bars 787 ,, 


Difference in favour of Cold Blast 160 


being as 94 to 78 in the ratio of 1000 to 831, or nearly the 
same in favour of the cold blast as exhibited in the preceding 
tables. 

It appears somewhat remarkable, that the same, or nearly the 
same, results should be obtained in my experiments of 1836, on 
the Elsicar and Milton irons, as were elicited in the experiments 
at the Low Moor in 1830. In both instances there is an obvi- 
ous defect in the strengths of the iron made by the hot blast ; 
and, judging from the difference in the deflections between the 
Elsicar and the Milton, I should consider the hot blast more 
tender than the Elsicar, and less worthy of trust than it when 
submitted to forcible strain under vibratory action; the power 
to sustain impact being in favour of the former as 1000 to 875. 
Before closing these observations, I would venture to mention 
the striking anomaly that exists between the Yorkshire ores and 
those of other districts when operated upon by the hot blast. 
From the experiments generally, such a marked difference does 
not exist in the strength of other irons as are herein portrayed 
in those of Yorkshire. Some peculiar and probably unknown 
affinity in the minerals may be brought into action by the heated 
air, otherwise, 1 confess, I cannot perceive any just reason for 
such a change. The mere heating of atmospheric air to 600° or 
700° before it enters the furnace, should not, in my opinion, 
differ so considerably from the same air heated in the furnace. 
I hope the results of these experiments will induce Dr. Faraday, 
Dr. Thompson, or some other eminent chemist, to inquire fur- 
ther into this subject, and, by correct analysis, to ascertain the 
cause of differences which at the present moment appear any- 
thing but satisfactory. 


ae ae ee 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 


391 


Tas. VII.—Scotch Iron.—Carron No. 3 Pig Iron, Cold Blast. 


EXxprERIMENT 1. 


Depth of bar, 1-020 

Breadth of do. 1°010 

Distance between 
supports, 4 ft. 6 in, 


2 3 
a|eei\3s 
2 |83| 8: 
@iee\e% 
= aS 
28 | 068 

56 | 129) + 
112 | -253) :010 
168 | -401! -020 
224 | +552) -038 
280 | :718!| -061 
336 | -890)| -090 
392 |1:079 | -120 
448 |1-281/| -169 
469 |broke 


.. Ultimate deflec- 
tion = 1°351. 

Broke 1 inch from 
the centre. 


EXPERIMENT 2. 
Depth of bar, *997 
Breadth of do, 1°001 
Distance between 

supports, 4 ft. 6 in. 

Fs .2 

Pee Be 

eles | me 

a ee | os 

© | s218s 

‘oD A &é A oC 

5 4 

28 | 071) + 

56 | :140| -007 | 

112 | -278) -013 
168 | -430) -027 
224 | 590) -046 
280 | -755 | -069 
336 | -946; -098 
392 |1-142 | +136 
420 |1:249 

434 |broke 


.. Ultimate deflec- 
tion = 1°297. 


ExreRIMENt 3. 


EXPERIMENT 4. 


Broke 3 of an inch 
from the centre. 


Depth of bar, *995||Depth of bar, 1:024 

Breadth of do. 1:005||Breadth of do. 1-000 

Distance between Distance between 
supports, 4 ft. 6 in. || Supports, 2 ft. 3 in. 
i a) aley| a3 
‘3 AA ag 3 |Aaf lag 
5 ; af F tel 
28 | -070 112 | 032! ... 
56 | 188) -007 || 224 | 067) + 
112 | -270| -011)|| 336 | 100, + 
168 | -422| -025 || 448  -137) -006 
224 | -587| :046|| 560 | 177) -009 
280 | :749| -067)| 672 | +215 | -014 
336 | -928)| °095 || 784 | -258) -022 
392 |1:122! -132|| 896 |broke! 

420 |1:223 | . 

448 broke | 

.. Ultimate deflec-||.°. Ultimate deflec- 
tion = 1°315. tion = *297, 

Broke 3 of an inch||Broke 1} of an inch 


from the centre. 


from the centre. 


EXPERIMENT 5. 


Depth of bar, 1:008 
Breadth of do. 
Distance between 


"999 


supports, 2 ft. 3 in, 


a |28/3% 
6p o Ss 
on ad a a 
5 4 
112 | 033) ... 
224 | 071) + 

336 | ‘110; + 

448 | -149| 007 
560 | -189}| :010 
672 | :233| :017 
784 | 280} 023 
896 | :337| :037 
952 |broke 


.. Ultimate deflec- 
tion = *360. 

Broke % an inch 
from the centre. 


Carron No. 3, cold blast, indicates (when viewed with a magnifier) an exceedingly 


close texture, with a rich sparkling grey colour. 
than usual softness, and yields freely either to the chisel or file. 


For No. 3 iron, it possesses more 
I should consider 


it in no way inferior to most No. 2 irons in relation to its power of being worked. 


Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square. 


Experiment 


in. between supports 
Experiment 2nd, bar 4 ft. 6 
in. between supports 
Experiment 3rd, bar 4 ft. 6 
in. between supports 


Experiment 


in. between supports 


Experiment 


in. between supports 


Modulus of 
Specific | elasticity 
gravity. | in lbs. per 


square inch, 


Ist, bar 4 ft.61) 7954 | 16259100 
7135 | 15987300 
ve | 16494500 
Mean| 7094 | 16246966 
4th, bar 2 ft. 3 


bth, bar 2 ft. 8 


eeecee eevee 


Breaking | Ultimate |Product b X 

weight | deflection | % °F power 

(0). (a). of resisting 
impact, 
446:3 1:410 6293 
436:2 1-293 564-0 
450:2 1:307 5884 
444-2 1:336 593-9 
8545 , 3041 | 259-9 
937:9 | +3629 3403 
896-2 3335 300-1 


392 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Tas Le VIII.—Scotch Iron.—Carron No. 3 Pig Iron, Hot Blast. 


ExpERIMeEnt 1. 


Depth of bar, *996 

Breadth of do. 1°002 

Distance between 
supports, 4 ft. 6 in. 


EXPERIMENT 2. 


Depth of bar, 1°006 
Breadth of do. 1°015 
Distance between 

supports, 4 ft. 6 in. 


EXPERIMENT 3. 


Depth of bar, ‘989 
Breadth of do. 1-001 
Distance between 

supports, 4 ft. 6 in. 


a 2 
2 S#|o9 
he ee ate 
2 gBal23 
al Fras 
28 | -068 

56.| 128) + 

112 | -250| -006 
168 | -378| :010 
224 | -519| -020 
280 | -662)| -036 
336 | 809) :052 
392 | -974| :077 
448 |1-142| -106 
476 |1-230 

504 |broke 


.. Ultimate deflec- 
tion = 1°312. 

Broke +} of an inch 
from the centre. 


2\)s¢| 2? 
qe |sa| ss 
+ |8e/88 
= |Zales 
Z as 
| 98 | -067 

56 | -126| ... 
112 | -241| -006 
168 | 371} .O11 
224 | -510| -020 
280 | -647| -033 
336 | -789| -049 
392 | -941| -070 
448 |1-104| -093 
504 |1-276| -129 
532 |1-377 

553 |broke 


.. Ultimate deflec- 
tion = 1°440. 

Broke 3 of an inch 
from the centre. 


2e|66E 

2 |32\es 
ic AF A x 
- 4 
28 | -069 

56 | 1382) + 

112 | +255} -005 
168 | -391)} -013 
224 | 532) -023 
280 | -681) -037 
336 | *8381} 055 
392 |1-:000| -079 
448 |1-174) -110 
476 |1:270 

504 |broke 


.. Ultimate deflec- 
tion = 1°356. 

Broke at the cen- 
tre. 


ExpzRIMENT 4. 


Depth of bar, 1°002 
Breadth of do. 1-002 
Distance between 

supports, 2 ft. 3in. 


Bo). plea 
a |s8|88 
@ |S2(o 
2 Ar Il|AS 
= A 
112| -032 
224| -061 
336 | -097 
448 | +128 
560] 161) + 
672 | -198)| -006 
784 | :232| -010 
896 | -273| -016 
952| -293] ... 
1008 | -318| -022 
1064 | -340 
1120 |broke 


.. Ultimate deflec- 
tion = °362. 

Broke 4 an inch 
from the centre. 


EXPERIMENT 5. 
Depth of bar, +993 
Breadth of do. -998 
Distance between 

supports, 2 ft. 3 in. 


a | 88/88 
3 | B3|3¢ 
Teo aiietos, |g 
3 |82|g8% 
= 4 
112 | -034 
224 | -069 
336 | -100 
448 | -137| + 
560 | -172)| -006 
672 | -208| -009 
784 | -244) -013 
896 | -290) -019 
952 | -312 
1008 |broke 


.. Ultimate deflec- 
tion = °332. 

‘Broke } of an inch 

from the centre. 


Carron No. 3, hot blast, is a harder iron, with less lustre than its predecessor 
the cold blast ; it is also worked with greater difficulty, and produces a harsh, so- 
norous sound under the file. It is an iron well adapted for mixing, and of value in 
heavy castings when used in conjunction with some of the best Welsh irons. 


Results reduced to those of bars 1°00 inch square. 


specitc | ‘elasticity. | Breaking | Ultimate Produer 0768 
Riemaripadarc ce @. @. | ean 
| Experiment Ist, bar 4 ft. 61) 7956 | 17813700 | 507-0 | 1:307 | 662-6 
in. between supports ...... 
Fae Ie ee tate ot] 7056 | 17949900 | 5383 | 1448 | 7795 
emp COR. 17855700 | 514-7 | 1-341 | 690-2 
Mean| 7056 | 17873100 | 520-0 | 1-365 | 710-7 
Pea ee ees ins | 0e7 | 4008 
Ee haw ee Hea a eas 1024-0 | -3297 | 3376 
Mean| ...... ae "10686 +3462 3707 | 


ce iain iil aie 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON, 


Comparative Results of Carron Iron No. 3 


393 


Distance between supports 4 ft. 6 in. and 2 ft. 3 in. 


Strength of Cold Blast Iron. 


446:3° 
436:2 > 444-2 


450-2 


854-5 1 goa. 
=a! } 896-2 


Strength of Hot Blast Iron, Ratio of strengths. 


507-0 
5383 4520-0 1000 1170 
514-7 
11133 ; ; 
ioe ‘of 1068-6 1000 1192 


Se ec are aes ea a a SE TR DSO OUND 


Mean ratio of strengths...... 1000 1181 


Results of products and ratio to resist impact. 


Product of strength by ulti- 
mate deflection in Cold Blast 


Product of strength by ulti- 


mate deflection in Hot Blast Ratio of products, or of 


Teh ane power to resist impact, 
Se a NIE Soe del ON ON 

629:3 662-6 

564-0 + 593-9 779° +7107 1000 1196 

588:4 690-2 

259-9 ” 403-8 : 

340.3 f 300"1 337.6 } 8707 1000: 1205 
Mean ratio of power to sustain impact...... 1000 1201 


394 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Tasie [X.—Scotch Iron.—Muirkirk No.1, Cold Blast. 


ExrERIMENT 1, 


Breadth do. 
Distance between 
supports 4 ft. 6 in. 


et Wigs zt 
| a |eelee 
| a Be oe | 
= 95 | 8H 
| 2 Jes | Bro | 
es Seals As 
Realiae ts. 

28 | -076 

56} °150) + 
112 | :298) -013 
| 168 | -471) -030 
| 224 | -660/ -053 
| 280 | *862) -085 
336 |1:096 | +131 
| 392 |1°339 | -186 
448 |1-650 | -284 
476 |broke 


.. Ultimate de- 
flection = 1°781. 

Broke at the 
centre. 


Depth of bar, 1:015 
1:007 


EXPERIMENT 2. 


‘Depth of bar, 1:049) 
|Breadth do. 


1-025 
Distance between 
supports 4 ft. 6 in. 


é s ms 
fucose 
= | 2o/;/ SE 
~ a 5) 
— 32 oe Fa 
of a. ow 
2 A As 
=e A ) 
28 | -067| ... 
56 | *133| + 
112 | -267|-010 
168 | -42] | -027 
224 | -589 | -049 
280 | -767 | 077 
3836 | -961 | +111 
392 |1:177 |-159 
448 |1-420 | -227 
476 |1:554 

483 |broke 


.. Ultimate de- 
flection = 1°583. 
Broke at the 


centre. 


EXpERIMENT 3: 
Breadth do. 
Distance between 
supports 2 ft. 5 in. 

A S 

el gee 

2 |) Oem ists 

Poy eos o 

E}A [As 
112 | -035 
224 | -076 | 
336 | +117 + 
448 | -160 | -007 
560 | +206 | :010 
672 | -250 | -018 
784 |-309 | -029 
896 |°377 | 045 
952 | +410 | 
1008 |broke! 


.. Ultimate de- 
flection = °440. 
Broke 4 an inch 


EXPERIMENT 4. 


—— 


Depth of bar, 1°013)|Depth of bar, 1°042 
1°003|| Breadth do. 


1°025 
Distance between 
supports 2 ft. 3 in. 


Deflection in 
inches. 
Deflection, 
Load removed, 


| Weight in lbs. 


| 


.. Ultimate de- 
flection = 412. 

Broke = of an 
inchfrom the cen- 


from the centre. 


tre. 


The Muirkirk No. 1 cold blast, isa remarkably fine soft iron, with large, open, 
- and brilliant crystals, of a blueish grey colour ; it presents great regularity in its cry- 
stalline structure, the crystals slightly diminishing in size as they recede from the cen- 
tre. In its working properties, as well as appearance, it is much akin to the Elsicar 
and Low Moor irons, and from its fluidity and strength may be safely used for every 
purpose of casting. 


Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square. 


Product 


Specific Modulus of Breaking Ultimate bX d, or 
ravity. elasticity weight | deflection} power of 
8 in lbs, (6). (@. resisting 
impact, 
ns i oat bar 4ft.6in- 1) 7959 | 14050600 | 4588 | 1-808 | 8295 
Experiment 2nd bar Aft 61) ruzy_ | ra0seso0 | 4382 | 1860 | n08 
Mean...| 71138 | 14003550 | 443:5 1-734 7701 
Experiment 3rd, bar 2ft. 3) os eeceseeseeeee 9793 | -4457| 436-5 
in. between supports ...... [70000 
Experiment 4th, bar 2f. 3) od seeeseeens 8806 | +4293} 3780 
in. between supports ...... f [0 
Meatiscdlidccoseiulintewted etwowed 929-9 4375 | 407-2 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 


395 


TasBuLE X.—Muirkirk No.1 Pig Iron, Hot Blast. 


ExrERIMent 1. 
Depth of bar, 1:015 
Breadth do. 1:010 
Distance between 

supports 4 ft. 6 in, 
Weight of bar 5 ft. 

long. 


Deflection in 
inches. 
Deflection, 
Load removed, 


: | Weight in lbs. 


‘079 
160 
326 | « 
507 |° 
700 | « 
909 | « 
1:14] 
1-428 |: 
1571 
broke 


.. Ultimate de- 
flection = 1°668. 
Broke 23 inches 


ExrERIMent 2. | 
Depth of bar, 1025 
Breadth do. 1°035 
Distance between 

supports 4ft. 6in. 
Weight of bar 5 ft. 

long. 


é |g .% 
a |ge|as 
2 |s2/3868 
Ba |}3e]er 
a ee 
pia |P8 
28 | 069! ... 
56 | 144) + 
112 | -287)-011 
168 | :445 | -021 
224 | +610] -036 
280 | :780| -059 
336 | :978 | 090 
392 |1:190 | -1385 
420 |1:310 

448 |broke 


.. Ultimate de- 
flection = 1°412. 


‘Depth of bar, 1-020 


ExpERIMENT 3. 


Breadth do. 1:020 
Distance between 
supports 2ft. 3in. 


3 a Pe 

ga /2°e 
2 /22\38 

oOo ~ 
# |e |3¢ 
= |A qi 
112 043° a 
224 | :090 | 005 
336 | -138 | -008 
448 | -185 | 010 
560 | -231 | -015 
672 | -289 | -022 
784 | 357 | -039 
812 |broke 


.. Ultimate de- | 


flection = ‘371. 
Broke $ an inch 


Broke 23 inches 


from the centre. 


EXPERIMENT 4. 


Depth of bar, 1-035 
Breadth do. 1029 
Distance between 
supports 2.ft. Zin. 


cf a 
e ja |fs 
112 |-037 |... 
224 |-073| + 
336 | -112 | -005 
448 | +152 | -008 
560 |-190 |-O11 
672 | -230 | -014 
784 |-277 | -020 
896 | -328 | -031 
952 | +354 

1008 |broke 


-o Ultimate de- 
flection = -378. 

Broke at the 
centre. 


from the centre. || from the centre. 

This iron is inferior to the Muirkirk No. 1 cold blast; it is what is technically 
called Kishie, or full of a great variety of rich crystals sparkling in the midst of a duller 
and more compact mass ; an appearance which is invariably present in irons of great 
fluidity and richness. 

In the turning and filing process it is superior to the Carron No. 2 cold blast, and 
equal in every other respect, except strength, to any of the former irons we have ex- 
perimented upon. 


Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square. 


Modulus of | Breaking | Ultimat i apa 
5 odulus 0: reaking® ‘imate | 5d, 
pens elasticity weight | deflection Hee a 
EE AVL in Ibs, (0). (d), resisting 
impact. 
Experiment Ist, bar 4 ft. 6 5 , 
in. between supports ...... 6948 Tea 00 2209 | POae M75 
Experiment 2nd, bar 4 ft. 6 2. 4 t 
eros aia cele } 6959 | 18783100 | 4120 | 1447 | 5961 
Mean...| 6953 | 18294400 |} 417-9 | 1:570 656°8 
Experiment 3rd, bar 2 ft. 3 : A : 
Rather wont aint Hustonesit titer sekeas 765°2 3784 289-5 
Experiment 4th, bar 2 ft. 3 : i ‘i 
in. between supports aeasee ae So sari —_ iy a 
Mean...|  seveve aineies's 839°8 +3848 323-6 


396 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Comparative Results of Muirkirk Iron No.1. 


Distance between supports 4 ft. 6 in. and 2 ft. 3 in. 


a i 
Strength ofthe Cold Blast Iron,| Strength of the Hot Blast Iron,| Ratio of the Strengths. 


458-8 ) Mean 


423°8 ) Mean 


428-2 [ 443°5 412-0 f 417°9 1000 : 942 

979°3 ; 765-2 ; ai 

380.8 $9299 Gta } 839°8 1000: 912 
Mean ratio of strength...... 1000 : 927 


The products and ratio to resist impact. 


Product of streugth by ulti- 
mate deflection in Cold Blast 


Product of strength by ulti- 
mate deflection in Hot Blast 


Ratio of products, or of 
power to resist impact. 


Iron, Tron, 
ep \ 770-1 a } 656-8 1000: 852 
4365 ; 289°5 ‘ \ 
3780 ; 4072 357.8 $828 1000: 794 
Mean ratio of power to sustain impact...... 1000 : 823 


EEE eee eee ee 


Modulus of elasticity in ths. for a hase of an inch square. 


Cold Blast Iron...... 14,050,600 
IDIGUOs teres saecettesa=s 13,956,500 
Mean...... 14,003,550 
Hot Blast Iron...... 12,805,700 
[DattOwecddetsaseacesses 13,783,100 
Mean...... 13,294,400 


Effects of Time. 


In former experiments on the transverse strength of cast tron, 
it has been assumed that the elasticity remained perfect to the 
extent of rd at least of the breaking weight. This assumption, 
which has been attempted to be proved by Tredgold, has gained 
considerable credence ; but so far as I can perceive there ap- 
pears to be no ground for such an opinion. In the earlier ex- 
periments on the subject of hot and cold blast irons, it was ob- 
served by Mr. Hodgkinson that in some cases the elasticity was 
considerably injured with 4th or jth of the breaking weight. 
This fact was of such importance as to induce me to pay consi- 
derable attention to the set in the preceding tables,and also to 
note the defects of elasticity in those that follow, up to the time 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 397 


of the weights becoming permanent upon the bars. From the 
methods thus adopted it will be seen that the value of the 
set has been given with the deflections at regular intervals of 
weights, from the commencement of the experiment to the time 
of fracture, andthe connection between the weights, deflections, 
and set, will therefore in all probability be better observed. 

The early period at which the elasticity became injured caused 
in addition to the above an extended series of experiments, to 
determine whether such injury to the elasticity would not (with 
the weight continued) ultimately break the bar. This became 
a debatable and very important question between Mr. Hodgkin- 
son and myself, the one contending for time, and the other for 
a permanent state of elasticity in the ratio of the loads and the 
forces respectively. 

The inquiry therefore was, to what extent can cast iron be 
loaded, or how much would it permanently bear without en- 
dangering its security? This was in reality a question of great 
interest, one which involved important considerations, such as 
the stability of bridges, warehouses, factories, and many other 
erections to which cast iron is applied, and which depends al- 
most entirely upon our knowledge of its ductility and strength. 

It assuredly must be of importance to know that a material 
of such value, and so extensively used in almost every branch 
of art, can be trusted, and that we may with safety depend upon 
its security throughout the endless variety of forms and strains 
to which it is subjected. 

Cast iron has hitherto been considered a brittle, and by many 
persons an insecure material; yet, notwithstanding the distrust 
and suspicion with which it was viewed, it still continues to 
increase in demand, and that toa great extent, in most countries 
where the arts are cultivated. Every inquiry therefore which 
tends to exhibit its peculiar properties as respects strength, 
ductility, &c., must be regarded as an additional step towards 
a greater degree of security in its application. Under these 
impressions the following experiments were instituted. 

Five bars of cold, and five of hot blast, Coed-Talon No. 2 
iron, cast to be one inch square, were selected, and having loaded 
them with different weights, with their ends supported on props 
4 feet 6 inches asunder, they were left in this position, to de- 
termine how long they would sustain the loads without breaking. 

It is now upwards of 15 months since the bars were charged, 
and if we are to judge from the hardihood displayed in their re- 
sistance to the load, there is every chance of a long and pro- 
tracted experiment. In fact, there is every probability of the 
experiments outliving the experimenter. 


398 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


TasBLe XI. 


Table of deflections as exhibited with permanent weights of 
280 lbs. suspeaded from the centre of bars of cold and hot 
blast Coed-Talon iron, cast to be one inch square, and left 
to determine the effect produced on each bar after given in- 
tervals of time. 


Distance between supports 4 ft. 6 in. 


| ExpERIMENT 1. Ss ExpERIMENT 2 
—_— * au — 

Coldblastiron No.2 & &  ||Hot blast iron No. 2) 
Depth of bar, 1°050) 3 > . |\Depth of bar, 1°050 
Breadth de. 1°050) 5 § |'Breadth do. 1°010 
) 3 3 &é ar a . 4 
i gldelezl 3 |88i & | eel ofl | 

Slezies| = |eel s (Seles 

= co.) 5 =] oS es 3's o& 

= o Ox Q = PH] Fa | ee 

& | BA) ES 5 ‘o | 38/55 | 

2 | gs|ag a | 2 |€e|Az 

EF i6s8|7A]| 1897. ack tire 

BGO FAG see sili 'wevesenany, |laetns 56 | °153 | .... 

112} -309 |) *020 3) cnisis. oe. Alpentscs 112 | -337| 022 

IGE 499 WP ec dess csssnems [coum 168 | 548]..... 

224°) +708 |°075 || .....006. | sence 224 | -784| -088 |The permanent weight, 

280 |-916 |*108 || March9th | 49° || 280 |1-043| -182 || 2801bs. was fixed sta- 

280 |-930 | ... || Do. 11th)...... || 280 |1-064|...... || tionary upon the cold 

280 | -932 | ... Do. 17th) ...... 280 |1:067 |...... || blast bar at 6 o’clock 
| 280 | -930 | ... || April 15th) 47 |) 280 {1-078 |...... || p.m., March 8th 1837, 
| 280 |-932 | ... || May 3st; 62 || 280 |1-082)...... and an equal weight 
| 280 | 937 |... || Aug. 22nd) 70 | 280 /|1-086|...... || wasleftto remain up- 
; 280 | -942 | ... || Nov. 18th) 45 || 280 |1-083]......|) on the hot blast bar 
| 280 | 941 | ... || Jan.8,1838) 38 || 280 |1-086)...... on the following day 
| 280 |-945 |... || March 12th| 51 | 280 |1-091| ...... at 10 a.m. 
; 280 | 968 ane | June 23rd} 78 || 280 |1:107|...... From observations taken 


ee a SEPP A Fen EE ee a |e ee a eS ee RG Sy rai hy |: 
| the mean deflection for 15 months was found to be, for cold blast -936, increase 
004, for hot blast, 1:079, increase *012. 

I 


Results in the preceding Table, showing the progressive and 
increased ratio of deflections from March \\th, 1837 to June 
23rd, 1838. j 


Cold Blast Iron Hot Blast Iron Sdbze 
deflection in ’| Date of Obset- | Temp.| “deflection in | Ratio of increase 
ah as) vation, } inhties of deflections. 
1-684 March 11th, 1837)|......... 1 ci a Wi an aae 
1-824 June 23rd, 1838|| 78° 1107 | ORAL See 
|_——$ | --+—_—— Penns OEE See) Were. Pare 
| 033 | Increase hddivabs 043 1000 : 1303 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 399 

From the above it appears, that a progressive increase, in the 
deflections of the bars, has taken place, since the time they were 
charged, in the ratio of 1000, for the cold blast, to 1303, for the 
hot blast. 

The hot blast bar in these experiments being more deflected 
than the cold blast, indicates that the particles are more extended 
and compressed in the former iron, with the same weight, than 
in the latter. This excess of deflection may in some degree 
account for the rapidity of increase, which it will be observed 
is considerably greater in the hot than in the cold blast bar. 

The next experiment was from the same metal, cast as before 
into rectangular bars 1 inch square, and loaded with additional 
weights, amounting to 336 lbs. on each bar. 


TaBLeE XII. 
Table of deflections as exhibited with permanent weights of 


a 


| EXPERIMENT 1. 


| 


EXPERIMENT 2. 


336 lbs. suspended from the centre of bars of cold and hot 
blast Coed-Talon iron, cast to be one inch square, and left 
to determine the effect produced on each bar after given inter- 
vals of time. 
Distance between the supports 4 ft. 6 in. 


oe 
| : Sa ; s i 
cold Blast Iron No. 2 3 # ||Cold Blast Iron No. 2 
|Breadth of bar, 1020 @ S . ||Breadth of bar, 1°020 
Depth do, —-1"030 E 3 & |[Depth do, —1-040 
_ 
2 ® 5 4 
* os =} oh . Oo: 4 
2/23 Ze 6 =| 2 Ba |e8 at 
S4/58 Fe 5 Bao) > 
AEisaise2 * he qa |oeeg/ee 
a g2/% § BS me - SAIS SE 
Bee \e2 Be is | eal ee 
a) BT 1 oO a &o res) | a 
D ® 3 = o as Ba | os 
o 238 =) S = o 2s /|A = 
E |}85| 8 |issz «182s. er ese | oe 
MME EH ase. || a cveas | abbece BG |)*1601.20... The weight, 336 Ibs., was left 


eeececees | aencee 
seeeee 
seeereces | coeses 
seeessese «=| sencee 


seeeeeses =| seceee 


March 6th 
Do. 9th 
Do. 11th 
Do. 17th 

April 15th 

May 3lst 

Aug. 22nd 

Noy. 18th 

1838 

Jan. 8th | 88 

March 12th! 51 

June 23rd | 78 


seneee | eanses 


permanent on the cold blast bar 
on Friday, March 3rd, at six 
o’clock p.m. The same weight 
(336 lbs.) was fixed stationary 
upon the hot blast bar on Tues- 
day,March7th,at11o’clock,a.m. 

When the weights, 336 lbs. 
were placed on the cold blast 
bars, after the elasticity had 
been taken, the deflection in- 
creased from 1221 to 1°267. 

On the hot blast bar the de- 
flection increased with the re- 
storation of the weights from 
1:374 to 1:397. 

The mean deflection under 
various temperatures is, for 
the cold blast 1-280, increase 
009 ; for the hot blast 1-486, 


increase *024. 


400 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Results in the preceding Table, showing the progressive and 
increased ratio of deflections from the 11th of March, 1837, 
to 23rd of June, 1838. 


ss Sie oc Sd 2 SS ES 
1 tI | Hot Blast Iron ey 
Sena tea i. ™ | Date of her: Fae deflection in ” | Ratio of increase of 
inches. ee inches. deflections. 
1:270 March] 1th,1827))......... 1-461 
1-316 June 3rd, 1838)} 78° 1-538 
“046 Increase, = |\seccesses 077 1000 : 1673 


The ratio of increase is here much greater than what is indi- 
cated by the lesser weights—280 Ibs.—in Table, No. XI.- The 
progression towards fracture (providing we assume a progress- 
ive yielding in that direction) is advancing at a quicker rate in 
this case than with the lighter loads; consequently the resist- 
ing powers are becoming gradually weaker. We must however 
observe, that the temperature of the air in the room where the 
bars are placed was at 78° when the last observations were made, 
whereas the temperature was only 46° at the time the bars were 
first loaded. This difference in the temperature will give rather 
greater deflections, from the expansion produced on the bars in 
a medium of 78°. In confirmation of this opinion I would beg 
to refer to the observations of November 18th, when the atmo- 
sphere of the room was at 45°; the deflections had then decreased 
from 1:288 to 1*286 in the cold blast iron, and from 1°504 to 
1°499 in the hot blast iron. 


| 
: 
: 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 401 


TasLe XIII. 


Table of deflections as exhibited with permanent weights of 
392 lbs. suspended from the centre of bars of Cold and Hot 
Blast Coed-Talon Iron, cast to be one inch square and left to 
determine the effect produced on each bar after given intervals 


of time. 


Distance between supports 4 feet 6 inches. 


EXPERIMENT 1. eg. ExprERIMENT 2. 
ae c ) eaeay 
Cold Blast Iron No.2 3 = | Hot Blast Iron No. 2 
Depth of bar, 1°030 3 3 Depth of bar, 1°050 
Breadth do. —-1°020 4 2 @ | Breadth do. 1°000 
a 2S 
o. ; co) se of ; 
Behe, ee lray Ser aswel “eae bee 
. aS = 20 Q 4 ie ors oo 
| ae > | we = Re eae | Gates 
.o0 os 2S 5 a= os Se 
5 | 28 |A& = o|g8 |AS 
= | oO J |/1857 & 1838. EL ro 4 
: ——— oe | | | | | — = 
| 56 153 | 005 56 | -150 .n99 || Lhe weight, 392 Ibs., was fixed 
112 | -334 |-022 112 | -333 | -023 : 
| stationary on the cold blast 
168 | ‘541 oo 168 | ‘551 | ... bar on Friday, March 3rd, at 
224 | -769 |-089 224 | :775 | :086|| 12 o'clock, and the same 
280 |1°013 |... 280 |1:029 | ... weight was placed upon the 
336 | 1-294 |-199 336 |1:311.| -188}) hot blast bar at 11 o’clock, 
392 |1:616 |-292 392 | 1-635 | -272|| a.m., on the following day. 
392 | 1-684 March 6th ple 392 |1:715 Barsesuiette fone i 
1:69 : e deflection and defects o 
Ee eee ee 
{ eflection had increased in 
a Pat ye rth 47° = thee the cold blast from 1°616 to 
392 |1-725 May 3ist| 62° || 392 |1-775 EN tid ibe ie ha ga ie 
1°661 in the hot blast. 
392 | 1:737 Aug. 2nd 70° 392 | 1-783 Mean deflection throughout all 
392 | 1-724 ae 18th} 45° || 392 | 1-773 the changes of temperature 
1838. in 15 months— 
392 | 1-722 Jan. 8th] 38° || 392 | 1-773 For the cold blast 1°742, in- 
392 | 1-801 March 12th} 51° |} 392 | 1-784 crease 048; hot blast 1-777, 
392 | 1-824 June 23rd} 78° || 392 | 1-803 Increase *014. 


23rd, 1838 


Cold Blast Iron, 


Hot Blast Iron, 


Results in the preceding Table, showing the progressive and in- 
creased ratio of deflections from March \\th, 1837, to June 


detcwion in| Def er | rap,| “detecion tn” | Raina irae of 
1-684 March 6th 1837 ||......... PGMs cee is, ue a ee 
1-824 June 23rd 1838 |} 78° WSS see keh ee 
140 Increase. _||......... 088 1000 : 628 
VOL. vi. 1837. 2D 


402 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


On comparing the above with Table No. XII, preceding it, 
there will be found a greater proportionate deflection in both 
the cold and hot blast bars than is observable with the lighter 
weights of 336 lbs., and in both instances the deflection is greater 
in the hot than in the cold blast. The same is the case in ex- 
periment 2nd of the next Table, where the deflection indicated 
by 448 lbs. is less than what is exhibited on the hot blast with 
336 lbs., being as 1°437 to 1°803. This may be accounted for 
by the bars which were newly cast containing, in all proba- 
bility, a greater proportion of carbon, and consequently having 
more ductility than those in Tables No. XII and No. XIV. 

The ratio of increase in the deflections is much higher in the 
cold blast iron than the hot; and notwithstanding the silent 
and apparently progressive approach towards rupture, there is 
every appearance of a long and tedious experiment. It cannot 
however be doubted that fracture will sooner take place in the 
cold than the hot blast, as the former is advancing to that point 
with greater rapidity, or in the ratio of 1000 to 628. We may 
therefore expect the bar from the cold blast iron to be the first 
to give way, and probably about the time when the deflection 
verges on two inches. 


a 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 


of time. 


TABLE XIV. 


Table of deflections as exhibited with permanent weights of 
448 lbs. suspended from the centre of bars of cold and hot 
blast Coed-Talon iron, cast to be one inch square, and left to 
determine the effect produced on each bar after given intervals 


Distance between supports 4 feet 6 inches. 


403 


ExrErIMENt 1. 


Cold Blast Iron 
No. 2. 


EXPERIMENT 2. 


——a 


Cold Blast Iron 
No. 2, 


Depth ofbar 1-000 | Depth of bar 1:020 


Breadth do. 1:010 


Deflection, 
Load removed. 


Weight in lbs. 
Observed deflec- 
tion in inches. 


. 


336)1-262 | 
392/1:556 
448/1-904 


448}1-964 

448/2-005 

448/2-005 

448/2-010} ... 

448 2-014 broke 
aftér sustaining the 
load 37 days. 

The deflection in- 
creased from 1°904 
ito 1°964 after the 
defects of elasticity 
were last taken. 


404 


Breadth do. 1:050 


Deflection, 


Weight in lbs. 
Observed deflec- 
tion in inches. 
Load removed. 


pie 
Dm 
S: 


578 |-039 
754)... 
336} -934 |-087 
8392/1131] ... 
448}1°361 |-192 


448}1-410 
448/1-413 
448)1-413 
448/1-413 


448|1-422 
448}1-424 
448}1-438 
448/1-431 


448/1-430 
448/1:439 
448)1°457 


Date of Observation. 
‘Temperature. 


1837. 
March 6 
ves WO 49° 
1] 
17 


15| 47° 
31] 62° 
22! 70° 
18) 45° 


Jan. 8} 38° 
March 12) 51° 
June 23} 78° 


Cold Blast Iron, | 
sie Date of Obser- 
cs aa bse vation. | Temp. 
Experiment 5. 
1-410 March 6th, 1837. 
1-457 June 23rd, 1838.|| 70° 
047 Increase 


oe 
2D2 


EXPERIMENTS. 
Hot Blast Iron 
No. 2. 
Depth ofbar 1:040 
Breadth do. 1:010 


tion in inches. 
Deflection, 
Load removed. 


Weight in lbs. 
Qhaeeved fefea: 


So. 
: Boe 
- oe 


168} °579| . 
224) -829 |-086 
DSO owas. 
336/1°419 |-208 
3892 broke with 


this weight. 


Hot Blast Iron, 
deflection in 
inches. 


seen ene eeenerenee 


Remarks. 


The permanent weights, 


448 \bs., were placed, in 
experiment J, upon the 
cold blast bar on Satur- 
day, the 4th March, at 
4 o'clock p.m., 1837, 
and the same weights 
became stationary on 
the cold blast bar, in 
experiment 2, on the 
previous day, at 4 
o'clock p.m. 

‘In experiment 3, 392 lbs. 
broke the bar; several) 
other bars of hot blast 
were tried, but they suc- 
cessively broke on lay-| 
ing on the weights, 448 
bs. 

‘Mean deflection for 15 
| months, ending 23rd 
| June, was for cold blast 
1-431, increase 0°28. 


Results in the preceding Table, showing the progressive and in- 
creased ratio of deflections from March Gth, 1837, to June 
23rd, 1838. 


Ratio of increase 
of deflections. 


seen e eee eeeneereee 


404 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


The greater degree of weakness here exhibited in the hot blast 
iron than the cold renders our comparative experiments in this 
Table defective ; several bars were tried in succession, but they 
separately gave way, some on laying on the load, 448 lbs., and 
others after supporting it for a few seconds. 

In experiment Ist, Table XIV., it will be noticed that a bar 
from the cold blast iron, after being charged with the full load, 
448 lbs., continued to support it for a period of 37 days; this 
was not however accomplished without signs of weakness, as 
will be seen from the progressive increase which took place in 
the deflections from the 6th to the 17th of March; and also 
from observed discrepancies sometime previous to its rupture. 
In making these statements it must be observed, that the bar 
in experiment 1st was thinner than any of the others, and had 
borne for thirty-seven days a weight greater than had broken 
bars of the same size in previous experiments upon the Coed- 
Talon iron, when the weights were laid on without loss of time. 


Abstract of comparative increase and ratio of deflections on the 
whole bars from March 6th, 1837, to June 23rd, 1838. 


Cold Blast Iron, | Hot Blast Iron, 


: A Ratio of 
increase of deflec-| increase of deflec- : 
tion in inches. | tion in inches. | Seflections. 
Increase of deflection, Table XI. 033 9043) be seeceeeenens 
Increase of deflection, Table XII. 046 077 witidhetamesnes 
Increase of deflection, Table XIII. 140 O88 it ieee ewes 
Increase of deflection, Table XIV. O47." SD Miteees Mr le erweeeaaeeens 
Mean... 066 “069 1000 :1045 


The mean increase of deflections on the whole bars is there- 
fore ‘066 for the cold blast, and ‘069 for the hot blast, being in 
the ratio of 1000 to 1045. 

The interest which experiments of this kind may be expected 
to excite, and the nature as well as the value of the material on 

_which they are here made, will, it is hoped, prove an induce- 
ment for extended investigation on this subject. 

There cannot be a doubt that the phenomenon of cohesive 
force is strongly developed in the preceding tables; the minute 
crystalline particles of the bars are acted upon by loads, which, 
in the heavier weights, are almost sufficient to produce fracture : 
yet fracture is not (except in one instance) produced, and to what 
extent the power of resistance may yet be carried is left for time 
to determine. It nevertheless appears from the present state of 
the bars (which indicate a slow but progressive increase in the 


EEE eee 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 405 


deflections) that we must at some period arrive at a point beyond 
their bearing powers ; or otherwise to that position which indi- 
cates a correct adjustment of the particles in equilibrium with ~ 
the load. Which of the two points we have in this instance at- 
tained is difficult to determine: sufficient data are however ad- 
duced to show that the weights are considerably beyond the 
elastic limit*, and that cast iron will support loads to a much 
greater extent than what has usually been considered safe, or 
beyond that point where a permanent set takes place. But in 
whatever way this may be determined, it is obvious the pre- 
ceding experiments give greater indications of strength than 
has generally been supposed cast iron would do; and should 
the bars continue to support the loads for a few years longer, 
there cannot exist a doubt as to the security of this metal 
under applications hitherto unknown; and the same may be 
said of other materials. 

In the 14th Table we shall find inch square bars loaded on 
the middle, within a few pounds of weights sufficient to break 
them ; we shall also find the bars considerably bent, and the 
resisting powers in full operation to sustain the load. Now the 
question to be determined by this experiment is, the nature of 
this resistance ; and to show in the first instance whether the re- 
sisting power of the extended particles below, and the powers of 
the condensed ones operating above, are sufficient at all times 
ad infinitum to support the load ; or whether those particles, in- 
stead of being united (as we suppose) with a permanent force, 
nicely balanced at all points of resistance, are not absolutely 
giving way; and by slow, though imperceptible degrees, be- 
coming hourly weaker, until the cohesive power is entirely de- 
stroyed and rupture takes place. 

It is not my intention in this place to offer any opinion upon. 
the cohesive properties of matter, but simply to inquire how far 
the bearing powers of cast iron can be depended upon. 

It is evident from these experiments that both sorts of hot and 
cold blast iron possess that power in a high degree ; and we need 
only refer to the experiments for examples to show the patient 
tenacity with which so heavy a load is supported. At first sight 
it would appear, that the heavier loaded bars were progressively 
giving way, as the deflections continue to increase since the 
loads were permanently fixed; this defect is however not more 
conspicuous in the bars supporting 448 lbs., than in those sup- 


* The elastic limit is that point where bodies under strain lose the power to 
restore themselves when the load is removed ; a property which is strongly ex- 
emplified in cast iron. It has been considered by many that materials cannot 
be loaded with safety beyond that point. 


406 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


porting 392lbs.; the deflection is even greater in the latter, 
arising in all probability from a greater degree of ductility in 
* the bars. 

I hope shortly to induce my friend Mr. Hodgkinson, Profess- 
or Barlow, or some other able mathematician, to investigate this 
subject, and by close analysis to demonstrate those truths, so 
essential to the interests of all engaged in the use of the metals, 
but more particularly in reference to the security oi the public 
at large. 


Effects of Temperature. 


When the multiplicity of objects to which cast iron is ap- 
plied, and the innumerable situations in which it is placed, is 
considered, I may venture to state, that in every work of which 
cast iron forms the whole or a part of the structure, it is more 
or less liable to change. The rapidity with which it imbibes, 
and the facility with which it parts with caloric, is in itself a 
sufficient consideration for the labour I have bestowed upon 
these inquiries. 

The present investigation would have been less satisfactory 
had the experiments on the effects of temperature been omitted ; 
and I trust, the annexed Tables, which exhibit hot and cold blast 
iron under various gradations of heat, will not be without their 
uses in the future application of this material. 

Rondelet, in his ‘* Traite de Bdtir,’”’ has given and collected 
results from experiments, made by himself and others, on the 
expansion of bodies under the effects of heat; but I am not 
aware of any that have been made to ascertain the transverse 
strength of metallic substances under the various changes of 
temperature. Itis well known that the effects of heat upon iron 
have not escaped the notice of philosophers; but I believe no 
writers on this subject have conducted their experiments in any 
way analogous to those now under consideration. 

The celerity with which heat passes through the metals, and 
the frequent recurrence of iron being the medium of communi- 
cation between fluids and this powerful agent, it is not surpri- 
sing that the changes of temperature thus induced should cause 
such visible indications of deterioration in the material. Gas 
retorts, and all those vessels exposed to the alternate changes 
of the heating and cooling process, are considerably injured by 
the expansion and contraction of the parts; and no doubt the 
destruction of the metals is much accelerated when they are 
worked up to a high and excessive temperature. Probably 
steam-boilers are not so much injured as those above-men- 
tioned, as the temperature is kept moderately low by the water 


i i 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 407 
they contain, which seldom exceeds 212°. The same causes are, 
nevertheless, in operation, and must continue to be so under the 
varied influences of caloric action. 

Had time permitted, it was my intention to have pursued the 
experiments on temperature under a much greater degree of 
form and change than is here exhibited. For example, it might 
have been desirable not only to load the bars until they were 
broken, but also to charge them with different weights, and, by 
alternate heating and cooling, to have ascertained how far the 
bars so charged were affected by the change. Such an extension 
of the experiments might have led to the development of some 
new feature in the actions thus produced, and that more parti- 
cularly by the introduction, abstraction, re-introduction, &c. of 
the different increments of heat. As it is, the bars were all 
broken at the temperatures indicated in the tables. 


TaBLE XV. 
Coed-Talon, Cold Blast. 


To determine the relative strengths of Coed-Talon Hot and Cold Blast Iron, 


to resist a transverse strain under different degrees of temperature. 


No. 2 Iron. No. 2 Iron. No. 2 Iron. No. 2 Iron. No. 2 Iron, 
Experiment 1. Experiment 2. Experiment 3. Experiment 4. Experiment 5. 
Depth of bar, 1:068|Depth of bar, 1:020) Depth of bar, 1:008||Depth ofbar, 1°006)|Depth of bar, 1:038 
Breadth of do. 1°024||Breadih of do. 1:005|| Breadth of do. +996 ||Breadth of do. 1°021|/Breadth of do. 1°023 
{Distance between ||Distance between || Distance between ||Disiance between ||Distance between 
supports 2 ft. 3 in. || supports 2 ft. Sin. || supports 2ft. Sin. |) supports 2 ft. Sin. supports 2ft. Sin. 
Pee se Sea a) sere ey el a) eS sl eae dis 
V2/83| 8 lal S/8e] 2] a) 2) 8s] 2) alleles! slaleles)] 2] ¢ 
Vees a |e) Slee] & | el See] | ee se] & | el e|es| & | & 
NEI AIRE PA REA FRR TEA Pe eA Pam 
112) 034) ... 126°) 112) -041 28°!/112)-040 | + |32°)|112) -035 32°}}112) 034 114° 
_ |224) -071)-007 | ... || 224] -090|-009 | ... || 224] 076 |-007 |... ||224) 074 we. [224] 072 a 
_ {336} -101)-010) ... || 336) -1382)-011 | ... ||336)-117 |-010].., 1336) "114 | 4 |... 1836] "104 |-005] ... 
{448} +149) ... |... || 448]-187) ... |... 448] -156 +013]... |l448! -151 |-007 |... |/448]-144 |-008 |113° 
{560} 189-017 | ... || 560) -242|-027 | ... || 560} -197 |-018] ... 1560) -204 |-012 | ... 560) -182 |-013] ... 
672) -224)-031 | ... || 672) 310) ... |... ||672|-244 |-024 | ... |]672) -252 |-021]... 672/224 |-019) ... 
784) 271/030 784} -382|-053 | ... ||784| -296 |-035 | ... ||784) 311 |-033 | ... [1784] -274 |-028 |112° 
896) 341 896| -461)-082 | ... || 896] 352 |-049 | ... 1896) *374 |-051 |... ||896|(824) broke 
9Ajbroke| .., 938)broke! ,,, 


.*. Ultimate deflec- 
tion = °385.—This 
bar was broken in 


.. Ultimate deflec- 
tion = ‘487. — This 


bar 
the 


« 1952|(-380)|broke] ... 


This bar was broken 
when buried in 
snow. 


was broken in 


4 r 
open air. Di ac 


980|(-420)}broke| ... 


This bar was broken 
when buried 


in 


Broken in water. 


The microscopic appearance of this iron will be found at No, I. Table, on the 
transverse strain, 


408 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square, and 2 feet 
3 inches between the supports. 


Experiment Ist, No. 2 iron 
Experiment 2nd, No 


Experiment 3rd, No. 
Experiment 4th, No. 


Experiment 5th, No. 


No. 2 Iron. 
Experiment 1. 


Depth of bar, 1:056 | 


Breadth of do. 1:004 
Distance between 


supports 2 ft. 5 in. | 


Weight in lbs. 
Deflection in 
inches. 
Permanent set. 


112/030} .. 
224|-069} + 
336}'108 |-008 | .. 
448}-150] ... 
560}-199 |-018 
O72)25 1]. .6 lao 
784/314 |039 | ... 
896\broke| ,.. - 


.. Ultimate deflec-| 


tion =*366.—This: 
bar was broken 


Temp. Fahr. 


. {16° 

.. || 2241-075 
| 336|-120 
... |448}-166 
... |560}-220 


during intense 
frost. 


» Ds chee 


je sence 


o 

5 | Specific | Modulus | Breaking | Ultimate pd 

= | gravit of weight | deflection : 

o | 8 y ae 5 power of 

= elasticity.| (0). (42). | resisting 

fs impact. 
-+|26°} 6955 {12994400} 851 ‘All 349°8 
sVASCs) iendons 12603700) 897 “4967 | 445-6 

6955 12799050) 874 4538 | 397-7 

-| 82°] 6-955 13506700) 940-7 | °383 360°3 
aebBOalle- ducers 15148200) 958-5 422 4045 
|... | 6955 |14827450} 949°6 | -402 382-4 


TABLE XVI. 


14168000 


812-9 


Coed-Talon, Hot Blast. 


No. 2 Iron. 
Experiment 2. 


Depth of bar, 1:030 

Breadth of do. 1:010 

Distance between 
supports 2 ft. 3 in. 


Weight in lbs. 
Deflection in 
inches. 
Permanent set. 
| Temp. Fahr. 


112)-035 


. = 
: OS 
[e) 


ai 
‘008 |... 
020}... 
672|-292| ... | oo» 
784)-351 |'045 |... 
882jbroke| .., |.. 


.. Ultimate deflec- 
tion= 402. 
Broken in the 


open air. } 


No. 2 Iron. 
Experiment 2. 


Depth of bar, 1°033 


No. 2 Iron. 
Experiment 4. 


Depth of bar, 1020) 


336 


273-1 


No. 2 Iron. 
Experiment 5. 


Depth of bar, 1:006 


Breadth of do. 1:012 || Breadth of do. 1:010!' Breadth of do. 1:009| — 
Distance between Distance between ||Distance between 
supports 2 ft.3in. || supports 2 ft.3in. || supports 2 ft. 3 in. 
ais o| si} 2]. r} : || 2] 8 ole 
Bag] 21a Shee bie el al eee 
£/8¢/ 8/5) 5/.88) 8 /a| 8] 8] 8/6 
2/88) s+ 2) 83) 2] el Si es) | ¢ 
‘oo le&| § |] Ss] elas | § |] €] les! s/s 
vo Lv a oD o Qo >} Oo a ov a oO 
5s |A 7a ee | A PFE oe |= A a, |e 
112) -036 | + |82°)|112) 036 32°!/112| -037 | ... |85° 
224/-075 | 006)... ||224| 074 | + |... ||224)-077 | + |... 
336|°114 |:010} ... |/836) 114 |-005 | ..- |/336}-123 |-007 |... 
448-155 |-016) ... |/448) -154 |-009 448/170 }|-013) ... 
560) -203 | -022) ... ||560) -202 |-014 560) +223 |-022) .. 
672} -246 | :031) ... ||672) +252 |-024 | ... ||672| 277 |031| ... 
784} -304 | -041) ... ||784) 312 |-039 |... 1784) 348 |-051 |84° 
896) -363 | -054)... |/896) 381 |-060 | --- |/896)(-419) broke 
1008 |(-422) broke} ... | 952 |(-415)}brokel ... | 
This bar was broken || This bar wasbroken 
when buried in when buried in Broken in water. 
snow. snow. 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 


409 


Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square, and 2 fi. 6 in. 
between the supports. 


Experiment Ist, No. 
Experiment 2nd, No. 


Experiment 3rd, No. 
Experiment 4th, No. 


Experiment 5th, No. 


seeeee 


lot eeeee 


ences 


Temperature: 


eee] cee 


Specific 
gravity. 


Modulus | Breaking 
of weight in 
elasticity.| lbs. (6). 


14267500} 823-10 


13723500 
14283200 


14003350 


933-4 
906-0 


14500000 


15538300) 800-29 


14902900) 811-69 


919°7 
877°5 


; Product 
Ultimate | 6 x d, or 
deflection) power of 

(d). | resisting 

impact. 
3865 309°3 
“4140 340'8 
4002 325:°0 
436 4669 
423 383-2 
“429 395:0 
421 | 369-4 


The infusion of heat into a metallic substance may render 
it more ductile, and probably less rigid in its nature; and I ap- 
prehend it will be found weaker, and less secure under the 
This is observable to a considerable 


effects of heavy strain. 


extent in the experiments ranging from 26° up to 190° of tem- 


perature. 


The cold blast at 26° and 190°, is in strength as 874: 743, 
d 


an 
The hot blast at 21° and 190°, is in strength as 811: 731; 


being a diminution in strength as 100: 85 for the cold blast, 
and 100: 90 for the hot blast, or 15 per cent. loss of strength in 
the cold blast, and 10 per cent. in the hot blast. 


410 SEVENTH REPORT—183/. 


Tasie XVII.—Coed-Talon Cold Blast. 
To determine the relative strengths of Coed-Talon hot and 
cold blast iron to resist the transverse strain under different 


degrees of temperature. 


No. 2 Iron. No. 3 Iron. 
Experiment 6. Experiment 7, 
——— — 

Depth of bar, 1°030 || Depth of bar, -995 
Breadth do. 1-030 Breadth do. 1°005 


Distance between 
supports 2 ft. 3in. 


Distance between 
supports 2ft. 3 in. 


Weight 


gla |Z legal) Wit [rem 
2/38! @ | s4|————— 
2182] 2 | £2|| 900broke | 212° 
Silas! 8 | ad 
> 1A 5 |a5 ry ies 
5 a | Broke in boiling 
eh ——|| water. 
112 |:034 2 
224 |-069] ... os No. 3 Iron, 
336 |:106 ers Experiment 8. 
448 |"144| -009 |193° —— 
560 |"185| -O11 Depth of bar, *995 
672 |-231| -016 191 Breadth do. 1/000 
784 |°281| -021 , Distance between 
812-293 |broke| ... || ‘ePorte 24: Sin. 
Weight 
in lbs. Temp. 


Broke in boiling 
water. 


Broke in hot water. 


No. 3 Iron. 
Experiment 9. 
Depth of bar, 1-015 
Breadth do. 1:021 

Distance between 
supports 2 ft. 3 in. 


Weight 


in Ibs. | Te™mp- 
956 broke | 600° 


Broke in melted 
lead. 


No. 3 Iron. 
Experiment 10. 
—s> 
Depth of bar, -987 
Breadth do. +997 

Distance between 
supports 2 ft. 3in. 


Weight 


in Ibs. | Te™P- 


934 broke | 212° |/1124 broke | 600° 


Broke in melted 


lead. 


No. 2 Iron. No, 2 Iron, 
Experiment 11.||Experiment 12, 


Depth ... 1:004 Depth .., 1°026 

Breadth 1-°005|\/Breadth 1-030 

Distance be- Distance be- 
tween supports|| tween supports 
2ft. Zin. 2ft. Zin. 


Weight in Ibs, || Weight in Ibs. 


672 broke|| 784, broke. 
it, after the||This bar was a 
weight hadj|ideep orange 
been on half ajjcolour in the’ 
minute. The|\dark. There 
defiection’ was||was no time to 
considerable. |jmeasure the 
The weight)deflection. 
was laid on at 
once. This bar 
was percepti- 
bly red by day- 
light. 


Coed-Talon No. 3 cold blast iron exhibits greater density in the arrangement of its 
crystalline texture than the No. 2. Colour a whitish grey, interspersed with a num- 


ber of minute luminous crystals. 


Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square, and 2 feet 
4 inches between supports. 


Breaking | Ultimate 


Product Xd 


Temperature | Modulus of Seas G f 
Fahrenheit. elasticity. is ote eee 
Experiment 6............] 193° — 191° | 14398600 | 743-1 301 
Experiment 7....0.s0008+ 212° besevanGet 905-0 
Experiment 8......se.00 212 Descassaaaae 944-0 
Mean...... Deno taadscucncrd 924-5 
Experiment 9.........++ GOOK momniisconecaeoce $09-0 
Experiment 10 ......... 600 SR PHA 1157-0 
1033: 


Mean...... 


Redbydaylight} .........+.. 


<ec | rer 


Experiment 11 


Experiment 12 ......... Red in dark 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON, 


No. 2 Iron. 
Experiment 6. 


Depth of bar, 1-007 

Breadth do. 1-°009 

Distance between 
supports 2 ft. 3 in. 


Weight in Ibs. 
Deflection in 
inches, 
Permanent Set. 
Temperature 
Fahrenheit. 


. Ultimate deflec- 
on = *386. 
Broke in hot water. 


TaBLE XVIII.—Coed-Talon Hot Blast. 


No. 2 Iron. 
Experiment 7. 


Depth of bar, 1-038 

Breadth do. 1-017 

Distance between 
supports 2 ft. 3 in. 


| Weight in lbs. 
Deflection in 
inches. 
Permanent Set. 
Temperature 
Fahrenheit. 


| 


112 + {186 


009/187 


‘016/188 
026) ... 
041) ... 
broke 


wee 


S 
~ 


094 
336 |- 
448 |-198 
560 |-263 
672 |-333 
700} ... 


—_ 
Ig 
< 
bo 


-". Ultimate deflec- 
tion = °346. 
Broke in hot water. 


No. 2 Iron. 
Experiment 8. 


No. 3 Iron. 
Experiment 9. 


4i1 


No. 3 Iron. 
Experiment 11. 


Depth of bar, 1-019 Depth of bar, +993||Depth of bar, -986 


Breadth do. 1-015 
Distance between 
supports 2 ft. 3 in. 


Weight in Ibs. 
Deflection in 
inches. 
Permanent Set, 
Temperature 
Fahrenheit. 


122 
224 |- 
336 | - 
448 |- 
560 | - 
672 | -255 
784 | +314 
868 |broke' 


038 


190 


ee les) 
.. Ultimate defiec- 
tion = *356. 
Broke in hot water. 


Breadth do. “S91 
Distance between 
supports 2ft. Zin. 
ee Bek EEE Me AEE, 
Weight 
in Ibs. 


800 broke 


Temp. 


212° 


Broke in boiling 
water. 


No. 3 Iron. 
Experiment 10. 


Depth of bar, “986, 

Breadth do 1-000 

Distance between 
supports 2 ft. 3 in. 


Weight |, 
in Ibs. | 7°™P- 


811 broke} 600° 


Breadth do. +997 
Distance between 
supports 2ft. 3in. 


889 broke] 600° 


Broke in melted 
lead. 


enn 


No. 2 Iron. 
Experiment 12. 


Depth of bar, 1-034 

Breadth do. 1-010 

Distance between 
supports 2ft, 3in. 


Weight in Ibs. 


896 broke 


Broke in melted 
lead, 


Bar susceptibly 
red in the dark. 


i This iron presents an appearance of greater ductility and softness than the No. 3. 
, cold blast. From the blue tinge which the fracture exhibits, it is evidently an iron 
: possessing the powers of being worked to a greater degree than the cold blast. 


Results reduced to those of bars 1-00 inch square, and 2 feet 


4 3 inches between the supports. 
" : i Product bXa 
i Temperature | Modulus of oe hemes or power of 
Fahrenheit. elasticity. @. (a) resisting 
. 2 impact. 
Experiment 6th, bar No. 2 iron ...| 138° — 134° | 13046200 875-7 +389 340°6 
Experiment 7th, bar No. 2 do. ...| 186 —188 | 11012500 635°8 359 229°3 
Experiment 8th, bar No. 2 dq ...| 196 —190 | 13869500 823°6 363 298-9 
Experiment 9th, bar No. 3 do. ... 212° te ee, 818-4 Ee. wanince 
‘Experiment 10th, bar No. 3 do. ... 600 Sbescotents | S841 7 4 eecee 
‘Experiment 11th, bar No. 3 do. ... 600 aveennasacerr!{s Qiligmeynnlenely! , Pies 
f Mean...... paket eeeccscencee | 8758 Bene suarat 
Se | ee ee aa ee [See Se 
Experiment 12th, bar No. 2 iron...| Rea in the dark | sessessse.s. 829-7 : 


412 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


In pursuing the experiments, it unfortunately occurred that 
the stock of No. 2 Coed-Talon metal became exhausted, a 
circumstance which interrupts the comparisons from below the 
freezing point to that of melted lead. ‘The No. 3 should have 
been broken at all the points of temperature, in order to have 
ascertained the loss of strength sustained upon this iron by the 
increase of heat. This was however not accomplished, and we 
can now only compare the two qualities No. 2 and No. 3 at the 
boiling point of water, and then proceed to the temperature of 
melted lead. Ihave already noticed that a considerable fail- 
ure of the strength took place after heating the No. 2 iron 
from 26° to 190°. At 212° we have in the No. 3 a much 
greater weight sustained than what is indicated by the No. 2 
at 190°; and at 600° there appears in both hot and cold blast 
the anomaly of increased strength as the temperature is ad- 
vanced from boiling water to melted lead, arising from the 
greater strength of the No. 3 iron. 

A number of the experiments made on No. 3 iron of different 
sorts have given extraordinary and not unfrequently unex- 
pected results. Generally speaking it is an iron of an irregular 
character, and presents less uniformity in its texture than 
either the first or second qualities ; in other respects it is more 
retentive, and is often used for giving strength and tenacity to 
the finer metals. 

Recurring to the No. 2 iron, it will be observed that the 
strength continued to diminish as the temperature was in- 
creased. Heating the cold blast iron in Experiments 11 and 
12 to a perceptibly red colour, we have the breaking weights 
663 and 723; whereas, in the hot blast, at nearly the same 
temperature, the breaking weight is 829°7, being as 693 (the 
mean) to 829, or in the ratio of 1000: 1289. 

From the experiments in Table 1, it appears that a bar of 
cold blast iron | inch square and 2 feet 3 inches between the 
supports, broke at the ordinary temperature of the atmo- 
sphere with 836°9, and in No. 3 cold blast from Table 3, the 
breaking weight is 1137°3. This gives an excess of strength 
for the No. 3 iron of at least one-fourth. 

When the bars were heated to a blood red the utmost care 
was taken to break them without loss of time. In every in- 
stance the deflection was considerable; rather more than 1} 
inches was observed on the 2 feet 3 inches bars before they 


gave way. 


» AS etwas 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 413 


Comparative strength and power to resist impact of the Coed- 
Talon hot and cold blast irons, at various temperatures. 


Transverse Strengths. 


Temperature. | Coed-Talon Cold Blast. | Coed-Talon Hot Blast. Ratio 
: Fahrenheit. No. 2 Iron. No. 2 Iron, 
26° 851- 823°1 1000 : 967-2 
940°7 | Mean 933°4 | Mean : 
32 958°5 f 949°6 905-0 [ 919-7 id ith ha 
190 743°1 823°6 1000 : 110-8 
Red in dark 723-1 $29°7 
No. 3 Iron. No. 3 Iron. 
219 905-0 | Mean 818-4 1000 : 885-4 
943-6 [ 924:3 834:1 ] Mean 1000 : 847°7 
909-3 4 917°5 [ 875-8 
600 bed } 10331 
Power to resist impact. 
Temperature. | Coed-Talon Cold Blast. | Coed-Talon Hot Blast. Ratio, 
Fahrenheit. No. 2 Iron. No. 2 Iron. 
26° 349-8 340°8 1000: 974 
360°3 | Mean 406-9 | Mean on 
32 404°5 f 382-4 383-2 [395-0 waphedacteeis soot 
190 223°7 298-9 1000 : 1836 


Modulus of elasticity in lbs. for a base of | inch square. 


Temperature. Coed-Talon Cold Blast. Coed-Talon Hot Blast, 
Fahrenheit. No, 2 Iron. No, 2 Iron, 
26° 12994400 14267500 
32 18506700 | Mean 13723500 | Mean 
15148200 J 143827450 14283200 { 14003350 
190 14398600 13869500 


The above summary of results on the strength of the hot 
and cold blast irons is, with one exception, in favour of the 
cold blast. On the other hand, the power to resist impact 
appears, with one exception, also, on the side of the hot blast. 

Having prosecuted these inquiries through a considerable 
range both of time and temperature, and having united my 
efforts to those of Mr. Hodgkinson on the transverse strain, I 
shall, before closing this report, give a general summary, with 
the results of which he has kindly favoured me, from all the 
irons experimented upon in this way. 

Those results will exhibit in one column the relative and 
proportionate strength of each iron, and in the other the 


414 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


ratio of the forces to resist impact. Before closing the expe- — 
riments, it may, however, be proper to state that, in additionto — 
the methods described in the preceding inquiry, that of grinding 
was adopted. For this purpose, an apparatus was made to 
grind each iron under an equal pressure, in order to ascertain 
the comparative resistances of different specimens of the same 
size, as compared with the results from chipping and filing 
given before. This was done with equal weights, upon equal 
sections, and during equal periods of time; and each piece was 
carefully weighed, in order to determine which of the irons was 
most easily reduced. Notwithstanding the care taken to en- 
sure correct results, I was unable to procure data from which 
any thing satisfactory could be obtained. For instance, in the 
Coed-Talon, Elsicar, and Milton irons, each specimen (nearly 
cubical) was reduced, as in the Table below, where W is a 
constant weight. 


Weight before Weight after Loss. 


grinding. gricding. 
Grains. Grains.| Grains. 
Coed-Talon No. 2 cold blast iron ...... W-+ 356 Ww — i161 217 
Coed-Talon No. 2 hot blast do.......... W + 264 WwW + 128 136 
Hlsicar’ *.6.<cesnesee cold blast do.......... W + 155 w-+ i4 141 
Miltonie?.: axauseace hot blast do.......... W + 211 w-+ 78 133 


The above results, selected from upwards of fifty experi- 
ments, are given, not for the purpose of comparison, but in 
order to enable others to follow up the experiments with 
greater success. I am of opinion that something may be done 
in this way, providing cast-steel cutters are used instead of a 
grindstone, the interstices of which become filled with metal- 
lic particles during the process, as the specimens are reduced ; 
consequently the surface of the stone becomes smoother, and 
the angular points blunted. 


ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. Ald 


General Summary of Results, as derived Srom the experiments 
on the transverse strength of hot and cold blast iron. 


Ratio of —_| Ratio of powers 
strength, that to sustain im- 
of the cold blast pact (cold blast! 
being repre- being 1000). 
sented by 1000. 


a 


These irons are from Carron iron ............ No. 2...|1000 : 990-9/1000 : 1005-1 
Mr. Hodgkinson’s4 Devon do. ............., No. 3...}1000 : 1416:9}1000 : 2785-6 
experiments, ...... Buffery do. .........00. No. 1...|1000 : 930-7/1000 : 962+] 

Coed-Talon do.......... No. 2.../1000 : 1007 |1000 ; 1234 
Coed-Talon do.......... No. 3...{1000 : 927 |1000 : 995 
Elsicar and Milton do. ......... 1000 : 818 |1000: 875 
Carron do....ccecccceceee No. 3.../1000 : 1181 |1000 : 1201 
Muirkirk do............. No. 1.../1000 : 927 |1000: 893 
Mean.../1000 : 1024-8/1000 : 1226-3 


The ultimatum of our inquiries made in this way, stand, 
therefore, in the ratio of strength, as 1000 for the cold blast, 
to 10248 for the hot blast; leaving the small fractional dif- 
ference of 24°8 in favour of the hot blast.* 

The relative powers to sustain impact are likewise in fa- 
vour of the hot blast, being in the ratio of 1000 to 1226-3. 

For the ratios of the powers of the hot and cold blast 
irons to resist a transverse strain for an indefinite period of 
time, and for the resisting powers of the same iron under 
variable temperatures, I must refer the reader to the results 
contained in their respective tables, 


* The extraordinary properties of the Devon No. 3 iron in a great measure 
account for the difference which occurs between the strengths, as also the 
comparative powers to resist impact. 


« 


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c} ligt imo 


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ais Soe ee 
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jie 


ON WAVES. 417 


Report of the Committee on Waves, appointed by the British 
Association at Bristol in 1836, and consisting of Sir JOHN 
Rosison, K.H., Secretary of the Royal Society of Edin- 
burgh, and Joun Scorr RussExz, Esq., M.A. F.R.S. Edin. 
(Reporter). 


Since the period of their appointment, the Committee have 
been almost incessantly occupied in carrying on the researches 
committed to them. The extent and multifarious nature of the 
subjects of inquiry have rendered it impossible to terminate the 
examination of all of them in so short a time; but it is their 
duty to report the progress which they have made, and the 
partial results they have already obtained, leaving to the re- 
ports of future years such portions of the inquiries as they have 
not yet undertaken. As far as they can judge from present 
indications, there are wide fields of novel and important science 
opening up in this direction, which will furnish an ample har- 
vest of rich knowledge for the labour of several succeeding 
seasons. 

The Subjects of Inquiry with which the Committee were 
charged are the following :— 

What is a Wave ?—What are the varieties, phenomena, and 
laws of waves in regard to generation and propagation in 
various circumstances ? 

Of what nature are the Waves of the Sea ? 

Is the Tidal Elevation a wave obeying the same laws with 
any other order of wave ? . 

Is the propagation of the tide-wave affected by Local Winds ? 
and if so, in what manner ? 

These were questions to which, in the existing state of our 
knowledge of hydrodynamics, we had no grounds either dog- 
matical or empirical to form a reply, and it was therefore of 
importance to the advancement of the science of hydrodynamics 
_ that we should be able to fill up this hiatus valde deflen- 
dus. The question of the propagation possessed interest not 
only in a scientific view, but also from its practical importance ; 
for it had been found in the earlier proceedings of this Asso- 
ciation that the beautiful physical phenomena of waves were not 
only employed as agents to convey through the air the inti- 
mations of distant events to the sense of hearing, and to waft 
to the eye the exquisite sensations of light and colour, but were 

VOL. VI. 1837. 25 


418 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


likewise employed in the practical uses of every-day life, and 
took an important part in that commercial intercourse by means 
of which the comforts of life and the advancement of civilization 
are immediately promoted. It had been ascertained by former 
researches that the resistance of fluids to bodies moving through 
them is affected by an element which had not been formerly 
recognised ; that the new element which had given rise to con- 
tradictory and apparently anomalous phenomena was a wave 
produced in the fluid by the moving body; and that this wave 
affected the amount of resistance, either positively or negatively, 
according as the velocity of the wave was greater or less than 
that of the moving body*. It became, therefore, an inquiry of 
theoretical and general interest, as well as of special and prac- 
tical importance to the art of navigation, to determine with 
great accuracy the laws of this wave. It had already been 
satisfactorily established that the velocity of propagation of this 
wave was nearly that due to half the depth of the fluid, that 
this velocity was independent of the form of the generating 
solid, and of the generating velocity of the solid. But this 
law had not been extended to channels of different forms ; 
neither had the conditions necessary to the existence of this 
wave, nor the nature of the mechanism by which its propa- 
gation takes place, been described and ascertained. This wave 
had been called the great solitary wave of the fluid, but its re- 
lation to other waves, and its identity or diversity, had not been 
determined. 

It was also necessary to determine the nature and class of 
the waves with which we are most familiar, and which we see 
at the surface of water agitated by the wind, and which break 
on the shores of the sea. Do these belong to the previous 
class of waves, or do they not? their form and velocity have 
been thought to depend in some measure on the depth. Do 
they belong to the first class of waves, or are they a dif- 
ferent class ? 

But the most important of all these investigations, both in 
relation to the advancement of physical science and to the 
practical value of their results, are probably those which refer 
to the propagation of the tide. The recent researches of Mr. 
Lubbock and Mr. Whewell, carried on in connexion with this 
Association and by its assistance, have conferred on the subject 
of the tides the interest of novelty as well as scientific value. 
Their researches have gone far towards removing the stigma 


* Researches in Hydrodynamics, by John Scott Russell, Esq., M.A. F.R.S, 
Edinburgh, Phil. Trans, R.S.E., 1836. 


ON WAVES. 419 


cast upon science by the imperfect state of this branch of 
knowledge. That the solar and lunar attractions produced 
some effect upon the tides, every one knew; but the problem 
was far from having been reduced into that condition in which 
it could be said that the phenomena of the heavens being given, 
the tides could be determined in magnitude and in time. So 
perfect, however, has this prediction lately become, that Mr. 
Lubbock has said that, considering how well theory agrees 
with observation, he is not sanguine that any material im- 
provements in prediction will hereafter be made. And, indeed, 
this assurance appears to rest on valid grounds when it is con- 
sidered that the tide tables which have resulted from his re- 
searches, and those of Mr. Whewell, give predictions whose 
errors are within the limits of the errors of observation. 

But although the Cerestra, Mecuantiso of the tides has 
been thus perfectly analysed and explained, there remain a 
great variety of considerations relating to the propagation of 
tides along the surface of the globe which are as yet unex-~ 
plained; these constitute the TeRrestRIAL Mecuanism of 
the tides. It is in the generation only of the tide that the solar 
and lunar attraction produce their effects: over the subsequent 
propagation of them, they exercise little or no influence. It 
is not until 50 or 60 hours after their creation that the tides 
reach our shores, having moved in the interval in every possible 
direction, and with every velocity from 100 to 10 miles an 
hour. This moving elevation of fluid may be conveniently de- 
signated a wave, and its history will be the history of the tidal 
wave ; but to confer upon it the name of wave does not imply 
that its laws are those which belong to any other similar ele- 
vation with which we are acquainted. It was necessary to 
investigate the nature of this tide wave—to examine the 
hydrodynamical mechanism by which it is transferred from one 
place to another,—to determine the laws which regulate its form 
and its velocity—to ascertain if any relations exist between the 
form and dimensions of its bed, and its own form and rate of 
transference. These and many similar points were still un- 
known. Laplace has said, in speaking of these points, “les 
circonstances dont elles dependent, ne sont pas connues.” 
Mr. Lubbock, in reference to the fluctuation of the establish- 
ment, says, “ this perplexing fluctuation presents an insuperable 
obstacle to extreme accuracy in tide predictions until it can be 
explained ; at present we are only left to conjecture respecting 
the cause.”” And similar sentiments are expressed by Mr, 
Whewell in the seventh series of his researches on the tides, 

2E2 


420 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


read on the 7th March, 1837. He observes, “‘ I cannot con- 
clude this paper without again pointing out that a great number 
of curious facts in fluid motion are established by these tide re- 
searches, of which it may be hoped that the theory of hydro- 
dynamics will one day be able to render a reason.” It was, 
therefore, necessary to investigate the subject of the terrestrial 
mechanism of the tides, that is, to determine the nature of the 
mechanism by which this tide wave is transferred from one 
part of the waters of a given channel to another. At the 
meeting of the Association at Bristol, Mr. Whewell had ex- 
pressed his opinion that the great primary wave of Mr. Russell 
and the tidal wave would be identified. 

The effect of wind upon the propagation of the tide wave 
was also a subject of importance. The magnitude of the tide 
is admitted generally to be affected by it in some way, but it is 
matter of doubt, whether the time of the tide, or rather the 
velocity of the tide wave, is at all affected. M.Daussy denies the 
existence of such an effect in the French observations, while it 
has been found by Mr. Lubbock in the London tides. It was 
necessary to determine this point with great accuracy. 

Besides their direct and theoretical use, there was another 
point of some importance in these researches concerning the 
tide wave, viz., that if the tide wave should be found to obey 
the law of the great primary wave of fluid, we should be put in 
possession of the principles on which the improvement of tidal 
rivers might be effected. 

Method of Inquiry.—The following order was adopted. by 
the Committee in the means by which they endeavoured to 
carry on the inquiry with which they were entrusted : 

The observations on the nature of the tide wave were those 
which it was important to obtain in the first place, as they 
required peculiar facilities which were not likely to be readily 
found. 

Fortunately it occurred to one of the Committee that the 
river Dee in Cheshire was peculiarly suitable to their purpose. 
It was their object to determine whether the same law which 
regulated the propagation of the wave previously examined by 
Mr. Russell in experimental canals, was followed by the tide 
wave in its propagation, or whether the velocity of the tide 
wave were proportional to a certain depth in a certain form of 
channel. It was necessary for this purpose that a channel of 
uniform dimensions should be obtained which could be easily 
measured, and which should possess a tidal wave capable of 
being easily observed. Now it happened that the river Dee is, 


or ey ae 


he ee tt i ga ee ld 


ON WAVES. 421 


in part of its channel, tolerably regular, having been formed 
artificially through a considerable part of its length; it was 
thought likely to answer the purpose. 

In the month of September Mr. Russell visited Cheshire for 
the purpose of instituting the observations. He found the 
river more perfectly suitable than could have been anticipated. 
For more than five miles the channel of the river is perfectly 
straight, of a depth and width nearly uniform, inclosed between 
banks that are even and well kept, and that have everywhere 
the same slope, while the bottom has the slight declivity of 10 
inches per mile. Along this channel the tide rolls with a mo- 
derate velocity, sometimes marked by a crested surge, and 
sometimes commencing by a motion hardly perceptible, and 
here it is inclosed by banks so high as to protect the wave most 
perfectly from the action of the wind from every point ex- 
cept two. 

The channel of the river was measured and sounded with 
great care, and observations of its tidal wave will be found in 
this report. The form of the tide wave is given in plate (VI.). 

The observations on the Dee having furnished data for the 
determination of the law of the propagation of the tidal wave 
in a given regular channel, it was only necessary further to as- 
certain the nature of its motion in a channel of a less regular 
form, and to determine the effect of the wind upon it. But the 
difficulty in this case was enhanced by the circumstance that a 
most minute and expensive survey would be required to deter- 
mine the figure of such a channel with the accuracy necessary 
to furnish data for calculation. In this however the Committee 
were again fortunate. The River and Frith of Clyde on the 
West of Scotland presents along and varied tidal channel which 
has all the variety of form necessary for such an investigation. 
The navigation of this river is under the management of a Board 
of Trustees, under whose superintendence it has been greatly im- 
proved, and who have been at great pains to determine its con- 
dition by very careful surveys. To that Board your Committee 
made application, and having the kind assistance of Sir Thomas 
Brisbane, who, as a former President of the Association, took 
a deep interest in forwarding its views, they succeeded in ob- 
taining the effective cooperation of the Board of Trustees of the 
Clyde in carrying on an investigation which they considered of 
much importance to the navigation and future improvement of 
their own river.* Their excellent engineer, Mr. Logan, was 
immediately placed in communication with Mr. Russell, :and 


* The thanks of the British Association were afterwards tendered to the 
Trustees of the Clyde for their liberality. 


422 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


instructed to afford every facility and assistance in his power ; 
a most accurate survey of the river, with a longitudinal section 
and accurate transverse sections at every half mile were obtained, 
and a geometrical Jevel of 18 miles was laid down with great 
precision. On this line were erected tide gauges of a peculiar 
construction, on which a small fraction of an inch could be read 
with ease even in a rough sea, and at a considerable distance 
from the instrument. These were placed at nine stations, and 
were simultaneously observed by careful observers every five 
minutes during at least one tide each day. The form and velo- 
city of each tide wave were thus ascertained with the desired 
accuracy. Application was at the same time made to Captain 
Denham, a well-known member of this Association, who was 
kind enough to cause such observations of the corresponding high 
waters at the Liverpool Docks to be made as the nature of the 
situation would afford ; and these, although less perfect than they 
would have been had the new arrangements for that purpose 
been completed which the interest taken by the British Asso- 
ciation has been the means of originating, were yet sufficient to 
enable us to determine the tidal interval of the ports in the 
Clyde with Liverpool more accurately than hitherto. The 
observations after laborious corrections and reductions were all 
referred to mean solar line on the meridian of the observatory of 
the University of Glasgow, kindly granted by Professor Nicol 
for the purpose of regulating the chronometers. 

The waves of the sea formed the subject of careful attention to 
your Committee. For this purpose one of them obtained the use 
of the Mermaid yacht, of Mr. Bogle, of Glasgow, kindly granted 
at the request of Mr. Allan, the secretary of the Northern yacht 
squadron, for the purpose of making the necessary observations 
at sea. The weather was rather unfavourable. The vessel en- 
countered alternately severe gales and dead calms, which first 
drove her to seek shelter and then prevented her from leaving her 
asylum. By means however of these observations, and of others 
made in steam vessels crossing the Irish Channel, the results 
aimed at were obtained. ‘This series was afterwards completed 
by observations made on the sea shore, by which the pheno- 
mena of surges have been perfectly explained. 

The series was concluded by observations made in experi- 
mental reservoirs and channels. These were constructed of a 
variety of forms. The waves were generated in different ways 
and of very different species. An apparatus was contrived by 
which very great accuracy was obtained in the determination 
of velocity. A considerable series of these observations are 
given at the end of this report exactly as they were made, and 


ON WAVES. 493 


in such an extent of detail as to furnish any future theorist with 
data as minute as those he might obtain by individual observa- 
tion. This branch of inquiry is however so extensive, that this 
report only gives the commencement of the series, the powers 
of the Committee having been extended during another year for 
continuing the inquiry. 

General Results——The following are nearly the general re- 
sults of these inquiries in so far as they have hitherto been ob- 
tained. 

1. The existence of a GREAT PRIMARY WAVE Of fluid, differ- 
ing in its origin, its phenomena, and its laws from the undula- 
tory and oscillatory waves which alone had been investigated 
previous to the researches of Mr. Russell, has been confirmed 
and established. 

2. The velocity of this wave in channels of uniform depth is 
independent of the breadth of the fluid, and equal to the velocity 
acquired by a heavy body falling freely by gravity through a 
height equal to half the depth of the fluid, reckoned from the 
top of the wave to the bottom of the channel. 

3. The velocity of this primary wave is not affected by the 
velocity of impulse with which the wave has been originally 
generated, neither do its form or velocity appear to be derived 
in any way from the form of the generating body. 

4, This wave has been found to differ from every other species 
of wave in the motion which is given to the individual particles 
of the fluid through which the wave is propagated. By the 
transit of the wave the particles of the fluid are raised from their 
places, transferred forwards in the direction of the motion of 
the wave, and permanently deposited at rest in a new place at 
a considerable distance from their original position. There is 
no retrogradation, no oscillation ; the motion is all in the same 
direction, and the extent of the transference is equal throughout 
the whole depth. Hence this wave may be descriptively desig- 
nated THE GREAT PRIMARY WAVE OF TRANSLATION. The 
motion of translation commences when the anterior surface of 
the wave is vertically over a given series of particles, it increases 
in velocity until the crest of the wave has come to be vertically 
above them, and from this moment the motion of translation is 
retarded, and the particles are left in a condition of perfect 
rest at the instant when the posterior surface of the wave has 
terminated its transit through the vertical plane in which they 
lie. This phenomenon has been verified up to depths of five 
feet. 

5. The elementary form of the wave is cycloidal; when the 
height of the wave is small in proportion to its length the curve 


424 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


is the prolate cycloid, and as the height of the wave increases 
the form approaches that of the common cycloid, becoming 
more and more cusped until at last it becomes exactly that of 
the common cycloid with a cusped summit; and if by any means 
the height be increased beyond this, the curve becomes the cur- 
tate cycloid, the summit assumes a form of unstable equili- 
brium, the summit totters, and falling over on one side forms 
a crested wave or breaking surge. 

6. A wave is possible in forms of channel where the depth is 
not uniform throughout the whole depth. The full considera- 
tion of this subject is reserved for next report. It appears 
however that where the difference between the depth of the 
sides is considerable, one part of the wave will continue during 
the whole period of propagation in the act of breaking, so as to 
show that in these circumstances a continuous wave is impos- 
sible. In other cases the ridge of the wave rises so much higher 
on the shallower part of the fluid as to produce a given velocity 
without exceeding the limits of equilibrium, and in those cases 
the wave becomes possible, and the velocity appears to coincide 
closely with that which we obtain by supposing the wave re- 
solved into vertical elements, eack having the velocity due to 
the depth and then integrating. 

For example, let the form of the channel be 


y =m xn 
x dy = vertical element of area 
as See = the square of the velocity of the element, 


and 


> a? x28 y = the square of the velocity multiplied by wave, 


whence, 
A 2223 = pe oie ge tae 
aula 2 
1 2 
=f —admnartlie 
* 2 


os in mn 
2° n+2 


ant+24 C, 
But since 


mn 
ug Sak Ll 1 
Sfary ras id 


———- 


ON WAVES. 425 


Bee ae sil 
2 n+2 
1lTn+l1 1 
andv =a 5 tie) 
Ify=me 
sea eae 
ae 
iy = me 


Aaa 
a/ © 2, &e. 


Hence in the rectangular channel the velocity being that of 
gravity due to half the depth. 

In the sloping or triangular channel the velocity is that due 
to one-third of the greatest depth. In a parabolic channel the 
velocity is that due to three-eighths or three-tenths of the 
greatest depth according as the channel is convex or concave. 

From the identity of this formula with that for the centre of 
gravity, it appears that the velocity of the great primary wave 
of translation of a fluid is that due to gravity acting through a 
height equal to the depth of the centre of gravity of the trans- 
verse section of the channel below the surface of the fluid. 

7. The height of a wave may be indefinitely increased by pro- 
pagation into a channel which becomes narrower in the form of 
a wedge, the increased height being nearly in the inverse ratio 
of the square root of the breadth. 

8. If waves be propagated in a channel whose depth diminishes 
uniformly, the waves will break when their height above the sur- 
face of the level fluid becomes equal to the depth at the bottom 
below the surface. | 

9. The great waves of translation are reflected from surfaces 
at right angles to the direction of their motion without suffering 
any change but that of direction. 

10. The great primary waves of translation cross each other 
without change of any kind in the same manner as the small 
oscillations produced on the surface of a pool by a falling stone. 

11. The WAVEs OF THE SEA are not of the first order—they 
belong to the second or oscillatory order of waves—they are 
partial displacements at the surface which do not extend to con- 
siderable depths, and are therefore totally different in character 
from the great waves of translation, in which the motion of dis- 
placement of the particles is uniform to the greatest depth. The 


displacement of the particles of the fluid in the waves of the 
‘seais greatest at the surface and diminishes rapidly. There 


426 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


are generally on the surface of the sea several coexistent classes 
of oscillations of varying direction and magnitude, which by 
their union give the surface an appearance of irregularity which 
does not exist in nature. 

12. When waves of the sea approach a shore or come into 
shallow water, they become waves of translation, and obeying 
the laws already mentioned, always break when the depth of 
the water is not greater than their height above the level. 

13. Waves at the surface of the sea do not move with the 
velocity due to the whole depth of the fluid: may they not 
move with the velocity due to that part which they do agitate, 
or to some given part of it ? 

14. A circumstance frequently observed when the waves break 
on the shore, has been satisfactorily accounted for by the ex- 
amination of the constitution of the waves of the sea. It has 
been frequently observed that a certain wave is the largest of a 
series, and that these large waves occur periodically at equal 
intervals, so that sometimes every 3rd wave, every 7th, or 
every 9th wave is the largest. Now as there are almost always 
several coexistent series of waves, and as one of these is a long 
gentle “ under swell,’ propagated to the shore from the deep 
sea in the distance, while the others are short and more super- 
ficial waves generated by a temporary breeze of reflections from 
a neighbouring shore ; so it will follow that when the smaller 
waves are 1, or 1, or 4th, or in any other given ratio to the 
length of longer ones, those waves in which the ridges of the 
two series are coincident, will be the periodical large waves ; 
and if there be three systems of coexistent waves, or any 
greater number, their coincidences will give periodical large re- 
curring waves, having maxima and minima of various orders. 

15. The Tip—E Wave appears to be the only wave of the 
ocean which belongs to the first order, and appears to be iden- 
tical with the great primary wave of translation ; its velocity 
diminishes and increases with the depth of the fluid, and ap- 
pears to approximate closely to the velocity due to half the 
depth of the fluid in the rectangular channel, and to a certain 
mean depth which is that of the centre of gravity of the section 
of the channel. It is, however, difficult to determine the limits 
within which the tide wave retains its unity ; where portions of 
the same channei differ much in depth at points remote from 
each other, the tide waves appear to separate. 

16. The tide appears to be a compound wave, one elementary 
wave bringing the first part of flood tide, another the high 
water, and so on; these move with different velocities accord- 
ing to the depth. On approaching shallow shores the anterior 


ON WAVES. 427 


tide waves move more slowly in the shallow water, while the 
posterior waves moving more rapidly, diminish the distance 
between successive waves. The tide wave becomes thus dis- 
located, its anterior surface rising more rapidly, and its pos- 
terior surface descending more slowly than in deep water. 

17. A tidal bore is formed when the water is so shallow at 
low water that the first waves of flood tide move with a velocity 
_ so much less than that due to the succeeding part of the tidal 
wave, as to be overtaken by the subsequent waves, or wherever 
the tide rises so rapidly, and the water on the shore or in the 
river is so shallow that the height of the first wave of the tide 
is greater than the depth of the fluid at that place. Hence in 
deep water vessels are safe from the waves of rivers which in- 
jure those on the shore. 

18. The identity of the tide wave, and of the great wave of 
translation, show the nature of certain variations in the esta- 
blishment of ports situated on tidal rivers. Any change in the 
depth of the rivers produces a corresponding change on the 
interval between the moon’s transit and the high water imme- 
diately succeeding. It appears from the observations in this 
report, that the mean time of high water has been rendered 37 
minutes earlier than formerly by deepening a portion of about 
12 miles in the channel of a tidal river, so that a tide wave 
which formerly travelled at the rate of 10 miles an hour, now 
travels at the rate of nearly 15 miles an hour. 

19. It also appears that a large wave or a wave of high 
water of spring tides travels faster than a wave of high water 
of neap tides, showing that there is a variation on the establish- 
ment, or on the interval between the moon’s transit and the 
succeeding high water, due to the depth of the fluid at high 
water, and which should, of course, enter as an element into 
the calculation of tide tables for an inland port derived from 
those of a port on the sea shore. The variation of the interval 
will vary with the square root of mean depth of the channel 
at high water. 

These results give us principles, 1st, for the construction of 
canals ; 2nd, for the navigation of canals ; 3rd, for the improve- 
ment of tidal rivers ; 4th, for the navigation of tidal rivers ; 5th, 
for the improvement of tide tables.—See the Transactions of 
the Sections at the end of the volume. 


428 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


First Series of Observations. 


Experiments on Waves in Artificial Reservoirs.—As this 
portion of the experiments was made in continuation of a series 
of experiments in which Mr. Russell had been previously en- 
gaged, and of which he from time to time announced the results 
to the British Association at Dublin and at Bristol, and as these 
notices were omitted in the last volume of the Report, but pro- 
mised by the Secretary to be included in the present one, it will 
be proper to state what had been brought to light in those ex- 
periments on waves previous to the appointment of this Com- 
mittee. 

At the Dublin meeting of the Association Mr. Russell stated 
that he had been induced to make a series of experiments on 
waves in certain circumstances, from having found that the re- 
sistance of fluids to the motion of floating bodies was very much 
affected by the phenomena of the waves generated in the fluid 
by the motion of these bodies; and that many of the imper- 
fections of that part of hydrodynamical science which treats of 
the resistance of fluids, would be removed by an acquaintance 
with the laws of the motion of waves. One of the great in~ 
stances of deficiency in our theoretical knowledge, when ap- 
plied to practical uses, occurred in the question of the force re- 
quired to give motion to a vessel in a confined channel, a canal, 
or a small river; in these cases a vessel at certain points of her 
progress encountered extreme resistance, and at other, still 
higher velocities, experienced diminutions of resistance equally 
extraordinary and anomalous. These facts had set at defiance 
all previous theory ; but it was found that a knowledge of the 
laws of the generation and propagation of waves in a fluid was 
all that was required to solve these difficulties and to remove 
these anomalies. For this purpose he had undertaken a series 
of experiments on waves carried on during the years 1834 and 
1835. 

The WAVE which had been thus found to form so important 
an element in the resistance of fluids, was found to be a phe- 
nomenon of a very different nature from those waves which had 
previously occupied the attention of the physical investigator. 
This phenomenon presents itself as a Sotirary ProGreEssivE 
ELevation of the surface of a quiescent fluid, neither preceded 
nor followed by any secondary or successive phenomena, to- 
tally distinct from the oscillatory waves, and from such waves as 
the ripple on the surface of a lake agitated by the wind, and the 
concentric circular oscillations of a calm sheet of water into 
which a stone has been dropped, and from the waves which are 


ON WAVES. 429 


presented on the surface of an agitated sea. This wave presents 
simply the phenomenon of an elevation of fluid transferred 
from place to place of the fluid, finding the fluid perfectly at 
rest, and leaving it in an equally perfect state of equilibrium. 
Many philosophers have examined the theory of waves, but 
they all appear to have considered only the oscillatory, success- 
ive, and gregarious waves. Newron considered them as re- 
presented by the oscillations of a column of fluid in a bent tube, 
and assigned to them laws analogous to those of the pendu- 
lum; GRANESAUDE followed the theory of Newton; D’ALEmM- 
BERT adopted Newton’s theory, and pursued this investigation 
considerably further ; and LaGRancE improved it by removing 
some former limitations inconsistent with the phenomena ; 
LapuaceE formed a new theory, in which the oscillatory waves 
are supposed to be formed by immersing a solid of a given form 
in the fluid and suddenly withdrawing it; GEeRsTNER gives a 
very beautiful theory of waves, in which the observed phenomena 
of oscillatory waves of the larger class are very accurately re- 
presented; Poisson, Caucny, and Fourier have discussed 
the mathematico-physical question of very minute oscillatory 
waves with so much success, as to represent some of the phe- 
nomena with considerable accuracy; and the results of these 
theoretical views have been examined very carefully in the ex- 
periments of BREMoNTIER, FLAUGERGUES, Bipong, and the 
Wesers. But in none of these inquiries has the phenomenon 
of the solitary wave attracted any attention; and, indeed, so 
far from having been satisfactorily examined, its very existence 
does not appear ever to have been distinctly recognised. 

This solitary progressive elevation appears to be the wave of 
the first order, and has been called by Mr. Russell the Great 
Primary Wave of the fluid. And its phenomena are of that 
invariable and decided character, which claim for it such a di- 
stinction. 

The great primary wave was first observed by Mr. Russell in 
1834. By the impulse of a vessel drawn by horses a consider- 
able portion of fluid was raised above the level of the rest 
of the fluid in a channel of limited breadth and depth. The 
elevation thus formed was observed to assume a peculiar and 
regular shape extending across the whole breadth of the 
channel, and to propagate itself along the surface of the quies- 
cent fluid with a velocity of nearly eight miles an hour; which 
velocity and form appeared to continue unchanged, although 
followed for about the distance of a mile. 

The following experiments were made for the purpose of 
determining whether the velocity of this wave were not affected 


430 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


by the initial velocity given to the fluid at its generation by 
the moving body. The velocity of genesis, or of the vessel by 
whose displacement the elevation of fluid was produced, is 
given in miles per hour, and the time occupied by the wave in 
describing 700 feet is given in seconds. 


Space described by ty terval of time. 


Velocity of genesis. the wave. 


(1.) 5 miles an hour 700 feet 62° seconds 
(2) 8 700 — 1 
(B's: 1oRee 700 =) qT ee 
(4;) ee 700 — 62.0 uk 
(5. \\G ho hese 700 — 622 = 
(6.) 4 700 — 615 — 


From this it is manifest that the velocity of the propagation 
of the wave does not vary with the velocity of its genesis. 

To determine whether the height of the wave produced any 
variation in its velocity, the following experiments were made: 


ee oe Space described. Interval. 
(7.) 6°0 inches 700 feet 61°50 seconds 
CRS ee BO Sees hts PTI ee 
(9.) 35 — joo — 62°50 — 
(10.) 20 — 700109? -G8:50'th sen 


It appears from these examples that, in a given reservoir of 
fluid, the higher wave moves more rapidly than the lower; and 
it was afterwards found that the increase of height was equiva- 
lent in its effect on the velocity to an equal addition to the 
depth of fluid in the reservoir. 

To determine whether the depth of the fluid affected the ve- 
locity of the wave, the following experiments were made in the 
same channel filled to different depths : 


Depth of fluid. Space described. Velocity of wave. 
(11.) 5°6 feet 486: feet 9°594 miles an hour 
(12.) 3:4 — 150° — 7'086 


The former of these observations is exclusive of the height of 
the wave, and adding six inches to the depth of the fluid in this 
case, the height of the wave being already added to the depth 
in (12.), we find that the velocities are nearly proportional to 
the square roots of the depths, and are nearly equal to the velo- 
cities that would be acquired by a heavy body in falling through 
heights ¢qual to half the depth of the fluid. 

In the last case the channel was rectangular, and conse- 


ON WAVES. 431 


quently the depth of the fluid was uniform across the whole 
depth of the channel ; it was next of importance to ascertain what 
law held in those cases where the depth diminished towards the 
edges of the channel. For this purpose two channels were 
selected having the greatest depths in their middle and diminish- 
ing towards the sides. The following are the results : 
Greatest depth in 
the middle of Space described. Velocity of wave. 
the channel. 
(13.) 5°5 feet 1000 feet 7°84 miles an hour 
(4) At 820 — _— 609 


In these instances the diminished depth at the sides has 
diminished the velocity of the wave below that due to the 
greatest depth in a ratio in the first example nearly of 9°5 to 
Ag} and in the second of 7: to 6°. See Experiments (11) and 
(12). 

The following three experiments are instructive as having 
been made on channels in which the maximum depth was 
nearly the same in all; but in (15) the depth remained con- 
stant to the side which was vertical. In (16) the sides had a 
slope of nearly 20°, and in (17) a slope of nearly 40°, so as to 
diminish the depth towards the sides. 


Maximum depth. Eh Space described. Velocity. 


(15.) 5°6 feet Rectangular 486 feet 9°59 miles 
(16.) 5°5 — Slope of 20° 2038 — 8:83 — 
(17.) 5°5 — Slope of 40° 1000 — 7:84 — 


From these it is manifest that the depth of the channel, while 
it modifies the depth of the fluid, affects the velocity of the 
wave. It was not found that the breadth of the channel pro- 
duced any similar effect. 

The results obtained from the experiments of 1834 and 1835 
were considered by the Association of sufficient novelty and 
importance to point out the propriety and advantage of institu- 
ting a fuller and more minute series of experiments concerning 
the nature of the wave, in which all its phenomena and laws 
should be determined with as much precision as possible. 

The subjects of inquiry which immediately presented them- 
selves were the following : 

1. To determine whether different methods of generating the 
wave influence its subsequent phenomena. 

2. To determine with accuracy the velocity of the wave in 


given circumstances. 


3. To ascertain the form or forms of the wave. 


432 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


4. To determine the manner in which the depth and breadth 
of the channel affect the velocity and form of the wave. 

5. To determine the influence of form in the channel on the 
form and velocity of the wave. 

6. To ascertain the nature of the mechanism by which the 
wave is propagated from one place to another; or to answer 
the question, What is the wave? 

7. To ascertain the difference between the primary wave and 
waves of other descriptions. 

8. To determine the effects of solid bodies or obstacles on the 
motion of waves, and the effect of waves on one another, and 
conversely—the effect of waves on solid bodies, either at rest 
or moving through them, immersed in them, or floating upo 
their surface. 

9. To determine the effects of waves on one another. 

For the purpose of obtaining some of these results with the 
requisite precision, there was provided the following 


EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS, 


Experimental reservoir.—A_ rectangular reservoir, formed 
with much precision, was provided for the purpose of contain- 
ing the fluid to be made the subject of experiment. Its sides 
were supported by strong brackets, and the whole was raised 
on a strong frame to a height convenient for experiment ; the 
whole length of the reservoir was 20 feet precisely, an addi- 
tional length of 7°3 inches having been reserved to form a gene- 
rating chamber in connexion with the reservoir. The dimen- 
sions of the reservoir are, 


Length of experimental reservoir . . . 20 feet 
Breadth of experimental reservoir . . . 1 foot. 


The bottom of the reservoir was placed with care in the hori- 
zontal plane, so that it could be filled and emptied conveniently. 
The reservoir is represented in Plate I., fig. 1. A is the trans- 
verse section, B and D are longitudinal sections of the levels of 
the reservoir. 

Method of determining the velocity—A channel of great 
length may appear at first sight more suitable to the determi- 
nation of velocity than the comparatively short one here em- 
ployed, whose whole length was traversed by some of the waves 
in less than five seconds; and it would have been preferable for 
that purpose had not the method of reflection been employed, 
by which all the advantages of that method when employed in 
the repeating circle and other instruments are obtained for the 
diminution of errors of observation, and by which also the pro- 


ON WAVES. 433 


bability in favour of accuracy in the result is elevated to the 
region of certainty. It was found that when a smooth plane sur- 
face, of sufficient rigidity, was immoveably fixed at the end of 
the channel, at right angles to the direction of the wave’s trans- 
mission, the wave was thereby reflected without sensible change 
in its form, magnitude, or velocity. Two such reflecting sur- 
faces being placed at opposite ends of the reservoir, it was found 
that the wave might be reflected from one end to the other over 
successive spaces of 20 feet, and thus brought repeatedly to the 
same points of observation. In this way the same wave was 
observed during so many as 60 successive transits after 60 suc- 
cessive reflections, having thus passed over a course equal in 
length to 1200 feet, and occupying an interval of 320 seconds, 
giving the power of observing it 60.times in its transit past a 
given point. It was thus brought under the eye of three ob- 
servers at three different parts of the reservoir during a single 
transit. The whole internal surface of the reservoir was accu- 
rately divided into feet, inches, and minuter divisions. 

Means of observing the transit.—To observe the instant of 
the transit of a wave past a given point is a matter of some 
difficulty, especially when the wave is long and flat. A wave 
one-tenth of an inch high and three feet long is scarcely sen- 
sible to the eye until its vertex has passed ; its commencement 
and end are perfectly insensible, and its summit so flat that it 
is impossible directly to observe its place with precision. To 
obviate these difficulties, the following apparatus was provided. 
A plane mirror, M, (Fig. 2. Plate 1.) was raised on a frame to a 
height of four feet above the surface of the water. On this 
mirror the image, I, of a bright flame was thrown, and the mir- 
ror was adjusted so as to reflect this image upon the surface of 
the water (at W). A second mirror (m) was placed over this 
second image, so as to intercept the rays reflected from the sur- 
face of the water, and to return them finally through an eye- 
piece to the observer. The path of the ray was preserved 
during the whole of its extent in a plane at right angles to the 
direction of the motion of the wave. Parallax in observation 
was avoided by a micrometer wire in the eye-piece, which was 
kept in coincidence with an opaque line passed through the 
image at M and so reflected in m, and with a line of division, D, 
seen directly without reflection past the edge of the mirror m. 
The observer was thus enabled to compare the place of the 
centre of the reflected image by coincidence with fixed lines. 
When perfectly at rest the coincidence was perfect. When the 
centre of the wave was at W"", figs. 2 and 3, the rays of light also 
reflected from a plane surface, perfectly horizontal, presented the 

VOL. VI. 1837. QF 


434 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


same coincidence ; but when the anterior part of the wave W®, 
figs. 2and 3, was that on which the rays fell, the image was carried 
in the direction of the motion; and, on the other hand, when 
the posterior surface of the wave reflected the image, it was 
transferred to the other side, as in the point W™. When, 
therefore, the transit of a wave took place, the following phe- 
nomena presented themselves to the observer. The image con- 
tinued at rest, as seen in fig. 3, until the approach of the wave ; 
from the instant at which the transit began until the instant of 
the passage of the crest of the wave, the image appeared on the 
anterior side of the wire, as in fig. 4; but during the remainder 
of the transit, the image was found on the posterior side of the 
wire, as in fig. 5; and therefore the instant of the transit of 
the crest of the wave across the line was also the instant of the 
passage of the image from one side to the other across the wire: 
now, as the whole time of the transit did not amount to a second, 
this instant was given with the required precision, and although 
the elevation of the surface was not in many cases perceptible to 
the eye, the transit of the image was perfectly satisfactory. 

For obtaining the dimensions of the wave with precision, 
various expedients were resorted to ; there were provided glass 
tubes (gauges or indices) communicating with the channel at 
different depths ; they are represented in fig. 6. The centre of 
each tube opens into the side of the reservoir at successive 
inches of its height, and after continuing horizontally for a cer- 
tain space, is turned up vertically, and rises above the level of 
the water; the tubes thus become filled, and the water in each 
tube being tinged with colouring matter becomes distinctly 
visible, so that the variations of height are read with ease and 
precision on the graduated scale behind the tubes to hundredths 
of an inch. For a very elegant method of ascertaining the 
length of the wave with precision, Mr. Russell is indebted to 
Professor StEVELLY of Belfast, who suggested that fine points, 
similar to those used in the standard cistern barometers, should 
be applied to the surface of the water, so as to show by the 
instant of their submersion in the fluid, or emergence from it, 
the origin and end of the wave. This method was found to 
possess much precision ; the phenomena of capillary attraction 
mark the instants of contact and separation with vividness, by 
the reflection of rays of light from the concave surface of the 
fluid raised around the point, and their disappearance on sepa- 
ration. The contact of this point with its image in the water 
was also a phenomenon marking the place of the surface of the 
fluid with minute accuracy. When the two points, placed at 
the beginning and end of the wave, showed the phenomena of 


ON WAVES. 435 


immersion and emergence at the same instant, their distance 
was equal to the length of the wave. It was, however, neces- 
_sary to have some means of bringing both points under the eye 
at the same instant, in order to determine with accuracy the 
coincidence of contact in both cases; the arrangements are 
given in fig. 7. P and P are points in contact with the surface 
of the fluid at the extremities of a wave; rays of light from 
them are reflected by the mirrors p and p to the eye at O, and 
are thus observed simultaneously. By these means, the points 
being removed further apart, or brought nearer, until the con- 
tact became simultaneous, and the distance of the points equal 
to the length of the waves, the height of the wave was de- 
termined by the glass indices in fig. 6. 

Apparatus for generating the Waves.—Generating reservoir 
A. fig. 8, consisted of a continuation of the experimental reser- 
voir A, B, D, of fig. 1, which was separated from it or con- 
nected with it by means of a sluice; so that by filling the 
generating reservoir with water to a higher level than the ex- 
perimental reservoir while the sluice was closed, on raising it 
the water descended, producing a wave, of which the volume 
was known. The area of the horizontal section of the generating 
reservoir is 76°27 square inches, its length being 6°33 inches in 
the direction of the motion of the wave, and 12°05 inches its 
breadth at right angles to this ; the detached generating cham- 
ber B, fig. 9, was a rectangular parallelopipedon, open at top and 
bottom, and so accurately fitted to the bottom of the reservoir 
as, when resting on it, to be capable of containing water to any 
height, but on raising it from the bottom by which it had been 
thus temporarily closed, the fluid descended, producing a wave 
of given volume. The area of the horizontal section of the 
chamber is 68°32 inches, being 6°1 inches long and 11°2 inches 
wide. A solid parallelopipedon, C. fig. 10, was used to generate 
waves, by protruding it to a given depth in the fluid; the area 
of its horizontal section being 88°32 inches, and its dimensions 
24:0, 12°05, and 7°33 inches. Another detached generating 
chamber, D., was 2°98 inches, being 11°92 inches broad and 
24° inches deep, being an area of 35°52 square inches in its ho- 
rizontal section. In those cases where volume of the wave was 
not of importance, the wave was produced by the impulse of a 
flat surface pressed horizontally on the fluid. 

Analysis of Experiments.—The original experiments are 
themselves given at the end of this paper, for the purpose of 
enabling any one who may be disposed to make use of them 
for any future purpose, either of framing or testing a theory, to 

2P2 


436 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


make use of them much in the same way as if he had himself 
made the experiments. The wave having been generated was 
first observed in the glass index, fig. 6, placed near to the gene- 
rating reservoir; then it passed under the transit station where 
its transit was observed, and the time registered either by one 
or two observers, and then its height was cleared in another 
glass index near the other reservoir; the wave having under- 
gone the first reflection was returned, and the same observations 
were repeated during a number of successive reflections. See 
Experiments page 465—491. 

The collection of tables at the end of this report gives the 
history of a series of waves in which these phenomena are care- 
fully recorded. 

Explanation of Tables.—F¥or the sake of ready reference, 
there is given at the beginning of each table (see Wave 1.) the 
approximate depth of the fluid, and the date of experiment, 
thus : 


2d Aug. 1837. Wave I. Depth, 4 inches. 


The next line contains the mode of generation, written thus : 


Created by reservoir A. Volume of added fluid = 153-5 inches. 


The reservoir A, fig. 1, Plate I., the detached chamber B, fig. 9, the 
solid parallelopipedon C, fig. 10, and chamber D, have already 
been described, and are successively referred to in the manner 
now stated; and in Wave IX. for example, the means of gene- 
ration was the flat sluice in fig. 8, held in the hand, passed 
down to the bottom of the fluid, and moved horizontally so as 
to displace the fluid from the reservoir A. 

The method of observing is next given, as for example in 


Wave I. 


Transits observed directly at index, and without reflection— 


when the unassisted eye of the observer detected by in- 
spection the transit of the ridge of the wave passing the place 
of the indices at y. fig. 6; but in other cases the eye was ar- 
rested by the refiected image in the transit apparatus already 
described, figs. 2,3, 4, and 5, as for example in Wave V., 
where we have 


Transits observed by the reflected image at the central station. 


The next line gives the depth of the fluid in the channel, pre- 
vious to the commencement of the experiment, first of all as 


co 


ON WAVES. 437 


directly observed in the glass indices, figure 6, on the scale of 
which the deviation from approximate depth, already given at 
the head, (Depth, 4 inches,) is read off with the appropriate 
sign + or —; and the mean depth of the fluid having been al- 
ready compared by direct experiment with the scale of the 
index, and a correction for error of scale applied, the true result 
is given at the end as the mean depth of the fluid when at rest, 
freed from instrumental error, thus : 

y = — 0°05 


Statical level observed at { 5 — _ 0-01 


\ corrected statical depth=3-942 inches. 

In the table of the observations, column A gives the number 
of feet passed over by the wave, reckoning from the instant at 
which the first observation of time in codwmn B was made on 
either or both of the chronometers a and 8. In column C are 
given the readings of the index y at that end of the reservoir 
where the wave was generated, and from which the observations 
are begun, and of the index 6 placed towards the other end of 
the reservoir. In colwmn D the observations of column C have 
been freed from the error of the index scale, so as to represent 
the true height of the ridge of the wave above the statical level 
of the fluid; and in column E the true height of the wave has 
been added to the statical depth of the fluid, so as to give the 
whole depth reckoned from the ridge of the wave to the bottom 
of the reservoir. 

The observations were made in the following manner. The 
wave having been generated, was generally allowed to traverse 
the whole length of the reservoir, and return to y before com- 
mencing the observations of time and space; this was done for 
the purpose of allowing the wave to assume its determinate 
form, which it did not generally acquire until it had remained 
for some time unaffected by external impulse; and this delay 
also allowed the secondary oscillations of the fluid to disappear. 
On the return of the wave to y its height was carefully ob- 
served ; after passing y its transit past the central station was 
assumed as the zero for time, its height was observed at 6, and 
once more on its return to y, so that. the interval between the 
observations was an interval due to 20 feet or 40 feet, accord- 
ing as the observations were made on successive or alternate 
transits ; the successive transits being used when the velocity 
was small, and the alternate ones when the velocity was such 
as not to afford sufficient intervals for observing and noting with 
composure. 

The intervals between the transits were obtained with con- 
siderable precision, as may be gathered from the following 


438 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


observations made by independent observers.—See Wave 


XLV. 


Chrono- | Chrono- | Difference |} Chrono- | Chrono- | Difference 

meter a. | meter #8. | of interval. || meter a. | meter B. | of interval. 
0-0 0-0 0-0 89-00 89-5 
9-75 9:5 — 0:25 99-50 100-0 
19-50 19:0 — 0:25 110-00 110°5 
28-50 29-0 0:00 120-50 121-0 
38°50 39-0 0:00 =| «181-00 1315 
48°50 49:0 0-00 || + 141:50 142-0 
58°50 59-0 000 «|| 151:50 152-5 
68°50 69-0 0-00 16250 | 1630 
79:00 795 0:00 173°00 1735 


One of the first objects of inquiry was, to determine whether 
there existed any important difference in the phenomena of 
waves generated by different methods and by bodies of different 
forms, or to ascertain whether a wave being given in height and 
depth, the phenomena were the same and independent of the 
source from which it had been originally derived. To give the 
value of the comparison, we shall collate the history of four 
waves generated by four different methods, and very nearly of 
the same magnitude and in the same depth of fluid. 


WAVE XIX. WAVE XV. WAVE VIII, WAVE VII. 
Generated by pro- || Generated from Generated by Generated from 
trusion of solid C, chamber B. simple impulsion. reservoir A. 


Depth = 3°95 in. || Depth = 3'87 in. Depth = 4°15 in, Depth = 4°07 in. 


Sec. In. Sec, In, Sec. Tn, Sec. In. 


10'5 | 5-40 a5 vse vee as eos <7 
10°5 | 5:22 eee 5°30 te 5:10 bee ‘ 
10-5 | 515 || 100] 532 || 11:0 | 5:02 zl see 
10:5 | 5°02 |} 10°5 | 5:20] 11:0 | 4-95 vee ose 
10:5 | 4:83 ]} 11:0} 503 || 11:5 | 4°85 oe 


120 | 4:76 || 11:0 | 4:96 | 11-5 | 4°75 
12:0 | 4:67 || 11:5 | 468 |) 11:0 | 4:69 aah - 
11:5 | 458 || 11-0 | 460 |) 11:5 | 461 ele 4-62 
11:5 | 455 || 12:0] 4°55 | 120 | 4:55 ace 4:58 
11:5 | 4:50 |} 120} 4:43 | 11:0] 4:48 || 11-5 | 452 
11-5 | 4:42 || 11:0] 4:36 | 12:5] 4-43 || 115 | 4-46 
——]] 11°5 | 4:40 || 11:5 | 440 
11°13) 4:82 || 11-11} 4°84 |} 11-5 | 4:37 || 115 | 4°35 
12:5 | 4:36 || 12:0 | 4:27 
12:0 | 4°33 || 12:0 | 426 
12:0 | 4:29 || 12:0 | 4-26 


| 11:60) 4:66 11°70) 4°41 
These columns contain the intervals of description of success- 
ive spaces of 40 feet cach, with the mean depth reckoned from 


ON WAVES. 439 


the top of the wave, ascertained from the mean of three observa- 
tions in each distance of 40 feet. 'The waves were generated by 
four different methods, the depth of the fluid and the height of 
the wave are different in each; so that on comparing them to- 
gether, we have to take into consideration the variations of the 
conditions. Now between the mean interval of the successive 
transits in XIX. and XV., the difference is only two-hundredth 
parts of a second, and between the mean height of the wave in 
the former case, and in the latter, there is a corresponding dif- 
ference with the same sign, amounting to two-hundredth parts 
of an inch—between VIII. and VII. the same coincidence ex- 
ists. The same harmony runs through that whole series of 
observations from Wave I. to Wave XXVI., and appears to 
warrant the conclusion, that between waves of this order, gene= 
rated in very different methods, no sensible difference in the 
law of propagation can be distinguished. In the remaining series 
of observations, the protrusion of solid C was the method gene- 
rally adopted for generating the waves, as it was found conve- 
nient and precise. Various other methods, such as suspending 
the fluid by atmospheric pressure and the immergence of bodies 
of different forms, were tried, without sensible difference on the 
result. 

Waves were then generated in different depths of the fluid, 
and having different heights, for the purpose of determining the 
velocity due to them with all the precision which the method 
was capable of affording. The three columns of figures which 
follow, are a short table of results, and in a fourth column are 
given a few theoretical numbers, representing the height due to 
half the depth of the fluid, reckoning from the ridge of the wave. 
The first of these columns gives the total depth reckoned from 
the top of the wave, the second column is the height of the wave 
Hie above the quiescent fluid, and the third the observed ve- 
ocity. 


440 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


, | Height ofthe | Velocity ob- | Velocity due to 
ihe iy aa wave, served, half the depth. 


1-00 ie ee 1°636 
1:05 0:05 1-64 cee 
1:30 015 1°84 ee 
2:00 as ce 2:314 
2:19 0:29 2-30 Sia 
3°00 td dod 2:834 
3:10 0:16 2:87 “by 
3°23 015 2:99 A 
4:00 rds a 3273 
4:00 0°19 3°33 8 
4:08 013 3°24 

4°20 013 3°33 

4°31 0:24 3°40 mae 
5:00 ao: bie 3701 
5°20 0:10 3°73 ae 
5°25 0715 3°72 aes 
6:00 ab 360 4-008 
6°40 0°15 4:04 ao 
6:47 0:27 4:14 

6°74 0°54 4:32 sie 
7:00 a os 4:333 
7:33 0:29 4:39 Sec 
7:44 0-40 4:44 mae 
8 00 | side eee 4-628 


Tuble of Experiments in Rectangular Channel. 


Reference to Total depth Time occupied Velocity of 


onions, |‘orthewaves | waves | spacein next | deatnbea. | "ine maget 
column, 
Inches. Inches. Seconds. Feet. 
XXIX. ... 1:05 05 36:5 60:0 1:64 
XXVII.... 1:10 1:10 23:5 40:0 1:70 
XXVIII... 1:20 20 22-7 40:0 1:76 
XXXIII. . 1:30 15 22-0 40:0 1°81 
XXXV.... 1:62 “32 29-0 60:0 2°06 
XXXVI... 219 29 34:7 80:0 2°30 
D4 Saree 3°09 15 97:5 80:0 2-90 
RE shan 311 “7 14:0 40:0 2°85 
b.< FH] Rear nee 3:16 322 21:0 60:0 2-71 
NS Hecke: 3°20 26 22°0 80:0 2-72 
>< bt paras 3°23 29 27-0 80:0 2:96 
SOXVA. 3°23 15 69°5 200:0 2:99 
DOM MI... «.. 3°32 "24 27:0 80:0 2:96 
XXXV Ul I. 3°35 35 27:0 80-0 2:96 
Sle ass: 3°38 “44 19:5 60:0 3:07 
XIET SP cosine 3°41 5947 20°0 60-0 3°00 
SOV eusemeen 3°40 “32 27°0 80:0 2:96 


XXVI. ... 3°50 *44 26:0 80:0 3:08 


— *.” 


Reference to 
original 
observations. 


XXXVIL. 
XXXIX. . 


cesses 


eeceee 


ln Shee esces 


Total depth 


ON WAVES. 


from the ridge BGEny ee the 


of the wave. 


Inches. 
3°50 
3°60 
3°61 
3°69 
3°81 
3°81 
3°84 
3:90 
3:97 
4:00 
4:08 
4:12 
415 
4-20 
4:25 
4:31 
4°40 
4:45 
4°49 
451 
4-61 
4°75 


5°20 
5°21 
5:25 
5°39 
5:40 
5°50 
5°61 
5°80 
5°82 
5.82 
6:15 
6-15 
6:26 
6°40 
6:40 
6:47 
6°54 
6:56 
6°65 
6:69 
6:74 
6°75 
6:86 
6:90 
7:20 
7:42 


Time occupied 
in describing 
space in next 

column, 


Seconds. 


13:0 
26:5 
18°5 
25:0 
18°5 
18:5 
12:0 
24:5 
36:0 
74:0 
24:2 
250 
36-0 
47-7 
46°75 
23°5 
35°5 
34:75 
42°5 
22°5 
23:0 
32°0 
31-5 
43 0 
21-2 
32:0 
21:0 
39°5 
20:0 
30:5 
20°5 
19-0 
19:0 
29'5 
28:7 
49-5 
29:0 
39°5 
39:0 
29:0 
18°5 
18°5 
48:5 
38:0 
375 
37:0 
45°5 


Space 


described. 


Feet. 
60:0 
40:0 
80:0 
60:0 
80:0 
60:0 
60:0 
40:0 
80:0 

120:0 
240:0 
80:0 
80:0 
120:0 
160:0 

160:0 

800 
1200 


44] 


Velocity of 
wave in feet 
per sec. 


3:15 
3°07 
3 02 
3 24 
3°20 
3°24 
3°24 
3:33 
3°22 
3°33 
3°24 
3°30 
3°20 
3°33 
3:35 
3°40 
3°40 


442 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


ee 


Reference to | Total depth ggeignt ofthe | im devoribmg | | Soace, | gavein fect 
observations. of the wave. wave. space innext | described. per sec. 
column. 
Inches. Inches. Seconds. Feet. 

EN cack 7°33 *29 730 320-0 4:39 
Ve = cscs . 7:44 “40 36:0 160:0 4:44 
DAS ceesas 7:68 “64 28:0 1200 4°37 
LIII. ...... 770 66 27:0 120°0 4:43 
XLVIII.... 7:74 1°54 26°5 120°0 4:44 
LWety<. es 7:75 oF (| 35°5 160:0 

LEMS oc sce 7:79 ‘75 27:0 120:0 4:43 
LANs Siew sels 7°82 78 26°5 1200 4:53 
VA tescace 7°84 80 27-0 120°9 4°43 
LAW th aes cay 7:37 "83 26°5 120°0 4:53 
1G aes ARR 8:00 78 26°5 120-0 4°53 


Observations on the influence of the form of the channel on 
the propagation of the wave extend from Wave LVI. to Wave 
CXLIX., at the end of the report. 

The triangular channel H was of the form given in Plate 
III., fig. 2, its depth having varied by the quantity of water 
poured in, its vertex undermost, one side vertical and the other 
inclined to the horizon at an angle whose radius is to its tan- 
gent as 3 to 2. In all these experiments the wave was ob- 
served to be low and flat on the deep side of the channel, while 
it remained high and cusped on the shallow side; it was also 
long on the deep side, and diminished in length uniformly with 
the diminution in depth. The following table contains an ana- 
lysis of the experiments in the channel H. The first column 
refers to the individual wave made the subject of experiment, 
so that it may be referred to in its place at the end of the re- 
port. The second column contains the total depth reckoned 
from the top of the wave on the deep side. The third column 
gives the height of the wave. The fourth column contains the 
number of seconds employed in describing the number of feet 
given in the fifth column ; and the last column is the resulting 
velocity. 

It should be recollected, before proceeding to compare these 
observations with any formula, that the attraction of the sides 
at the bottom of the channel in the acute angle of the channel 
must be considered as having fixed a portion of the fluid which 
was not affected by the motion of the wave, and which should 
therefore be subtracted from the effective depth. 


ee 


ON WAVES. 4438 


Analysis of Observations of Waves in the Triangular 
Channel Hi., Plate IIT., fig. 2. 


Reference to Total depth Time occupied Velocity of 


ote, |ParMeaaee| aves | space in next | desenbed. | “Sr 
Inches, Ly em Seconds. Feet, “7 

LVM. ... 4°15 ‘] 365 80° 219 
a ee ' : 
= } 4-23 22 33-0 80 2:42 
PR}... ; 
au, } 4°32 31 31-0 755 2-43 
Tibies..., 

LVIII. ot 4:38 37 47-0 1155 2-46 
7 aaa 

LVI... 4-71 70 13°5 355 2-62 
Eee Ly ewe 80 29°5 755 | @57 
LXIX. ... 4-86 85 14:0 35:5 2-53 
in ee 5:29 18 31:0 80-0 9-58 
LEV isc. 5-44 33 45°5 1200 2-63 
LXIll. ... 555 44 58-0 160-0 275 
DMils...: 559 “48 30-0 80-0 2-66 
Wey... 599 +88 120 355 2-95 
LXIIl. .. : 
ae \ 6-01 90 24:5 710 2-89 
TXVi.: 6-18 14 28-0 80-0 2-85 
LXVII. 
eeu } 6-26 21 55S 160-0 2:88 
xvi... 638 34 140 40-0 2-85 
ee 6-44 1:33 12-0 B55 2-95 
LXVIL 6-52 “48 26-5 80-0 3°02 
LXVI. 
een } 6-78 74 35-0 111-0 317 
BEN... 7-10 60 26'5 80-0 3-02 
LXXV. st! 7-12 08 | 395 120-0 303 
LXXIl... ; . ; 
LXXI,, } 7-15 11 78:5 240-0 3-05 
LXXIIL . 
ae \ 7-16 12 525 1600 3-04 
est... 7-21 17 26°5 80-0 3:02 
LXXIIl... 7:36 32 26:5 80-0 3-02 
LXXV. «.. 7-51 ‘47 25-0 80-0 3-20 
LXXIV.... | 7-53 “47 24-0 80-0 333 


_ The triangular channel K was of the form given in Plate 
III., fig. 3, the breadth at the surface of the water being 
12 inches, the depth 4 inches to 0. It.was observed that during 
the whole of the experiments the wave was long and low on the 
deep side ; short and pointed, and considerably higher and con- 
tinually breaking, on the shallow side, so as to leave behind a 
long train of secondary waves. 


pa ae 


ef 


Ad4 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


The trapezoidal channel L was formed by the addition of a 
rectangular portion, 1 inch deep, to channel K. See Plate III. 
fig. 4. 

The trapezoidal channel M was formed by the addition of a 
rectangular portion, 1 inch deep, to channel L. 


Analysis of Observations of Waves in the Channels K, L, M. 


K 
Referenceto | Toteldewh | rreignt of te | inaescrining | ._\Soace, | 1} olgumne 
observations. of the wave. wave. space in next | described. per sec. 
column, 
NG Inches. Inches, i. Feet. oy cal 
LIK: 4-14 “10 19:5 40-0 2-05 
LXXVIIL. 4-2) 17 175 40-0 2:28 
LXXVI.... ; } ; : f 
CRXVI 4:42 37 40°75 102-2 2-50 
LXXVIII. k ‘ : : ; 
eK 4:46 41 31-7 82-2 2-60 
LX XVIII. 5:31 1:27 5-0 146 2-92 
L 
LXXXV.. 5-24 +24 125 40-0 3-20 
LXXXIL - 5:42 “42 135 40:0 3:00 
ESR. 5 7 
LXXXIV. 553 | 53 42:0 120-0 2:90 
LEXKV:.. 
LXXXIV. 568 68 135 411 3-04 
LXXXIIL 5°70 70 12°7 41] 3:23 
LOTR: 577 77 20:0 611 3:05 
LEKKI: L . 4: 
CXXXIV. } 6-41 1-41 85 29 2 3-43 
Xs Kil. 6:47 1:47 45 146 3:24 
LXXXIIL. 6-67 1-67 4-0 146 3°65 
EXXXKV.: 6:92 1-92 4-0 146 3-65 
M 
RO. “Assz edad : ‘ . : 
came zu 6-41 40 13-0 40-0 3-08 
Wise, 5 - , 
ear Re 6:87 86 114 40-0 350 
KOE: t : , , 
SCE Ay 7-43 1-42 9:25 35-7 3:86 


The wedge-formed channel was of uniform depth, twelve 
inches wide at the broad end, and tapering to an edge at the 


ON WAVES. 445 


other; the wave on entering the channel at A was observed ; 
its height was again taken at B, when it had advanced half 
the length of the channel, and had been diminished one half 
in breadth ; and at C, after having passed along three-fourths of 
the length of the. channel, the height was again observed. 
The wave was observed breaking invariably at the height of 
about 3°6 inches above the level of the fluid; and the distance 
from D, the end of the channel, when it broke, is given with 
the sign minus prefixed. On entering the channel the wave 
was low, but gradually increased as it reached the narrower 
parts of the channel, becoming acuminated ; and at last having 
gained the cusped cycloidal form, broke at the crest, and passed 
into the centre angle of the wedge, when it rose suddenly 
over the sides of the channel in a sharp vertical jet d’eau. A 
table of these experiments is given at the end, comprehending 
Waves XCIV.—CVI. 

The sloping channel, Plate II. fig. 6, was formed to imitate 
a sloping sea beach ; its slope rose 1 in 51. The wave entered 
the deep end at a given height, then gradually became more acu- 
minated, formed a cycloidal cusp, and broke. Its height on 
entering, its height when breaking, and the place at which it 
broke were observed and are given in the observations at the end 
from Wave CVII. to CX XXII. The numbers in the last column 
are the depths corresponding to the place of breaking observed 
in the preceding column, and this table shows that the depth at 
breaking corresponds with remarkable accuracy to the height of 
the wave. _ 

A considerable number of observations were made upon the 
translation of the particles of the fluid during the transit of a 
wave, but the results are not of a numerical character, being 
all comprehended in the general expression that the translation 
of the particles takes place wholly in the direction of the motion 
of the wave; that it is of equal extent from the surface to the 
bottom of the channel, that it is permanent, that the particles 
which were in the same vertical plane previous to translation 
are still so after translation. This is not the case in other 
species of waves ; the particles oscillate in opposite directions 
with an alternating motion. 

Experiments were also made on waves formed by the removal 
of a solid body from a quiescent fluid ; these are called negative 
waves, but the investigation of them has not yet been completed. 


Second Series of Observations. 

On the Waves of the Sea.—Are the waves on the surface of 
the sea, when it is agitated by the wind, of the same nature with 
the waves which have already been examined by experiment ? 


446 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Does their velocity depend on the depth of the fluid? Is their 
form cycloidal? What is the cause of their breaking on the 
shore? And what law is observed in their breaking? Why do 
waves in any circumstances break ? What is a breaker? These 
are some of the questions which the Committee have examined, 
and their results are of importance to theory and to navigation. 

The Committee obtained for the purpose of their observations 
on the waves of the sea the use of one of the yachts of the Royal 
Northern Yacht Squadron, which was kindly granted by her 
proprietor, James Bogle, Jun., Esq., at the request of the secre- 
tary. The Mermaid was an excellent sea vessel, but the weather 
was unfortunate ; she was alternately,becalmed and bestormed ; 
one day driven into harbour for refuge and the next day pre- 
vented by calms from leaving harbour. Out of eight days oc- 
cupied in this way not more than one was favourable to obser- 
vation. By subsequently crossing the Irish Channel in steam- 
vessels one or two observations of a sufficiently accurate nature 
were obtained. 

From these observations it appears to be established that the 
velocity of the waves at the surface of the deep water is not a 
direct function of the depth. 

In a depth of 50 to 60 fathoms the velocity was 13°5 miles an hour. 
In a depth of 53 fathoms the velocity observed was 20 miles an hour. 


In a depth of 60 to 70 fathoms the velocity was 17 miles an hour. 
In a depth of 34 to 40 fathoms the velocity was 17% miles an hour. 


In a depth of 51 fathoms the waves produced by a steam 
vessel passing at the distance of about a mile, moved at the 
rate of only 4°3 feet in a second. 

It thus appears that the waves produced by the wind on the 
surface of the deep sea do not follow the same law with the 
great wave of the fluid. In other words they are not primary 
but secondary waves, or waves of some inferior order. They 
do not move with the velocity due to half the depth of the fluid 
in which they are generated. 

The following are the most important and accurate observa- 
vations made on this subject. 

Observations.—The observations were made by bringing the 
vessel nearly to rest in a direction at right angles to the ridge 
of the wave. The cork fenders of the vessel were then attached 
at equal distances to the log-line, and spaces of 200 feet were 
marked off upon it. The time was taken by a common chrono- 
meter; the observations made were upon the transits of the top 
of the wave under the floating buoys attached to the log-line. 
1. 4th Oct. 1836, lat. 55° 38’ N., long, 4° 49’ W. 


Oif the Cambray Islands, 60 to 70 fathoms. 
Space 200 feet, time 7 sec, to 9sec. = 25 feet per sec. 


= 17 miles an hour. 


ON WAVES. 447 


2. 4th Oct., 1836, lat. 55° 32’ N,, long 4° 52’ W. 
Off the Isle of Arran, 50 to 60 fathoms. 
Space 200 feet, time 10sec. = 20: feet per sec. = 13°5 
miles an hour. 
3. 5th Oct. 1836, lat. 55° 29’ N., long. 4° 54! W. 
Of Pladda Lights, 20 to 16 fathoms. 
Space 200 feet, time 11 sec. to 12 sec. = 17°3 feet per 
sec. = 114 miles per hour. 
4. 12th Oct. 1836, lat. 54° 5' N., long. 5° 31! W. 
Off Ardglass Light, in 34 to 40 fathoms. 
Time. 
9°3 sec. 
10:0 
Space = 345 feet< 9:3 = 35 feet — 9 = 174 miles. 
86 


10:0 
5. 12th Oct. 1836, lat. 54° 1’ N., long. 5° 37! W. 
in 53 fathoms. 
9-3 sec. 
Space = 345 feet { 8-6 = 39 feet — 9 = 20 miles per hour. 


8°6 
G6. 12th Oct. 1836, lat, 53° 58! N., long. 5° 39! W. 
in 46 to 44 fathoms. 
Space = 345 feet, time = 9°3 sec. = 37 feet —9 = 19 miles, 

The observations (4-6) were made against a very strong breeze 
and very high waves, about 8 or 9 feet high, and the vessel was 
going in the opposite direction at about the rate of six miles an 
hour. 

7. In 51 fathoms water the City of Glasgow steam packet passed; her waves 
were about 20 inches high, about 12 feet apart, and passed over a space = 150 
feet in 35 sec. = 4°3 feet per sec. 

It became of importance to determine whether the waves of 
the sea produce an agitation which extends to the deep parts of 
the water. It was found that even in moderate depths they do 
not. Thus in a depth of 12 feet—short quick waves, 9 inches high 
and 4 or 5 feet long, do not sensibly affect the water at the bot- 
tom, while waves thirty or forty feet long, oscillating at inter- 
vals of 6 or 8 seconds, produce a sensible effect, although 
much less than at a point nearer the surface. The circumstances 
of these partial oscillations opens up a field of future research. 
The observations made on this subject were obtained by plunging 
a glass tube to a considerable depth, so that the column of water 
contained in it should only be affected by the forces acting upon 
the particles of the fluid at the depth of its orifice below the 
surface. In this way it was ascertained that neither in velocity 
of the wave-surface, nor in the motion of transference of the 
particles, do the waves of the sea resemble the great primary 
wave of translation of the previous experiments. 

It is difficult to ascertain with precision the form of the waves 
of the sea; they appear to belong to the family of the cycloid, 


448 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


The summit of the wave is round and flat so long as its height 
bears only a small ratio to its length in the direction of its 
motion ; but as the height increases the summit of the wave be- 
comes more and more acuminated, and the limit to which the 
height of a wave approaches, but which it never appears to ex- 
ceed, is nearly a third part of its length. If the wave belong to 
the cycloidal family, and if its length being constant the height 
vary with the generating radius, the rolling circle continuing the 
same, we shall have a series of lines accurately representing 
the form of the waves. See Plate II. fig. 1. Now it is manifest 
that when the describing radius of the wave becomes greater than 
the radius of the rolling circle, the curve ceases to have a form 
of possible equilibrium, and that portion which falls down from 
the top.of the wave constitutes the white crest which we observe 
on the summits of the largest waves, when they are said to break. 

There is generally much confusion in the appearance of an 
agitated sea. The waves do not appear regular in their forms, 
their intervals, or their velocities. Sometimes a wave seems to 
stand still or even to retrograde, and frequently after the eye 
has traced a wave for a considerable time it suddenly disappears 
altogether. Close attention will however discover some method 
in this irregularity. 

The surface of the sea is seldom covered with only one series 
of successive waves. Every breeze that ruffles the surface of 
the sea generates a series of waves that move in the direction of 
the motion of the wind. These waves do not subside with the 
breeze which raised them, but continue their oscillations until 
the adhesion of the water or the resistance of the shore has dif- 
fused the elevated fluid uniformly over the surface. In the mean 
time a second breeze springs up in another direction, and new 
waves rise to its pressure and follow its direction ; they mingle 
with those of the former wind without becoming mixed with 
them. Two distinct series of waves are now coexistent, and 
give rise to more complex phenomena. A third gale arises, and 
a new class of waves intersect and overlap the two former, 
while the long low swell—the residue and telegraph of some 
distant storm—rolls across the whole, and to the untutored eye 
leaves nothing to be looked on but a chaos of tumultuous, troubled 
waters. The seeming chaos is however to be analyzed by pa- 
tient attention: by ascending the mast of the ship, or standing 
on an elevated rock on the shore, much of this apparent confu- 
sion may be dispelled; and by attention to the phenomena of 
coexistent oscillations every thing may be understood. 

When a breeze has been blowing for some time in one di- 
rection, and the wind has shifted round into the opposite one 
and blown with nearly equal force, the two sets of waves may 


a ae 


ON WAVES. 449 


be distinctly seen moving in opposite directions ; if they be of 
nearly equal dimensions a very singular appearance results. 
When the crests coincide, the ordinates of the compound wave 
surface become the same ordinates of the elementary waves, 
and their difference when the crest of the one is in the cavity of 
the other ; so that the sea is alternately in the forms represented 
in ec and d, fig. 2, Plate II. 

When these two systems of waves are compounded with a 
third system arising from some other breeze, or by a third sy- 
stem resulting from the reflection of a bold coast, the third series 
combines with the two former in the manner represented in 
fig. 3, with an appearance of still less regularity, and so on for 
any number of parallel systems. 

It is manifest that if these parallel systems be compounded 
with transverse systems, making any angle with the first, we 
shall have a compound system of surfaces of double curvature 
so complex in its structure as to represent the phenomena of the 
most troubled sea. On all occasions where the sea was ob-- 
served, there were found two or more such systems of coexistent 
waves. 

The phenomena of the waves at the surface of the sea appear 
to coincide very well with the hypothesis, that when a wave 
agitates the fluid only to a small depth it may be considered as 
formed in a shallow canal of that depth ; for it may be observed 


_ that a short wave of a given height is always more pointed than 


a longer wave of the same height, and also that whenever a wave 
reaches the limit of the cycloidal form it breaks. 

Whenever the height of a wave exceeds the limit of the cy- 
cloidal form due to its depth, the wave, after having become 
cusped or pointed, passes into the nodated form of unstable 
equilibrium and is broken. See figs. 4 and 5. 

Whenever a wave of a higher order coincides with the ridge 
of one of an inferior order, its curvature at the crest will be a 
maximum, and it may break, although it would not have broken 
on any other part of the wave. See figs. 4and 5, Pl. II. From 
this cause a large wave frequently exhibits the appearance of a 
breaking wave, although its own figure has not approached the 
limits of equilibrium ; but in that case it is not the large wave 
which is breaking, but the smaller one on its summit, whose 
curvature is then increased by the amount of the curvature of 
the greater wave at the crest. 

Waves break on the shore when they reach the point where 
the depth of the fluid becomes nearly equal to the height of the 
wave above the fluid. When at a distance from the shore they 
may be observed long and low, see fig. 6; as they approach the 

VOL. VI. 1837. 2G 


450 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


shallow part of the shore they gradually assume the greater curva- 
ture due to the increased ratio of height to depth ; the form at last 
becomes cusped and perfectly cycloidal, the equilibrium of the 
summit ceases, and the particles of water on the extreme ridge of 
the wave, abandoned to the force of gravity, and aggregated in 
spherical drops by this cohesion, present to the eye the white foam- 
ing crest by which breakers are distinguished. Waves of great 
height are thus broken on the beach at a greater distance from 
the shore than such as are smaller. 

The depth of water may be judged of by the form and height 
of the waves. See fig. 7, Plate II. Where a wave of a given height 
can exist, suppose a wave of five feet, the water must have a 
depth below the surface of at least five feet, and wherever in a 
calm day waves are broken, the depth of the water is equal to 
their height above its surface. 

It must be observed that the existence of a strong wind will 
often destroy the equilibrium of the ridge of a wave, independent 
of depth or of the equilibrium of its proper form. When the 
curvature of the ridge of the wave becomes considerable, and 
it approaches the cusped form, the direct incidence of the 
wind upon the surface of the ridge will derange the equili- 
brium of the thin and slender column presented by the top of it 
before it reaches the limits of undisturbed equilibrium. Hence 
the phenomenon well known to sailors, that a very strong wind 
will blow the sea down, in other words, that it will blow off the 
ridges of the highest waves, and keep them from attaining the 
height they afterwards reach wien the gale has subsided. The 
highest seas are thus generated by the continuance of a strong 
gale in one direction rather than by the sudden and short im- 
pulse of a hurricane ; for in the former case the wind only breaks 
the summits of the smaller waves as they rise to the top of the 
larger ones, so as to add the mass of the smaller to the crest of 
the larger waves, without injuring the equilibrium of the latter ; 
these continual additions increase the magnitude of these great 
waves, while the force of the gale is not sufficiently great to de- 
range their equilibrium. The waves in these circumstances go 
on increasing in magnitude. 

The phenomena of waves breaking on the shore were observed 
principally on a very fine smooth beach of sand, having a slope 
towards the sea of 1* in 50°; so perfectly plane and level was it 
at the time when the observations were made, that a single wave 
a mile in breadth might be observed advancing to the shore, so 
perfectly parallel to the edge of the water that the whole wave 
rose, became cusped, and broke at the same instant ; a line of 
graduated rods was fixed in the water at different depths from 


See ee ae 


Se 


ON WAVES. 451 


6 inches to 6 feet in length, and it was observed that every wave 
broke exactly when its height above the antecedent hollow was 
equal to the depth of the water. At another time when the di- 
rection of the waves was oblique to the edge of the water, the 
breaking crest moved along from one end of the shore towards 
the other, uniformly and gradually as the wave advanced to the 
point of breaking depth, resembling the few de joie of a file of 
soldiers. 

When a wave that has been breaking on ashallow part of the 
water comes suddenly into deeper water, the form ceases to be 
crested, see Plate II.; and the wave subsides into the figure 
due to the depth. 

The phenomena of waves breaking on the shore were accu- 
rately obtained in the experiments No. 107—132, page 492. 
Plate II. figs. 6 and 7. 


Third Series of Observations. 


On the Tide Wave of the River Dee in Cheshire.-—The ob- 
ject of this series of observations was the comparison of the 
tidal wave moving in a given channel with the great primary 
wave of translation previously examined by Mr. Russell. 

To this object the river Dee is peculiarly suitable. Plate VI. 
fig. 1. gives a plan of that river at low water. The upper por- 
tion of the channel of the river is artificial. The waters of the 
river were turned into a new course about the middle of the last 
century. Of this course about 54 miles forms a_ perfectly 
straight canal, along which a large and rapid tidal wave is trans- 
ferred with great velocity. The two points A and B on the 
plan were selected as stations of observation. The distance be- 
tween A and B was carefully measured ; transverse sections of 
the river were made, and soundings were taken throughout the 
whole length of the channel. 

The distance between Aand B . . . . =5:275 miles. 

The mean depth of the channel at low water = 3:0 feet. 

The bed of the river has a slope nearly . =3°8 feet. 

The opposite sides of the river are parallel embankments 
about 500 feet apart at high water mark, but nearly half that 
breadth is occupied by groins, as shown in the sections of the 
river, figs. 2,3, and 4, Plate VII., and the intervals between them 
are filled up with high banks of sand. 

The tides selected to be observed were those which differed 
most in magnitude, and which were least affected by disturbing 
influences. They were made when the weather was settled, 
when there was no sensible wind, and when the river was as 
nearly as possible in its natural state. One entire tide wave was 
obtained on the 7th of September, and two others on the 9th 

262 


452 SEVENTH REPORT— 1837. 


and 13th of that month. In the latter two cases the river was a 
few inches fuller than in the former, as will appear by inspecting 
the table of observations which follows. 
From these observations it may be useful to make the follow- 

ing extracts. 
First wave of flood tide, 7th Sept. reached 

Station Avativesi ais wo oso. ado) Beh 

Station) k Hectic 6 80) MSS oe Se ee 


Time of describing 5°275 miles. . i) ice oe 
First wave of flood tide, 9 oes reached _ 

Station A-at.,. . ; . «hid Saati 

Station-Biat 64? .ce iced oe eee 
Time of describing 5*275 miles. . . o! ah ORES 
First wave of flood tide, 13th CEE reached 

Station Aat . . . vic of a wen ns 

Station Gat 2) yh) 1S) 2 Ye ae 
Time of describing 5°275 miles. . . f° Oe 
The wave of high water of io st reached 

Station Aat .. . - oo TSS 


Station’ B athoyoy. ase. Ais ci Re 


Time of describing 5°275 miles. . . oO ai 
The wave of high water of 9th SH ipy reached 
Station Aat . . . Sy ap . & Ol See 
Stations ati) Jesh ste) Ps os Ln oe ae 
Time of describing 5°275 miles . . . 107 19% 
The wave of high water of 13th Sept. reached 
Station A. afi. ;c1) «as ,<, 02 7 ee 
RSisthom Pas eths, 60 atl Vee Sa OS, Sele 


- Time of describing 5°275 miles. . . . . . . O 18°5 


The following table contains the corresponding velocities of 
the waves. 


WAVE. | Velocity ia tem ot Wave | Height of Wave | woan Depth. {du ap 

locity. 

I 52 0-ft.8-in O-ft.6-in. 3°ft.7-Oin. | 2°Oft. 
II 7:0 15) 6 O° 7: 4: 10°5 3°5 
Ill 7:0 2 8 ye | 5° 0°5 3°5 
1V 10°5 a) 2:1 Gr4- 10° 9:0 7:0 
Vv 16:2 13° 5:7 10° 6 15: 11°8 16-0 
VI 171 15° 8 13° 0 17- 4:0 17:0 


ON WAVES. 453 


In order to make these observations the foundation of any 
conclusions, it will be necessary to observe that it is scarcely 
possible to determine whether the wave which brings flood tide 
to the lower station be the same with that which afterwards 
brings flood tide to the higher station; on the other hand it 
seems more likely that the wave which passed the lower station 
was diffused over the intermediate space in the channel, and 
was overtaken by a subsequent part of the tide, which had not 
reached the lower station till a considerable time after the first 
wave had passed it. This is not a conjecture, but has frequently 
been observed in similar cases where the first wave being be- 
come diffused in the channel ceased to pass onwards and was 
overtaken by a subsequent wave. The result obtained in the 
case of waves I., II., and III. of flood tide is consistent with 
this view, and shows that in these cases the progress of flood 
tide is slower than the velocity due by gravity to the wave of 
the fluid. It is also consistent with the experiments of the 
previous part of this paper, that a breaking wave or bore, as 
this was, has a slower velocity than one which does not break. 

Waves IV., V., and VI., the waves of high water, have almost 
exactly the velocities of great waves of translation of the fluid. 
It will be seen at once by examining the transverse sections of 
the river, that wave IV. must suffer great retardation from the 


‘circumstance that its progress is continually intercepted by the 


groins to which it is almost exactly equal in height, while waves 
V. and VI. rise above them and accordingly approximate more 
closely to the velocity due to the depth. The form of these 
waves and their antecedent bores are given in Plate VI. figs. 1 
and 2. and the observations from which they are deduced are 
given in the following table. 


454 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Tide Wave of the 7th Sept., River Dee, 1836. 


Station A, Jarvis Obs., Chron. No. 4 stand.'|Station B, Jones Obs., Chronom. No. 2, cor. 
H. W. 9" 21™ = 9ft. 2-lin. = + 0-75". H. W.9%50™75 = 6ft. din. 
Flood. Ebb. Flood. Ebb. 

hss in: ||) £6.) 410. 1 an A en tc him: |. -fteims: |he om Jette 

9 2019 21 1920/19 21 19 50/\6 4: 950|6 4 
15/9 17 Not |observed. 45|6 37 55 | 6 37 
LO MEG te 7 40|6 30 110 0|6 25 

Be ges lay / 3516 20 5 | 6 2-0 
0/9 1:5 30/16 07 10 | 6 05 

3855/9 1:5 | 25) 5 11s 15 | 5 11:0 
50/9 0-5 20|\5 87 20 |5 97 
45 | 8 10:5 15|5 63 25 \5 80 
AD a Rs ee. 10,|.5 3:7 30.) 5.697 
35 | 8 65 5| 5 0-7 35 | 5 5:0 
30|8 4 0 | 4 10-0 40 | 5 3:0 
25\8 1: 8855/4 7:0 45 1.5) 0 A°S 
20 | 7 10°5 50|4 4: 50 | 4 11-7 
Toho eae 45 | 4 0:7 55 | 4 10°5 
10|7 4 40|3 10 {11 0) 4 9:0 

517 1 3513 65 5 | 4°75 
0|6 83 30|3 35 10 | 4 60 

755|6 65 25|3 03 15|4 4 
50|6 50 20 | 2 92 20|4 3 
45 | 5 115 15|2 65 25|\4 1:5 
40|5 85 10|2 33 30 | 4 0 
35 | 5 6:0 5|2 oO 35.| 3 10°5 
30|5 1:0 | 0/1 9 40|3 9% 
25 | 4 9 1-7 55) 1 6 45|3 75 
20|4 4 50|1 2 50|3 6 
15|4 0 | 4510 83 55.|3 4:7 
LO: |. 7 40\0 7 (12 0/3 30 

5|3 1: | 3510 5: 513 31 
0/2 8 | 30/0 4 10|3 05 

655|2 1: Woe ea rar, 15 | 2 11-2 
50|1 9 20| 0 3:5 20 | 2 10°5 
45/1 1: 15/0 3 25 | 2 93 
40 | 0 11° 10|0 27 30 | 2 80 
35|0 & / 5 | 0 25 35 |2 7:0 
30|0 6 0|0 20 40 | 2 60 
25 | 0 6 55 45 | 2 5:0 

| 20|0 2 50 50 | 2 42 


\ 


ON WAVES, 455 


Tide Wave of the 9th Sept., River Dee, 1836. 


Station A, Jarvis Obs., Chron. No. 4 stand. | Station B, Jones Obs., Chron. No. 2 cor. 


H. W. 105 35™ = 13 ft. 5°75 in. = — 0°5™, H. W. 105 54°75 = 10 ft. 6in, 
Flood, Ebb. Flood. Ebb. 
Teeemoseye f6..09In | oh me |) fe ine | hem. |! fe. ane] he ms “| Fe in. 

10 35 | 13 5:7/10 35 | 13 5°7/10 55 | 10 6- |10 55 |10 6: 
30), 13 5°5 40 | 13 5:7 50} 10 5:5/11 0/10 5:5 
25 | 13 4:5 45 |}13 5: 45 |10 4: 5 10 5: 
20 | 13 3. SO Vis 9S: 40/10 25 10 |10 3:5 
L5 PWS fF 1- 55 113 (1:5 35 | 10 0-5 15 110 2:0 
10} 12 11/11 0} 12 11° 30 9 10: 20 110 0O- 

Dp Tt? 685 5 | 12 9: 25 9 75 25 |}9 9:5 
0} 12 65 10 | 12 7:5 20 9 5: 30/19 7:0 
9 55 | 12 4:0 15 | 12° 5:0 15 8 11°? 35 | 9 35 
50} 12 0°5 20 | 12 25 10 8 9°5 40|19 1:0 
45 | 11 10-0 25 |;12 0O- 5 @ Sy5* 45 |} 8 9:5 
40} 11 7:5 30/11 9 0 8 1:5 50 | 8 7:0 
35 | 11 4 35 | 11 6 9 55 7 85 5518 3:5 
30} 11 1°5 40} 11 3 50 7 3 112 0:18 0:0 
25 | 10 11: 45} 11 0- 45 6 10°5 5|7 9:0 
20/10 7:5 50 | 10 9: 40 6 6: 10|7 6:5 
15 | 10 4: 55 | 10 5 35 6 1: T5177) oo 
10 9 11° 112 0; 10 2 30 5 as 20|7 2:0 
5 9 6: 5 9 11: 25 5." S* 2516 11: 
0 9 1: 10 9 & 20 4 10: 30/6 8 
8 55 8 8 15 9 4 15 4 45 35 |6 6: 
50 Sie: 20 9 1: 10 3 10°5 40/6 3 
45 7 & 95 8 10: 5 3.C«*SSs 45|6 1: 
40 70 1°5 30 8 7:5 0 2 10: 50 | 5 10- 
35 6 7:5 35 8 4: 8 55 24S: 5D | 5p 85 
30 6 0: 40 So) ds 50 5s LT 0 ot a0 
25 aie De 45 7 11: 45 0 10: 5|5 4 
20 4 9: 50 i: 40 0 4: TO ah 
15 4 0 55 TP tKae 35 0 4: 15 | 4 11:5 
10 3 2 13 0 2 30 0 4: 20 |4 92 
5 DiEt4 5 6 ll: 25 |4 7 
0 0 10: 10 6 6:7 3014 5°5 
15 6 5: 35 |4 3 
20 6 25 40 | 4 1:5. 
25 5 11:5 45 | 3 11:5 
30 5 9°0 .50 | 3 10° 
35 5. 5:2 55/3 8 


The observations under the words flood and ebb are uncorrected for the error 
of the chronometer : the correction is given at the head of each column. 
The time and magnitude of high water are correctly given at the head of 
each column. 
The time and magnitude of the same tides as given in the almanack for 
Liverpool are Sept. 7, 8h 57™ 10ft. 10in, 
Sept. 9,10 26 13 7 
Sept.13, 0 387 18 0 


456 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 
Tide Wave of the 13th Sept., River Dee, 1836. 


Station A, Jarvis Obs., Chron. No. 4 stand.|| Station B, Jones Obs., Chron. No. 2 cor. 


H. W. 124 35™ = 15 ft. Sin. = —15. H. W.12"53-"5 = 13 ft. 0-in, 
(22.2 bel he aR SIN 
Flood. Ebb. Flood. Ebb. 
_ ena 

h. m.| ft. in. | h. m.} ft in. h m ft. in. | h. m ft. in 
12.35/15 8 (12 35 | 15 8 |12 55/13 0: Ile 55 13 0 
30/15 7:5 40|15 7. 50 | 12 11-7} 1 0} 12 11-7 
25115 65 45|}15 6 45 | 12 10-7 5 | 12 95 
20|15 5: 50/15 5. 40 | 12 10-0 10 | 12 655 
15 |15 4 55/15 4 35 | 12 8-0 15/12 37 
LOLS AS Dl 1B «ge 30/12 50] 20] 12 07 

| 15 455 5115 0 25) 12 0 25 | 11 10 
0/15 o- 10 | 14 9 20/}11 7 30} 11 7 
1155 |14 9 15 | 14 55 15 pad oe 35 [11 4 

50] 14 55! 20/14 a7 10} 10 7:5 40}11 1 
45|14 2 25 1 13.41- 5 | 9 1155 45 | 30 10°5 
40 | 13 10: 30113 9 0; 9 40; 50/10 7-0 
35/13 6 35} 13 5 111 55 | 8 90 55/10 3-0 
30113 2: 40/13 2 50/| 8 1:0;/2 0/10 0o- 
25 |12 9 45 | 12 10- any, 7 70 Bi 9B 
20/12 5 50] 12 7- 40} 7 35 10| 9 4 
15}12 3 551/12 3 35| 6 9 15|/ 9 0- 
10/11 7 |2 0/12 © 30/ 5115} 20] 8 9 
5 | 10 10°5 5] 11 755 25! 5 4:0) 2957 8° 6 
0/10 4 10] 11 4 20! 4 80! 30] 8 3 
1055 | 9 6 15/11 oO 15/ 311:0] 35] 7 116 
50 | 8 10- 20] 10 65 10} 3 00 40| 7 8 
45] 8 Oo 25/10 3 5| 2 30 45| 7 5: 
40.) 73. 30| 10 o- Oh Towe 50| 7 3 
35 | 6 5:5 35| 9 6 111055] 0 2 55 | 7. 0 
30} 5 9% 40] 9 1°55 3.0] 6 9 
25} 4 10 45] 811° Su we ashe 

2 3 11: 50| 8 6 10} 6 3 
15} 210 55| 8 2 15H Ge DA 
10} 0 3 0/ 710° | 20| 5 9 

5 Bal. 7 GA5} 25 5° 7s 

0 10); 7 2 | 30; 5 4 

15 | 6 10-7! 35 | 5 0 

20:1 Gy Fg. 40| 4 9 

25| 6 37) 45| 4 6 
30} 6 05) 50| 4 3-7 

= Ne eC ley 55| 4 7° 
| 40] 5 5-5) 60 | 3 105 


It was observed that the flood tide of the 13th was attended in passing the 
lower station, A, with a very considerable breaking bore or surge on the sides. 


Both of the tide gauges were placed in deep water at some distance removed 
from the banks of the river. 


ON WAVES. 457 


Fourth Series of Observations. 


On the Tide Wave of the River and Frith of Clyde in 
Scotlund.—The observations on the river Dee having been 
necessarily very limited in number, and in the means as well as 
objects of inquiry, suggested the nature and indicated the ne- 
cessity of a more extensive series of observations of the tide 
wave in its progress along some limited channel whose dimen- 
sions might be determined with the requisite precision. The 
river and frith of Clyde on the west coast of Scotland were at 
once suggested to the Committee, as in every way suitable to 
the objects of their inquiry. That river is, like the Dee, con- 
tained in a channel, which is a work of art rather than of 
nature, having been rendered one of the finest rivers in Britain 
by the perseverance, enterprise, and wealth of the citizens of 
the important manufacturing and commercial city, whose mer- 
chandise it transports from all quarters of the world. Your 
Committee made application, with the assistance of Sir Thomas 
Brisbane, the President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and 
one of the former presidents of the British Association, to the 
board of Commissioners or Trustees of the navigation of the 
Clyde, and were fortunate in obtaining their cordial and ‘ef- 
fectual co-operation in conducting all the observations and ob- 
taining all the information they required. The willing assistance 
of Mr. Logan the engineer of the river, was given in conducting 
the observations; at his request simultaneous observations were 
made at several other ports in the vicinity ; Captain Denham, 
R.N., of Liverpool, was good enough to order similar obser- 
vations at that port; Professor Nicol kindly placed the instru- 
ments in the college observatory at their disposal, for regulating 
the time-keepers of the observers, and nothing was omitted 
that could give the observations value and general interest. 
Moreover, it was fortunate that the board of Trustees had just 
obtained very accurate surveys of the river with transverse sec- 
tions, at distances of each quarter of a mile; and they further 
ordered that the stations of observation should be connected by 
a system of levelling. -These were all placed at the disposal of 
the Committee by the Trustees and their engineer, who were of 
opinion that observations of that nature were of equal value to 
the practical navigation and improvement of their river, as to 
the theoretical speculations of the British Association. 

Throughout the greater part of 18 miles, the distance be- 
tween Glasgow and Port-Glasgow, the river Clyde is little more 
than an inland tidal canal, excavated and embanked by artificial 
means; it then expands into a frith of considerable breadth, 


458 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


extending about 25 miles down to the outer Cumbray Island, 
where it terminates. The whole of this space was embraced by 
the observations. : 

Plate VIL. contains a plan of the river Clyde; the stations at 
which tide gauges were erected and observers placed are marked 
in the plan. Nine different stations were occupied; the first 
of these was at the harbour at Glasgow, immediately below 
which, the river is for about 5 miles of nearly uniform width 
and depth, and in this division were three stations, No. I., IL, 
and III. Thenext division of the river is wide, irregular, and of 
variable depth, comprehending stations III., 1V., and V. The 
third division of the river is deep and broad from station V. to 
station VII. The river then opens out into a wide and deep 
frith, and at a distance of about 5 miles further down, on op- 
posite sides of the frith, were placed stations VIII. and X. 
Station IX. was at the light-house on the outer Cumbray Island, 
which stands at the mouth of the frith. A great variety of 
channel was thus included in the observations. 

The observations were made with a tide-gauge, constructed 
for the purpose of preventing the oscillations of the waves of 
the surface; a glass tube traversed the scale; the tube open 
abdve terminated below in a stop-cock, by which the aperture 
was regulated, and which communicated with along narrow 
pipe descending into deep water; the indications of this 
gauge were free from inconvenient oscillation, even in a rough 
sea, to which it was exposed. The scale of the gauge was so 
constructed as to be read with ease at a considerable distance. 
This gauge is recommended as one that can be used with ease 
and perfect accuracy by a telescope from a great distance, and 
which might therefore afford the means of making observations 
in situations where otherwise it would be impracticable. The 
indications of the gauge were written down every five minutes 
during the entire progress of one tide wave each day, and of 
two successive tide waves on the evening of each Friday. The 
following table contains the observations of heights, all referred 
to the same level, as accurately determined by Mr. Kyle for the 
first seven stations, and as interpolated for eight and nine. 


459 


ON WAVES. 


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» ee ee 


Lea; 


SEVENTH REPORT 


460 


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—_——___. 


GNIM JO NOILOGUIG F HLONAULS 


ae EE ee | Sel ES Suh Sei eo an | 


*PpanutzU0d suOTwAIasqG Jo a1aV, 


ON WAVES. 461 


From these observations it appears that the summit of the 
tide wave increases in height as it ascends the river. From 
station VII. to station VI. this increase amounts to about 
2 inches ; at station V. it amounts to 5°2 inches; at III. it has 
become 6°1 inches ; and at Glasgow 10:1 inches is the difference 
between the level of the wave of high water above that at Port 
Glasgow, 18°5 miles below. This difference varies slightly 
with the state of the tides, and with the condition of the current 
of fresh water in the river. At low water the surface of the 
river is higher at Glasgow than at Port Glasgow by 33 inches ; 
at station III. this difference is 27 inches, at IV. about 25 inches, 
and at V. about 12 inches. 


Difference of level at H. W. Difference of level at L. W. 


Station I. 10°1 inches. 33 inches. 
Station II. 9°1 inches. 31 inches. 
Station III. 7-0 inches. 27 inches. 
Station IV. 6°1 inches. 25 inches. 
Station V. 5°2 inches. 12 inches. 
Station VI. 2-2 inches. 5 inches. 
Station VII. 0:0 inches. O inches. 


The comparison of these numbers with the channel of the 
rivers in Plate VIII. will be interesting, as showing the influence 
of the form of the channel upon the height of the tide wave and 
the current of the river. 

Plate V. is a diagram showing the height of the tide wave 
as it reached the successive stations in various states of the 
wind. The waves are transposed so as to have a common 
origin, at station VIII. The effect of westerly winds in in- 
creasing the height of the wave, and of easterly winds in de- 
pressing it, is manifest. The wave of the 24th of April is 
curious in this respect, that whereas the wind had been west- 
erly, and changed, during the progress of the high water, to 
the east, so the wave which previously was higher, afterwards 
becomes lower than those adjacent to it; it therefore intersects 
them. The wind was in no case equivalent to what is con- 
‘sidered a gale or storm. 

Plate IV. represents the form of the tide wave as it passed 
the successive stations on the River and Frith of Clyde. 
A series of stars marks the centre of the wave, and has been 
placed there for the purpose of showing the dislocation of the 
wave, or the transposition of its higher parts forward, or the 
retardation of its lower parts by the shallowness of the water 
through which it has advanced. There is a remarkable re- 
version of this process in the wave of the Cumbray, Station IX., 


462 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


which is probably produced by the circumstance that it is the 
result of two waves (one behind the other). The corresponding 
wave at Liverpool is also given; it is also a compound of two 
waves, which coincide nearly in time. 

From a laborious discussion of these observations, it appears 
that the wave of high water travels 


From IX. to VIII. in 6 min. 14 miles. 80 mil ene 
From VIII. to VII. in 9 min. 6 wat TARCEED GE 
From VII.to VI. in 6 min. 3°75 miles. 20 mil 1 

Brom - -V1.,f0) esa in 18 min. 4°25 miles. fe pn at ere 
From V.to IV. in 19 min. 2:5 miles. 8-1 mil Be 
From IV.to ITI. in 18 min. 2°5 miles, f a so al 
From. sLLI. to. 2 “UE: in 15 min. 2°75 miles. 15 mil hour 
From II. to Ll in 7 min. 2°78 alee peg 


These results show that in the deep water being between 40 
and 60 fathoms, or between 240 and 360 feet deep, the wave 
travels at the enormous rate of 30 miles an hour; that on 
reaching water from 20 to 30 feet deep, the velocity is di- 
minished to 20 miles an hour; and from V. to II. where the 
river is wide, shelving, and shallow, the velocity of the tide 
wave is retarded to 8 miles an hour; while on ascending fur- 
ther up; where the banks nearly upright, and the contracted 
width give an increase of mean depth, the velocity has a cor- 
responding increase to 15 miles an hour. 

By examining the plans it will be apparent that we shall not 
err greatly if we assume the average depth of the river, from I. 
to III., at 15 feet. From ITI. to V. the river is wide and 
shallow, spreading over extensive banks, where there are not 2 
feet of water, for which we may be allowed to take a third part 
of the greatest as a mean depth, or about 5 feet. In the di- 
vision from V. to VII., both depth and breadth increase very 
rapidly to about 35 and 37 ; taking 25 feet as the mean depth, 
we have 


Velocities of the Tide- Mean depth. Velocity due 
wave as observed. to depth. 
80 miles an hour. 240—360 feet. G6O0—80 miles. 
20 miles an hour. 25 feet. 19-3 miles. 
8:1 miles an hour. 5 feet. 8-6 miles. 
15 miles an hour. 15 feet. 14-9 miles. 


The following are the results of the observations in regard to 
the time of high water :— 


At Cloch Light,—High Water is 9 Min. earlier than at Port Glasgow. 


Lazaretto-Point ..........-.06. A do. do. 
Cumbray Light-house ......... 15 do. do. 
Portteatuick yh pcped-tencdve pear {| do. do, 


a 


aes 


ON WAVES. 463 
At Cloch Light,—High Water is 51 Min. earlier than at Port Glasgow. 
Liverpool ......... sea enenaneed se 51 do. do. 
Whitehaven ...... sadessséndeedssO2 do. do. 
Newry --rcecscseeeee Sey Baer 85 do. do. 
Donaghadee ...........s000008 127 do. do. 
Port-Rush ..........sse0ee0 5h. 35 do. do. 

At Garmoyle Light,—H. W. is 6 Min. later than at Port Glasgow. 
GWU GE ee cade eee ocacedavbe as o> 24 do. do. 
Rashilee i. 5.0.2.ocsessecenesnes 43 do. do. 

Clyde iBank} ic..,..5.sesnactd- oe 61 do. do. 
Crawford’s Quay .....+..sece0e 76 do. do. 
Broomielaw .........sseessseeees 83 do. do. 


Being 1 hour 23 minutes between Port Glasgow and the Broomielaw. 


It is difficult to determine whether the wind produced a de- 
cided effect on the velocity of these tides. By adiscussion which 
was attempted, it appear.d that on all the days in which the 
easterly wind prevailed, compared with all the days on which 
the westerly wind prevailed, there was a difference of one mi- 
nute more and of one minute less than the mean; the tide 
being accelerated by the coincident wind and retarded by the 
opposing one. 

The continuation of this series of inquiries will be given in 
the next Report. 


Description of the Tables containing the original Observa- 
tions of the Waves in Artificial Channels made tn 1837. 


Each of the first ninety-three tables contains the history of 
a single wave, including the condition of the fluid previous to 
generation—the method of generation—the volume of the wave 
at the commencement of its path—the height of the wave at every 
transit—the interval between its transits—the space described, 
and the time occupied in describing it. The methods of ob- 
serving and the observers’ names are given, for the sake of authen- 


ticity, except in the first four experiments, which are not suff-: 


ciently perfect to form by themselves the grounds of any im- 
portant conclusions. 

The approximate depth of the fluid is given at the head of 
each table in the first line for convenience of reference. 

The corrected or true depth of the fluid at the commencement 
of the observations is given immediately above the columns of 
observations, where it is given as “ corrected statical depth =”, 

The “ observed stutical level” is the indication of the height 
of the fluid on the scale of the glass indices or gauges represented 
in Plate I., taken from an arbitrary line and affected by an index 


464 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


error, from which the “ corrected statical level’”’ is derived by a 
correction obtained from observation. 

The modes of generating the fluid were very numerous, but 
as the resulting phenomena of the waves were found to be inde- 
pendent of the mode of generation, a sufficient number only are 
given to establish the means of comparison. These extend from 
Wave I. to Wave XXV. Those waves “created by reservoir 
A” were formed by filling that portion of the channel at the 
end of the experimental channel of Plate I. with a given volume 
of water, which was added to the water in the channel by the 
sudden removal of the sluice S, and so formed the wave. The 
waves ‘‘ generated by impulsion” of sluice were formed by 
placing the sluice at the back of reservoir A, and suddenly bring- 
ing it to the front of the reservoir, so as to communicate a hori- 
zontal impetus to the fluid forming the wave. The waves 
“generated by detached chamber B”’ were formed by placing 
the rectangular vessel B, Plate I., at the end of the reservoir and 
filling it with water to a given volume: by raising the sides of 
this vessel from the bottom of the reservoir, the column of water 
was allowed to descend by gravity and generate the wave. 

Column A contains the number of feet described by the wave 
from the commencement of the observations. 

Column B contains the interval of time given by two observers 
and two chronometers, « and 6: these intervals of time corre- 
spond to the spaces in column A. 

Column C contains the observations of height of the wave 
made in two sets of glass indices—index y near the end B of 
the experimental channel, and index 8 near the end D, Plate I. 

Column D contains the heights of the waves at y and 4, freed 
from error of scale. 

Column E contains the sum of the corrected height of the wave 
and of the corrected depth of the fluid, taken from a mean of 
the observations. 


ON WAVES. 465 
2nd Aug,, 1837. WAVET. Depth 4 inches, 
Created by Reservoir A. Volume of added fluid = 152:5 inches. 


Transits observed directly at Index y, without reflection, 


Statical level observed at y 2 7 ~ Ooi Corrected statical depth = 3942 inches. 


A B Cc D | E/| A B Cc D E 


feet. | a sec.|@ sec.|y in.|din.|yin.|3’in.| in, || feet. |a sec. |@ sec. |y in. |} in.}y/in.|¥’in.| in. 
wee | eee | eee | 0°50/0°60) 0°55/0°61) ... |] 280°) 81-5] ... | 0-20/0-17] 0-2510-18] 4:17 
0- | 0:0) ... | 0-50/0-50} 0°55/0-51) 4-50]| 320°) 84-0) ... | 0-15)0°17] 0-20/0-18) 4-15 
40° | 12-0] ... | 0-47/0-43) 0-52/0-44) 4-46}, 360° | 105-0) ... | 0°10/0-15] 0-15|0-16) 4-12 
80- | 23:6] ... | 0-37|0-40| 0-42)/0-41) 4-40)| 400-| 117-0) ... | 0°17/0-13] 0-22/0-14) 4-12 
120- | 35-0| ... | 0°30/0°31| 0:35|0°32) 4:34|) 440: | 129°0) ... | 0°10/0-13] 0-15/0-14) 4-11 
160- | 47:0) ... | 0:30/0-27/ 0-35/0-28) 4-28}| 480: | 141-0) ... | 0-10/0-10} 0-15/0-11| 4-09 
200° | 58:5] ... | 0-27/0-23) 0-32)0-24) 4-25), 520-| 153°5) ... | 0-10.0-09) 0-15|0-10) 4-07 
240- | 70:5) ... | 0- 20,0: 20) 0°25/0°21) 4:20]) 560-| 165-5} ... | 0-07) ... 0-12] ... | 4-06 

2nd Aug., 1837. WAVETII. Depth 4 inches. 


Created by Reservoir A. Volume of added fluid = 152-5 inches. 
Transits observed directly at Index y, without reflection. 


Statical level observed at (t= es ain nie 12} Corrected statical depth =3-812 inches. 


A B Cc D E| A B 
- 2 EES Se Pee 
feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in.|y’in.|3’in.| in. |) 
see | cee | eee | 0°50|0°60) 0-70/0-72) ... |! 
00- 0:0} ... | 0°50/0:51) 0-70/0-63) 4-50 
40: | 11:5] ... | 0°47/0-42| 0:67/0-54| 4-48 
80- | 23:0} ... | 0°37/0:35| 0:57/0-47| 4-40): < 
120: | 35-0] ... | 0-30/0-27| 0-50|0-39| 4-32 
160- | 45:0) ... ‘| 0-27/0:20) 0-47|0-32) 4-26 
200: | 580] ... | 0°17/0-14) 0-37/0-29) 4-18), 


D E 


0-07|0-03) 0-27|0-15) 4-06 
0-00} -00| 0-20/0-12) 4-01 
0-00/—-02! 0-20/0-10) 3-98 
—05|-"07] 0°15)0-03) 3-96 


2nd Aug., 1837. WAVE III. Depth 4 inches. 


Created by Reservoir A. Volume of added fluid = 137:3 inches. 
Transits observed directly at Index Ys without reflection. 


Statical level observed at x it ey Be 07 7} Corrected statical depth = 3-872 inches. 


A B Cc D E || A B C D E 

feet. | « sec.|@ sec. y in./2 in.|y’in./o’in.| in. || feet. |  sec.|6 sec.|y in.|3 in.|y’in.|3’in.| in, 
meaty kas «-. | 0:47/0-52) 0-60/0-59] ... || 200: |60-0 0-17/0°17| 0-30/0-24| 4-16 
0- | 0:0 | 0:0 | 0-40/0-47) 0-53)0-54| 4-45]| 240: (71-25 ... | 0-10/0-15] 0-23)/0-22) 4-12 
40° |12-0 | ... | 037|0-39) 0:50/0-46) 4-40)| 280-|83-5 | ... | 0-10/0°11} 0-23/0-18) 4-10 
80- |23-75] ... | 0:30/0-31) 0-43)/0-38) 4-33)/| 320: |96:0 | ... | 0-:07|0-10} 0-2010-17| 4-08 
120- |35:5 | ... | 0:22)0-22| 0-35|0-29| 4-26|| 360-|107-5| ... | 0-05/0-09| 0-18)0-16| 4-05 


160: [47:75] ... | 0-20/0-19) 0-33|0-26} 4-18] 400-|119:5}| ... | 0°02/0-07] 0°15/0-14] 4-02! 
VOL. vI. 1837. 2H 


466 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


2nd Aug., 1837. WAVE IV. Depth 4 inches. 


Created by Reservoir A. Volume of fluid added = 152°5 inches. 
Transits observed directly at Index y, without reflection. 


Statical level observed at x Lena 0-00 } Corrected statical depth = 3-95. 


D E|| A B Cc D E 
Jin.|y/in.|¥in,| in, || feet. | a sec. |Bsec. y in,|3 in.|97/ in, |4in.| in. 
0°62) 0-60\0-62| ... || 400. |120-0 | ... | 0-20.0-19) 0°15/0-19) 4-15 
0:58) 0:60/0-58) 4-56|| 440. |132:5 | ... |0°150-15) 0-10/0-15) 4-13 
0-49) 0:55/0-49| 4-53|| 480. |145-0| ... | 0°150-14) 0-10/0-14) 4-10 
0:41) 0-50/0-41) 4°46)! 520. }157-5 | ... | 0-15,.0-13) 0-10)0-13) 4-09 
0°37) 0-42/0°37| 4:39)| 560° |170-0| ... | 0-150-13) 0-10)0-13) 4-09 
0:30) 0:35/0-30) 4-33|| 800-|182-5 | ... | 0°15.0-13| 0-10)0-13) 4-09 
0-26} 0:35|0-26) 4-28)| 840.|195-0| ... | 0-12.0-11| 0-070-11] 4-08 
0-21) 0°32/0:21) 4:26), 880. |206-5| ... | 0°12.0-10) 0-07,0-10) 4-07 
0°20| 0-25/0-20) 4-21)|1020- |219:0) ... | 0-12.0-10) 0-07,0-10) 4-07 
0:20] 0-26|0-20) 4-18)/1060: |231-5 | ... | 0°10.0-10) 0-06,0-10) 4-06 
0°19} 0-20/0-19) 4-17/|1100- |244-0| ... 0-10/0-10 0:05/0-10 4-05 

3rd Aug., 1837. WAVE V. Depth 4 inches. 


Generated from Reservoir A. Volume of fluid added = 152-5 inches. 
Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. 
Observers « Glover, ® Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


a= —010 } Corrected statical depth — 3°922. 


Statical level observed at B= — 0-00 


A B Cc D Ej) A B Cc D E 


feet. | « sec.|@ sec.| y in.|3 in.|7/in.|d’in.| in. || feet. | @ sec.|6 sec. yin, in. 7 in.|d’in.| in. 
0-47|0:50) 0:57/0°50) ... || 160° | 47-5] ... | 0°22:0-24/0-32 |0-24) 4-23) . 
A 0°47|0-50) 0-57|0-50} 4-46|| 200- | 59-5] ... | 0:20,0-22/0-30 |0-22| 4-21 
OP iee Ora eet 0-42 0-48 0520-48] 4-43] 240° | 71-5] ... | 0°17.0-20/0-27 |0-20] 4-18 
40: | 115]... | 0-42'0-41) 0°52/0-41) 4-42) 280- | 83:5]... | 0°12'0-17)0-22 0-17 415 
80: | 23:5} ... | 0°35,0°30) 0-45)/0°30) 4-38] 320- | 95-0] ... | 0-10] ... |0-20)| ...] 4°12 
120: | 36:0] ... 027/027 0537 | 0-27 | 4°50 S609! | eee ees sae aoe cok etme eee 


3rd Aug., 1837. WAVE VI. Depth 4 inches, 
Generated from Reservoir A. Velume of fluid added = 228-7 ? inches. 
Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. 
Observers « Glover, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


pent: 0-09 ¢ Corrected statical depth = 4-013. 


oe) aye Cc D> | Bape B Cc D E 
feet. | a sec.|6 sec.|yin.|d in. |y’in./2’in.| jn. |} feet. asec.|B sec./yin.|3 in. |7in.|3’ in.| in. 
. |0°60/0-... | O-G1] +.» |... || 160° | 46-5 47-0/0°30/0-47? 0-31] 0°26) 4-29 
vee | eee | eee |0°57)0-... | 0°58) --» | 4:56, 200° | 58-0?) 58-0'0-25/0-382| 0:26] 0-21) 4-26 
0: | 0: | O+ |0:52)0-602| 0:53/¥°51) 4-52 | 240- | 70-0 | 70-0,0-25/0-352) 0-26] 0-14) 4-24 
40: | 11-0} 11-0/0-45)/0-502/ 0-46|0'41! 4-46)] 280° | 81-5 | 82-0/0-20/0-302) 0-21| 0-11) 4-21 
80: | 23:0} 238-0/0-37|0-472| 0:38]0°37| 4-37|/320- | ... | 95-0) ... |0°232]... re 
120: | 35-0] 35-0/0-32|0-38?) 0:33]0°29 432, SOOT Wt el a leer [nen | UROr mas 


Statical level observed at 


‘Those marked thus ? were noticed at the time of observation as imperfectly observed. 


| {80° | 22-0} 22-0) 1-30}1-30} 1-15 


ON WAVES. 467 


3rd Aug., 1837. WAVE VII. Depth 4 inches. 


Generated from Reservoir A. Volume of fluid added = 152-5 inches, 
Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. 
Observers a Glover, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, } Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at B =. ig joes } Corrected statical depth = 4-07. 


A B C D E 


Vin.| in. || feet. 


z sec./B sec. y in. in. |y/in,|3’in.| in. 


feet. |  sec.|@ sec.|y ae y in. 


ace | eee | «ee | 0°620°72| 0°53'0-59| ... || 240° | 69:5 70:0) 0-30/0'30 0-21\0-17| 4-26 
see | eee | «-.*|0°600°70 051/057 4-62|| 280- | 81-0] 82-0) 0-30/0:30| 0-21/0-17| 4-26 
O° | O | O° | 0-57/0:62) 0°48 (0-49 4-58|| 320° | 93:0| 93-0) 0-27/0-29| 0-18|0-16] 4-23 


40: | 11-0 /12-0 0:50,0-57 0°41/0-44 4-52) 360- |104-5 |105-0) 0:25/0-27 0:16)0-14) 4-21 
80° | 22°5 |27-5?| 0-40)0 54) 0-31/0-41| 4-46|| 400- |116-5 |116-5| 0-25/0-25| 0-16|0-12] 4-20 
0-40) 0°31|0-27/ 4-40|| 440- |129-0 |129-0} 0-22/0-23| 0-13/0-10} 4-18 
0°38} 0-28/0:26} 4-35)]| 480: |140-0| ... | 0-22/0-23} 0-13/0-10| 4-18 
0-33] 0:26|0-20} 4-27|| 520° |152-0 oda frend) Vaud? Maser trea 


120: | 34:5 |35:0 | 0-40 
160° | 46:0 |47-0 | 0-37 
200: | 58-0 58-0 | 0:35 


3rd Aug., 1837. WAVE VIII. Depth 4 inches. 


Generated by impulsion of Sluice. Volume of fluid added = 305: inches, 
Transits observed by reflection at the Central Station. 
Observers « Glover, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at { B Ez a Hes } Corrected statical depth = 4°15 inches. 


A B c D |E | A B | c D |E 
feet in, || feet. in.|) in.|9/in.|3/in.| in. 


. | a sec./@ sec.|y in.|3 ia.|7/in.|3’in. @ sec.|6 sec.| y 

AE Dh As -- | 1-10)1-20/ 0-95/1-00) ... || 320- | 91-0] 90-0] 0-47/0-45| 0-32|0-25] 4-48 
0- | O- | 0: | 1-07|1-13) 0-92/9-03) 5-10)| 360- |102-5 |103-0) 0-42/0-42] 0-27/0-22] 4-43 
40: | 11-0} 11-0} 1-00)1-01) 0-85)0-81) 5-02) 400- |114-0 |114-5] 0-4010-40| 0-2510-20| 4-40 
80- | 22-0} 22-0) 0-90/0-90) 0-75|0-70) 4-95]| 440- |125-5 |125-0) 0-3710-39| 0-22!0-19] 4:37 
120: | 33:5 | 33-5) 0-80,0-80) 0-65/0-60| 4-85|| 480- |138-0 1137-5) 0-37/0-34| 0-22/0-14| 4-36 
160- | 44:5 | 45-0) 0-70,0-71) 0:55/0-51) 4-75)] 520° |150-0 |150-0| 0-32/0:30) 0-17/0-10) 4-33 
200: | 56-5 | 56-0) 0-70.0-60) 0-55/0-40) 4-69|| 560- |162-0 |162-0| 0-30/0-30| 0-15|0-10) 4-29 
240: | 67:5 | 67-5) 0-60/0-58| 0-45/0-38| 4-61|| 600: |174-0 |174-0] 0-30/0-27] 0-15/0-07| 4-28 
280° | 79:0| 79-5} 0:52\0-49| 0-37|0-29) 4-55]! 640+ |186-0 |185-0| 0-3010-26 915 10-06 4:27 


3rd Aug., 1837. WAVE IX, Depth 4 inches, 


Generated by impulsion of Sluice. 
Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. 
Observers « Glover, @ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at { B a 2 a i Corrected statical depth = 4°15. 


feet. | « sec.|G sec.|y in.|) in.|9/in.|3’in.| in. || feet. | «sec. 8 sec.|y in.|3 in.|y’in.|¥in.| in. 


eee [see | eee | 2°00)1-90) 1-85)1-69] .... || 120. | 33-5 | 33-5] 1-20/0-90| 1-05/0-69) 5-15 


0-| O- O- | 1-50)1-50) 1-35/1-29| 5-67|| 160- |... |... | 1-00/0-92] 0-85/0-71 4:97 
40: | 11-0} 11-0) 1-40/1-35} 1-25/1-14 5°46)| 200: | 56:0] 56-0) 1-00|0-77| 0-85{0-56] 4-91 
0} 1-15 /1-09 5-38) 240° | 67:5 | 67-5] 0-90|0-69| 0-75/0-48] 4-81 


2H? 


’ 


468 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


3rd Aug., 1837. WAVE X. Depth 4 inches. 
Generated by impulsion of Sluice. Very imperfectly observed. 
Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. 
Observers « Glover, @ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at { B z r es } Corrected statical depth = 4°15. 


A B Cc D E A B Cc D E 


feet. | « sec.|8 sec.|y in.|3 in. yin. '¥in. in. || feet. | « sec. sec.|y in.’3 in, oin.|s’in.| in. 
ws inlmic «++ | 2°00)1-90) 1°85)1-69) ... || 120° | 33-5 | 33-5] 1-20 0-90) 1-05)0-69) 5-15 
0: 0- 0- 


1-50}1-50| 1-35/1-29) 5-67||160- |... |... | 1:00,0-92| 0-85|0-71] 4-9 

40: | 11-0} 11-0} 1-40/1-35} 1-25/1-14] 5-46]| 200- | 56-0] 56-0 1000-77 0°85}0-56| 4:91 

80- | 22-0} 22-0) 1-30/1-30) 1-15)1-09| 5-38]| 240- | 67-5 | 67°5 0:90,0°69 0-75\0-48} 4°81 
4th Aug., 1837. WAVE XI. Depth 4 inches. 


Generated by detached Chamber B. Nimmo ops. Volume = 225-4 inches. 
Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. 
Observers « Glover, & Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


‘Statical level observed at B vi i Hee i Corrected statical depth = 3-90. 


—————— | |S EF  ——_  |E | | J 


feet. | « sec. B sec.|y in.|3 in.|y/in.|¥in.| in. || feet. | « sec.|@ sec. y in? in. yin,¥in. in. 


0- | 0-0 | 0-0) 0-32)0-20) 0-54/0-23) 4-28] 80- | ... | 24-0) 0-20,0-14| 0:42:0-17| 4-20 
40: 12-6} 0:22|0-19 0440-22 4-23)|120- | ... | 35:5 0-19 0-11 0-41\0-14] 4-17 
Ath Aug,, 1837, WAVE XII.* Depth 4 inches. 


Generated by detached Chamber B. Nimmo ops. Volume = 3416 inches. 
Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. 
Observers « Glover, & Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at tig FF re aaa } Corrected statical depth = 3°95. 


BS AB MS AG. | D0 TSR ra} ty a8 fo aah ae 


in. 3’in.| in, |) feet. | « sec.|B sec.|y in.|3 in. yin ¥in. in. 
0-| O- | O- | 0-90 051-06) ... || 240° |... | 54:5) 0-47/0-56) 0-62.0-57) 4-50 
40° | ... 11:5 | 0°87 *02|1-06) 4:99} 280- |... | 64:5) 0:40)0-43) 0-55 0-44) 4-45 
80- |... }21-0 | 0°80/0-95| 0-95)0-96 4-90) 320- | ... | 73-5) 0-22 0:37 0°37/0°38 4:32 
120: | ... [29:5 | 0-70)0-80) 0-85)0-81) 4-78 | 360° | ... | 83-0) 0:200°32) 0-35 0-33) 4-29 
160° | ... |37:0 0°65 0-70) 0-80/0-71 4-71) 400 |... | 92-0) 0-17 0-29) 0-32,0°30 4:26 
200° | ... {43°5 0°55/0°97 0°76/0-58) 4°59|| 440° |... 102°5) 0-15) “a5 0:30) «| 4:25 
4th Aug., 1537. WAVE XIII. Depth 4 inches. 
Generated by detached Chamber B. Nimmo ops. Volume = 278-9 inches. 
Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. 
Observers « Glover, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3} Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at 


feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in. 


afi te oad f Corrected statical depth = 3°90. 


feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|y/ in.|3‘in.| in, || feet. | « sec.|6 sec-ly in.|3 in.|9/in.|3’in,.| in. 
0: | 0:0) 0:0/0-60?) ... |0-822| ...} ... || 200° | 58-0| 57:5] 0-27/0-33) 0-4910-37| 4:33 
40: | 115) 11-5/0°62 |0-65|0-84 |0-69) 4-66)| 240- | ... | 65-0) 0-19\0-25| 0-41'0-29] 4-25 
80: | 23-0 | 23-0)0-57 |0-57\0-79 |0-61| 4-63)| 280° | ... | 80:5 0-1010-22 0:32 0-26| 4°19 
120- | 35:0| 34-5/0-50 |0-43/0-72 [0-47 4:50) 320° | ... | 93-0) ... 0°20) ... i 4-14 
| ee oo eee eee aes see 


160 | 46:0| 46-00-35 |0-40|0-57 |0-44| 4-40!| 360: 
\ 
* Some singular error in time runs through this line of indication. 


7S 
VS 


469 


Depth 4 inches: 


ON WAVES. 


4th Aug., 1837. WAVE XIV. 
Generated by detached Chamber B. Nimmo op. Volume = 480:4 inches. 
Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. 

Observers « Glover, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 
05 Corrected statical depth = 3°89. 


Statical level observed at 


B=—0 

A B Cc D | E|| A B Cc Ds 
feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in.|,/in.|3’in.| in. || feet. | @ sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|y’in.|d’in.| in. 

0- O- | O | 1-15}1-30} 1-37} 1°35] 5-25|| 160- | 43-0} 43-5] 0-80)0-93) 1-02/0-98) 4-89 
40: | 11-0} 10-5} 1-25)1-25] 1-47/1-30} 5-21|| 200: | 55-0| 55-0) 0-70/0-65| 0-92|0-70| 4-70 
60: | 21-0} 21-5) 1-17|1-05] 1-29]1-10) 5-09}| 240° | 66-5 | 66-0} 0-50/0-63) 0°72|0-68) 4-59 
120- | 32-0) 32-0) 0-97/0-95| 1-19)1-00) 4:99] 280: | 78:5 | 78-5] 0-55] ...| 0°77] .. 

4th Aug., 1837. WAVE Xv.* Depth 4 inches. 


Generated by detached Chamber B. Nimmo op. Volume of fluidadded = 532°8 inches. 
Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. 
Observers « Glover, @ Patrick, y Hamil, } Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Sanat s } Corrected statical depth = 3°87. 


Statical level observed at B= — 0-07 


A B Cc E}| A B Cc D E 
feet. | zsec.|@ sec.|y in.|) in.|y/in.|)’in.| in, || feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|) in.|y/in.|’in.| in. 
0: | 0:0 |} 0-0} 1-20]1-33) 1-45}1-40} 5-30|| 280- | 76:0| 77-0) ... |0°61) ... |0-68) 4-55 
40: | 10-0 | 10-0} 1-30/1-29} 1-55|1-36] 5-32|| 320- | 88-5 | 89-0} 0-30/0-49) 0-55|0-56) 4-43 
80° | 21-0 | 20-5) 1-15)1-20| 1-40}1-27| 5-20] 360- |100-9 |100-0| 0-22)0-44) 0:47/0-51| 4-36 
| 120- | 31-5 | 31-5| 1-10/1-00) 1-35}1-07| 5-03)| 400- 111-5] 0-22/0-42) 0°47|0-49] 4:35 
160- | 42:5 | 42-5) 0-90/0-96| 1-15/1.04) 4-96] 440- 124-0} 0-19|0-40} 0:44/0-47| 4-32 
200: | 54-0 | 54-0) 0-75)0-65} 1-00|0-72) 4-68|| 480- 136-0} 0-15}0°32) 0-40/0-39| 4-27 
240° | 65-5 | 65-0) 0°62/0°61| 0-77 0-68] 4-60|| 520- 150-0} 0-10/0-25) 0:35 /0-32) 4-20 


* Very successfully observed up to 100. 


4th Aug., 1837. WAVE XVI. Depth 4 inches. 
Generated by detached Chamber B. Nimmo op. Volume of fluid added=982°3 inches. 
Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. 

Observers « Glover, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Ge Oe } Corrected depth = 3°74 inches. 


Statical level observed at B= — 0-20 


———$ |$ —<—$ | — | || | | 


feet. | sec-|6 sec.| y in.|3 in.|9/in.|¥in.| in. || feet. | « sec.|B sec-\y in.|d in./7/in./o’in.| in. 
0: | 0-0 | 0-0|2:10*|1-4 | 2-47|1-60) 5-77|| 160- | 42-5 | 43-0] 0-70/0-85) 1:07|0-95) 4:75 
| 40+ {10-0 | 10°5/2:3 {1-3 | 2°69)/1-50) 5-83]| 200° | 53-5 
80- [20-5 | 21-0] ... |1-2 | ... [1-40] ... || 240° | 65-0 
120- {31-0 | 31-5}1-0  |1-25| 1:37/1-45} 5-05|| 280- | 77-0 


65°5 


* This wave reached its maximum height and broke between y and 3. 


470 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


4th Aug., 1837. WAVE XVII. Depth 4 inches. 


Generated by detached Chamber B. Nimmo op. Volume of fluidadded=785:68 inches. 
Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. 
Observers « Glover, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, } Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at 15 is y 42 } Corrected statical depth = 3-78 inches, 


feet. | sec.|@ sec.| y in.) in.|y/in.|2’in,| in. || feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|7/in.|3’in.| in. 

0: | 0-0} 0:0/1-S0*) ... | 2°17] ...}.... || 200° | 55:0) 55-5) 0-°80\0-61) 1-02|0-83) 4-71 
40: | 10-5 | 10:5 |2-00 |1-20) 2:37)|1-40) 5-66) 240- | 66-5 | 66-0) 0-67\0:57| 0-89)/0-79) 4-62 
80: | 21-5 | 21-5 |1-10 |1-10) 1-47/|1-10) 5-06|| 280- | 78:5 | 77:5| 0°52/0-52| 0-74)0-74) 4:52 
120: | 32:5 | 32-0 |0-87 |1-02| 1-24|1-22| 5-01) 320° | ... | ... | 0-50) ... | 0°72) ... |4°50 
160: | 44:0 | 44-0 [0°80 [0°65] 1:17|0-85| 4°80)| B60- |... |... | wee | ee | vee | cee | cee, 


4th Aug., 1837. WAVE XVIII. Depth 4 inches. 


Generated by detached Chamber B. Nimmoop. Volume of fluid added= 1127-2 inches, 
Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. 
Observers « Glover, 8 Patrick, y Hamil, } Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level obs. at commencement B= — 0:35 } Corrected statical depth =-3°60inches. 


=] 


7yin.|d’in.| in, || feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in.|7/in.|¥in.| in. 
O- | 0:0) 0:0/8:5* |1-6 | 3-5 |1-95) ... || 160° | 38-5 | 45-0] 1-20)0-40) 1-70/0-75). ... 
40- | 11-0) 11-0) ... JEL |... }:45) ... |} 200° | 55:0) 56:0) 1-10)/0-50} 1-60/0-85) ... 
BOs 20H QMS ise OOD ce (ESO tees, AAO! hos Sende Seats | wae bt oath ow oll | Bae.| Bea 
120° | 31:5} 33°0)1:40 |0-70 1:90)1-05) Sy NVASOT lo ent skis Natur || Soll oma been eed 


feet. | sec.|@ sec-| y in.|3 i 


* This wave reached its maximum height and broke between y and 3. 


5th Aug., 1837. WAVE XIx.* Depth 4 inches. 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Volume = 276:3 inches. 
Transits observed by reflection as formerly in the positive wave. 

Transits observed directly, and at successive transits in the negative wave. 
Observers @ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at x cn ip ave } Corrected statical depth = 3-95 inches. 


— _ —— | —_ | | I | 


feet: | « sec.|6 sec.|yin.] 3 in.|9/in.|’in,| in. || feet. | « sec.| sec.|y in.|3 in.|>/in.|3in.| in. 
O-0/1-5 |1+4? | 1-60}1-42) ... || 280° | ... | 76-5] 0-60/0-80} 0-70|0-75| 4-67 
40: | ... | 10°5)1°30)1-45 | 1-40|1-40] 5-40|| 320 |... | 88-0} 0:55/0°67| 0-65|0-62] 4:58 
80° |... | 21-0)1-20/1-30] 1-30|1-25] 5-22/| 360° |... | 99-5] 0-50/0-65] 0-60|0-60| 4-55 
120° |... | 31-5/1-10/1-25 | 1-20/1-20) 5-15|| 400- |... |111-0} 0-45/0-61] 0-55|0:56) 4-50 
160° | ... | 42-0/0-95)1-15 | 1-05}1-10| 5:02/| 440: |... |122-5] 0-37|0-52| 0-47|0-47| 4-42 
200° | ... | 52:5/0°70/1-01 | 0-80|0-96] 4-83]| 480: |... |136-5] 0:35/0-49]| 0-45|0-44| 4-40 
240: | ... | 64°5/0-60/0-97 | 0-70/0-92| 4-76|| 520- | See |note*] ... calico facie pate 


* This wave was unusually perfect in its form, and was observed with much precision 
and care; there was no secondary wave. 


‘ ON WAVES. 471 
5th Aug., 1837. WAVE XxX. Negative. Depth 4 inches. 


Generated by removing solid parallelopipedon C. Volume = 276:3 inches. 
Observed directly and timed at gauges y and 3. 
Observers @ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Bh ga a Russell. 


Statical level observed at Per: al Ei a 21 ait Corrected statical depth = 4°10 inches. 


feet. asec.|B sec. yin. | din. | 4/in. | Yin, | in, || feet. |zsec.| Bsec.| yin. | din. | 9/in. | d’in. | in. 
0: | 0-0) 0:0 | —0-80) ... | —0-85 v.. || 95-7}... | B25]... |—O-20) ... |—0-41) 3-77 
14-62) ...|} 60) ... |—O3] ... —0-51] 3-42|| 115-7]... we. |—0-20) «2. |—0-25) 2. | 3°77 
35°77 | ...| ... | —030] ... | 035] ... | 3°67|| 135-7] ... |—45°5) ... |—0-20) ... |—0-41/ 3-77 
55-7 | .-.|19:5 | ... |—O-20) ...  |—O-41) 3°72!) 155-7) ... |... Sed poor Meas eat billates 
75°7 | 26-5) ... | —0-20) ... | —0-25) ... |3°77/| 175-7) ... | 59-0 


5th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXI. Depth 4 inches. 


Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume = 276°3 inches. 
Observed directly and timed at gauges y and 3. 

Transits observed directly and at successive transits in the negative wave. 
Observers 6 Patrick, y Hamil, } Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at {3 es h oat Corrected depth = 4:06 inches, 
A B Cc D E| A B Cc D E 
feet. |  sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.!9/in. l¥in.| in. || feet. | @ sec. Bsec.|y in.|d in.|y’in.|0’in,) in. 
O- | 0-0 | 0-0) 1-50)1-42) 1-45|1-29] ... || 200+ | ... | 58-0) 0-70/1-03) 0°65/0-90) 4-83 
40- | ... | 10:0) 1°30)1-40) 1-25/1-27) 5-37] 240- |... | 64-5] 0-70/0-96] 0°65/0-83) 4°82 
80° | ... | 20:5) 1:20)1-29) 1-20)1-16) 5-27/| 280- | ... | 76-0) 0°70/0-85) 0-65)0- 0 4°78 
120° |... | 30-1) 1-10/1-20} 1-05)1-07| 5-17|| 320- | ... | 80-0) ... | ...] .. ech 
160° | ... | 42-1) 0:90)1-05) 0-85/0-92) 5:08]| 360: | ... pad LS Roe | fie || 
5th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXII. Negative. Depth 4 inches, 


Generated by removing solid parallelopipedon'C. Volume = 276°3 inches. 
Observed directly and timed at gauges y and 3. 
Observers £ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at { 3 T iF ne | Corrected depth = 4°10 inches. 


B Cc D E A B C D E 


. | #sec.|B sec.| yin. | din. | y’ in. | 0 in. | in. || feet. |asec.|Bsec.| yin.} din. | in. | 9’ in, | in. 
0-0 | O-0)/— 1-0) ... |—1-05) 2... |... |] 95-7] 2 | ee |e [= OL | oe. | 086) 3°75 

. | 55)... |—O8B |... |—O-51) 3:32], 115-7]... |... |— 08)... |— 085) 2.) 13°75 
s» | 13°5}— 03)... |—O-85] ... | 3°67|| 185-7)... |... |... |— 0-07)... |— 0:28) 3-79) 


osl... looa5) | azallazs7) bot 10s} | e-ge) 


472 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Sth Aug., 1837. WAVE XXIII. Depth 4 inches. 


Generated by Chamber D, from a height of 19 inches. Volume=683°7 inches. 
Transits observed by reflection as formerly in the positive wave. * 

Transits observed directly, and at successive transits in the negative wave. 
Observers 8 Patrick, y Hamil, 3} Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at { ¥ s O10 Corrected depth = 3°85 inches. 


A B Cc D E A B Cc D E 


feet. a sec.|6 sec. |y in.|3 in. yin. in. in. |! feet. asec. \sec.|y in,| 3 in. |9/in,|¥ in.| in. 

0: | 0-0 0-0 1:30|1-30 1°55/1-40] 5°32|| 200° | ... |55°5| 0750-75 | 1-00) 0°85) 4°77 
40°] ... | 115 1101-25 1-25/1-35| 5-15]| 240° | ... | 66°5| 0-60/0-70 ?| 0-85] 0-80) 4-67 
80: |... | 21-5 | 0-90/1-33] 1-15'1-43] 5-14]| 280° | ... | 790) 0-50\0-54 | 0-75) 0-64) 4-55 
120° | ... | 32:5 0-90'1:23 1°15 1:33] 5-09]| 820° | ... | 91-0) 0-50/0-45 | 0-75) 0-55) 4-50) 
169° | ... | 43-5 0:80/0:92 1-05 1-02 4°88|| 360: | ... sé! | ewe, seatsleemenpaces 


* This wave broke down immediately into two waves of nearly equal height. 


! 


5th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXIV. Depth 4 inches. 


Generated by Chamber D, from a height of 19 inches. Height= 20 inches. Vo- 
lume = 719-3 inches. 

Transits observed by reflection as formerly in the positive wave. 

Transits observed directly, and at successive transits in the negative wave. 

Observers 8 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at {3 ee caer } Corrected depth = 3-85 inches. 


— 0:10 

ee Sen eee tae ee ease gastos ee eee eee 
A B | Cc D E || A B Cc D E 
feet,|~sec.| 2 sec. line 3 in. |y/in.| 3’ in. | in. || feet. asec, \Bsec. y in.| 3 in, |7/in.|  in,| in, 

O-| ... | O-O [1-30] ... | 1-55)... |... |] 200] ... | 56-5) 0°70)0:502) 1-95) 0-602) ... 

40:| ... | 11-5 |1-00/1-20 | 1-25] 1-30 | 5-12/| 240] ... | 68-5] 0°50) 0-452) 0°75/0°55?) ... 

80:| ... | 22-0 10-90 1:15 | 1:15} 1:25 |5-05]| 280} ... | ... |0°45) ... | 0-70 
120-| ... | 33-0 |0-76|0°802) 1-95] 0-902] ... || 320) ... |92-0)0°30) ... | 055 
160-| ... | 44:5 |0°70|0°652| 1-95] 0°75 2) ... || 360] ... |... | eee | cee | aoe 

5th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXV. Depth 3 inches, 


Generated protrusion of svlid parallelopipedon C. Volume = 208-3 inches, 
Transits observed by reflection at the Central Station. 
Observers 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at { 5 = et 0-30} Corrected statical depth = 3:08 inches, 


A B Cc D E A B Cc 


feet.|a sec.| 8 sec.| y in din.|7/in.|¥ in,| in. || feet. |@ sec.|6 sec.|y in.)d in. |7/ 
Osi)... 0-0 | 1:50,1-30) 1-45] 1-10} 4:35) 200: |... | 61-5 | 0°57/0-70) 0:52) 0-60) 3-64 
40°| .... | 11:5} 1°10,1-15) 1-05) 0-95] 4-08] 240° |... | 75-0 | 0-47\0-60) 0-42) 0:50) 3-54 
80:| ... | 23:5 | 0-90 1-13} 0-85} 0-93) 3-97] 280° |... | 89-0 |-0:40)0-53} 0:35) 0-43) 3°49 
120°} ... | 36°0}0°85| ... | 0°80) ... | 3-88]/320° | ... |... | 037) ... |032) ... [3:38 
160:| .:. | 48:5 | 0°70)0-70) 0-65) 0-50) 3-65] 360° |... {116-0 0:29) ... | 0°24) ... | 3°32 
[ov Dd et a ae eee ee Eee 


; 
ee 


Sa eee. 


a PRS 


ON WAVES. 473 


5th Aug,, 1837. WAVE XXVI. Depth 8 inches. 


Generated protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Volume = 208°3 inches. 
Transits observed by reflection at the Central Station. 
Observers @ Patrick, 7 Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at | ¥ = e ne 020 f Corrected statical depth = 3:08 inches. 


A B Cc D E | A B C D E 


——— 


feet.|a sec.| 8 sec.|y in.) in. |7/in.|3’ in.| in. ||feet.|a sec.| 6 sec.|y in.| 3 in.|4/in.|0’ in.| in. 

0°) ... 0:0 | 1-00} 1-12) 0-95) 0-92) 4-02/'360-| ... {116-0 | 0-30) 0-39} 0-25} 0-19) 3-29 
40-| .... | 12-0| 0-90] 1-04] 0-85! 0-84] 3-92]|400-| ... {129-5 | 0-20| 0-39] 0-15] 0-19] 3-25 
80°} ... | 24-5 | 0-80} 0-95 0-75) 0°75] 3°83)|440-| ... {144-0 | 0:20) 0-35] 0-15} 0-15) 3-23 
120-| ... | 37:0 | 0°75) 0-70) 0-70, 0:50) 3-68}}480-| ... |157-5 | 0-17} 0:32) 0-12) 0-12) 3-20 


160.| ... | 49:5 | 0°60) 0-62 0°55) 0-42] 3°56|520-| ... {171-0 | 0-15) 0:30} 0-10) 0-20) 3-23 
200-| ... | 62-5 | 0:50) 0°60/ 0-45, 0:40) 3:50/560-| ... {185-0 | 0-15) 0-30} 0-10} 0-20) 3-23 
240°} ... | 75:5 | 0:40] 0°55] 0°35 0:35| 3-43)'600-| ... |199-0 | 0°12) 0-30) 0-07) 0-20) 3-22 
280-) ... | 89:0 | 0°37/ 0-47/ 0°32, 0-27| 3:37||640- | ... (212-02) 0-12) 0-30} 0-07] 0-20) 3-21 
320°} ... |102-5 | 0°30) 0-40 0:25, 0:20 3°30//680°| ... aaeii|! foweill, amen |itewal dhe al cana 


7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXVII. Depth 1 inch. 


Generated by solid C. projected to bottom. Volume added = 88:3 inches. 
Transits observed successively without omission at Central Station. 
Observers a Russell, 6 Patrick, 7 Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at { 5 ca Hie a } True statical depth = 1:00 inches. 


feet.|a sec.| 6 sec.|y in.|9 in.|7/in.|¥ in,| in. || feet.|a sec.| @ sec. |v in.| 3 in.|7/in.|%’ in.| in. 

0-| 00] 0-0/ 0-30} ... | 0-30) ... | 1-30] 60: |34:0) 34:5) ... | 0-05) ... | 0-05) 1-05 
20-|11:0| 10-5] ... | 0-13} ... | 0-13) 1-13!) 80-|45°0| ... | 0°05) ... | 0°05) ... | 1:05 
40- | 21-0 | 22-0] 0-10} ... | 0-10} ... |1°10)}100°| ... | 57-0} ... | 0°03) ... | 0-03) 1-03 


7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXVIII. Depth 1 inch. 


Generated by solid C. projected to bottom. Volume added = 88°3 inches, 
Transits observed successively without omission at Central Station. 
Observers, « Russell, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at zy %, 6 epee 000 } True statical depth = 1-00 inches, 
A B C D E}j| A B C D E 
feet.|z sec.| G sec.|y in|} in.|9/in.|¥ in.| in. || feet.|e sec.| ® sec.}y in.| d in.|7/in.|¥ in.| in. 


0-| 0:0) 0:0) 0-29) ... [0-29] ... | 1:29]| 60-| 34-0) 34-5] ... | 0-03) ... | 0-03] 1-03) 
20°\10:5) 2. | ... | OL)... |O-11] 1:11]) 80-| 46:0} 47-0) 0-02) ... | 0-02) ... | 1:02 
40: | 22-5 | 23°0|0-19| ... |0°19) ... | 1°19)}100-] ... | ... |... | 0-02! ... | 0-02) 1-02 


474 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXiIxX. Depth 1 inch. 


Generated by solid C. projected to bottom. Volume added = 88°3 inches. 
Transits observed successively without omission at Central State. 
Observers, z Russell, 8 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at { 5 on pir ; True statical depth = 1-00 inches. 


feet.|« sec.|B sec.|y in,| 3 in.|9/in.|¥ in.| in. || feet.| sec.| 6 sec.}y in| 3 in.|9/in.|¥ in| in. 
0:| 0:0} 0:0) 0-30) ... | 0-30} ... | 1-3 || 80° | 46-5 | 46:0/ 0-09) ... | 0-09) ... | 1:09 
20:| 10-7 | 11:0} ... |0°12) ... | 0-12) 1-12/|100- | 58-0) 58-0] ... | 0-04) ... | 0-04) 1-04 
40: | 22-5 | 22-5/ 0-10) ... | 0-10) ... | 1-10)/120- | 70-5 | 70:5 | 0-02) ... | 0-02) ... | 1:02 
60: | 34-5 | 34-0] ... | 0-05} ... | 0-05) 1-:05)|140-| ... | ... | ... | 0°02) ... | 0-02) 1-02 


7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXX. Negative. Depth 1 inch. 


Generated by subtraction of solid C. 
Transits observed successively without omission at Central Station. 
Observed and timed at y and 3. Depth 1-0 inch. 


Statical level observed at { y = erste t True statical depth = 1-00 inch. 


A B Cc D E| A B Cc D E 
feet. jz sec. B sec.) yin.| din. | 9/ in. | ¥ in, | in. || feet.|a sec.|B sec.| yin.) din. |7/in.| ¥ in. | in. 
0- 0:0; 0:0)—0-1 ... |—O1L | ... | 0-9 || 56-7|39:5| 39-5] ... |—0-04] ... |—0-04| 0-96 
14-62} 9°5| 9:5} ... |—0-05) ... |—0°05) 0-95)| 75-7 ape oe ats wee as 
35:7 | 24:5 |24-5|—0-02} ... |—0-02) ... | 0°98)) 95-7 
7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXXI. Depth 1 inch, 


Generated by solid C. projected to bottom. Volume added = 88°3 inches. 
Transits observed successively without omission at Central State. 
Observers, « Russell, 8 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at{ xy ra aed \ true statical depth = 1-00 inches. 


feet.|a sec.| 6 sec.|y in.| 3 in.|/9/in.|% in,} in, |} feet.|« sec.| 6 sec.|y in.| 3 in.|7/in.|% in.) in. 
0-| 0-0} 0:0] 0°35) ... |0°35] ... | 1-35) GO}... |... |... 10°05) ... | 0°05) 1-05 
20°} 11:0) 11-0] ... | 0°15) ... | 0-15] 1-15}) 80- PP) sc ond | 8 
40: | 22-5 | 22-5 | 0-09) ... | 0-09) ... | 1-09)/100- 


\z ON WAVES. 475 


7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXXII. Negative. Depth ] inch. 


Generated by subtraction of solid C. 
Transits observed successively without omission at Central Station. 
Observed and timed at y and 3. Depth 1:0 inch. 


Statical level observed at ¥ = aa } True statical depth = 1-00 inches. 


ee ef 


et. | @ sec. | sec.) yin, | din. | >’ in.| ¥ in.| in. || feet.|@ sec, |@sec.| yin. | din. | 9/in.| 0’ in. | in. 

0-0 | 0-0 |—0-10) ... |—0-10| ... | 0-90] 55-7) 37-5 | ... —0:06) ... |—0-06) 0-94 
62; 90+) ... | ... |—0-07| ... |—0-07| 0-93]| 75-7) 52-0 | ... —0-02| ... |—0-02} ... | 0-98 
—0:07) ... |—0-07) ... | 0°93||95°7| 65-0 | ... | ... |—0°04) ... |—0-04/ 0-96 


7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXXIII. Depth 1 inch, 
Generated by Chamber B. Volume of added fluid = 68-32 inches. 
Statical level observed at { %= pie } Correct depth = 1-15 inches. 


feet.|a sec.\2 sec.|y in.| 3 in.|9/in.|0’ in.| in. |] feet.|a sec.|@ sec.|y in.| 3 in./7/in,|3’ in,| in. 
0°} 0:0) 0:0/ 0-70} ... | 0°55] ... | 1°70)) 60° | 32-0 | 32-0) ... | 0-25) ... | O-1 | 1:25 


20-/ 10-0) 10-0) ... |0°35) ... |O-2 |1B5]] 80°} 2. | 2c. | cee | cee | cee | wee | aoe 
40: | 21-0 | 21-0 | 0-30) ... | 0-15] ... | 1-B0)/100°| ... | ... |... | 0°22) ... | 0:07) 1:22 
7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXXIV. Depth 1 inch. 


Generated by detached Chamber B. Volume of added fluid = 1024°8 inches. 
Statical level observed at x a 0-19 Corrected depth = 1:19 inches. 


A B Cc D E| A B C D E 


feet.|a sec. Ip sec.|y in. 3 in.|9/in.|2’ in.| in. || feet./@ sec./@ sec.|y in.| 3 in.|7/in.|0 in| in. 
0:| 0-0} 0-0} 1-70} ... | 1-51] ... | 2°70) 80: | 35:5 | 37-0) 0-40) ... | 0-21) ... | 1-40 
20-| 7:0| 7:5 | ... | 1:05) ... |0-86| 2:05/|100- | 46-0 | 47-5 | ... | 0-30) ... | 0-11) 1-30 
40- | 16-5 | 18-0 | 0-70) ... | 0-51) ... | 1:70)|120-| 57-0 | 58-5 | 0-32) ... | 0-13 1:32 
SMG AGG | ce. fies. |e | ice j140- se | sae | one [0-25]... | 0-06) 1-25 


7th Aug., 1737. WAVE XXXV. Depth 1 inch. 
Generated by detached Chamber B. Volume of fluid added = 666°1 inches, 


Statical level observed at <i ae - } Corrected depth = 1°31 inches. 


hey 0-| 0:0| 0-02-10] ... 75 ... |310) 80°| ... [35-0/ 080] ... | 0-43) ... 1-80 
' 20-| ... | 80} ... | 1:50) ... | 1°19) 2-50)|100°| ... | 44:5 05 |... | 0°25) 1:50 
; 40-| ... [17-0] 1-10] ... | 0-79} ... 2-10))120-| ... | 54:5 0-70 ees [0:33] ... | 1:7 
60-| ... | 25:5] ... | 0°75) ... | 0-44 1-75)|140- +» | 64:0) ... | 0°50} ... | 0-25) 1-50 


476 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXXVI. Depth 2 inches. 
Generated by detached Chamber B. Volume of fluid added = 681-9 inches, 


Statical level observed at y = = } Corrected depth = 1-90 inches. 


A B Cc D E || A B Cc 


_—_ | ———— | | | | | 


feet.|« sec.|@ sec.|y in.| 3 in.|7/in.|¥’ in,| in. || feet.|a sec.|G sec.|y in.! 3 in.|y/ in| in.| in. 


O-| 0-0} 0-0) 1-40) ... | 155) ... | 8-45//120- | 45-5 /45-5 | 0-20 ... | 0:35 2°25 
BO GS OGD | oor maet | ost leh yee n ea" | 4-0 j0a°S 4] ees hee tee we 
40: | 14:0} 15-0} 0-40) ... | 0°55] ... | 2-45//160> | 62-5 |65-0?) 0-12) ... | 0-27) ... | 2-17 
60: | 21:0 | 22°5| ... | ... cee | eee 180° | 71-0 [72°5 x 


80- | 29'5 | 30-0] 0-30! ... | 0-45] ... | 2-35|l200- | 80-5 |80°0 | 0-09) |. 
100: | 37-0 shige the 220° Sag hte 


7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXXVII. Depth 3 inches. 
Generated by sluice from Reservoir A. Volume of fluid added = 152°5 inches. 
Observers, time, « Russell, y Patrick, 3 Grant. 


Statical level observed at % a 0-00} Depth = 3-0 inches. 


ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee 


feet.|a sec.|6 sec.|y in.| 3 in.|y'in.|3’ in.) in. |} feet.|« sec.|@ sec.|y in.} 3 in. yin. in,| in. 
0-| 0-0 | 0-0} ... | 1:0] ... | 1:0 | 4-0 ||140- | 43-0 0:70) ... | 0°65) ... | 3°65 
90° \16:O) eral D1]... |.1-05) 22 |4505(160- | 49:0 |... |... | sean] lL nnn incanes 
40-120 | ... | ... | 0-9 | ... |0°9 | 3-90)180°| 56-0} ... | 0°60) ... | 0°55] ... | 3°55 
GO 1138-0. |)... | 0-97)... | 0-92) 227] 3°92 200-62-0 Fh ice. Wl cee | eeu ttenerlneee 
80> [24-25]... | nce | cee | cee | coe | 00s []220°| 69-0] ... | 0-57] ... | 0°52) .... | 3-52 
100: |30°0 |... | 0°87} ... | 0°82) ... | 3°82//240°| 75-0] ... | 22. | cee | cee | cee | cee 
PAOD chr eecail ne geod ewe tane plyemee ytecet | Lea mwas 0-47) ... | 0°42) ... | 3-42 


7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXXVIII. Depth 3 inches. 


Generated by sluice from Reservoir A. Volume of fluid added = 152°5 inches. 
Observers, time, « Russell, » Patrick, 3 Grant. 


Statical level observed at x =F 0-00} Depth 3-00 inches. 


0-| 0-0 | ... | 1-00} ... | 0°95} ... | 3°95)/160- 50-0?) ... | 20. | ee | wee | cee | cee 
20-| 6-25) ... | ... | 0°80) ... | 0-80) 3-80))180- 56-5 | ... | ... | 035) ... | 035) 3-35 
40: |12°5 | ... | 0-85] ... | 0°80) ... | 3-80)/200: |63°5 | ... | 12. | ne | woe | coe | ane 
60-|18°5 | ... | ... | 0°70} ... | 0°70) 8-70)|220° |70°0 | ... | ... | 0:30) ... | ... | 3°30 
80 |25-0 | ... | 0°55] ... | 0°50) ... | 3°50//240° |76-5 a) oP ay RON hace 
100: 31-25) ... | ... |0°55) ... | 0°55) 3:55)/260°| ... 
120: |37°5 | ... | 0-45] ... | 0-40} ... | 3-40)/280° 

u 


ON WAVES. 


7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXXIX. Depth 3 inches, 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Volume = 264:9 inches, 
Statical level observed at x x 0-03 Depth = 2°94 inches. 


477 


aA| B oles ee Pe c pd |£ 
feet.'e sec.|6 sec.|y in.| 3 in.|7/in.|% in.) in. || feet.|« sec.|g sec.| y in.| 3 in.|7/in.|¥ in.| in. 
see | eee | --- | 1°40) 0-90) 1-40] 0-93) 4-00)| 80-| 24-5) ... 10-87 | ... | 0°87] ... | 3-81 

O-| 0-0) 0-0) 1-1 | ... | 1:10) ... | 4-04/)100-| 31-5] ... |... | 0°70) ... | 0°73) 3°67 
20°; 6:0) ... | ... |0°9 | ... | 0°93] 3°87)|120- | 37-5] ... 10-675] ... |0°67| ... |3°61 
40° 12-0) ... | 0-92) ... | 0-92) ... | 3-86)140-| 44:5) ... |... | 0:55] ... | 0-58) 3-52 
60- | 18:2| ... | ... | 0°85) ... | 0°88) 3-B82160°| ... | ow. ] ou. | dy 4st 

7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XL. Depth 3 inches. 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Volume = 264-9 inches. 
Statical level observed at % = a } Corrected depth = 2-94 inches. 


feet.|a sec.|B sec.) y in.| 3 in.|7/in.|¥ in, in. || feet.| « sec.|Bsec.| y in| din. 


in| in,| in. 


wee | cee | eee (LL | 1:0 | 1-1 | 1-03) 3-97) 200-| 63-0 | ... 10-375) ... | 0°37) ... 18-31 
0-| 0-0) 0:0 |1:0 | ... | 1:0 | ... |3-94)/220-) 70-25) ... |... |0:30) ... | 0-30/3-27 
20-| 6:0| ... | ... |0:9 | ... | 0°93) 3-87| 240-| 76-50) ... 0°30 | ... | 0-30] ... 13-24 
40-|12-0| ... |0-975) ... |0:97| ... | 3-91) 260-| 83-50) ... |... 10°25) ... | 0-28/3-22 
60:| 18:5] ... | ... | 0°80) ... | 0°83) 3-77/,280-| 91-00] ... 0°20 | ... | 0-20) ... 13-14 
80-| 24:5} ... [0°80 | ... | 0-80) ... |3:74)/300-| 98:5 | ... | ... |0-23] ... | 0-26/3-20 
100-| 31:0) ... |... | 0-68) ... | 0°71) 3°65/320- |105-52| ... 10°17 | ... | 0-17} ... \3-11 
120-|37-0| ... |0-675) ... | 0°67) ... |3-61/340: |112-02| ... | ... |0-18) ... | 0-21/8-15 
140: | 43:5] ... |... | 0:50) ... | 0:53} 3-47/'360° 119-5 | ... 10-12 | ... | 0-12] ... |3-07 
160-|50-0| ... |0°475) ... | 0°47) ... | 3-41 880° wee | cee | coe [O15] ... | 0°18/3-12 
180°|57-0| ... | ... | 0:35) ... | 0°38) 3:33 400: sunijicaes Ct ibe oniiieee 


7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLI. Depth 3 inches, 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Volume = 132-4 inches. 


Statical level observed at 1% a 0-08 Corrected depth = 2-94 inches. 


A B Cc D E| A B Cc D 


- |0°8 |0°5 | 0-80} 0:55) 3:49)/220-| 78-0] ... | ... | 0-23] ... | 0-28 


: “O-| 0-0| 0-0 [0-7 | ...|0-70] ... |3-64|240-| 85-0]... [0-20] ... |o-20) ... | 
20:| 65| ... | ... 0°55] ... | 0-60] 3:54/260-| 91-7] <2. |... 0-20] ... 10-95, 
40:|12-5| ... 0-625) ...|0-62) ... |3:56/280-| ... 0:20| ... | 0-20 


60-|19:5| ... | =... |0°47] ... | 0-52) 3-46)300- |106- |... | ... | 0°17] ... | 0-22 
4 80-|25°7| ... 0°50 | ...| 0:50) ... |3:44/320-|113- | ... | 0-15) ... | 0-15) ... 
100-| 33:5] ... | ... [0-40] ... | 0-45) 3°39/340- |121- | ... | ... | 0-15) ... | 0-20 
120-|39-5| ... |0°40 | ...| 0°40) ... | 3:34)/360- |127- |... | 0-12) ... | 0-12] ... 
140-| ... | ... |... (0°33) ... | 0:38) 3°32/380- |134- | ... | ... | 013 0-18 


feet.|a sec.|G sec.) y in.|d in.|7/in.|3’ in, in. || feet. « sec.|6 sec.|y in.] 3 in.|7/in.|’ in., 


t 

"7 : a5 

b 160-|51-0| ... (0°32 | ...| 0:32! ... | 3-26||400- 140-5) ... |0°10) ... | 0-10) ... 
~~ -4180°}57:5 |) ... |... (0°25) ... | 0°30) 3-24)'420- |147-5 oe oe 

; 00 | 64:5] ... (0-27 | ...| 0:27) ... | 321/440] ... 


E 


in. 
3°22 
3°14 
3°19 
3714 
3°16 
3°09 
3-14 
3:06 
3°12 
3°04 


a a a a 


478 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLII. Depth 3 inches. 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Volume = 264-9 inches. 
0-00 
0-03 


Statical level observed at { % a } Depth = 2-94 inches. 


A 


B Cc 


in. 


aa : 0-47| 0-40) 0-47] 0-45} 3-40 
0: : 0-40) 0-33) 0-40 0°38) 3-33 
40: | 12-0 90 0-30) 0-25) 0-30] 0:30) 3°24 


80: | 25-0 


0-20] 0-23) 0-20) 0:28) 3°18 
120: | 38-0 aoe | [ives | Moceall tremstt rewe 


8th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLIII. Depth 5 inches. 


Generating solid C. projected. Volume = 445] inches. 
Observers, « Russell, @ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. 


Statical level observed at commencement { ~ zoe } Depth = 5-045 inches. 


+ 0:10 
A B Cc D E|| A B Cc D E 
feet.|« sec.|6 sec.|y in | 3 in.|7/in.|3’ in.| in. || feet.|a sec.|6 sec.|y in.| 3 in.|7/in.|¥ in.) in. 
O2150:0)), 0:05 3-40) 1°20) 1-45) TLO'G Sah ee | se. fee. pee lPecet |eace aiterenl tees 
40- | 10-0 | 10-5 | 1-26] 1-25) 1-25) 1-15) 6-25/)440-| 90-0} 89-5 0-70 0-63} 0-75) 0-53} 5-69 
80- | 19-5 | 19-5 | 1-15] ... | 1-20} ... | 6-15))480- |100-2) 99-5] 0-60) 0-55) 0-65) 0-45! 5-60 
120: | 29-0 | 28-5 | 1-02] 1-05) 1-07; 0-95) 6-06)|520-| ... 109-0 0-50) 0:55} 0°55| 0°45) 5-55 
160: | 89-0 | 38-5 | 0-87] 1-01) 0°92, 0-96) 5-99)|560- | ... |119-0} 0-50) 0-47) 0-55) 0°37| 5-51 
200- | 49°5 | 49-5 |... | 0°85) 0°90 0°75| 5°87||600-| ... |130-0) 0-45) 0-40) 0-50) 0-30) 5-45 
240: | 59-0 | 58-5 | 0-80} 0°85) 0°85 0°75) 5°85)/640- |... |141-0 0-40) 0-39} 0-45) 0-29) 5-42 
60: | 69°5 | 68-5 | 0°77| 0°69| 0°82 0-59) 5-75 '|680- . |151-0| 0°35) 0-34) 0-40) 0-24) 5:37 
00: | 79°5 | 79-0 | 0°72) 0-66) 0-77 0:55) 5-71 |720- 162-0 0:30) 0°33) 0°35) 0-23) 5°34 
8th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLIV. Negative depth, 5 inches. 


Generating solid withdrawn. Volume subtracted = 445-1 inches. 
Observers, « Russell, 6 Patrick, 7» Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. 


Statical level observed at | ¥ a ois} Corrected depth = 5:10 inches. 


a| B Cc D E || a B Cc D 


feet. | « sec.|a sec.| y in.| 3 in.| 9/ in. | # in. | in. ||feet.| «sec.|@ sec.| y in. } din. | o/ in. | ¥ in. 


0- 0-0} 0-0 |—O-9) .... |—0-92) ... | 4:18)| 55-7) 16°35) 16:5) ... |—O35) ... 
14:62) 4:0| 45] ... |—O-4) ... |—0:55] 4:55|| 75-7) 24-0 | 24:0)—0°30) ... |—0-35) 1... |4- 
35°70) 10°5 jLO-5 —O0-4| 2... |—0°45 —0-20 —0°35/4°75 


4°65) 95:7| 29:0) 29°5 


- ON WAVES. 479 


8th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLV. Depth 5 inches, 


Generating solid C projected. Volume added = 445-1 inches. 
Observers, « Russell, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen, Nimmo. 


Statical level observed at | 3 an it O10; Corrected depth = 5:10 inches. 


A B Cc D E A B Cc D E 
feet.| « sec. | B sec. |y in.) din. |9/in.|d’in.| in. || feet. | a sec.|@ sec.|y in.|) in,|/in.|¥ in.| in. 
0} 0:0 | 0-0 | 1-40)1-45 | 1-38)1-30/6-44 || 840-| 162-5/163-0) 0-35/0-34| 0-33/0-19|5-36 
40:| 9-75) 9-50] 1:39]1-40 | 1-37/1-25|6-41 |) 880-| 173-0)173-5| 0-32,0-30| 0:30/0-15|5-32 
80+} 19-5 | 19-0 | 1:30)1°37 | 1-28/1-22)6°35 || 920- 184-0} 0°29/0:30) 0-27/0-15/5:31 
120°} 28:5 | 29-0 | 1-29/1-20 | 1:27/1-05/6-26 || 960-| ... |195-0) 0:260-29) 0-24/0-14/5-29 
160: 38:5 | 39-0 | 1-15]1-13 | 1-13)1-00|6°16 || 1000-| ... |205-5) 0:25)0-27| 0-23|0-12/5-27 
200°} 48-5 | 49:0 | 1-02)1:05 | 1-00\0-90/6:05 || 1040-) .... {216-5} 0-22;0-27| 0-20)0-12|5-26 
240:| 58:5 | 59:0. | 0:85)0°85?, 0-83/0-70/5-86 || 1080:| ... |227-5| 0-22,0-26) 0-20/0-11/5-25 
280-| 68-5 | 69-0 | 0-80)/0°83 | 0-:78)/0:68/5°83 || 1120-) _.... |237-5| 0-21/0-25) 0-19/0-10)5-24. 
320+} 79.0 | 79:5 | 0°:72\0-77 | 0:70\0-°62)5-76 || 1160:) ... |248:5] 0-20,0-23) 0-18/0-08|5-23 
360} 89-0 | 89-5 | 0°70/0-63 | 0-68/0-48/5-68 || 1200+)... |259:5| 0-19,0-21) 0-17/0-06|5-22 
400-| 99-5 |100-0. |.0:60/0-62 | 0-58/0-47|5-63 || 1240+] ... |270-0) 0-17\0-20) 0-15|0-05|5-20 
440+ 110-0 {110-5 | 0-52)0:51 | 0-50/0-36/5-52 || 1280:| ... |281-0) 0-16,0-20| 0-14/0-05|5:19 
480-| 120-5 /121-0 | 0-50\0-49 | 0:48/0:34/5-51 || 1320-|_ ... |291-5/ 0-15,0-20) 0-13)0-05|5-19 
520-| 131-0 /131°5 | 0°47|0-41 | 0-45/0-30|5:47 || 1360+] ... |302-5) 0°14/0-20} 0-12/0-05/5-18 
560:| 141-5 {142-0 | 0:42/0°39 | 0-40/0-25/5-42 || 1400]... | wo. | cee | wee | coe | eee | wee 
600°) 151:5 |152°5 | 0:37/0°37 | 0:35/0-20)5-37 || 1440- ace 


8th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLVI. Depth 5 inches. 


Generating solid C projected. Volume added = 445-1 inches. 
‘Observers, « Russell, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. 


Statical level observed at | a a “f ee } Corrected depth = 5°10 inches. 


A B Cc D E A B C D E 
feet. | asec. Iisexs, y in. 34 in.|7/in.|¥in.| in. || feet. | z sec.|6 sec.|y in.|d in.|7/in. ‘Yin. in. 
0: | 0-0 . 1:60 1-85 1:58)1-70|6-74 DOOr | ied Wilh. 0:9311-10 0-90 0-95] 6-02 
40- | 9-25) 10-0) 1-60 1-73] 1-58)/1-58|6-68 || 320-| ... | 78-0] 0-90/0-95] 0-88 0-80) 5-94 
80- | 18-30 19. 0} 1:57,1-71| 1-55/1-56)/6-66 || 360-| ... | 88-5] 0-89|0-87| 0-87 0-72] 5-89 
120: | 28:0?) 28-5) 1-30 1-45} 1-28]1-30)6-39 || 400-| ... | 98-5] 0-85/0-73| 0-83 0-58) 5-80 
160° | ... | 38-0) 1-29 1-43) 1-27/1-28/6:38 || 440-| ... |108-5) 0-67|0-72] 0-65 0-57] 5-71 
200: | ... | 48-0) 1:25,1-21) 1-23/1-06]6-25 |) 480-| ... |119-0) 0-67\0-62! 0-65 0-42] 5-63 
240° |... | 575) 1 15)1- 15} 1°13/1-00}6°17 || 520°) ... |... | we | oe 
8th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLVII. Depth 5 inches, 


Generating solid C. projected. Volume added = 445-1 inches. 
. Observers, « Russell, 6 Patrick, sie Hamil, } Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. 


Statical level observed at{ = 5 ng 5 5} Corrected depth = 5-10 inches. 
sepa Ce Re MO ey Ne in Sh ed 
pill A. B C D E|| A B C D E 
k OOO Oe OOO OOO aN dS OU I | | 
| feet. |a see. lg sec.|y in.|d in.|9/in.|¥’in.| in. || feet. |« sec.| 6 sec. |y in.|d in.|,/in.|¥ in.) in 
ae 0-| 0-0 | 0-0] 1-90]2-05] 1-88]1-90] ... || 240: 56°25) 56-25) 1-20/1-25} 1-18]1-10 
|; 40°} 9:0 | 9-0) 1-80/2-03] 1-78/1-88} ... || 280-] ... | 67-0 | 1-15]1-21] 1-13]1-06 
; 80-| 18-5 | 19-0} 1-70/1-85) 1-68]1-70) ... || 8320-| ... | 76-5 | 1-00/1-05] 0-98/0-73 
| 120-| 27-75, 28-0) 1-70)1-80} 1-68)1-65) ... || 360°) ... | 86-5 | 0-90/0-85] 0-88]0-73 
160-|39-0 | ... see] eee |] 400°] ... | 96-5 | 0-80/1-01] 0-78)0-63 
200: | 46-75) 47-0 1-45 1:45 1-43 1°30) ... || 440°} ... /107-0 | 0-72 0°-70)0°55 


oS pert tt 


480 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


8th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLVIII. Depth 6 inches. 


Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume added = 547:5 inches. 
Observers, a Russell, @ Patrick, y Hamil, } Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. 


Statical level observed at { ¥ ai) i as \ Corrected depth = 6-20 inches. 


feet. | a sec.|6 sec.|y in.|3 in. yin. |¥in. in. || feet. | sec. |@ sec.|y in.|3 in,|9/in.|3/in.| in. 

t] see | oe | 2°50} ... | 2°35) ... | 8°55]] 280° w+ | 1:00) ... | 0°85) ... |7°0. 
40:| 0-0| 0:0 | 1-80} ...] 1-65) ... | 7-85]] 320°) 63-5)... | 0-90) ... | 0°75) ... |6-°95 
80-| 9:0] ... | 1:70) ...] 1:55} ... | 7:75|| 360-| 73-0) ... | 0°85) ... | 0°70} ... [6-90 
120-| 17:5 | ... | 1:70} ... | 1:55) ... | 7°75]] 400°} 82-5) ... | 0°80) ... | 0°65) ... 16-85 
160°| 26:5] ... | 1:55] ...] 1-40) ... | 7-60|] 440-| 91-5) ... | 0°70) ... | 0-55) ... |6°75 
200°| 35°5| ... | 1:45] ...] 1-30} ... | 7-50|] 480-| 101-0)... | 0°70) ... | 0:55) ... |6°75 
240:| 45°0| ... | 1:27) ...} 1°12) ... 732| 520:| 110-0)... | 0°67| ...| 0:52) ... |6-72 


8th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLIX. Depth 6 inches. 


Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume added = 547-5 inches. 
Observers, @ Russell, @ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. 


Statical level observed at | 3 a + ae } Corrected depth = 6-20 inches. 


A fe Bp [ MO [MERE Os MN Cer Se 


feet. |asec.|Asec.|y in.|3 in.|7/in.|3/in,| in, || feet. | asec. 'B sec.|y in.|3 in.|y/in.|¥in,| in. 
0- e |... | 1:55]... | 1:40) ... 17-60 |) 500-] 112-5) ... | 0:57) ... | 0-42) ... 16-62 
40°} O-] ... | 1:50} .../ 1°35} ... |7-55 || 540°] 122-0) ... | 0:57] ... | 0-42) ... |6-62 
80: | 9-0) ... | 1:37] ...| 1:22] ... |7-42|| 580°] 131-5) ... | 0:50} ... | O35] ... |6-55 
120: | 18-0] ... | 1-20} ...| 1°05] ... |7-25 || 620°) 141-0) ... | 0-50) ...| 0°35) ... [6-55 
160° | 27-0] ... | 1:17} ... | 1:02] ... |7-22 |) 640°] 151-5) ... | 0-50) ...| O35) ... |6:55 
200: | 36:5] ... | 1°17] ... | 1:02) ... |7-22 || 680°] 161-5) ... | 0-47) ... | 0°82) ... |6-52 
240: | 45-0) ... | 1°15] ...| 1:00) ... |7°20 || 720°] 171-0) ... | 0°47) ... | 0°32) ... |6:52 
280° | 55-0} ... | 1°07] ...| 0°92} ... |7°12 || 760°] 181-0) ... | 0°45) ... | 0°30) ... 6-50 
320: | 64:5] ... | 0°97] ... | 0°82) ... |7°02 || 800°} 190°5] ... | 0°42) ... | 0:27) ... 16-47 
360° | 74:0) ... | 0°87] ... | 0°72) ... |6°92 || 840°} 200-0) ... | 0°42) ... | 0°27) ... |6°47 
400° | 83-5) ... | 0°72) ... | 0°53) ... |6°73 || 880°} 210-0) ... | 0°40} ... | 0°25) ... [6°45 
440° | 93-0) ... | 0°67] ...| 0°52) ... 16°72 || 920°} 220-0) ... | ... | |. |e 
480: | 102-5) ... | 0°60) ...| 0°45) ... |6°65 || 960: | 230-0 


8th Aug., 1837. WAVE L. Depth 6 inches. 


Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume added = 353:2 inches. 
Observers, « Russell, @ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. 


Statical level observed at | z a 1s oof Corrected depth = 6:25 inches, 


pe Gea hy Heel fo 8 © | DP |e 


feet. asec.|B sec.|y in.|3 in.|y/in./¥in. in. || feet. | sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|7/in,|3‘in,| in. 
O- | ... |... | 1:40) ... | 1-20) ... 17-45 || 480° | 95-5) ... | 0°57) ... | 0°37] ... (6°62 
40°} ... | ... | 1:10) ... | 0-90) ... 17-15 || 520° | 105-5)... | 0-50) ... | 0-30) ... |6°55 
80- | 0-0] ... | 1:07| ... | 0°87} ... |7-12 || 560° | 115-0) ... | 0-50) ... | 0°30) ... 1655 
120-| 9:5] ... | 0-97) ...| 0:77) ... |7-02 || 600- | 124:5) ... | 0:50) ... | 0°30) ... |6°55 
160: | 18:5] ... | 0°87] ... | 0°67] ... |6°92 || 640° | 1345) ... | 0°47) ...| 0-27) ... [6-52 | 
200: | 285} ... | 0°82) ... | 0-62) ... |6°87 || 680° | 144-5] ... | 0:40) ... | 0-20) ... |6-45 
240: | 37°5| ... | 0°82) ... | 0-62} ... 16°87 || 720° | 154:5) ... | 0°40} ... | 0-20)... |6-45 
280: | 47-5} ... | 0°80) ... | 0°60) ... |6-85 || 760° | 164-0)... | 0°37] ... | 0°10) ... |6-35 
320° | 565] ... | 0-72) ...| 0-52) ... |6:77 || 800° | 174-0)... | 0°87] ... | 0-10) ... 1635 
360- | 66:5] ... | 0:70) ... | 0:50) ... |6:75 || 840° | 184-0)... | 0°35) ... | 0-15) ... |640 
400: | 76°5| ... | 0°67) ... | 0°47) ... 16°72 || 880° | 194-0)... | 0-35) ... | 0-15] ... }6-40 
440: || 86:0] «.. |'0°60)... O40)... 1685 || 920° |... |) ce. | cee fo ene | eve, | outlines 


ON WAVES. 481 


8th Aug., 1837. WAVE LI. Depth, 7 inches. 


Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume added = 309-12 inches. 
Observers, @ Russell, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. 


Statical level observed at 5 oe + 008 f Corrected depth = 7-04 inches. 


A B Cc D E A B C D E 


yin.|¥in.| in. || feet. |a sec.|@ sec.}y in.|3in,|7/in. in. in. 
see | eee [O99 | ...| 0-92) ... 7°96 || 320° | 53:5} ... | 0°65] ... | 0-67] ... [7-71 
40° | ... | ... [09 | ... | 0-92) ... |7-96 |] 360-| 63-0] ... | 0-62) ...| 0-64! ... 17-68 
80: | 0-0/ ... |0°87| ... | 0-89) ... '7-93 |] 400°} 72:5] ... | 0-62| ...| 0-64] ... 7-68 
120-| 9:0] ... |0-80) ... | 0-82) ... |7-86 |] 440°] 81:5] ... | 0-60) ... | 0-62) ... |7-66 
160: | 185] ... | 0-80} ... | 0-82] ... |7-86 || 480°} ... | ... | 0-60! ... | 0-62! ... 17-66 
200: | 27:5 | ... |0°77| ... | 0-79] ... |7-82 || 520°] ... | ... | 0-50) ... | 0-52) ... 17-56 
ean isOrO)) 2.) O:70 |) 02 | O79! ..01Z°82 || BO0"| oes” | ce | ade | vac] eco | eee] cee 
280° | 45-0] ... | 0°70) ... 0-72) --. (7°76 || 600- 


feet. |« sec. |G sec.|y in. I> i in. 
0- 


$$ tt 
8th Aug., 1837. WAVE LII. Depth, 7 inches. 


Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume added = 309-12 inches. 
“Observers, a Russell, 6 rata y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. 


Statical level observed at 5 Bid i. 0-08 Corrected depth = 7:04 inches. 


feet, | asec. |@ sec.|y in.|d in.|7/in.|y/in,| in. || feet. |« sec. Bsec.|y in.|3 in.|4/in.|in.| in. 
S|) gaa -- | 10 | ... | 1:02) ... [8-06 || 200- | 35-25) ... | 0-85] ... | 0-87] ... |7-91 
40: | 0- 0: | 0:97) ... | 0-99} ... |8°03 || 240- | 44:5 | ... 10-75] ...| 0:77] ... 17-81 
80-| 85} ... | 0:95) ... | 0-97) ... |8-01 || 280: | 53-0 | ... 10-67] ... | 0-69] ... 17-71 
120° | 17:5] ... | 0:95) ... | 0-97) ... |8-01 || 320°] 62-5 | ... | 0-70} ... | 0-72) ... 17-76 


160: | 26:5) ... | 0:90) ... | 0°92) ... |7-96 || 360.| 71:5 |... | 0-60) ... | 0-62] ... 17°66 
et 
8th Aug., 1837. WAVE LIII. Depth, 7 inches. 


Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume added = 309-12 inches. 
Observers, « Russell, @ Patrick, y» Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. 


Statical level observed at { OF = + 0-08 } Corrected depth = 7-04 inches, 


ia od | | J 


feet. | a sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in,|7/in.|S/in.| in. || feet. | «sec. |Gsec. y in.|3 in.}7/in.|2in.| jn, 
0 | 0-0) 0-0 | 0-87) ... | 0-89) ...|7-93 || 400-| 39-5 | ... | 0-62] ... 10-64) ... 17-68 
40° | 9-0 0°77) ...| 0-79} ... |7-83 || 440°] 49-02] ... | 0-52) ... | 0-54) ... 17-58 
80- | 18-0) ... | 0-72) ...|0-74) ... 17-78 || 480-| 58:5 | ... 10-47] ... | 0-49] ... 17-53 
120: | 27-0| ... | 0°72) ...|0-74) ... |7°78 || 520-| 68-0 | ... | 0-40] ... | 0-42) ... 17-46 
160- | 36:0] ... | 0°72) ...|0-74] ... 17-78 || 560°| 77:0 | ... | 0-40] ...| 0°42] ... 17-46 
see | ese | coe | cee | wee] vee | eee | eee || 600°] 86-0 | ... | 0:37] ... | 0°39) ... 17-43 
280: |*12-0| ... | 0-67) ...| 0-69) ...|7°73 || 640-| 95°0 | ... |0-37| ...|0-39! ... 7°43 
320° | 21-0/ ... | 0-65) ...|0-67| ... |7-71|| 680-|104:0 | ... | 0-30] ... | 0-32] ... 17-36 
360: | 30-0) ... | 0-62) ... | 0-64 +++ 768 720: |113'5 | ... | 0°30) ...| 0°32] .. 17-36 


VOL. vi. 1837. 21 


482 


8th Aug., 1837. 


A B ae ae E|| A B Cc Boar 
feet. |asec. |G sec.|y in. pin y inlein. fin lyin. in{/in.| in. feet. | «sec. 6 sec.'y in. 3 in.'7/in.|din.| in. 
0: 0-90 0°92) ... |7-96 || 320: 54-0 | 0-60) ... | 0°62) ... |7-66 
AUN ces 0°87) ... | 0°89) ... |7-93 || 360-| 63-0 0°57| ... | 0°59] ... |7-63 
80: | 0-0 0:77| ...| 0:79) ... |7°88 || 400°| 72-0 0-55| ... | 0°57], ... 17°61 
120° | 9:0 0:67) ... | 0°69) ... 7°73 || 440: | 81:0 | 0:50) .. | 0°52) ...|7:56 
160° | 18-0 0:67) ... | 0°69) ... 17°73 || 480-| 90:0 0-47| ... | 0°49] ... |7:53 
200: | 27-0 0-70) ... | 0°72) ... |7°76 || 520-|100-0 0°47) ... | 0°49) ... 17:53 
240- | 36:0 0°62) ... | 0°64) ... |7°68 || 560: |109-0 0:50) -.: | 0:31) 2..)|4700 
280: | 45-0 0°60) ... | 0°62) ... |7°66 || 600- L19°0 aa +02 Odd resold aad 
* Very irregularly observed. 
8th Aug., 1837. WAVE LV. Depth, 7 inches. 

Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume added = 309°1 inches. 

Observers, « Russell, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. 

Statical level observed at] = a 2 0-08 Corrected depth = 7°04 inches, 

A B c D A | B Cc De 
feet. asec. |B seC.|y in.d in.|7/in.|din.| in. || feet. le ned. @ sec.|y in.) in.|9/in.|¥in,| in. 

0- 0:90} ... | 0-92 7:96 || 720° 142-5 0°37} ... | 0°39) ... |7-43 
BQ icles 0:90} ... | 0-92 7:96 || 760:| 152-0 0:37) ... | 0°39) ... |7-43 
80: | 0-0 0:87) ... | 0°89 7:93 800 161-0 0°32] ...| 0°34) ... 17-38 
120: | 85 . | 0°82} ... | O84 7:88 840; 1700 0°50) ... | 0°32) ... 17°36 
160° | 17-5 0:80) ... | 0°S2) ... |7°86 880: 179°0 0-30) ... | 0-32) ...17°36 
200: | 26-5 0-75 0°77) ...|7°81 | 920° 188°0 0-30) ... | 0°32) ... 17°36 
240: | 35-5 0-72 0:74) ... 17°78 960° 197°5| ... | 0-27) ... | 0-29) ... 17°33 
280: | 44:0 0-70 0-72| ... 17°76 || 1000-| 206-5]... | 0-27) ... | 0-29) ... 17°33 
320: | 53-0 0:67 0:69) ... 7°73 1040 216-0) ... | 0-27) ... | 0-29) ... 17:33 
360: | 62:0 0-60 0°62) ... |7°66 || 1080- 225-0 0-22) ... | 0-24) ... 17°28 
400: | 71:0 0:57 0:59) ... |7°53 || 1120- 254-0 0-20} ... | 0°22) ... 17-26 
440: | 80-0 0-52 0-54] ... |7°58 | 1160- 243°0 0-20) ... | 0°22) ... |7-26 
480: | 89:0 0:50 0°52)... \7°56 | 1200- Xs astely octet te 
520- 0:50 0°52) ... |7°56 1240" bee 
560: 1106-5 0:47 0:49) ... |7°53 || 1280- 
600° |115+5 0-47 0°49) ... |7°53 || 1820- 
640- |125-0 0-42 0-44) ... 7°48 || 1360- 
680- |134-0 0-40 0-42) ... |7°46 || 1400- 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


WAVE LIV.* 


Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume added = 309:1 inches. 
Observers, « Russell, @ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. 


Statical level observed at oe stare +008 f Corrected depth = 7:04 inches. 


Depth, 7 inches, 


ON WAVES. 483 


9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LVI. Triangular channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at { ¥ i j.002 t Corrected depth = 4:012 inches. 
A B c Di le] a B Cc nll Ee 


feet. asec. | sec.|y in,|3in.|y/in, Yin. in, |) feet. a sec.|6 sec.|y in.|3 in. o/in. Yin. in. 
0:0] 0°30) ... | 0-40) ...| ... 75-5)... 403 0:00) ... | 0°10) ... 


35:5] ... | 14:5/0-10) ... 0-20)... |e. | L155 49:5] 0-02| ... |0-08| ... 


9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LVII. Triangular channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits, 
Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at ¥ ol we 0-02 f Depth = 4-012 inches. 


feet. |« sec. /@ sec.|y in.|} in. yin Yin, in, || feet. |« sec.|6 sec.|y in.) in. |7in.|d’in.| in, 
" | 2 | 0:0) 0°30) ... | 0:40) ...] ... |] 75:5)... | 34:5} 0°07} ... 10-17]... 
355} ... | 14:5) 0-20) .../0°30) ...) ... |] 115-5]... | 49:5) 0-00} ...] 0-10) .. 


9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LVIII, Triangular channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, 6 Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


_ Statical level observed at . fa We 0-02 Corrected depth = 4-012 inches. 


D E 
feet. | z sec.|8 sec.|y in.|din. 7 in. |¥in, in. || feet. a sec.|B sec.|y in.|d in.|7/in,|Sin.| in, 
QO | ... | 0:00) 0-80} ... | 0-90) ... [4°91 |] 115°5 46:5] 0:07| ...| 0-17] ... |4:18 
35°5| ... {13:5 | 0-40} ... | 0-50) ... (4°51 || 155°5 64:5} 0°02) ... | 0°12] ... |4-13 
75:5} ... {80:0 | 0-17] ... | 0-27] ... [4-28 || 195-5 As dices al secre eee i 


| | 


” 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LIX. Triangular channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits, 
Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at x a Fe -09 f Corrected depth = 4-012 inches. 


feet. |« sec. | sec.|y in.|d in. »/in|¥in. in. || feet. |~ sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|/7/in.|d’in.| in. 
a 0-0] Y-10) ... | 1:20) ...|5°21 || 75:5] ... | 29-0) 0-17] ... | 0-27] ... |4-28 
355 | ... | 14:0) 0°40) ... | 0-50) ... ]4-51]] 115-5) ... | 46:5] 0-07] ... | 0-17] ... [4:18 


ye, 


484 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LX. Triangular channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at {¥ a a i a } Corrected depth = 4°012 inches, 


A B C D E A B Cc D E 
feet. | a sec.|6 sec.|y in.|3 in.|7/in.|3/in.| in. || feet. |« sec. |G sec.|y in.) in.|7/in.|3'in.| in. 
C1 eee O- | 1-05) ... | 1-15) ...|5°36 || 75-5) ... | 30°0/0:10) ... | 0-20) ... 4-21 
35°5 13-5] 0°35] ... | 0-45] ... |4°46 || 115°5| ... | 47°5] ... moti ne ot aes 
9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXI. Triangular channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, £ Patrick. Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at or rE 2a oe f Corrected depth = 4-012 inches. 


feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in.|9/in.|d’in.| in. |] feet. | @sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in.|7/in.|d'in.| in. 
(Teed eB 0-0) 1:10) ... | 1:20) ... 5°21 || 75-5) ... | 29:5) 0-10) ... | 0-20} ... |4:21 
35°5| ... | 13-5} 0-30) ... | 1-40) ... [5-41 || 115-5) ... | 47-0]0-00] ...| 0°10) ... 4-11 


9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXII. Triangular channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, 6 Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at | ¥= a7 o o-15 f Corrected depth = 5:11 inches. 


A B Cc D E|| A B Cc D E 
=e asec. | sec.\y in.|d in.|7/in.|din.| in. |] feet. |« sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3in.|/>/in.|3’in,| in. 

: 0:0} 1:10) ... | 1:98) ... ‘l7-09 155°5] ... | 56-0) 0-22) ...| 0-20) ... |5-31 
35°5 .-. | 12-0) 0-70) ... | 0-68} ... [5°79 |] 195-5)... | 71-0/ 0-20) ... | 0-18) ... |5-29 


75°5| ... | 26-0) 0-50) ... | 0-48] ... [5°59 |] 235-5)... | 87:0) 0°17 


eee | O15)... [5°26 
115-5] ... | 41:0) 0-30) ... | 0-28) ... |5°39 || 275-5 eel] Game uegeattl eters 


9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXIII. Triangular channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, 6 Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at { 5 iF i O15 f Corrected depth = 5-11 inches. 


feet. | « sec. |B sec./y in.|d in.|7/in.|¥in.| in. || feet. |asec.|8 sec.|y in.|din.!9/in.|in.| in. 
0-0} ... 0:0] 1-10} ... | 1°08) ... (6°19 || 115-5)... | 41:5) 0-30) ... | 0-28) ... |5°39 
35°5| ... | 12:5} 0°70) ... | 0-68) ... |5°79 |) 155-5}... | 56-0) 0-22} ... | 0-20) ... [5-31 
75°5| ... | 265) 0°45) ... | 0°43) ... 15:54 |] 195°5] ... |... | O-17] ... | O15) ... [5-26 


i 


ON WAVES. 485 


9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXIV. Triangular channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, 6 Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed ed at { Y= a “f pe Corrected depth = 5:11 inches. 


feet. z sec, |B sec.|y in.|) in.|y/in.|3in. in. |} feet. asec.|B sec.|y in.|3 in.|/in.|d’in.| in. 
0-0) ... 0:0) 1-10) ... | 1:08) ... }6°19 |} 115-5} ... | 40:5) 0-30) ... | 0-28] ... 15°39 


35°35) ... | 12:0) 0°70) ... | 0°68} ... |5°79 || 155-5]... | 55-5] 0-20} ... | 0-18} ... |5-29 
75°5| ... | 26:0) 0:40) ... | 0°38) ... 5°49 || 195-5}... | 71-0) . eet Meaet| [bees 
9th Aug., 1837.. WAVE LXV. Triangular channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. 
Times observed directly at Station 7, double transits. 
Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at ke ie i a Hf } Corrected depth = 5:11 inches. 


A B C D E A B Cc D E 
feet. |«sec. |B sec.|y in.| in.|7/in./d’in.| in. || feet. asec. |B sec.|y in|) in.|9/in.|/in.| in. 

O- | 1-20) .., | 1-18) ... |6°29 || 115°5| ... -| 40-5] 0-27) ... | 0-25) ... |5-36 
35°5| ... | 12:0) 0°60) ... | 0°58) ... |5°69 || 155-5}... | 55-5} 0-20) ... | 0-18) ... |5-29 
75°5| ... | 26:0) 0°35] ... | 0°33) ... |5°44 || 195-5} ... | 71-0) ... aeemtaacnll tie 


9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXVI. Triangular channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, 8 Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at} ¥ z at O08 } Corrected depth = 6-04 inches. 


A B C 


feet. |a sec. |B sec. y in| in.'y/in, Yin. in. || feet. |« sec.|6 sec. y in. a in. “y in.|d’in.| in. 
(1 eee 0: |0-80| ... |0-80] ... [6-84] 155-5]... | 51-5/0-201 ... | 0-20 oe (6°24 
35°5| ... | 11-0) 0-65) ... | 0°65) ... 16-69 |] 195-5} ... | 65-0) 0-12) ... | 0-12] ... 16-16 
75°5| ... | 23°5| 0°37) ... | 0°37] ... |6-41 || 285°5} ... | 79:5} 0°10) ... | 0°10] ... 16-14 
115-5)... | 37:5] 0°32) ... | 0°32) ... [6°36 || 275-5 - a Pellets eds iP) ee 


D E A B C D E 


9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXVII. Triangular channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at {= im 4 aa Corrected depth = 6-04 inches. 


feet. |«sec.|6 sec.|y in.|din.|9/in.|d/in.| in. || feet. | sec.|@ sec.|y in.|} in.|9/in.|in,| in. 
0-0} ... 0-0) 0-85} ... | 0-85] ... |6°89 || 115:5| ... | 38-0) 0-32) ... | 0:32) ... 16:36 
35°5| ... | 11:5) 0-67] ... | 0-67) ... |6-71 || 155-5} ... | 52:0) 0-19] ... | 0-19] ... |6-23 
755) ... | 24:5} 0-47) ...| 0-47) ... 16°51 |} 195-5)... | 66:0) 0-15) ... | 0-15) ... 16-19 


486 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXVIII. Triangular channel (fH). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at { a a ac 005 Corrected depth = 6:04 inches. 


Cc D E 


feet. | z sec.|6 sec.|y in.|d in. o/in. Yin, in. || feet. |# see B sec.'y in./ in.}7/in./¥in.| in. 
i ie 0-0} 1-10] ... | 1-10} ... 7-14 |] 11555! 37°5| 0-27] ... | 0-27) ... |631 
35°5 | ... | 11:0) 0°77) ... | 0°77] ... 6°81 || 155-5 ope . | 0-20) ... |6°24 


75°5| ...° | 24-0 0-37] ... | 0°37]... (6-41 || 195-5 65-0 017 O17]... (6-21 


9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXIX. Triangular channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at | Y= heh t= } Statical depth = 7-04 inches. 


+ 0:05 
A B Cc D E A B G D E 
feet. | sec. |G sec.|y in. 3 in. 7’in.|in.| in. |) feet. este. a sec.|y in.|) in,|9/in.|sin.| in. 
Die eas O):D iret ateen anes? | ice 75:5) oe - | )25°0) O25) 2.21] O27) aneenae 
do-5| ... | 12°0 0-40 egal a. ‘ |7-46 || i rss oT rece al isdeal eee tl eee eee 
9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXX. Triangular channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at { = ra + 002 | Corrected depth = 7-04 inches. 

A B c Diife | A | B c D |£E 
feet. | # sec. | sec.|y in. Sin. y in. ¥in,| in. || feet. | «sec. |6 sec. y in.|3 in,|y/in./in.| in. 

0-0)... OO eeu eeu! ewe | call oxy | LODtD) =e... | D0'O] O20) ac. | Uta meceuae aes 
SbeED (ince die gl RLESO | Basatal ioe atth Sess | oe 195:5| ... | 63:5] 0-07) ... | 0°09) ... |7-13 
75°5| ... | 245/0-50) ... 0°52) ... (7-56 | 235-5]... | 76-0/ 0-05] ... | 0-07] ... [7-10 
115°5| ... | 37-0 0-30 «.. | 0°32! ... 17°36 || 275°5} ... | 90-0) 0-02) ... | 0-04) ... {7-08 


9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXI. Triangular channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at z ra ff 0-05 f Corrected depth = 7:04 inches. 


A B Cc D E A B C D E 
feet. | «sec. |B sec.|y in.|d in.|9/in.|’in.| in. || fect. | « sec. |B sec.\y in. Sin, 9/in.|3/in.} in. 

O07  cemjn OO | trent Ress ces] (endl vere: ||| Laco)| com nll SO) Neal eens (UNG eet tigeeee 
35°57]... (14-52) 1-2?) ... |1-22?) ... 18-26 |] 195-5) .... | 65-5) 0-10} ...| O12) ... 17-16 
75°5 |... 265 105 |... 0°52 | ... |7-56 || 235:5] ... | 78:5) 0°07) ...| 0-09) ... 17-13 
1155 890 | 02 | ... 1022 | ... [7-26 


(275°5| ... | 91:0) 0°05) ... 0:07) ... /7-11 


. 
3 
; 


ON WAVES. 487 


9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXII. Triangular Channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, £ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at Ee iz + rae } Corrected depth = 7:04 inches. 


feet. | « sec. Ip sec.|y in.|d in.|7in.|3’ in.) in. |} feet. | « sec.|@sec.|y in.|3 in,|7in.|d’in,| in. 
ais ce 0-0] ... |... | see | cee | eee |] 15595]... | 50:5] 0-10) ... | 0°12) ... | 7-16 
355) ... | 115)... | we] wee | wee | eee |] 195-5)... | 62:5) 0°07] ... | 0°09] ... | 7-13 
79'S | ... | 22:5) 0°25) ...| 0-27] ... | 7-31!) 2385-5)... | 765) 0-05) ... | 0°07] ...| 7-11 
1155 | ... | 37-0/0-17| ...} 0-19) ... 7-23] 275-5)... | on | one | one | eee | 


9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXIII. Triangular Channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, f Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. 


Statical level observed at {¥ cE fi 0-05 f Corrected depth = 7:04 inches. 


feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|y/in.|d/in.| in. || feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in,}y’in.|/0’in.} in. 
tect 1) OO | eee |uecetl nas!) |Paeny|ivaac [MODS wos! 17005) O17)’ 2c. O19) ny | gee 
35°D| ... | 12:5] 0°60) ... | 0-62) ... | 7-66) 195-5] ... | 64-0] 0-10} ... | 0°12) ... | 7-16 
75:5]... | 24:0) 0:45) ... | 0-47] ... | 7-51|] 235-5)... | 76-5) 0-05] ... | 0-07] ... | 7-11 
115-5} ... | 37:5} 0-27) ... | 0-29) ... | 7-33]| 275-5 eae [Creel SS | eweltl aaa 


9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXIV. Triangular Channel (A). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, # Patrick, Index, y Hamil, ag Russell. 


Statical level observed at 1% 5s 2 + ae 05 st Corrected depth = 704 inches. 


> 
A B | c pd |E| a B c D |£ 
feet; | « sec.| sec.|y in.|} in.|7’in.|3’in.| in. || feet. | @ sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in. y/in|3’in. in. 
0:0)... 0:0 coe wee | vee || 155°5] 2... | 48°0) 0-17) ... | O19) ... | 7-28 
35°5| ... | 11-5] 0-65] ...|0-62| ... |7-66|]195-3| ... | 61-5] 0-10] ...] 0-12] ... | 7-16 
75°5| ... | 23-0) 0-50) ... | 0-52] ... | 7:56]| 235-5] ... | 74:5) 0-02) ...| 0°04) ... | 7-08 
1155] ... | 35:5] 0°30) ... | 0-32) ... | 7-36] 275-5) ... | 87-5) 0-00) ... | 0°02) ... | 7:06 


488 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXV. Triangular Channel (H). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. 
Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, rari Russell. 


Statical level observed at 15 oF 4 05 05 f Corrected depth = 7:04 inches. 


feet. | « sec. Is sec.|y in./d in.|7in.|d’in.| in. || feet. | « sec.|6 sec.|y in.|d in.|9/in.|d/in,| in. 


OOP aes 0-0 aes cooi| seer || LO0°D!, 5.5 | 49°01 O15) 23.) OM... eee 
BOD)|, won LAD 0-60) ... | 0-62) ... 7°66||195°5) ... | 62°0) 0°07) ... | 0°09] ... | 7°13 
755] ... | 24:0) 0-45] ...| 0°47) ... | 7-51] 2385-5)... | 75-5] 0°05) ... | 0°07) ... | 7-11 
115-5] ... | 36:5} 0-30) ... | 0-32) ... | 7°36|| 275-5) ... | 88:5) 0-00) ... | 0-00} ... | 7-04 


Remark,—In this series of experiments it was observed that the wave was long and 
low on the deep side, and comparatively sharp and short on the shallow side, so that 
the outline of the wave was formed of convergent lines. The wave did not always 
break on the shallow side, but broke on that side much earlier than on the other side. 


11th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXVIL. Triangular Channel (K). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at Stations y and 3, single transits. 
Time, a Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. 


Statical level observed at {es 7 af O10 Corrected depth = 4:04 inches. 


A B 10 
feet. | a sec.|6 sec.|y in.|) in.!9/in.|8/in.| in. || feet. | « sec.|@ sec./y in.|3 in.|9/in.|3’in.| in. 

0-0 | OO} ... | 1:0] ... | 0°95] ... | 4°99]| 55-7) 21-5) ... | ... (0°30) ... 10°20) 4-24 
1462) 5-0) ... | ... | O-7| ... 0°60) 4-64|| 75-7 | 29°5| ... | 0:20] ... | 0°15) ... | 4:19 
35:7 | 13-0) ... | OG} ... | 0°55] ... | 4:39)| 95-7 oa s1a'fivsete-|{usee (eet ene ieen 


llth Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXVII. Triangular Channel (K). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. 

Times observed directly at Stations y and 3, single transits. 

Time, a Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. 

Statical level observed at | 3 = 5 O10f Corrected depth = 4-04 inches. 


feet. | « sec.| sec.|y in, |) in.|y’in. ly¥in.| in. || feet. | « sec. B sec,|y in.]3 in.}9/in.|2’in.| in. 

00) 0-0 | ... | Us}... | Ue]... | we. |] 55°7 | 21-5] ... |... [O'S0} ... [0+ 2)4-24 
14-6] 5-25| ... |... [0-65] ... (0°55| 4-591] 75-7 A PEAS easier liters 
35:7 |13-0 | ... | 0-43} ... | 0-38} ... 4-42) 95-7 


ON WAVES. 489 


Alth Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXVIII. Triangular Channel (K). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at Stations y and 3, single transits. 
Time, a Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3} Donaldson. 


Statical level observed at | 3 a i O10} Corrected depth = 4-04 inches, 


A B C D Ej) A B 


Cc D E 


feet. | « sec.'B sec.|y in.|3 in.|9/in.'¥ in. in. || feet. | x sec.|@ sec,|y in.|d in.|9/in.|3’in.| in. 
00) 0-0) ... | 2°0 } ...} 1:95) ... | 5°99) 55-7) 20-5] ... | ... 10°32] ... 10-22) 4-26 
14-6) 5-0] ... | ... [0°70] ... |0°60]4:64|| 75°7 | 29-5) ... | 0-25) ... | 0-20) ... | 4-24 
35°7| 12:5] ... | 0°50) ... 0-45| «+» | 4°49]| 95-7} 38°0] ... | ... 0°20) ... 10°10) 4-14 


llth Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXIX. Triangular Channel (K). 


. Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at Stations y and 3, single transits. 
Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. 
Statical level observed at{ Ba a O10} Corrected depth = 4:04 inches. 


A B Cc 


oe Le a Sg Ee ee aE — EEE See aa eee es 


feet. | « sec.|6 sec.|y in.|d in.'/in./d'in.| in. |} feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|9/in |’in.| in. 

0-0} 0-0) .., | 2:20) ...| 2°15) ... | 6-19) 75°7| 29-5] ... | 0-20) ... | 0-15] ... | 4-19 
14-6] 5:0] ... | ... |0°70) ... 0-60} 4-64)) 95-7 | 37-7] ... | ... [0°19] ... 10°09] 4-13 
35°7| 13:0) ... | 0-45) ...| 0-40) ... | 4-44/115-7 | 49:0] ... | 0-10} ... | 0-05) ... | 4-09 
55°7| 21-2) ... | ... |0°32) ... [0-22 4°26/185°7 obsess abl wremssalf es 


Remarks.—The times at y and 3 were differently observed; and should be separated. 
The wave was long and low on the deep side, and tapered to a point on the other 
side. It broke during the whole period of observation continually on the shallow 
edge, leaving a portion behind, from which subordinate waves were formed. 


llth Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXx. Trapezoidal Channel (L). 
Statical level observed at{ ie be 0-00} Corrected depth = 5:00 inches, 
Wave observed Wave observed 
by sight. in glass index. 
25 inches high. | 1‘5 inches high. 
OF reas! ere a OMe cae 2! Sez 
(Ss Resa on 7!) lal L2H a OS , 


Observations of this kind having been repeated, it was found that high waves, exceeding 
about half the mean depth, were indicated higher on the side by direct sight than in 
the index, up to about the limit when the excess became nearly one half of the whole 
height. 


490 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


llth Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXXI. Trapezoida) Channel (L). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at Stations y and 4, single transits. 
Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. 


Statical level observed at ¥ & ae aed \ Corrected depth = 5:00 inches. 


A B C D Ej) A B Cc D E 


a ES eee 


feet. asec! sec.|y in.|d in.|9/in.|/in.| in. || feet. a sec.|B sec.|y in.|3 in.|y/in.|in.| in. 
Cee vaze 0:0} 2°0 | ... | 2°05) ... | 7:05] 55-7) ... | 17-5] ... |0°50} ... 10°50] 5-50) 
WAG cas 4:5] ... 10°80) ... |0°80) 5°80)) 75°7| ... | 25-0) 0-25) ... | 0°30) ... | 5°30 
35°7| ... | 110) 0°70) ... | 0°75) ... | 5°75)| 95-7 ere (Pei (ie est (eld begets A" 


llth Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXXII. Trapezoidal Channel (L). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at Stations y and 9, single transits. 
Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. 


Statical level observed at { ov 7 ¢ o10} Corrected depth = 5:00 inches. 


A B C D E || A B Cc D E 
feet. | « sec. y sec.|y in|} in. yin. |¥ in, in. || feet. | @ sec.|6 sec.|y in.) ia. y'in.¥ in. in. 
O- | ... | 0°0/2-0 | ... | 2°05) ... | 7:05)| 55°7| ... |17°75) ... 106 | ... (0-6 | 5°60) 
14:6 4:5] ... | 0-9) ... | 0-9) 5°90)) 75°7| ... [24:5 10°35] .../ 0°40) ... | 5-40) 
35°7 11-0} 0°75) ... | 0°80) .. - | 5-80 95-7)... 31°25)... [025 wee |0°25) 5-25 
11th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXXIII. Trapezcidal Channel (L). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at Stations y and 3, single transits. 
Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, > Donaldson. 


Statical level observed at {ee = a . lot Corrected depth = 5-00 inches. 


A B Cc D E A B Cc D E 


feet. | a sec.|6 sec.|y in.|3 in.|7/in.|d’in.| in. || feet. a sec.|— sec,|y in./3 in.|7/in,|d’in.| in. 
00) «... 0-0] 2-5] ...| 2:55) ... | 7°55]) 55:7] ... (16°75) ... |0°55) ... (0°55) 5°55 
LEG!" <.. 4-0) 0.5) OF8)) .c. |0°80/'5°80]] 75:7 | ©.. 124°O) ot coe aiawan Nee 
35:7| ... | 10:5) 0-7) ...| 0°75! ... |5°75]| 95:7] ... [305 | ... jo 


1lth Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXXIV. Trapezoidal Channel (L). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at Stations y and 3, single transits. 
Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. 


Statical level observed at{ 3 . i o10f Corrected depth = 5:00 inches. 


A B e D | EA B Cc | E 
feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in.|9/ in. ¥in.| in, || feet. | « sec./2 sec. y in. > in, y in. Yin. in. 
0-0) ... 0:0) 2-0 . | 2-05) . «| 7:05]| 55°7 |... | 175 0°55) ... (055, 5°55 


146i 4:0 0-80 


Ps . |0-80| 5-80) 75-7]... | 245 030! ... |0-35) .. se 
35°7| ... 10:5) 065)... 070. (5 70) 957) a. | ow ele we 


ON WAVES. 49] 


11th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXXV. Trapezoidal Channel (L). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at Stations + and 9, single transits. 
Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. 


Statical level observed at 3 x if O10; Corrected depth = 5-00 inches. 


eee | Coe. Dee pa a fol BP eet wp) | E 


feet. | a sec./@ sec,|4 in.|d in.|9/in,|0’in.| in. || feet. | @ sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|7/in.|’in.| in. 
0-0) ... 0-0) 2°50} ... | 2°55] ... | 7°55]/ 75-7) ... | 24-5) 0°30) ... | 0-35) ... | 5°35 
146] ... 4-0} ... |0°80) ... |0°80) 5°80) 95-7] ... | 29-5) ... [0-22] ... |0-22) 5-22 
35-7} ... | 10:5/0°70) ... | 0°75) ... | 5°75]/115-7 |... | 37-0) 0-10) ...) O15] 2. | 5°15 
o0F| 2. | 17-0) ... |O-52) 6. (0°52) S5°5QN1S5-7 | nf vee | wee | cee cee | cee | eee 


llth Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXXVI. Trapezoidal Channel (L). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at Stations y and 3, single transits. 
Time, « Russell, Index, 7 Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. 


Statical level observed at { 5 fs a O10 ¢ Corrected depth = 5-00 inches, 


feet. | a sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|/7/in.|0’in.| in, || feet. | @ sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in. yin. in. in. 
00) ... 0:0) 2-+) .../ 2°) ... | 7°00) 55:7]... | 17-0) ... [0-47] ... 10°47] 5-47 
14-6] ... 4-0] ... [0:90] ... |0°90) 5:90) 75:7) ... | 25:5) 0. | ..] cee | eee | ee 
BOF |... | LOS) 0. | coe] one | ee | eee |] 957] oo. | B75] ... (0-25) ... 10°25) 5-25 


11th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXXVII. Trapezoidal Channel (L). 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at Stations y and 3, single transits. 
Time, a Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, } Donaldson. 


Statical levei observed at{ 3 at hae } Corrected depth = 5:00 inches. 


A B Cc D E|| A B Cc D E 
feet. | « sec.|6 sec.|y in.|d in./>/in.|¥’ in.) in. || feet. | « sec,|B sec.|y in.|) in.|7/in,|in.| in. 
0-0 0-0}... | wee] cee | cee] eee |] 557] «2. | 17-0]... [0°52) ... (0-52) 5-52 
14-6)... 4-5] ... 0°85] ... [0°85] 5°85] 75°7| ... | 26-0) ... |...) 2. | | ee 
B57 | 2. | 110)... | wee] cee] cee | ee |] 957]... | 88-0)... 10-25] ... 10-25) 5-25 
11th Aug,, 1837. WAVE LXXXVIII. Trapezoidal Channel (L). 


4 


| 


Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at Stations y and 9, single transits. 
Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, } Donaldson. 


Statical level observed at{ 3 Taga } Corrected depth = 5-00 inches. 


= +010 
A B Cc D | El a B | c Dee 
feet. | @ sec.| sec.|y in.|3 in.|/7/in.|3in.| in. || feet. | a sec,|a we in.|d in.|y/in.|8/ in.| in, 
OO}... | OO | wee | wee | one f vee | aoe |] SH-7] 0. | 17-0)... (0°52)... 10°52)... 
WEG)... | 4:25) ... 10°35) ... O85) va 757 |... ||) 260). 


Bee HOTS) ca | wefan | os | oe |] OF] 5. | BPS]. 0-25| ... 10-25] ... 
LS 


492 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


1th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXXIX*. Trapezoidal Channel (L). 
(1.) Height of the wave. { Or pe epee ic 4 | ye | odo 
(2.) Height of the wave. { On the geen sacs 0 | re | odo 
(B.) Height of the wave. { 07 the Seen ci as | to | 
(4.) Height of the wave. { 9" he Geen eae as | 0 | oso 


* In the whole of this series the wave broke on the shallow side immediately, and 
continued to do so, being dissipated very soon. 


llth Aug., 1837. WAVE XC. Trapezoidal Channel (M). 


Generated by addition of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at y and 3, single transits. 
Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. 


Statical level observed at{ oy is pau t Corrected depth = 6:01 inches. 


ee ey tee a TOA te os, Ok 
1. ee Ba oR ah le ha: is c | D |e 


001 ... | OO | 15| ...| 1:57] ... 17-58] 75-7]... | 20-5]... | et ace | coe] one 
14-6| ... | 4:0. es 115-7}... | 32:5] 0-25 -+ [O12 .. [613 
35-7| ... | 90 135-7 mie eye rE 

llth Aug., 1837. WAVE XCI. Trapezoidal Channel (M). 


Generated by addition of solid parallelopipedon C. 
‘Times observed directly at y and 3, single transits. 
Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. 


Statical level observed at { x ie " ne } Corrected depth = 6°01 inches. 


feet. |x sec. |B sec. y in.|3 in.|9/in.|Y in. 


in. || feet. | «sec. 6 sec.|y in. 3 in.|9/in.|’in,| in. 


0-0) ... | 0:0 PS ete) geal crete er ay 21-0) ... | 0-5] ... (0°45) 6:55 
14°6| ... | 40] ... | 15} ... | 1:45) 7-46115-7 33°5| 0-2) ... | 0°27) ...| 6-40 
35°7| ... | 9:5 | 0-7] ...| 0-77) ... |6-78]135-7 re Pa Be SD i 

llth Aug., 1837. WAVE XCII. Trapezoidal Channel (M). 

Generated by addition of solid parallelopipedon C. 

Times observed directly at y and 3, single transits. 

Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, 3 Index, Donaldson. 

Statical level observed at{ ¥ 3 = aes } Corrected depth = 6-01 inches. 

A B Cc D |E|] A B c ie 

SS SS SE SS SS SS eee 
feet. | a sec.|6 sec.|y in.|3 in.|7/in, 2 in.| in. || feet. | « sec.|B sec.\y in.3 in./9/ in. in.| in. 

00) -.....}. 0-0 wos |] 70°7 |. ose | ZOD. 1) O10 oe (OBa | G4aG 


14°6| ... | 4:0]... | 1:5]... |1-45] 7-46]115-7| ... | 325] 03) ... 0-25] ... | 6-26 
35-7| ... | 95 | 1-25) ... | 1°33)... | 7°33] 185-7 PD FA 2 YS = 


ON WAVES. 493 


llth Aug., 1837. WAVE XCIII. Trapezoidal Channel (M). 


Generated by addition of solid parallelopipedon C. 
Times observed directly at y and 3, single transits. 
Time, a Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3} Donaldson. 


Statical level observed at 3 S a wen \ Corrected depth = 601 inches. 


i aE SO ee eee 
A B Cc D E|| A B Cc D E 


feet. | a sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in.|>/in.|2’in.| in, || feet. | # sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|4/in.|¥ in.) in. 

0-0) ... | OO | ... |... | wee | wee | eee |] 757] 2. | 20°5) 1-25) ... | 1:32) ... | 7:33 
PEG ieee | 40 |... | ee] Beef eee | vee ETS Pes Record! lucety (eect lia Eero 
35:7] ... | 9°0 | 1:5] ...| 1:57) ... | 7:58)/185-7 


12th Aug., 1837. WAVE XCIV—CIII. Cuneiform Channel (N). 


Heights observed at A= 0°, B = 8°5 feet, C = 12°75 feet, and D = 17 feet. 
Breadth of Channel at A = 12 in., B = 6in., C = 3° in., D = 0 breadth. 


Statical level observed at { ¥ x a, i? } Corrected depth = 3:78 inches. 


Wave. | Height A.| Height B.| Height C.| Breaking Point. | Time.| Velocity. 


inches. ‘inches. inches, feet. sec, feet. 
XCIV. 1:5 2-5 3°5 D. — 38 4-0 4:25 
XCV. 2:0 2-4 33 D. — 0:0 4-0 4:25 
XCVI. 2-0 2°4 3°6 D. — 2:0 4-0 4:25 
XCVII. 1:25 20 2-5 D. — 00 4:0 4:25 
XCVIII. wae 2°45 31 D. — 0-4 4:0 4-25 
XCIX. 15 2°35 3°25 D. — ea 4:0 4:25 

3 f 2 D. — 2 : 

Cc. 2:0 2°55 33 Ht. = 3°6 in 40 4:25 
CI. 1:0 13 POM WHE ae ae! 
CII. 0°25 0-3 Oe WAI: re seces 5:0 3-4 
CIII. awe 0-5 OGarat ll > i kkese aa mas 


12th Aug., 1837. WAVE CIV—CVI. ~~ Cuneiform Channel (N). 


Heights observed at A = 0-, B= 8-5 feet, C = 12°75 feet, and D = 17 feet. 
Breadth of Channel at A = 12in., B = 6 in., C = 3: in., D = 0: breadth. 
x z 4. 0-075 t Corrected depth = 2:01 inches, 


Statical level observed at 


Height A.| Height B.| Height C.| Breaking Point. | Time.| Velocity. 


i | | | | | 
[————————___. 


inches. inches. inches, sec. feet. 
CIV. 0-25 Soe 05 2 inches high. 65 2-61 
CV. 0:20 oe8 0°35 2 inches high. 65 2-61 
CVI. 0:50 “a3 1:0 2 inches high. 6:25 2:64 


494 ' SEVENTH REPORT—1837 


14th Aug., 1837. WAVE CVII—CXXKXILI,, Sloping Channel (QO). 
Channel 17 feet long, 4 in, deep at 0, and 0: in, at 17 feet. 


Wace: Height | Height at} Distance {Depth of Water at 


at 0°. Breaking. | from end. | Breaking Point. 
inches. inches. feet. 

CVII. 0-9 iL 6°6 15 
CVIII. os 2:1 9-4 2-24 
CIX, 1-1 1-4 76 17 
CX. aoe 2-5 11-0 25 
CXI. wee 1:95 86 1-92 
CXII. 0-5 0:8 5:0 11 
CXIIT. 15 2-3 11:0 2-5 
CXIV. 13 1:9 8:3 1-9 
CXYV. 1:8? 2-2 9-4 2-2 
CXVI. 1:25 1-9 8-3 1:9 
CXVII. omy 2:9 15:0 34 
CXVIII. 25 27 12-2 27 
CXIX. if 0°83 30 07 
CXX. 11 1-4 6:3 14 
CXXI. 0-2 03 2-1 0-4 
CXXII. 10 1-2 55 1-2 
CXXIII. 0:5 05 4-0 0-9 
CXXIV. 0-8 0:8 43 11 
CXXV. 0-2 0-3 2-5 0-5 
CXXVI. 0-5 07 4:0 0-9 
CXXVII. 1-2 17 75 17 
CXXVIII. 2:0 27 11:3 2°6 
CXXIX. 2:2 2-7 11-0 2-5 
CXXX. 2-0 2-4 103 24 
CXXXI. 15 2-0 9:0 21 
CXXXII. se 25 11:0 25 


14th Aug., 1837. WAVE CXXXIIT—CXLIX.  Sloping Channel (0), 
Channel 17 feet long, 4 in. deep at 0°, and 0: in. at 17 feet. 


Time from| Whole Time} py, 00 of Depth of Water at 


eh Niet age ree Breaking. | Breaking Point. 


‘ sec. sec, i 
CXXXIII. 2-0 55 9:3 2-2 
CXXXIV. 2-0 55 10-0 23 
CXXXV, 2-0 5:5 10:0 23 
CXXXVI. 35 6:0 6:5 “4 
CXXXVII. 4:0 6:0 5:0 14 
CXXXVIII, 5:0 7-0 39 0-9 
CXXXIX. 6-0 7:0 30 07 
CXL. 4:0 65 5:0 11 
CXLI. 5:0 6:5 4:0 0-9 
CXLII. 5:0 7:0 4:3 1:0 
CXLIII. 65 75 15 0-2 
CXLIV. 2:0 5:0 97 2:2 
CXLV. 2:0 55 11:0 25 
CXLVI. 05 5:5 16:0 37 
CXLVII. 0-0 o-5* 17:0 4:0 
CXLVIII. 0-0 5ot 16:0 3:7 
CXLIX. 0-0 5:5} 15.0 | 34 


* This large wave was an inch high at D, and was reflected. 

+ This large wave was an inch high at D, became doubled by reflection, and re- 
turned to 0 in 6-5 seconds. 

{ This large wave was 0°75 inch high at D, was reflected, and returned to O in 
7-0 seconds. 


Ce 


a 


ON WAVES. 495 


Description of Plates accompanying the Report on Waves. 


Plate I. contains the apparatus of the experiments on waves. 
Fig. 1, A is a transverse section of the experimental channel, 
the sides of which were made smooth and as nearly plane 
surfaces as possible ; the whole internal surface being divided 
into feet, inches, tenth parts of an inch, &c., for convenient 
observation. B and D are the two ends of the same channel, 
and are elevated, so as to reflect the waves from vertical sur- 
faces. C is the generating reservoir referred to in the ex- 
periments as “‘Generating Reservoir A.” Fig. 2 shows the 
apparatus for observing transits of the wave by reflexion. I is 
the luminous object from which the rays falling on the plane 
mirror M are thrown down on the surface of the fluid at W, 
and thence reflected on the small mirror m, to the eye of the 
observer. W', W®, and W®, show a single wave in successive 
positions, and figs. 3, 4, and 5, show the places of the image 
corresponding to those positions. Fig. 8 shows the generation 
of the wave from “‘ Reservoir A,” by removing the sluice S. 
Fig. 9, B represents the generating chamber, resting on the 
bottom of the experimental channel, and containing the fluid 
which generates the wave when the sides of the chamber are 
raised from the bottom. Fig. 10 represents the solid paral- 
lelopipedon C ; and that part of it towards D represents the 
form and magnitude of the chamber and the solid D. 


Plate IJ. gives the forms of the waves of the sea referred 
to in pages 445—451 of the Report. Fig. 1, the cycloidal 
forms. Fig. 2, a and b, elementary waves, moving in opposite 
directions; cand d, the result of this combination at successive 
instants of time. Figs. 3 and 5 are forms observed to re- 
sult from the combination of three or four co-existent classes 
of waves moving in different directions. Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7 
show the manner in which waves break, either from the coin- 
cidence of a wave of a higher or with the crest of a lower wave, 
so as to give the form of unstable equilibrium, or from the ex- 
cess of the height of the wave above the depth of the fluid. 


Plate III. exhibits the relation of the velocity of the waves 
to the depth, as taken from the experiments in the rectangular 
channel, fig. 1, and in the channels, fig. 2, H, fig. 3, K, and 
fig. 4, L. ‘The horizontal abscisse are depths of the fluid, and 
the vertical ordinates the corresponding velocities. 


Plate IV. represents the form of a tide-wave as it passed 


496 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


the successive stations referred to in the observations on the 
Clyde. The corresponding tide-wave of Liverpool Docks is 
given in the same plate. The stars in each wave mark its © 
centre of length, and serve to show the increasing dislocation 
of the tide-wave during its ascent along the river. 


Plate V. shows the line described by the summit of the 
tide-wave during its transit along the Frith of Clyde and the 
manner in which it was affected by the wind. ‘The wave of 
the 3rd of May was nearly calm; and that of the 24th of April 
is remarkable as having been described partly during a west- 
erly wind and partly during an easterly wind, and so falling 
partly above and partly below the 3rd of May, while none of 
the others present instances of intersection. 


Plate VI. gives the form of the tide-wave of the river Dee. 


Plate VII. contains the channel of the river Dee, with sec- 
tions. 


Plate VIII. is the channel of the river Clyde, with sec- 
tions. 


Lvens deft 


Coe ere 


4 TLVTL 
wy ue poder 


LZrzars se 


FSS 
pg 


= 
a. 


7 


1 ated” | 
} ete momen! WY a 


W LLETL 
SONUM, Wo quodny 


ae : . r . > ea, 


meg ebbter ary 


< Lap ve. Seas 


Be cits, 


~~ annd brew ony trench mipetae cme en ty (peep ee iG lasek Bieta, eee) tii Cig myer ceis UT Tani 6 oe bt earn mesic 


~~ 


ey 


2ateenerR Sete 


Report on Wi 


Fig, 1. 
Fig. 2. 
Fig. 3. 


SS ee 
SES = Hes a 

BES = 2% =e 

aes = = 

4 + : ta feel 
; + t sia 


Lee eS 
| 
xd oft +H 
2 
at 
1 
a 
siete Ht 
tt H 
athe 
+ 
“THR 
fae 
eee 
tt oH 
HEE 
[ ut atte WV 


PLATE U1 


raare se 


LEP OT OIL W GECS. 


alg a a t 


PLATE IV. ' Reporton Wav 
LINE OF HOURS 
x XI XU I Il Til IV Vv VI Vil VIEL IX X XI XIL [ II 
15 Feet 

is 
R 

Liverpool 

Docks 
ia. 
5 

Station V |) 


Station I } 


5 
5 


Station III 


3 


Station VII 


Station VII, 


Station IX 


IX . ) XII I Ul If Vi Vv VI Vil VII Xx x xI 


LINE OF HOURS 


pear 


Station VIL 

SS eet 
XU 
XO 
1 
10 
9 
8 


rail Wee 


i 
= 
Sr 
= 
‘inl 


mar 
EL 


sin sas 
conn 


T 
= 


ea 
ors 


eee 


eee 
Hi 
= 


0 


a IE I 


os a 


wing Myson sg aanp saan apy oy) so mucus ag hy poquiosap YRI 


= 1 Ly 
e. Cee 
S % ‘ Nee S 4 Dag 
We My SS ~ USS % y pee ea ee 
gas SS QS 8 REGS aby Pees Eea5 
Ss Sas S.a8 Ssh SS SSS S82 
Bes Ais RsR Sees Tae Fess Tesh 
s “8 gE N@ES “SE BEF USES 
= = 8 SON RAS 358 ssh 


spy, Maapsng Grin 
SOAUY OPT. OY) JO PLULUNS BYfp hy PIPLLISOPY YU] 


— 


; 


| 


True Level 


Station VII. 


eo. S27 >" 


Sor 


ve 


Reporton Waves. 


U 


hice 


f7.- 


ane 


Station VII, 


Station VII 
Poesy 


ee 


Station V1 


Station V. 


Station 1 


Station IT 


Station J 


g 


He 


£ 


rom 
2 Centle Breeze 


akreht 
from the 


—— 


ys hig Pagliasap Ys} 


True Level 


Station M1 


5 
wiz 
nS 

(3 

a 
1 
oy 
> 
KS 
g 

(So 

FI 
= 
fi 
in 

4 
a(S 
i3 

3 

| 
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x 

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6 
a 


thou I. 


Sta 


Lizars ie 


Lyons deft 


rot 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 497 


Note by Major Sazine; being an Appendix to his Report on 
the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at dif- 
ferent Points of the Earth's Surface. 


_ Since the report on the Variation of the Magnetic Intensity 
_ of the Earth, which forms the first article in this volume, was 
_ printed, I have become acquainted with a highly valuable 
_ series of observations. of the magnetic intensity made by M. 
_ George Fuss, of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St. Pe- 
_ tersburg, in 1830, 1831, and 1832, in Eastern Siberia and 
_ China. I exceedingly regret that these most interesting de- 
_ terminations do not occupy their proper place in the general 
table of my report. I must hope, however, that being included 
in the same volume, they may still, to its readers, contribute 
their due share of experimental testimony to the system of 
_ terrestrial magnetism. . 
__ M. Fuss’s observations were made in two journeys ; one from 
- Irkutzk to Pekin, in the latter part of 1830, including a return 
by a slightly different route the following year; the second 
: ey was in 1832 from Irkutzk to the eastern parts of 
_ Siberia, as far as the longitude of 122° E. of Greenwich. The 
intensities were observed by two horizontal needles, each of 
_ which sustained a small, but uniform loss of magnetism during 
the period of its employment. Corrections were very care- 
fully investigated, and have been applied on this account, as 
well as for changes of temperature. The details, both of the 
_ observations and the corrections, are published in the Memoirs 
_ of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg, Ser. vi. 
vol. iii. The resulting intensities are there expressed in terms 
_ of the arbitrary scale in which Paris = 13482, being connected. 
_ therewith by means of M. Hansteen’s determinations in 1829 
at Irkutzk and Kiatka, where M. Fuss also observed. 
_ I have included in the annexed Table the variation and dip 
_ observed by M. Fuss at all his intensity stations. The dip 
_was taken by an instrument of Gambey’s, until an accident 
_ befel it at Nertschinsk, when the subsequent observations 
_ were made with an inferior instrument. The geographical 
_. positions are those given by M. Fuss. 
__ The ground, traversed by M. Fuss enabled him to observe 
_ the culminating points of the isodynamic lines of 1°5 and 1°6. 
_ These he states to be between the longitudes of 107° and 
VOL. vi. 1837. 2k 


498 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


112° E. of Greenwich; and this, it will be seen, accords ex- 
tremely well with the chart in this volume. In comparing 
the values of the intensity observed at particular stations with 
the chart, the intensities shown by the chart appear to be 
slightly in excess in the vicinity of Pekin, and in defect in the 
neighbourhood of the Amour River, at the eastern extremity 
of M. Fuss’s journey; at Pekin, in latitude 39° 54! and longi- 
tude 116° 26’, about 0°015 in excess; and at Uststretensk, in 
latitude 52° 20! and longitude 121° 50!, and its neighbouring 
station Schegdatschinskoi, about 0°01 in defect. 


Long. E. Intensity. 
Station. Lat. N. from |Variation.} Dip. Paris 
Greenwich. = 1°348. 

Irkutzk .......... 52 17 | 104 17 |7 25E. (68 15N.| 1-647 
Listwinischnoi ....| 51 54 | 104 31 Re 67 58 1-640 
Stepnoi Se Se 52 10 | 106 21/11 8E./|68 10 1:663 
Kolessowaja ...... 52 7 | 106 33 a (OB 1-666 
Baingol’ |. 492k; 48 52 | 105 24 asi, 65 14 1630 
Chanzal 2 s/fheierl; 48 13 | 106 27/)1 GE. |64 29 1-612 
Urga Lae ae egeeoon) LOO: 42 ys 64 3 1-583 
Nalaicha.......... 47 47 | 107 18 42 (63539 1-591 
Giltegentai........ 46 54! 108 46 4. (a 68. Le 1-594 
Schibétu.......... 46 29 | 109 38| ., (62 34 1-609 
POET 5 oo. 6 «0in 3ie 46 16 | 110 10 62 38 1-565 
Chologur SP aancnees 46 00 | 110 34/0 49W. 61 54 1-580 
Durbanderetu ....| 45 48 | 111 14 61 46 1:584 
Diet’. bench. Cees | Sa. wou wae) SBI “7Ww.61 22 || 1-559 
Charatuin Sudshi ..| 44 50 | 112 6 , 61 3 1-579 
Batehay 2.2.4.2... 44 21 | 112 55/0 59W.\60 18 1-553 
Kulechuduck ...... 43 29 | 113 52 -. (59 14 1-538 
Scharabudurguna ..| 43 13 | 114 6/0 46W.J59 3 1-538 
Zackildack...... Ue 48,) 114 17 oe 158 25 1-513 
Zsamein-ussu...... 41 46 | 114 38 .. jad 24 1-505 
Chalgan .. weceee.| 40 49 | 114 58 11 13W.I56 17 1°459 
PPOEIO ES owcige savers 56 39 54 | 116 26 |1 48W.i54 49 1-453 
Zagan Balgassu .. 41 17 | 114 44 .. {56 41 1:473 
Pelee pal, oo | 14 a4 Gy plex: 1-465 
SUGshI ar... lt 42 28 | 113 51 JES AS MG 1-495 
WEI oss s sok 43 3 | 112 30 .. {58 49 1-508 
Zsamein Chuduck . 43 37 | 111 51 ..  |59 22 1-509 
Kutull. . 43 58 | 111 38 ¥) 60 13 1-520 


Gasdhiget 44 23 | 111 19 wa i60 117 1516 


ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 499 


Long. E. Intensity. 

Station. Lat. N. from | Variation.| Dip. Paris 
Greenwich. = 1°348. 

| Sendshi .......... 44 45 | 110 26 |0 30W.\60 42N.| 1-530 
_ | Kukuderissu ......| 45 8 | 109 42 -. (61 12 1-542 
Seisyn .......... 45 34/109 16] .. {61 44 1-543 
BepMoroitu..........| 45 50 | 108 53 | .. ‘61 49 1*545 
_ |Chapchaktu ......| 46 2 | 108 35 CPG ares 1-538 
fo Bain Chara........ 46 31 | 107 56 « Jogi sd 1-582 
_|Chapschatu...... 47 20| 107 6 -. (63 21 1581 
Urga ............] 47 55 | 106 42 |1 16E.(64 5 1°583 

| Troizkosawsk...... 50 21 | 106 45 |0 1E. |66 24 1-642 

mp Possolsk ....;... ov 52 yd | 106 18 seey HOB 1-653 
| Werchneudinsk .....| 51 50 | 107 46 |0 24E. 68 6 1:657 
Pmourbinsk ...... 0. 62 5/]111 3 wo Og 1B 1-665 
Pogromnoi........ 52 30 | 111 3 18W./68 8 1-640 


0 
'Tschitanskoi ...... 52 11113 27 11 13W.'67 42 1-668 
Nertschinsk-town ..| 51 56 | 116 31 |2 53W./67 11 1°635 
_ | Nertschinsk-mine ..| 51 19 | 119 37 |4 6W./66 33 1:617 
Bt Zuruchaitu........ 50 23 | 119 3/3 11W./66 13 1°626 
; i 3 44W.166 54 1°655 
BeUriupina: ........ 52 47 | 120 4/4 4W./67 53 1-667 
_ | Schegdatschinskoi..| 53 15 | 121 21 | .. (68 11 1-658 

| Uststretensk ...... 53 20 | 121 51 21W./68 11 1:656 
54W.|68 22 1-660 
| Stretensk ........ 52 15 | 117 40 , 1-649 
'Abagaitujewskoi ..| 49 35 | 117 50 54W.|64 48 1-583 
Tschindant........ 50 34 | 115 32 14W.|66 32 1650 
_ | Akschinska.,...... 50 15 | 118 25 ..  |66 40 1671 
=) Altanskoi ........ 49 28 | 111 30 48W.165 20 1-619 
| 1:630 
Q7E. |66 56 1°643 


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_ The extension of magnetical observations to countries so 
_ remote, and, in the case of China especially, presenting pecu- 
liar difficulties, gives the Imperial Academy of St. Peter sburg 
_ an additional claim on the respect and gratitude of all who are 

interested in the advance of the science of terrestrial magnetism. 


500 SEVENTH REPORT—1837.. 


ERRATA. 


Page 32, line 4, omit giving each equation a weight proportioned to the 
number of observations which it represents. 

8, for 8 = 68° 42’; r = — 0:013608, read 3 = 68° $3/; 
r = — 0°01405, equivalent to 71 geographical miles for 
one degree of dip. 


General Table. 


” 


Page 44. Frazer’s Lake Intensity for 1-724, read 1-734. 
»  Stuart’s Lake ” for 1°786, read 1°745. 
» Fort Alexandria » for 1710, read 1°714. 
Page 45. Multnomah River 7 for 1:669, read 1-660. 
»  Sandiam River - for 1°683, read 1°672. 
» Columbia Rapids ts for 1°679, read 1°671. 
rt Thompson’s River < for 1°710, read 1°701. 
» Oakanagan » for 1°707, read 1°701. 
»  Wullawullah River és for 1°707, read 1-699. 
Page 46. St. Francisco Longitude for 235 45, read 237 35. 
+ San Solano A for 235 36, read 237 36. 
» Monterey 4 for 236 00, read 238 00. 
es San José 3, for 236 00, read 238 00. 
iy La Soledad as for 236 36, read 238 36. 
Page 47. San Antonio * for 236 42, read 238 42. 
3 San Miguel 3 for 237 16, read 239 00. 
4 St. Louis Obispo e3 for 237 20, read 239 20. 
3 La Purissima Sy for 237 33, read 239 33. 
if Santa Ynez is for 237 49, read 239 49. 
7 Santa Barbara Sy for 240 00, read 240 20. 


And in the column of Intensities : 
St. Francisco, Solano, for 1°610, read 1-614. 


San José for 1-605, read 1°607. 
San Miguel for 1°583, read 1°580. 
San Obispo for 1°583, read 1°580. 


Santa Barbara for 1604, read 1°587. 


5 


GROWTH OF PLANTS IN CLOSED GLASS VESSELS. 501 


Report from Mr. James YATEs, as one of the Committee for 
making experiments on the Growth of Plants under Glass, 
and without any free communication with the outward air, 
on the plan of Mr. N. I Ward, of London. 


Reports on the subject of the Growth of Plantsin closed Glass 
Vessels. 


Havine corresponded with the other members of the Committee, 
and ascertained that they agreed with me in wishing for the 
preparation of an experiment on a considerable scale, which 
might be exhibited at the meeting of the British Association in 
Liverpool, I gave instructions for the erection of a greenhouse 
in the yard of the Mechanics’ Institute, in Mount Street. The 
committee of that establishment granted for the purpose the use 
of a convenient spot of ground 9 feet by 18 in dimensions, and 
with a southern aspect. It was stocked with foreign plants of 
all kinds to the amount of about 80 species, and placed under 
the care of Mr. Murray, the foreman of the Botanic Garden at 
Liverpool. His list of the plants, and his observations upon 
their state and progress, accompany this report. The general 


~ result of the experiment is, that the plants have flourished per- 


fectly well, being in a vigorous and healthy state without any 
extraordinary growth. Many of them have flowered, and some 


_ of them, especially two species of Canna and some ferns, have 
_ ripened seed. 


The greenhouse has no flue, and no provision for any artificial 
heat. It was judged best to construct it without a flue, both as 
the least expensive plan, and for the purpose of trying by a fair 
experiment to what extent plants may on this plan be kept alive 
even during the severity of winter, which would certainly die if 
fresh air were more freely admitted. 

It is also to be observed that nothing has been done to pre- 
vent the water from escaping through the porous rock (a yel- 
low sandstone) on which the greenhouse is erected, and hence 
it has been necessary to give the plants occasionally a fresh sup- 
ply of water. : 

Since I was appointed one of this Committee I have also grown 
plants under glass in London, where no plant can be made to 
flourish without such a protection. Nearly a year ago I planted 
Lycopodium denticulatum in a chemical preparation-glass with 
aground stopper. During that time the bottle has never been 
opened. The Lycopodium continues perfectly healthy, and has 
grown very much, alihough for want of space the form of the 
plant is distorted. Seeds, which happened to be in the soil, 

VOL. VI. 1837 2 


is) aa SEVENTH REPORT—1837, 


have germinated, and Marchantia has grown of itself within the 
lass. 

I also obtained a hollow glass globe of 18 inches diameter, 
and with an aperture sufficient to admit my hand for planting 
the specimens. A variety of ferns and lycopodiums were then 
set in the soil, which was properly moistened with water. This 
having been done, the aperture was covered with sheet India- 
rubber, its attachment to the glass being made perfectly air-tight. 
No change of air could take place except by percolation through 
the India-rubber, which was every day forced either outwards 
as the air within the glass was heated and expanded, or inwards 
in the reverse circumstances. These ferns grew probably as 
well as they would have done in a greenhouse or hothouse. 
They were all foreign, and some of them requiring a great heat. 
Several have ripened seed. 


Mr. Ward's Report. 


In order to render the account of my experiments on the 
growth of plants without open exposure to air intelligible to those 
who may not have seen the published statements, I will briefly 
mention the way in which these experiments originated. At- 
tached to botany from my early youth, I had endeavoured to ° 
grow many plants, and particularly ferns and mosses, in and 
about my house, but being surrounded by numerous manufactories 
and enveloped in their smoke, all my endeavours proved sooner 
or later unavailing, owing to the necessity which I imagined to 
exist for exposing my plants more or less freely to the air. A 
simple incident at length opened my eyes, and I was led to 
reflect a little more deeply upon the subject. About eight or 
nine years ago I placed in a wide-mouthed bottle, covered with 
a lid, the chrysalis of a sphinx, buried in some loose mould. 
A week before the insect assumed its perfect form, I observed 
on the surface of the mould a seedling grass and fern. I saw 
that they required no water, as the mould continued always 
equally moist, from the condensation of the water on the in- 
ternal surface of the glass, and it remainedto be proved how 
far that change of air, which must of necessity result from 
every change of temperature, would be sufficient for the pur- 
poses of vegetable life. At all events I had gained two points, 
a continually humid atmosphere, free from mechanical impurities. 
I placed the bottle outside one of my windows, and finding that 
the plants grew well, I procured some hymenophyllum from 
Tunbridge Wells, planted it in a similar bottle, and had the 
pleasure to find that it likewise grew as well as in its native 


GROWTH OF PLANTS IN CLOSED GLASS VESSELS. 503 


_ situation. I then, through the kindness and liberality of Messrs. 
Loddiges, who well deserve the title of ‘Hortulanorum principes,’ 
commenced a series of experiments upon plants of all structures, 
and belonging to a great variety of natural families, which has 
continued uninterruptedly to the present time. 
__ Before I proceed to state the results of these experiments, it 
__ may be as well to say a word or two respecting the cases in which 
they were carried on. These cases are of all sizes and shapes, 
from sinall wide-mouthed bottles to a range of houses about 25 
_ feet in length and 10 feet in height. These houses are filled 
_ with rock work for the purpose of accommodating the various 
_ descriptions of plants I had to deal with. Some of these cases 
are quite closed at the bottom, and when once watered, require 
no further watering for a long period, while others have several 
Openings, and the plants are watered occasionally, once in three 
or four weeks, or months, as they may require. I believe that 
this latter plan is the best, as there is then no danger from ex- 
cess of wet, and should worms or slugs make their appearance, 
they can readily be destroyed by the free use of lime water. The 
_ glazed roofs and sides of these cases are made as tight as putty 
_ and paint can effect, and the doors fit closely. In no instance 
B. have I ever endeavoured to seal the cases hermetically ; it would, 
_ I conceive, be almost impossible to do it, and if done, would 
_ prevent that continued changeof air, from its alternate expansion 
_ and contraction, upon which in my opinion the success of the 
_ plan mainly depends. I have already explained myself fully 
_ upon this point in my letter to Sir W. Hooker, and should not 
_ have thought it necessary to have alluded to it again had I not 
seen that Professor Henslow, in his Descriptive and Physiolo- 
_ gical Botany, a work of the highest authority, entertains this 
mistaken notion. With respect to the management of the plants 
in the cases, I have always endeavoured to imitate their natural 
_ conditions as nearly as possible, being fully sensible of the value 
_ and truth of that remark, “ that we can command Nature only 
_ by obeying her laws.’ It would be impossible in the necessarily 
_ short limits of this report to enter into any lengthened details, 
and I shall therefore give as concisely as possible the results. 
1. That the change of air produced by alternate expansion 
and contraction is regulated by the heat, and is therefore exactly 
_ proportioned to the increased wants of the plants arising from 
their greater excitement. Vascular require a greater change of 
_air than cellular plants, and this is effected by surrounding them 
_ with a larger volume. 
2. It is of great importance that light be freely admitted to 
_ all parts of the growing plant, assisting it in the development 
2L2 . 


504 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


of its flowers, and enabling it to bear cold, &c. Hence the im- 
portance of protecting plants without obscuring the light. 

3. Owing to the perfectly quiet condition of the air in these 
cases, plants will bear variations of temperature which under 
ordinary circumstances would prove fatal tothem. Thus I 
have found that many palms, ferns, and numerous Cape and 
Australian plants bear the cold of our climate with impunity, 
while others, when exposed to heat, become surrounded by a 
protecting atmosphere of their own creation, as, for instance, 
the Zrichomanes brevisetum, which has been growing for the 
last three years in a case in my drawing room, fully exposed to 
the south, and in which the thermometer frequently rises to 
100°. A more striking illustration of this may be adduced in a 
case of plants brought by Captain Mallard, from New Holland. 
The plants were inclosed in February, thermometer being 94° 
in the shade. In rounding Cape Horn two months subsequently 
the thermometer fell to 20°; a month after this it rose again to 
100° in the harbour at Rio ; in crossing the line the thermometer 
attained 120°, and fell to 40° on their arrival in the British 
Channel in November, eight months after they were inclosed. 
These plants were taken out in the most healthy condition. 

4. These cases enabling us to surround our plants for an inde- 
finite period, with an atmosphere of any required humidity, we 
are enabled to grow in any situation, even on our study tables, 
a great number of plants, the growth of which has hitherto been 
in great measure confined to their native woods and wilds. To 
notice one instance; I had been struck with the published ac- 
counts of the very rapid growth of some fungi, and particularly 
of Phallus foetidus, which was suid to attain its height of four 
inches in as many hours. I procured three or four specimens in 
an undeveloped state and placed them in a small case. All but 
one grew during my temporary absence from home. I was de- 
termined however not to lose sight of the last, and observing 
one evening that there was a small rent in the volva, indicating 
its approaching development, I watched it all night, and at 
eight in the morning the orifice of the pileus began to push 
through the jelly-like matter with which it was surrounded. In 
the course of 25 minutes it grew three inches, and attained its 
full elevation of four inches in one hour and a half. It can 
hardly be conceived that in this case there was any actual in- | 
crease of matter, but merely an elongation of the erectile tissue 
of the plant. 

I think it is quite needless to point out the various important 
applications of the above facts to the growth of plants in towns, 
their conveyance and growth on ship-board, or the numerous 


GROWTH OF PLANTS IN CLOSED GLASS VESSELS. 505 


I ysiological inquiries which may now be made with much 
- greater facility and certainty than heretofore; but I wish to 
_ direct the attention of the members of the British Association 
to the development of animal life upon the same principles. I 
am quite certain that a great number of animals would live and 
_ thrive under this treatment, and I can see no reason why, at the 
same time that our stoves are ornamented with Rafflesias, they 
‘ pay not be illuminated with Fulgoras and Candelarias. 


Letter from Messrs. Loddiges to Mr. Ward. 
Dear Sir, Hastings, 8th Sept., 1837. 


Ve have much pleasure in stating, that among the many cases 
of plants which we have received during the last three or four 
a. wherever your instructions have been strictly attended to, 
e success has invariably been complete ; the failures which 
] have occurred have been where neglect had manifestly taken 
place, either by keeping them in the dark, or in some cases by 
breaking the glass. We remain, dear Sir, 
Very sincerely yours, 
C. Loppices & Sons. 


in the Growth of Plants confined in Glass Vessels. By Dr. 
x DavuBeEny, of Oxford. 


To James Yates, Esq., Secretary to the Council of the British Association for 
the Advancement of Science. 


Dear Sir, Oxford, July Ist, 1837. 


As it will not be in my power to attend the meeting at Liver- 
Bol: Tam Cesipes of Con ena to you the results of a 


Serowth of cy aoa confined in glass vessels, as a proof at least 
_ that I have not altogether neglected the researches recommended 
_ by the Association to the attention of the Committee of which 
we are joint members, although the preparations for a journey 
_ into a distant land have very much curtailed my opportunities 
_ of prosecuting them. 

’ - During the last week in April I introduced a considerable 
qumber of living plants into glass globes, having only a single 
_ aperture through which air could circulate, and that one covered 
_ over by asound piece of bladder closely attached to the edges of 
the glass, so as to preclude the possibility of any air entering 
the vessel except through the membrane itself. 


506 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


The following were the plants introduced into these vessels : 

In glass 1 were Sedum rupestre and telephium, Veronica 
repens, Gentiana acaulis, Erigeron hellidifolius, Lobelia 
fulgens, Saxifraga virginiana and irrigua. 

In glass 2 were Primula vulgaris, Anemone nemorosa, 
Pulmonaria angustifolia, Alchemilla vulgaris, Valeriana 
dioica, Veronica repens, Lobelia fulgens. 

In glass 3 were Primula veris and auricula, Erigeron helli- 
difolius, Dianthus armeria, Sempervivum montanum, and 
Lobelia fulgens. 

Now these plants were allowed to remain till May 5th, a 
period of almost 10 days, undisturbed, at the end of which time 
they appeared healthy and had grown considerably ; some even 
had flowered since their introduction. 

The air contained in each jar was then examined during the 
day, a portion of it having been drawn off into an exhausted 
tube through a stop-cock connected with the jar. 

In this manner it was ascertained that the air in jar 1 con- 
tained 4 per cent. of oxygen more than the proportion present 
in atmospheric air; in jar 2, 13} per cent. more; in jar 3, 2 per 
cent. more. 

At night, on the contrary, this excess of oxygen had disap- 
peared, the air examined three hours after sunset corresponding 
in every case as nearly as possible with that present in the at- 
mosphere. 

The following day (May 6th) the results were not equally fa- 
vourable, yet even then in jar 1 there was an excess of 2 per cent. 
of oxygen ; in jar 2 an excess of 1 per cent.; in jar 3 of 2 per 
cent., and this excess was plainly attributable to the action of 
light, for it in a great measure disappeared when the jars were 
left in the dark for a few hours, No. 1 under this treatment 
being found to contain just the quantity present in the atmo- 
sphere, and No. 2 only 0°75 more. 

It would seem then that for a certain period plants have the 
power of thriving and adding to the amount of oxygen, even 
under the circumstances detailed; but that there is a limit to 
this power appeared on a re-examination of the air three weeks 
afterwards (viz., on May 25th), when it was found that jar 1 
contained only 1 per cent. more oxygen than that in the atmo- 
sphere instead of 4, as on the 5th instant, and that jars 2 and 3 
even contained a portion less. 

Examined again on June 20th, No. 1 was found to contain 
21 per cent. less of oxygen than that in atmospheric air; 
No. 2, 33 less; No, 3, 4 per cent. less. We seem therefore 


GROWTH OF PLANTS IN CLOSED GLASS VESSELS. 507 


to have reached the lowest degree of aerial circulation under 
_ which plants will continue to live and thrive, although even this 
_ slow transmission of air was sufficient to their vitality, render- 
ing it only less vigorous and healthy. 
_ To ascertain then what the degree of circulation through the 
substance of the membrane in these instances might have been, 
I removed from one of the jars the plants and vegetable mould 
_ it had contained, and substituted for them about an equal amount 
_ of drysand. I then passed through the vessel a current of oxy- 
_ gen until the volume of air within contained no less than 77 per 
- eent. of that gas. The air was then examined again at 4 p.m., 
after an interval of three hours from the period of the first ex- 
periment, and found to have lost 4 per cent. of oxygen. The 
_ jar was then put aside till eight o’clock the next morning, when 
_ it was found to contain only 63 per cent. of oxygen, having di- 
_ minished in 16 hours 10 per cent. After having been exposed 
all day to air and light, and examined at eight the same even- 
ing, the oxygen was found to amount to.only 46 per cent., having 
_ diminished in 12 hours 18 per cent. During the next night it 

had diminished in 12 hours only 64 per cent., the amount of oxy- 
gen existing in it the next morning being 383 per cent. During 
_ the next day it had lost 7 per cent., containing at eight in the 
evening 31} per cent. The next night the diminution was only 
_ 24 per cent., and on the succeeding day 3 percent. The fol- 
_ lowing night the diminution was 14 per cent., the amount of 
_ oxygen being 24} per cent. only. During the day a further 
diminution of 3} per cent. took place, the air inclosed within 
the jar being found to contain exactly the quantity of oxygen 
_ present in atmospheric air. 
The following is a tabular view of the results :— 

June 23rd 1 p.m. amount of oxygen 77° excess 56° 

a eee 3° 


4 p.m. 52 
24th 8 a.m. —_—_ 63° —— 42: 
8 p.m. ——_- 455 —— 24: 
25th 8 a.m. —_— 38°5 —— 17:5 
8 p.m. —_—__ 31°55 —— 10°5 
26th § a.m. —_——_—_— 29:0 —— 80 
8 p.m. —______- 26°0 — 5:0 
27th 8 a.m. ——__<— 2445 —— 3°5 
8 p.m. a 21°0 0:0 


Thus five days were required to enable the whole excess of oxy- 
_ gen to pass through the substance of the membrane, the dia- 
-Ineter of which was 3 inches, whilst the capacity of the vessel, 
when the sand had been introduced, was nearly one gallon, so 
_ that about three quarts of oxygen and one of nitrogen may be 


508 - SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


calculated as having been present in the jar at the commence- 
ment of the experiment, of which about 43 pints were discharged 
through the membrane in the course of the five days during 
which the observations were continued. 

The transmission took place more rapidly during the day 
because of the exposure of the jar to the sun and wind, which 
by the expansion caused within the vessel, and by the more 
rapid succession of aerial currents brought into contact with the 
external surface of the membrane, doubtless caused in a greater 
degree the transmission of the redundant oxygen. ‘The average 
quantity that escaped per diem did not much exceed 11 per 
cent., or did not quite amount to one pint in the 24 hours, but 
of course the transmission was more rapid at first, and dimi- 
nished gradually in quantity as the evaporation of the air within 
the jar approached more nearly to that of the atmosphere sur- 
rounding it. 

Believe me, dear Sir, yours faithfully, 
Cuas. DAUBENY, 
Professor of Chemistry and Botany, Oxford. 


END OF THE REPORTS. 


a NOTICES 


AND 


ABSTRACTS OF COMMUNICATIONS 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, 
AT THE 


LIVERPOOL MEETING, SEPTEMBER 1837. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


Tue Enrrors of the following Notices consider themselves responsible 
only for the fidelity with which the views of the Authors are ab- 


stracted. 


CONTENTS. 


_ NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS 
COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS, 


Bt MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 
Page 
Professor Sir W. R. Hamiton’s Exposition of the Argument of Abel, é 


: respecting Equations of the Fifth Degrec....ssesccecsscssssceveeereaterseees 1 
Professor Sir W. R. Hamiron on New Applications of the Calculus of 
Peerteipale belationsns sresa<-cecswasectsecnsohresvacssecscedeetenssseeoeectacr secs taal 


Professor Sit W. R. Hamrtton’s Exposition of Mr. Turner's Theorem 
respecting the Series of Odd Numbers and the Cubes and other Powers 


of the Natural Numbers. ........seeee0e saneesibacascessenpacsyraepeces soccveccoese 

_ Mr. Cuanzes Buacxsurn on some new Properties ‘of Geometric Series . 2 

_ The Rev. Dr. Rosson on the Parallax of « Lyre...... Wheaton eae seed danas 3 
© The Rev. W. WHEweEct on Tides. .......0. sccsccpeccsssccsenceses Seuss seagate 4 
Mr. Davipv Macxim on the Tides of Dundee and Glasgow. shee taunkss-aeereeatn 
_M. De La Rive on an Optical Phenomenon observed at Mont Blane.... 10 


Sir D. Brewsrer on the Cause of the Optical Phenomena which take 
place in the Crystalline Lens during the Absorption of Distilled Water. 11 
_ Sir D. Brrwsrer on a new Property of Light. .,.... daugesnts saseqesesexoeuial 2 


Sir D. Brewsren’s Notice of a new Structure in the Diamond. ........ eee ele 
4 Professor Cuntstin’s Account of a singular ee Phenomenon, some- 
times seen at Sunset. ..sseceeereee ceeseeece socsvere 15 


“Professor Powett on Von Wrede's “Explanation of the Absorption of 
Light, by the Undulatory Theory. ........sscseceereees teecteveccccceacscccecss 16 
Professor Powrxt on the Dispersion of Light. Neaeaduganasgzey stavdscudevacats cine’ & 
_ Professor Powntt on Experiments relative to the Influence of Surfaces 
MERLE EDT IAUTO Ft 'o7 00 cu da-sn 8s cnnevsdh acs catudconcs sedi eeasgancnessespashetsnssaeaiee 20 
_ The Rev. Professor Luoyp’s Account of the Magnetical Observatory now 
in the course of erection at Dublin. -...cccccscscecesescsccessreecceerseseses 20 
_ Professor Henrx’s Notice of Electrical Researches. Nssanvantay Ca gsonerescesegs 22 
_ The Rev. J. W. M‘Gautezy on a convenient and efficient form of Electro- 
magnetie Apparatus for the production of Electricity of high singel 24 
_ M. De La Rive on the Interference of Electro-magnetic Currents. ...... 27 
_ Mr. W. Errricx on the two Electricities, and on Professor Wheatstone’s s 
Determination of the Velocity of Electrie Light. ............ Rantgaeieuaaee 28 
_ Mr. 8. Hunrsr Cunisrie on the occurrence of Aurora Borealis in England 
during Summer; with a recommendation that the phenomenon should, 
at all seasons, be more carefully observed than hitherto. .......c...sere008 28 


METEOROLOGY, &e. 


q Mr. J. W. Lussocx on M, Poisson’s Theory of the Constitution of the 
BEML OSPHEE, J...+. .2s02..-ceressossneverssouseseogsgzate scyessansy inne sbaursesagaseoneee 
- On the Principle of Mr. hee: s TEEN ES as 32 
r. SourHwoop’s Account of his Observations with Mr. Whewell’ 3 "Anes 


_ mometer. eevenecceceoeearrerescepovee Reet sarees s eer ener reNOPePeee Prac onseoeeeraceges 30 


iv CONTENTS. 


Page 


Mr. Fortetr Oster’s Account of a new Registering Anemometer and 
Rain-Gauge, now at work at the Philosophical Institution at Birming- 
ham, with Diagrams giving a condensed View of the Observations re- 
corded during the first eight months of the year 1837. ....scscesereseeeress 

Mr. Birt’s Suggestions as to the probable Causes of the Aérial Currents 


of the Temperate Zones. .....ssssescesserseeenseceees to eeeesecncecrsssccescosaces 
Mr. W. J. Henwoop on the higher Temperature which prevails in 1 the 
Slate than in the Granite of Cornwall. ....ssssssssecsssseccassenceencececeees 


Statement of the Proceedings of the Meteorological Committee, consisting 
of Prof, Forses, Mr. W. < Harris, Prof. PowEtt, Lieut.-Col. Sykes, 
and Prof. Pures, during the past year. ........4. eostesacecaensnes aceeeeee 

Mr. James Cunninenam on a Method of constructing Magnets.......++.++ 

Colonel C. Gotp on the possibility of effecting Telegraphic or Signal 
Communications during Foggy Weather, and by Night in all Seasons. 

Lieutenant Morrison on an Instrument for Measuring the Electricity of 
the Atmosphere. ....... Spidtop at nas’ ana sdebts «sing dceceemaaaee wneons senna neue utes 


CHEMISTRY. 


Professor Lizerc on the Products of the Decomposition of Uric Acid. 
Extracts from a Letter received by Dr. Datron from Professor Hare. 
Mr, T. Tuomson on the Specific Heats of Nitric Acid and Alcohol....... 
Professor Minter on the Unequal Expansion of Minerals in different di- 
rections by Heat. ...... Devok du danaduaeensper <paceeasaaeseees seabcae sueinceneesugear 
Mr. Gotptxe Brrv’s Observations on the Crystallization of Metals by 
Voltaic Action, independent of the proximity of metallic electrodes. ... 
Mr. R. Matter on the formation of Crystallized Metallic Copper in the 
shafts of the Cronebane Copper Mine, County Wicklow, Ireland, and 


of native Sulphate of Iron and Copper on the same locality.........se0e.0 
Dr. Arsoun on a new Chemical Compound. .........csecsecereeeeeaee vevecaees 
Dr. Arsoun on a new Variety of Alum....... suaseaneanans eaeaeeeeee ee seneeeeance 


Mr. E. Davy on a new Gaseous Compound of Carbon and Hydrogen. ... 
Mr. Roser Rice’s Outline of an experimental Inquiry into a peculiar Pro- 
perty of the Earth; the chemical Changes which occur during the ger- 
mination of Seeds; the vegetation of Plants; the formation of vegetable 
products ; and the renovation of the Atmosphere ; ; with some Observa- 
tions on the ultimate analysis of Organic Compounds ;_ the whole being 
in connexion with a series of investigations into the decomposition of 
Vegetable. Matter......,0scccsscsccsessocssancstessrsvsesess Bivarece<ccute dopepades 
Professor Jounston on a Variety of Oipernites tee dibs eee 
Professor Jounston’s New Compound of Nitrate with Oxalate of Lead... 
Dr. Kane on a Series of Compounds obtained from Pyroacetic Spirit. 


Mr. G. Crane on the Smelting of Iron with Anthracite Coal.... .. Scene eee 
Dr. Arnot on Safety Lights for Mineu, <a. .-<dolette voit: ion Shea 
Mr. D. Musuer on the Waste experienced by Hot and Cold Blast Tron 
during the process of Refining. .......cccsecsseeseccersececeesecees po Ee 
Mr. J. B. Harrtey on Preventing the Corrosion of Cast and Wrought 
Pron immersed im Salt, Wate... se<asccsqsecesesnssosesesseonenss Sspsenee nea 
Mr. W. Errricx on Browning Gun Barrels.......... SERRE BS Fes ‘ 
Dr. Cuarke on a Method of Facilitating the Calculations of Gases. cosess 
Dr. AnpREws on some Singular Modifications of the Ordinary Action of 
INinic Acid onycertain Metals.” <.....sc0s-s0csacseeeneasces=ns +0 conuaaauna teece 


Dr. Traitt on an Antimonial Compound applicable as a Pigment.....s00.. 
Dr. Datron on the non-production of Carbonic Acid by Plants growing 
in the ‘AGMOSpHEre. T. oc ccsecscnescccancnardoaneaaamelmncsedconesssscepsnnneeayan 


33 
34 
36 
37 
38 
38 
38 


38 
41 
43 


43 
45 
47 
48 


49 
50 


CONTENTS. Vv 


i, : Page 
_ Mr. T. J. Pearsart on the Action of Water upon Lead.........csccscerseeee 5S 
Mr. J. Dick on a New Form of Iron Bottle far obtaining Oxygen Hot 


Peroxide of Manganese. ..... Vavosvadsene MoOatsdvecnesedce suds datos Pcteevess LOS 
Mr. W. Brack on the Influence of Electricity on ‘the Process of Brewi ing. 58 
; pss GEOLOGY. 
3 Mr. James Yares’s Notice of Specimens containing Fossil Vegetables, 
____ from the New Red Sandstone at Stanford and Ombersley, in Worces- 
SS teh ap acensdaresnaescarecoe sesanoschakecegna: acauendaaasssadetaner tesa peeaeacapy 
_ Mr. Hue E. Srricktanp on the Nature and Origin of the various kinds 
__of Transported Gravel, occurring in England. ......... Saneaeeetetatrccmaaae 61 


- Mr. Rozrrr Matter on ‘the Mechanism of the Movement of Glaciers.... 64 
_ Marquis Srrnero on the Results of Trials which had been made for Water 
in the Desert between Suez and Cairo ......sccscsscsscsscsecsteccseeceeceess 66 
_ Mr. Cuartes Lyext on certain Phenomena connected with the Junc- 
tion of Granitic and Transition Rocks, near Christiania in Norway, 


(communicated by L. Horner, F.R.S.) ......csscseceececesenseees Sesttnceothe 67 
Dr, Trait on the Geology of Spain Beco esp aekpadsransspccnansnecesiteccer eens 70 
Mr. W. J. Henwoop on some Intersections of Veins in 1 the Mines of Dolcoath 

and Huel Prudence, in Cornwall, and on their bearing on the Theory of 

the Mechanical Origin of their (« heaves’’) Dislocations .........0.0. 74 
Dr. W. H. Croox on the Unity of the Coal Deposits of England and 

BG sates deca ncenecesasecs. css nesev pane tate wantesseence necmennen nse tcnnataimente 75 
Professor S—pGwick’s Notice of an Incursion of the Sea into the Gants 
ERGO LO Va danaac tan cnaansancacdssececraccssrceestschcasassresaecenas caer eens 75 

_ Mr. Jouy Ham on the Mud deposited by the Tidal Waters of fis Severn, 

Usk, and Avon, and other phenomena connected with the Waters of 

os LOR eR eI SEE a 76 
_ Mr. James Heywoop on the Geology of ‘the Coal District of ‘South Lan- 

(1 ya dct nec alee poe co eerie aR oda aid ale aN Ra AED 77 
Mr. W. C. Witttamson on the Coal- Measures of West Lancashire ...... 81 
‘Mr. Witi1am Peace on the Dislocations of the Coal Strata in Wigan and 

RMR RNCTME eS eicencledads dean ra weadpaee eects cosars ani penese senses cassie §2 


Mr. Locan on that part of the South Welsh Coal Basin which lies between 
the Vale of Neath and Carmarthen Bay. In explanation of a geolo- 
gical map of the district, laid beat by the author on the sheets of the 
BMOTOMAICE SULVCY s.c.ccscnsont¥ecicnts@ranccsccocancens coecccedaentarssresescmeciene 83 
‘Captain Denuay, R.N., on the Tidal Capacity of the Mersey Estuary— 
the Proportion of Silt held in solution during the Flood and Ebb Cixcula- 
tions—the Excess of Deposit upon each Reflux, and the consequent 
_ Effect produced by the Matter thus detected in its transit, and measured 


Bh at its lodgement, on the banks in Liverpool Bay; with Diagrams pereeiam, Sei 
Mr. J. Surrn on the Changes which have taken place in the Levels of 
(BEES (2b eae JASRRABERBRBRBB ESE Ga: > -cesteBach acai e “Ree SCE ad aacHaseE Peres 87 
Captain Porriocx on an Apparent Analogy between the New Red Sand- 
Btone of Breland and Treland) coves s:.2.ccssestcaccocenervocccstsecccscnaccossces 88 


_ Mr. R. Grirrirn on the leading features of the Geology of Ireland, and 
_ more particularly the situation and extent of the great Carboniferous or 
Mountain Limestone district, which occupies nearly two-thirds of the 


‘ (SLR Made spell Saeed ami asa 6 shen NaN ac ae ata Mahl la Sila 7 88 
‘Mr. Murcutson on the Fishes of the Ludlow Rocks, or Upper Beds of the 
Bee Silurian Systern | .............scssseeennsese sasadiae'cis ¢aiv e's gaptanscamsoss ade ub 


_ Mr. W. Hopxtns on the Refrigeration of the Earth spcvasemael 91 
Rey. W. D. Crarxe on the Phzenomena exhibited by the Plastic Clay For- 
mation in the vicinity of Poole, Dorsetshire ....ssecocssesssessceessesevenss 9S 


vi CONTENTS. 


Page 


Rey. D. Witxrams on some Fossil Wood and Plants recently discovered 
by him low down in the Grauwacke of Devon, being one of the re- 
sults of an attempt to determine the relative age and order of the Culms 
field and its Floriferous Shales and Sandstones ..... Ubdadasdseseceveseeaecsss 

Mr. Harpman Puttuies on the Bituminous Coal-field of Pennsylvania eee 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 


Rev. W. Hove off) Filaria (ycisdsscesscwcsssstesessentecns sesaevsoede 97 
Captain Ducanz, R.N., on the Metamorphism of a Species of Crustacean, 
allied to, PaleemOn canis aeusvekel javsa4seds Neasssaasnedshose0n aaebesbatecnencet 98 
Mr. T. Axtis on the Selerotic Bones forming the Orbit of the Eye in dif- 
nome Birds and Reptiles.........++ aipaaSatos0hdsnensloes(dnysssonsneranahlaete 98 
. Trainy’s Notice of Argas Persicus, a species of Bug, found in 
hier in Persia, and reported to be poisOMOus......ceceresscecseereeees 98 
Professor Owen on the Production of Cataract by a Worm. Communi- 
cated by the Rev. F. W. Hore ..... abeasessbacen eadab@ussuhe S60 tenubal Beat 8 
Dr. Davip Wittiams on T.imax Variegatus in the Human Intestines...... 98 
Sir Tuomas Puituirs on a Simple Method of destroying Insects which 
attack Books and MSS. Communicated by the Rev. F. W. Horr,..... 99 
Mr. James Smirn’s Notice of Undescribed Shells ............ Sebuvcreonts vases 100 
Mr. J. BE. Gray on Victoria Regina .saceaveceseseeoeetss edecacosses eoveestsveas 100 
Dr. Linptey on the Structure and Affinities of Orobanchacez .,.......... 101 
Mr. G. Garvner on the Internal Structure of the Palm Tribe. Commu- 
nicated by BE. Bowman, BoLS.. sciccccctecccsconscsscscdsssoveses ecesceseseoass 102 
Mr. R. Matuer on the power possessed by Aged Trees to reproduce ‘them- 
selves from the Trunk ......... Taide -secdedessdateseabhuet deleoevccatecchudasp erect 102 
Mr. Bicxerstetu on the Milk of Galactodendron Uilile osivv: cence 102 
Mr. E. Fores on New and Rare Forms of British Plants and Animals... 102 
Mr. Niven on Vegetable Physiology .........+ suasscneswusescnecapens ove sedeer¥es 102 
Mr. Cuartes C. Basinaton on a Notice, with the Result, of a Botanical 
Expedition to Guernsey and Jersey, in the months of J uly and August, 
WSBT Soa8ds.ccetecscaceswituvedaneeeaccstsopccddecss Poctecebesl¥e sins seen cesREamane 1038 


Rev. J. B. Reape’s Inquiry into the Origin of the Solid Materials found 
in the Ashes of Plants, their structure and office during the period of 
life, and the effect of their subsequent addition to the cr ust of the earth 

Rey. J. B. Reavr on the Chemical Composition of Vegetable Membrane 
ANA Fibre sessrsescesecssececdeccsececsccssetecenecsossencevsvaveenes cvocbeshat¥ecase 


MEDICAL SCIENCE. 


Mr. G. Catvert Hotzanp on the Influence of the Boi tale Organs on 
the Circulation of Blood syili thé Chest ccriswssancaccenstyoesess000e can ersawonve 
Mr. G. C. Hotianp on the cause of Death from : a Blow on ube Stomach, 
with remarks on the means best calculated to restore animation sus- 


PEHUED by Shah ALCON, ...sccs.ctascscensecnensetuodscapssaens anccessuseterabitn 
Mr. Wittram Harris Mappen’s Iv xperiments 0 on the Connexion between 
the Nerves, ONG MUSCLES wectnd wanes nosnecs ap sakes sent emoaasnss skis ne siRaeRee Sas 


Sir James Murray on Disordered Conditions of the Human Body caused 
by the presence of Urinary Salts, although not amounting to Gravel or 
DEONGLssnccapnasscstsath anoee ce bob satesns Sone tvvekssacses S45 SAUTEED Oddie co ceneabus eRe 

DriVACKINTOsH: OM OWOIETA «cs. .inccaccunncas-sneianaecuneuns-<yhastual vecesaees 

Dr. Mackintosu on Morbid Pr eparations relating to “em tae seokss 

Dr. Jonn Macxkrntosn on Diseased Lungs from Sand respired 

Mr. J. G, Simpson on the Contagiousness of Cholera 


CHP eee eee eee er eee 


103 


104 


106 
107 
107 
. 108 
108 


CONTENTS: vii 


| . Page 
} Warren on some Crania found in the Ancient Mounds in North ? 
i. y America eee eee ee sit eseecis Bee eee eee deed ee eee eee serssevesees eoobe 108 
i Evanson’s Critical Analysis of the different Methods that have 

t een adopted for determining the Functions of the Brain............00000. 108 
{ Joun Re’'s Experimental Investigation into the Glosso-pharyngeal, 

i Pneumogastric, and Spinal Accessory. NOrVesscersseasiverectsscsesssdecaa a. 109 


. Huan Caruine’s Observations on the Structure of the Sactumin Man 

D dnd some of the Lower Atimals.sscocssssssssssscsesevssscesssorvssiossess 11D 
‘Mr. S. Hars’s Practical Observations on the Catises atid Treatment of the 

Curvature of the Spine, with an Etching and Description of an Appa- 

tus for the use of Persons afflicted by the Disease ..... Wbob odes dadanveteee 114 

. O'Bryan Beruimncuam on the Order of Sticcession of the Motions of 

the Eleart .....0....0000. Gupeee-eaton odie ee meccahish auc muababenienadivescceceecnean ad 114 

| Dr. Bracx’s Descriptive and Statistical Report of the Epidemic Influenza, 

___as it occurred at Bolton-le-Moors, in the Months of January, February, 

es Pad March, T8877 sacissdsedisdveveesssteveesens Ate baabbecké svete tas otesbiaaaa 115 

‘Dr. Carson’s Remarks on the Motion mM the Blood in the Head, and on 

the Uses of the Ventricles and Convolutions of the Brain ......sss000.. 128 
‘Sir Davin J. H. Dickson’s Abstract of Cases of Laceration of the Rectus 

{ Midominis Muscle, &¢. ...sesessses babeasaedacdcavees dedaareeodubebedebacdsdeses 124 

Mr. R. H. Brerrt’s Abstract of a Paper read before the Medical Section of 

the British Association at Liverpool, on the Physical and Chemical Cha- 

_ racters of Expectoration in different Diseases of the Lungs, with some 

_ Preliminary Remarks on the Albuminous Principles existing in the 

- ‘Blood Bee cecoaee whens sseesoreses Beebe cee e eee eee beeeebebiedesie 125 

Mr. Joun Hancock’s ‘Observations on the Disease called Cocobe by the 

a - Africans, or the Arabian Leprosy; the Arapatta of the Caribes of 

- Guiana; the Radesyge of Northern Europe; all of which appear to be 

"identical ; and on _ on yer most effectual in the Treatment of 


is Disease eGessCbaeGstbaceddesdiebotecerscbbobssceatsscbeBedebacdatcdassssectsees 128 


oer 


MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 


purpose of Raiuinig or bth Fier a ‘Train of Gattinkes 18 Hotizofital 


UOMO. citcscessstiicests sts beslaaes tve Rieduieivosbesenassare stanevsterees terete’ 129 
Mr. Joun Witutams on the Treffos Pump......... Used saecveeasiweesteveeat cess . 129 
‘Mr. W. J. Henwoop on the Expansive Action of Steam in some of the 


Cornish Pumping Engines .........cesceeeees Wicstaasterseatavieay sovesbes 129 
Mr. Joun Scott Russext on the Mechanism of hibithae in relation to ‘the 
_ Improvement of Steam Navigations.....ccccsseesesessssesees ton dsseessatbaiacs 180 
Mr. Joun Scorr Russie on Improvements in Tidal Rivers “viceeseseeess » 131 
Mr, W. Lertucep on a new Safety Lamp...... Sites teaeaes deed ccetoees aeeer ess 131 
Dr. Cranwy ona new Pelegrapht (deaeetecisesss ci istnassescassceavsescscsesccs we 131 
‘Mr. Barnarv L. Watson on Telegraphic Communications on Railroads 131 
Dr. Larpwer on the Resistance to Railway Trains .........ccsseeeee ijeieees, Lod 
Mr. W. J. Curtis on a Flexible Suspension Bridge..... teeicéatieesas 182 
Mr. Joun Isaac Hawxus on an Instrument for ascertaining the Focal 
__ Length of Spectacles ........ Js Mati wah vcanaks sen tate tnaeee cmeee rae cateon 132 
Mr. Joun Scorr Russert on the Construction of Sea Walls and Em- 
CATE TUE ARPES enppse En Coos) eae cbacr Gece bsacreeecchearcaaneends GaaaKe 133 


rt. Joun Taytor on the Duty of the Cornish PMIBINES) oot; acacesssenasqasss MUGS 
. Witt1aMs on Preventing the Dangers from Collision, and from Fire 


5 in Vessels COOTER THEO HLTH HOO ETT O THO HOT OEH OO TOE REO TERE SO ESOS OT OETETESO REEF EEE EED 183 


viii CONTENTS. . 


Page 
Professor Mosrrey’s Experiments on the Equilibrium of the Arch......... 133 
Mr. D. Musuer on the Quality of Iron for Railways ......sssssesseceessenes 134 
Mr. Rosertr Wits on the Teeth of Wheels ......ssescessereessesee seeeeeee 135 
Mr. Lane on the construction of Vessels with Safety Keeels icdsnasns ee Us) 
Mr. Kinestey on a new Perspective Drawing Board for Mechanical 
Drawings ...... weensesenareccnsceses deniuiaas Seumawie sa sdanesccdasacsecsoees ewensnases 135 
Professor Henry on Canals and Railways in America ..ssccccsscrscesseeeese 130 
Mr. Joun Isaac Hawerns on Mechanical Sculpture, with Specimens. ones, 136 
Mr. W. Errricx on a New Method of obtaining an Artificial Horizon at 
Sea ssssecececevecs deeccccvsscececsssessessensasscascgecascossoessscos soevsctsessesae LOG 
Dr. Larpwer on the Application of Steam to long Voyages eceaveecanceaee 136 
Mr. Wittram West on the Ventilation of Tunnels. .......ssccsseesseerecesees 136 


STATISTICS. 


Mr. G. R. Porrer’s Brief Memoir of the Growth, Progress, and Extent 
of the Trade between the United Kingdom and the “United States of 
America, from the beginning of the Eighteenth Century to the present 


time. ...-6. theseeee see eescecceerers Seenns Sos sancaedewahpbe ee sucmnansian osdtvadaenaanas 136 
Mr. Suanery on the W ages of Labourers in Manufacturing Districts. ...... 138 
Mr. Asuwortu on the State of Education in the Borough of Bolton in 

UO Sisep cued aseans = tanecnasscatevdctnces sepecnsouedseepoearmcnssetscestang cecnecsea eee ots, 
Mr. Merrirt’s Remarks on the Report of the State of Education in Li- 

verpool, presented to the British Association in 1836. ......sesesesee+e ... 138 
Mr. WaLmsLey on the State of Crime in the Borough of Liverpool power dams 139 
Dr. W. C. Tayor’s Abstract of the Report made by the Regents of the 

University of the State of New York.......cccsecsecseeersecesenees eeecenserees 139 
Mr. G. W. Hatt on Improvements in Agriculture. Jesleadnesy Web gah Pea It!) 
Dr. Yeuuony on Spade Husbandry, .........csccsseacseccceees dewehdessvonsaawde 139 
Mr. Uraunarr on the Localities of the Plague i in Constantinople. Jee 139 
Mr. Bermincuam on the Reclaiming of the “Bog of Critt, in the County of 

Galway... <.-cccseccesssonene sathsteasrsscssseseiprsrscneeveses ese teWet weds acenek sss 139 
Mr. C. B. Frivp on n the Condition of the Poor of Bristol—an Inquiry now 

carrying on by the Statistical Society of Bristol. ......ceeccceeeseseeeeneees 139 
The Rev. I’. De Soyres on the Educational Statistics of the Parish of Si- 

dlesham, in Kent. Communicated by Mr. C. B. Friep.......... setadenad 140 


Mr. Asuwortn’s Inquiry into the Origin, Procedure, and Results of the 

Strike of the Operative Cotton-Spinners of Preston, from October 1836 

to February 1837 ..cc.cc, cscsecccsvcesssceccscannecseseccenessseestescesansasses .. 140 
Report of a Committee of the Manchester Statistical Society, on the con- 

dition of the Working Classes in an extensive Manufacturing District, 

IM 1834, 1835, 1836.....0.0cc0c0ciecncocvacsancccneosecetsasccoeccecescccsconeeeses 141 
Account of the Inhabited Courts “and Cellars in Liverpool, RC. crecesecsees 143, 
Manchester Statistical Society’s Inquiry into the State of Education in the ° 

City of York....... Seatbdadecccecetecledecvectec dé onpeenemenceh awd as sb aaenaeeaaenans 144 
Mr. Witiiam Ferkin’s Abstract of a paper ‘entitled “ Remarks upon the 

Importance of an Inquiry into the Amount and Appropriation of 

Wages by the Working Classes.” ...sccosessseeeeeeeeres teeeences accnegensss 148 


NOTICES AND: ABSTRACTS 
: OF 
_ MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS 


TO THE SECTIONS. 


_ MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 


Exposition of the Argument of Abel, respecting Equations of the Fifth 
w hae By Proressor Sir W.R. Hamitton, Pres. R. I. Aca- 


Uy 


Tats Exposition will be published in the Second Part of the XVIIIth 
Volume of the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy; and a 
ketch of it has been already printed in the 5th Number of the 
Monthly Proceedings of that Academy, for the year 1836-7. 
uy 


x On New Applications of the Calculus of Principal Relations. By 
BS Proressor Sir W. R. Hamitton, Pres. R. I. Academy. 


___ After the reading of this paper the author was requested by the 
General Committee to report to the next Meeting on the applicability of 
¥ his Calculus of principal relations to the theory of the Moon’s motions. 


‘ “An Exposition ue Mr. Turner's Theorem respecting the Series of Odd 
_ Numbers and the Cubes and other powers of the Natural Numbers. 
; By Proressor Sir W. R. Hamiiton. 


_ VOL. vi. 1837. B 


2 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


On some New Properties of Geometric Series. 
By Cuarves Biacxeury, A.B. 


This paper consisted of a series of geometric theorems, of a some- 
what novel character ; but from its length and abstract nature did not 
admit of being read to the Section. ‘The author explained one of the 
theorems, and in a brief statement enumerated some of the purposes to 
which they are applicable. 

It appeared that the paper contains formule, ates 

1. For finding the products of a variety of factors of particular 
forms. 

2. For reducing expressions hitherto considered fractional to integers. 

3. For reducing fractional expressions to equivalent ones, of which 
the terms shall be, of m and x less dimensions ; or to other equivalent 
fractions of more convenient forms. 

4. For the resolution of geometric series into any proposed number 
of factors. 


Of the first kind of theorems, the 2 following are given as examples. 
(1) 
Let m and be whole numbers, # and y any quantities; then 


n n n 
a” TT gam Py gg By 0g tym 34 ym 24 ym ol 


= { am — Ly gm—2y 4 gm—3 yo 4 phe Bi wooo DIYM—3 4 gym —2 syn} 


* { m(m=1) 4 ym Kaneohe J NPS pees cone ey” (m—2) +y™ ini} 


Aig” ce Vel eit Sohal Pe this eee an 


x { m=) 4 amma men" a atm: (m—2) eee (m1) } 


y 
(2) 


Let mn p, &c.=N, then 


ANAT gN-2y 4 N-B yey 28 yN—3 4 gyN-2 4 yN=I 
> { ml eg dal RO ye es ou eos . 2m +ay™—? 2 aioe } 
Xfm OD MBs pamym (en) ym (nnd p 
4 { gm (>—1) 4. rm (p—2), ee. hae ae rmymnn(o-2 4 ymn(p—1) b 


&e. &e. &e. &e. 


Other theorems will probably appear in some other scientific publi- 
cation. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3 


On the Parallax of a Lyre. By the Rev. Dr. Rozinson. 


_ The observations of the late Dr. Brinkley, he observed, with an 

eight-feet circle, indicated a parallax of about 1’ for a Lyre; but 
__ Mr. Pond, with the Greenwich mural, appeared,to obtain contradict- 
ory results. His observations seemed so satisfactory, that the Royal 
Society considered the question as completely decided, and rewarded 
him with their medal. It is true that the Society afterwards seemed 
to retract this opinion, by awarding the same honour to Brinkley 

_ himself; but the impression remained on the public mind. Dr, Ro- 
‘binson should not have noticed this, but that he observed, in some 
late addresses, that this opinion was sanctioned by the illustrious names 
of Airy and Peacock. In reducing the Greenwich observations for 
_ the nutation, he had many of a Lyre, and, selecting those which were 
_ near the maxima and minima of parallax, he obtained the following 
-yalues of the constant of parallax :— 


_ Parallaxes of a Lyre resulting from Mr. Pond's Observations. 


Parallax. No. of Observations, 
Summer ...... PBUS5 os. 6. —O°07 .......- 
Winter ...... MSUT eet 6770) Fa ee 33 
Winter ...... 1819°0 ..... UN=wY Ta const rasena iO 
Summer ...... 1819°5 ...... aS teosse stheee (Oe 
Winter ...... TB20'O" ss 5s = er Reet 18 
Winter ...... 1822°0 ...... —3°BD cecccccevecs 16 
Winter ...... 1827-0 ...... Sm AE tc ecateiece 21 
r Summer ...... WS D cnpaces 1 ly A Pa 70 
Winter ...... 1828°0 ...... —O18 ............ 30 
Summer ...... ie eee 4 a (ED Tei te wes Oe 
Winter ...... TSAO: westee MOS. oss phy aches 26 
Summer ...... Sires teas +0°99 ......-..08. 22 
Winter ...... T8300) 3.225. is aan ee 9 
Summer ....., OG ep eee +0°90 2... .c cee eee 22 
Winter ...... {SSO HOMO] cde ceseneses 23 
Summer ...... gol eercs +1°30 ... 29 


Combining and expressing by d?z the error of nutation, and by dm 
the error of prop. motion. 


4 1812 
; 1818 > ... par=—1'28—0'8 d’n+0°3dm,. ...... 78 obs. 

1822 
tee =—O°95 .....000- aU Ao) SANS 55 
| oe re =—O0AZ ......... —02 91 
1828 reat (60.2 0) Bannan me U2 PRE ee 82 
1829 eames ES | ae et —O0'3 ......00. 70 
BAG). agers cde, SOO les aps ses oa LG castes sax 31 
ila haa = +0°68 +0°05d’2—0°3 ......44 52 


‘in which it is supposed that d’x=—0°31; dm.=+0:07, assuming 

_ Bessel’s proper motion to be true. 

These results obviously may give any parallax, and, therefore, as far 
B2 


4 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


as they go, the question must be considered as perfectly open,—or, 
rather, they indicate that the Dublin circle has, to the present time, 
given consistent results, which have not been disproved. 

Dr. Robinson pointed out the necessity, in such inquiries, of guard- 
ing against the errors proceeding from changes of temperature, which 
may occasion a diurnal change, capable, in some cases, of masking 
the parallax, supposing it given by the instrument. He stated that he 
had examined the index correction of his own circle by observing the 
Pole star and 6 Urse minoris at both culminations on the same days ; 
and that, though the German astronomers were always attentive to 
detect such changes, it was not, as far as he knew, generally practised 
in Britain. 


On Tides. By the Rev. W. WuHEwELL, F..R.S., Se. 


Mr. Whewell observed that his own researches agreed with those of 
Mr. Lubbock, both in giving a very close and remarkable coincidence 
of the laws of observation and theory on most points, and also in dis- 
closing some curious discrepancies of some of the features of the 
observed tides from the theoretical*. In particular, he stated that he 
had satisfied himself, as Mr. Lubbock had done, but by independent 
investigations, founded on quite different facts, that the diurnal in- 
equality was very different at different points of the same coast ; and 
that at places not very distant from each other, he had found cases 
where this inequality was absolutely inverted, making ¢hat the lower of 
two successive tides, which, at a period of their progress a little 
anterior, had been the higher. He stated that this circumstance, 
having attracted his attention, he had, in a postscript to his seventh 
series of Tide Researches, printed in the Philosophical Transactions, 
offered a certain hypothesis as a mode of accounting for it—namely, 
that the tides might be conceived as transmitted by ¢ransverse undula- 
tions; and, he added, that subsequent researches, about to be pub- 
lished in his eighth series, had shown him that he must entirely re- 
tract this hypothesis. He added also, that he was able to say the 
same of another hypothesis, at first sight very plausible—namely, that — 
the diurnal tide travels at a different rate from the common semi- 
diurnal tide. He stated, that having taken sixty of the best-con- 
ditioned places on the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland, for the 
purpose of tracing the progress of this diurnal inequality, he had had 
the requisite calculations made by calculators (Mr. Dessiou and Mr. 
Ross) placed at his disposal by the Admiralty. He had separated the 
diurnal wave from the semi-diurnal tide, by examining the compara- 
tive influence of the diurnal inequality upon high and upon low 
waters. He had pursued this diurnal wave first along the west coast 
of Ireland, round the north of Scotland, and down the east coast of 
Scotland and England; and he had found that the diurnal wave never 
gained or lost much in its rate of progress compared with the semi- 
diurnal. This was generally two or three hours behind, sometimes 


* See p. 103. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 5 


# 
- more than five, sometimes less than two, but with no progressive dif- 
_ ference. He had next followed another diurnal wave up the Channel, 
and had found the same general approximation from the Land’s End 
and Brest to the Isle of Wight; but in the Southampton waters, and 

so on to Portsmouth, the diurnal wave was thrown out of its course so 
_ much as to affect the tides in a reverse order to that which took place 
_ in the previous part of its course ; so that if two successive tides, A, B, 
_ progressed from Bridport to Southampton, a was higher than 8 at the 
_ first place, and 8 higher than a at the second. He referred also to the 
double tides (four in twenty-four hours) which occur in the Solent Sea, 
and invited the attention of persons residing in the neighbourhood of 
_ those coasts to the investigation of this subject, since such persons can 
best determine over what extent of coast this double tide prevails— 
how, at the extremities of its range, the double tide grows out of the 

 single—at what intervals the two tides occur—which is the greater, 
and how these relatious vary at different places,—and whether these 
_ changes can be connected in a definite manner with the tidal currents. 
He added that, in some places, instead of four or two tides in the 
_ twenty-four hours, there appears to be only one, especially on the 
- coasts of Australia. He observed, that he conceived he had already 
evidence to show that these supposed single day tides were, in fact, 
_ only extreme cases of great diurnal inequality ; and he stated that the 
_ Admiralty, in pursuance of suggestions made by him, through Captain 
Beaufort, the hydrographer, had directed observations to be made at se- 

_ veral points on the coasts of Australia, which he hoped would enable him 
to decide this question, and to draw from them the laws of such cases. 


On the Tides of Dundee and Glasgow. By Davip Mackie, Lec- 
turer on Natural Philosophy, Glasgow Mechanics’ Institute. 


_ The author of this paper having been solicited about three years . 
ago to furnish tide-tables for Dundee and Glasgow, was led to compare . 
the results of his calculations with the actual times of high water at 
these ports. From the great discrepancies frequently observable, the 
data made use of necessarily became extremely dubious. With the - 
view of obtaining correct data, and of co-operating, as far as in his 
_ power, with the eminent individuals who have recently given a new 
_ impulse to such inquiries, he was fortunate in inducing Lieutenant 
Smart, harbour-master, Dundee, to undertake a series of observations 
on the tides at that port, while at Glasgow he undertook a similar 
_ series of observations himself. The observations of Lieutenant Smart 
_ were continued from January Ist till September 3rd, 1837. They in- 
_ clude the time and height of the tide morning and evening, the state 
of the barometer and thermometer, and the character and direction 
_ of the wind. At Dundee, the interval of time at which the tide 
follows the meridian passage of the moon, on the days of full and 
_ change, is subject to considerable variation, sometimes being only 
2 hours, and at other times 3 hours; but by taking the average 
of all the intervals which occurred between the time of high water 
and the moon’s northing or southing, from new till full, during the 


6 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


period over which the observations extend, it was found to amount to 
2 hours 48 minutes, being 33 minutes greater than the time of high 
water at full and change, as given for Dundee in the Nautical Al- 
manac. The “vulgar establishment” of that port is therefore 2 
hours 48 minutes. As at London, Bristol, Liverpool, and other 
places where good observations have been made, so at Dundee, the 
interval of time between the meridian passage of the moon and the 
occurrence of high water is greatest about new and full moon, and 
decreases till about the seventh and eighth days after these periods. 
This inequality in the intervals alluded to has been appropriately 
termed, by Mr. Whewell, the “semi-menstrual, or half-monthly in- 
equality ;’ and if we draw a line, and erect upon it fifteen equidistant 
ordinates or perpendiculars, to represent, by their comparative lengths, 
the fifteen different intervals which occur between the time of high 
water and the moon’s northing and southing, from full to change, the 
line joining the extremities of the ordinates generally forms a pretty 
regular curve. According to Mr. Lubbock and Mr. Whewell, if we 
perform such an operation with the intervals between the time of high 
water and the moon’s meridian passage at London, from full to change, 
we obtain the curve represented by the boldest line in the following 
diagram. 


x 


bY cdl 


se 
Jeet 


ae 
As 
em! 
cay 
9 H 


SK 


AS 


= 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7 


Bett Been taking, singly, any of the fifteen intervals which occurred at 
Dundee, and laying them down .as ordinates, the line joining their 
_ extremities was not found to form a perfectly regular curve. The 
_ tides being influenced by the particular direction and velocity of the 
- wind, are sometimes retarded and sometimes accelerated, so that or- 
% dinates representing the intervals must occasionally be longer and 
_ shorter than they would be in the absence of such a source of dis- 
3g turbance. The author, however, found, to his great satisfaction, that 
i upon taking the averages of all the intervals corresponding to the 
_ same ‘parallaxes and declinations, a perfectly regular curve resulted, 
_ very similar in form to that for London, only running much higher. 
_ This semi-menstrual curve for Dundee is represented by the fainter 
line crossing the diagram. In the following table, the fifteen intervals 
_ for London occupy the second column, and those for Dundee the third 


~ column. 


Tide after Tide after 
Moon’s Age. | Moon’s Transit | Moon’s Transit | Difference. 
at London. at Dundee. 
Days. h m h m h m 
1 y ean ay g 42 O 45 
2g 1 45 2 26 O 41 
3 1 32 2 6 O 34 
4 1 19 1 50 O 31 
5 I 6 1 45 O 39 
6 O 54 1 35 O 41 
7 0 46 1 35 O 49 
8 O 43 1 40 O 57 
9 0 45 1 49 1 4: 
10 ] 1 2 15 1 14 
11 LEAT 2 40 Ts es 
12 1 57 Z 52 O 55 
13 He 8 2 55 O 47 
14 2 10 QQ 49 O 39 
15 Q 4 2 40 O 36 


From the fourth column of this table it appears that the intervals of 
time between the meridian passage of the moon and the time of high 
water at Dundee exceed the corresponding intervals at London, from 
31 minutes to 1 hour 14 minutes. The “corrected establishment ” 
_ for any place, according to Mr. Whewell, is the mean of the intervals 
_ which occur between the meridian passage and the times of high 
_ water. At Dundee, therefore, the corrected establishment is 2 hours 
15 minutes, which, it is rather singular, happens exactly to agree with 
_ the time given in the Nautical Almanac for high water at full and 
_ change. As to the existence of a diurnal inequality, either in the 
_ time or height of the tides at Dundee, he did not consider the obser- 


8 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


vations sufficiently numerous to warrant him to draw any general in- 
ference, but simply remarked, that in January there were twenty-six 
of the evening tides higher than those of the morning, in February 
nineteen, in March twenty-four, in April twenty-four, and in May 
nineteen. In June the morning tides began to take precedence in 
point of height, there being in that month eighteen morning tides 
higher than those of the evening, in July twenty-one, and in August 
twenty-four. So far as the observations went, there did not appear to 
be any connection between the height of the tides and the pressure 
of the atmosphere, as indicated by the barometer. 

The observations on the tides at Glasgow were continued by Mr. 
Mackie for five months, though these months were not continuous. 
From these observations he deduces the “vulgar establishment” at 
that place to be 1 hour 43 minutes, and the “ corrected establishment” 
1 hour 9 minutes. With regard to the intervals between the meridian 
passage of the moon and the time of high water, although they are 
greatest about new and full moon, and decrease till about the seventh 
and eighth days after these periods, they are subject to very great irregu- 
larities ; to such an extent is this case, that he had not been able to 
extract from the five months’ observations a regular curve for the 
semi-menstrual inequality. In the former diagram the light dotted 
line represents the genuine curve obtained from the five months’ 
observations: it is probable that, when fully determined, it will run 
a little below that for London for the four or five first intervals after 
new moon, gradually, however, approaching, till it coincides nearly 
for the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth intervals, when it will again 
gradually diverge and terminate somewhat below that for London. 

The river Clyde has undergone very great alterations in its channel, 
even within the last fifty years; and as it is of the utmost importance 
to have a record of the influence produced on the progress of the tide, 
by alterations in the breadth, depth, and form of the channel of a 
river, the following brief detail of the modifications in the channel of 
the Clyde, and the effects which have ensued, may serve as a precedent 
in directing, so far, those who are entrusted with the improvement of 
the navigation in other rivers. About the commencement of the 
sixteenth century the river was entirely in a state of nature. Its 
banks were in general flat and low. The channel abounded with 
shoals and fords, at some of which the tide, at high water, was not 
above 3 feet, and at low water about 14 feet. The lowness of the 
banks permitted the tide to spread over a great extent of surface, 
forming pools and islands, among which the most experienced skippers 
could not always distinguish the real channel. In this state the cele- 
brated engineer Smeaton found the river, when solicited by the 
magistracy to report upon the best method of improving it, in 1755. 
At this period the breadth varied greatly from Glasgow to Bowling 
Bay, a distance of about ten miles. The breadth at Glasgow, imme- 
diately below the Broomielaw, was about 500 feet; and although, fur- 
ther down, it was in some places less, it upon the whole increased, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9 


y “til at Bowling Bay the breadth was at least one half mile. The river 
is now contracted by a sloping ruble embankment on each side, and 
_ decreases from 163 feet wide at the Broomielaw, to 530 at Bowling. 
_ Great alterations have also been made upon the depths. The contrac- 
_ tion of the channel has been one means of accelerating the current, 
and thereby scouring and deepening the river; but, in addition to this 
- natural agent, numerous dredging machines, worked by steam, have 
_ been employed; and, within the last eighty years, the general depth 
has been increased from 4 to 16 feet. In Mr. Smeaton’s Report, al- 
_ ready alluded to, the utmost contemplated by his improvements was 
_ to enable a vessel of 100 tons burthen to get up to the Broomielaw, 
_ and that partly by the use of locks. In 1806 it was thought worthy of 
- recording in Mr. Telford’s report, that Captain Wilkie, of the Har- 
_ mony of Liverpool, sailed up to Glasgow, the vessel being 120 tons 
_ burthen, and drawing 8 feet 6 inches water; and it is mentioned, 
in Dr. Clelland’s Annals of Glasgow, that in the same year a heavy- | 
loaded schooner, 150 tons burthen, came direct from Liverpool, and 
discharged her cargo at the Broomielaw. At present, very large steam- 
boats and vessels, of 300 tons burthen, may freely venture up the 
river at high water. 

Alterations which have produced such important effects in facilita- 
ting the navigation of the Clyde must also have tended materially to. 
_ give free access to the tidal wave, render its progress more rapid, and 
_ enable it to ascend further up the channel. It is, however, deeply 
_ to be regretted, that on account of no register of the tides having 
_ been kept at Glasgow, or at any other place on the river, it is impos- 
_ sible to discover what have been the precise effects of such important 
alterations. From 1755 till 1834, the practical knowledge and genius 
_ of Smeaton, Golbourne, Watt, Telford, Rennie, and others, have been 
_ ealled into exercise, in devising schemes for improving the navigation 
of the river; but on examining their reports, amounting to seventeen 
in number, although they sounded the river repeatedly at high and low 
water, and state the day, it will be found that the time of high water, 
at two different places on the river, is only once mentioned; this is 
in Mr. Golbourne’s Report, dated November 30th 1768, where it 
is stated that the tide at new and full moon occurred eighteen miles 
_ below Glasgow, or at Port Glasgow at noon, and at the Broom- 
ielaw at two, making the tide two hours later at Glasgow than at 
Port Glasgow. Assuming this as the difference which existed at that 
period between the times of high water at these two places, the author 
_ can pretty confidently assert, that in calm weather the difference now 
is generally only about 1 hour 16 minutes; but it increases from this 
amount, upwards, to nearly 2 hours, according to circumstances. 
Previous to the improvements in the channel neap tides were hardl 
_ perceptible at Glasgow bridge, and they are now sensible about three 
_ miles further up the river. These statements are derived from nu- 

_ merous observations made by the author and several of his scientific 

_ friends. The chief object in view was to obtain correct data for tide 


10 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


calculation ; but it is hoped that the results will enable the eminent 
individuals who take the lead in such inquiries, to connect Glasgow 
and Dundee with the other ports around Britain, at which good obser- 
vations have been made. 

It is a singular circumstance, that the time of high water at Port 
Glasgow and Greenock generally precedes the meridian passage of the 
moon instead of following it. This was evident from observations 
made before the meeting of the Association ; but since that period the 
author has been furnished with observations made at Greenock with great 
care, under the superintendence of Mr. James Thomson, civil engineer ; 
and in the former diagram the zig-zag line on the left represents the 
intervals between the meridian passage of the moon and high water, 
from new moon September 29th, till full moon October 13th, 1837. 
When the curve is on the right of the vertical line a B, the times of 
high water are after the moon’s southing ; but when on the left, they 
precede the moon’s southing, and to an extent sometimes of nearly 2 
hours. 


On an Optical Phenomenon observed at Mont Blane. 
By M. De ta Rive. 


When the sun has set at Geneva, it is observed that Mont Blanc 
remains illuminated by its direct rays for a much longer time than the 
surrounding mountains. This phenomenon is owing to the great 
height of Mont Blane. But, after it has ceased to be illuminated, the 
summit of Mont Blanc sometimes reappears at the end of ten or fifteen 
minutes, less intensely enlightened than at first, but nevertheless in a 
manner very decided, and often very brilliant. This phenomenon 
takes place especially when the atmosphere is very pure—highly 
charged with aqueous vapour in an invisible state—and consequently 
very transparent. The author has satisfied himself (by the exact ob- 
servation of the time which elapses between the two successive illumi- 
nations of the mountain, combined with the calculation of the sun’s 
progress) that the phenomenon is due to the rays of the sun which 
traverse the atmosphere at a distance from the earth less than the 
height of Mont Blanc, but greater than half that height, and which 
arrive at rarer regions of the atmosphere, under an incidence so great 
that they are reflected instead of refracted. This interior reflection is 
facilitated by the humidity of that part of the atmosphere which the 
rays traverse until they reach the point of incidence. The reflected 
rays falling on the snowy summit of Mont Blanc, produce this second 
illumination ; and the humidity (by augmenting the transparency of 
the air) renders the illumination more brilliant. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Al 


On the cause of the Optical Phenomena which take place in the 
Crystalline Lens during the absorption of Distilled Water. By 
Sir D. Brewster, K.H., &e. 


Sir David Brewster commenced by drawing the attention of the 
Section to a representation of the eye of the sheep found among the 
MSS. of Sir Isaac Newton, in the possession of Lord Portsmouth. The 
several parts of the drawing under consideration were most care- 
fully laid down on one scale, and the exact measurements given, re- 
specting the cornea in particular. It appeared that it was a portion of 
an ellipsoid, somewhat longer, but not so deep as the ball of the eye, 
the cornea being a portion of its most convex part at the major axis. Sir 
David then went on to introduce the subject of the present communi- 
cation, by briefly running through the leading points to which he had 
adverted at the last meeting of the Association, regarding a series of 
experiments on the crystalline lenses of quadrupeds. From these it 
appeared that the capsule of the lens absorbs water with great avidity ; 
and during this process exhibits (when exposed to the analysis of 
polarized light) remarkable changes both in the nature and in the 
number of the positive and negative doubly refracting structures of 
which it is composed. These singular, and, in the case of the lens of 
the horse, very beautiful phenomena, Sir David stated that he was 
not able to explain when he first made the communication ; but he had 
_ Since returned to the subject, and had succeeded in discovering the cause 
_ Of the various phenomena which he had observed. While the capsule 
_ of the lens is absorbing distilled water, the bulk of the lens is gradually 

increasing, and consequently the capsule, which he found to be highly 
elastic, became more and more stretched in the direction of the radii of 
its circular margin. This extension produces, as may be shown by di- 
rect experiment, a negative doubly refracting structure, like the central 
portion of a positive system of polarized rings, with a rectangular black 
cross. The tint of this membrane rises to a white of the first order; 
and, as the membrane is double, the two tints will produce, when 
- combined, a purple of the first order, which will be the maximum tint 
_ developed by the extended capsule just before it bursts. Now it is 
_ obvious that the optical figure thus given by the capsule alone will, 
when combined with the fixed optical figure of the lens itself, produce 
all the variable phenomena previously observed. If the fixed optical 
figure consist of two structures, both positive, then one part of the 
capsule will produce, in the neutral black ring, a negative doubly re- 
fracting luminous ring, which separates the two positive luminous 
_ rings; while the outer and inner portions of the capsule will act in op- 
position to the positive structures of the lens, and tend to diminish or 
obliterate the tints produced at these parts. The result of this com- 
bination of actions will be the production of a certain optical figure, in 
which a negative series of luminous sectors is placed between two 
positive series of luminous sectors. In the process by which these 


_ changes are produced, a new series of luminous sectors, having ne- 


_ gative double refraction, has been made to appear in the centre of the 


12 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


neutral black ring. The inner portion of this black ring has been 
made to advance inwards, and diminish the size as well as the in- 
tensity of the inner or central series of sectors, while the outer portion 
of the same black ring has encroached in a similar manner upon the 
outer series of positive sectors, and reduced it both in its size and in 
the intensity of its illumination. If the original optical figure of the 
lens consist of one positive structure, or of three structures, the middle 
one of which is zegative, and the two others positive, the changes which 
they undergo by the absorption of water, and the consequent exten- 
sion of the membranous capsule are explicable in the same manner ; 
and not only the character but the numerical value of all the tints 
which are successively generated can be calculated with the greatest 
accuracy by assuming a value of the tint produced by each surface of 
the capsule. In order to remove all ambiguity on the subject, Sir 
David Brewster extended the capsule of the lens of a sheep over a 
plate of glass, and by a slight force he readily produced a white of the 
first order, and of the same numerical value as that which is necessary 
to produce the phenomena in question. In order to obtain a direct 
experimental confirmation of these views we have only to take a cir- 
cular plate of glass which produces, either by rapid cooling, or by the 
transit of heat, a series of luminous sectors of the same value as that 
which is produced by the capsule; and, by combining it with the 
optical figure of the lens, we shall represent all the pheenomena exhibited 
by the lens, when its capsule is expanded by the absorption of water. 
From the property of the capsule of the lens by which it absorbs 
water, it is obvious that in certain states of eye it may become so dis- 
tended with that fluid that it may at length burst, thus giving rise to 
the disease which has been termed soft cataract; in this case the ob- 
vious remedy is to puncture the outer coating of the eye, and thus 
permit the vicious fluid to escape, and afford a chance to the vessels of 
resuming their healthy functions. On the other hand, when the defect 
of the more watery secretions of the eye cuts off the supply, which it 
would seem that the capsule is intended to furnish to the lens, an op- 
posite course may be requisite, and a supply of water may be injected 
into the eye; this has actually been done, although when Sir David 
mentioned the matter in the Medical Section at the last meeting of the 
Association, Dr. Macartney stated very strongly his doubts of the pos- 
sibility of such an operation. Thus, it is probable that optical science 
may have led to an examination of the nature of the membranes of 
this valuable organ, and most probably that examination will issue in 
the proper treatment of a most distressing disease, in each of the di- 
stinct forms which it is found to assume. 


—_— 


On a new Property of Light. By Six D. Brewster. 


The author observed, that his attention had been lately drawn to a 
very curious, and new property of light. While examining the solar 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. TS 


i 
spectrum formed in the focus of an achromatic telescope, after the 
anner of Fraunhofer, he placed a thin plate of glass before his eye, 
in such a manner as to intercept and retard one half of the pencil, 
which was entering his eye, by placing it before one half of the pupil. 
He was then surprised to find, that when the edge of the retarding 
: glass plate was turned towards the red end of the spectrum, intensely 
black lines made their appearance, as might be expected, at such re- 
lar intervals, as to represent the most exact micrometrical arrange- 
nent of wires; but upon turning the plate of glass half round, (still 
keeping its plane perpendicular to the axis of the eye,) so as to pre- 
sent the edge, past which the rays entered the eye, to the violet end 
of the spectrum, every one of those dark bands entirely disappeared. 
In the intermediate positions of that edge they appeared more or less 
‘distinct, according as the edge was more presented to the red, or to 
_ the violet, end of the spectrum. A glass plate, one-thirtieth of an 
inch thick, gave these lines; but the thinner the glass, the more in- 
tense was the blackness, and the more distinct the lines. They were 
_ formed in any part of the spectrum; but they were best seen when 
_ the rays were intercepted which lay between the two fixed lines a and 
D of Fraunhofer. An examination of these lines afforded the very 
_ best means of determining the dispersive powers of substances; for 
_ their distance from one another increases or diminishes, exactly as the 
4 entire length of the spectrum is increased or diminished ; and the 
number of them in the same part of two spectra of different lengths i is 
_ always the same. 


_ Notice of a new Structure in the Diamond. By Sir D. Brewster. 


__ Sir David said, that having communicated to the Geological Society 
an account of certain peculiarities in the structure of the diamond, 

; Rrchich confirm the theory of its vegetable origin, he was desirous of 
_ submitting to the consideration of this section a new structure, which 

_ he had recently detected in that gem, and which indirectly supported 
_ the same views. In consequence of the diamond having been used as 
the fittest substance for forming single microscopes of high power and 
_ small spherical aberration, the attention of opticians has been drawn 

_ to the imperfections of its structure. Mr. Pritchard, who first suc- 
_ ceeded in executing lenses of diamond, put into the hands of Sir David 

_ for examination, a plano-convex lens, about the 30th of an inch in 
_ diameter, which he had found unfit for the purposes of a microscope, 

in consequence of its giving double or triple images of minute objects. 
_ As Sir David had previously shown that almost all diamonds possessed 
- an imperfect doubly refracting structure, as if they had been aggregated 
_ by irregular forces, or compressed or kneaded together like a piece of 
soft gum or an indurated jelly, he had no doubt that the multiple images 
_ were owing to this structure, as there appeared, on an ordinary ex- 
- amination of the lens, to be no other cause to which it could be 


14 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


reasonably ascribed. This was also Mr. Pritchard’s opinion, and the 
existence of such images prevented opticians from rashly cutting up 
diamonds which might turn out useless for optical purposes. As 
lenses of sapphire and ruby, which Sir David had long had occasion to 
use in very delicate microscopical observations, produced no duplica- 
tion of the image, although the rays passed in directions in which the 
double refraction was much greater than in any specimen of diamond 
which he had examined, it occurred to him that the double images 
might arise from some other cause. He therefore proceeded to ex- 
amine the light transmitted through the diamond, by combining it with 
a concave lens of the same focal length, in order to make the rays pass 
in parallel directions through its substance. This experiment indicated 
no peculiarity of structure at all capable of producing a separation of 
the images, and he was therefore led to examine the plane surface of 
the lens, by reflecting from it a narrow line of light admitted into a 
dark room, and examining the surface with a half-inch lens. While 
turning round the plane surface of the diamond, he was surprised to 
observe the whole of its surface covered with parallel lines or veins, 
some of which reflected the light more powerfully than others, so as to 
have the appearance of a striped riband, somewhat resembling the rude 
sketch here given, which shows that the plane surface of the diamond, 
in a space of less than one-thirtieth of an inch, 
contaius many hundred veins or strata of dif- 
ferent reflective and refractive powers, as if they 
had been subjected to variable pressures, or de- 
posited under the influence of forces of aggrega- 
tion of variable intensity. If, Sir David observed, 
the planes of these different strata had been per- 
pendicular to the axis of the diamond lens, their 
difference of refractive power would produce no 
sensible effect injurious to the perfection of the 
image; but if these strata are parallel to that axis, as they are in the 
lens under consideration, each stratum must have a different focus, and 
consequently produce a series of partially overlapping images. 

The results of this experiment in restoring the diamond to its value 
as an optical material, in so far as it enables us to cut it in a proper 
direction, and select proper specimens, and its connexion with some 
delicate researches of Professors Airy and Maccullagh on the super- 
ficial action of diamond upon polarized light, possess considerable in- 
terest; but the fact of a mineral body consisting of layers of different 
refractive powers, and consequently different degrees of hardness and 
specific gravity, is remarkable. There were several minerals, such as 
Apophyllite, Chabasie, and others, in which Sir David had found differ- 
ent degrees of extraordinary refraction in different parts of the crystal ; 
but this variation of property depends upon a secondary law of struc- 
ture; and he believed that there was no crystal, either natural or 
artificial, in which the properties of ordinary refraction, hardness, and 
specific gravity, varied throughout its mass. This peculiarity of strue- 
ture, therefore, might be regarded as an indication of a peculiarity of 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15 


rigin; and as there are various strong arguments in favour of the 
jon that the diamond is a vegetable substance, the new structure 
ch he had described might be considered as an additional argument 
a fayour of that opinion. He had, in a former paper, placed it beyond 
a doubt, that the diamond must have been in a soft state, like amber 
or gum, and capable of having its structure modified by the expansive 

force of air, or gaseous bodies imprisoned in its cavities ; and therefore 
the fact of its being sometimes composed of strata of different degrees 
of induration and refractive power, was more likely to have been pro- 
duced by pressures varying during the formation of the crystal, than by 
any change in the intensity of the forces of aggregation of its molecules. 
Such a change might have been supposed probable in the diamond 
had it been previously found in any other crystal. He had already 
referred to the action which diamond exerts superficially upon light. 
‘Professors Airy and Maccullagh have found that this action is of a 
yery peculiar kind, having some analogy with that of metallic surfaces ; 
but it was obvious, from the preceding facts, that a surface of various 
‘ refractive powers must disturb, in a very considerable degree, the 
phznomena produced by its superficial action. In studying, indeed, 
this class of phenomena, it would be necessary not only to obtain a 
‘surface of uniform structure, but to make the experiments before that 
‘surface had experienced any change from the action of the atmo- 
‘sphere. In surfaces of glass such changes often take place in a few 
days; and the thin films of oxide which are thus created are so thin 
that they can only be rendered visible by examining the light re- _ 
flected from the surface, when it is placed in contact with an oi] or 
liquid of the same refractive power. 


Account of a singular optical Phenomenon, sometimes seen at sunset. 
By Proressor Curistie, Seeretary of the Royal Society. 


_ Mr. Christie drew the attention of the section to an optical phzno- 
‘menon which he had observed at sunset, when looking from the Down 
below the Needles Lighthouse, in the isle of Wight, across the Solent, 
towards the Hampshire coast, and which he had described in a letter to 
Professor Forbes, referred to in the published Reports of the Associa- 
tion. He stated, that he had observed the same phenomenon on sub- 
sequent occasions. The appearance was that of a very distinct vertical 
ray of yellow light, having the sun for its base, of the same diameter 
throughout, gradually diminishing in brilliancy, but very distinctly to 
_be traced to the height of more than 30°. This appearance continued 
for half-an-hour after the sun had set. On two other occasions he had 
observed what he considered to be the same phenomenon. In one 
_ ease he happened to be on Westminster Bridge, and on the other on a 
hill about a mile to the north of the town of Bedford. On both these 
occasions the sun was considerably above the horizon, perhaps 6° or 
7°, the strata of cloud in its vicinity were much denser than on the 
former ones, and the phenomenon did not present the same marked 


16 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


character. In these cases, instead of a brilliant ray rising 30° or 40°, 
the luminous appearance was rather that which would present itself, if 
a series of images of the sun were superposed, in the line of its vertical 
diameter, and extending over not more than 4° or 5°; the edges were 
ill-defined. In his letter to Professor Forbes, Mr. Christie had sug- 
gested, whether the phenomenon could be due to a series of reflec- 
tions of the sun’s image by strata of thin cloud ; but he now suggested, 
whether such a phenomenon would not be presented by successive 
reflections on the undulating surface of a stratum of liquid air, such as 
M. Poisson, in his new Theory of the constitution of the Atmosphere, 
has supposed to exist. 


On Von Wrede’s Explanation of the Absorption* of Light, by the undu- 
latory Theory. By Proressor Powe... 


Von Wrede supposes the particles of a transparent medium to be 
placed regularly, at equal distances, () so that the ather being dif- 
fused among them, the series of waves constituting a ray of light, can 
be propagated directly through the substance ; yet a portion of each 
wave will encounter some of the particles, and be reflected backwards, 
and then forwards again, and at length emerge along with the di- 
rectly transmitted ray, and interfere with it, the conditions of which 
will depend on the amount of retardation, or differences of the 
phases; which, if amounting to odd multiples of the half wave- 
length (A), will give points of darkness; and if to even multiples, 
points of brightness. These may be confounded in compound light, 
but will appear when the rays are separated by the prism, and give dark 
bands in the spectrum. 

He then investigates a formula for the intensity of a system of 
waves compounded under the conditions supposed. This is deduced 
from the ordinary formula for the velocity of the wave, and is ulti- 
mately brought into a form including certain terms dependent on the 
medium, and constant for the same medium, together with the factor 

2b 
cos 27 eC 
which is so involved that the intensity is a maximum when the cosine 


26. : cee. 
becomes = + 1, or when 2 = is ameven multiple of a semi-cireum- 


ference, and a minimum when the cosine =—1, or when 27 2, an 
odd multiple of a semi-circumference. 
Hence if the medium be such that 2d = * for any primary ray, that 
ray will be at a minimum, or will appear absorbed. If 26 be less than 
* See “ An Attempt to explain the Absorption of Light according to the Undulatory 


Theory; by Baron Fabian yon Wrede,” in Taylor’s Foreign Scientific Memoirs, vol. i. 
p. 477. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 1 § 


*: he least value of - that is, its value for the violet ray, there will be no 
sorption ; if greater, some one ray or more will be at minima. Let 
suppose the medium such that 26 =m, for any ray. Then, in 

ing from one end of the spectrum to the other, the changes of 
ensity and maxima and minima which may occur, will depend on 
e number of changes which the cosine will go through in passing 
rom its value in the violet ray to that in the red; or, supposing X, i, 


in 


v 


the wave lengths for these rays, from cos 2 7 m to cos 2 7m jy 
f r 


_ through all the intermediate values. The intensity will have as many 
‘Maxima and minima as the cosine has values = + 1, and=—1. And 
_ this number may be increased as much as we please, by supposing (7), 
_ or, what is the same thing, (4) taken sufficiently great. 
_ The formula was, in the first instance, deduced for the simpler sup- 
position of a single medium. It is then shown, that if we suppose a 
compound of several media which have separately different values of 
_ 6, the resulting formula will still preserve the same condition of de- 
_ pending on the changes of the cosine, and each medium will retain its 
_ own set of maxima and minima. 
The investigation is conducted in the first instance on the supposition 
_ of the internal successive reflexions taking place only between two par- 
_ ticles, or sets of particles, or reflecting surfaces. The author next pro- 
eeds to the case where more such are taken into account, and de- 
_ duces a formula more complex, but which results in such a form that 
the maxima and minima are seen to depend on exactly the same condi- 
_ tions as in the simpler case. In certain cases of the absorption of 
gases, &c. appearances of a regular and systematical character are pre- 
_ sented, and Von Wrede shows that at least a general explanation of all 
these is afforded by the principles here developed; that is, merely by 
assigning particular values to 6, and supposing those values different in 
_ the different simple media of which the compounds are made up. 
_ He also points out one method by which a rough approximation 
_ eyen to a numerical comparison may be effected: it applies very satis- 
factorily (as far as it goes) to the case of the iodic gas spectrum. 
Besides this, the author describes an experiment in which the effect 
‘of one or two internal reflexions is imitated by means of plates of 
‘mica, and dark bands in consequence produced in the spectrum. 
_ The principles adopted by Von Wrede appear to be quite conform- 
able to what may most reasonably be supposed to take place in the 
passage of a ray through a transparent body. But so little have the 
phenomena been reduced to any laws, that we are not yet in a condi- 
tion to make any satisfactory comparison of observation and theory. 
The grand object of inquiry must be to obtain, if possible, some nu- 
erical laws, expressing the disposition and arrangement of the bands 
‘the spectrum; and in cases where they are apparently destitute of 
symmetry, to examine carefully whether any hypothesis of several 
_ sets superposed will reduce the apparent confusion to order. 
_ VOL. vi. 1837. c 


18 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Meanwhile, as to the theory, that part of it which refers to the 
mode of aggregation of the particles of bodies, is necessarily, as yet, 
hypothetical; and we may therefore still consider as worthy of atten- 
tion any other principles which may be suggested. 

The point on which it is probable any theory must essentially turn 
is that of a retardation of some part of the light within the medium, 
and its emerging along with the direct ray in a state of interference. 

A ray which enters a medium perpendicularly, though not refracted 
as to direction, is yet retarded in proportion to the refractive index for 
that ray and that medium. Another ray coinciding with it, and 
having a refractive index slightly different, will be wnequally retarded ; 
and however small the difference may be, yet in a considerable thick- 
ness it may amount to a discordance between the two rays when they 
emerge; and if their wave lengths differ only by a very small quan- 
tity, they may so interfere as to produce a sensible destruction. 

If two media are compounded together which have the same re- 
fractive index for one ray, and different indices for a ray whose wave 
length differs very little from the first, that which retards it most will 
prevail, and the two rays may interfere and produce darkness from 
this cause. 

But the recent theoretical researches of Professor Lloyd, communi- 
cated to the Royal Irish Academy, seem to promise an explanation of 
the absorption, and with views somewhat different, connected with his 
profound investigations on the propagation of light, and dependent 
on the mathematical form which the expressions assume under certain 
conditions. This was also, to a certain extent, a consequence from 
some of the analytical investigations of Mr. Tovey on the dispersion. 


On the Dispersion of Light. By Prorressor PoweEtt. 


The object of this communication is to state the progress of the 
inquiry into the subject of dispersion since the last meeting of the 
Association. On that occasion the author laid before the physical 
section the results of his observations for determining the refractive 
indices of the standard rays for twenty-eight media. These have been 
since published, with some preliminary remarks, as one of the series 
of Memoirs of the Oxford Ashmolean Society. They are to be con- 
sidered only as first approximations, and it would be very desirable to 
have many of them carefully repeated, as well as to extend the inquiry 
to other bodies. The author regrets that he has been unable, from 
particular circumstances, to carry on these researches during the past 
summer, but intends to take the first opportunity of resuming them. 
In particular, he was kindly favoured by Mr. Brooke with a specimen 
of'some erystals of chromate of lead for examination, and accordingly 
put them into the hands of Mr. Dollond, who warmly entered into his 
views, and after many vain endeavours to give them a prismatic form, 
has at length succeeded in forming a very minute prism which is under 
trial. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19 
Pit is only by such cooperation of those engaged in different depart- 
_ ments of science that inquiries like the present can be successfully 
_ carried on, and the author is anxious to obtain specimens of any trans- 
_ parent media which are capable of prismatic examination, and espe- 
_ cially such as are of high dispersive power. 

__ Meanwhile he has been engaged in the comparison of observation 
_ and theory; especially among the more highly dispersive of those 
_ media which he has examined. He has performed the calculations by 
_ the method of Sir W. R. Hamilton, and has found that for those media 
whose dispersion is not very great, the coincidences are sufficiently 
close; but on proceeding to the more highly dispersive bodies, espe- 
cially oil of cassia, tle discrepancies increase ; and, moreover, preserve 
a certain regularity of character which shows that they are not mere 
errors of observation. This would seem to warrant the expectation, 
that a further development of the formula might still give successful 
_ results. These investigations have been communicated to the Royal 
_ Society, and have now appeared in the Transactions. 

_ Since the period of this communication, however, the able and 
_ profound Memoir of Mr. Kelland appeared in the Cambridge Trans- 
actions. ‘This gentleman’s theory is, in some measure, a simplification 
of Cauchy’s; the resulting fermula for the dispersion, though sub- 
_ stantially the same, is developed in a different form, and readily capable 
of being applied to numerical computation. In some correspondence 
_ with Mr. Kelland, that gentleman favoured the author with a compu- 
tation for the case of oil of cassia, in which the greatest discrepancies 
existed. By this method those discrepancies have been made entirely 
to disappear; and thus the most ewtreme case at present known is 
brought under the dominion of the formula of dispersion. It is also 
to be observed that Mr. Kelland’s series is not rapidly converging ; the 
neglected terms therefore may, if taken into account, give a still more 
accurate result. These results will appear in the Philosophical Trans- 
actions. 

It will now, therefore, become of yet more extreme interest to find 
some means of obtaining data for the more highly dispersive sub- 
_ stances, such as chromate of lead, realgar, sulphur, &c. 

With regard to the theoretical computation, it must be owned, after 
all, that it is not altogether satisfactory in its nature, as it assumes three 
- indices from observation, and thence determines the others, which is 
in fact a process of interpolation, and does not explain the character, 
_ of the dispersion as referring to those three indices. Whether the 
_ theory can be improved in this respect becomes an important topic of 
_ inquiry. 

_ But the whole subject has now been most ably examined by 
Bifeasor Lloyd, whose papers have been communicated to the Royal 
sh Academy, and include several highly curious and important 
_ theoretical conclusions relating to the whole subject of the propaga» 
tion of light in uncrystallized media. 


ys) 


Cy 


20 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, 


On Experiments relative to the influence of Surfaces on Radiation. 
By Proressor PowELt. 


The object of this communication was to call the attention of the 
Section to the researches of Professor Bache, of Pennsylvania, which 
seem not to have been so fully appreciated in this country as they 
deserve ; that gentleman, at the outset of his inquiries, refers to a 
paper of Professor Powell, in which the difficulties unavoidably attend- 
ing any comparison of radiating effects of surfaces are pointed out, 
from the impossibility of determining precisely in how many other 
respects, besides those of colour and polish of surface, the coatings 
applied may not differ. In contending for the necessity of equalizing 
the coatings compared in other respects, before we can estimate the 
effects really due to the surface, he must of course be understood to 
speak under the qualification acutely referred to by Professor Bache 
dependent on the fact first noticed by Leslie, that radiation takes 
place not only from the surface, but from a certain minute though 
sensible depth, which differs in different substances. Taking this 
into account, the general meaning as well as importance of the caution 
will be manifest. In the sequel Mr. Bache gives some very exact 
experimental proofs of the truth of the law just noticed, and shows, by 
successively adding fresh coats of the pigment, the precise limit beyond 
which such addition ceases to increase the radiating power; which, in 
fact, there comes to a maximum, and with greater thicknesses de- 
creases. When this point had been carefully ascertained in each 
pigment, their effects were observed with great accuracy, and compared 
with a standard surface under similar circumstances. The observa- 
tions include a considerable range of substances, differing both in 
colour and other properties. The results exhibit mo correspondence 
of the greatness of effect with the colour. 'The source of heat was hot 
water. The author allows fully the distinction between properties of 
heat of this kind, and that connected with light; in the latter case it 
is evident that colour is an essential element. A wide field is yet open 
for tracing on what the effect does depend ; and, again, since Melloni 
has pointed out the existence of many kinds of heating rays, to trace 
their several relations to surfaces. 


An Account of the Magnetical Observatory now in course of erection at 
Dublin. By Rev. Proressor Lioyp. 


In bringing this subject under the notice of the Section in its pre- 
sent stage, Mr. Lloyd said that he trusted little apology was required. 
The establishment of permanent magnetical stations had been urged by 
the powerful recommendation of the British Association; and he was 
sure that that body would view with interest the progress of an under- 
taking, which was sanctioned by its own authority. 

The magnetical observatory now in progress at Dublin is situated 
in an open space in the gardens of Trinity College, sufficiently re- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21 


_ mote from all disturbing influences. The building is, forty feet in 
length by thirty in depth. It is constructed of the dark-coloured 
_argillaceous limestone, which abounds in the valley of Dublin, and 
_ which has been ascertained to be perfectly devoid of any influence on 
_ the needle. This is faced with Portland stone ; and within, the walls 
are to be studded, to protect from cold and damp. No iron whatever 
will be used throughout the building. With reference to the materials, 
_ Professor Lloyd mentioned, that in the course of the arrangements 
- now making for the erection of a Magnetical Observatory at ”Green- 
_ wich, Mr. Airy had rejected bricks in the construction of the building, 
_ finding that they were in all cases magnetic, and sometimes even polar. 
Mr. Lloyd has since confirmed this observation, by the examination of 
specimens of bricks from various localities ; and though there appeared 
_ to be great diversity in the amount of their action on the needle, he 
_ met with none entirely free from such influence. 
- The building consists of one principal room, anc two smaller rooms, 
one of which serves as a vestibule. The principal room is thirty-six 
_ feet in length by sixteen in breadth, and has projections in its longer 
sides, which increase the breadth of the central part to twenty feet. 
_ This room will contain four principal instruments, suitably supported 
on stone pillars ; viz. a transit instrument, a theodolite, a variation in- 
strument, and a dip apparatus. The transit instrument (four feet in 
_ focal length,) will be stationed close to the southern window of the 
room. In this position it will serve for the determination of the time ; 
_ and a small trap-door in the roof will enable the observer to adjust 
_ it to the meridian. The theodolite will be situated towards the other 
_ end of the room, and its centre will be on the meridian line of the 
_ transit. The limb of the theodolite is twelve inches in diameter, and 
_ is read off by three verniers to ten seconds. Its telescope has a focal 
length of eighteen inches, and is furnished with a micrometer for the 
_ purpose of observing the diurnal variation. 
The variation instrument will be placed in the magnetic meridian, 
_ with respect to the theodolite, the distance between these instruments 
_ being about five feet. The needle is a rectangular bar, twelve inches 
_ long, suspended by parallel silk fibres, and inclosed in a box to protect 
it from the agitation of the air. The magnetic bar is furnished with 
an achromatic lens at one end, and a cross of wires at the other, after 
_ the principle of the collimator. This will be observed with the tele- 
_ scope of the theodolite, in the usual manner ; and the deviation of the 
line of collimation of the collimator from the magnetic axis will be 
certained by reversal. The direction of the magnetic meridian being 
_ thus found, that of the true meridian will be given by the transit. It 
a only necessary to turn over the transit telescope, and, using it also 
a collimator, to make a similar reading of its central wire, by the 
w “scope of the theodolite. The angle read off on the limb of the 
q theodolite i is obviously the supplement of the variation. This use of 
1e transit has been suggested by Dr. Robinson; and it is anticipated 
that much advantage will result from the circumstance, that the two 
eeereuritics of the arc are observed by precisely the same instrumental 


‘ 


22 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


means. With this apparatus it is intended to make observations of 
the absolute variation twice each day, as is done in the observatory of 
Professor Gauss, of Gottingen,—the course of the diwrnal variation, 
and the hours of maxima and minima, having been ascertained by a 
series of preliminary observations with the same instrument. <A 
similar instrument, in a form somewhat modified, will serve for the 
observation of the diurnal changes of the horizontal force. 

An apparatus, constructed by M. Gambey, and similar to the one 
made by that artist for M. Kupffer, will be used in observing the 
diurnal variations of the dip. Gauss’s large apparatus will also be 
set up in the same room, and will be used occasionally, especially in 
observations of the absolute intensity, made according to the method 
proposed by that distinguished philosopher. The bars are too large 
to be employed in conjunction with other magnetical apparatus. 

It is intended to combine a regular series of meteorological obser- 
vations, with those on the direction and intensity of the terrestrial mag- 
netic force just spoken of; and every care and precaution has been 
adopted in the construction of the instruments. 

In conclusion, Mr. Lloyd said, that he felt it a duty to allude to the 
liberality and zeal in the cause of science which had been evinced by 
the Board of Trinity College on this occasion. The probable expense 
of the building and instruments is estimated at 1000/.; and that sum 
was immediately allocated to the purpose, when it appeared that the 
interests of science were likely to be benefited by the outlay. 


Notice of Electrical Researches by Proressor Henry, 
of Princeton, U.S. 


The primary object of these investigations was to detect, if possible, 
an inductive action in common electricity, analogous to that discovered 
in a current of galvanism. For this purpose an analysis was instituted 
of the phenomena known in, ordinary electricity by the name of the 
lateral discharge. Professor Henry was induced to commence with 
this from some remarks by Dr. Roget on the subject. The method of 
studying the lateral spark consisted in catching it on the knob of a 
small Leyden phial, and presenting this to an electrometer. The 
result of the analysis was in accordance with an opinion of Biot,—that 
the lateral discharge is due only to the escape of the small quantity 
of redundant electricity which always exists on one or the other side of 
a jar, and not to the whole discharge. The Professor then stated 
several consequences which would flow from this; namely, that we 
could increase or diminish the lateral action, by the several means 
which would affect the quantity of redundant, or, as it may be called, 
free electricity, such as an increase of the thickness of the glass, or by 
substituting for the small knob of the jar a large ball. But the ar- 
rangement which produces the greatest effect, is that of a long fine 
copper wire insulated, parallel to the horizon, and terminated at each 
end by a small ball. When sparks are thrown on this from a globe 
of about a foot in diameter, the wire, at each.discharge, becomes 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23 


beautifully luminous from one end to the other, even if it be a 
hundred feet long: rays are given off on all sides perpendicular to the 
_ axis of the wire. In this arrangement the electricity of the globe may 
_ be considered nearly all as free electricity ; and as the insulated wire 
contains its natural quantity, the whole spark is thrown off in the form 
_ of a lateral discharge. But to explain these phenomena more fully, 
_ Professor Henry remarked, that it appeared necessary to add an 
- additional postulate to our theory of the principle of electricity,— 
- namely, a kind of momentum, or inertia, without weight ; by this he 
- would only be understood to express the classification or generaliza- 
tion of a number of facts, which would otherwise be insulated. ‘To 
illustrate this, he stated that the same quantity of electricity could be 
made to remain on the wire if gradually communicated ; but when 
thrown on in the form of a spark, it is dissipated as before described. 
_ Other facts of the same kind were mentioned ; and, also, that we could 
_ take advantage of the principle to procure a greater effect in the 
decomposition of water by ordinary electricity. The fact of a wire 
becoming luminous by a spark was noticed by the celebrated Van 
Marum more than fifty years ago ; but he ascribed it to the immense 
_ power of the great Haarlem machine. The effect, however, can be 
- produced, as before described, by a cylinder of Nairn’s construction, 
of seven inches in diameter, a globe of a foot in diameter being placed 
in connexion with the prime conductor to increase its capacity. 

Some experiments were next described, in reference to the induction 
of the lateral action of different discharges on each 
other. When the long wire is arranged in two parallel, 
but continuous lines, by bending the wire, the outer side 
of each wire only becomes luminous ; when formed into 
three parallel lines by a double bend, the middle portion 
of the wire does not become luminous, the outer sides 
only of the outer lines of wire exhibit the rays, When 

" the wire is formed into a flat spiral, the outer spiral 
e alone exhibits the lateral discharge, but the light in this 
Bat case is very brilliant; the inner spirals appear to in- 
_ erease the effect by induction. 

_ Professor Henry stated, that a metallic conductor, intimately 
- connected with the earth at one end, does not silently conduct the 
_ electricity thrown in sparks on the other end. In one experiment 
_ described, a copper-wire, one-eighth of an inch in diameter, was 
_ plunged at its lower end into the water of a deep well, so as to form 
as perfect a connexion with the earth as possible ; a small ball being 
attached to the upper end, and sparks passed on to this from the 
_ globe before mentioned, a lateral spark could be drawn from any part 
of the wire, and a pistol of Volta fired, even near the surface of the 
water. This effect was rendered still more striking, by attaching a 
ball to the middle of the perpendicular part of a lightning rod, put up 
according to the directions given by Gay-Lussac; when sparks of 
_ about an inch and a half in length were thrown on the ball, corre- 
_ sponding lateral sparks could be drawn not only from the parts of the 


24 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


rod between the ground and the ball, but from the part above, even 
to the top ofthe rod. Some remarks were then made on the theory of 
thunder-storms, as given by the French writers, in which the cloud 
is considered as analogous in action to one coating of a charged glass, 
the earth the other coating, and the air between as the non-conducting 
glass. One very material circumstance has been overlooked in this 
theory,—namely, the great thickness of the intervening stratum, and 
the consequent great quantity of free or redundant electricity in the 
cloud. This must modify the nature of the discharge from the 
thunder-cloud, and lead to doubt if it be perfectly analogous to the 
discharge from an ordinary Leyden jar, since the great quantity of 
redundant electricity must produce a comparatively greater lateral 
action ; and hence, possibly, the ramifications of the flash and other 
similar pheenomena may be but cases of the lateral discharge. 

Some facts were then mentioned, on the phenomena of the spark 
from a long wire charged with common or atmospheric electricity. 
It is well known that the spark in this case is very pungent, resem- 
bling a shock from a Leyden jar. The effect does not appear to be 
produced, as is generally supposed, by the high intensity of the elec- 
tricity at the ends of the wire by mere distribution, since this is in- 
compatible with the shortness of the spark. In one experiment, fifteen 
persons, joining hands, received a severe shock, while standing on the 
grass, from a long wire,—one of the number only touched the con- 
ductor; the spark in this case was not more than a quarter of an inch 
long. Several other analogous facts were mentioned, and the sugges- 
tion made, that the whole were probably the result of an inductive 
action in the long wire, similar to that observed in a long galvanic 
current : the subject now required further investigation. 

Professor Henry concluded by observing, that the facts he had 
given in this communication were such as must have been noticed 
by every person who is in the habit of experimenting on ordinary 
electricity ; but he believed these had never been studied in this con- 
nexion. He was anxious to direct the attention of the Section to the 
subject, as one which appeared to afford an interesting field of re- 
search, particularly in connexion with the recent discoveries of the 
surprising inductive actions of galvanic currents. 


On a convenient and efficient form of Electro-magnetic Apparatus for 
the production of Electricity of high Intensity. By Rrv. J. W. 
M‘Gautey, Professor of Natural Philosophy to the National Board 
of Education in Ireland. 


He remarked that, although he had not altered his opinions on 
the applicability of Electro-magnetism as a moving power, he con- 
ceived we ought not to be satisfied with almost any portion of our 
present electro-magnetic apparatus; but that all that an individual 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95 


d, unassisted, hope to achieve, would be to simplify and improve 
ly its various portions. 

Any one, he observed, who had experimented on a large scale, must 
found that the galvanic apparatus becomes considerable in size, 
troublesome in operation ; he had determined, therefore, to devote 
ome time to the construction of a machine, from which we might 
obtain electricity of very high intensity, to be applied, if possible, to 
the magnetization of bars of soft iron. He was aware that a consider- 
able effect was said to have been produced by a battery consisting 
‘merely of a wire of zine, and another of platina, and a small quantity 
of acid ; but as there is no standard for the measure of physiological 
effects but the variable susceptibility of individuals, he could not but 
think, from a variety of experiments he had made, that the shock was 
Rieuified by the surprise of the experimentalist, as we know it to have 
been at the discovery of the principle of the Leyden jar: of the power 
_ of the apparatus before it the Section could judge for itself. Its con- 
struction was simple and permanent ; and, from the ease with which it 
could be applied, and the power we possess of diminishing, at pleasure, 
the number and intensity of the shocks, it appeared well calculated 
for the purposes of medical electricity. It is self-acting ; and as it 
‘ oo no aid from the operator for the production of continued 
electrical effects, when once excited, it leaves his attention undivided 
for experiment. Besides the arrangement of its parts, which he be- 
A ieved to be the best of any he had tried, and which he would detail 
to the Section, he was inclined to attribute its efficiency to a number of 
‘circumstances he had not yet sufficient time to develope, and whose 

consideration, therefore, he would leave to another opportunity. 


; wwi is a bar of soft iron 2 feet long, 3-4ths of an inch in diameter. 
AS and B two helices, each about 580 Ve long, No. 13 copper wire, 


nposed alternately on the other. H aie P are mercury cups, con- 
ected with cylinders of copper S and T, for giving the shock, and 
ith the extremities of helix B. K and O mercury cups, connected 
with helix A. N, and the same cup O, connected with the poles 
of a small calorimeter; D a copper wire, carrying a soft iron knob 
be attracted by the bar W W, and, when attracted, to draw down 
lever Z E, turning on the centre C, and having fixed on its longer 
1 the curved wire E, which, being elevated or depressed, makes 


26 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


or breaks battery connexion with the extremities of helix A. The — 
helices, bar, and wires, are enclosed, permanently, in a strong deal 
case, upon which are screwed the copper cylinders S and T, the | 
fulerum C upon which Z E moves, and the cups of mercury H, K, N, 
O, P. By sliding a small wedge under the extremity of the lever E, 
the knob D more nearly approaches the bar W W, and being more 
easily, is, therefore, with greater frequency attracted by it, as the time 
necessary for intense magnetization is not then required; a spring 
also sliding under E lightens the latter, and without bringing the 
knob nearer to W W, renders its attraction more easy: both wedge 
and spring will be found useful. 

Since battery connexion is broken by the apparatus itself, and at 
the moment the magnetism and excitement of the helix have reached 
their highest intensity, the circumstances are, in consequence, most 
favourable for the production of the desired effect; hence, to break 
connexion more rapidly, either by a separate mechanism, or by regula- 
ting the wedge and spring of the apparatus itself, though it increase the 
number, cannot augment the violence of the shocks. This was shown 
by experiment ; and it was said to be in accordance with the belief 
of Dr. Faraday, who says, (Phil. Trans. 1832,) “that a magnet, even 
of soft iron, does not arrive at its fullest intensity in an instant.” The 
mercury cups are arranged so that the experimenter may connect the 
extremities of the helices, the cylinders, and the battery, as he pleases. 
That contact, when broken, may be broken with great rapidity, the 
wire E is attached to the longer arm of the lever. 

It is said, Mr. M‘Gauley continued, that mere metallic contact, 
without mercury cups, is sufficient, and he hoped it was so; but he 
had reason, from experiment, to fear, that a pressure of the metals, 
incompatible with the delicate action of the machine, would be re- 
quired. Besides many, and he was induced to hope important dif- 
ferences between this and other contrivances, he thought it right to 
remark, in anticipation of what perhaps might be said, that the coils 
used by Dr. Faraday and Professor Jacobi were not the same as the 
present ; and the importance even of the manner of coiling the wire, 
may be inferred from the fact, that out of four arrangements, the 
same in every respect except the coiling of the wire, none was at all 
comparable in effect with the one exhibited. Dr, Faraday’s coils, as 
they were nearly of the same length,—(paper read before the Royal 
Society, Jan. 29, 1835: Atheneum, No. $91)—must have been placed 
beside each other in the same stratum on the bar; and Jacobi (Seien-- 
tific Memoirs, part 4) coiled the wires together in one helix. 

That the action of the apparatus was very great, was, he observed, 
manifest to all present; and he had not known any person, when it — 
was in order, as it then was, able to retain the hands, wetted with © 
water, on the cylinders for an instant; nor, very frequently, the hands — 
even unwetted. With this apparatus we have a very convenient means — 
of trying the beautiful experiment of Dr. Faraday, repeated by Jacobi. 
They found that when two wires were coiled .in a parallel direction, 
and the extremities of one of them united, the spark and shock were 


a ee 


Gay ea 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27 
Ss 
diminished or destroyed ; in addition, we find the magnetizing power 
the battery lessened, or altogether interrupted, for the bar W W is 
longer able to attract E as before. Dr. Faraday had ascribed the 
appearance of the secondary current to the production of a current 
the parallel wire, which current, had that wire not been present, or 
d its extremities not been united, would have been found in the 
nducting wire itself; and he supposes the parallelism of the wires to 
necessary in the arrangement, yet, in the present case, the wires 
e not parallel, though the effects remain unchanged. It is possible 
fo unite the extremities of helix B with the helix of an electro-magnet 
such a manner as to excite the latter. When the apparatus is 
e to act so weakly as that the hands may be retained on the 
nders for a number of rapidly succeeding shocks, it is sometimes 
y difficult to disengage them. He was induced to believe that 
easing the number of galvanic circles, without diminishing the 
of plates, would increase the effect. He found it more useful 
to increase the energy of the battery by strengthening the acid mix- 
ture, than by enlarging the plates. When too powerful a battery is - 
used, rendering the contact between some of the connecting wires less 
yerfect, made the machine uniform in-its action. Jacobi says that, 
in his experiment, increasing the battery did not increase the effect ; 
but Mr. M‘Gauley showed the contrary, by experiment, in this case. 
Still, whatever was the reason, he observed, he did not, even in an 
arrangement similar to that of Professor Jacobi, find that a very small 
battery produced an effect equal to that of a larger one: so much do 
circumstances, unnoticed or unappreciated, sometimes alter, not only 
the extent, but the nature of results. 


ee eee 


On the Interference of Electro-magnetic Currents. 
By M. De ta Rive. 

beet A 

_ After a brief réswmé of the known properties of electro-magnetic 
currents, M. De la Rive adverted to some new results at which he had 
arrived in studying them. He remarked, that in chemical decompo- 
on effected by these currents, the individual force of each was 
eater the more rapidly they succeeded each other ; so that, to de- 
apose a given quantity of water, it becomes necessary to have a 
nber of these currents, so much the greater as the succession is less 
id. There is, however, a limit beyond which the force of the 
rents is not augmented by any further augmentation of the rapidity 
the succession. When plates of platina are employed, instead of 
es, in the decomposition of water, the decomposition ceases. to take 
ce when the surface of contact of the metal with the liquid sur- 
ses a certain limit. Nevertheless, the current, far from diminish- 
‘in intensity, becomes, on the contrary, more intense—as is shown 
by the indications of a metallic thermometer—the helix of which, 
jlaced in the current, furnishes a measure of its calorific energy. As 


28 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


soon as the surfaces of contact are of such magnitude that decompo- 
sition is no longer effected, the thermometer reaches a maximum, 
which it does not pass, even when the surfaces of contact are aug- — 
mented. This fact seems to prove, that chemical decomposition pro- 
duced by electrical currents takes place only when these currents 
undergo a certain resistance in their passage from the metal into the 
liquid ; and that, when this resistance does not exist, decomposition 
ceases. When we employ wires of platina to transmit the magneto- 
electric currents into a solution of any kind, whether acid, saline, 
or alkaline, we, at first, observe an abundant evolution of gas; then — 
this disengagement diminishes, and at the end of fifteen or twenty 
minutes it altogether disappears. When we examine these metallic 
wires, we find them covered with a very fine powder, composed of 
platina in the metallic state, but extremely divided. The same phe- 
nomenon takes place with gold, palladium, silver, &c. All these 
metals are covered, in the same manner, with a very fine coating of ~ 
the metal itself, in a state of extreme subdivision. The author has 
assured himself that this powder is composed of the metal itself, and 
not an oxide or a suboxide. He inquired whether this effect is the 
result of the mechanical shocks that the molecules of the metal undergo 
by the action of these currents, which are discontinuous, and alter- 
nately in opposite directions ; and whether it would not be augmented 
by the succession of oxidations and deoxidations, which would occur 
on the surface of the wires. He concluded by stating, that he had 
observed that the armatures of soft iron, (about which the metallic 
wires are coiled, in which the currents are developed by induction,) 
cease to be attracted by the poles of the magnets, before which they 
pass when the two ends of the wire in which the current is developed 
are united by one good metallic conductor ; a fact which would seem 
to prove that Magnetism and Dynamical Electricity are, in these 
cases, but two different forms of the same force, one of which dis- 
appears when the other becomes apparent; and he insisted on the 
advantage that we might derive from this property in the production 
of motion by electro-magnets. 


On the two Electricities, and on Professor Wheatstone’s Determination 
of the Velocity of Electric Light. By W. Errricx. 


On the occurrence of the Aurora Borealis in England during summer ; 
with a recommendation that the phenomenon should, at all seasons, be 
more carefully observed than hitherto. By 8. Hunter Curistig, 
M.A., Sec. R.S., §c. 


The occurrence of an Aurora borealis in the very middle of summer } 
is a phenomenon hitherto unrecorded, and as no account, that Iam — 
aware of, has appeared of avery brilliant Aurora which was exhibited 


eb heer.” 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29 


which I observed on the 24th of June of the present year, I con- 
‘that a notice of such an occurrence cannot but be interesting to 
ction. 
fhe phenomenon, on this occasion, presented the usual appear- 
aces, although the coruscations were not of that vivid and brilliant 
ter which they have frequently presented during the darker 
ights of the winter and spring of the present year. The streamers 
bright, but more steady than are sometimes observed, and 
asionally rose to the height of 50° above the northern ho- 
m. No arch was observed, but the usual darkness, which I should 
tate to designate as cloud, was early observed in the northern 
izon, though this was at no time so weil defined as I have on many 
asions seen it. The aurora was first observed at 115 46™ p.m., 
and continued until 12" 20™, the streamers extended over a space of 
20°, the magnetic north being its middle point. 
_ This is not by any means a solitary instance of the occurrence of 
Aurora during the last summer. 
- On the 19th May I observed a very fine Aurora. On this occasion, 
very beautiful bands of arches, radiating from magnetic west, 
ended nearly to the opposite horizon. One, when first observed, 
extended directly over head, was very thin and not very perceptible 
in the east; the other, a much narrower band, consisting of three or 
four arches, not defined with the same distinctness throughout, rose to 
the height of 40°, and extended to the opposite horizon. The arches 
had a slow motion from north to south (magnetic), and in their course 
passed over several stars, and also the planet Jupiter, and the bril- 
liancy of these was but slightly dimmed by the interposition of the 
arch. No streamers were seen on this occasion, nor did I note the 
appearance of the usual darkness in the northern horizon. The arches 
were observed from 9" 40™ till 10° 15". The moon was near the full, 
which rendered the phenomenon less striking than it otherwise would 
have been. 
- On the 1st July, at 12" 30™, I observed indications of an Aurora 
about the magnetic north. I noticed a faint coloured light above two, 
“not very well defined, bands of darkness. At 1" 10™ I was called up 
_ to witness a vivid and brilliant display of coruscations. These rose, 
to the height of 30° or 40°, over an extent of more than 20°, from the 
dark cloud usually attending the Aurora. Although they were most 
brilliant when first observed, beams of light were visible for a quarter 
of an hour; but after this, if any coruscations occurred, they were 
invisible, in consequence of the increasing light from the sun. No 
arches were, on this occasion, observed. On the 2nd July there were 
sided appearances of Aurora, accompanied by streamers; but these 
vere much fainter than on the preceding night; and, again, on the 
th there were indications of Aurora, though of a less decided cha- 
acter. is . 
On the 25th August there was a very splendid display of Aurora, 
ich continued from 10" 25™ until 10° 51™. The streams of light 
v ere extremely brilliant, and rose to a considerable height, passing, 


30 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


in some instances, over stars of the first magnitude, whose lustre was 
but little diminished by their light. 

On this occasion I noticed a phenomenon which I had some years 
before observed in a most striking form: namely, the dark Aurora 
cloud breaking through the light above it. Having, on the former 
occasion to which I have just alluded, omitted to note the month and 
year, at the time I noted the successive appearances of the Aurora, I 
cannot now refer to the date. I first observed the Aurora at 74 30, 
in the form ofa faint arch, about 25° in height, its middle point bear- 
ing nearly magnetic north. This arch continued for nearly two 
hours, becoming gradually brighter. It was succeeded by three 
arches, formed one within another, and having, 10° below them, a dark 
arch. These again were, in about an hour from their first appearance, 
succeeded by a single well-defined arch, in the same position, and 
having below it a remarkably well-defined dark arch. This shortly 
afterwards appeared to break through the luminous band, dark streams 
rushing upwards, and breaking up the arch in every part: these dark 
streams were almost immediately succeeded by brilliant coruscations. 
Subsequently, both the dark arch and luminous band were re-formed. 
Captain Back has since observed a similar phenomenon, in a still 
more striking form, while in his winter quarters at Fort Reliance. 

I have on other occasions, during the present summer, observed 
clear indications of Aurora, though not of a decided character; but 
these are sufficient to show that this phenomenon occurs at all seasons 
of the year, and to render it probable that it is principally the shorter 
duration of the nights from the vernal to the autumnal equinox which 
renders it less frequently visible during this period than in the winter 
half of the year. I have here only noticed the occurrence of the 
Aurora during the summer ; but all must be aware how frequently, 
and with what brilliancy, it has presented itself in the south of Eng- 
land during the last twelve months; indeed, I consider, that in no 
case has a period of a month elapsed without a striking exhibition of 
it. In the month of February there occurred one, the most extraor- 
dinary that, I believe, is on record in these latitudes. 

To what are we to attribute this frequent occurrence, during the 
present and a few previous years, of a phenomenon which had for a 
considerable time before been comparatively rare?* This is an im- 
portant question in meteorology, to which, in the present state of 
science, only conjecture can be offered in reply; and this must con- 
tinue to be the case, until the phenomenon itself, with all its attendant 
circumstances, shall have been more carefully observed than hitherto, 
My own avocations are of a nature to preclude me from making such 
observations ; but I entertain a confident hope, that there will not be 
wanting members of the British Association both willing and able to 
devote their time and attention to this highly interesting inquiry. 

* May 30, 1838. 1 may now remark that, as far as my own observation and any 
information I have obtained go, the Aurora Borealis has been of very rare occurrence, 
in the south of England, during the last winter and the present spring, particularly as 


compared with the preceding year. This is the more remarkable when taken in con- 
junction with the severity and long continuance of the cold weather,—S, H. C. 


flected image of the sun; and that there is no observation of this 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 31 


___ It may be superfluous to point out, to persons disposed carefully to 
_ observe this phenomenon, the necessity of watching for every indica- 
tion of its appearance—the low dark arch in the north, for example, 
- one of the most infallible—or the importance of noting, as accurately 
as possible, the time, bearing, and altitude of each particular appear- 
ance; but I would especially call their attention to every circumstance 


_eonnected with the dark arch ; the first indications of its formation ; 


the manner in which it occasionally breaks up; whether irregularities 


in its form are always attended with coruscations; whether, as it has 


appeared to me, the matter of which it is composed does commonly 
- rush through the luminous bands; whether, in short, all the pheeno- 
- mena will warrant the conclusion, that the matter which, during an 


_ Aurora, appears in the form of a dark low arch, is different from that 


_ forming the luminous bands, and that the different phenomena are 


due to the action of the same cause, on two aeriform masses, which 


have distinctive characters with reference to such action. 


METEOROLOGY, &c. 


On M. Poisson's Theory of the Constitution of the Atmosphere. By 
J. W. Luszock, F.R.S., ge. 


He commenced by observing, that at a late meeting of the Section,* . 
M. De la Rive described a very curious phenomenon presented by 
Mont Blanc after sunset, which consisted in the re-appearance of the red 


 ¢olour of the snow, produced by the rays of the setting sun. Mr. Lub- 


_bock said that he should now venture, with great diffidence, to submit 


the possibility of the following explanation. 


M. Poisson considers it a necessary consequence of the laws of equi- 


librium of elastic fluids, that the atmosphere of the earth, at a certain 
height, becomes liquefied by cold.—(Traité de Mécanique, vol. ii. p. 
_ 612;+ Théorie Mathématique de la Chaleur, p. 460, et Supplement, 
_ note D.)—In this way the atmosphere receives an abrupt termination; 
_ without which, indeed, it would be difficult to imagine that the planets - 


and comets move in space devoid of considerable resistance. If the 
atmosphere be constituted as M. Poisson infers from analysis, it seems 


_ to me, Mr. Lubbock observed, that we might expect that the phzno- 


menon described by M. De la Rive would take place, and that the 


image of the sun, reflected from the interior surface of the liguid air, 


would be reflected again to the observer, after senset, by the moun- 


tain. On the other hand, it may be stated, that an observer sta- 


tioned, at sunrise or sunset, upon Mont Blane, or in a balloon, or in 
any position sufficiently elevated, ought to see in the sky the re- 


* See p. 10 of these Transactions. Y 
+ ‘‘ Ainsi, pour fixer les idées, on peut se représenter une colonne atmosphérique 


qui s’appuie sur la mer, par exemple, comme un fluide élastique terminé par deux 


ides, dont l’un a une densité et une température ordinaire, et l’autre une tempé- 
rature et une densité excessivement faibles.” 


32 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


kind upon record. If, however, this phenomenon were to take place, 
it might not be referred by the observer to the proper cause. A ter- 
restrial object seen by reflection in this manner would be reversed ; 
but it is, perhaps, not impossible, that although the internal surface of 
the liquid air might not reflect mountains in this manner, it might re- 
flect so bright an object as the sun. Halos might, perhaps, always be 
produced by transmitted light. It might also be remarked, that the 
liquid heterogeneous thickness of air opposes a difficulty to the caleu- 
lation of astronomical horizontal refractions by the method of mecha- 
nical quadratures, devised by the late Mr. Atkinson, and employed by 
him in the Transactions of the Astronomical Society, and by M. Biot 
in the Conn. des Temps, unless somewhat modified. 


On the Principle of Mr. Wurwk.u's Anemometer. 


The author rapidly sketched the principle on which his instrument 
registered the quantity of aérial current passing any place. He had 
exhibited the instrument in an unfinished state at the Dublin meet- 
ing, and in a more matured state of its existence at Bristol; it had 
since received some valuable improvements, which were suggested 
by the practical working of the machine. That he might not oc- 
cupy the time of the Section too long, it would suffice at present to 
say, that in it a small set of windmill vanes, something like the ven- 
tilators placed in our windows, were presented to the wind by a 
common vane, let the direction of the wind blow how it might: the 
aérial current as it passed set these vanes into rapid motion, and a train 
of wheels and pinions reduced the motion, which was thence com- 
municated to a pencil traversing vertically, and pressing against an 
upright cylinder, which formed the support of the instrument, and that 
10,000 revolutions of the fly only caused the pencil to descend the one- 
twentieth of an inch. The surface of the cylinder was japanned white, 
and the pencil as the vane wavered kept tracing a thick irregular line, 
like the shadings on the coast of a map: the middle of a line was 
readily ascertained, and it gave the mean direction of the wind actually 
exhibited before the eye by a diagram, while the length of the line was 
proportional to the velocity of the wind, and the length of time during 
which it blew in each direction; which therefore gave what he called 
the integral effects of the wind, or the total amount of the aérial 
current which had passed the place of observation in the direction 
of each point of the compass, during the interval which had elapsed 
since the time of last recording the instrument. This, it was well 
known, was a subject of much importance in meteorological specula- 
tions, but had not been hitherto accomplished. It was indeed deemed 
of much consequence to obtain even the mean direction of the wind 
at a given place, and the celebrated Kimtz, in his Meteorologie, has 
made a collection of several results of this kind; but, in the ordinary 
way of registering even the direction of the wind, which is by stating 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33 


the length of time it blows from a certain point of the compass, it 
is obvious that the velocity of the wind is altogether left out of ac- 
_ eount, and the high wind or storm of one day is placed on a par with 
_ the gentle breeze of the next, and therefore not an attempt can be 
made to infer the total quantity; or what he had ventured to term 
the integral effect of the wind. Mr. Whewell then proceeded to ex- 
hibit large diagrams, giving the results of the observations recorded 
at the Cambridge observatory, under the care of Professor Challis, and 
at the house of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. The similarity 
_ of the curves showed a general coincidence, but some discrepancies 
__ were accounted for by the circumstance, that the dome of the Equa- 
torial sheltered the anemometers placed at the observatory on the north 
side, while that placed upon the house of the Philosophical Society was 
well situated for receiving the wind from every quarter. Anemome- 
ters on this principle had been also erected by Professor Forbes and 
Mr. Rankin, at Edinburgh, and by Mr. Snow Harris and Mr. South- 
wood at Plymouth; but he was not at present prepared to state the re- 
sults of these observations, though he had little doubt they would be 
interesting and useful. 


An Account of his Observations with Mr. WHEWELL’s Anemometer. 
By Mr. Soutuwoop. 


Mr. Southwood noticed some imperfections in the original construc~ 
tion of the instrument, which only forced themselves upon his atten- 
tion as the evils which arose from them became obvious in the practi- 
eal working of the machine. He pointed out the remedies which he 
had adopted. The most important were, the use of the successive 
_ letters of the alphabet, a, B, Cc, &e. to mark the successive points to 
_ which the wind shifted in the register ;—a ready means of unclamp- 
ing the nut carrying the pencil, (which descends 1-20th of an inch 

for ten thousand revolutions of the fly,) as soon as it has reached the 
_ bottom, and replacing it at the top ;—also ready means of placing a new 
fly on the axle when any accident occurred to the one which had been 
_ there ;—a means of protecting the parts most liable to injury from wet ; 
__ —and various other points, which his attention to the performance of 
_ the machine had made him perceive the importance of. 


by 


An Account of a New Registering Anemometer and Rain- Gauge, now 
at work at the Philosophical Institution at Birmingham, with dia- 
grams giving a condensed View of the Observations recorded during 
the first eight months of the year 1837. By FotLett OSLER, of Bir- 
—mingham. 

_ Having about eighteen months ago constructed an instrument to re- 
_ gister the variations in the direction and force of the wind, as well as 
* the quantity of rain that falls, which instrument has been in constant 
_ operation since November last, the author was induced, at the request 
i of several scientific members of the Association, to lay before the Meet- 
VOL. vi. 1837. D z 


34 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


ing an account of these instruments, together with some tables, founded 
on the records they have furnished. He also presented drawings of 
the Registering Anemometer and Rain-Gauge alluded to. 

The direction of the wind is obtained by means of the vane attached 
to the rod, or rather tube, that carries it, and consequently causes the 
latter to move with itself. At the lower extremity of this tube is a 
small pinion working in a rack, which slides backwards and forwards 
as the wind moves the vane, and to this rack a pencil is attached, which 
marks the direction of the wind on a paper ruled with the cardinal 
points, and so adjusted as to progress at the rate of one inch per hour 
by means of a clock; the force is at the same time ascertained by a 
plate one foot square, placed at right angles to the vane, supported by 
two light bars running on friction rollers, and communicating with a 
spiral spring in such a way that the plate cannot be affected by the 
wind’s pressure without instantly acting on this spring, and communi- 
cating the quantum of its action by a light wire passing down the centre 
of the tube to another pencil below, which thus registers its degree of 
force. The rain is registered at the same time by its weight acting on 
a balance which moves in proportion to the quantity falling, and has 
also a pencil attached to it recording the results. The receiver is so 
arranged as to discharge every quarter of an inch that falls, when the 
pencil again starts at zero. 


Suggestions as to the probable Causes of the Aérial Currents of the 
Temperate Zones. By Mr. Birr. 


Mr. H. W. Dove has lately proposed, Phil. Mag. Sept. 1837, a Theory 
to account for the variations in the direction of the winds, on the prin- 
ciple that the earth’s rotatory motion produces a change in the direc- 
tion of a stream of air passing over any given place in the temperate 
zones, occasioning a northerly current to become easterly, and a 
southerly one westerly. 

The author presented a diagram of the directions of aérial currents 
observed, and offered suggestions as to the probable causes of the varia- 
tions in these directions. The general tendency of the wind being un- 
derstood to vary in the order of S.E., S., W., N., N.E. during the direct 
periods, and N.E., N., W., S., S.E., during the retrograde, the author 
proposes the following explanation. 

The heated air from the intertropical regions flows over towards the 
poles, giving rise to currents in every possible direction on either side 
of the torrid zone, and as the sun is vertical to a spot which traverses 
a parallel of the torrid zone during twenty-fours, it is evident that the 
currents thus generated are extremely numerous, and situated in every 
possible direction with respect to any given place within the temperate 
zones, London for example; this will be readily apparent upon inspect- 
ing a terrestrial globe, when it will be seen that the spaces some of 
these currents have to traverse previous to their arriving at London are 
of much greater extent than others, and they will consequently arrive 
at the place of observation much later. Now supposing these currents 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35 


to be formed about the 30th parallel of north latitude for the northern 
temperate zone, those which originate between two hours east and two 
hours west longitude as the sun traverses this portion of the torrid zone, 
and are directed towards England, will reach London between the S.E. 
and S.W. points, the S.E. and S. currents arriving first ; these will be 
succeeded by the S.W., and as the sun passes on in his progress the 
currents arrive at London with a more westerly direction, and those 
originating between four and five hours west, which are nearly S.W. at 
the 30th parallel, beegme W. at London. In this manner the currents 
vary, following the course of the sun, until he arrives at the 10th meri- 
dian west of Greenwich; the current produced here reaches London as 
a N.W. wind, while that moving towards the north in longitude 180° 
arrives at London as a N. wind. As the currents produced at places si- 
tuated more and more westerly of 180° arrive, they acquire a more 
easterly character, until the sun reaches between five and four hours 
east, when the direction of the wind becomes east, the N.E. originating 
at ten hours east, as the N.W. originated at ten hours west; the wind 
then progresses to S.E., and the same order recommences. 

The above account of the formation of currents on the equatorial 
boundaries of the temperate zones the author supposes will sufficiently 
explain the progression of the wind round the compass in a direct order ; 
and in consequence of the large space which the currents (that are 
formed near the opposite meridian) have to traverse, compared with that 
which the southern currents pass over, the greater prevalence of S.W. 
winds is readily accounted for. England, however, from its position 
in the north temperate zone, is subjected to the influence of those cur- 
rents that proceed from the pole towards the equator to supply the place 

_ of the air which ascends by the heating power of the sun ; these currents 
arrive at London from all points between W. and E. towards N. in the 
order W., N., E. and may concur in their arrival with the N.W.,N. and 
N.E. equatorial currents, or the S.E., S., and S.W., producing a diversity 
of phenomena according as they are situated W. or E. of them. If for 

instance a N.W. polar current arrives with a N. equatorial, the resultant 
wind is N.N.W.; and if the equatorials have steadily proceeded from 
S.E. to N., in consequence of the position of the two kinds of currents, 

a regression will take place, which will be greater the further the winds 

are from each other: this state of things will considerably influence the 
remaining winds which, combined with the meeting of differently posited 
equatorial currents, may induce a permanent regression of a greater or 

Jess magnitude, and which gives place to a direct order, upon the polar 

currents preceding the equatorial in their arrival. These views, the 
author conceives, will sufficiently explain the variations exhibited in his 

_ diagram, which suggests the idea, that the revolutions of the equatorial 

_ and polar currents are extremely regular, and that the antecedence and 

consequence of the polar relative to the equatorial currents are subject 

to laws capable of being ascertained by careful observation. During 
the first half of the period tabulated, there were two alternations of 
the equatorial and polar, and during the latter half the same alterna- 

_ tions occurred in a reverse order. 

r 4 


36 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


On the higher Temperature which prevails in the Slate than in the 
Granite of Cornwall. By W.J. Henwoop, F’.G.S., Member of the 
Geological Society of France, H.M. Assay-Master of Tin in the 
Duchy of Cornwall. 


It is not very easy to devise an unexceptionable mode of ascertain- 
ing the temperature natural to any given spot under-ground. 

In the experiments (about the earliest) of Trebra*, and in the later 
and most valuable ones of Cordier, the thermometer was inserted in a 
hole in the rock ; to which it may be objected, that if it be exposed to 
the action of a stream of water, it will indicate the temperature of the 
liquid ; and if but a little ooze out of the rock, its evaporation will re- 
duce the heat; whilst at all times the influence of the air with which 
the gallery (level) is filled will affect it to some depth, and this is some- 
times perfectly still, and at other times in rapid motion, often coming 
from parts of the mine where workmen are numerous, and frequently 
from the surface, depending on the direction of the wind, which very 
often in its changes reverses the direction of the subterranean cur- 
rents. 

The same reasons have long induced observers to abandon the tem- 
peratures of air and of stagnant pools of water in mines. 

Streams of water issuing from the unbroken rock are less liable to 
be affected by several of these influences, as they are not likely to be 
much disturbed by the few last beds of rock through which they per- 
colate ; but whether they indicate the temperature of the level where 
they appear, or of some higher or lower spot, is not so readily ascer- 
tained, and can after all be but suspected from their coincidence with 
the prevailing tenor of other observations. This last is, however, Mr. 
Henwood thinks, less objectionable than the other modes, and is that 


which he has himself pursued in the observations, of which an abstract 
is annexed. 


SLATE GRANITE. 
Si hae woh ek q|sil| 2 
f2 | se | 2 26 | as | 2 
E | ss & 2 
Depth (fathoms.) | $3 | BE | & Depth (fathoms.) | 83 | gE | 8 
Sey 2a)|. 8 <8) 231 & 
oOo} a A Sophie 


Surface to 50 3h eZ 57° Surface to 50 31 7 | 51°6 
EO); 25) 100°} 73.|19,c} 61°38 50 , 100} 79] 17 | 55°8 
100 4, 150] 127] 29 | 68° 100 ~=,,_-150 | 183] 12 | 655 
150 7s, BOO F170). eT | 28° 150 ,, 200 

200 and beyond} 221 5 | 85°-6 || 200 and beyond | 237 3 a sie3 


* Annales des Mines, i. 377, for the year 1817. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37 


' Thus the Slate at all depths appears to be about 8°9 warmer than 
the Granite at the same level. 
The progressive increase of temperature in descending is on a mean 
of 
95 Observations in the Slate 1° for 6°5 fathoms 
39 » »  Granitel® , 69 ,, 


ee 


Statement of the Proceedings of the Meteorological Committee, consisting 
of Prof. Forses, Mr. W. S. Harris, Prof. Powrxz, Lieut.-Col. 
Sykes, and Prof. Puriuirs, during the past year. 


Prof. Phillips then presented a statement of the Proceedings of the 
Meteorological Committee during the past year. The objects proposed 
by the Association in the appointment of the Committee were two-fold : 
first, the institution of uniform experiments, for the acquisition of accu- 
rate data concerning the distribution of temperature, from the surface 
of the earth downward to the greatest depths attainable by human en- 
terprise; secondly, the establishment of well-arranged observations on 
the varying phenomena of the atmosphere, which can be elucidated 
by combined exertions on one plan, and for the same object. The 
Committee had thought it best to employ the sum placed at their dis- 
posal on one of these objects only, so as to effect with regard to it a 
real advance, reserving to themselves the hope that, by a further grant, 
they might be enabled effectually to turn their attention to the second 
branch of investigation—viz. atmospheric phenomena. One hundred 
pounds had been granted, and seventy-two thermometers, and proper 
tables for being filled up, had been distributed by the Committee. 

Confining himself to the principal points disclosed by the results yet 
received from the several observers, it appeared that the general truth 
of the regular augmentation of temperature in proceeding downwards 
from the surface of the earth, was confirmed; but that, in addition, 
the different distribution of water, the nature of the rocks, and other 
causes, produced local discordances. The last of these causes ap- 
peared to the Committee of such importance, not only for the expla- 
nation of these differences, but for purposes of general reasoning 
in physics, that Professor Forbes was requested to institute a complete 
_ series of continuous experiments, which he had devised, similar in ge- 
neral principle, and at corresponding depths below the surface of the 
ground, to those established by M. Quetelet, at Brussels, so as to de- 
termine the rate of communication of heat, in one uniform mass, from 
the surface downwards to the depth of 26 feet; and further, to ascer- 
tain the differences of this rate in materials of different kinds, by a 
triplicate course of observations in trap-rock, sandstone, and a uniform 
mass of sand. 

The observations established by Professor Forbes have been regu- 
larly registered at the Botanic Garden, in Cragleith Quarry, and on the 
Calton Hill, from February to September 1837, and the register was 
laid before the meeting. Particular precautions were taken not only 


38 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


to provide for the safety of the instruments, but also to allow of the ap- 
plication of a correction for any variation which they may undergo. 
Moreover, the method of experimenting on local temperature, proposed 
by M. Peltier, by using a thermo-multiplier, was applied by Mr, 
Forbes, and as far as a few observations could be relied on, the agree- 
ment of the two methods was remarkable ; but it was not thought pro- 
per to state the results of the experiments till they could be supported 
by one or more complete circles of observations. 


On a Method of constructing Magnets. By JAmMEs CUNNINGHAM. 


Having turned his attention to the construction of powerful magnets 
for electro-magnetic machines, the author tried steel of various quali- 
ties, but without satisfactory results. He finally tried cast iron, run 
into moulds of the required horse-shoe form, and found these highly 
carbonaceous masses remarkably retentive of magnetic power. 


On the possibility of effecting Telegraphic, or Signal Communications 
during Foggy Weather, and by Night in all Seasons. By Colonel 
C. Goxp. 


On an Instrument for Measuring the Electricity of the Atmosphere. By 
Lieutenant Morrison, R.N. 


CHEMISTRY. 


On the Products of the Decomposition of Uric Acid. By PRoFEssor 
Lizsic. 


“ The important part which uric acid performs in the animal economy 
has for a long time attracted the attention of the most distinguished 
physicians and chemists. Uric acid forms in one class of animals the 
whole of the excrement, and in another class it is its principal con- 
stituent, and it is accompanied by urea, a never-failing constituent of 
the human urine, Its extraordinary production in that morbid state 
of the body, which we call a predisposition of gout, is well known to 
give origin to one of the most painful diseases to which mankind is 
liable. It may be affirmed, with the utmost certainty, that urea and 
urie acids are products of the organization. We cannot discover their 
existence in any part of our food, nor do they constitute a part of any 
organ, as fibrin does of the blood, but they are chemical combinations 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39 


of a peculiar nature, on which account they come more within the 
range of chemical investigation than any other bodies of animal 
origin. Prout’s masterly analysis has long since removed every doubt 
respecting the composition of urea, and the extraordinary, and, to some 
extent inexplicable, production of this substance without the assistance 
of the vital functions, for which we are indebted to Wohler, must be 
considered one of the discoveries with which a new era in science has 
commenced. Wohler observed, that when cyanic acid is made to 
combine with ammonia, the product is urea; and he and I have, in 
a set of experiments which we made together, proved that these 
two bodies, when first combined, form cyanate of ammonia, a salt 
analogous to every other ammonia-salt; that is to say, the base can be 
replaced by other bases, and the acid by other acids; but that a few 
minutes after the combination has taken place, all these properties 
disappear. We can no longer detect either ammonia or cyanic acid; 
a new substance has been formed, entirely different from every other 
chemical compound. To follow out the characters of urea would here 
be quite out of place; it was however necessary to allude to it from 
its intimate relation to uric acid. 

“ The elementary composition of uric acid has also been established 
beyond a doubt. We are certain that it may be expressed by the 
formula C,, N,H,O,;. We know, also, that this acid combines with 
‘the different bases, and forms salts. Inorganic chemistry is satisfied 
with the determination of these properties; but it must be evident 
that the formula can give us no idea of the manner in which the 
elements are united together to form the substance. If we admit the 
principle that no ternary or quaternary compound can be formed 
except by the union of a binary compound with an element, or of two 
binary compounds with one another, it is clear that any further in- 
vestigation of uric acid must be carried on with the intention of dis- 
covering the compound elements into which it may be resolved. 

“ This investigation, which promised to yield the most important 
results both for medicine and chemistry, Professor Wohler and I 
determined to undertake together. In medicine, it was evident that 
we might have some new method of destroying calculi in the human 
bladder without the application of external force. In chemistry, the 
most interesting discoveries were also to be expected, as we had not 
the slightest doubt that urea, xanthic acid, cystic oxide, oxalic acid 
(which last substance is well known to constitute frequently an ingre- 
dient in urinary calculi), that all these bodies are produced by the 
decomposition of one single substance, and that substance uric acid. 

“ Our analytical investigations of these various bodies have not yet 
made sufficient progress to enable me to communicate them here. My 
intention at present is, to point out the plan which we followed in our 
attempts to decompose uric acid into its proximate elements, and the 
singular results which we obtained. But, before proceeding to do so, I 
wish to notice a very remarkable compound, which will, I think, serve 
greatly to illustrate the subject we are at present occupied with. 


40 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


“Winkler found that when the distilled water of bitter almonds was 
mixed with muriatic acid, a new acid was obtained. The distilled water 
of bitter almonds, in a pure state, contains nothing but prussic acid 
and oil of bitter almonds (hydret of Benzoyl). When treated with 
muriatic acid, we obtain sal ammoniac and the new acid, and nothing 
else. It is evident from this, and the conclusion is corroborated by 
the ultimate analysis of the new acid, that the hydrocyanic acid of the 
liquid is decomposed by the action of the muriatic acid into ammonia 
and formic acid, that the ammonia combines with the muriatic acid, 
and that the formic acid, in the nascent state, unites with the oil of 
bitter almonds to form a compound acid in which the power of sa- 
turation of the formic acid is not changed. This acid performs in 
every respect the part of a simple acid; and its existence has rendered 
probable the supposition, that the same views respecting other acids 
are not without foundation. Another interesting fact respecting this 
acid is that when heated with hyperoxides it is decomposed in a par- 
ticular manner, only one of its proximate constituents being oxidized, 
while the other suffers no change. The products obtained are carbonic 
acid and oil of bitter almonds. 

“ Now, I think it must be evident to every one that uric acid must 
possess a composition similar to that of the acid just mentioned, and 
therefore that its oxidation in the same manner would in all proba- 
bility lead to interesting results. We obtained, in fact, results which 
corresponded to our expectations. Uric acid may be considered as a 
compound of urea with a peculiar acid; that is, we may view it as 
analogous to nitrate of urea. This acid contains the radical of oxalic 
acid combined with cyanogen. I have attempted to show, in some 
former researches, that carbonic oxide, and not carbon, constitutes the 
radical of carbonic acid and of oxalic acid, and that phosgene gas 
might be considered as containing the same radical in combination 
with chlorine. If we indicate carbonic oxide by R, these compounds 
will be as follows: 


1. Phosgene gas R+C]. 2. Carbonic acid R40. 8. Oxalic Acid 2R-+0. 


“ Now the acid which combines with urea to form uric acid may be 
expressed by the formula R+Cy. Viewed in this manner, the com- 
position of uric acid will be 4(R+Cy)+ Ur. 

** Uric acid, when heated with brown hyperoxide of lead, was decom- 
posed into three different products, oxalic acid, urea, and a peculiar 
substance which we may view as a compound of cyanogen and water, 
and which is identical with a body long known, called allantoic acid, 
from having been first found in the allantoic fluid, but which it would 
be better to call allantoin, as it is capable of acting equally as an acid 
and a base. 

“One atom of uric acid decomposed by the action of two atoms of 
hyperoxide of lead, is converted (supposing 3 atoms of water to be 


present, ) into 2 atoms oxalate of lead, 1 atom of allantoin, and 1 atom 
of urea. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 41 


1 atom Uric Acid+2 atoms Hyperoxide of Lead, 
(Cio Ny Hy O.)+Pbz Oy 
gives 

(R,+0:) Oxalic Acid+2 PbO Oxalate of Lead two atoms, 
(4Cy+3 Aq) Allantoin, 
1 atom Urea, 
« Allantoin is the second body belonging to the animal organization 
_ which we can form artificially in the laboratory. This substance can 
_ also be directly produced by the decomposition of cyanogen and water. 
It yields, when decomposed by other bodies, all the products which, 
_ from its formula, might be expected. Thus, with alkalis it yields 
oxalic acid and ammonia; with strong sulphuric acid, carbonic acid, 
and carbonic oxide. 

“ There are many bodies similar to urea and allantoin, all of which 
will probably, at a future period, be produced by artificial means; but 
_ in order to arrive at this, the final object of investigation in organic 
chemistry, a great deal of labour, and that labour of a combined nature, 
_ will be required. I am certain that this object will be obtained. Or- 

_ ganic chemistry has made its first step, and already its field has been 
_ extended to a very surprising degree. We meet every day with new 
and unexpected discoveries. It is, however, remarkable, that in the 
_ country in which I now am, whose hospitality I shall never cease to 
_ remember, organic chemistry is only commencing to take root. We 
live in a time when the slightest exertion leads to valuable results, and, 
_ if we consider the immense influence which organic chemistry exercises 
_ over medicine, manufactures, and over common life, we must be sen- 

sible that there is at present no problem more important to mankind 
_ than the prosecution of the objects which organic chemistry contem- 
plates. I trust that English men of science will participate in the 
_ general movement, and unite their efforts to those of the chemists of 
the Continent, to further the advance of a science which, when taken 
in connection with the researches in physiology, both animal and 
vegetable, which have been so successfully prosecuted in this country, 
_ may be expected to afford us the most important and novel conclusions 
_ respecting the functions of organization.” 


ARE. 


Ah Philadelphia, August 14th, 1837. 
Dear Sir,—I beg leave through you to communicate to the British 
_ Association for the Advancement of Science the fact that, by an im- 
_ provement in the method of constructing and supplying the hydro- 
oxygen blowpipe, originally contrived by me in the year 1801, I have 
succeeded in fusing into a malleable mass, more than three-fourths of a 
_ pound of platina. In all I fused more than two pounds fourteen 
ounces into four masses, averaging, of course, nearly the weight above 
mentioned. I see no difficulty in succeeding with much larger 
weights. 


42 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. ; 


The benefit resulting from this process, is in the facility which it 
affords of fusing scraps, or old platina wire into lumps, from which it 
may be remodelled for new apparatus. 

The largest masses were fused agreeably to my original plan of 
keeping the gases in different receptacles, and allowing them to meet 
during efflux. 

T have, however, operated in the large way upon the plan contrived 
and employed by Newman, Brooke, Clarke, and others, having em- 
ployed as much as thirty gallons in one operation of the mixture of the 
gaseous elements of water. This I was enabled to do with safety, by 
an improvement in Hemming’s safety tube. In this improved form 
Ihave allowed the gas to explode as far into the tubes of efflux as 
the point where the contrivance in question was interposed, at least 
a hundred times, without its extending beyond it. 

Still, however, the other mode in which the gases are kept separate, 
until they meet in passing out of their respective receptacles, is less 
pregnant with anxiety, if not with risk. As these elements are known 
to explode by the presence of several metals, other mysterious modes 
may be discovered. 

Having made a self-regulating reservoir of chlorine, by suspending 
lump peroxide of manganese in concentrated chlorohydric acid, I was 
surprised by a violent explosion on presenting leaf metal to the jet tube. 
Ihad made similar apparatus before and have repeated the process 
with the same materials since, without a repetition of the explosive re- 
action. It might be inferred, that the protoxide of chlorine was 
generated, but the colour of the gas was so inferior in intensity to 
that of chlorine, as to lead me to suppose that there was some irregu- 
larity, before testing it with Dutch gold leaf. It has occurred to me 
that there may be a dichloride of hydrogen, which may explode with 
chlorine, and that of these the mixture consisted which produced the 
phenomenon in question. 

In freezing water, by the vaporization of ether, the labour of pump- 
ing is lessened, and the pump protected from a disadvantageous intro- 
duction ofthe vapour, by interposing sulphuric acid. If the stem of a 
funnel, with a cock, be luted into the tubulure of a retort, and the beak 
of the latter into the neck of a receiver, of which the tubulure com- 
municates with an air-pump,—on placing water in the funnel, ether in the 
retort, and sulphuric acid in the receiver, and exhausting, then allowing 
the water to descend into the ether, the congelation of the water is 
rapidly effected. Of course the acid absorbs the etherial vapour with 
great force, and the resulting mixture or rather combination requires 
a temperature of at least 280° for its ebullition. This is less con- 
sistent with the doctrine of Mitscherlich than that of Hennell. 


ome aS 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43 


i q: n the Specific Heats of Nitric Acid and Alcohol. ByT.Tuomson, M.D. 
q NITRIC ACID. 


Sp. 
Composition. Giatity, Sp. Heats. 


Atoms acid. Water. 


1 + 1:37 | 1°5040 | 0°4645 
1 + 2 14862 | 0°5138 
1 ce 1°4477 | 0°5553 
1 + 4 14177 | 0°5834 
1 +5 14005 | 0°6021 
1 6 1:3724 | 0°6415 
1 + 7 1°3598 | 0°6495 
1 + 8 1°3235 | 0°6832 
1 ae 1°3007 | 0°6941 
1 +10 1°2815 | 0°7239 
ALCOHOL 
oy Sp. 
Composition. Gravity. Sp. Heats. 
Absolute......... 0°7950 | 0°6600 


Atoms. Atoms, 
Alcohol. Water. 
1 0°8179 | 06775 
] 0°8259 | 0°7576 
1 0°8384 | 0°8034 
1 0°8672 | 0°8466 
2 09042 | 0:9210 
3 0°9266 | 0°9915 
4 0:9412 | 0°:9962 


et ete DD OO HE 
+++4++4+4+ 


. On the unequal expansion of Minerals in different directions by Heat. 
" By Proressor Mitier, FLAS. 


__ The slice of gypsum, he observed, which had been sent him by 
Prof. Mitscherlich, was a portion of a twin crystal, bounded by two 
arallel polished surfaces, cut perpendicularly to the faces f and to the 
direction of cleavage, which passes uninterruptedly through both indi- 
viduals. In consequence of the unequal expansion, in different direc- 
tions, of gypsum when heated—a fact first discovered by Mitscherlich 
—the portions of the two individuals of the twin crystal, when heated, 
alter their form; and the artificial section of the two crystals, which, 


a 


On 


44 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, 


q 
at the ordinary temperature of the air forms one continuous plane, j 
becomes distinctly two planes, making a very obtuse angle with each — 
other, and meeting in the line of junction of the two crystals. 

The alteration of the angle between the 
two edges that meet at C, amounts to Artif. Sec. 
7' 26" for a change of temperature of 100° 
centigrade, the angle being more obtuse 
when the crystal is hot than when it is 
cold. 

The fact of the unequal expansion of 
crystallized bodies in different directions, 
was first established by Mitscherlich, in 
the case of calcareous spar, by actually 
measuring the angle between the planes at 
low temperature, and when the crystal 
was heated. The change due to 100° 
centigrade was 8! 34, the angle be- 
tween the cleavage planes, which at ordi- 
nary temperatures is 105°, 5', becoming 
smaller when the crystal is heated. Prof. 
Miller’s way of showing it is as follows :-— 
Two rhombohedrons are clamped together, 
with their obtuse edges in contact—the two 
crystals are then held so that the flame of 
a candle may be seen, after two reflexions, 
~ one at each of the two surfaces of the cry- 
stals, which form a re-entering angle. By 
a well-known optical property, the angle 
between the candle and its reflected image, 
as seen by an eye close to the crystal, will 
be twice the angle between normals to 
the reflecting planes. Hence, if, when heated, the angle of each 
crystal undergoes a change e, the angle between the normal salters b2 e, 
and the angle between the candle and its image, as seen from the ery- 
stals, by 4 e. 

In his observations, the image of the candle is viewed through the te- 
lescope of a theodolite. The angle through which the telescope revolves, 
in order to keep the image of the candle always bisected by the cross 
wires, of course measures 4. A good method of heating the crystals 
is by a small crucible, quite full of mercury, heated by a lamp, into 
which the lower part of the crystals is immersed, as also the bulb of a 
thermometer. The clamp must not be strong, but a kind of weak 
spring, in order that the crystals may experience no mechanical obstruc- 
tion to their change of form. 


pe 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. - 45 


_ Observations on the Crystallization of Metals by voltaic action, inde- 
pendent of the proximity of metallic electrodes. By Goiv1nc Brrp, 
= MD. PLS. F.GS., Lecturer on Experimental Philosophy at 
Guy's Hospital, sc. 


It is well known that one of the latest discoveries on the conditions 
of electrolytic action has been to observe, that the presence of metallic 
or solid electrodes was not necessary to the production and perfection 
_ of true polar decomposition ; this fact among a host of others with 
_ which that philosopher has enriched science, was announced by our 
illustrious countryman Dr. Faraday. 

Results depending on the same principle occurred to the author 
_ whilst engaged in a series of experiments on the electrolytic energy of 
electric currents of feeble tension, some of which have been described 
_ ima paper read before the Royal Society of London, in February 1837, 
and since inserted in the “ Philosophical Transactions,” and appeared 
to partake of perhaps more than ordinary interest, from the very feeble 
intensity of the voltaic current required for their success, as well as 
from their analogy to what, perhaps, is going on in the great laboratory 
 ofnature, in effecting the reduction and crystallization of metals. The 
voltaic apparatus used consists of an exceedingly simple arrangement :—a 
cylinder of glass, about 8 inches in height and two inches in diameter, 
forms the exterior vessel or cell of the battery; immersed in this, is a 
second cylinder, 4 inches in height, and about 1°5 inch in diameter, 
- open at both ends; a plug of plaster of Paris, about 2 inches thick, is 
made to fit its lower half accurately, by being poured in whilst as thin 
as cream, forming, on its becoming solid, a firm but porous base to the 
cylinder. The external cylinder is then filled with a weak solution of 
common salt (chloride of sodium), whilst the internal cylinder is filled 
_ with a solution of a metallic salt, (as sulphate of copper,) which be- 
_ coming rapidly imbibed by the porous plug of plaster of Paris, comes 
__ in contact with the brine in the exterior vessel, without, however, causing 
their intermingling rapidly. A plate of polished copper soldered to a 
_ thick wire or ribbon of the same metal is then plunged into the solution 
of the sulphate of copper, whilst a plate of zinc connected to the other 
_ end of the copper wire is immersed in the solution of common salt. Under 
_ these circumstances it is obvious that an electric current becomes de- 
_ veloped, the positive fluid escaping from the copper to the zine along 
_ the connecting wire, back through some inches of brine to the plaster 
_ of Paris plug, thence to the copper solution, which it has to penetrate 
before it can gain the copper plate which serves for the negative elec- 
_ trode. The zinc plate becoming electro-positive determines the decom- 
position of the water, uniting with its oxygen to form oxide of zinc, 
_ which uniting with the hydrochloric acid of the common salt sets the 
_ positive elements, hydrogen and soda, at liberty, determining their 
_ evolution at the negative electrode; they, however, in their passage 
__ effect the decomposition of the sulphate of copper and cause the pre- 
_ cipitation of metallic crystals on the copper plate; or we may suppose 
that in the first instance the zine plate effects the decomposition of the 


46 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


common salt, as chloride of sodium, chloride of zine being formed, and 
sodium evolved, which, in its passage through the copper solution, 
effects its decomposition and reduction on the surface of the negative 
electrode. On either hypothesis the ultimate electrolytic action 
produced must be regarded as the secondary, and not as the primary 
and immediate effect of the voltaic current. The copper reduced on 
the surface of the negative electrode, is (as is well known) not brown 
and spongy, as when more intense currents are employed, but hard and 
crystalline as in native specimens, the crystals being frequently inter- 
mingled with those of the ruby-coloured protoxide, in which case their 
resemblance to the native mineral is most remarkable. 

After leaving an apparatus of this kind just described to itself for 
some months, the fluid in the interior cylinder had lost nearly all its 
blue colour, scarcely a trace of copper being present, it having become 
a tolerably pure solution of sulphate of soda; but on examining the 
surface of the copper-plate immersed in it, the quantity of reduced 
copper was found considerably less than one quarter of the quantity 
previously present in the sulphate. Dr. Bird, being unable satisfac- 
torily to account for this loss, was led to examine the contents of the 
cylinders with the greatest care; and on removing the plaster of Paris 
plug, which had now become quite soft, and lixiviating it with water, 
he had the pleasure of meeting with numerous, very hard, and beauti- 
fully defined crystals of metallic copper, imbedded in the thick- 
ness of the mass of sulphate of lime, not merely in scattered and 
isolated crystals, but in distinct and continuous veins. Some of 
these veins were distinctly visible without breaking up the mass of 
plaster, being spread in a curiously ramified manner, like the branches 
of a tree, on that part of the plaster in contact with the glass. These 
metallic crystals must have been reduced from that portion of the 
copper solution absorbed by the plug of sulphate of lime, simply by 
the passage of the current of electricity from one electrode to the 
other, notwithstanding no metallic, or even solid connection of any 
kind existed between the reduced crystals of copper and the negative 
electrode. The result of this experiment is therefore interesting, if it 
only serves to confirm the observation of Dr. Faraday, that the pre- 
sence of a solid electrode is by no means necessary for the perfection 
of electrolytic action, for we here see crystals of metallic copper pro- 
duced at a distance midway between the electrodes of metal, and at 
some inches from either. But this experiment is interesting in another 
and perhaps more important point of view, as it tends to throw some 
light on the mysterious and interesting process of the reduction of 
metals, and formation of metallic veins in the bowels of our earth. 

The author then showed the bearing of these results on the ques- 
tion of the influence of electrical currents in arranging the materials 
of mineral veins. 

If, in the apparatus above-described, a plate of clear lead is substi- 
tuted for one of copper, for the negative electrode, and a solution of 
acetate or nitrate of lead, for sulphate of copper, an electric current 
will of course be set in motion, and spangles of reduced lead will 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47 


_ appear upon the negative plate; and, after some weeks of continued 
action, small veins of crystalline lead will be found permeating the 
_ mass of plaster of Paris in an exceedingly elegant and arborescent 
form. Similar results are obtained when plates and solutions of zinc, 
tin, antimony, silver, and many other metals, are substituted for those 
of copper and lead. These experiments, moreover, are by no means 
_ liable to failure from slight causes, the results being always constant. 
_ Having thus proved that well-defined crystals of metals are ob- 
tained, if sufficient time is allowed, by allowing a current of the 
_ feeblest intensity to permeate a porous substance, imbued in a metallic 
_ solution, without the presence of poles or supposed attracting points, 
_ Dr. Bird was anxious to ascertain how far this process might be 
applied to the artificial fossilization of wood, by injecting (as it were) 
_ by voltaic action, every part of its permeable tissue with crystalline 
_ metals. Some few experiments on this head, which he has performed, 
seem to promise the most perfect success ; and the author hopes to 
_ present an account of the results to the next meeting of the Asso- 
ciation. 


A. The exterior cylinder containing brine. 

B. The inner cylinder containing the metallic solution. 

C. The copper electrode on which metallic crystals are formed. 
‘Mam Z. Zinc or positive electrode. 

IN Ii P. The thick plaster plug, (closing the cylinder B,) in which 
nn veins of the crystalline metals become formed by the pas- 
sage of the current from Z. to C. 


il 


On the formation of Crystallized Metallic Copper in the shafts of the 
__ Cronebane Copper Mine, County Wicklow, Ireland, and of native 
Sulphate of Iron and Copper on the same locality. By R.Mazer, 
MRLA. 


___ Metallic copper has been frequently obtained, as is well known, by 
various methods in the laboratory, and in large masses in Daniell’s 
- Constant Batteries; but the present is the first occasion on which 
_ native copper has been found, actually detected, as it were, in the very 
act of formation in the mine shaft. 

_ The Cronebane mine has been wrought for a very lengthened period, 
and has an additional interest as connected with the present subject, 
_ from the electro-magnetic condition of the next mine to it, the Con- 
_ noree, which is part of the same vein, having been determined by Mr. 
_ Petherick. (Philosoph. Mag. 3rd Series, vol. iii.) He found it de- 
flected the galvanometer needle 18°—that the ore was negative, and 
_ the ground positive. The lode is situated in clay slate, dipping to the 


48 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


S.W. The mine water is strongly cupreous, and deposits a slimy 
sediment of iron, and organic matter, probably “Glairine.” In this 
slime, and adherent to the timbering of the mine, the crystals of pure 
malleable copper were found in considerable quantity. The mine 
water from whence these masses were formed, has a specific gravity 
of 1:032, at 58° Fahr. When evaporated to dryness, it leaves a horny 
residue, smelling of animal matter. It contains the mixed sulphates 
of copper and iron. 

Amongst the many forces in operation to produce this metallic 
aggregation, the author suggests the possibility of galvanic action, 
‘between the lode and the timbering of the mine; having found the 
galvanometer much affected by a small series of plates of grey copper 
ore, and of fir timber, saturated with solution of sulphate of copper 
under the air pump—the exciting fluid being the water of this mine. 
The slime appears to act the part of Becquerel’s clay plugs, or Wach’s 
diaphragms. 

The author also presented a specimen of native sulphate of copper 
and iron, from the same mine ; from the ochrey slime at the bottom of 
a shaft of fifty fathoms deep, which had been full of water for above 
acentury. It is found in small, brilliant, blueish green, rhomboidal 
crystals, and consists, according to the author's analysis, of— 


Sulphate wf rome wed rete hick tie penne 34-2 
Sulphate of Copper s...2. 00) cesissas - dvsness JOO 
99°9 


This analysis does not present any exact atomic proportion between 
the two salts, taking the atom of sulphate of copper to weigh 15°62 
as determined by Dr. Thompson, and containing five atoms of water ; 
but it is remarkable, that if the sulphate of copper be supposed to be 
the green sulphate, which contains but one atom, and has an atomic 
weight of 11°12, the above analysis will correspond to three atoms of 
green sulphate of copper, and one atom of sulphate of iron. In favour 
of this view is the circumstance, that these crystals were formed at a 
considerable depth, and consequent high temperature ; and that it 
is by similar means that the green sulphate of copper is artificially 
formed. On the other hand, while the common sulphate of copper is 
isomorphous with the sulphate of iron, that which has but one atom 
of water is not so; it crystallizes in right prisms, while the common 
sulphate of copper assumes the form of the double oblique prism. It 
is possible, however, that the crystalline form of the green sulphate 
may be modified by the presence of the sulphate of iron. 


Ona new Chemical Compound. By Dr. Arsoun. 


This new and very complicated compound, including iodide of 
potassium, iodine, and what Dr. Apjohn denominated Cinnamile, from 
its analogy to benzoyle, the hypothetic base of the essential oil of 
almonds, was exhibited to the Section. The compound was formed 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49 


_ accidentally during the prevalence of cold weather, in a mixture pre- 
seribed by a physician, and which contained iodide of potassium, and 
iodine dissolved in cinnamon water, prepared by the ordinary pharma- 
ceutical process. It was first particularly noticed by Mr. Moore, of 
_ Anne Street, Dublin, in whose establishment the prescription was made 

up. He made several experiments upon it; and, having furnished Dr. 
Apjohn with a specimen of it, they undertook conjointly the further 
determination of its properties, and the investigation of its composition. 
It occurs in long capillary four-sided prisms, of a beautiful bronze 
aspect, melts at about 82°, dissolves in alcohol and ether, but is 
_ decomposed by water. This latter menstruum, however, has no action 
upon it when it holds iodide of potassium dissolved, or probably other , 
__ kinds of saline matter. Mercury effects its decomposition, an iodide of 
mercury being formed, and iodide of potassium, with (probably) cinna- 
mile, being liberated. By an elevated heat it is decomposed, iodide of 
potassium being left, with a considerable quantity of charcoal, while 
iodine, and an organic vapour smelling of the oil of cinnamon, pass 
off. Dr. Apjohn stated, that according to his experiments, which 
however were not completed, it would appear to be composed of one 
atom of iodide of potassium, associated with two of the subsesqui- 
iodide of cinnamile, as represented by the following formula : 


IK+2 (I Cin.) 
23 


This he stated to be the formula which most nearly expresses his _ 
analytic results: but he added, that he did not place much confidence 
in them ; and that, not having as yet been able to effect the combus- 
tion of the compound with oxide of copper, he should not be surprised 
at finding this formula materially corrected by the results of the 
_ further researches with which he stated himself and Mr. Moore to be 
at present occupied*. 


On a new Variety of Alum. By Dr. Arsjoun. 


The mineral in question was received from Mr. Atherton, an African 
gentleman, and was found on the eastern coast of the African con- 

- tinent, about midway between Graham’s Town and Algoa Bay. It 
occurs in fibrous masses, very similar to asbestos, having a beautiful 
satiny lustre, and splitting into threads which would appear to be 
quadrilateral prisms. In taste, solubility in water, and relation to 
several reagents, it closely resembles ordinary alum, but is distin- 
guished from it by containing protoxide of manganese, instead of an 
alkali, and by not assuming the octahedral form. In symbols it is 
represented by 


(3S0O+Al 0)+(S O+Mn O)+25 HO, 

a 3 23 8 

F _ * Dr. Apjohn has since found that this compound includes not Cinnamile but the 

oil of Cinnamon itself, and that its true formula is (IK+3 (I+Cin). (See Proceed- 
2 ~ 


F ings of the Royal Irish Academy for 1838, page 162.) 
VOL. vi. 1837. E 


50 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


a formula identical with that which belongs to the entire genus of alum 
salts. Dr. Apjohn briefly alluded to the other varieties of alum, both 
those in which the alkalies replace each other, and those in which the 
alumina is replaced by the deutoxide of iron, chrome, or manganese ; 
and pointed out the theoretical possibility of an alum containing no 
metal but manganese. 


On a new Gaseous Compound of Carbon and Hydrogen. 
By E. Davy, Professor of Chemistry, Dublin. 


The gas (a new bicarburet of hydrogen), which was described by 
Professor Davy at the last meeting of the Association in Bristol, 
having been inclosed in a tube furnished with platinum wires, and 
subjected to a series of electric sparks, carbon was deposited, but there 
was no alteration of volume. This residual gas the author conceives 
to be new. It is insoluble in water; not ignited by chlorine; ex- 
ploded with one and a half volume of oxygen, it gives one volume of 
carbonic acid and some water. This gas would therefore appear to 
be a binary compound, and to be represented by the formula C-+-H. 
Professor Davy stated, that his investigations were not concluded, but 
that he hoped to be able to give a fuller paper on the subject at the 
next meeting of the Association. 


Outline of an experimental Inquiry into a peculiar Property of the 
Earth ; the chemical Changes which occur during the germination 
of Seeds; the vegetation of Plants; the formation of vegetable 
Products ; and the renovation of the Atmosphere ; with some Obser- 
vations on the ultimate analysis of Organic Compounds ; the whole 
being in connexion with a series of investigations into the decomposi- 
tion of Vegetable Matter. By Rozert Rice. ; 


The extensive class of subjects included in the title of Mr. Rigg’s 
communication had been investigated by the author through the 
medium of many thousand experiments, the results of which appeared 
to him to establish an harmonious connection between them all, of 
which the following is an abbreviated sketch. The earth retaining 
water, and combining with carbonic acid gas the food of plants; the 
seeds, decomposing the water, forming carbonic acid gas, and a com- 
pound of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and earthy matter; the germ 
which favoured this peculiar decomposition, uniting the latter com- 
pound with the oxygen of the atmosphere; the roots, promoting the 
further decomposition of the water, forming carbonic acid gas, and 
the other compound, (the earth taking up the former if it be not im- 
mediately wanted, the latter entering into the plant as sap) ; the leaves, 
serving the office of reservoirs for atmospheric air and moisture, and for 
performing certain offices respecting the changes effected upon car- 
bonie acid gas ; the whole plant, combining the different elements, so 
as to form the oils, resins, gums, &c. to an unlimited extent, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51 


___ Again, we have the whole plant renovating the atmosphere, both as 
_ regards oxygen and nitrogen, and preserving an equilibrium throughout 
_ the different seasons; each plant decomposing water, and assimilating 
other portions of it, by methods peculiar to itself; in the vinous fer- 
mentation, the carbon (of sugar for instance), when nitrogen and earthy 
matter are present, decomposing water, forming carbonic acid gas, 
_ olefiant gas, and a minute quantity of azotic gas; in the acetous fer- 
_ mentation, the oxygen of the atmosphere, uniting with this olefiant gas, 

forms acetic acid and water, a portion of vegetable and earthy matter 
_ being necessary ; and, in the decomposition of vinous fluids, the oxygen 
of the atmosphere combines with the carbon of the olefiant gas, to 
form carbonic acid, and with the hydrogen to form water, vegetable 
and earthy matter being essential. 

The author, referring to the difficulties which, in his opinion, par- 
ticularly embarrass experiments on the mixed results of fermentation, 
_ gives a brief notice of his mode of analysis in these cases. 

The apparatus which he employs in ultimate analysis is included in 
two glass tubes, connected by caoutchouc, as under : 


A B Cc D 


“RE a Ll I 


__ A. The part containing the mixture of black oxide of copper and 

the compound under analysis. 
_ B. Amianthus in the same tube, which condenses the steam, and 
dries the gases. It is kept cool by moistening blotting paper with 
spirit. 

C. Caoutchouc connecter, about an inch in length. 

D. Bent thermometer tube, for conveying the gaseous products to 
the receivers standing over mercury. 
_- The analysing tube A B rests upon a frame, made of two pieces of 
strong wire, bent at each end at right angles, and kept together by 
smaller wires. These, together with tubes, for detecting minute 
quantities of nitrogen, and lamps, which will give off flames from one 
to six inches in length, constitute the whole apparatus. 


On a Variety of Ozocerite. By ProrEssor JOHNSTON. 


_ This substance was found in a coal-mine near Newcastle. It con- 
sists of three distinct principles; the one being soluble in cold, the 
other soluble in hot ether, and the other nearly insoluble in both. 
The first is the most abundant of the three, and upon analysis is found 
to be a binary compound of carbon and hydrogen, and therefore to 
be an addition to the already extended list of isomeric combinations 
of these elements. The whole mass submitted to ultimate analysis 


RY 


“gave exactly the same result. 


EQ? 


“ 


52 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


New Compound of Nitrate with Oxalate of Lead. 


Mr. Johnson also exhibited a new compound of nitrate with oxalate 
of lead in beautiful pearly scales and flat six-sided plates longitudi- 
nally striated. It is formed when a solution of subacetate of lead is 
poured into one of oxalic acid in which much nitric acid is present. It 


contains two atoms of water, and its formula is Pb N+ Pb C + oH. 


On a Series of Compounds obtained from Pyroacetic Spirit. By 
Dr. Kane. 


(See on this subject Dr. Kane’s paper, printed in Lond. and Edinb. 
Philosophical Magazine, vol. xii. p. 100.) 


On the Smelting of Iron with Anthracite Coal. By G. CRANE. 


The great extent of the deposit of anthracite (or stone coal) in 
the mineral basin of South Wales, accompanied as it is with iron mine 
in great abundance, and of good quality, has long made it an object of 
great interest to parties connected with that district to discover some 
method of applying that description of coal to smelting purposes. 

One of the earliest patents enrolled in this country for this object 
was that of Mr. Martin, in 1804. From the mode detailed in his 
specification, there does not appear to have been any peculiarity in his 
process; he evidently expected to have succeeded in using this fuel 
by the only mode of blowing a furnace then known, that by cold 
blast. Another patent was taken out about twenty years afterwards, 
for a mode of forming a conglomerate coke, composed of the commi-— 
nuted substance of the anthracite veins, locally called culm, mixed 
with a sufficient portion of the small coal of the ordinary bituminous 
or binding quality, to cement the whole, when coked, in an oven to- 
gether. Had this latter plan been attended with success, its applica- 
tion would, of course, have been limited to those localities where the 
two descriptions of coal were to be found near each other. 

The Ynyscedwin iron works, which are in Mr. Crane’s possession, 
are placed upon the anthracite formation. Until he discovered the 
method of applying this particular description of fuel to the smelting 
of iron ore, he was obliged to employ the coal of the bituminous 
veins, obtained from the adjoining parish of Kilybebyll, for the supply 
of the blast furnaces at Ynyscedwin. 

During the fourteen years in which Mr. Crane has been engaged 
in the iron trade of South Wales, he has had his attention anxiously 
directed to the application of anthracite coal to smelting purposes, and — 
had at different periods, at a large outlay, tried a variety of plans, but 
without success, until the idea occurred to him, that a hot or heated © 
blast, upon the principle of Mr. Neilson’s patent, might, by its greater 


power, enable him to complete the combustion of this very peculiar 
coal. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 53 


By this means he has completely succeeded in the application of 
anthracite coal to the smelting of ironstone and ore ;—having used 
no other fuel in a cupola blast furnace since the 7th February, 1837 ; 
and the success of the experiment in the combination of hot or heated 
air with the coal in question, has been, in every respect, of so satisfac- 
tory a description, whether with regard to the quantity of the iron 
produced, the quality of such iron, or the economy of the process, 
that he is now actively engaged in making the necessary preparations 
for the introduction of anthracite coal, instead of the coke of the 
bituminous veins, upon the whole of the blast furnaces (three in 
number) at the Ynyscedwin iron works; he has renewed all his mine- 
ral takings in the anthracite part of the basin for ninety-nine years, 
and contemplates arrangements for a large extension of the works. 
Mr. Crane observes : 

’ “One of the three furnaces at present on the establishment is a 
small cupola furnace, which we call No. 2, built from the top of the 
hearth with firebricks only.. This cupola is of the following dimen- 
sions :—41 feet in its whole height, 104 feet across the boshes, and the 
walls of the thickness of two 9-inch bricks; the earth 3 feet 6 inches 
square, and 5 feet deep. The two other furnaces, which we call No. 
1 and No. 3, are thick stone-walled furnaces. Some years since I found 
that the cupola furnace, No. 2, had, on the average of a long period, 
_ (1 concluded from the smallness of its dimensions, and the thinness of 
_ its walls,) taken so large an excess of minerals to the ton of iron pro- 
_ duced, when compared with the quantity taken on the average of the 
same period by the stone-walled furnace, No. 1, standing within fifty 
feet of it, that I determined to erect a second furnace similar to the 
 Jatter one, in lieu of it. This cupola furnace, No. 2, not being at 
_ work when I arrived at the determination to try the experiment of the 
- combination of hot blast and anthracite coal upon the large scale, it 
_ was more convenient to put this furnace into blast for the purpose, 
rather than to interfere with the usual progress of my business by 
_ experimentalizing in either of the two other furnaces. 

The cupola furnace, No. 2, from the causes which I have before 
_ explained, had, on the average of a long period, taken cokes the 
produce of 5 tons 3 ewt. of coal to the ton of pig iron, when the stone- 
__ walled furnaces had not required cokes to the ton of metal produced 
_ quite equal to four tons of coal. The consumption of ironstone and 
__ limestone had been greater in the former than in the latter description 

_ of furnace, but not in so large a proportion. : 
“Twill make one other explanatory remark on this part of the sub- 
_ ject. The two descriptions of furnaces have worked in so different a 
manner with the minerals of my neighbourhood, that, whilst the 
barrow of cokes, weighing about 34 ewt., would take, when consumed 
__ in either of the stone-walled furnaces, a charge or burden of 5 to 
- 51 ewt. of calcined iron mine of the descriptions obtained in my 
Bis neighbourhood, according to the kind of iron which I was desirous 
of producing, the same barrow of cokes in the No. 2 cupola, or thin- 
_ walled furnace, would only carry from 3 to 3} ewt. of calcined mine 


54 ‘ SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


of the same kinds. Under these disadvantageous circumstances, I 
have actually produced from the No. 2 cupola furnace the ton of iron 
in the smelting process, on the average of three months, with less than 
27 cwt. of anthracite coal. The heating of the blast and the calcina- 
tion of the mine require, of course, upon my plan, the same quantity 
of fuel which is necessary for the like processes in other establish- 
ments. 

“With regard to the quantity of iron produced, the result which I 
have to report is equally satisfactory. I must not, however, omit to 
mention, that, for the greater convenience of filling this cupola fur- 
nace, No. 2, from an adjacent gallery, previous to the commencement 
of my anthracite experiment, I raised it in height from 36 feet 6 inches 
to 41 feet. This might have had some effect upon reducing the excess 
of the consumption of fuel when compared with that which had taken 
place in the No. 1, and might have increased its power of smelting 
with my blast of a 14lb. upon the square inch pressure only, from its 
former average of 22 tons to 24. SinceI have adopted the use of 
anthracite coal, combined with hot air, the produce of No. 2 cupola 
furnace, with the same pressure of blast only, has ranged from 30 to 
34 and 36 tons, and one week we actually tapped within 3 ewt. of 39 
tons of grey iron from this furnace. Its present weekly average may 
be expected to range from 35 to 36 tons. 

“ With respect to the quality of the iron produced by the com- 
bination of hot blast and anthracite coal, the result is very satisfactory. 
It is well known in my neighbourhood, that my cold blast iron, for all 
purposes where great strength was required, was never deemed inferior 
toany smelted in South Wales. That which I have hitherto produced 
with hot blast and anthracite coal is, however, decidedly stronger than 
any other before smelted at the Ynyscedwin iron-werks.” 

The anthracite formation probably occupies about one-third of the 
mineral basin of South Wales. It commences near the upper part of 
the Vale of Neath, in the county of Glamorgan, and proceeds in a 
westwardly direction through the remainder of that county; thence 
through Carmarthenshire, and crops out in the sea in St. Bride’s Bay, 
after passing through a considerable portion of the county ef Pem- 
broke. It is likewise to be found in Ireland, Scotland, France, Austria, 
Bohemia, and Sardinia, and very large deposits of it have been already 
discovered on the continent of America, particularly in the state of 
Pennsylvania. 


On Safety Lights for Mines. By Dr. Arnort. 


The writer of this having had his attention called to the objects 
sought to be accomplished by the Davy Lamp, as related to the general 
subject of ventilating and warming, which he has treated elsewhere, 
conceived that perfect security against explosions in mines was ob- 
tainable in a very simple way, but on a principle differing entirely 
from what has directed previous attempts. This is to have the lamps 


‘ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55 


or candles in the mine supplied with air for combustion, not from the 
mine itself, as heretofore, but through pipes from the atmosphere 
above, as coal-gas is supplied through pipes to our street lamps. 

At the mouth of mines generally, there is a steam-engine at work, 
part of the duty of which is, whenever required, to pump atmospheric 
air into the mine for ventilation; and a small portion of this air, sent 
unmixed to the lamps through a pipe of the cheapest material and con- 
struction, (of plank, for instance, with the seams pitched,) nailed along 
the galleries or cuttings of the mine, would effect the desired purpose. 
At the top or beginning of the air-pipe there would be a small gas- 
holder, of the usual construction, to receive air from the pump, and 
which would be nicely balanced, so that the propelling pressure might 
be accurately determined. That pressure would then be transmitted 
along the tube, so that at any opening there would be a steady out- 
ward rush of pure atmospheric air, as there is a rush of coal-gas from 
any opening in common gas apparatus. A common lantern, there- 
fore, with glass front and sides, well secured, if screwed on or other- 
wise attached at such opening, would be always supplied with atmo- 
spheric air; and if there were no further opening in the lantern except 
the small chimney opening defended by a length of tube, with a valve 
at the extremity if desired, there could be no communication between 
the flame and the air of the mine. If further security were desired, 
both openings might have the wire-gauze of Davy’s Lamp stretched 
across them. ? 

For fixed lights with such apparatus, it would be necessary only to 
screw fit lanterns to the air-pipe in required situations, and lamps 
affording very strong light might be used. ; 

For lights moveable within a certain distance, there would be 
lanterns connected with the air-pipe by flexible tubes of covered spiral 
wire. 

For lights moveable or portable to all distances, there would be 
either large lanterns, which, once filled with pure air, would feed the 
light for half an hour or more before it became too dim, or there 
_ would be lanterns of ordinary size, having attached to them bags of 
thin cloth rendered air-tight by caoutchouc or otherwise, which bags 
would be filled from time to time with atmospheric air from openings 
in the main air-pipe. 

All along the main-pipe there would be means of fixing lanterns, 
and of taking pure air for any purpose. 

There might be, at convenient stations in the mine, boxes or small 
chambers communicating with the air-pipe, and, therefore, always full 
of pure air, in which the operations of striking a light, lighting lamps, 
and others, (as cooking even,) might be performed. 

Lamps might be lighted by a lucifer-match suitably introduced and 
_ inflamed, or there might be a small lighting lantern, between which 
_ and any other a communication might be opened for a lighted taper 
_ to pass to the wick to be lighted. 

The expense of such an apparatus as here contemplated would be 


56 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


trifling compared with the importance of the object sought, and, with 
a certain expense, the security might be rendered very complete. 


On the Waste experienced by Hot and Cold Blast Iron during the 
process of Refining. Communicated by D. Musuet. 


On Preventing the Corrosion of Cast and Wrought Iron immersed in 
Salt Water. By J. B. HARTLEY. 


The author observes, “The well-known powerful and mischievous 
effects of salt water upon iron having been very strongly felt in the 
various fastenings of the gates and other machinery of the Liverpool 
Docks subjected to its action; and as a counteraction of this evil has 
long been a desirable object, many experiments having been made with 
this view, but in a great measure without success; and since the same 
destructive tendency is more or less experienced in all similar cases, 
the following very brief account of the method at present employed to 
obviate it by my father (the Engineer to the Docks), together with the 
cireumstances which gave rise to his adoption of it, may not be deemed 
uninteresting. 

“ In order to afford a greater extent of dock space to the fast increa- 
sing trade of this port, the Liverpool Dock Trustees, in 1829, purchased 
a quantity of land at the south end of the town, a part of which was 
occupied by an old tide mill and basins, called ‘ Jackson’s Mill and 
Dams;’ in taking away these dams for the purpose of forming the 
present Brunswick Dock, in the beginning of the year 1830, an old 
cast-iron sluice or clow was met with, the mouth of which was fitted 
with a lid or valve, also of cast iron, and of considerable dimensions : 
these had been immersed in the sa/t water for rather more than 25 years, 
having been put down, as found from good authority, in 1804. When 
taken up, they were incrusted with a coat of small barnacle shells, and, 
when broken, some parts of the cast iron were found to be in excellent 
preservation, and some thoroughly decomposed. The cast tron lid or 
valve was fastened to the body of the sluice by means of brass pins, 24 
inches in diameter, forming hinges on which it turned, when lifted up 
or lowered, as occasion required ; and immediately in connection with 
these pins it was that the iron was in a perfectly sound state. By some 
inadvertency all the iron-work was broken up, and sent with other old 
metal to the furnace. 

“In July of the same year (1830), another sluice, with a similar 
valve, was taken up, which had been immersed in salt water for the 
same length of time; this was also of cast iron, but the lid or valve had, 
in addition, a loop cast on to its lower edge, with which it was opened 
and shut by means of a connecting rod. The top joint or hinge of the 
valve was similar to the one previously found, that is, turning on brass 
pins, which worked in zron collars cast on to the body of the sluice ; 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57 


_ the lower joint or loop was bushed with brass, through which a large 
_ wrought-iron pin passed, forming the joint between the connecting rod 
and the valve. 

“All the parts of the ron immediately around the brass were in this, 
as in the former case, in ewcellent preservation; the wrought-cron pin 
was corroded a little, but not materially ; yet, had it been suspended in 
a similar manner by itself, or in connection with iron stone, there can 
be little doubt but that it would have been, in a great measure, if not 
wholly, destroyed. The cast iron near to the brass retains its original 
soundness, but became gradually decomposed in proportion to its di- 
stance from the protecting influence. 

“ The action of the salt water upon iron at this port is exceedingly 
great, causing a very rapid corrosion; work similar to what has been 
described, but in which no brass has been used, having been taken up 
as useless after a service of only eight years; the cast-iron becoming 
so decomposed as to yield easily, like plumbago, to the penknife, and 
the wrought iron wasting away to a mere thread; much, however, in 
both cases depending upon the quality of the iron. 

“ The hint thus fortunately received has, therefore, since been taken 
advantage of, and acted upon as much as possible by my father in all 
our recent works. The dock-gates, which, heretofore, have been 
greatly affected, are now in a great measure protected by using brass 
with zron whenever it can properly be done. Copper fastenings are 
no longer used, tron bolts with brass nuts and washers having been 
substituted: the sills, which are made of cast iron, have numerous 
small holes bored through them, which are again filled up with melted 
brass ; the chain-hole rollers, also of cast iron, are keyed on to metallic 
shafts, turning in cast-iron steps, and in all cases where strength and 
durability are most required, the iron in these parts is thus protected. 
So far as five years’ experience can testify, perfect success has been the 
result. The wrought-iron bolts are now as perfect as when first put 
and the cast iron shows no symptoms of decay. A proof of this 
may be seen at the outer gates of the Brunswick Basin, which were 
fastened and finished as described, and have been now in use upwards 
of five years.” 


On Browning Gun Barrels. By W. Ertrick. 


On a Method of Facilitating the Calculations of Gases. 
By Dr. CLARKE. 


On some Singular Modifications of the Ordinary Action of Nitric Acid 
g on certain Metals. By Dr. ANDREWS. 


58 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


On an Antimonial Compound applicable as a Pigment. 
By Dr. TRAILL. 


It is made by adding a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium to the 
muriate of antimony. The precipitate, which is of an ultramarine 
colour, Dr. Traill considers to be composed of prussic acid, iron, and 
oxide of antimony. 


On the non-production of Carbonic Acid by Plants growing in the 
Atmosphere. By Dr. DALton. 


Dr. Dalton calculates, that in 5000 years, animals supposed to live 
upon the earth, would produce by their breathing in the atmosphere 
but =, part by weight of carbonic acid, therefore the assistance of 
plants to purify the air is not necessary. By experiment he found, 
that a hot-house does not contain more or less carbonic acid, by night 
or by day, than the external air, and the results were the same in a 
number of repetitions of the experiments. This paper was said to have 
been penned during the convalescence of its illustrious author from a 
late attack of illness. 


On the Action of Water upon Lead. By T. J. PEARSALL. 


On a New Form of Iron Bottle for obtaining Oxygen from Peroxide 
of Manganese. By Mr. J. Dick, of Cambridge. 


Mr. Griffin exhibited chemical apparatus adapted for experiments on 
a small scale. 


Mr. J. Murray presented to the Section a phial of the milk of the 
Cow-tree, with an account of its chemical and other properties ; also, 
specimens of two sorts of paper manufactured from the phormium tenax 
and the musa textilis. 


On the Influence of Electricity on the Process of Brewing. 
By W. Buiack. , 


According to the author's statements, a thunder-storm not only 
checks the fermentation of worts, but even raises the gravity of the 
saccharine fluid, and developes in it an acid. This effect is principally 
witnessed when the fermenting tun is sunk in moist earth, and may be 
obviated by placing it upon baked wooden bearers, resting upon dry 
bricks or Wooden piers, so as to effect its insulation. Mr. Black also 
stated, that during the prevalence of highly-electrified clouds, the fa- 
brication of cast iron does not succeed so well as in other states of the 
atmosphere. . 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59 


GEOLOGY. 


Mr. Whewell reported from the Committee appointed to determine 
the best means of ascertaining the degree of permanency of the relative 
levels of land and sea. He stated that Mr. Bunt of Bristol had been 
engaged to effect the first operations towards this object; that he 
levelled a preparatory line from Bristol to Portishead (a distance of 
10 miles), which proving satisfactory to the Committee, he was sub- 
_ sequently directed to procure the necessary instruments, and to level 
a line from Bridgewater to Axmouth. The course followed was as 
follows: From Bridgewater, near the north bank of the river Parrott, 
to Langport; then crossing the Parrott by the Vale of the Isle, and 
me 11 miles, the town of Ilminster was left one mile on the 
eft, and the levelling carried to the top of the Hill of Chard, which is 
800 feet high, and the only hill encountered ; descending to the south, 
the Vale of the Axe was followed to the sea, the whole distance being 
40 miles. ‘The levellings were twice repeated (once forwards, once 
backwards), and the difference of the two results was only 359, inches; 
but as, in the greatest part of the distance, the difference increased 
_ almost uniformly in going southward, the error was probably due to 
_ some steady cause, and, consequently, the mean of the two results may 
be considered as very near the truth. The precise cause of the error 
has not yet been ascertained, but as the instruments are the property 
of the Association, they can be examined at any future time. Good 
referring-marks have been left to afford means of repeating and ex: 
_ tending the levels, so as to make any future comparison of the state of 
_ the levels with those now ascertained, that being the object of the 
investigation. 

The results of this survey for level cannot be stated until it has been 
_ eontinued to the Bristol Channel. 


| A Notice of Specimens containing Fossil Vegetables, from the New Red 
Sandstone at Stanford and Ombersley, in Worcestershire. By 
James Yates, F.L. § GS. 


Mr. Yates stated, that his object in bringing forward this notice was 
principally to induce others to work out the hint he was giving. In 
_ the N.W. angle of Worcestershire, the new red sandstone is in imme- 
diate contiguity with rocks of the Silurian System, and appears to 
assume some of the characters of the German keuper. The sandstone 
of Stoneyedge Quarry, in the parish of Stanford, is greenish, finely 
granular, and schistose, resembling the fine flagstones of the coal 
_ formation. It contains vegetable impressions resembling those of the 
coal. It has been used for building, and is remarkably durable, when 
laid with its strata horizontal. To determine the geological position 
_ of this sandstone, Mr. Yates traced it for ten milesx—by Martley, Ham- 


60 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


bridge, Hood Martin, and Clifton on Teme, to Stanford. At Martley, 
it exhibited the usual appearance of the new red sandstone of Wor- 
cestershire and the adjacent counties. Then, on proceeding, it was 
frequently micaceous and slaty, and exhibited numerous variations of 
colour, until, without any other important change, it was traced to the 
beautiful building-stone of Stanford, where, in descending order, it is 
succeeded by strata of limestone belonging to the Ludlow Rocks of 
Mr. Murchison. In the quarries of Ombersley, the sandstone is white, 
inclining to green or grey, and much resembles the sandstones of a 
coal formation, though all the surrounding strata have the usual colour 
and appearance of the new red sandstone. In these quarries, vegetable 
remains are very abundant, amongst which may be distinguished cala- 
mites, the fossils generally resembling coal plants. Stems or boughs, 
apparently of coniferee, are cut across in working the quarry. ‘The 
wood is in part converted into coal, and in part preserves indistinctly 
its vascular structure. The stems contain a considerable quantity of 
oxide of iron, and around them the stone is rendered ferruginous. 
Mr. Yates left the decision of the question—whether these sandstones 
belonged or not to the keuper, to those geologists who had studied that 
formation on the Continent: he was himself inclined to decide in the 
affirmative. Mr. Yates then stated his opinion, that the whole of the 
new red sandstone of England must either have been part of the bed 
and estuary of a river, or, if a marine deposit, have been formed so 
near the dry land as to be under the influence of currents sweeping 
along the shore. The portions he had described must have been, he 
considered, the margin of such river or sea, the Silurian Rocks having 
formed its banks. Mr. Yates concluded by exhibiting a specimen from 
Brockhill Quarry, in the parish of Shelsley Beauchamp. A trap-dyke 
passes there vertically through the slates and fine sandstones of the 
Silurian System, and converts them into a substance not distinguishable 
from the trap, except by stratification; a phenomenon which Mr. 
Yates had also observed in the Duchy of Nassau. The specimen,— 
part of these altered stratified rocks,—was further remarkable, as 
exhibiting in the coatings of its sides brilliant crystals of chabasie. 


Tue Rev. Mr. CLarke requested permission to read two letters 
which he had received from Professor Hitchcock of Amherst, Massa- 
chusetts, on the subject of foot impressions, supposed to be those of 
birds, on a rock which the Professor refers to the new red sandstone. 
The first, dated March 1, 1837, states, that in the examination of some 
new localities, the author had extended the number of species, recog- 
nizable by the footmarks, from seven to twenty-one, some of which are 
very remarkable, and approximate to a sauroid type. One of these foot- 
marks is fourteen inches long; has a heel larger than that of a man, and 
a fourth toe coming out at right angles near its extremity. The length 
of the step is four feet. Professor Hitchcock adds, that he has found 
on the greywacke of Hudson River what he thinks the footmarks of a 
marsupial quadruped, or of a quadruped that moved forward by leaps. 
They are not, however, so distinct as the marks on the new red sand- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61 


| stone. Professor Hitchcock then proposes for such footmarks the 
following classification. Class, Ichnites : 


= 1st Family—Tetrapodichnites. 
2nd Family—Sauroidichnites. 
3rd Family—Ornithichnites. 


In the second letter, dated May 9, 1837, Professor Hitchcock an- 
nounces his having forwarded to Mr. Clarke between thirty-five 
and forty specimens (some of the rock itself, and others casts) of the 
footmarks. He states the number of species found since his first pub- 
lication to be fifteen, making the total number 22, Mr. Clarke then 
exhibited to the Section several of the specimens. 


On the Nature and Origin of the various kinds of Transported Gravel, 
occurring in England. By Hucu E. Srrickranp, F.G.S. 


On examining the masses of drifted materials, which, in patches of 
gravel, sand, or clay, cover a considerable portion of the surface of the 
island, Mr. Strickland perceived remarkable distinctions of character. 
Taking the varieties of rocks present as a clew to the direction of the 
forces which have moved them along, it appeared that in some cases 
the pebbles and boulders were derived from the immediate vicinity ; 
in others, that they had probably travelled many hundreds of miles. 
The beds were sometimes wholly unstratified, and at other times 
finely laminated, indicating a violent or tranquil state of the transport- 
ing medium. Some varieties of drift occupy the summits of hills, and 
are independent of the present configuration of the surface ; whilst 


others occur on the sides or bottoms of valleys, having a constant 


relation to the present lines of drainage. And again, some gravel 
beds contain remains of mammalia and lacustrine mollusca,—others 
contain only marine remains; and a large portion appears to be 
destitute of organic remains. Such varied results seem to indicate a 
variety of causes, distinct in kind, and operating at separate epochs ; 
but as all these varieties of detritus are unconformable to the rocks 
on which they rest, and from lying in detached portions are seldom 
brought in contact with each other, it is very difficult to determine 
their respective ages, or to establish the precise number of distinct 
epochs at which they may have been formed. Evidence, however, of 
two periods may be clearly obtained ; and Mr. Strickland proposes to 
call the matter deposited in the first period a marine drift, being the 
result of submarine currents at a time when the central portions of 
England were under the ocean; and that deposited in the second, 
fluviatile drift, having apparently been deposited by ancient rivers 
(or river-lakes) at a time when the whole or a great part of England 
had become dry land. The gravel which covers the midland counties, 
from Cheshire to Gloucestershire, has resulted (as proved by Mr. 
Murchison from the evidence of marine shells) from a marine current 
flowing from the North, between the oolitic hills of England, and the 


62 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


older rocks of Herefordshire and Wales; and hence, at that period, 
the whole island must have been many hundred feet lower than it is 
at present,—nay, it may have been totally submerged, as the absence 
of erratic gravel on the oolite hills, and on the mountains of Wales 
and Herefordshire, does not necessarily imply that those districts were 
dry land when the gravel was drifted into the midland counties, 
since the erratic pebbles would necessarily be directed towards the 
lowest levels, and districts out of the exact line of the current might 
even be in course of local degradation whilst the extraneous matter 
was hurried past them. The probability that the chalk and oolite 
hills of England were principally, if not entirely, submerged, is 
strengthened by the fact that ramifications from the general mass of 
gravel in Warwickshire extend through the transverse valleys of the 
oolitic range, follow the course of the Thames, and cross considerable 
hills near Oxford and Henley, as shown by Dr. Buckland. As the 
marine shells found in this gravel are chiefly of existing species, a 
very recent epoch must be assigned to its deposition ; and as no traces 
have been left of regular tertiary strata, even in small valleys and 
basins sheltered from the action of the northern current, it seems 
probable that the causes which led to the transport of the gravel were 
comparatively transient. The most reasonable supposition appears to 
be that this transport was connected with the elevation of the land, 
the new red sandstone of central England having been covered up by 
younger deposits, when a process of elevation and of accompanying 
denudation commenced, whereby the upper secondary strata were 
removed, and the new red sandstone exposed to the action of the 
marine currents. And when, by a further rise, England was elevated 
above the sea level, the midland counties would present an undulating 
surface of new red sandstone and other rocks, with scattered patches 
of erratic gravel, the relics of the action of denuding currents. But 
whether the northerly current which has effected such devastation 
was the direct result of elevation of the land, and consequently trans- 
ient and violent, or whether it was similar to ordinary marine currents, 
such as that now flowing through the Pentland Firth, it would be pre- 
mature to speculate. 

These marine detritic deposits consist of gravel, sand, or clay, in va- 
rying proportions. The gravel contains numerous pebbles of white » 
or brown quartz, mixed more or less with other substances. It is 
in general very imperfectly, or not at all stratified, there being some 
local exceptions to the rule. It is believed that no mammiferous re- 
mains occur in this drift, the only genuine fossils being marine shells, 
which have been found in some few localities in Cheshire, Shropshire, 
Staffordshire, and Worcestershire. And it is remarkable that it occurs 
independently of the minor variations of the surface, covering ex- 
tensive tracts, and capping hills of 400 or 500 feet in height. 

There are three principal varieties of marine drift; Ist. erratic 
gravel without chalk flints; 2nd. erratic gravel with chalk flints ; 
and 3rd. local or non-erratie gravel. The gravel without chalk flints 
covers the country to the North and West of the Warwickshire Avon. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63 


_ The gravel with flints occurs chiefly between that river and the foot of 
_ the oolite hills. The chalk flints indicate an easterly current. The 
_ gravel without flints came from the North; but as no section has yet 
_ Shown a superposition of one of these beds of gravel on the other, so 
as to prove a different epoch of formation, they must at present be 

ascribed to one, and the difference of direction in the currents attri- 
_ buted to the obstacles they encountered in their passage ; for instance, 
a current flowing to the S. or S.E. through the counties of Notting- 
_ ham, Leicester, and Northampton, would, on encountering the chalk 
_ hills of Huntingdonshire, be turned to the westward, and carry chalk 
flints into Warwickshire, mixing them with the quartz and other 
_ northern pebbles, whilst the western part of the same current would 
_ flow uninterruptedly through Staffordshire and North Warwickshire, 
depositing pebbles of northern origin in its way, and finally make 
its exit into the Bristol Channel. . The third variety, called local drift, 
as being derived from rocks of its immediate vicinity, occurs in patches 
along the base of the oolite escarpment in Warwickshire, Worcester- 
shire, and Gloucestershire. And as the evidence of superposition is 
here also wanting, the local and erratic drift cannot be ascribed to 
different epochs, but must be assumed as modifications in the effects 
_ of the same great cause; for it is very possible to conceive that whilst 
_ pebbles from a great distance were moving along the central and 
lower parts, local shingle beaches might have been forming (composed 
entirely of the rocks there suffering degradation) at points more out of 
_ the line and influence of the current, just as is the case in rivers, the 
margins of which are often skirted by the detritus of its banks, whilst 
their beds are occupied by pebbles washed from a distance. The 
local drift of Siluria has been shown by Mr. Murchison to be overlaid 
by the northern or erratic drift near Shewsbury, and is therefore re- 
ferred by him to an antecedent epoch. 

The marine drift seems to have been deposited when a large portion 
of England was under water; the next class, or fluviatile, when 
much of it had become dry land. In materials the mavine and fluvia- 
tile are the same, and are hence easily confounded together; but they 
occupy different positions, and contain different organic remains. The 
fluviatile drifts bear a constant relation to the present form of the 
surface, and are commonly found flanking the sides, or covering the 
bottoms of valleys, often at a definite elevation above the present 
drainage: in general they are in a finer state of lamination, which 
proves a more tranquil deposition. They contain mammalian re- 


mains, and freshwater shells of existing species are sometimes found 


with bones of extinct land animals; indeed it is probable that such 
shells will be found to be generally diffused through them. On the 
Warwickshire Avon, platforms of gravel, containing bones and fresh- 
_ water shells, may be traced at intervals down the valley, from Rugby 
_ to Tewkesbury, at heights from 10 to 50 feet above the present 
_ stream; and these platforms are strongly contrasted with the marine 
_ drift which caps the hills flanking the river, both as respects the 
mineral character of the gravel, and the absence of stratification and 


64 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


mammalian remains in the marine drift. No absolute junction of 
these gravels has yet been noticed, though they occur within a quarter 
of a mile of each other, at, as already stated, very different eleva- 
tions—the marine drift being highest, asa portion of the great deposit 
formed prior to the elevation which gave rise to the river or chain of 
lakes which formed the fluviatile drift. 

Mr. Strickland then stated the following as his own conclusions 
from the data he had collected or studied—namely, 

1st. That the great mass of erratic gravel which exists in England 
has been brought by a northerly current, at a time when all, or the 
chief part of England, was under the sea, and contains no terrestrial 
fossil remains. 

Qnd. That bones of terrestrial mammalia are only found in the 
deposits of ancient rivers or lakes, formed after England had been 
raised above the sea, and had nearly assumed its present form. 


Mr. Strickland concluded by suggesting to Geologists the necessity 
and importance of collecting data for solving the intricate question 
of the origin of gravel deposits, such as the varieties of rocks found 
in each deposit, the mode of its arrangement, the presence and kind 
of fossils contained in each, the elevation at which they are respect- 
hey found, and the relations they seem to have to the existing sur- 
ace. 


On the Mechanism of the Movement of Glaciers. By 
Rozsert Matrer, MR.LA. 


After briefly alluding to the peculiar appearances of glaciers, and 
their vast extent, equal in some cases to the area of a small English 
county, Mr. Mallet observed that, notwithstanding the labours of 
Merian, Hottinger, Simler, Scheuchzer, Griinen and Saussure, the 
forces which give rise to their motions, modify their forms, and lead to 
their increase or decrease, have been overlooked. To supply this 
defect fully would be beyond the limits ofa single paper, and Mr. Mallet 
therefore confined himself to the consideration of those forces which 
caused the descending. or precessional motion of glaciers, of the 
causes of the vast rifts or crevices which traverse them, and of the 
peculiar arrangement of the moraine or stony debris which covers large 
tracts of their icy surface. Hitherto writers (Saussure, Playfair, etc.) had 
ascribed their descent to the action partly of the weight of the glacier 
itself and partly of that of the vast masses of snow resting upon it, which 
together, had driven the glacier gradually forward, on the inclined 
plane upon which it rested ; and this explanation had been adopted and 
repeated by later writers, including Dr. Prout in his Bridgewater 
Treatise. This view Mr. Mallet considers inadequate to explain the 
progressive movement, sometimes as much as 25 feet in a year, since the 
supporting surfaces of rock are always deeply rugged and hence afford 
a great resistance in friction; and further that the inclination of the 


‘ 
2 


~. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65 


beds of the glaciers does not exceed 25°, or of the supereminent plane 
of the snow above 35° to 40°; so that the portion of the weight resolved 
on mechanical principles in a direction parallel to the inclined plane, or 
in the direction of motion, would be extremely small. Weight alone, 
therefore, or pressure from it being inadequate, Mr. Mallet ascribes 
the movement to the hydrostatic pressure of water accumulating between 
- the masses of ice and the rocky bed on which they rest, whereby the 
__ ice is as it were floated or transferred (at intervals) upon liquid rollers 
_ from a higher to a lower level. From the nature of the isogeothermal 
euryes, the bed on which the glacier rests is warmer than the glacier itself, 
_ hence a continued melting of the lower surface, and a constant produc- 
tion of torrents which rush out at the lower extremity of every glacier. 
_ This melting is independent of season, whilst the melting of the superfi- 
_ cial snow and of the external surface of ice depends solely upon it ; hence 
in summer there is no obstruction to the flowing of the torrents, whilst 
in winter their embouchures are closed by ice, and an accumulation of 
_ water below is the result, by the pressure of which the glacier is raised 
until a sufficient vent has been formed for the éscape of the waters, on 
the sinking of which the glacier descends for a certain distance into the 
valley. An example of a striking kind occurred in 1814-1815, in the 
Glacier de Bois, or the “Mer de Glace”. Its torrent, the Aveyron, being 
dammed up by the falling masses of ice, and partly frozen, could no 
longer discharge itself at its usual icy opening, but accumulated under 
the ice until it forced itself a new passage, 700 feet above the former one; 
the pressure being so great that for some months mountains of ice 
_-were continually falling. In short, the ice is by this hydrostatic pressure 
raised up perpendicularly to the inclined plane on which it rests; but, 
on the removal of the pressure, sinks perpendicularly to the horizon, 
and hence advances forwards. Next, with respect to the rifts or 
crevices which intersect the glaciers, they have, allowing for slight 
perturbations depending on the steepness of the slope of the beds, a 
general direction transverse to the line of motion, or across the valley 
in which the glacier lies, and the form of a curve or vast wave-like line 
 erossing the ice from side to side, and having its convex side down- 
wards. The glacier itself may be considered as a bed of indurated 
snow, deposited at the bottom of a sloping valley, and surcharged 
with infiltrated water, either the result of rain or its own slow 
_ liquefaction, and must be presumed therefore to have originally 
formed one unbroken mass, beneath which flowed a current of ice- 
water. But whenever this stream became obstructed either by frost or 
_ debris, the water would begin to rise beneath, until the hydrostatic 
“pressure at the lower end becoming sufficient to overcome the cohe- 
sion of the ice, the huge mass would be broken in two or more parts, 
_ somewhere above the upper line of the subglacial waters, just as a 
stranded vessel, supported at stern and stern, becomes, in technical 
language, hogged. And according as this process is modified by the 
_aceidental staggering of one mass against another, &c., so is the aspect 
of the whole strangely and capriciously varied. Sometimes an isolated 
rock resting on the surface, melts, from its superior conducting power, 
VOL. vi. 1837. EF 


66 .: SEVENTH REPORT— 1837. 


the ice on which it rests, and sinks down, forming in the substance of 
the ice a tube of an enormous depth; one found by Mr. Mallet in 
1831 having a depth of 70 feet and a diameter of 3 feet. This tube 
gradually enlarges and becomes filled with water, until the pressure of 
the column of water overcomes the lateral cohesion and splits the mass 
into two or more pieces.—The curvilinear form of the crevice is next 
explained. As the waters proceeding from the melting of the under 
surface of the ice will coalesce towards the centre of the bed of the 
glacier, or the lowest point of its sloping surface, so will the centre be 
raised more and descend more than the sides ; and, in consequence, the 
central part of the whole crevice descending most, it becomes convex 
downwards. 

Mr. Mallet then entered on a discussion of those accumulations of 
stony debris called “Moraine,” which are to be found on all the glaciers, 
and most remarkably on the glacier of Rosboden on the Simplon. These 
are ridges of loose materials arranged parallel to the motion of the gla- 
cier, or across the ice crevices. The detritus proceeding from the pre- 
cipices which flank the glacier valley is continually falling and mixing 
the snow with gravel and rocks; and, as the summer heat melts the 
winter snow, all this suspended matter sinks down to the surface of the 
ice, and by the force of torrents sweeping over the ice is formed into 
those ridges which lie nearly parallel to the line of motion of the whole 
glacier. In these ridges, the centre is many feet deep; and as this 
thickness protects the ice below from the heat of summer, an elevated 
wall of ice is formed, the uncovered snow on each side being melted 
down, so that these ridges of stones stand upon hills of ice sometimes 
25 feet above the general surface ; and as the centre of the glacier sinks 
more than the sides, these hills have a natural tendency to topple over 
and discharge their load of stony matter towards the centre: hence the 
greatest deposits of moraine are nearest the axis of the whole glacier, 
and these act as checks to its too rapid melting, without which it is 
probable some of the greater glaciers would have been entirely melted 
through, and the mechanism of their motion destroyed. On the prin- 
ciples here laid down, the motion of the glaciers is most rapid after a 
severe winter, and vice versd. The constant descent of a glacier over 
its bed must abrade and smooth the surface of the rock, just as if it 
had been the bed ofa torrent; and it may therefore be possible to trace 
in such marks the former existence of glaciers now totally melted 
away. - 


On the Results of Trials which had been made for Water in the Desert 
between Suez and Cairo. By Marquis Spineto. 


This search had been conducted by M. Albert Gingbery, an en- 
gineer and mineralogist, and had proved successful, five wells having 
now been established on that route. In these trials the water was 
found at the depth of 14 feet, filtering through a calcareous rock, and 
in a stratum of clay or marl. The results of several other borings 


ina 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67 


_ for water were also detailed: in these the depths at which water was 
found are very variable—namely, 237 feet, 299 feet, 86 feet, 60 feet, 
58 feet, and the alternations of sand, clay, siliceous rock (called by the 
author Jasper), exhibit at short distances considerable irregularity. 


On certain Phenomena connected with the Junction of Granitic and 
Transition Rocks, near Christiania in Norway. By CHARLES 
Lyet., #.R.S. (communicated by L. Horner, F.R.S.) 


It has been long known by geologists that granite occurs in the 
~ neighbourhood of Christiania in Norway more modern than the schist 
and limestone, containing trilobites, orthocerata, and other fossils of 
the transition period. It is also, I believe, the prevailing opinion that 
this granite offers an exception to the general rule, and that it covers 
the fossiliferous formations in large overlying masses, in the same 
manner as is commonly the case with basalt, and other members of the 
_ trap family. I found, howeyer, on visiting this summer with Pro- 
fessor Keilhau several points where the junction of the granite and 
transition strata is well seen, that the phzenomena agree precisely 
_ with those usually exhibited where granite comes in contact with other 
_ rocks, and sends veins into them. M. Keilhau had already come to 
this conclusion, after examining the whole line of contact of the 
granite and fossiliferous beds, and in this respect my observations 
_ went no further than to verify and confirm his statements. It is true 
_ that in some places near Christiania the granite may lean somewhat over 
_ the edges of the transition beds, and be for several yards incumbent 
Ne. " on them (as at a. 
No. 1); but not 
by any means so 
as to resemble the 
overflowing trap 
rocks. Nor was it 
from such appear- 
ae ances thatthe over- 
_ lying position of the Christiania granite was first inferred, but rather 
from the manner in which the strata of schist and limestone frequently 
_ dip towards the granite up to the point of contact, appearing as if they 
would pass under it. (See No. 1.) When, however, these strata are 
_ traced up to the granite, they are seen to terminate abruptly ; and no 
instance is known to Professor Keilhau, in this country, of a large mass 
_of granite regularly overlying strata containing organic remains. 
‘The different varieties of granite in this part of Norway have been 
described by Hausmann, Von Buch, and others. They are chiefly 
yenitic, but must all be classed by the geologist as granite, presenting 
e usual characters of that family of rocks both in small specimens 
and mountain masses. This syenitic granite seems to pass in some 
_ regions into trap porphyry, but it is only where the rocks have assumed 


= 


Granite. 


68 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


all the usual characters and aspect of trap that tabular masses are seen 
distinctly overlying the fossiliferous strata. 

The important fact of the comparatively modern origin of this gra- 
nite, or of its posteriority in date to the strata containing orthocerata 
and trilobites, was announced by Von Buch about 25 years ago. The 
proofs consist in the protrusion of granite veins into the schist and 
limestone, and the alteration of the fossiliferous strata to a considerable 
distance from the line of contact with the granite, the limestone being 
turned into white marble, and the schist into Lydian stone, riband 
jasper, and sometimes into mica-schist, of which I saw one striking 
example at Grorud, N.E. of Christiania. Traces of fossils are not 
unfrequently discoverable in some of the crystalline and altered rocks 
of the transition formation, so that the actual conversion of the latter 
into metamorphic strata is unequivocal. 

Large mountain masses of the granite come into contact with dif- 
ferent members of the transition series, both calcareous and argilla- 
ceous, and the granite sends veins into all of them, and variously 
modifies their mineralogical texture. The fossiliferous strata are also 
seen intersected by the granite, sometimes in the direction of their 
strike, and sometimes at right angles to it; the stratified rocks being 
in all cases more or less changed at the point of junction. The same 
modern granite comes frequently into contact with gneiss, the most 
ancient formation of this district, and sends veins into the gneiss, or, 
in some cases, passes gradually into it, precisely in the same manner as 
in Scotland and other countries. 

There is, indeed, no feature in the geology of this part of Norway 
which appears to me so full of interest, as the relations of the granite 
and gneiss at their junction, when the wide difference of epoch which 
must have separated the origin of the two rocks is considered. I shall 
therefore add a few words on this subject. 

The gneiss is the oldest rock in the country. Next in age are the 
transition strata, corresponding to part of the Silurian formations of 
England; but as these fossiliferous strata rest unconformably upon 
the gneiss, the last-mentioned rock had evidently undergone great 
disturbances before the sedimentary deposits were gradually thrown 
down upon it. The edges, moreover, of the inclined strata of gneiss 
had undergone aqueous denudation, and had been polished and scored 
by attrition before the unconformable transition beds were superim- 
posed. This scored and polished surface is seen occasionally on the 
removal of the newer or fossiliferous beds. As the granite, therefore, 
was introduced last of all in the order of time, there had intervened 
between the origin of the gneiss and granite, 1st, the period when the 
stratification of the gneiss was disturbed, 2dly, the period of its denuda- 
tion, and, 3dly, the time during which the transition beds were gradually 
formed in a sea inhabited by a great variety of organic beings. Yet 
the granite produced after this long interval is often so intimately 
blended with the ancient gneiss at the point of junction, that it is 
impossible to draw any other than an arbitrary line of separation between — 
them; and where this is not the case, tortuous veins of granite pass 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69 


_ freely through gneiss, ending sometimes in threads, as if the older rock 
had offered no resistance to their passage. Had I seen such junctions 
alone, and known nothing of the relative age of the gneiss and granite, 
I should have been inclined to suppose that the gneiss had not yet 
been fully consolidated, and had not, perhaps, assumed its complete 
‘metamorphic character at the time when it was invaded by the granite ; 
but this hypothesis is quite inadmissible, fragments of the gneiss having 
been imbedded in the transition strata long before the granite ap- 
peared. The only hypothesis, therefore, that seems to remain to those 
who adopt the Huttonian theory of granite is, to conceive the gneiss to 
have been softened, and more or less melted when the granite was 
introduced. I have before mentioned that the fossiliferous strata 
“occasionally dip towards the granite up to the line of contact; and it 
deserves mention, as a singular phenomenon, and a general one near 
Christiania, that neither the strike nor prevailing dip of the transition 
beds is affected, or seen to vary at the points of union with the granite. 
‘They are altered in mineral character, as before described, and often 
_ become quite metamorphic; but they are not more disturbed there 
_ than elsewhere, and their inclination and bearing remain the same. 
What is still more extraordinary, there are places which I visited with 
Professor Keilhau, where portions of the transition beds, some of them 
only a few hundred yards square, occur completely isolated and sur- 
rounded by granite, and yet continue to preserve their normal dip and 
strike. This phenomenon has been adduced by Professor Keilhau as 
offering, together with many others in the same district, strong grounds 
_ of objection to the Huttonian theory ; for it appears to him impossible 
that the granite can have been injected in a fluid state, or forced into 
the fossiliferous strata without causing more local derangement in their 
dip and strike. 
Without denying the consideration due to this argument, I confess 
_ that its weight was much lessened in my mind after seeing other ap- 
pearances exhibited in certain large dikes of syenite which pierce 
_ through the fossiliferous strata near Christiania. Some of these dikes 
scarcely differ from granite in texture, and are occasionally branched ; 
_ yet the strata at the junction, or even when included between two 
ramifications of syenite, preserve their accustomed dip and strike. 
_ The analogy of such dikes to trappean and volcanic dikes, both in 
_ form and in their relations to the intersected strata, together with the 
- occasional passage of the syenite into common greenstone, leave me 
in no doubt that they are masses and walls of fused matter which 
have filled up fissures opened in the previously consolidated transition 
‘strata. 


Granite. 


70 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


On the Geology of Spain. By Dr. 'TRariu. 


In the sketch of the geology of the Spanish peninsula laid before 
the British Association in Dublin, the author gave a general yiew of 
its principal mountain chains, and a more particular account of the 
structure of Andalusia and New Castile. The basis of the mountains 
on the S.W. and N. of the latter is granite; which in the southern 
and western boundaries is directly covered by clay slate, and in the 
Guadarrama chain by gneiss and mica slate. In the Sierra Morena, 
the clay slate, reposing on the granite, strongly resembles the slate of 
Cumberland; and at Santa Elena, in the pass of the Sierra Morena, 
contains crystals of chiastolite. The primitive rocks of the central 
ridges of Spain are, on all sides, quickly succeeded by the old sand- 
stone formations ; on which we often find a very compact, greyish 
white limestone, with an imperfectly conchoidal fracture, which the 
author, from its geological relations, considers to belong to the Jurassic 
formation. This limestone is very widely distributed in the eastern 
provinces, from the mountains of Jaen and Granada to Gibraltar, and 
covers the flanks and peaks of the Sierra Nevada to the height of 
9000 feet, the highest point he was able to reach in the end of May, 
on account of the state of the perennial snow which invests it for 2000 
feet higher. This limestone is seen in the Sierra Carbonera, near 
Gibraltar, to rest upon old sandstone. Another limestone formation, 
of a more friable and gritty aspect, abounds on the flanks of the 
mountains, which he considers as the representative of the oolite of 
England. True chalk forms considerable tracks in Western Anda- 
lusia, especially near Lebrija; and considerable tertiary deposits 
occur in the plains and valleys south of the Sierra Morena. 

In that portion of his paper read before the Geological Section in 
Liverpool, Dr. Traill described the northern part of New Castile, part 
of Aragon, and Catalufia, including the celebrated salt mine of Car- 
dona. 

The plains between Madrid, the Somosierra, and the mountains 
dividing Castile from Aragon, chiefly consist of vast beds of marl, 
gypsum, and sandstone, over which, in some places, lies a limestone, 
which he considers as oolitic. He traced these formations through 
Grajanejos and Maranchon to Uset, the first village in Aragon. At 
Uset they disappear, and their place is supplied by a quartzose 
sandstone, splitting into thin layers, which may be used as roofing 
flags, and contain many crinoidal remains. This sandstone appears to 
rest on a well-characterized greywacke slate, devoid of organic re- 
mains. This last rock is well seen at the pass named Puerta de 
Daroca, where it contains thin beds of a very pure quartzose sand- 
stone flag ; and these strata are seen dipping below the more common 
sandstone that occurs near Uset. In descending from this pass, the 
sandstone may be traced to the banks of the Rio Xiloca, where it is 
covered bya thick bed of coarse argillaceous conglomerate, forming 
stupendous cliffs, overhanging the city of Daroca and its narrow 
valley. Red marl and gypsum reappear in the wider parts of the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71 


valley, and extend over the elevated plain to the north of that city. 
From the northern verge of this plain there is a gradual descent into 
the wide and fertile valley of the Ebro, where luxuriant vineyards and 
olive plantations cover a marly soil full of small gravel. The boun- 
daries of this portion of the valley appear to be oolitic limestone, which 
forms flat hills, of a sterile aspect. Near Zaragoza, the rock below 
the soil, whenever it appears, is a yellowish grey limestone, which Dr. 
Traill refers to the same formation. 

After crossing the Ebro at Zaragoza, the route to Fraga lies chiefly 
over a desolate plain, named Llafa de Santa Lucia, once under cul- 
tivation, but now abandoned to rosemary, thyme, and other aromatic 
plants on its higher portion, and only appearing green where water 
lodges in the hollows during the rainy season, and produces salsola, 
salicornia, and similar plants, which the peasantry cut and burn into 
barilla, in the months of September and October. ‘The whole soil 
is gypseous and saline; the pools are brackish or absolutely salt; 
and potable water over this region is so scarce, that at Bujaralos it 
was sold at sixpence per gallon. At Pefialba the author found hori- 
zontal beds of a limestone containing fresh water shells; but the 
relative position of these beds become very apparent at the abrupt 
termination of the Llafia, in the valley of the Rio Cinca. There he 
observed an upper stratum of a greyish limestone, containing nu- 
merous fragments of limnez and planorbes; then a second with fewer 
of these organic remains; both rested on beds of clay marl, contain- 
ing thin strata of snow-white fibrous gypsum, and thick beds of the 
same substance in an earthy state. He did not detect any chalk in 
this place; but he found here nodules of pure flint. The whole of 
these strata covered a reddish sandstone, which is exposed in the bed 
of the Cinca. These limestone beds he considers as tertiary ; and he 
traced similar formations to the other bank of the river, beyond the 
city of Fraga. The whole of this district he compared to the forma- 
tions of the Parisian Basin. 

Just beyond Fraga the traveller enters Catalufia; and near Lerida 
he meets with a gritty limestone, which at Bellock gives place to a 
calcareous farcilite; near Cervera this is succeeded by a limestone 
splitting into thin layers ; all which the author thinks may be referred 
to the tertiary period, as the soil is full of shells belonging to the 
genera limnea and cyclostoma, though in his hurried examination he 
did not detect them in the rocks. Cervera is at the extremity of this 


_ formation, and is built on a rock of secondary limestone, which forms 


the fundamental rock visible between that city and Igualada. The 
country is now finely broken into wooded hills and cultivated valleys ; _ 
but the limestone between Igualada and Esparaguerra gives place to a 
conglomerate, with a basis resembling ordinary sandstone which 
slightly effervesces with acids. This conglomerate is a considerable 
- formation, not only occurring in the plains, but forming hills, and 
covering the flanks, and constituting the lofty spiry ridge of Mont- 
gerrat. This rock forms thick beds, which in the defile of Martorel 
are seen, in the channel of the Lobregat, to rest directly on a glossy 


72 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


clay slate, the lamine of which are slightly contorted. In one place 
the slate was traversed by a wide vein of greenstone porphyry, in which 
the crystals of felspar were large. The abrupt southern termination 
of Montserrat, in this defile, shows the slate immediately covered by 
a reddish sandstone, containing rounded nodules of quartz, and some- 
times fragments of the clay slate. The upper portions assume more 
and more the appearance of the conglomerate already described. The 
enormous mass of Montserrat is composed of these rocks, which pro- 
bably belong to the greywacke formation. In proceeding to Barce- 
lona, the sandstone continues to be visible as far as St. Andreu and 
Papiol, where it forms low cliffs; but in the fine plain of Barcelona, 
the rocks are covered by a rich clay marl, only broken near the sea by 
a sandstone, containing turritelle and turbines, and forming the hill of 
Monjuic, which is crowned by the strong fortress of that name. 

In the author’s excursion to Cardona, he passed the northern ridge 
of Montserrat; which, instead of forming, as usually represented, an 
isolated mountain, should rather be considered as the termination of a 
chain, the general direction of which is from N.N.E. to 8.S.W. The 
shattered spires of the Caval de Bermat are formed of the same far- 
cilite, which extends as far as the dangerous defile at Bremita de San 
Jayme. Here it is succeeded by strata of sandstone flag, which the 
author traced beyond the city of Manresa, to the eastern side of the 
Rio Cardonero; but the western bank of that river exhibited strata of 
a dull grey limestone. As the traveller approaches Cardona, these rocks 
are concealed by a vast bed of reddish, marly clay ; and, in ascending 
to the city of Cardona from the Cardonero, he is surprised to find, 
instead of rocks projecting from the soil, grey masses of salt of great 
purity. 

Reine to his more detailed description of the salt-mine of Car- 
dona in the Geological Transactions, the author illustrated his short 
account by a drawing of this celebrated mine. The salt presents a 
nearly mural precipice of about 400 feet high, of a greyish white 
colour, having its surface channeled by the rains into numberless 
smooth hollows with sharp edges. The body of the salt is so pure, 
that to convert it into the whitest culinary salt, it is merely ground in 
mills. This remarkable deposit has been described as a mountain of 
salt; but this the author considers as incorrect; it rather seems to be 
a valley filled up with that mineral. The nearest visible rocks, on 
both hands, incline towards the salt valley; the hills on both sides of 
it are higher than the bed of salt; and the whole is covered by a 
stratum of plastic clay, which defends the salt from wasting by the 
elements. This mine is a royal appanage, rigidly guarded by sentinels 
stationed on the adjacent heights, who have orders to fire on all who 
enter the mine without authority; a circumstance which renders 
caution necessary in those who examine it. There were only one 
hundred miners employed in 1814, the period of the author's visit to 
Cardona, who were under the direction of ten subordinate officers, 
and a general superintendent. The miners earned two pecetas (about 
two shillings) a day ; they work from six A.M. to seven P.M., with the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73 


_ intervals of from eight to nine for breakfast, and from twelve to two 
_ for dinner and the siesta. The salt is sold for seven and a half pecetas 
_ for 5 arrobas, or about 130ibs. avoirdupois. The only mode of con- 
_ veyance from the mine is on the backs of mules or asses, over rugged 
- mountain passes and dangerous defiles ; yet a canal might easily be 
constructed to bring this valuable product down by the Cardonero 
_ and the Lobregat to the sea, and thus all Spain might be for ages 
_ supplied from this immense deposit of the purest salt, at a moderate price. 
_ The surface of the salt in that fine climate appears perfectly dry ; 
and it is little liable to deliquesce, owing to its remarkable purity, 
_ and especially the absence of earthy muriates. 

In proceeding from Barcelona northwards, the author found the 
fertile marly soil to rest on sandstone, until he reached Caldetas, on 
_ the sea coast, where a crumbling granite is exposed, in a spur pro- 

ceeding from the mountains on the left. The neighbourhood of this 
place has thermal springs, which seem to arise in the granite; but 
the greatest peculiarity he observed was the occurrence of numerous 
_ veins of hornblende and porphyritic greenstone traversing the granite, 
which are lost soon after passing Arefs. The road thence leaves the 
coast, and winds among the mountains, in which strata of variegated 
marble abound, especially near Pineda; but the only rock visible on 
the route was disintegrated granite, which however disappears as we 
_ descend into the valley of Gerona, which is filled with marl; but that 
city stands on a hill of crinoidal jimestone. From Gerona to Figueras 
the marl rests on this limestone. At Bascara a calcareous farcilite is 
_ found; but the mountains on the left appear to consist of primitive 
rocks, as indicated by the fragments rolled down by the streams. 
_ Between Figueras and Junquera the soil is a deep loam, containing 

numerous rounded nodules of limestone ; but after passing Pont des 
_ Moulins, \arge blocks of grey granite make their appearance ; and in one 
_ place the author observed limestone strata in direct contact with the 
granite. The rocks round Junquera are granitic, consisting either of a 
small grained grey granite, or a reddish brown syenite. This granite 
continues up the pass of Junquera, almost to the confines of France, 
_where a shining unctuous mica slate conceals the granite, and is the 
_ only visible rock as far as the French fortress of Bellegrade. A little 
__ beyond this last point, the mica slate is concealed by strata of clay 
_ slate rapidly dipping to N.E. The eastern Pyrenees are more steep 
on the French than on the Spanish side. The chain is not there very 
_ lofty; but from Bellegrade a most magnificent conical peak appears 

far to the West towering to the clouds. 


74 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


On some Intersections of Veins in the Mines of Doleoath and Huel 
Prudence, in Cornwall, and on their bearing on the Theory of the 
Mechanical Origin of their (“heaves”*) Dislocations. By W. J. 
Henwoop, F#.G.S., Secretary and Curator of the Royal Geological 
Society of Cornwall, H. M. Assay Master of Tin in the Duchy of 
Cornwall. 


The object of this paper was to show, that the theory of mechanical 
disturbance, by which it was contended that mineral veins were heaved 
or dislocated in consequence of the upheaving or movement of the 
strata, or of the forcible intrusion of igneous rocks, in a state of fusion, 
intersecting and shifting pre-existing veins,—would not explain the 
phenomena as displayed in the mines of Cornwall, and is opposed 
to the experience of practical miners. To support this objection, Mr. 
Henwood adduced two examples, one from the Dolcoath Mine in the 
parish of Camborne, in which three /odes, the first being E. and W., 
and dipping 65° North; the second bearing 30° N. of W., and dip- 
ping 80° North; the third bearing 15° N. of W., and dipping 70° 
North; and, further, an Elvan course, bearing 20° S. of W., and dip- 
ping 34° N., are all traversed by a cross course bearing N. and S., and 
dipping 87° W., the result of the intersection being a very unequal 
heaving of the lodes. The first of these (or Entral Jode) has shifted 
the cross course 9 feet to the left, and is itself undisturbed. The 
second lode is heaved by the cross course 12 feet to the right. The 
third lode is heaved 30 feet to the right; and although the west portion 
of that dode is actually in the Elvan course, that course is neither 
heaved by the eross course, nor by either of the dodes. In the 
second case, or that of Huel Prudence, parish of St. Agnes, an Elvan 
course bearing E. and W., and dipping 45° N., a ode bearing 5°S. of W., 
and dipping 70° S., and another dode bearing 10° S. of W., and dipping 
68° N., are intersected by a cross course bearing 12° W. of S., and dipping 
80° E., the result being, that the Elvan course is heaved 42 feet to the 
right, the first Jode is heaved 30 feet to the right, the second (ode is 
heaved 9 feet to the right. Mr. Henwood asks, how can such varied 
effects be attributed to any one simple vertical movement or disturb- 
ance? and, more particularly, how can the heaving of two dodes both 
to the right, although they dip in opposite directions, be thus accounted 
for; since, on such a theory, it would appear that one ought to have 
been heaved to the right, and the other to the left? 

Mr. Henwood, having thus stated his objections to the received 
theory of mechanical disturbance, further observed, that he believed 
no one doubted that the tin veins at Carclaize, and the copper veins 
at Huel Music, were the result of segregation, and contemporaneous 
with the contiguous rocks ; but as these little dodes exhibited, on a small 
scale, all the characters displayed by the large lodes on a great scale, 
he did not see that any unexceptionable distinction could be drawn _ 
between them. 


* When a lode is not continuous on opposite sides of a cross course, it is (in Corn- 
wall) said to be heaved. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 75 


On the Unity of the Coal Deposits of England and Wales. 
By Dr. W. H. Croox. 


__ The object of this communi¢ation was to show, that the coal fields 
of England and Wales were not distinct basins, but that the supposed 
_ basins were merely detached portions, which had been elevated by the 
_ agency of syenitic and trap rocks, of a much larger deposit, that was 
' spread over the greater part of the districts now covered by the new 
red sandstone rocks. Dr. C. conceived that this view may be extended 
to the coal of Belgium, and that of the north of France, and the north- 
west of Germany ; the carboniferous beds of these countries, as well 
as those of our own, having originated, in his opinion, in a drift of 
_ vegetable matter from countries lying to the East and E.S.E. of them: 
and he also stated, that the extent and richness of our coal deposits, 
especially in the midland counties, arose, in a considerable degree, 
_ from the impediments raised to the transit of the drifted matter by the 
_ slate and other ancient formations of Wales and Cumberland. 


_ Mr. Young, of Nova Scotia, brought under the notice of the Section 
a work on the geology of that country, accompanied by a geological 
map by Dr. Gesner. 


_ Notice of an Incursion of the Sea into the Colliertes at Workington. 
By Professor SzepGwick. 


The author commenced by pointing out, in a descending order, 
the succession of strata from the new red sandstone to the coal beds 
which are intersected by numerous cracks or breaks filled with dirt or 
other substances, and called faults or dikes. He then enumerated 
some of the more remarkable faults, one of which, an upcast fault, is 
to the amount of 600 feet, and a down fault to the amount of 100; in 
_ the one case the more valuable beds having been brought high up, 
and entirely removed by denuding causes, and in others thrown down 
_ in a corresponding manner; a sinking of 135 fathoms being required 
at the Isabella Pit to get at the main coal. Prof. Sedgwick next drew 
_ attention to the difference of position between the coal beds worked by 
Lord Lonsdale and Mr. Curwen; in Lord Lonsdale’s collieries the beds 
_ dip under the sea, and therefore with the extension of the workings 
increase the distance between them and the water; whilst, in Mr. 
Curwen’s, the beds cropped out under the sea: and, further, the 
danger arising out of this position was increased by the shattered con- 
dition of the strata,—the consequence of faults. The result of these 
_ eombined evils was, that the working having been carried within 14 
fathoms of the sea amongst the troubles, or faults, of the strata, the 
_ strata suddenly subsided, and the sea burst into the works. The tor- 
rent was, however, occasionally checked by accumulations of rubbish, 
ie the pressure had forced it through them ; hence its action was by 
fits, and each renewed rush was accompanied by a roaring wind, the air 


76 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


in the passages being displaced by the water. Breeze followed breeze, 
as torrent succeeded to torrent, and soon the whole 20 miles of passages 
and railways were completely filled. Twenty-seven men were below, 
and, when the noise reached them, were totally unable to conjecture 
its cause, though danger of some kind was manifest. Four escaped 
under the guidance of Brennagh, an Irishman, by following the air- 
courses; Brennagh, himself, in the midst of all this fearful noise, per- 
plexity, and confusion, stopping in his progress, and going back 100 
yards to save an old man. These men passed over a distance of 3000 
yards in making their escape, and when they reached the spiral stair- 
case, all the other routes having there become stopped, the wind roared 
through it with such violence, that it was heard a quarter of a mile off. 
At this time Bland, the last man coming up, was buoyed up by the wind, 
and, just as he expected deliverance, a trap-door, caught by the cur- 
rent of air, closed upon him. He, however, was not dismayed, but at 
once punched a hole, when the valve opened, and he was actually 
blown out of the pit mouth*. 


On the Mud deposited by the Tidal Waters of the Severn, Usk, and 
Avon, and other phenomena connected with the Waters of these 
Rivers. By Joun Ham, of Bristol. 


The author, having described the peculiarities attending the vio- 
lent influx of the tide along the gradually contracting estuary of 
the Severn, till it finally produces the bore in that river, and rises 
to an extraordinary height in the Wye—observes, “This incessant 
agitation and conflict of waters naturally render them very turbid: 
that they do not readily mix when the fresh water is sent back by a 
high wave, or what may be called a wall of sea water, may be con- 
ceived; but where the Channel is wider, and its bottom full of in- 
equalities, it might be supposed that the mixture was more readily 
accomplished ; and so it is, for the regularity in its specific gravity 
at the same season of the year is great, as I have found it the same 
in the month of August in the present year, and in 1822, viz. 1020. 
This indicates that it is rather less than the specific gravity of the open 
sea or ocean, remote from rivers, which is found to vary from 1020 to 
1028. 

«<The bed of the Bristol Channel, on the Welsh coast, is much more 
shallow than on the opposite coast; therefore, a much greater space 
of the bottom is exposed to the rays of the sun on that side at low 
water. This will partly account for the superior temperature of the 
water on the Welsh coast, which I found to be 67° Fahrenheit in the 
month of August, and 65° only on the south-east side of the Channel, 
near the mouth of the river Avon. 

“To the shallowness of the water on the Welsh side must also be 


* Professor Sedgwick, having made some reflections on the lesson of caution 
afforded by this melancholy catastrophe, appealed to the Section in behalf of the 
gallant Brennagh, when 34/. were immediately subscribed. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ‘he 


attributed the increased quantity of mud that it holds in suspension. Of 
five samples taken from the surface, the following are the results : 


per Imperial Gal. 
At the mouth of the Avon the water contains 26°3 grs. 
Tn the deep part of the Channel . 2 Ealehttie Se ae 
Advancing farther, where the water rary 35:0 
NELLIS i nee RE CP aia 
nthe opposite coast: 2... 655 j604!) e be) pou eee 
ioe Or tie (Usk. os ele d! sicke. p Wiloth on are 
5 | 201°3 


Average . . 40°3 


“If that part of the area of the Channel to which these data apply 
be taken at 225 square miles, and the above as an average at the 
depth of one fathom, the quantity of mud in suspension will be about 
700,000 tons. The mud in suspension gradually increases from the 
surface downwards.” 


Dr. Jeffreys of Liverpool exhibited to the Section two boxes of 
teeth and bones from the Caves of Cefn, in Denbighshire. 


On the Geology of the Coal District of South Lancashire. By Jans 
Heywoop, F.G.S., Senior Optime of Trinity College, Cambridge. 


The great coal district of Lancashire occupies an area of more than 
400 square miles, of which the largest and the most important portion, 
including an area of at least 250 square miles, is contained in the 
southern division of the county. 

Extensive beds of gravel, sand, marl, and moss, generally conceal 
the rugged outline of the Lancashire coal measures from the eye of the 

geologist ; but the industry excited by commercial enterprise has found. 

a way to obtain access to the mineral treasures of the district through 
the deepest superincumbent strata, and the rich produce of the coal 

mines has aided, at the same time, in the centralization of manufac- 
_ turing and commercial power in Lancashire. 

The eastern boundary of the great Lancashire coal district is formed 

by the lofty range of gritstone hills which separates the county of 


Lancaster from the West Riding of Yorkshire. 


This gritstone range of hills is continued from the heights of Pendle 
Hill, Padiham, and Boulsworth, in North Lancashire, py Cliviger, 


_ Todmorden, Blackstone Edge, Stanedge, and Longdendale, to the 


_ north of Derbyshire. From the steep acclivities above Todmorden, a 
_ transverse ridge of gritstone hills breaks into the central portion of the 
Lancashire coal district, and elevates, in detached masses, many isolated 


78 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


fields of coal. Some of these isolated coal fields are found on the 
summits, others in the valleys, of the subjacent gritstone series, and at 
the western extremity of the transverse ridge of gritstone, the grit- 
stone hills are surrounded with beds of coal. 

At the northern extremity of the Lancashire coal district, the car- 
boniferous strata are found in the form of a large natural basin, whose 
outer edges rest upon the gritstone rocks of Boulsworth Hill, Pendle 
Hill, and Padiham Heights. In the centre of this basin, at the Fox- 
clough Colliery, near Colne, the inclination of the coal beds is very 
gentle, being only 1 foot in 12, and rising on all sides. 

Three miles to the south-west of Colne, at the Marsden Colliery, the 
level of the coal mines crosses the valley of the river Calder, and the 
carboniferous strata rise on each side of the valley towards the grit- 
stone hills, which form its boundaries. 

Very steeply inclined coal mines, called “ rearing mines,” have been 
noticed on the northern boundary of the Lancashire coal district, over- 
lying the gritstone strata to the north-east of Blackburn. Imme- 
diately north of Blackburn, at Shire Brow, the fine quartzose sand- 
stone, of which that hill is composed, dips to the 8.S.E. at an angle of 
about 50°, and the shales and sandstones of the coal measures appear 
at the base of an adjoining hill, dipping in the same direction, at an 
angle of 33°. 

Three miles south-west of Blackburn, red sandstone rock is visible at 
Feniscowles Bridge: it occurs there, in thinly stratified beds, with mica ; 
and at Withnell, south of Feniscowles, the shales and sandstones of the 
coal formation make their appearance nearly in a horizontal position, 
or slightly inclined to the west. 

Associated with the red sandstone strata, many beds of marl are 
found overlying the coal measures on the west and south of the Lan- 
eashire coal field, and concealing the boundary of the carboniferous 
district, so that the western and southern limits are still very imper- 
fectly known, except by the operation of mining. 

From the termination of the gritstone strata, near Blackburn, the 
line of coal mines on the western side of the coal district may be traced 
by Mawdesley and Newburgh to Blague Gate, Stanley Gate, and 
Bickerstaffe. South of Bickerstaffe, coal is found under Rainford 
Moss; in the same neighbourhood, coals were formerly worked south 
of Knowsley Park, and west of Prescot; and coal shales have been 
found under the sandstone strata at the Hazles, near Prescot. 

The south-western extremity of the Lancashire coal district is si- 
tuated in the neighbourhood of Tarbock. At Whiston, north-east of 
Tarbock, the carboniferous strata are visible on the line of the Liver- 
pool and Manchester Railway. North of Whiston, and beyond Prescot, 
the beds of coal are cut off by the intervention of a large mass of red 
sandstone rock, nearly a mile in width; coals are worked again to the 
north of this sandstone rock at Gillar’s Green ; and the coal measures 
appear to be again interrupted, on the north-east of Prescot, by another 
portion of the red sandstone formation, which extends, in a northerly 
direction, beyond Eccleston. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79 


Coals are worked very near to the red sandstone of Eccleston, and 
_ from the Thattow Heath Colliery, in that neighbourhood, a line of 
_ coal mines may be traced passing by Sutton, Parr’s Moss, Ashton in 
_ Makerfield, Edge Green, Leigh, Bedford, and Worsley, to Pendleton, 
near Manchester. For seven miles to the north-west of Pendleton, 
a remarkable promontory of red sandstone stretches out as far as 
_ Ringley Bridge, on the river Irwell, and gives the very appropriate 
name of the “ Red-rock Fault” to an enormous displacement of the coal 
measures, by means of which the beds of coal are abruptly cut off, and 
_ their level is changed to an average extent of 1000 yards. 

Below Ringley Bridge, the precise boundary of the red sandstone 
- rock, on the eastern side of the Red-rock Fault, has not hitherto been 
accurately determined. Red sandstone strata may, however, be traced 
on both sides of the River Irwell, from Ringley to Agecroft Bridge ; 
and below Agecroft Bridge, the red sandstone rock is found in con- 
_ siderable masses in the neighbourhood of Kersall Moor, Castle Irwell, 
__ and at the dye-works near Salford Bridge. Red sandstone rock forms 
the foundation of the Collegiate Church of Manchester, and of nume- 
rous other buildings which rise on the opposite banks of the Irwell, 
both in Manchester and Salford. Beyond Manchester, the red sand- 
stone formation may be easily seen along the course of the rivers - 
Mersey and Irwell, as far as Warrington, Stockport, and Liverpool. 

On the north-eastern side of Manchester, coal is found at Collyhurst 
and Bradford; the coal measures are afterwards interrupted by the 
intervention of the sandstone rock on the eastern side of the Bradford 
coal field: coals are again found above Bank Bridge on the river 
Medlock, in the same neighbourhood. 

Beyond Denton, to the south-east of Manchester, the levels of the 
coal mines are carried on, in a southerly direction, towards Poynton 
and Macclesfield. Very minute investigation is required to determine 
with accuracy the line of faults, which probably forms the southern 
_ boundary of the Lancashire coal district. 

Limestone is occasionally found near to the southern limits of the 
_ Lancashire coal district. At Ardwick, adjoining Manchester, the car- 
- poniferous shales are interstratified with beds of limestone, and the 
_ south-western inclination of the calcareous strata at Ardwick corre- 
__ sponds with the inclination of the carboniferous beds associated with 
them. 

Nine miles to the west of Manchester, at Bedford, near Leigh, 
several strata of magnesian limestone are found dipping to the south- 
east, and very nearly conformable in their inclination with the red 
sandstone strata in that neighbourhood. The relative position of these 
rocks, as well as their relation to the carboniferous strata in the same 
neighbourhood, was carefully examined by the late Dr. Phillips of 
Manchester; and the result of his observations demonstrates, that 
_ the red sandstone strata of Bedford are inclined at an angle of 10° 
or 20° towards the south-east, corresponding very nearly with the in- 
_ clination of the magnesian limestone; while the carboniferous strata 
_ dip to the south-west, and, consequently, the carboniferous strata are 


80 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


unconformable both with the magnesian limestone and with the red 
sandstone strata at Bedford, in South Lancashire. 

The beds of coal on the east, the north, and the north-west of Man- 
chester, are inclined towards the west, the south-west, and the south, 
being probably elevated from a horizontal position by the force with 
which the gritstone hills behind them were raised to their present 
position. 

A grand series of parallel faults traverses the eastern portion of the 
South Lancashire coal district in a north-westerly direction, and of these 
the principal fault, which has been already mentioned, as the Red-rock 
Fault of the valley of the Irwell, is visible between Clifton and Ringley 
on the bed of the river Irwell, about six miles to the north-west of Man- 
chester. In this locality, the precise direction of the Red-rock Fault 
has been ascertained to be N.W. by W.; and in the line of the fault, 
a considerable number of rectangular prisms of sandstone belonging to 
the coal formation are distinctly visible, symmetrically arranged in a 
vertical position, or steeply inclined, as if suddenly elevated. On the 
western side of the fault, at Clifton, the sandstones of the coal measures 
dip 10° to the S.S.W., and on the eastern side the red sandstone strata 
are nearly horizontal, or dip slightly to the $.S.W., thus showing nearly 
the same inclination of the strata on each side of the Red-rock Fault of 
the Irwell. 

The occurrence of the Red-rock Fault has occasioned a very remark- 
able displacement of the beds of coal in the valley of the Irwell, near 
Manchester. On the western side of the fault, the highest beds of coal 
in the carboniferous series of South Lancashire are worked, and the 
lower mines successively crop out between Manchester and Bolton, 
while the higher mines of the coal series are worked on the eastern 
side of the fault. If the level of the four-foot coal mine, one of the 
highest mines in the series, be traced from Worsley to the Red-rock 
Fault, it will be found that at Worsley the four-foot mine encounters 
a considerable fault of 400 yards, which changes its level to a more 
northerly position. A second fault, of 600 yards, again removes the 
level of the four-foot mine further north, and the level of the mine 
ranges towards the south-east as far as Pendleton. On the eastern side 
of the Red-rock Fault the level of the four-foot mine is found at Ring- 
ley, and the continuation of this level meets the Red-rock Fault near 
the junction of the Irwell and the Tong rivers. 

At Ratcliffe Bridge another fault, parallel to the great Red-rock Fault, 
crosses under the course of the river Irwell, and at Blackford Bridge, 
on the same river, another parallel fault occurs, accompanied with red 
sandstone rock, which is again succeeded by the ordinary coal measures. 

North of Bury, at Brandlesholme, on the river Irwell, two pa- 
rallel faults have been observed ranging near to each other, and 
parallel in their north-westerly direction to the great Red-rock Fault of 
the district. Above the first fault, at Brandlesholme, the inclination 
of the dark ferruginous shales is 14° or 15° N.E. by E., and, below the 
fault, sandstone strata succeed, with an inclination of 50° south. 

Beyond the dark ferruginous shales, sandstone strata occur, inclined, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81 


_ similarly to the inclination of the shales, at an angle of 15° or 20° N.E. 

by E., and in these sandstone strata the second fault is visible. Above 
the second fault, the dip of the sandstone strata is from 5° to 10° east. 
In the line of the second fault, the sandstone strata are projected ver- 
__ tically upwards, and are accompanied with ferruginous septaria. . The 
interval of about 6 feet, occasioned by the second fault, is filled up 
with ferruginous clay. 

On the opposite side of the Irwell, the sandstone strata are raised. 
vertically in the lines of these two faults, and are thus contrasted 
with the ordinary inclination of the sandstone strata, which is very 
gentle. 

The same faults are again visible on the river Roch, between Bury 
and Heywood, accompanied with similar phenomena to those observed 
at Brandlesholme. The sandstone rocks and black shales of the coal 
measures are found in a vertical position in the lines of the faults, 
while the general inclination of the carboniferous strata on each side 
of the fault is very gentle near Heywood, and does not exceed 10° 
towards the south-east. 

Many of the preceding details on the exact position of the strata 
in different localities have been taken from observations in several por- 
tions of South Lancashire, recently conducted by zealous and assidu- 
ous friends, at the request, and under the superintendence, of the 
author of this report. The author has here endeavoured to arrange 
and classify the materials of geological information which were afforded 
to him by the kind assistance of several proprietors of coal mines, and 
‘by other individuals well acquainted with the structure of the coal 
district. 

At Pendlebury, near Manchester, there are 21 beds of coal, whose 
total approximate thickness amounts to 25 yards, while the approximate 
thickness of the strata associated with the coal amounts to 1136 yards. 
Hence, the proportion of the beds of coal to the strata associated with 
the coal, is as 1 to 45 nearly. 

At Haigh, near Wigan, there are 27 beds of coal, whose total ap- 
proximate thickness amounts to 26 yards, while the total approximate 
thickness of the strata, associated with the coal, amounts to 1036 
_ yards, and the consequent proportion of the beds of coal to the 
associated strata, is as 1 to 40 nearly. 


On the Coal-Measures of West Lancashire. By W.C. WittiAmson. 


Mz. Williamson exhibited and explained several sections, combining 
the result of his own investigations with the practical observations of 
miners. A general section was exhibited, drawn up from observations at 
different points, of the saliferous and carboniferous strata, extending 
_ downwards nearly to the millstone grit. At Manchester the magnesian 
limestone almost disappears, merging with the clays of the lower new red 
sandstone, but contains the characteristic axinus obscurus and other fos- 
sils. The lower new red sandstone is unconformable to the coal-strata in 

VOL. vi. 1837. G 


82 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


the neighbourhood, the former dipping at the rate of about 16° and 
the latter 23°, no gradation consequently existing. At the top 
of the carboniferous strata is a series of limestones, (resembling 
those observed by Mr. Murchison at Lebotwood near Shrewsbury), 
described by Mr. Williamson in the Phil. Mag. of Sept. 1836, In- 
cluding the space occupied by these is an extent of 1400 feet 
of clays, sandstones, &c. forming the top of the series, before reach- 
ing any workable coal, when those of the small isolated coal field of 
Bradford* commence. Mr. Williamson supposes the portion of the car- 
boniferous group represented to be at least 6000 feet thick, whilst about 
400 feet more are wanting to complete the series down to the millstone 
grit of Phillips's Geol. of Yorkshire. The number of workable seams of 
coal averages about 21, having an aggregate thickness of about eighty 
feet. Towards the upper and middle portions of the series, the strata 
chiefly consist of shales, clays and sandstones, the latter often from thirty 
to seventy feet thick, and forming good building-stones, especially the 
‘Peel delph’ rock. At the depth of about 5000 feet flagstones prevail, 
corresponding with the upper flag measures of Yorkshire, and with 
them are two coarse grits, each about eighty feet thick. These re- 
pose upon a series of flags,t and the whole with their shales are based 
on the millstone grit. The remains of plants seem to be irregularly 
distributed ; Neuropteris cordata has only been found at the top. In 
some instances seams of coal appear characterized by an unusual pre- 
valence of plants, but are liable to much variation, Mr. Williamson has 
found remains of fish in connection with most of the coals from the upper- 
most limestone to the lowest coal in the ‘mountain mine.’ They chiefly 
consist of teeth of Diplodus gibbosus ; scales and teeth of Megalichthys 
Holopticus, two or three species ; Palgoniscus and allied genera, three 
or four species ; Coprolites, teeth and scales of singular forms and uncer- 
tain affinities. Unionid@ are generally diffused; but above the flag-series 
is a seam, three inches thick, entirely composed of individuals of a large 
species; and immediately above the mountain mine, is found Goniatites 
Listeri and Looneyi in large nodules, together with Pecten papyraceus. 
Mr. Williamson also exhibited several smaller sections, showing the varia- 
tions of the strata at similar heights above the same coal, and the im- 
possibility therefore of judging from mere isolated sections. The gene- 
ral resemblance, however, seems to show, that the various coal deposits 
are parts of one series, pushed up by the protrusion of the millstone 
grits. 


On the Dislocations of the Coal Strata in Wigan and the Vicinity. 
By Witttam PEACE. 


The district surrounding Wigan is intersected by a great number 
of faults or dislocations running nearly in straight lines, as shown on 
a map produced by the author. These faults, which run nearly pa- 
rallel to the magnetic meridian, and varying only about 10 degrees 
from it to the westward, dislocate the strata to a much greater ex- 


* Near Manchester. + The Haslingden flags. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83 


tent than the cross faults which run respectively S.E. and S.W.; and 
they also form, in many instances, the terminations of the cross faults, 
being rarely, if ever, crossed by them. The average ‘throw’ of the 
_ principal or northerly faults is about 340 yards, whilst that of the 
cross faults is only about 44 yards. Beginning at the easterly side 
of the map, which comprises about 50 square miles of the district, 
_and proceeding to the westward, the 

1st principal fault throws down the strata to westward . 171 yards 


- 2nd do. do. do. about 500 do. 
8rd do. throws up do. do. 340 do. 
4th do. throws down do. do. 440 do. 
5th do. throws up do. do. 540 do. 


and the sixth throws the strata up to the westward about 220 yards, — 
_ the average distance between them being about 1200 yards. The 
level and dip of the coal vary in each belt of strata respectively in- 
cluded between the main faults. Between the two most easterly of 
them the dip is nearly south, whilst between the second and third it is 
west, or at right angles to the former. The plan shows the variations 
of the dip and level in each belt of strata, the directions of which are 
indicated by blue lines. The lines of the subsidiary or cross faults 
generally form angles of from 30 to 60 degrees with the main fault, 

and searcely ever form right angles. The fault, or plane of dislocation, 
is rarely, if ever, found to be vertical, but deviates generally from that 
position from 20 to 40 degrees. It is also invariably found that the 
inclination of the plane of dislocation indicates the direction in which 
_ the strata are displaced. If, for instance, the vein of the fault slopes, 
forming an inclined plane, the foot of which is nearer the observer 
than the summit, the strata are in that case removed upwards; if, on 
the contrary, the plane of dislocation slopes from the observer, the 
strata are removed downwards, as shown by the Section. In all the 
seams of coal subjacent to the district comprised in Mr. Peace’s map, 
the direction of the cleavage of the coal strata in every seam is inva~ 
-riably N.W., and varies but a very few degrees; and in this important 
characteristic they correspond with many observations the author has 
- made in the coal districts of Yorkshire, South Wales, and elsewhere, 
which induce him to believe that it is an effect of one and the same 
_ cause acting simultaneously on the whole of our coal strata during 
_ their deposition. 


3 On that part of the South Welsh Coal Basin which lies between the Vale 
of Neath and Carmarthen Bay. In explanation of a geological map 
of the district, laid down by the author on the sheets of the Ordnance 
Survey. By Mr. Locan. 


The map exhibited the outcrops of the various seams of coal in the 
district in question, and the dislocations they suffer from faults. 
_ All the principal faults run in a north and south direction, and pre- 
sent an extraordinary degree of parallelism. 
They coincide with the joints of the rocks, and it is very usual 
G2 


84 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


before coming to a master fault, to meet with one, two, or more parallel 
smaller ones, throwing the measures up or down in the same direc- 
tion. 

The master faults appear in general to run across the whole basin, 
and to extend into the old red sandstone. 

Minor faults occasionally branch from the larger ones, and perhaps 
in some instances two very considerable faults merge into one. But 
it appears when such is the case both the faults throw the measures the 
same way. 

The dip of the measures is often different on the opposite sides of a 
fault ; hence it happens that running along the course of the fault the 
down-throw or up-throw necessarily increases or diminishes. 

There are instances of faults which, while they are considerable in 
the middle of their course, diminish to nothing at both extremes. 

The author observes, “I have been informed that there are faults 
which, while extensive at the outcrop of the measures where the beds 
dip with the greatest rapidity, diminish towards the centre of the basin, 
the beds on the opposite sides then crossing one another and reversing 
their relative positions; but Iam not able to point out any instance. 
Faults of this description might arise from horizontal movements, and 
there are symptoms of such movements in the limestone between 
Pwll Du Bay and the Mumbles Point.” 

The faults are seldom quite perpendicular, and it appears that in 
general their dip or underlie is towards the down-throw. Hence it 
would happen that when a block of strata lies between two up-throw 
faults, it would have the form of a wedge with the point downwards, 
and the two faults would vertically merge into one. No working in 
the Welsh coal basin has yet been deep enough to get to the bottom of 
any of these wedges. To this general direction of the underlie there 
are, however, many exceptions, particularly in the east and west faults 
occurring between the Turch and Tawe rivers, in the neighbourhood 
of the limestone irregularly thrown up in Cribbarth Mountain, and 
producing what are technically called leaves by the Welsh miner, a 
leaf being nothing more than the duplication or over-lapping of a bed, 
occasioned by a fault dipping at a very acute angle in respect to the 
horizontal plane towards the up-throw side. 

The faults are of various breadths, and it would be natural to sup- 
pose that those which produce the greatest step in the measures 
should be the widest. But there are instances where master faults 
are not more than a few inches wide; and others, where faults that 
occasion a step of only a few feet, are said to be a hundred yards or — 
upwards in breadth. But the author thinks the dimensions of these 
very wide faults are often exaggerated, as coal miners are accustomed 
to state the width of a fault to be the distance from good, solid, profit- 
able ground on the one side to the same on the other, while probably 
the disturbed part may include several small faults. 

Another circumstance connected with these faults is very import- 
ant. The coal on one side of a fault is frequently very different in 
quality, as respects the quantity of bitumen it may contain, from that 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85 


__ on the opposite side; and it is remarkable that the coal on the up- 
_ throw side of the fault contains the less quantity. 

In respect to the diversity that exists in the bituminous qualities of 
the coal from different parts of the South Welsh coal basin, it is well 
known that the non-bituminous, or stone coal, is found on the north 
side and at the west end; the bituminous coal on the south side and 
east end; and there is an intermediate region occupied by an interme- 
diate quality. 

Mr. Logan has lately ascertained that, in two or more of the prin- 
cipal collieries on the south side of the basin, near Swansea and 
Llansamlet, though the lower seams of coal carry their bitumen to 
points deeper in the earth than the higher ones, they begin to part 
with it at points further to the south. And it appears to him that 

_ these facts taken together, unless contradicted by further evidence, 

_ indicate the possibility of a rule in the change of quality; namely, 

_ that it occurs in parallel planes, cutting the seams of coal without 
regard to their strike or inclination, and dipping to the south or east of 
south. 

There are two anticlinal lines, one running from Pont ar Dawe by 
Mynydd golli wartad and Llangafillach to Rhyd y mardi; the other 
from Loughor along the road towards Swansea, and then through the 
colliery of Sir John Morris at Pentre. 

In the mountain limestone, on the south side of the basin, and to 

_ the east of Cefn bryn, there are two geological waves or edges run- 
_ ning east and west. 
The millstone grit appears above the mountain limestone, along the 
_ northern line of the basin ; and it is also seen, but not so distinctly, 
_ on the southern side in Gower, and in the fractures of the rock which 
_ there represents it in Cel ifor Hill, near Llawhedian, and a few miles 
eastward wavellite is found in abundance. 


_ On the Tidal Capacity of the Mersey Estuary—the Proportion of Silt 
held in solution during the Flood and Ebb circulations—the Excess 
of Deposit upon each Reflux, and the consequent Effect produced by 
the Matter thus detected in its transit, and measured at its lodgement, 
on the banks in Liverpool Bay; with Diagrams. By Captain 
Denuam, RN. 


_ Captain Denham states the area of the Mersey, from Rock to War- 
_ rington, to be 113,171,200 square yards, and its average channel ca- 
_ pacity 535,914,040 cubic yards, that mass of water circulating to and 
_ fro four times every 24 hours. The flood occupies 5° 20'. The ve- 
_ locity on the Narrows (from Seacombe to Prince’s Terrace) is from 

1 to 62 miles per hour, amounting to a transit of 233 on flood; the 
_ ebb is for 6" 30', velocity 3 to 7 miles per hour, and the amount of 
_ transit 29} miles. The greatest velocity on the flow is at the third 
hour; on the ebb, at the second: the impetus on the flow greater after 
the third hour than before; on the ebb, greatest on the first half ebb. 


86 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


The insoluble matter held in suspension by the columns of flood and 
ebb amounts to 29 cubic inches for each cubic yard of water on the 
flood, and 33 cubic inches on the ebb,—the matter on the ebb ex- 
ceeding that on the flood; so that 48,065 cubic yards of silt are de- 
tained by the banks outside the Rock Narrows each tide, except that 
part which the succeeding ebb disturbs. 

The excess of silt thus accumulated from the 730 refluxes of a year’s 
tides, amounts to 35,087,450 cubic yards, equivalent to a layer of 
mud, if equally disseminated, 21 inches thick over the first tidal area ; 
one-third, however, of this is disturbed and carried over the second 
tide area; and, further, the deposit is lessened by the natural shrink- 
ing as it is consolidated (namely, into half its original bulk). The 
annual tangible deposit is therefore 11,695,817 cubic yards, which, 
equally disseminated, would produce a uniform increase-of the banks, 
and decrease of water, in the Channel, of 7 inches. The subsidence, 
however, is not in equal proportions, but is directed towards certain 
knolls, margins of banks, and: elongated spits, which protrusions cause 
scouring and choakings of particular channel-beds. Captain Denham 
further pointed out instances of the rapid filling up of certain channels, 
as well as the changes due to sudden change of circumstances, and the 
importance of preserving the present conditions of the harbour, inas- 
much as regards the continuance of the present back-water in its full 
amount. The cross-set of the Irish Channel limits the extension 
outwards of the shoals; but notwithstanding this fortunate natural 
safety-valve, any neglect of those regulations which tend to check 
encroachments on the Channel, would so far facilitate the natural 
tendency to fill up, that in a very short period the part might, be 
closed. Captain Denham pointed out the advantages of the new 
channel as compared with the old. That channel was discovered by 
himself, and is in itself an illustration of the resulting effects of the 
modification of the contour of the general tidal channel, and of the 
benefit to: be derived from closely watching the operations, whether 
natural or artificial, by which it may in any way be altered. 

In 1836, the new channel admitted 8208 vessels, 4077 of which 
could not without it have got in or out under four hours’ delay upon 
each tide. In April 1837, 1571 vessels passed, 760 of which could 
not have passed any other way. The post-office packets have passed 
directly to and fro, with thirty-five exceptions, which exceptions, in 
1832, amounted to 261, involving the necessity of transferring the 
mail and passengers by tender or boat. And, further, out of 29000 
vessels that entered the port in the last two years, only nineteen had 
experienced serious difficulties. 

Having thus shown the surplus quantity of mud which is at each 
tide deposited and added to the banks,—the natural tendency result- 
ing from this accumulation to fill up the channel,—the fortunate ex- 
istence, under the influence of the present conditions of the tidal or 
water-way, of a good and available channel, and the paramount neces- 
sity of securing the existence of that channel by allowing no such 
alteration in the boundaries of the water-way as should, by lessening 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87 


the back-water, diminish the scouring of the reflux tide, or, by alter- 
ing the form of the river-shores, tend to throw the current into new 
directions, and to stop up the existing channels; Captain Denham 
strongly urged the propriety of a power, vested in local guardians, 
to interfere whenever attempts should be made to encroach by em- 
bankments, or in any other way, on the present high-water-marks, as, 
in the present state of the law, a vital injury might be done to the port 
before an injunction could be obtained to restrain such dangerous 
operations. Captain Denham then explained and exhibited the simple 
gauge by which he had drawn up the water from various depths, to 
test the quantity of earthy matter suspended in it, and thus to mea- 
sure at once simply and effectually, the aggregate quantity silently and 
almost imperceptibly circulating with the waters of this great estuary, 
and to deduce, with certainty, the practical as well as geological re- 
sults of a continuance of the action of such natural causes under their 
present circumstances, and of the probable effect of any artificial 
modification of them. This instrument is a cylinder, seventeen inches 
long, and four in diameter, having a valve at each end, the lower 
Opening inwards, the upper outwards; so that on descending, both 
valves would be opened by the pressure of the water, which would 
flow freely through the cylinder, and, on ascending, both valves would 
be closed, and the water which had entered at the lowest point of its 
descent, retained within it. The samples of water were taken up at half- 
hour intervals during the whole of the flood and ebb, and at depths in 
each series from six feet to thirty. The waters were more turbid at 
two hours’ flood, and at two, three, four hours’ ebb, and the water at 
thirty feet depth contained 4, more of silt than at other depths. 
Thirty feet being the height of the spring-tide column, that was the 
maximum depth gauged. 


On the Changes which have taken place in the Levels of Scotland. 
By Mr. J. Smitu. 


Mr. Smith stated that there was abundance of evidence that changes 
had taken place in the relative levels of land and sea in Great Britain, 
as well as elsewhere. The phenomena, however, proving this fact had 
been involved in confusion under the title of diluvium; but he had full 
reason, from a careful examination of the fossils, to decide that much of 
these deposits belonged to the tertiary series, and not to the more recent 
deposits called diluvium. He had traced them in the county of Ayr, 
and indeed all round Scotland, the general height being 40 feet, though 
Mr. Gilbertson had stated an instance in which such a deposit had 
been found at 300 feet; from its generality, however, he considered 
40 feet to have been the height of a distinct ridge or deposit. Finely 
_ laminated clay is a principal member of this deposit, and from the pro- 
portion of extinct and recent species, in the whole 113 species of shells, 
which he had discovered, he considered the deposit to agree with the 
Newer Pleiocene of Messrs. Lyell and Deshayes. 


88 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


On an Apparent Analogy between the New Red Sandstone of England 
and Ireland. By Captain Porttock. 


Capt. Portlock pointed out that he had first brought under the no- 
tice of geologists, at the Dublin Meeting of the Association, the occur- 
rence of fossil fishes in the new red sandstone of Tyrone. These he 
submitted to Professor Agassiz, who considered them a new species of 
the genus Paleoniscus, which he named Paleoniscus catopterus. As 
the genus Palzoniscus extends into the coal strata, Capt. Portlock 
wished to obtain some further evidence as to the true position of the 
sandstone containing these fossils. On excavating for this purpose all 
round the limited space in which the fishes had been found, he failed 
in meeting any more fishes, but he arrived on the same level in the 
quarry at thin red clay partings, exhibiting numerous impressions of a 
small bivalve shell, which both Mr. Strickland and Mr. Murchison on 
examination considered identical with the bivalve they had found ina 
portion of the new red sandstone of England, considered by them to 
belong to the keuper division of that great formation. This shell is 
the Posidonia minuta of Goldfuss, and is given by that author as a 
keuper fossil. According to Bronn, however, it is not confined to the 
keuper; and Capt. Portlock considers therefore the discovery of this 
shell in the Irish new red sandstone as valuable, inasmuch as it esta- 
blishes a general analogy between it and that of England, but he does 
not consider it sufficient alone to decide that the sandstone containing 
it belongs to the keuper. 


e 


On the leading features of the Geology of Ireland, and more particu- 
larly the situation and extent of the great Carboniferous or Mountain 
Limestone district, which occupies nearly two-thirds of the Island. 
By R. Grirritu, F.G.S., Se. 


In illustration of the succession of rocks which compose this extend- 
ed formation he brought forward a great section of the country, com- 
mencing on the sea coast below Benbulben, in the county of Sligo, and 
extending from thence nearly in an eastern direction to Butler’s Bridge, 
in the county of Cavan, a distance of 50 miles. This section, which 
exhibited in a very striking manner the profile of one of the most re- 
markable secondary districts in Ireland, and which crossed the sum- 
mits of Lacka, Lugnaquilla, Cuileceagh and Slieve Rushin Mountains, 
was laid down to a scale of 6 inches to a mile in length and 200 feet 
to an inch in height; the data for its construction, both for the heights 
and distances, having been taken from the Ordnance Survey. 

In describing this section, Mr. Griffith stated that the grauwacke 
slate of the county of Cavan was succeeded to the west of Butler’s 
Bridge by a series of strata, consisting of alternations of carboniferous 
limestone, yellowish grey sandstone and dark grey shale, amounting to 
a thickness of about 200 feet. These strata, to which Mr. Griffith gave 
the name of the yellow sandstone, rest unconformably on the grau- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89 


wacke slate, and are considered to form the first or lowest member of 
the carboniferous limestone series of Ireland. 

In other localities, particularly in the county of Donegal, north of 
Ballyshannon, the strata belonging to this, the lowest members were 
stated to be of much greater thickness, and to contain with the lime- 
stone beds alternations of coarse-grained conglomerate, having a yel- 
low or brownish-yellow base. 

At Belturbet, in the line of section, the yellow sandstone series is 
succeeded by the lower limestone, which consists of a succession of beds 
of carboniferous limestone, more or less pure, and varying in colour 
from light smoke grey to dark blueish grey; these strata amount to a 
thickness of 350 feet in the line of section. 

In other localities in Ireland the lower limestone contains abundance 


_ of black and occasionally grey and reddish mottled marbles of various 


tints, and the whole series abounds with marine fossils similar to those 
which occur in the mountain limestone of Derbyshire, north of York- 
shire, Northumberland, &c. 

. Above the lower limestone we have a series of beds, consisting of 
alternations of black or dark grey shale, dark blueish grey impure lime- 
stone, and yellowish and occasionally reddish grey sandstone, altogether 
400 feet in thickness. 

These peculiar strata, which occur also in the limestone formation in 
the neighbourhood of Dublin, have received the name of Calp from 
Mr. Kirwan, and Mr. Griffith adopted that name to distinguish this 
particular division of the carboniferous limestone. 

In the line of section, the calp series which succeeds the lower lime- 
stone to the west of Belturbet occupies the country as far as Ballycon- 
nell, situated at the base of Slieve Rushin Mountain, where it is suc- 
' eeeded by the upper or splintery limestone, which in this mountain is 
420 feet in thickness; while in Cuilceagh Mountain, situated to the west 
of Swanlinbar, it is 600 feet in thickness. 

The upper or splintery limestone is distinguished from the lower by 
its numerous crags and mural precipices, which often present the cha- 
racter of rude columnar facades; it is usually cavernous, and the 
streams falling from higher elevations are frequently lost in fissures, 
and flow through subterranean channels, till at length they burst forth 
from the lower strata of the series, and flow down the more gentle de- 
clivities of the calp shale beneath them. 

The Great River Shannon has its source in a cavern of the upper 
limestone, which is situated at the western base of Cuilceagh Mountain, 
at an elevation of 342 feet above the level of the sea. 

_ This limestone is equally abundant in fossils with the lower, and 
nearly the whole of the species and varieties which occur in one have 
equally been discovered in the other. 

The splintery limestone forms the upper member of the carbonife- 
rous limestone series, which, in the line of section exhibited, amounts 
to a total thickness of 1750 feet. 

On the summit of Slieve Rushin, and at the Cave of Pulgulm, situ- 
ated on the eastern declivity of Cuileeagh Mountain, and several other 


90 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


localities in the line of section, the carboniferous limestone series is 
succeeded by the mill-stone grit formation. In Cuilceagh Mountain, 
where the series is best developed, the lowest member consists of three 
great beds, or successions of beds, of yellowish white quartzy sandstone, 
having beds of black shale interposed between each ; these beds amount 
altogether to a thickness of 500 feet: they are succeeded by a series 
of beds composed of black shale, which in the lower region of the 
mountain alternate with dull grey earthy limestone, containing varieties 
of Producte, Spiriferee, Orthoceras, &c. 

As we ascend, the limestone beds gradually disappear, and in lieu of 
them we find the shale to alternate with thick beds of argillaceous iron- 
stone, and occasionally with septaria of ironstone; the shale beds con- 
tain a profusion of fossils, the most abundant of which is a variety of 
Posidonia, but several species of Goniatites, and a remarkably small 
species of Orthoceras also occur. 

Still continuing to ascend, the ironstone beds become thin and at 
length disappear, and the upper portion, amounting to a thickness of 
about 250 feet, consists altogether of fine-grained black shale, contain- 
ing organic remains, but particularly Posidonia, but not so abundantly 
as in the lower beds, which alternate either with the impure limestone 
or the ironstone. 

This great shale, which is altogether 700 feet in thickness, is suc- 
ceeded by an accumulation of beds of yellowish white sandstone, about 
250 feet thick; in the lower portion, next the shale, the sandstone beds 
are thin, and alternate with sandstone, slate, and shale ; the upper con- 
sists of thick beds of yellowish white quartzy sandstone, some of which 
are rather coarse grained, and assume the true character of mill-stone 

rit. 
‘i This rock, which forms the summit of Cuilceagh Mountain, and is 
elevated 2188 feet above the level of the sea*, occasionally contains 
vegetable organic remains, particularly some varieties of Stigmaria. 

In the line of section to the west of the Valley of the Shannon, the 
mill-stone grit beds are succeeded by a series of beds, consisting of 
shale and sandstone, with bituminous coal, amounting altogether to 200 
feet in thickness. 

In shale beds throughout contain casts of Posidoniz, Producte, Or- 
thoceras, and occasionally a very minute variety of Trilobite ; and it is 
remarkable that the whole of the fossil organic remains which occur in 
the upper members of the series above the coal, are unusually minute 
in their dimensions, so much so as to give rise to the idea that they be- 
long to a dwindled species which existed possibly in brackish water, 
which, being uncongenial to their nature, prevented their full develop- 
ment. 

(In illustration of this paper the author exhibited his large geolo- 
gical map of Ireland.) 


* Ordnance Survey. 


RON tS Bt werner Se 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91 


Mr. Elias Hall brought forward and explained a mineral map of 
Derbyshire. 

The principal object of Mr. Hall’s remarks was to prove that there 
were three distinct beds of toadstone, dividing the limestone into four 
beds ; and that, taking the regular continuity of the strata into consi- 
deration, it was improbable that the beds of toadstone could be of vol- 


_ eanic origin. 


The direction of the lead veins Mr. Hall stated to be 25° west of 
the magnetic meridian, varying, however, on the south to a direction 
nearly at right angles to the former. He noticed the occurrence of 
lead actually in the toadstone—a vein passing through it—and ob- 
served that Mr. Mawe, who had contradicted this fact, had visited the 
wrong pit, and therefore missed seeing the phenomenon. 


On the Fishes of the Ludlow Rocks, or Upper Beds of the Silurian 
System. By Mr. Murcuison. 


Mr. Murchison briefly explained, that the various remains of fishes 
which he had collected in the uppermost beds of the Silurian System, 
and immediately below their junction with the old red sandstone, having 
been referred to M. Agassiz, had been formed by him into the follow- 
ing genera: Onchus, Pterygotus, Plectrodus, Sclerodus, Thelodus, and 
Sphagodus. Of these genera (drawings of which were exhibited ), the 
two first mentioned only have been found in the overlying old red 
sandstone, but the species in the Silurian rocks are distinct*. These 
new forms are very remarkable as being the most ancient beings of 
their class which geological researches have brought to light; Mr. 
Murchison never having discovered any trace of fishes in the underly- 
ing formations of the Silurian System. They are associated with 
_ shells, crinoidea, and numerous small coprolites, all of which will be 
figured in Mr. Murchison’s forthcoming work “The Geology of the 
Silurian Region.” Dr. Lloyd, the Rev. T. T. Lewis, and Mr. R. W. 
Evans, were alluded to as having greatly aided the author in collecting 


these remains. 


On the Refrigeration of the Earth. By W. Horxins, F.G.S. 


Mr. Hopkins stated that, though it might be difficult to reconcile to 
the mind the idea that the earth we see and stand on was once a fluid 
mass of igneous matter, and is, in fact, now a great cinder, yet that 
the evidence in favour of such a theory had convinced some of the 
greatest philosophers. The fact, indeed, of the original fluidity of the 
earth is established by its form, since, if fluid, it must, as a body re- 
volving on an axis, have deviated from a globular form, and such is 


* The Pterygotus of the Ludlow Rocks is supposed by M. Agassiz to belong to the 
same genus of fishes as the remarkable form which occurs in the lower beds of the 
old red sandstone of Scotland, and is there called by the workmen “ Seraphim.” 


92 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


proved to be the case by geodetic observations and calculations ; and 
that this fluidity has been at least partially preserved, may be inferred 
from the phenomena of Basaltic Dykes evidently protruded since the 
deposition of the strata they traverse. The inquiry, therefore, into the 
temperature of the earth, at various epochs, is closely connected with 
that into the mode of its cooling. In entering on this it must be 
remembered, that though natural causes are permanent, the conditions 
under which they act may not be so, and hence also the effects may 
vary. The processes, for instance, will be different, according as the 
cooling is effected, in a fluid or in a solid body. If in a fluid, the re- 
frigeration will be by circulation, and there will be a period at which 
that circulation must stop ; but whether beginning by the surface or 
centre, may admit of doubt; for if the temperature of the surface be 
the least, the pressure is there also the least ; and if the temperature 
of the centre be the greatest, the pressure is there also the greatest ; 
and henee, as the expansive force of heat, and the pressure of gravita- 
tion are two opposing forces, the one resisting, and the other promo- 
ting solidification, that solidification will commence at the surface or at 
the centre, according as the one or the other shall preponderate ; but 
at present evidence is insufficient to decide for one or the other; whilst 
the process of refrigeration was effected by circulation, the upper, or 
heavier (being cooled) particles would descend, and the lower, or hotter, 
ascend; but at the instant when the process of circulation ceased, 
the further cooling would be effected by conduction. According, 
therefore, to the different processes assumed as having operated the 
change of temperature of the earth, the earth may be viewed as, 

Ist. Entirely solid, and cooling by conduction. 

Qnd. As having solidified first at the centre, the pressure there over- 
coming the expansive force ; and next, at the surface, the depression of 
temperature there more than compensating for the low pressure, and 
thus placing a fluid annulus between a solid nucleus and a solid crust ; 
and, 

3rd. As having solidified first at the surface ; a solid crust surround- 
ing a fluid centre. But as the laws by which consolidation and refrige- 
ration are regulated are as yet very imperfectly understood, the ques- 
tion is still one of doubt. 

Mr. Hopkins further remarked, that the increase of temperature on 
descending into the earth was apparently established as a fact; the 
question was, whether that increase was due to central heat, and the 
evidence is yet insufficient to solve it. M. Poisson, indeed, considers 
that it is almost impossible that heat should so increase to the centre, 
for at the temperature, which would be the result, the expansive force 
would be so great that no crust could resist it: and he has, therefore, 
advanced the hypothesis, that such temperature is not due to central 
heat, but that the whole solar system is now passing from a hotter to a 
colder portion of space, and is consequently losing the heat it had 
acquired in its passage; an hypothesis which has, however, met with 
powerful opponents. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93 


On the Phenomena exhibited by the Plastic Clay Formation in the 
vicinity of Poole, Dorsetshire. By the Rev. W. D. CLarKe. 


Mr. Clarke stated that it was his object to show that the plastic 
clay had partaken of the movements and dislocations which had rup- 
tured the chalk and subjacent strata; and further, that the denuda- 
tions which the plastic clay had experienced were also dependent on the 
process by which the bearings and fracture of the beds had been 
affected ; or, in other words, that aqueous denudations had here been 
the result of subterraneous movements, and not of any independent rush 
of water, such as a diluvial current. The plastic clay series, near 
Poole, consists of beds of sand and clay, the pipe clay containing much 
alum, iron, and manganese ; and having, at an ancient date, been exten- 
sively worked. Many of the sands rival in intensity of colour those of 
Alum Bay, and some, as at the red rock of Studland, are highly inclined. 
Between Purbeck and the Wiltshire Avon the whole country consists of 
hills of sand and clay, interspersed with valleys and deep furrows, there 
being apparently not a particle of calcareous matter. The district is 
completely barren, and curiously wild ; vegetable remains are extremely 
abundant, chiefly in the marls or clays, sometimes in a hard siliceous 
sand, which has been cemented into a sandstone by ferruginous matter. 
Some of the beds of sand have been so firmly cemented as te afford 
very good building stones, and Mr. Clarke thinks that the greywea- 
thers of Wiltshire, of which Stonehenge is composed, were portions 
of beds belonging to the plastic clay. Mr. Clarke remarked that 
specimens of sand from a depth of 148 feet (or 138 feet below the 
harbour level) contained flint, quartz, slate, and wood; and that it 
was consequently a drift sand, brought, as he believed, by currents 
from the West. The probable thickness of the plastic clay is 600 
feet, and there can be little doubt that it originally filled up the basin 
in which it now lies, having occupied the bed of some lake or gulph, 
—the sea, the boundary of the ancient beach, being apparently mar- 
gined by a bed of pebbles. Since its deposition the plastic clay has 
been scooped out by the action of water, so that the whole country is 

_eut up into a great number of hills and hollows. The harbour of 
Poole occupies one of these valleys, the sea having occupied a great 
depression in the line of the Purbeck range, which appears to have 
been the result of two faults, the space between them having dipped 
outwards. Many deep, dry furrows are met with along the edge of this 
descent. The furrows on the surface are neither ascribed by Mr. Clarke 
to diluvial action nor to the action of springs; but are considered as. 
primarily cracks, or fissures, the consequence of elevatory disturbances, 
or of faults. From a comparison of the phenomena exhibited by the 
eracks, faults, and joints of the chalk and plastic clay beds, Mr. Clarke 
comes to the conclusion, that the plastic clay was elevated with the 
chalk, either at once, or by successive impulses of the subterranean 
forces ; and consequently that the strata below the chalk have in the 
south of England been elevated since the tertiary period. 

The gravel which caps the hills and islands consists principally of 


94 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


chert, and appears to have a western origin ; but there are also in it 
fragments of tertiary pudding stone, and water-worn masses of grey 
weathers belonging to the plastic clay, the result of local degradation. 
This gravel has itself been subjected to erosion, the hollows having 
been filled up with transported matter of similar, though altered cha- 
racter. Sothat there is evidence here of two periods of drifts, and per- 
haps three currents, which were probably connected with three impulses 
of elevation. Mr. Clarke mentioned several facts relating to Poole 
harbour. The land is there gaining on the sea, the town now oceupy- 
ing ground where fifty years ago there was deep water; andin a well 
bored a year ago, about a furlong from the sea, in one of the streets, 
Mr. Clarke found at six feet below the surface, sea-weed, and a stake 
and post, evidently part of an old embankment. The Bar also, which 
lies off the entrance to the harbour, has advanced between 1785 and 
1829, (that is in forty-four years,) half a nautical mile, or about 
forty-six yards per annum ; and as it still continues to advance, and 
is now not a nautical mile from the cliffs of Old Harry, it is probable 
that unless a new channel can be made the harbour may in process 
of time be closed. The Dunes or Sand hills are on the increase, a 
new series having grown up in five years on the south side of the 
entrance, which rivals those of the north; and it is remarkable that 
the valleys in these dunes correspond with the prevailing winds; which 
points to the probability that the same cause may have operated in the 
ancient strata before their consolidation. That elevations and depres- 
sions have taken place within recent times on the shores of Poole Har- 
bour, may be proved by the occurrence of beds of peat at the very 
edge of, and in the water itself. The whole valley of the Bourne, 
for three miles from the sea, contains beds of peat from ten to twenty 
feet thick, with huge trees of oak, beech, hazel, &c., none of which now 
grow in the valley; and a Roman Via now terminates at about half a 
mile from the northern head of Hole’s Bay in what is now a marsh 
and extensive peat bog, although it can scarcely be supposed that this 
road could have had originally such a termination, the probability 
being that it led, at its formation, to a landing-place. 


On some Fossil Wood and Plants recently discovered by the Author of 
this Memoir low down in the G'rauwacke of Devon, being one of the 
results of an attempt to determine the relative age and order of the 
Culm/field and its Floriferous Shales and Sandstones. By the Rev. 
D. Wittiams, F.G.S. 


The author stated that he produced the specimens of fossil wood 
and plants in compliance with a recommendation of the committee of 
of the Geological Section of the Bristol Meeting. From his examina- 
tion of the strata in North Devon and the Quantock Hills, he had con- 
structed the following 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95 


_Proportionate View and Tabular Order of Superposition of the 
re Members of the Grauwacke System of North Devon and 
omerset. 


| Floriferous and culmiferous sandstones and shales—a. An- 
thracite. F 


Wavellite schistus and limestones, the former cleaving into 
parallelograms, 


) Trilobite slates; abundantly fossiliferous, 


Wollacombe sandstones, and purple slates—containing fossil 
wood and plants. 


=| Morthoe quartz and roofing slates, with subordinate lime- 
stones. 


>> 
—— 


AAAS LAA 


WANES 


Hard, red, siliceous slate-rock of Trentishoe. 


Linton slates and limestones. 
b.Arenaceous slate, andconglomerate bed of limestone pebbles. 


“) Foreland and Dunkerry sandstones, thick bedded, coarse 
grained, and confluent. 

“| Doddington and Over-Stowey limestones. 
____.—.---) Foreland and Dunkerry sandstones. 

POOKIE 


Cannington Park limestone. 

Respecting this Section, and the distribution of the remains of 
_ plants in the several parts of it, the author enters into detail, and 
_ presents arguments in favour of his opinion, that the culmiferous series 
of Devon cannot be ‘separated from the subjacent rocks of the Grau- 
_wacke series, either by mineral characters, relation of strata, or 
organic reliquiz. His final conclusion, after a rapid comparison of the 
- Devon series of rocks and fossils with those of other districts, is thus 
_ expressed :—“ These several considerations, added to the strong colla- 
teral and positive testimony of the wood and plants from the Sherwell 
_ sandstones, throw such accumulated weight in the scale of the hypo- 
- thesis, that the culm and fossil flora of Devon belong at least to the 
upper Grauwacke (below the old red sandstone and mountain lime- 
stone), that he apprehends that geologists cannot hesitate to accept 
_ them provisionally as such, till far stronger facts and evidences than 
_ they are at present possessed of shall justify admitting them as a true 
‘contemporaneous equivalent for the carboniferous limestone proper, 
_ and its upper great coal field.” 


96 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


On the Bituminous Coal Field of Pennsylvania. By HARDMAN 
PHILLIPS. 


This coal field is situated on the western slope of the Alleghany 
mountains. It commences in Tioga county and thence extends in a 
south-westerly direction to, and even beyond, the Ohio river, embracing 
a space of about 200 miles in length, and 30 in breadth. The coal is 
usually found above the level of the waters, running through every 
secondary hill in two, three, or four strata, according to the height of 
the hill, the veins being usually 4ft. 2in., 6ft., or 9ft. thick. There is 
great variety in the quality of the coal, that found near the centre of 
the field being decidedly the best. The lowest vein in that district is 
of very superior quality, much resembling the Newcastle coal, but 
still more friable, and contains more bitumen. Its specific gravity is 
1-279. An analysis of this coal made by Walter R. Johnson, Professor 
of Geology, Mineralogy and Chemistry in the Franklin Institute of 
Philadelphia, afforded 224 per cent. of volatile matter. Other veins 
are harder and heavier. The coal of this field is used in Pittsburg 
and Cewhe county for rolling iron, but not for smelting ores. On 
that subject, Professor Johnson, in a letter which Mr. H. Phillips has 
received from him since he has been in England, says,— 

«“ The manufacturers along the Little Imiata are looking with much 
interest to the completion of their railroad, so that they may receive 
the coal for their various works, smelting furnaces as well as forges, 
some of which (the Union works for example) are now hauling char- 
coal 10 and 12 miles, accompanied with great expense and vexation. 
They are determined to try coke as soon as it can be obtained. In 
that part of Huntingdon county, where charcoal is becoming so scarce, 
there is the greatest abundance I have any where encountered of rich 
iron ore (the brown hydrate). In some places I saw them raising it 
in open quarries, blasting it with gunpowder, from beds varying from 
5 to 30 feet in thickness, of nearly pure ore ; and though all which I 
visited were not so rich as that to which I have just referred, yet I no 
where in this part of Huntingdon county heard any intimation of a 
lack of that material.” 

The mode of digging the coal is very simple. As the lowest stra- 
tum lies above the surface of the valley, it is only necessary to open 
the vein, run level drifts into the hills and take the coal out on tempo- 
rary railways. The general dip is very slight, only about one inch in 
a yard; but at the north-eastern extremity in Tioga county, and gene- 
rally near the summit of the Alleghany mountains, the measures sud- - 
denly crop out an angle of about 30° from a horizontal line. The 
coal is accompanied by the usual deposits of fire clay and grey lime- 
stone in nodules, the former in veins of 18 inches, and the latter 6 
inches in thickness. 


In addition to the papers read, Dr. Jeffreys submitted to the Section 
a collection of bones and teeth, including those of rats, cats, sheep, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97 


dogs, horses or cows, bears, hyzenas, rhinoceros, and also the tooth of 
a tiger, found in a bed of diluvium which fills a cave of the carbon- 
iferous limestone at the Cefre Rocks in Denbighshire, in the estate of 
Mr. Lloyd of Cefre, about three miles from St. Asaph. 

__ Mr. Gilbertson placed on the table many very interesting, and pro- 
bably new fossils from the mountain limestone, and Mr. Dawson a 
collection of fossils from New South Wales. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 


Mr. Gould exhibited drawings of new Birds from Australia and 
other parts of the world. He proceeded to make some remarks on the 
family Trogonide. This family, he stated, might be regarded as strictly 
tropical, and by far the greater number of species inhabited South 
America ; none of those inhabiting Asia and Africa having any specific 
relation to those of America. It is a remarkably isolated group, no 
_ direct affinity with other forms having been discovered. In organiza- 
tion and economy they are perhaps nearest the Caprimulgide. They 
_ inhabit the most retired and gloomy forests, remaining secluded during 
the day, and appearing at night ; evening and morning being the only 
_ time in which they take their prey. They usually feed on insects, 
capturing them during flight, but sometimes they feed on berries. 
_ They incubate in the holes of trees, and, like the majority of Fissiros- 
_ tral birds, produce white eggs. The tribe present among themselves 
_ but little difference of structure. There are, however, well-marked 
divisions according to their geographical range. Mr. Swainson divides 
_ them into five minor groups, 7rogon, Harpactes, Apaloderma, Tem- 
_ nurus, and Calurus. The species of bird that Mr. Gould presented be- 
_ fore the Section belonged to the latter group, and he proposed to call 
it Calurus Peruvianus. This sub-genus comprises the most beautiful 
_ birds of the whole family, and perhaps in the creation ; it contains five 
_ species, only one of which until lately had been characterized. The 
present species, although it has not the lengthened upper tail-feathers 
_ of the C. resplendens, (which was exhibited), yet its relations to that 
species were sufficiently obvious. For this species he had been in- 
_  debted to the researches of the indefatigable and scientific French tra- 
_ veller, M. D’Orbigny, who had recently returned from Peru. 


On Filaria. By the Rev. W. Hore. 


_ In this communication more than forty genera of insects were 
mentioned in which these parasitic worms had been found, and tables 


'_ were exhibited containing the names of all the authenticated species, 


and authorities given for all the recorded instances, as well as could 


be ascertained. 


VOL. Vi. 1837. H 


98 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


On the Metamorphism of a Species of Crustacean, allied to Palamon. 
By Captain Ducanr, R.N. 


The remarks and observations of Captain Ducane tended to confirm 
Mr. V. Thompson’s discovery, published some years since, of the ex- 
istence of metamorphosis in this class of animals. (Captain Ducane 


was tequested by the Committee to continue and extend his observa- 
tions.) 


On the Sclerotie Bones forming the Orbit of the Eye in different Birds 
and Reptiles. By 'T. Auuis. 


This paper, which requires illustrations by drawings, will be printed 
entire in the Transactions of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, in 
whose Museum Mr. Allis’s collection is preserved. 


Notice of Argas Persicus, a species of Bug, found in Mianneh, in Per- 
sia, and reported to be poisonous. By Dr. TRAILL. 


On the Production of Cataract by a Worm. By Professor OwEN» 
Communicated by the Rev. F. W. Horr. 


On Limax Variegatus in the Human Intestines. By Dr. Davin 
WILLIAMS. 


The author gave a statement of a young woman who had voided a 
large slug, after having suffered great pain. The slug, which was ex- 
hibited, appeared to be Limazx variegatus. It was dead when voided, 
but quite unaltered. 

Dr. Billingham gave a corrected description of Trichocephalus dispar, 
noticed the discrepancy of opinion between English and continental 
observers as to the frequency of its occurrence in the intestines of man, 
and recorded the result of his own examination of twenty-eight indivi- 
duals who died during the last twelve months, in St. Vincent’s Hospital, 
Dublin ; eleven of whom were males, and seventeen females, of various 
ages, from 8 years to ’70. The worms were found in the large intes- 
tines of twenty-five of these subjects, in a greater or less number, from 
2or3to119. The three individuals whose intestines contained no 
worms were females, and had been taking certain metallic medicines, 
which may be supposed to be capable of destroying intestinal worms. 


Nothing felt by the individuals during life indicated the presence of 
worms in the intestines. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99 


A Simple Method of destroying Insects which attach Books and MSS. 
By Sir Tuomas Putures, Bart. Communicated by the Rev. 
F. W. Hope. 


“ My library being much infested with insects, particularly Anobia, 
I have for some time turned my attention to the modes of destroying 
them, in the course of which I observed that the larva of these beetles 
does not seek the paper for food, nor the leather, but the paste. To 
prevent their attacks, therefore, in future bound books, the paste used 
should be mixed up with a solution of corrosive sublimate, or, indeed, 
with any other poisonous ingredient. But to catch the perfect insects 
themselves I adopt the following plan: Anobium striatum commonly 
deposits its ova in beech wood, and is more partial, apparently, to that 
than any other wood. I have beech planks cut, and smear them 
" over, in summer, with pure fresh paste (z.e. not containing anything 
poisonous) ; I then place them in different parts of the library, where 
they are not likely to be disturbed; the beetles flying about the room 
in summer time readily discover these pieces of wood, and soon deposit 
their eggs in them. In winter (chiefly) the larva is produced, and 
about January, February, and March, I discover what pieces of wood 
contain any larvee, by the saw-dust lying under the planks, or where it 
is thrown up in hillocks on the top of them, All the wood which is 
attacked is then burnt for fire-wood; by this simple method I have 
nearly extirpated Anobia from my library. I am of opinion that a 
single specimen in a book of an impregnated female will soon destroy 
any volume should it remain undisturbed. There are also two other 
kinds of beetle in my library; one is a small brown beetle, and is pro- 
_bably a Tomicus, or some closely allied species. The second species 
was imported from Darmstadt, or Frankfort on the Maine. It is six 
times larger than the former, of a black colour, with white spots or 
stripes, and belongs to one of the modern genera of Curculionide. It 
appears to be partial to books bound in oak boards; it is not abundant, 
but very destructive.” 


) Mr. Sandbach exhibited specimens of a new Prionites from Mexico, 

which he proposed to call P. superciliosus, from its having a broad blue 
band above the eye. He also exhibited a new species of Titmouse, 
supposed to be from Mexico, and which he proposed naming Parus 
_ melanotus. 


Mr. J. E. Gray exhibited and described some rare and interesting 
Mammalia, which he had noticed in the Museum of the Royal Institu- 
tion of Liverpool. They consisted of a young specimen of Thylacinus 
 eynocephalus, old and young individuals of the Antilope Philantomba 
of Smith, specimens of Phoca Leonina, 12 feet long, of Felis gracilis, and 
_ of Felis Javensis. To these were added aspecimen from Demerara 
allied to the Otter, which Mr. Gray considered as forming an entirely 
H2 


100 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


new genus, of a very remarkable form, serving to connect the already 
established genera of Lwtra and Anhydra, which he called Pteronura 
Sambachii. 


Mr. J. E. Gray exhibited some new land shells observed by him in 
the Collection of the Royal Institution of Liverpool. One was stated 
to be a new genus, intermediate between Helix and Anostoma. ‘The 
others were new species, which he proposed to designate by the names 
of Achatina turrita, Carocolla filomarginata (from India), and Palu- 
dina Yatesii, this last being the largest and one of the most beautiful of 
the genus. Mr. Gray also exhibited a specimen of Unio Roisii, Mitch., 
which had been recently discovered by Mr. Wm. Gilbertson, near 
Boughton, in Craven. ' 


Specimens of wood, from the New Pier of Southampton, penetrated 
by Limnoria terebrans, were exhibited by Mr. W. S. MacLeay, F.R.S. 
The pier was constructed only four years ago, and was reported to be 
already in a state of decay. 


A specimen of Goliathus giganteus, and the jaws of a large shark, 
(3 feet in length), caught by Captain Nash, were exhibited by Mr. F. 
Taylor. 


Some rare Coleopterous insects, from the collection of Mr. Melli, 
of Liverpool, were described by the Rev. F. W. Hope and Mr. MacLeay. 


Notice of Undescribed Shells. By James Situ, of Jordanhiil, 
F.RS. 


Mr. Smith produced two new shells which he had dredged in Roth- 
say Bay, and had been named Fusus Boothi and Fusus umbilicatus. 
He also produced 14 species of shells found amongst recent shells at 
a higher level than the present high water, and which are not known 
as existing in a recent state. 


On Victoria Regina. By J. E. Gray. 


Mr. J. E. Gray exhibited the drawing of Victoria Regina, Schomb., 
sent by Mr. Robert Schomburgk from Demerara to the Botanical So- 
ciety of London, and read his account of the discovery and the de- 
scription of this interesting plant. 


The same plant was also noticed in a communication by Dr. Lindley. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101 


On he Structure and Affinities of Orobanchacee. By Dr. Linviey. 


Professor Lindley made some remarks “ On the structure and affini- 
ties of Orobanchacee.” He stated that this order had been usually 
placed near Scrophulariacee, and in his “ Natural System” he had in- 
cluded it in the Scrophulal alliance. In their didynamous stamens, 
superior ovary, and monopetalous flowers, they resembled Scrophulari- 
aceeé. Schultz had placed this order near Gentianacee, on account of 
their fruit and placentation resembling those of this order. Other 
botanists had placed Orobanchacee near Monotropacee, on account 
of their membranaceous foliage and parasitical habits. There was one 
important point, in which they differed from Scrophulariacee, which 
was the position of their carpels, with respect to the axis of inflores- 
cence. In Orobanchacee, the carpels were right and left, or perpen- 
dicular to the axis, whilst in Scrophulariacee they were fore and aft, 
_ or parallel to the axis. This pointed out another affinity-with Genti- 
anacee, which had its carpels in the same position. With regard to 
its affinity to Monotropa, there was a point which had been much over- 
_ looked by botanists, the presence and absence, or large and small 

quantities, of aloumen in the seed of plants; he had found this a very 

constant character, and one of the best for indicating the affinities of 
plants. Both Monotropacee and Orobanchacee were distinguished 
for a minute embryo, lying in a large quantity of albumen. Monotro- 
pacee was a polypetalous order, but its structure generally compelled 
botanists to place it amongst monopetalous plants, near Pyrolacee and 

Ericacee. He remarked by the way, that the division of plants, ac- 

cording to the presence or absence, cohesion or non-cohesion, of the 

petals, was very artificial, and hoped that it would soon be abandoned. 

He thought that the affinities of Orobanchacee were stronger with 

Monotropacee, Pyrolacea, and Gentianacee, than with any other 

orders. The Professor then made some remarks “ On the Placentation 

of Orobanche,” which he said had made him doubt the correctness of 
the present theory of the situation of the placenta. It was generally 
supposed that the seat of the placenta in the carpellary leaf was its 
margin, so that it would be necessarily placed alternating with the 
dorsal suture of the carpel. Exceptions, however, frequently occur, as in 

Parnasia, Papaver, &c.; and the placenta is spread over the whole 

surface of the carpellary leaf, or on various parts of it. In the carpels 

of Orobanche there are evidently two placentz, but having no commu- 

cation with the margin of the carpellary leaf. He therefore inferred, 

that any part of the surface of the carpellary leaf might become oval- 

ized. He was borne out in this opinion by the fact, that leaves which 
occasionally produce buds, produce them from all parts of their sur- 
face, as seen in Ornithogalum, &c.; the production of buds on leaves 
and ovules in carpels being analogous processes. 


102 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


On the Internal Structure of the Palm Tribe. By G. GARDNER. 
Communicated by E. Bowman, F.L.S. 


Mr. Gardner had examined the species called Coquiero by the Bra- 
zilians. He said that the fibre of woody matter descended from the 
leaves at an angle of 18 degrees, towards the centre, and then out- 
wards in a more oblique angle towards the bark, near which it rami- 
fies and descends parallel to the bark. In this plant the chord of the 
are formed by their fibres is 2} feet. 

The author thinks that Mohl’s views on the structure of the palm 
tribe are correct. 


On the Power possessed by Aged Trees to reproduce themselves from the 
Trunk. By R. Maurer. 


The author exhibited a number of drawings of aged trees to illustrate 
his paper, and mentioned that the natural inarching of trees was caused 
by the decay of the central part of the trunk, and the formation of new 
wood and bark was to enclose the detached part. He said that after 
this had taken place, a but was formed on the inner surface, from 
which a stem ascended and roots descended, so as to form a new tree 
in the centre of the old one. 


On the Milk of Galactodendron Utile. By Mr. Bickersteru. 


On New and Rare Forms of British Plants and Animals. By 
E. Fores. 


Two new Mollusca (one allied to Doris pinatifida, the other to 
Montagua of Fleming), from the shores of the Isle of Man ; aspecimen 
of Asterias rubens, to show its distinctness from Asterias speciosus ot 
Link, and specimens of supposed new species of Polygala and Euphrasia 
from the Isle of Man, were presented and ‘explained by Mr. Forbes. 


On Vegetable Physiology. By Mr. Niven. 


The author stated that he had made a series of experiments upon 
elm-trees (Wlmus campestris) of about 42 years old, by the removal 
of the bark, cambium or alburnum, and that, from the results, he was 
disposed to maintain that two distinct principles exist in the bark of 
plants, viz. one descending and forming roots, and the other ascending 
and forming branches. This he illustrated by showing a branch of 
elm ringed through the bark and cambium, and having roots descend- 
ing from the upper edge of the ring, and branches ascending from the 
lower one. 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103 


A Notice, with the Results, of a Botanical Expedition to Guernsey and 
Jersey, in the months of July and August, 1837. By Cuar.es C. 
Basineton, I.A., F.L.S., §e. 


This paper gives a short account of the Flora of those islands, and 
also of the island of Herm. The author finds 725 species of flowering 
plants and Ferns to be natives of them, and adds to the recorded spe- 
cies the following 6, viz. Hypericum linearifolium, Neottia estivalis, 
Sinapis incana, and Mercurialis ambigua, in Jersey, and Arthrolobium 
ebracteatum and Atriplex rosea, in Guernsey. 


An Inquiry into the Origin of the Solid Materials found in the Ashes 
of Plants, their structure and office during the period of life, and the 
effect of their subsequent addition to the crust of the earth. By the 
fev. J. B. Reape, M.A., ERS. 


A recent microscopic examination of the ashes of plants having led 
the author to the conclusion “ that the earthy saline and metallic in- 


_ gredients which they contain are indebted exclusively to the operation 


of vegetable life, both for their origin and their arrangement ;” he shows 
the contrast of this view with that adopted by many physiologists, who 
rank as accidental ingredients in the substance of plants, all that cannot 
be referred to hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, or azote. 

Assuming, as a basis of argument, that “the presence of organiza- 
tion is direct evidence of the agency of life,” and that every organized 


- portion of a plant is “ a proper product of the power of vegetation,” 


—the author proves, by a detail of experiments, that siliceous skeletons 
of plants, exhibiting most distinct and beautiful organization, remain 
in their ashes after exposure to the intense heat of a blowpipe flame; 
that in the white ashes of common coal may be recognized cellular 
tissue, spiral fibre, and annular ducts with transverse bars. The vege- 
table origin of coal is not only thus proved, but by a comparison of the 
ashes of coal with those of recent plants, some further insight may be 
gained into the nature of the plants from which beds of coal of differ- 
ent quality have been produced. The siliceous organizations which 
are respectively yielded by the Blyth, Newcastle, and Barnsley coal 
appear to be different. 

“ Silica is not the only material which forms the frame-work of plants. 
Lime and potash also occur as their skeletons ; the ashes of the calyx 
and pollen of the mallow, consist of organized lime ; and the ashes of 
the petals of the rose, as well as the pollen of the geranium, consist of 
organized potash.” The author gives the details of his experiments, 
by which he endeavoured to prove the small cups which lie in the sili- 
ceous vessels of graminez, to be of metallic nature, and ventures to 
conclude, generally, that “ earthy saline and metallic ingredients enter 
as organizable products into the structure of plants.” 

As much of what is above stated in regard to plants may, with suit» 
able modifications, be applied to animals, as certain infusorial animalcule 


104 SEVENTH REPORT—1 837. 


secrete siliceous or calcareous coverings, the author finding these pro- 
ducts to be capable of resisting the most intense heat, speculates on 
the importance of the facts he has established in explaining the forma- 
tion of the most characteristic rocks in the crust of the earth, and gives 
his reasons for believing that even in granite, as well as in flint (accord- 
ing to Ehrenberg), organization can be traced. A series of more than 
thirty microscopical illustrations accompanied the paper. 


On the Chemical Composition of Vegetable Membrane and Fibre. By 
the Rev. J. B. Reavez, W.A., F.RS. 


Specimens of Hrica Machaiana of Babington were exhibited by Mr. 
John Ball. 


MEDICAL SCIENCE. 


On the Influence of the Respiratory Organs on the Circulation of Blood 
in the Chest. By G. Catvert Hoiianp, M.D. 


There is little agreement, Dr. Holland observed, in the opinions of 
physiologists respecting the influence of respiration on the circulatory 
system. Some regard it as exceedingly limited, and the least efficient 
of the causes co-operating in the return of venous blood ; others con- 
tend that it is not only the principal but sole agent in the production of 
this effect. The author, from experiments on himself, stated that this 
influence is not great in the ordinary or unexcited conditions of the 
animal system, but peculiarly marked when the function of inspiration 
or expiration is unusually active or disturbed. Strong mental emo- 
tions, whether exciting or depressing, greatly disturb the respiratory 
functions, and, as a necessary consequence, the circulatory system. 

The author, in the continuation of his paper, examines respiration in 
its two acts, of inspiration and expiration, under various conditions ; 
and endeavours to prove that the phenomena of syncope and palpita- 
tion of the heart, referred by physiologists to the direct influence of the 
brain, arise from modification of the respiratory organs. 


On the Cause of Death from a Blow on the Stomach, with Remarks on 
the means best calculated to restore animation suspended by such ac- 
cident. By G. C. Hotranp, M.D. 


The occurrence of death from a blow on the stomach has not in mo- 
dern times received any full or satisfactory consideration. The cause 
of this phenomenon is usually referred to a shock communicated to 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 105 


the nervous system, by which the action of the heart is arrested. The 
primary impression is considered by some to be made upon the semi- 
lunar ganglion, but the evidence adduced, Dr. Holland thinks, is wholly 
inconclusive. In the absence of satisfactory proof there is great reason 
_ to institute a more rigid and cautious examination ; and for this purpose 
_ the author first attempts to determine the sources of nervous energy to 
which the heart is indebted, as well as the various degrees of depend- 
- ence on each. After applying these data to the various forms in which 
the notion of the influence of the blow on the semilunar ganglion is 
developed by different writers, the author proposes his own views on 
_ the subject. 

“ In entering upon the inquiry, the first step was to determine the 
important organs peculiarly liable, from their situation and functions, to 
be deranged by a blow on the stomach. These were the aorta and 
the vena cava ascendens, which, from their situation, and the ample 
space they occupy immediately where the spine becomes prominent 
_ after quitting the chest, solicit a careful examination. The pit of the 
stomach is unquestionably the situation where these large and important 
vessels are alone liable to severe functional derangement from a blow: 

above this point they are securely protected by the parietes of the 
chest, and below it by the mass of the abdominal viscera. A know- 
_ ledge of the mode in which one of these vessels is liable to be influ- 
enced, will explain the cause of death. A blow in this situation has 
_ necessarily a tendency, whether it strike the artery or vein, to urge the 
circulating fluid towards the heart. Nature, by means of the semilu- 
nar valves, has prevented the frequent occurrence of such an accident, 
but the violence of the blow is quite sufficient to overcome the obstacle 
or barrier to the retrograde motion of the blood. The fatal result, is 
perhaps to be referred to the sudden propulsion of arterial blood into 
_ the left ventricle, and not to the greater force with which the venous 
blood may possibly be returned to its destination. Death would not 
_ be likely to occur from the latter circumstance, as the blood would 
_ be transmitted in its ordinary direction. The arterial blood, on the 
contrary, is driven in a retrograde course with considerable violence 
into the left ventricle.” 

The correctness of this explanation of the cause of death is discussed 
at length by the author, and compared with phenomena accompanying 
a blow in the region of the carotid artery. The plan of treatment, he 
observes, is obviously pointed out, viz. “ to rouse the action of the heart, 
and this is perhaps best accomplished by artificial inflation, which by 
_ improving the qualities of the blood, gives it the power of stimulating 
the cavities of the left side of the heart. Galvanism, or electricity also, 
applied to the region of this organ, is well calculated to excite its con- 
 tractions, and if only fully called into play, the obstacles previously 
existing would probably be removed, and the heart might gradually 
but slowly resume its important functions. Friction with stimulating 
embrocations along the spine and over the whole of the anterior part 
of the chest must not be neglected if recovery appear doubtful. The 
application of warmth to the feet, or their immersion in hot water, may 


106 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


be useful in diminishing congestion, and thereby may co-operate pow- 
erfully with other remedies. Internal stimulants may be employed 
with advantage on the revival of the vital powers ; and when these are 
somewhat invigorated, general or local bleeding may be an invaluable 
adjunct.” 


Experiments on the Connexion between the Nerves and Muscles. By 
Wiriiam Harris Mappen, M.D. 


The author wishing to contribute to the satisfactory settlement of 
the questions relating to the connexion of nerves and muscles, first pro- 
poses to show, in opposition to several preceding writers, that narcotics 
do not in all cases produce any appreciable effect upon the contractile 
organs; that sedatives applied to nerves exclusively are absolutely 
inert; and that muscles exhibit distinct signs of irritability long after 
the nerves have lost their power of exciting them. ‘The experiments 
which are adduced in proof of these points were made upon frogs, 
which were killed by injecting tincture of opium into the stomach and 
intestines, by introducing essential oil of bitter almonds into the mouth, 
or by destroying the brain and spinal cord. The experiments were 
made upon the heart, voluntary museles generally,and amputated legs,— 
whose nerves, properly dissected, were immersed in a solution of opium, 
or for comparison in pure water. Galvanic stimuli were applied to the 
muscles or to the nerves alone; and, as a result of the whole investiga- 
tion, the author observes, “ When we see that narcotics have by no 
means generally a destructive influence over irritability ; when we see 
that, applied to nervous trunks alone, they produce no change upon 
the muscular fibre ; when we observe that nerves cease to have any 
power of exciting contractions long before the muscles themselves have 
lost their irritability (as all the experiments most distinctly show) ; 
when we remember that the number and size of the nerves distributed 
to any organ bear no proportion whatever to its irritability ; that many 
muscles are utterly insensible to any irritation of their nerves; and 
that a muscle whose nerve has been divided can recover its exhausted 
irritability in as short a time and as perfectly as one whose nerves have 
been uninjured ;—we shall, I conceive, feel the want of far more ex- 
tended and conclusive evidence, before we can assent to the doctrine 
which believes muscular contractility to be in all cases dependent 
upon nervous influence.” 


Of Disordered Conditions of the Human Body caused by the presence of 
Urinary Salts, although not amounting to Gravel or Stone. By 
Sir James Murray, M.D. 


The object of this paper was to show that “ the same acid, alkaline, 
or neutral products, which in some instances constitute sand or cal- 
culi, do in others prevail to excess in the constitution, in a liquid or 
diffused state; and that they thus give rise to a series of nervous and 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107 


_ other diseases of irritation, caused by acrimony and elementary de- 
_ rangement set up by the presence of urinary or other untoward im- 
_ pregnations in the blood and lymph.” 
In proof of this proposition it is stated, that certain minute crystals 
__ lately observed in various tissues of the human body, have probably 

_ resulted from the deposition of urinary salts, when their elements have 
been evolved in excess at some previous period, and that in some cases 
these crystalline particles have irritated the nerves of sensation and mo- 
tion. Crystals were found by the author in the tissues investing the 
principal nerves of the testes, in a case of neuralgia; by Professors 
Harrison and Apjohn in the membranes of the alimentary canal; and 
_ since, by other observers, in the heart, brain, stomach, and other organs 
and tissues. The author adds the case of crystals found in a thumb 
afflicted by tic-douloureux. The crystals examined by Dr. Apjohn 
were composed of earthy phosphates, but those found in Sir J. Murray’s 
dissections afford traces of uric or lethic salts. In cases of impetigines, 
tinea capitis, lepra, &c., the scales were found to contain urinary salts, 
and the ichor of ill-conditioned ulcers contained several saline quali- 
ties of the urine. The author attributes these and other phenomena 
to the reabsorption of urine from the bladder into the circulation; the 
lymph thus becoming saturated with foreign ingredients, it will be easy 
to account for the generation of crystalline scales in the tissues. 

The author considers the opinions expressed by physiologists as to 
_ the origin of the saline ingredients found in the solids and fluids ; no- 
_ tices the explanation which his researches appear to afford concerning 
violent local pains unaccompanied by inflammation or heat; particular- 
izes some of the excretions which, when in excess, cause acrimony of the 
fluids, irritability of the solids, and perverted combinations of various 
elementary atoms in the animal economy; and suggests the employ- 
ment of acid or alkaline remedies by the stomach or by baths, accord- 
ing to the indications observed in each case. (See, for a preliminary 
paper, the Dublin Medical Journal, 7th July, 1836). 

_ Sir James Murray exhibited apparatus for varying the atmospheric 
pressure on the whole or a part of the body. (See Reports of the 
_ Association, vol. iv. p. 96.) 


On Cholera. By Dr. MacktntTosu. 


The facts which Dr. Mackintosh stated regarding the condition of 
the organs of the body under the influence of cholera, were supported 
_ by a great number of preparations and drawings, the fruit of 300 dis- 
_ sections in cases of cholera in the first year of its appearance in a ma- 
_lignant form. 


On Morbid Preparations relating to Dysmenorrhea. By Dr. 
MACKINTOSH. 


108 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


On Diseased Lungs from Sand respired. By Dr. Joux MAcKinTOSH. 


In this communication, the injurious effects arising from the deposi- 
tion of particles of stone in the lungs were illustrated by the case of a 
mason employed in the Cragheith Quarry. 


oe 


On the Contagiousness of Cholera. By J. G. Simpson. 


On some Crania found in the Ancient Mounds in North America. By 
Dr. Warren, of Boston, U.S. 


From an examination of the crania found in some of the numerous 
earthworks forming lines, pyramids, and platforms, which are scattered 
over the country, from the lakes of Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, 
Dr. Warren infers that this whole region was once occupied by a race 
of men differing from the North American Indians as well as from any 
known people of the old world, but apparently ¢dentical with the an- 
cient Peruvians, and having much resemblance to the Hindoos. 

Ornaments and utensils have been discovered in the mounds which 
bear a great resemblance to articles of the same description seen in 
Hindostan. On these facts the author founds his opinion that the an- 
cient Peruvian people were the remains of a great race of men dis- 
possessed of their original seats by the North American Indians ; and 
notices as a probable hypothesis, that America was peopled from more 
than one point of Asia, the ancient Americans having passed from the 
southern parts of Asia, but the existing Indian races from the north of 
that continent. 


A Critical Analysis of the different Methods that have been adopted for 
determining the Functions of the Brain. By Dr. Evanson. 


In this communication the author endeavoured to place before the 
Section a correct general view of the progress hitherto made toward 
a solution of the question, ‘‘ What are the functions of the brain ?” Dis- 
section of the brain, he observed, has failed to give us a knowledge of 


its functions ; the removal of parts of the brain in living animals has ~ 


led to remarkable but not perfectly consistent results ; the study of the 
brain in a diseased state had revealed but few and determinate relations 
between its parts and affections of definite portions of the body; nor 
has the comparison of the central mass of man with that of animals, 
in respect of absolute magnitude, proportion to the body, to the spinal 
marrow, or the bones of the face, (Camper’s facial angle, ) furnished any 
perfectly general law, by which the degree of intelligence manifested 
by the animal may be connected with a particular property of the entire 
brain. Dr. Evanson then explained the method of induction adopted 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109 


by Dr. Gall; who, viewing the brain as a complex organ, and contem- 
plating it both in health and. disease, proposed to discover the use or 
function of each part of the brain, by comparing the relative develop- 
_ ment of these parts in the same brain, and in the brains of different 
_ persons, with the intellectual and moral powers and animal propensities 
_ manifested in the individuals. 


4 An Experimental Investigation into the Gilosso-pharyngeal, Pneumo- 
gastric, and Spinal Accessory Nerve. By Dr. Joun REtv. 


i This communication, which was but a short epitome of some length. 
_ ened observations which Dr. R. had drawn up on this subject, embraced 
_ the principal results which he had deduced from an extensive series of 
_ experiments, performed by himself, upon those complicated and im- 
_ portant nerves generally included under the eighth pair. 
_ _ Glosso-pharyngeal.—The experiments on this nerve were all per- 
_ formed on dogs, and were twenty-seven in number. Seventeen of 
these were for the purpose of ascertaining if it were to be considered a 
- nerve both of sensation and motion, and what are the effects of its sec- 
_ tion upon the associated movements of deglutition and on the sense of 
taste. The other ten were performed on animals immediately after 
_ they had been deprived of sensation, with the view of satisfying him- 
- self more thoroughly how far it is to be considered a motor nerve. 
The most remarkable effect witnessed in these experiments was an ex- 
_ tensive convulsive movement of the muscles of the throat and lower 
part of the face, on irritating this nerve in the living animal, provided 
_ the irritation was applied to the trunk of the nerve before it had given 
_ off its pharyngeal branches, or to one of the pharyngeal branches sepa- 
_ rately. These movements were equally well marked when the nerve 
was cut across at its exit from the cranium and its cranial end irritated, 
as when the trunk of the nerve and all its branches were entire. The 
_ conclusions drawn from a review of the whole experiments were these: 
| —That this is a nerve of common sensation. That mechanical or 
chemical irritation of this nerve before it has given off its pharyngeal 
branches, or of any of these branches individually, is followed by ex- 
tensive muscular movements of the throat and lower part of the face. 
_ That the muscular movements thus excited, depend not upon any in- 
4 - fluence extending downwards, along the branches of this nerve to the 
_ muscles moved, but upon a reflex action transmitted through the central 
_ organs of the nervous system. That these pharyngeal branches of the 
; glosso-pharyngeal nerve possess endowments connected with the pecu- 
_ liar sensations of the mucous membrane upon which they are distri- 
buted, though we cannot pretend to speak positively in what these 
consist. That this cannot be the sole nerve upon which all these sen- 
_ sations depend, since the perfect division of the trunk on both sides, if 
_ eare be taken to exclude the pharyngeal branch of the par vagum, 
Pehich lies in close contact with it, does not interfere with the perfect 
_ performance of the function of deglutition. That mechanical or chemi- 


110 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


cal irritation of the nerve immediately after an animal has been killed, 
is not followed by any muscular movements, provided that care be 
taken to insulate it from the pharyngeal branch of the par vagum ; and 
here, again, an important difference between the movements excited by 
irritation of the glosso-pharyngeal and those of the motor nerve is ob- 
served; for, while movements produced by the irritation of a motor 
nerve, such as the pharyngeal branch of the par vagum, continue for 
some time after the functions of the central organs of the nervous sy- 
stem have ceased, those from irritation of the glosso-pharyngeal are 
arrested as soon as all decided marks of sensation disappear. That the 
sense of taste is sufficiently acute after the perfect section of the nerve 
on both sides, to enable the animal readily to recognize bitter sub- 
stances. That it may probable participate with other nerves in the 
performance of the function of the sense of taste, but it certainly is not 
the special nerve of that sense. That the sense of thirst does not de- 
pend entirely upon this nerve. 

Pneumogastrie or Par Vagum Nerve-—From the results of thirty 
experiments upon the par vagum, he is convinced that severe indica- 
tions of suffering are induced by pinching, cutting, or even stretching 
this nerve, in almost all those animals operated on. In several experi- 
ments, in which the trunk of the par vagum was compressed by the 
forceps for a few moments, it was observed that in some of these cases 
powerful respiratory movements were thus produced, and were followed 
by struggles, yet no tendency to cough, and no act of deglutition which 
could be fairly attributed to this cause. 

Pharyngeal Branches of Par Vagum.—From seventeen experiments 
performed on dogs, either when alive or immediately after being de- 
prived of sensation, he concludes that these are the motor nerves of 
the constructors of the pharynx, the stylo-pharyngeus, and palatine 
muscles ; and that the sensitive filaments of these nerves must be com- 
paratively few, if, under ordinary circumstances, they exist at all. 
Section of the pharyngeal branch of the par vagum on both sides, was 
followed by very considerable difficulty of deglutition, in which the 
food appears to be forced through the passage bag of the pharynx by 
the powerful movements of the tongue, and of the muscles which moye 
the hyoid bone and larynx. 

Laryngeal Branch of the Par Vagum.—On irritating the superior 
laryngeal nerve by galyanism, or by pinching it with the forceps, when 
the glottis was exposed to view, no movement of the muscles which di- 
late or contract the aperture of the glottis is observed. Upon looking 
at the interior part of the larynx, upon which the external laryngeal 
branch of this nerve is chiefly distributed, vigorous contractions of the 
cricothyroid muscle, by which the cricoid cartilage is approximated to 
the thyroid, were always seen. On irritating the inferior laryngeal, 
obvious movements of the muscles which dilate and enlarge the aper- 
ture of the glottis followed. In some cases these moyements were very 
vigorous, and it was observed that these did not produce an enlarge- 
ment of the glottis, but, on the other hand, the arytenoid cartilages 
were approximated, so as in some cases to shut completely the aperture 


gE I eT Tr me 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 111 


of the glottis. It was also distinctly observed, that the only outward 
moyements of the arytenoid cartilages were merely produced by their 
return to their former position after they had been carried inwards. 

From these experiments it was concluded, that all the muscles which 
move the arytenoid cartilages receive their motor filaments from the 
inferior laryngeal or recurrent nerves; and as the force of the muscles 
which shut the glottis preponderates over that of those which dilate 
it, so the arytenoid cartilages are carried inwards when all the fila- 
ments of one or both of these nerves are irritated. 

These experiments also show us, that one only of the intrinsic mus- 
cles of the larynx receives its motor filaments from the superior laryn- 
geal, viz. the cricothyroid muscle, and that, consequently, the only 
change which the nerve can produce on the larynx as a motor nerve, 
is that of approximating the ericoid cartilage to the thyroid ; in other 


_ words, of shortening the larynx. We shall see how far this view is 


supported by the subsequent experiments upon the living animal. 

The superior laryngeal nerve was cut on both sides in two dogs and 
one rabbit, and these animals readily swallowed both solids and fluids, 
without exciting cough or the least difficulty of breathing. The lungs 
of these animals were carefully examined after death, and none of the 


- food taken could be detected in the air-tubes. In several animals the 


superior laryngeals were first cut, and the inferior laryngeals imme- 
diately afterwards ; and it was ascertained that the previous division 
of the superior laryngeal did not prevent the difficult breathing, and 
symptoms of suffocation, which not unfrequently follow the division of 
the inferior laryngeal nerves, especially in young animals. 

To procure still more positive assurance of the effect of section of 


the different laryngeal nerves upon the movements of the glottis, these 


four nerves were exposed in a full-grown cat, and the larynx was then 
dissected out, and brought forward, without disturbing the nerves. 
After watching for a little the vigorous movements of the muscles of 


_ the glottis, seen during the struggles, crying, and increased respiratory 


movements of the animal, the inferior laryngeals were then cut across, 


_ and instantly all the movements of the muscles of the glottis ceased, 
and the arytenoid cartilages assumed the position in which they are 


found after death. The superior laryngeals were then cut, without ef- 


_ fecting the slightest enlargement, or any other change, upon the glottis. 


As the arytenoid cartilages were now mechanically carried slightly in- 


1 wards during the rushing of the air through the diminished aperture of 
_ the glottis in inspiration, by which this aperture was still farther con- 


tracted, its edges were kept apart with the forceps until an opening 


_ was made into the trachea to prevent the immediate suffocation of the 
animal. 


The glottis was brought into view upon another cat, as in the pre- 


ceding experiment, and the motions of the muscles of the glottis were 


again watched for a short time. The superior laryngeals were then 
cut, without diminishing in the least any of the movements of the ary- 
tenoid cartilages. The sides of the glottis were approximated, as in 
erying, so as to form but a narrow fissure ; and in struggling the aper- 


112 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


ture became completely closed, in the same manner as when the su- 
perior laryngeal nerves were uninjured. It must be at once obvious, 
that these experiments are completely subversive of the statement that 
the inferior laryngeal supplies those muscles only which open the glottis, 
while the superior laryngeal nerves furnish the motor filaments to those 
muscles which shut the glottis; they also illustrate, in a very satisfac- 
tory manner, the cause of the dyspncea in some cases where the inferior 
laryngeal nerves are cut or compressed. 

Dr. Reid has also satisfied himself, that when any irritation is ap- 
plied to the mucous membrane of the larynx in the natural state, that 
this does not excite the contraction of these muscles by acting directly 
upon them through the mucous membrane, but that this contraction 
takes place by a reflex action, in the performance of which the supe- 
rior laryngeal nerve is the sensitive, and the inferior laryngeal is the 
motor nerve. He has. also satisfied himself that the muscular contrac- 
tions of the cesophagus are not called into action by the ingesta acting 
directly as an excitant upon the muscular fibre through the mucous 
membrane, but by a reflex action, part of the cesophageal filaments 
acting as sensitive, and others as motor nerves. 

Spinal Accessory—In seven dogs this nerve was cut on one side, 
without affecting the ordinary voluntary movements of that side of the 
neck. In several animals a weak dose of prussic acid was given after 
the nerve had been cut on one side. In several cases this was followed 
by prolonged, forcible, and regular respiratory movements, after the 
animal had been deprived of all consciousness and voluntary motion. 
In three of these cases distinct movements of contraction and relaxa- 
tion were observed in the exposed sterno-mastoid muscles, synchronous 
with the other muscles of respiration. The contractions were perhaps 
weaker on the side on which the spinal accessory had been cut. 


Observations on the Structure of the Sacrum in Man and some of the 
Lower Animals. By Hucu Caruirzt, M_B.T.C.D. 


Mr. Carlile exhibited to the Section several anatomical prepara- 
tions of the human sacrum in different states of growth, in which the 
separate formation of the lateral parts, consisting both of ribs and of 
transverse processes, was distinctly shown. The analogous structures 
in certain of the Saurian and Chelonian reptiles were exhibited by 
means of preparations and drawings ; andthe errors of descriptive ana- 
tomists on these subjects were pointed out. Mr. Carlile showed that 
some of the Saurian reptiles afford the best examples of distinct and 
well-developed sacral ribs, although this peculiarity in their structure 
has wholly escaped the observation of previous anatomists. In these 
animals the sacral ribs are two in number on each side; the anterior 
being articulated to the bodies of the last dorsal and the first sacral 
vertebrae, and connected to their inter-vertebral substance—the poste- 
rior to the last sacral and first caudal vertebree. In the human sub- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113 


_ ject the sacral ribs are four on each side; and they remain in a 
separate and distinguishable state until the age of from three till seven 
years, after which period they are all, except in rare instances, consoli- 
dated, along with the bodies and transverse processes of the corre- 
sponding sacral vertebrz, into a single mass. The os ilium in the 
foetal state, and for some years after birth in the human subject, 
is connected to only éwo of the sacral ribs, a fact which is consistent 
with the imperfect development at this period of the lower extremities, 
and with the disposition at an early age to walk on all fours; and 
which affords an additional example to those already known, of the 
resemblance which prevails between the temporary forms of certain 
parts of the human body, and the permanent dispositions of correspond- 
ing parts in animals of the lower classes. In many of the quadru- 
mana of quadrupeds and reptiles, two is the number of sacral ribs 
constantly in opposition with the os ilium. In the human subject, ata 
more advanced period of life, the os ilium at each side is connected by a 
cartilaginous intermedium to the extremities of three sacral ribs: in one 
__ instance, in the skeleton of a negro, Mr. Carlile observed it conjoined to 

four. This communication was terminated by-some observations on the 
skeleton in some of the Chelonian reptiles. Mr. Carlile considers 
that in the Yestudo Greca there are two sacral bones, one for the 
anterior, and one for the posterior extremities; while in the Testudo 
Mydas, whose anterior extremities are moved with much freedom, and ~ 
through considerable extent of space, the anterior sacrum is wanting, 
and the scapula is connected to the rest of the skeleton, much in the 
same manner as in birds and some quadrupeds. 


Mr. Carlile exhibited two examples of remarkable malformations of 
the cerebellum in the human subject. In one the size of the cerebel- 
lum was not more than one sixth of the usual magnitude, and pos- 
sessed internally an extremely deficient structure. The person, a 
female, was idiotic ; the genital organs were very fully developed ; and 
there was evidence that sexual intercourse had taken place. 

The second example was one in a male adult in whom more than 
the half of the cerebellum was wanting, the left hemisphere and the 
vermiform processes being deficient by a congenital malformation. 
The person was deaf and dumb, but possessed moderate intellectual 
capacities. His muscular system was well developed, and he enjoyed 
the complete use of his limbs and other muscular organs. The organs 
of generation were also well formed. 


VOL. vi. 1837. i 


114 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Practical Observations on the Causes and Treatment of the Curvature 
of the Spine, with an Etching and Description of an Apparatus for 
the Use of Persons afflicted by the Disease. By S. Hare, Surgeon, 
Leeds. 


Confining his remarks on the origin of curvature of the spine to 
one of three causes which he assigns, viz. impropriety of dress, want 
of free exercise, as being chiefly instrumental in producing lateral cur- 
vature, which is of most general occurrence; the author demonstrated 
the manner in which the right shoulder is elevated, and the left 
shoulder depressed in females of the higher and middle classes, by the 
injurious tightening of the stays. 

For correcting curvature of the spine the author employs an 
inclined board, 6 feet 6 inches long, furnished with pullies at each 
end, over which weighted cords pass, so as to pull in opposite direc- 
tions, a head strap, and two shoulder straps, two ankle straps, and an 
(occasional) iliac strap. There is an apparatus for compression on 
the sternum appended to the inclined plane. The author particularly 
notices that the weights used must on no account be such as to incon- 
venience the patient, unless the medical adviser have some particular 
reason for so increasing them. 


On the Order of Succession of the Motions of the Heart. 
By O'Bryan Bettincuam, M.D. of Dublin. 


If we lay bare the pericardium in a frog (there being no necessity 
to open it) without causing the loss of much blood, the following se- 
ries of motions will be observed. The contraction of the auricles ; 
then the dilatation of the ventricle ; and if we place our finger on it at 
the instant we feel the impulse ; immediately and quickly following the 
dilatation comes the contraction of the ventricle, without any impulse ; 
then follows the interval of repose during which the auricular contrac- 
tion again commences. 

The time occupied by the diastole of the ventricle is longer than that 

_ of its systole, and the interval of repose is about equal to the systole, 
The apex of the heart did not strike the finger either during the dia- 
stole or systole of the ventricle, but the anterior surface of the ventri- 
cle during its diastole communicated an impulse to the finger. In 
some instances, indeed, when the pericardium was partially opened, 
and the animal struggled much, the apex of the heart was carried for- 
ward during the second motion, or its systole; but when the animal 
remained quiet, nothing of the kind occurred, the ventricle in its sy- 
stole contracting from the angles (which its base makes with the au- 
ricles) toward its centre, and becoming smaller. 

The author compares these results with the motions of the heart of 
man, as given by Dr. Hope, from which they differ, both as regards 
the order of succession and the duration of the motions. 


ee ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115 


A Descriptive and Statistical Report of the Epidemic Influenza, as it 
oceurred at Bolton-le-Moors, in the Months of January, February, 
and March, 1837. By Dr. Buack. 


In this Report the author gives, first, a résumé of the general 
symptoms, with a notice of those more peculiar pathognomical charac- 
ters which distinguished some of the more intense cases; and secondly, 
and principally, directs attention to that view of the epidemic which 
relates to meteorology, medico-vital statistics, and mortality. 

The following extract is from the second portion of this elaborate 
paper :— 

To the medical philosopher the extent and intensity with which this 
late epidemic bore upon the population of the country, along with the 
ratio of mortality which marked its progress, as well as the meteorologie 
state of the weather which preceded and accompanied its march 
over the kingdom, are subjects of great and historical interest, espe- 
cially when they are compared with the nature and progress of 
former epidemics of a similar character. For the purpose of 
elucidating these important and relative matters, as far as the disease 
appeared and prevailed at Bolton, I have obtained a correct register 
of the weather in its principal meteorologic conditions, for the months 
of January, February, and March, during which period the epidemic 
appeared, prevailed, and finally decayed in that town and its vicinity. 
To this register, for which I am indebted to Mr. H. Watson, an intel- 
ligent chemist of Bolton, [ have added a column exhibiting a nosometric 
scale of the epidemic’s rise, maximum intensity, and decay in the 
place. This column has been constructed from the several lists of 
fresh cases of the influenza that were daily entered and kept by three 
of the principal practitioners of the town and myself; which separate 
entries for each day, being added together, gave a ratio corresponding 
to 100 as the maximum intensity on the 3rd of February. To this 
table I have also subjoined a register of 420 burials at the parish 
church, Bolton, at which place about nine-tenths of all dying in the 
borough are interred. I have therein, moreover, stated the several 
ages, in quinquennial periods, at which the individuals died after the 
fifth year, with the several amounts and ratios during the late epidemic 
season, as well as the averages during the same months of the five 
previous years. (Vide the Tables.) 

From the Meteorological Register it is seen that, during the first 
two weeks of January, the temperature was very irregular, varying in 
the mean of morning, noon, and night, from 47° 3 to 27° 3, while the 
barometer was gradually falling from 30°27 to 29°17, and snow, hail, 
rain, and fine weather in turns prevailed. The epidemic during this 
period had scarcely made its appearance, and except it had more 
manifestly done so, the few cases of suffocative catarrh and atonic 
bronchitis that occurred would have been attributed to an endemic or 
sporadic origin. With the 14th day of the month commenced a week 
of fair weather, with a steadier and milder temperature; but after a 
very sudden rise, there took place ; declining state of the mercurial 

I 


116 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


column, which reached its lowest depression of 28°88 on the evening 
of the 21st, while the dew point nearly approximated the mean tem- 
perature. Contemporarily with this lowest state of the atmospheric 
pressure on the 21st commenced the full and rapid invasion of the 
epidemic, similar to some mighty morbific wave that was sweeping 
over the country—sudden in its attack, but more lingering in its de- 
parture. As the disease increased the temperature fell, for seven 
days, with continued rain or snow till the end of the month, but the 
barometer on the whole gradually rose until it attained 30°10 on the 
morning of the 4th of February. On the day previous to this the 
disease had reached its maximum intensity, having, in the course of a 
fortnight, laid the whole population, with very trifling exceptions, under 
its morbiferous influence, which extended from the merest malaise, or 
slight catarrh, to the most deadly impression on the functions and 
organs of life. After this culminating point of the epidemic, it gradually 
lessened in the number of its cases, though not in the severity of many 
individual instances. About the 9th of February a slight resumption of 
intensity appears on the scale, and this was occasioned by the disease 
becoming a little more rife in the country after it began to subside in 
the town; but the whole cases of fresh attack were reduced to a very 
small comparative number on the 21st, when the epidemic may be said 
to have passed over the place, after having left, and yet then leay- 
ing, many a fatal footstep behind. Cases assuming not all the well- 
marked traits of the early epidemic, but the more varied, obscure, and 
modified characters of rheumatism, neuralgia, febricula with head- 
ache, and bowel attacks with lumbar pains, continued to appear during 
the remainder of the month and the first part of March, but all these 
cases may be fairly charged to that constitutional taint or diathesis 
which the epidemic had produced. In addition to what the register 
denotes of the weather during the three months mentioned as being 
inclement, cold, and unsettled, with several falls of snow; it may be 
noticed, the invasion of the epidemic was preceded and attended by 
easterly and southerly winds, while the atmosphere was much loaded 
with moisture. This high point of saturation may be frequently 
observed to have taken place during the prevalence of the epidemic, 
for the dew point will be seen for several days to be as high, if not 
higher, than the mean temperature for the day. This anomaly in part 
arises from the dew point being only taken once in the day at noon, 
while the temperature was not only taken at that hour, which at 
all times would be higher than the dew point, but this higher tempera- 
ture would be brought down in the scale by the lower averages 
of morning and night. 

From Dr. Heberden’s Analysis of the Bills of Mortality in London, 
as published in the Medical Gazette, 8th April, 1837, it appears that 
the epidemic commenced about the 10th of January, had attained its 
height of mortality on the 24th, and ceased after six to seven weeks 
from its appearance. Dr. Clendinning, in his Report of the Maryle- 
bone Infirmary, makes the epidemic to appear on the Ist of January, 
to be at its maximum prevalence about the 20th, and to have ceased 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 117 


. in five or six weeks. The apparent difference of these two reports 
from the same place arises from the one recording the deaths in con- 
sequence of the disease, and the other stating the number of ad- 
missions into the infirmary—thus showing that the date of the greatest 
number of deaths will consequently follow, at a more or less distance 
of time, the date of the highest prevalence of the disease as to general 
seizure. 

In adverting to the more interesting register of the burials during 
the prevalence of the epidemic, it is seen how much the mortality of 
the place was increased, in comparison with the average mortality 
during the same months of the five previous years. ‘The increase on 
the whole three months is equal to 45 per cent.; and for the month of 
February alone it amounted to 160 per cent. Of the 420 deaths, 205 
were males and 215 females, while the sexual proportion of our annual 
deaths is as 109 males to 100 females. Nearly the half, 208, of the 
whole 420 deaths were under twenty years of age, while the half of the 
annual deaths during the five previous years were under three years 
and ten months. The augmentation of this mortality must entirely be 
attributed to the influenza, and I even think a good deal more is owing 
to the epidemic, as very few serious diseases took place and were fatal 
but what the prevailing epidemic was connected with ; and it was often 
the sole destroyer of patients lingering under chronic ailments or diseases, 
necessarily, yet otherwise not so speedily fatal. The mortality during 
this period bore more upon the aged and infirm than upon the young 
and infants, who generally form the great amount of our deaths, and 
decide, according to the rise and fall of their mortality, the annually 
ranging rate of our total deaths to the population. Under one year 
21:9 per cent. of the whole 420 died during the epidemic, while 
the average this age for the same months of the five previous years 
was 26°6 per cent. The same diminished proportion is observed 
during the second year of life. These ratios in favour of early 
life, during the prevalence of the epidemic, continue until we reach 
the thirtieth year, after which, it is seen, that the ratio for adult life 
augments very much, contrary to what is observed in the average 
course of our mortality. For instance, between the years 45-49, the 
ratio of deaths to the whole during the epidemic was 6°2 per cent., 

_ while, at the corresponding ages in the five previous years, it was only 
2:7 per cent. Nearly the same disparity obtains at the quinquennial 
period of sixty-five to sixty-nine ; and through all the advanced years 
of life, mortality is seen to have borne with double and treble force, 

- compared with the ordinary rate at those periods during the former 
years. 

The few reports which I have seen from other parts of the united 
kingdom coincide in this high rate of mortality affecting the advanced 
years of life during the prevalence of the epidemic, and the comparative 
immunity which those of younger years enjoyed, at least, from its fatal 
consequences. From a Report, by Dr. Clendinning, on the admissions 
at the Marylebone Infirmary during the six weeks that the epidemic 
prevailed, it appears, that though the admissions were seventy from 


118 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


birth upwards to ten years of age, and which included twenty-one cases — 
of influenza, the deaths were only 57 per cent. ; between ten and twenty 

the admissions were seventy-three, including thirty-five cases of influ- 

enza, and the deaths were only about 7 per cent.; between the ages of 

twenty and thirty the deaths to the whole admissions were 13 per cent.; 

between thirty and forty the proportion was 25 per cent.; between 

forty and fifty it was 31°5 per cent.; between fifty and sixty it was 36 

per cent. ; and between sixty and seventy the ratio was still 31 per cent. ; 

the whole admissions being in the above period 465, more than half of 

which were influenza cases ; and the deaths were 98, or 22 per cent. 

From a report made by Dr. Graves, in a late number of the Medical 
Gazette, of the numbers interred at Prospect Cemetery, Glasnevin, 
during the months of December, 1835, and January, February and 
March, 1836, compared with the same months in 1836 and 1837, it 
appears that the burials were augmented from 1501 to 2248, or 33°2 
per cent. of an increase during the influenza. 

From the limited observations and register which I have had the in- 
dulgence of laying before the Section, it is seen what an extensive and 
destructive pestilence has swept over the kingdom, which has about 
doubled the ordinary rate of mortality, where it in any characteristic 
force prevailed, and thus anticipated for some months the forthcoming 
victims of death, while it threw a subsequent pause over the regular 
march of disease and mortality. This retardation has been very 
generally observed in the low rate of disease and mortality which 
occurred during the four months succeeding the epidemic. 

If a collection of reports, contemporaneous and similar to the one I 
have submitted, could have been obtained from the several districts and 
towns throughout the kingdom, the date of the rise, progress, and cul- 
mination of the epidemic might have been traced and ascertained in its 
march throughout the country, and most probably some meteorological 
conditions would have been found so general and constant as might 
have led to some fair deductions of the co-efficients of its appearance 
and intensity, or of its utter irrespectiveness to all such physical con- 
ditions ; but in default of such strict elementary documents, we are 
left to speculate about many causes in the earth and atmosphere, as 
productive of the epidemic, according as a theoretical ingenuity from 
limited observation may indulge in, but which may be far from the 
legitimate and satisfactory deductions of medical philosophy. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119 


A MereoroLocicat Recister for January, February, and March, 
1837, with a Nosometrical View of the Epidemic Influenza during 
the same months, as observed at Bolton-le-Moors. 


Mean of #. eh ean 
Morning, Noon, cal Scale 
1837. Noon:} pyano.| Fal of the 
ai and Night. sted oe aS Weather. penis 
point. Maxm. In- 
Therm. | Barom. tensity=100. 
° ° ° 
] 30°3 | 80°27) 30 |... lee eeee eee Fair all day ........000 paca abe 
2 | 323 | 8012) BL fe... Jeeseenee Very foggy ssccessesssseeeees ‘1 
3 40° | 8002] 38 |.........|eeereceee A little rain a.m. and p.m. ... Pe 
4 | 383 | 8002) 39 |.....ccesleeseseee HAIr } saiace stan ausgnenonsts sen 
Beh] BO. | 2962) BD y|ccscscevalverseaces MIBIP | oe cacsstes cere tenGnee ceatee Bf 
6 SD | AAO [aD lanctsbagelabececvss Rain all day, some hail p.m. 5 
Rain and a little hail a.m. 
7 | 38:3 | 29°37] 38 |... ee oe \ 
8 | 38-7 | 29°82) 35. |......seelereeneees Rain at night...........s.s000 ed 
9 | 47:3 | 29°68 | 46 |.......eeleeceneee A little rain a.m, .........005 1: 
10 | 37:3 | 29°62} 38 |...... spuleeeeeres EVAL ane ccc eatee atasan ures tooo Sut 
11 2G | 29°89) BF plessssccvsleveoesces BGT MieecusesstSo< caves ante cesar 15 
12 | 34:3 | 29-47] 28 |...) ee ee ae 
13 40-7 | 29:17] 38 | in 16 | in16 | Rain in the morning......... 2 
14 | 83:7 | 29°94} 32 | days, | days, | Fair  ......sscsecseseeveeseeeees 2-3 
15 34> | 80°15 | 30 [0-15 in|2-44in.] Bair ........cccsecsseceesseeees 3-4 
16 | 38:7 | 30:05| 37 Very foggy, P.M. sesesresseee 4-6 
17 | 40- | 29:98] 388 Lier te sende one bce le sb ps an dro aye 91 
18 | 38- | 29°82} 35 sinter awtnesandcs stan sacb 5 “a 14- 
19 | 37:7 | 29°64} 35 PRIMM eee rae ns ences ons 18- 
20 | 35- | 29:46) 32 ATTA seeepeeineseseescssccecc se 25- 
21 | 37- | 29:25) 33 .| Rain at night..... «| 380° 
22 | 44- | 28:94) 43 Rain all day ..... 40: 
23 | 45:3 | 29°02} 43 Rain all day ...........s2000s 42- 
24 | 41-7 | 29:30) 41 IS PUAUAGNENE <5 Se wchangocestonsces 50- 
25 | 41: | 29-45) 40 Rain all day .........seses0e0 56° 
26 | 39:3 | 29:53} 37 AI anderecepescsaprbones ct vee 71: 
27 =| 37: | 29°68) 36 ; rare at night beet ae 75° 
‘ now at night, and a little ‘ 
ee) Se) 2973 "83 A.M, and P.M, cesseseeeees } fa 
29 | 32> | 29-57) 30 | in15 | in 15 | Snow all day ................45 90: 
30 | 36° | 29-48) 34 | days, | days, | SNOW A.M. ...ssssesseeeeseeeees 92- 
3] 41-7 | 29°61] 40 |0:09in.|1:10in,) Rain p.m. ....cccceecseeceeeeee 93° 


> 7S o | Total. | Total. 
Max. | 49° |30°31 | ... |0:24in.|3°54in. 
Min. | 25- /|28°88 | ... 
Mean | 37°5 | 29-638) 35 


120 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


FEBRUARY. 


Mean of fe 
Morning, Noon, 
and Night. | X°°"*| Evapo. | Fall of 


Nosometri- 
cal Scale 
of the 


Feb. ration. | Rain. Weather. em 
Maxm. In- 
Therm. | Barom. tensity=100. 
° ° ° 
1 ALB) BO*GON OAD eee esl wcceoee Rain at night....sscsseessevees 
DBAS ZOO MAM ea eee aes Fair all day .......ceseseoree 
B | 41:3 | 8003} 40 |ecreceee |eeseeceee Rain all day .....sseseeeeeeeee 
A -} Als | 80:07) 40 Jeccceccee| ce secees Fair all day ......cesseesecess 
5 | 37-7 | 30:01] 36 |... Rainy A.M. and P.M. ....++++ 
6 41: | 29°98} 37 Fair all day ........-cccccseens 
7 | 41 | 29-88) 39 Fair all day ......secssseseees 
8 | 43° | 29:80] AL |...cceeee|receseee Rain A.M. and P.M. ....e0ee- 
Ql AFe EO BB A eee ool ee ccecd Some rain at night.......+..+ 
10 | 49° | 29°34) 50 |...cccees|ceeeeeee Rain all day, stormy P.M. ... 
ll ASD QB 21 OO he caecact| ods cacave Rain and very stormy all sey 
12 | 39:3 | 29-02] 37 | in14 | in14 | Rain morning and night .. 
13 44: | 28°82) 44 | days, | days, (SIN WAGs... caceneueeeeecer= ee 
14 | 41- | 29°21] 40 |0:27in./2-15 in.) Fair all day ..........++.0000- 
15 | 43:3 | 29°62] 41 AIURINIV PUNT, oc socaascesaneansted 
16 52° | 29:65} 5O |.c.cscscel. scene. Fair all day, stormy at night 
17 443 | 29°90} 44 Fair all day .......eseeseseere 
18 ge | BO-4d) 4a 1 Rain P.M., rain and hail at 
NIGht ..sceeeeescreesaecees 
19 | 38:3 | 28-95] 38 |....clecsseeen Ren end ee 
ay, boisterous P.M. . 
20 ABN | QOLG i AP Beare ccesl-nccncosc Rain at night..........2sesse08 
21 AUB} DOD aA WG SES. Dee less cs sens Rain at night and P.M. ..... 
22 7 er tar bik halal aca cabad Reseertg Rain A.M.,rainand snow P.M. 
4 i Rain, hail and snow; very 
23 | 39 | 29:02] 43 |.eees-leesceeee { pre nats i 5 
DAA? B92) BOGE AOS ere a ss|oascaacee Fair all day, but boisterous | 
25 353 | 29:95] 35 |.......cleescsecee Fair all day : 
26 | 33-7 | 29-90] 30 i : 
27 | 39:3 | 29-74| 40 { 
28 | 38 | 29:95 : 
5 ; 
Max. | 56° | 30:10] .°. [0-81 in.|4-40in. 
Min 30- 28-60 


29°57 


EE ——— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121 


MARCH. 
Mean of m poy 
Morning, Noon, sien! ee 7 si le 
Lh a a lie al Weather. Epidemic 
point. Maxm. In- 
Therm.} Barom. tensity=100. 
io} 

B4- | 80-19] 82 |e ees Fair alt day 7Atehectoat 3-4 
37-7 | 380710] 32 |..... 202] weceeeee Alittlerainr.m.andatnight| 3-5 
40-9) S008) 40 he cndseslecesencee Slight rain a.m. and P.M. ... 4-6 
Siete Gott AG). cc sctnec|nnsasere = Fairjall day. ~sss-0-nascotseened 4 
Rhee Ong | cho! | anopdvaclecacearas Slight rain a.m. and P.M. ... 3°5 
BIS | 29-77 | BT |..cecceeslenecerens Fair all day ......seseeeeeeees 3 
AO- | 29°85 |" 37 |. .oscsccslecsessese Ditto ty |W eweencnetees teens 2°3 

: : Fair all day, but strong 6 
42°) | 29:83) BB ci. eccs. [eons Seana yall ane quddiciglie: 2-2 
ZOE JR BR nine PRA Slight rain p.m. and at night 2: 
ANF 129-00} AO |... in. afenceceoe. Rain ¥.m, and stormy ...... 1-2 
36> | 28°85 | Bd |.........Jecseeeee Snow and rain P.M. ......... wae 
3673 | 29°23} BS |.........leceeeeres Rain and snow at night .. eee 
86°3 | 29°85 | 38 | in 15 | in 15 | Snow a.m, ....cceececceceseeees 1- 
37° | 80°17| 32 | days, | days, | Fair all day ....s.cssceseesees a 
37° | 29:99} 33 |0°38in_ 0-20 in. Ditto.) 1 .caseconasbae ass 1-2 
AOS | 29°92) 36 |.......0.|eceeeeees MELO: 7) Perse ce svectes «ce aS 
41-7 | 30°08) 38 |...... so |saeeetest Ditto "|? taarcnctessiecced 
DIET BOOZ |) BUN acd conlelte onan Slight sleet at night ......... 
37'S | 29°85 | BB |...ceceee rueeh ee A little snow a.M. .........68- aon 
35° | 29°78] BS |.....csec[eeceeeees Snow all day ...............0+ 13 
37-3 | 29°55 | 32 |ccsessceleeseeeeee ak See 2s } ; 

HOMTS tet acescstcewdeeses 
32:7 | 29°50) 32 |.........Jeeseeeees Ditto p.m. and at night...) 1+ 
O27 | 29°47 | BAS lees ecvasa|wastheoee Ditto the whole 24 hours... “ 
BA | 2954) 35 |..cecreselecrereees Much snow in the morning se 
BG- | 29-46] 35 |......ccsleceeerees Slightrain andsnowatnight|  0°8 
BA: | 2952) BA |..c......lecceneene Slight snow and hail p.m. ... 05 
32-3 | 29°66] 30 |......00.[e0ee seccs| Ditto all day) )\.:..cccsbds-s-0 oo 
Be | 99-47) 34... spo) ant aque sae 
SOW P.Me sessease concee 

37:7 | 29°36) 36 | in16 | in16 | Snow a.m., hail at night ... 01 
36:7 | 29°57| 36 | days, | days, | Fair ted aapaderaqeuaranaes oe 

i é ok a ions A little snow early in the 
367 | 29°64) 34 (0-25 in.|1-21 in. morning Koei Stloeses } 


S ¢ > | Lotal. | Total. 
51+ | 30:20) ... |0°63in./1-4] in. 
26° | 28:90] ... 
37°3 |296°97 | 35-5 


122 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


RecisTER of 420 BuriAxs at the Parish Church, Bolton, in January, 
February, and March, 1837, with the average amount of Burials 
during the same months of the five previous years, and the ratio 
per cent. buried at the several ages, to the total deaths in the two 
periods. 


Average Ratio per 


cont atthe | gee aa eee ae ce 
1837. Total several ages du 7” to the total 
Age. Burials for | tothetotal | months in Burials in 
the Burials for the five the same 
pe | onthe. - ne 2 previous quent of 
net eet months. years, the 5 former 
years. 
Under 1 year} 21; 50 | 21 92 21-9 76°6 26-06 
1 Le a gi A2 10: 39°8 13-08 
2 10 8| 2 20 4:8 18-2 6:03 
3 1 8| 2 ll 2°6 8-6 3° 
4 3 1} 3 7 ef 9°4 3°24 
5— 9 3 3} 4 10 2-4 18: 6°27 
10 — 14 5 8| 4 17 4: wt 2-43 
15 — 19 4 4/1 9 2:1 6°8 2°36 
20 — 24 2 5| 6 13 3 10:2 3°54 
25 — 29 2 6) 2 10 2-4 9°4 3°26 
30 — 34 7110 od 18 4:3 6°8 2°36 
35 — 39 1 5] 5 il 26 7 2°43 
40 — 44 6 GS 16 4: 63 2°36 
45 — 49 el ee Ue Pe! 26 6:2 7°83 2-07 
50 — 54 7 9| 3 19 45 6 2: 
55 — 59 1 9] 3 13 3: 78 2-07 
60 — 64 2 Ue 19 4:5 11-4 4- 
65 — 69 TO} 11 | 6 27 6A 86 3 
70 — 74 2 8| 9 19 4:5 11-4 4 
75 — 79 5 3} 2 10 2-4 48 1:66 
80 — 84 3 4| 2 9 2: 4: 1:04 
85 — 89 sas |. ove “5s xs 24 0:83 
90 — 94 = 0-6 0-02 
95 Fifi tio 1 0:24 0-2 0:07 
100 =o 1h oa RE 1 0:24 ene “ae 
Totaly 2.20.0 115 | 205 |100 420 
Total average 
forthespre- } 111:2| 79 |97°8 ane ay 28'S 
vious years. 


J. BLACK, M.D. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123 


Some Remarks on the Motion of the Blood in the Head, and on the 
Uses of the Ventricles and Convolutions of the Brain. By Dr. 
CARSON. 


This paper relates to three points; Ist, the circulation of the blood 
through the head; 2nd, to the evolution and regulation of the heat of 
the head. On the first point little was added to what had been already 
published by the author. The 2nd head also only contains an exten- 
sion of that power of generating and reducing heat, possessed by every 
part of the body to the encephalon. 

This subject, the third point, on which the originality of the commu- 
nication chiefly consisted, explained the contrivances which nature had 
used to retain all parts of the brain itself, and of its connection within 
the head in their natural position, both with respect to the parts of one 
hemisphere of the brain in relation to each other, and to the cranium. 
As it was contended to be fully proved that the substance of the brain 
is liable to decrease and enlargement, like every muscular or soft part 
of the body, in cases of great emaciation or obesity ; and as the brain 
must always occupy the same space, that is, it must always fill the 
cranium ; it was necessary, in these changes of dimensions, to have con- 
trivances for allowing the brain to occupy this space without laceration 
or undue stretching of the substances and appendages of the brain to 
their appropriate parts of the skull. These contrivances consisted of 
two kinds—the ventricles placed in the interior of the brain, and the con- 
volutions on its exterior superficies. The internal ventricles or cham- 
bers were receptacles irregularly formed, all connected with each other 
and with the spinal canal. By these receptacles containing more or 
less of water, according to the extent of actual brain, the existing quan- 
tity of brain was allowed to assume the condition that was fitted to re- 
tain its relations. In this office the ventricles were greatly aided by 
the convolutions of the brain. Had the surface of the brain been 
smooth and continuous, the superficial parts of the brain would in a 
ease, let it be supposed, of great emaciation, be unduly stretched. 
This stretching would be unequal, being required to be greater 
the farther any part of the surface of the brain was distant from the 
middle. In consequence of this, parts of the brain of a person in full 
health, and of the same person in a state of emaciation, would be op- 
posed to different parts of the skull. Protuberances of the brain in 
one case received into depressions of the skull, would, in the other, be 
opposed to protuberances of the skull, and the nerves and blood-ves- 
sels would, in the different cases, have a changed direction, and one 
altogether incompatible with their functions. To prevent these effects, 
nature has nicked the external surface of the brain. The convolutions 
formed by this nicking, in cases of emaciation, have wider interstices 
between them, and become themselves narrower as the furrows are 
mlarged, while the ridges are smaller. These enlargements of the 
furrows cooperate with the ventricles, in cases of greater emaciation, 
in securing to the changed amount of brain its natural position. The 
size of the furrows is formed or filled by an increased vascularity and 


124 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


cellularity in the vessels of the pia mater and arachnoid coat. Protu- — 


berances of the brain received into depressions of the skull and the ~ 


nerves and blood-vessels find their road to their place of exit out of — 


the skull unchanged. 
This appears to be one of the most important and indispensable uses 
of the ventricles and convolutions of the brain. 


Abstract of Cases of Laceration of the Rectus Abdominis Muscle, &c. 
By Sir Davin J. H. Dickson, MD. FLRAS LE. FLAS. Physician 
of the Royal Hospital, Plymouth. 


William Cooper, zt, 37, Royal Marine, was admitted into Plymouth 
Hospital as a case of pneumonia, or of aggravated influenza, then pre- 
valent, on the 14th January, and after being considered convalescent, 
was attacked with excessive diarrhoea, and died on the 26th January, 
1837. There was no external indication, nor had any suspicion been 
previously entertained, of his having sustained any injury: but on open- 
ing the abdomen, the unusual thickness of its walls attracted atten- 
tion; and on raising the fascial and tendinous coverings, the left rectus 
abdominis was found to be torn across, midway between the pelvis and 
umbilicus, leaving a cavity between the retracted ends of the softened 
muscle, containing about four ounces of a bloody serous fluid. The 
superficial cellular tissue was infilated with a gelatinous-looking mat- 
ter, and the peritoneum beneath had an ecchymosed appearance. A 
corresponding portion of the right rectus abdominis was also so much 
softened, as almost to resemble clotted blood. Neither the thoracie 
nor abdominal viscera exhibited any traces of disease. A man, who 
had been a shipmate with the patient, stated he had heard of his ha- 
ving met with some accident, though he did not remember of what 
nature: but neither at the barracks, nor from the surgeon of the ship 
to which he had belonged in the Mediterranean, who was written to on 
the subject, could any information be obtained. The latter merely 
stated, that the man in question had not been in the sick-list for any 
accident during the time he had been in the vessel. 

In another case, the existence of abdominal injury was equally un- 
suspected. John Brown, seaman, et. 27, was admitted in a moribund 


state, from pulmonary apoplexy, and died within twenty-four hours af- — 


terwards. Besides pleural adhesions, the lungs, on dissection, were 


found much diseased; the left lung especially was tuberculated and — 


hepatised, with some calcareous deposits; while the lower lobe con- 
tained a very large coagulum of effused blood, from which the fibrine 
had separated. On opening the abdomen, the knife sunk into a cavity 
on the left side, containing extravasated blood ; and the greater part of 
the rectus abdominis muscle was discovered to be lacerated, and which ~ 
was supposed to have been caused by over-exertion in furling sails ; 
but from the absence of the vessel, no further particulars of the case 
could be obtained. 

The writer likewise adyerts to other instances, including two or three 


Se 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125 


_ subjects who had been hanged, in whom several of the extensor mus- 
_ eles had been torn across, leaving an interspace containing extravasated 
_ blood; especially one stout, muscular man, in whom the right triceps, 
extensor cubiti, and both vasti interni, were completely ruptured; 
while, in tetanus, cholera, &c., the muscular fibres have been found 
_ completely or partially lacerated. And from these and various other 
_ instances on record, he is led to infer that such injuries are of more 
_ frequent occurrence than is generally imagined. 
Sir David Dickson also notices a case of transposition of the czecum, 
which was found in the left instead of the right inguinal region ; the 
_ colon ascending and descending on the same side; and a more recent 
_ dissection, where, instead of the ninth nerve on the right side giving 
_ off a descending branch, the eighth nerve supplied a compensating 
branch, having a similar termination and communications as the de- 
_ scendens noni on the left side, the origin and distribution of which 
were normal. 
The paper concludes with the history and post mortem appearances 
_ of three unusually interesting cases of dropsy. In one of them, a com- 
bination of ascites and hydrothorax, the patient was saved from im- 
‘pending dissolution, and his life prolonged twenty-five days, by the abs- 
_ traction of thirteen pints of fluid from the left cavity of the pleura. 
_ In another, the patient lived upwards of six months, during which the 
_ operation of paracentesis abdominis was performed fourteen times. 
_ P.S. The officer who recovered after having been twelve times 
tapped in 1833, (as noticed in the Medical and Chirurgical Journal 
for January, 1834,) continues in perfect health. 


_ Abstract of a Paper read before the Medical Section of the British As- 
sociation at Liverpool, on the Physical and Chemical Characters of 
Expectoration in different Diseases of the Lungs, with some Prelimi- 


nary Remarks on the Albuminous Principles existing in the Blood. 
By R.H. Brert, F.L.S., MRC. S., &e. 


_. The object of the present paper is an attempt to show that the phy- 
sical and more especially the chemical characters of expectorated mat- 
ter in different pectoral diseases may assist in diagnosis. The prelimi- 
_ nary remarks are on albuminous principles existing in the blood. The 
serum of blood is looked upon as containing in aqueous solution two if 
- not three modifications of albumen. The globular part, on the other 
_ hand, is regarded as made up of solid albumen or fibrine and colour- 
_ ing matter. The albumen in the serum appears to be, 1st, in an un- 

- combined state; 2ndly, in combination with an alkaline base; and 
' $rdly, in a state capable of undergoing spontaneous coagulation. The 
_ results obtained from a physical examination of sputa in different dis- 
eases of the lungs leads to the conclusion, that although, at certain 
_ stages in different pulmonary affections, the physical character of the 

_ sputa varies, still that in consequence of the complication produced by 


126 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


the occasional passage of one form of lung affection into another on 
the coexistence of disease in different and distinct parts of the pulmonary 
structure, the expectoration met with in one form of uncomplicated 
lung disease, may be found in any other mixed with that peculiar to 
the part of the pulmonary tissue principally and originally diseased. 
The appearance of globular bodies in sputa, under the microscope, 
cannot be regarded as decidedly characteristic of any one form of ex- 
pectoration, belonging to all and even to healthy saliva, but differing in 
regard to the extent of globularity in certain affections. From the che- 
mical examination of sputa, it is deduced that they differ from each other, 
in the proportion of soluble albumen capable of coagulation by heat 
which they contain, as also in the amount of fixed or non-volatile saline 
matters. That form of expectoration met with in pituitous catarrh does 
not contain any free albumen capable of coagulation by heat, and, for 
equal weight, less saline matter than any other form of sputum; the 
solid matter also amounts to a very little more than that met with in 
ordinary saliva, and sometimes even less, and although, for equal 
weight it contains less solid and saline matter than any other form of 
sputum, yet for equal weight of dried extract, it contains more than 
other forms of expectorated matter. The sputa in chronic bron- 
chitis differ from the last noticed principally in containing a small 
quantity of free albumen, which heat coagulates, in the larger quan- 
tity of solid matter contained in it, being double that found in the 
sputum of pituitous catarrh, in the quantity of saline matter being less 
in proportion to the solid contents, although, for equal weights of the 
two forms of expectoration, the difference is not considerable. In 
acute bronchitis the albuminous matter found in the expectoration pro- 
bably arises from the presence of a muco-purulent secretion poured out 
by the inflamed bronchial membrane. Sputum, precisely like the 
chronic bronchitic variety, occurs also in the different but more espe- 
cially in the early or middle stages of phthisis, with or without an ad- 
mixture of softened tuberculous matter; in no disease, however, is 
free albumen, capable of coagulation by heat, met with in such abun- 
dance as in the latter stages of phthisis: the absence of such consider- 
able albuminous impregnation cannot however be taken as clear evi- 
dence of the non-existence of phthisical disease, for the latter may exist 
and the expectoration still be of precisely the same character as that 
met with in chronic or even acute bronchitis ; when on the other handa 
large quantity of coagulable albumen is present, the existence of phthisis 
may be strongly suspected, a small quantity of the albuminous prin- 
ciple only being common to phthisis as well as simple bronchial affee- 
tions unassociated with tuberculous disease. Genuine pneumonic ex- 
pectoration always contains coagulable albumen, which appears to be 
derived from the blood to which this form of sputum owes its peculiar 
colour. The quantity of solid matter is considerably greater than 
in any of the preceding forms of expectoration, amounting to more 
than double that met with in the chronic bronchitic variety. The ex- 
tremely tenacious character of genuine pneumonic sputum is probably 
depending upon the existence of a very tough form of mucus resulting 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127 


_ from a very active inflammatory condition of the smaller bronchial 
_ tubes. In phthisis the expectoration varies much according to the stage 
_ of the disease, and it is only, for the most part, in the latter stages, that 
it is generally found to differ in a marked manner both as to its phy- 
_ sical appearance and chemical habitudes from all other forms of sputa. 
_In the earlier stages of the disease it may be precisely the same as that 
met with in pituitous catarrh, or other decided bronchitic affections ; 
in the latter stages, however, it will almost always be found at some 
time or other, to contain large quantities of coagulable albumen, as 
well as the same principle in the solid form ; so that in some instances 
it scarcely differs in appearance from ordinary pus, of which in fact it 
_ mainly consists. The origin of the puriform matterin phthisis is probably 
_ from different sources; 1st, from the perfect softening down or fluidi- 
fication of tubercular deposit ; 2ndly, a secretion from the bronchial 
_ membrane ; and 8rdly, from the secreting lining membrane of tuber- 
_ cular cavities. One thousand grains of phthisical expectoration of a 
_ well-marked purulent character, being so diffluent that it might be 
poured guttatim from one vessel to another, possessing a distinct 
greenish tinge, were analyzed with the following results :— 


ER ME roche ash eceee iocen been tease eed canene kage ORT SOO 
Albuminous matter with a little mucus ........... 17°387 
Animal matter soluble in alcohol, consisting of fatty 6177 
matter, and a little extractive ............00. Reta oleae 
Animal extract soluble in water  ..........ccseseee seen 5°840 
Salines, consisting of alkaline chlorides, sulphates, 
and phosphates, earthy phosphatic salts, and oxide 1813 
of iron. The base of the alkaline salts was chiefly 
soda, a little potass was nevertheless present ...... 
BE in tebe s cheese sires wUaiece Ws ss Rare nero ree vas sie o ys dod 1-483 
1000:000 


_—__—_— 


The above exhibits a striking similarity between the puriform 
variety of phthisical expectoration and actual pus. In both is an 
abundance of coagulable albumen, in both solid albumen, in both are 
extractive matters, both contain fatty matter, the same or nearly 
the same alkaline and earthy salts; and lastly, in both fluids a no- 
table quantity of oxide of iron is found. Phthisical sputa, late in the 
disease especially, contain a considerable quantity of fatty matter so- 
_ luble in alcohol and ether, and requiring a higher temperature for its 
_ fusion than ordinary fatty matters; other forms of expectoration, par- 
ticularly that of the chronic bronchitic kind, contain the same sub- 
stance, but never in such quantity as in genuine phthisical sputa. 

That crude tubercular deposit is capable of being converted by the 
process of softening or fluidification into pus, is rendered highly pro- 
_ bable from the chemical nature of hard tubercles as well as that of the 
_ same deposit in the most complete state of softening. From a compa- 


128 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


rative chemical examination of crude tubercle and ordinary fibrine, as 
well as from the action of re-agents on softened tubercular matter, the 
following is deduced :—Ist, that crude tubercles, as met with in inci- 
pient phthisis, do not differ chemically from fibrine or solid albumen ; 
2dly, that softened tuberculous matter differs not in its chemical ha- 
bitudes from ordinary purulent matter. 


Observations on the Disease called Cocosm by the Africans, or the 
ARABIAN Leprosy; the ArApaTTa of the Caribes of Guiana; the 
RavesycGE of Northern Europe; all of which appear to be identical ; 
and on the Method found most effectual in the Treatment of this Dis- 
ease. By Joun Hancock, M.D. 


The author having long since paid much attention to the leprosy 
observed in Guiana and the West India islands, among blacks, whites, 
and aborigines, was surprised to find, by the description given in the 
Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. xviii., that the radesyge 
of Scandinavia exhibited exactly the same train of symptoms. He 
therefore arrived at the conclusion, that these diseases, supposed by the 
learned writer in the Edinburgh Journal to be distinct, were really 
identical; and after detailing the characters of the cocobe, or Ara- 
bian leprosy, he states the result of his own observation to be totally 
opposed to the notion of the cocobz being in the smallest degree con- 
tagious, unless, possibly, under predisposition, and other concurring 
causes, and in the ulcerative stage. 

Unfortunately, in the colonies the disease is considered to be incu- 
rable. If attended to early, however, the symptoms may be easily ar- 
rested by the use of saline lenitives, with antimonial anodyne diapho- 
retics, vapour-baths and frictions, bleeding, spare and abstemious diet, 
and the several means for promoting lymphatic absorption, and all the 
secretions. The difficulty of the medical treatment in more advanced 
stages of the disease, is augmented by the aversion entertained for it, 
and the consequent want of accommodation and assistance. 

The author describes the result of his practice in some cases where 
cures were effected ; notices the value of opium, in combination with 
mercury and antimony, bleeding, saline purgatives, and regulated diet. 
Among other remedies, he found the Coonu-paru useful ; and describes 
bathing as of great and paramount advantage, especially the alternate 
use of warm vapour and cold effusion. 

“ The aborigines of Guiana, on noticing the first appearance of the 
disorder, in general resort to fomentations, tepid and vapour baths; 
and form a drink of the bark of a tree (Mouca), together with thé root 
of a vine termed Paramaroora,a species of Cissus, and.the bark of the 
Waiacano (Guiacum). This infusion stands to ferment with a portion 
of honey, and is taken several times a-day: it produces a copious flow 
of urine and perspiration, and evacuates the bowels withal. They 
make use also of the bark of the tree Tamootu (a nondeseript), both 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 129 


internally and in fomentations. During this course, they enjoin a 
_ strictly abstemious diet, and prohibit the use of animal food in a great 
_ measure, especially the use of the manati, the capebaru, the arapaia, 
and several kinds of fish, which are considered as gross food.” 


Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 


: A Railway Balance Lock, designed for the purpose of Raising or 
Lowering a Train of Carriages by Horizontal Motion. By GrorcE 
ReminerTon, Jun. 


Mr. Remington proposes that the trains should be run on to a stage 
' of wood or iron, and that the stage should be raised or lowered by 
wheels and axles upon tram-plates or rails, laid in a series of inclined 
planes made in the walls on either side of the stage; the weight of the 
stage and train is to be partially counterbalanced by a system of 
weights, and the requisite power is to be supplied by a stationary 
Bb engine. 
_ The construction and method of working was explained by reference 
to aplan and section ; and the author thinks that the introduction of 
_ this system, both as regards cheapness and despatch, will tend in a great - 
measure to promote the science of railways, which has been so ably 
introduced, and would extend the system to those places which have 
been considered almost inaccessible. 


The Treffos Pump.. By Joun Wii11aMs, of Bangor. 


Mr. Williams proposes to keep up a continuous supply of water, 
_ whatever may be the relative position of the well and of the pump, by 
means of an air-tight vessel or chamber, which he calls a “ Treffos ;” 
and which is to be filled in the first instance with water through an 
“aperture in the top, the aperture being completely closed before the 
pump is setin motion. As the piston ascends in the working barrel 
the water will flow in from the additional vessel; and thus that which 
_is attained imperfectly by use of two or more cylinders acting in 
succession, may be accomplished in the common house-pump. 


On the Expansive Action of Steam in some of the Cornish Pumping 
dq Engines. By W. J. HEnwoop, F.G.S. 


_ Mr. Henwood gave an account of experiments which he had in- 
stituted on the expansion of steam in the cylinders of some reciprocating 
engines in the Cornish mines. ‘The curved lines described by an 
‘indicator were exhibited, and shown to vary, as the pressures and ~ 
VOL, vi. 1837. K 


p< 


130 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


quantities of steam in the boilers, the sizes of the valves, and the loads 
of the engines; at least in the early part of the working stroke. The 
termination of the return-stroke well exhibited the benefit of eapansive 
working. The duty per bushel of coal consumed was shown to be 
from 73 to 86 millions of pounds, lifted one foot high by the consumption 
of each bushel of coal; and from 870 to 1085 tons lifted one foot 
high for one farthing of expense. ‘Tabular statements of the various 
elements employed, and diagrams illustrative of the conditions of the 
engines examined, were also exhibited. 

The communication of Mr. Henwood gave rise to a lengthened 
discussion on the duty of the Cornish engines; and Mr. Henwood 
explained his reasons for thinking that 125 or 120 millions was too 
high for an average duty. The trial which gave 125 millions was of 
too short a duration, not more than 24 hours; and no reliance can be 
placed on short trials, since there may be a considerable reservoir of 
heat worked out; also the engine may be in a much better condition 
than can usually be maintained. Mr. Henwood considered that the 
best duty was obtained from engines having 10 feet stroke in the cy- 
linder and 7 feet in the working barrel, and making from about 5 to 7 
strokes in the minute ; also that the single-acting do more duty than 
than the double-acting engines. 


On the Mechanism of Waves, in relation to the Improvement of Steam 
Navigation. ByJoun Scott Russert, P.RS.E. 


Mr. Russell had at previous meetings of the British Association given 
an account of his investigations in the resistance of fluids to the motion 
of vessels, and ascertained the law of interference of the wave in 
modifying the nature and amount of that resistance. 

Since the last meeting of the Association, he had extended his ob- 
servations to a variety of the applications of the principles formerly 
developed, to certain objects of practical importance, and, amongst 
others, to the improvement of the navigation of such rivers as the 
Thames and the Clyde, where steam navigation is extensively carried 
on. In these rivers it was found that steam navigation was conducted 
under very great disadvantages, when compared with the open sea, 
Mr. Russell had investigated the causes of these impediments, and he 
had found that in shallow water one great impediment to high velocities 
was the generation of the great wave of translation of the displaced 
fluid: the effect of this great anterior wave was to alter the position 
and increase the anterior displacement and resistance of the fluid. The 
next great impediment to steam navigation consisted in the formation 
of lateral currents on the side of the vessel, which, having the same 
direction with the motion of the paddles, had the effect of diminishing 
the relative difference of the velocity of the paddles and of the fluid, 
and thus diminish the propelling power of the paddles. The third evil 
resulting from the use of steam in shallow rivers arose from the stern- 
wave or posterior surge, by which great injury was done to the banks 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 131 


of the rivers, and to the smaller vessels navigating the same water. 
Now it had been fully proved in the course of Mr. Russell’s observation. 
that there was only one mode of materially diminishing all of these 
evils; that one mode consisted not in widening the rivers as was 
generally supposed, nor in giving gradual and gentle slopes to the sides 
of the channel, but in deepening the river and rendering its sides as 
nearly vertical as possible. By this means it had been found that the 
impediments arising from the formation of the channel were diminished 
to a very great amount. . 
The next species of wave generated by a steam vessel is the wave of 
unequal displacement. This wave was found to arise solely from the 
form of the vessel. It was this wave which was seen diverging on both 
_ sides of the vessel, from the prow towards the stern, and might be seen, 
arranged in two straight lines, extending to a great distance behind it. 
This wave might be greatly diminished and almost entirely removed, 
by giving to the lines of displacement a particular form which 
Mr. Russell described. 


a 


On Improvementsin Tidal Rivers. By Joun Scort Russet, F.R.S.EL. 


__ Mr. Russell renewed the subject of the generation and motion of 
waves, as connected with the improvements which were to be made in 
the navigation of tidal rivers. He directed his remarks especially to 
the tide wave, and to the practical methods which his remarks had led 
him to, of forming the channel so as to accelerate the tide in its course 
up the river, but to retard the water as much as possible on its return. 
The tidal wave up a river appears to follow laws very similar to the 
_ wave of great displacement, of which he had spoken on a previous 
occasion ; hence its progress was to be accelerated by deepening the 
_ channel and making its section rectangular. It appeared also, as the 
_ result of his investigations, that the wave might be made to move with 
rapidity in a curve by deepening the channel on the outside of the 
curve. This deepening the outside of the channel would have the 
effect of retarding the water flowing back, and thus the tidal water would 
_ be preserved for a much longer time than in a straight channel. 
Mr. Russell then proceeded to apply the theoretical principles to the 
explanation of the formation of bores in rivers. 


A New Safety Lamp. By W. LeiTuHeep. 


A New Telegraph. By Dr. Cuanny, Newcastle. 


— 


Telegraphic Communication on Railroads. 
By Barnarp L, Watson. 


K@2 


132 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


On the Resistance to Railway Trains. By Dr. LARDNER*. 


The object of this communication was to direct attention to the 
principles which ought to be preserved in determining railway con- 
stants, and especially to the importance of taking into the account the 
moment of inertion of the wheels, which had been generally omitted. 
Dr. Lardner detailed generally the various resistances to which the 
motion of a train is subject; and, having stated his objection to the 
use of the dyanometer, proceeded to explain the method which he 
would fecommend. The principle is as follows: “Let an engine be 
loaded with as heavy a train as it is capable of drawing at a very slow 
and uniform speed, having its steam-valve fully open, and no steam 
blowing off at the safety-valve. Let care also be taken that the 
diameter of the steam-pipe, from the boiler to the cylinder, shall bear 
a considerable ratio to the diameters of the cylinders. Under such 
circumstances we may, without sensible error, consider the pressure 
of steam in the boiler and the cylinders to be the same; and if no 
steam blow off from the safety-valve, the indication of the lever will 
be a true measure of the pressure of the steam upon the pistons of the 
cylinders. This pressure is transmitted to the cranks, the mean 
leverage of which being known, the amount of force transmitted to the 
point where the driving wheels rest upon the rails is a matter of casy 
calculation. This will evidently constitute the gross amount of the 
tractive force exerted by the engine; and this foree may be con- 
sidered as expended in moving the train and the engine, and will be 
the tractive force sought.”+ 

The important details of this communication will be found in the 
Railway Magazine as already referred to. 


A Flexible Suspension Bridge. By W. J. Curtis. 


- The peculiar feature of this bridge is the absence of a main chain ; 
each point is sustained by four forces, viz. two bars carried over each 
pier. 


Onan Instrument for ascertaining the Focal Length of Spectacles. By 
Joun Isaac Hawkins. 


Mr. Hawkins mentioned some facts respecting the differences in the 
distances betwixt the eyes of different individuals, and the focal 
distance of the right and left eye. In one extreme case this differ- 
ence was more than 30 inches, the focal distance of one eye being 36, 
and of the other only 3 inches. 


* For an account of this communication and the calculations, see Railway Maga- 
zine, November, 1837, 
t Ibid. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133 


On the Construction of Sea Walls and Embankments. 
By Joun Scotr Russert, F.RSE. 


Mr. Russell, from his various researches on the formation of waves, 
and the methods of increasing or diminishing their velocity, had come 
to the conclusion that the best form of sea walls and embankments for 
breaking the waves gradually is a parabolic curve, with the convexity 
upwards. 


On the Duty of the Cornish Engines. By Mr. Joun Taytor, 
F.RS., §¢. 


Mr. John Taylor gave some explanation respecting the methods of 
ascertaining the duty of Cornish engines. He confirmed the state- 
ment that one engine had performed 125 millions; but as this experi- 
ment only lasted 26 hours, he agreed with Mr. Henwood in consider- 
ing that much importance was not to be attached to this trial. He 
considered the method adopted as a perfectly fair one for ascertaining 
the comparative duties of engines; but it was never asserted that the 
quantity of water was actually delivered at the adit. The quantity of 
coals consumed was also another very good test of the duty done, 
and an examination into the account-books of the different mines con- 
firmed the reports of the duty done. 


On Preventing the Dangers from Collision, and from Fire in Vessels. 
By Mr. WinLiams. 


The method now proposed consists in dividing the vessel into 
several compartments, by division bulk-heads, built up completely 
through the vessel, similar to the plan which has been adopted in the 
iron steamers. Thus, should any aperture be made by collision, the 
water would not extend through the whole vessel, as in the case of 
the Apollo, but would be confined to the compartment in which the 
injury takes place. In case of fire, the compartments in which the 
fire existed might be filled with water without any danger to the rest 
of the vessel; these bulk-heads would also prevent the existence of 
any strong current of air throughout the vessel. 


Experiments on the Equilibrium of the Arch. By Professor 
Mosetry, King’s College, London. 


The results of experiments on the equilibrium of the arch, laid by 
Professor Moseley before the Section, confirm the theoretical conclu- 
sions at which he had already arrived, in papers read before the Cam- 
bridge Philosophical Society. In flat arches, the breadth of whose 
voussoirs are the same, the thrust is found to be as the square of the 
span, and altogether independent of the depths of the voussoirs. In 
circular arches, the ratio of the depth of whose voussoirs to their radii 


134 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


is the same, the thrust is as the square of the radius for the same 
angle of the semi-arch. The paper was accompanied by diagrams 
illustrating the manner of experimenting on the arch, and with tables 
showing the agreements betwixt the theoretical and the practical con- 
clusions. 

In connection with his researches on the theory of the arch, the au- 
thor has instituted experiments to determine the greatest number of 
voussoirs which could be made to stand in the form of a circular arch. 


On the Quality of Iron for Railways. By D. Musuer. 


Respecting the qualities most essential for railway iron, Mr. Mushet 
premises the following remarks :— 

1. That a crystalline arrangement of the fracture of bar iron is 
incompatible with great strength and fibre, and that it is essential to 
railway iron that it should be hard and fibrous. 

2. The more frequently iron is heated or melted in the course of its 
completion as bar iron, the greater is its tendency to crystallize and 
become brittle whea cold. This is in some measure prevented by 
repeated rollings ; but fibre acquired in this way is, to a certain extent, 
artificial ; for where native fibre is absent, heating and cooling will re- 
store the crystalline arrangement and weaken the tenacity of the iron 
when cold. 

3. Excessive decarbonization, commonly called refining, which tends 
to deprive the iron of its last portion of carbon, produces a quality of 
malleable iron, soft, and easily abraded by rubbing or friction; and 
therefore, in point of durability, not well calculated for rail iron. 

4. Conversely, iron manufactured so as to retain the last and con- 
sequently the most intimately united portions of carbon, or to have 
this substance communicated to it in minute portions in working, is 
better caleulated, provided the fibre is not injured, for rail-making on 
two accounts, because it will wear less by rubbing, and be subject to 
less waste from oxidation. 

5. Bar or malleable iron has a tendency to crystallize in the cooling, 
in proportion to the size of the manufactured mass; a circumstance 
deserving the greatest consideration on the part of the engineer in de- 
termining the form or shape of his rails. 

6. Continued vibration, such as is produced by the motion of an 
engine or waggon travelling on a railway, causes iron to crystallize 
and to a certain degree become brittle. Hence the importance of 
making rails from iron full of fibre, so as to postpone the tendency to 
crystallization to as remote a time as possible. 

7. Unless abridged or destroyed, by the repeated heatings and fusions 
to which iron is subjected in its various manipulations, the quantity 
and strength of fibre developed will mainly depend upon the degree or 
proportion of carbonaceous matter originally contained in the pig iron 
from which it has been manufactured. 

8. It is essential in rail-making to have a quality of iron that will 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135 


stand, without dropping or opening at the rolls, a degree of heat ca- 
pable of compactly and adhesively welding the piles together, so as to 
prevent exfoliation or a separation of the parts when subjected to 
railroad traffic. 

The qualities most essential for railway iron being fibre and hardness, 
the attention of the author has been especially directed to the manner 
of iron having all these qualities in the highest possible degree. 

Mr. Mushet considers that the greatest possible quantity of fibre, 
with a superior degree of hardness and durability, may be produced by 
avoiding the process and waste of the refinery. The pig iron is to be at 
once introduced into the puddling furnace, where being subjected to 
a temperature just sufficient for fusion, some finely-ground rich iron 
ore is thrown upon it and worked by the puddler into the iron. The 
usual process of the hammer and the rolls is then gone through. 

Several specimens of iron made at different works were exhibited. 


On the Teeth of Wheels. By Rozpert Witxis, M. A., Jacksonian 
Professor in the University of Cambridge. 


Two wheels set out by the common plan, with epicycloidal teeth at 
the same pitch, will work perfectly well; but a third wheel of different 
diameter, with teeth at the same pitch, will not work with either of them. 

To obviate this circumstance, Professor Willis proposes that the 
teeth should be described on the following principle: If two pitch lines 
be taken, and a tracing circle of any diameter, and an external epicy- 
cloid be traced on the driver, and an internal epicycloid on the driven 
wheel, the teeth will move each other truly. Professor Willis exhibited 
also a form of tooth peculiarly applicable to cranes, or wherever the 
work is only one way and great strength is required. 


On the Construction of Vessels with Safety Keels. By Mr. Lane, 
of her Majesty's Dock Yard, Woolwich. 


On a New Perspective Drawing Board for Mechanical Drawings. 
By Mr. Krncs ey. 


On Canals and Railways in America. By Professor Henry, 
Prince Town College. 


Professor Henry gave a most interesting account of the internal 
communication in the United States, and presented to the Section a 


map, showing the canals and railways complete or in progress. It 


appears that 2000 miles of canal and 1800 miles of railway are com- 
pleted, and that near 3000 miles of railway were in progress; for par- 
ticular accounts of which he referred to the American Almanac. 


136 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


On Mechanical Sculpture, with Specimens. By Joun Isaac HAWKINS. 


On a New Method of obtaining an Artificial Horizon at Sea. 
By W. Errricx. 


On the Application of Steam to Long Voyages. By Dr. LARDNER. 


On the Ventilation of Tunnels. By Witt1am West, of Leeds. 


The writer has found, by experiments repeated under various cir- 
cumstances in the tunnel on the Leeds and Selby Railway, that even 
when the external atmosphere is as near to perfect stillness as is 
common in this climate, an atmospheric current passes through the 
tunnel with sufficient rapidity to prevent the loss from hot air or gain 
from cold of more than a very few degrees; and this takes place almost 
entirely at the entrance, while without rapid transmission it would of 
course soon reach the mean temperature of the spot. 

Sometimes, however, the thermometer shows that the air which enters 
at the windward end passes up the nearest shaft, leaving the remainder 
of the tunnel worse ventilated than if no shaft existed. As the results 
of his experiments, he submits :— 

1. That the legislature and the public need apprehend no danger 
from the stagnation of air in railway tunnels, while they have abundant 
protection in the enormous cost against any company increasing without 
occasion either their number or their length. 

2. That it is at least doubtful whether open shafts do not rather 
impede than promote effectual ventilation from end to end. 


STATISTICS. 


A Brief Memoir of the Growth, Progress, and Extent of the Trade be- 
tween the United Kingdom and the United States of America, from 
the beginning of the Eighteenth Century to the present time. By 
G. R. Porrer, Vice-President of the Statistical Society of London. 


This memoir, after reciting the date of the first settlement of each 
of the British colonies now included in the confederation forming 
“The United States of America,” contains notices, from the writings 
of Sir Josiah Child and others, indicating the nature and extent of the 
commercial intercourse maintained by them with the parent country 
in the years which immediately followed the dates of their settlement. 
Tables are given in an appendix to the memoir, wherein the further 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137 


progress of that intercourse is more minutely traced, first to the period 
of the independence of the United States and afterwards to the year 
1836. It appears from these data, that so long as the British American 
provinces continued under the operation of our colonial system, and 
while their trading was consequently limited to this country, the in- 
crease of their imports and exports bore an inedequate proportion to 
the increased number of the colonists. In 1749, when the population 
of the provinces was 1,046,000, the value of their imports and exports 
was £2,117,845. In 1774, when the struggle for independence was 
begun, the population was estimated at 2,803,625 ; and if the trade had 
increased in an equal degree, the amount of imports and exports should 
have been £5,676,523, instead of the actual amount £3,964,288 : thus 
showing a virtual falling off of 30 per cent. In 1790, when the first 
census of the United States was taken, the population was 3,929,328, 
and the amount of trade with England £4,622,851. In 1835, the po- 
pulation was estimated at 14,784,589, and the trade with England 
amounted to £25,671,602. Comparing this increase of population 
and trade respectively with the number and amount ascertained at 
different intermediate periods, the following results are presented. 


Increase per cent. in 1835 


of 

Chat ae Le 

Population. Trade. 

Compared Wnt. 19D) ss.26 50k adeweecnmnate IDC eas. vais 455 
” USOO Me a.iah Wa atiacewere’s ontoet WO wk acetate l TT 

” RO eee eis, cob mnunns asd OANiane cue'e smn eness 146 

9 LBZ ben tee cetacean cceh ORO vec tes seccesee! ZOD 

» LASO tees cbe bia ME. seeds SF 


The growth of the American cotton trade is traced from its begin- 
ning in 1787 to the year 1836, in which we received from the United 
States 218,615,692lbs. of raw cotton, valued at ten millions sterling. 
Other tables are given, showing the tonnage of shipping employed in the 
foreign trade of the United States, distinguishing American and Bri- 
tish vessels from those under all other flags. These tables are followed 
by an historical sketch of the progress of the British trade with Ame- 
rica, and of the causes and cousequenees of the interruptions to which 
it was exposed through the issue of Napoleon’s Milan and Berlin de- 
crees, and the retaliatory steps to which those measures led. The me- 
moir closes with a statement of the proportions which the trade be- 
tween England and the American republic bore to the whole foreign 
trade of each country respectively in each year, from 1821 to 1835. 
In the appendix are tables, drawn from our official returns, showing the 
actual value of British manufactures shipped to the United States in 
each year, from 1805 to 1836; the quantities of the chief articles of 
American produce imported, and the quantities and value of the chief 
articles of British manufacture exported to the United States in each 
year, from 1827 to 1836 ; together with parallel statements compiled 


| from returns made to Congress by the American executive govern- 


ment. 


138 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


On the Wages of Labourers in Manufacturing Districts. 
By Mr. Suaney. 


On the State of Education in the Borough of Bolton in 1837. 
By Mr. Asuwortn. 


The return made to government in 1833 on the state of education 
has been found very defective. In Bolton there have been no means 
of testing its correctness; but, if accurate, there has been a very re- 
markable increase in the number of scholars, being 25 per cent. more 
of day scholars and 40 per cent. more of Sunday scholars. 

There are now 2] Sunday schools, with 9867 scholars, or 193 per 
cent. of the population, of whom about 2000 may be estimated as being 
in attendance both at daily schools and Sunday schools, leaving the 
number of 7867, or 15% per cent. of the population, receiving instruc- 
tion at Sunday schools only. 

There are 66 day and evening schools, containing 3227 scholars, or 
§° per cent. ; 

Total number of scholars 11,094, or about 22+ per cent. of the pre- 
sent population, estimated at about 50,000. 

Children equal in number to 20 per cent. of the population are not 
in attendance at any school whatever. 

In the Sunday schools were found— 

2014 scholars in 4 schools connected with the Church Establish- 
ment. 

1085 scholars in 1 Roman Catholic school. 

6768 scholars in 16 schools belonging to various classes of Dis- 
senters. 

In Bolton there are 5 charity schools, with 692 scholars, including 
the two infant schools. There is also a grammar school, whose scholars 
have been entered at 120, being the number reported to government, 
the master having declined to give the agent any information orf the 
subject. The income was stated to the committee to be £450. 

Of superior schools for the children of persons in good circum- 
stances there appear to be 17, with 721 scholars. 

Of common boys’ schools there are 15, with 851 scholars. 

Of common girls’ schools........ 5, 209 

Of Dame schools)... «e660 65 6 eu 23, 634 
—944 being boys and 750 girls, all the boys’ schools containing some 
girls, and vice versa. 


Remarks on the Report of the State of Education in Liverpool, pre- 
sented to the British Association in 1836. By Mr. Merritt. 


The author dissenting from the numerical results stated in the re~ 
port alluded to (of which an abstract is given in the preceding volume, 
p- 133.), assigned his reasons for this difference of opinion. 

Mr. Tate also presented remarks on the same subject. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 139 


| On the State of Crime in the Borough of Liverpool. 
By Mr. Wavmstey. 


The author presented returns relating to Liverpool, containing the 
number of persons brought before the magistrates, and the number 
committed ; the number of felons apprehended, and the number com- 
mitted; and the ages of the juvenile felons. In the year 1835, 13,506 
were taken into custody, 2138 of whom were committed. In 1836, 
16,830 were taken into custody, of whom 3343 were committed. Up to 
the 13th of September, 1837 (eight months), the number taken into 
custody was 12,709, of whom 2849 were committed. From July 1835 to 
July 1836, the number of juvenile thieves apprehended under eighteen 
years of age, was 924, of whom 378 were committed. From July 
1836 to 13th of September 1837, the number of juvenile thieves ap- 
prehended was 2339, of whom 1096 were committed. There were in 
custody, during the same period, upwards of 1500 well-known adult 
thieves. 


_— 


Abstract of the Report made by the Regents of the University of the 
State of New York. By Dr. W. C. Tayror. 


—— 


On Improvements in Agriculture. By G. W. Haut. 


On Spade Husbandry. By Dr. Yevuowy. 


—$—_—= 


On the Localities of the Plague in Constantinople. 
By Mr. Urquuarr. 


The author stated, as the result of three years’ observations, that the 
plague, if it did not originate in localities close to cemetries, was greatly 
aggravated by the proximity of burial grounds, especially when the 
towns and villages stood on a lower level than the neighbouring ceme- 
tries. Several statements corroborative of this view of the injurious 
effects of effluvia from the shallow Turkish graves, were advanced by 
other members of the section. 


On the Reclaiming of the Bog of Critt, in the County of Galway. 
By Mr. Bermincuam. 


On the Condition of the Poor of Bristol—an Inquiry now carrying on 
by the Statistical Society of Bristol. By C. B. Fripp. 


The inquiry, though much advanced, being still in progress, it ap- 
pears proper to defer an abstract of the results obtained till the whole 
is completed. 


140 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


On the Educational Statistics of the Parish of Sidlesham, in Kent. 
By the Rev. F. Dz Soyvres. Communicated by C. B. Fripp. 


Dame schools, 1, 15 
Sunday do, 2, 123 
40 Sunday scholars also attend day-schools. — 


931 
Adult Population. Agricultural class. 

Able to read ......males...... 55 married ; 28 unmarried. 
females .... 83 Q7 

Not able to read ..males......42 married; 22 unmarried. 
females .... 30 1 
Miscellaneous class. 

Able to read ...... males......38 married; 16 unmarried. 
females .... 40 9 

Not able to read....males...... 6 married; 3 unmarried. 


females.... 6 


An Inquiry into the Origin, Procedure, and Results of the Strike of the 
Operative Cotton-Spinners of Preston, from October 1836 to Febru- 
ary 1837. By Mr. Asuwonrtn, of Bolton. 


In October 1836, there were in Preston and its vicinity, 42 cotton- 
mills, giving employment to 8500 hands, and requiring about 1200 
horse power to work them. The capital invested in the buildings, 
TNACHINCEY pCO. WAS ADOUL cas scat amaemceete s Me) a aloe ee £550,000 

‘The -workine capital, BB0Ue. oo. eset ite oo ne te 250,000 


ee 


Total. . £800,000 


In consequence of a struggle between the operatives and the ma- 
sters, concerning the rate of wages, which the masters proposed to ad- 
vance 10 per cent., the operatives ceased working on the 5th of No- 
vember, when 660 spinners, 1320 piecers (children employed by the 
spinners), 6100 card-room hands, reelers, and power-loom weavers, 
420 overlookers, packers, engineers, &c., making in all 8500 persons, 
were without employment. Weekly payments were made to them 
from the funds of the “ Trades’ Union” previously established, but 
the distress became great, and in December, notwithstanding the 
grant of £100 from the corporation, “ universal and intense.” The 
mills were re-opened by the masters, to such as chose to work, on the 
9th of January, and the scale of prices was fixed as previously offered 
by the masters, viz. an advance of 10 percent. By degrees, almost all 
the work-people resumed their employments, and on the 5th of Fe- 
bruary the mills were in full operation. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 141 


The following estimate was made of the direct pecuniary loss to all 
classes of operatives in consequence of the turn-out. 


Wages of 660 spinners for 13 weeks ...... 22s. 6d. = £9,652 
Gt'1320 precars). See sues .. 58.6d.= 4,719 
of 6520 card-room hands, &e. ...... 9s. = 38,142 
8500 
Estimated loss sustained by hand-loom weavers in 
consequence of the turn-out ........... 2-006. 9,500 
Estimated loss sustained by clerks, waggoners, 
carters, mechanics, dressers, sizers, &C. .....- 8,000 
otal: 25% 70,013 
From which must be deducted 
Estimated amount of wages earned between 9th of 
January and 5th of February .............. 5,013 
Estimated value of relief given by masters...... 1,040 
Other private charity and parochial relief ...... 2,500 
Allowance to spinners and piecers from the funds 
SRS TING A catah tie pes wae al ea anti 26 5. Dae 4,290 
12,803 
Leaving a nett pecuniary loss to the whole body 
of Preston operatives of .......000.. eee ee 57,210 
Loss to the masters (three months’ interest on 
IEEE MAN) cn ct Sad ee etna onc auaie abeays a femal & 45,000 
Ties to shopkeepers: .. i ¢ 0005 gen eih ne eee wins 4,986 
Total loss to the town and trade of Preston ...... £107,196 


od 


Report of a Committee of the Manchester Statistical Society, on the 
condition of the Working Classes in an extensive Manufacturing 
District, in 1834, 1835, and 1836. 


This inquiry embraced, 
Manchester, with a population of about 200,000 
MAlLOTs), Seles seth co ee cea tee ea eee edet- 05,000 
BUYS 5 cies) Hk RRM GR ov ert eeeuat 220,000 
INGHEODI 230.05 oes coda eed aaa savebeabssdeceves ete 225000 
Daly MELAS AL iva ave ve asbucecessencat  ckyy200 
Droeabinfield, jv get aeisen sont 8,600 


822,800 
_ The information was obtained by agents employed to visit every 
dwelling, and was by them recorded in the manner exemplified in the 
annexed form. 
The information thus collected was classified in aseries of tables, 
_ which were accompanied by an explanatory report, 


142 SEVENTH REPORT— 1837. 


The whole has since been published for the Manchester Statistical 
Society, by Messrs. James Ridgway and Son. 
2 ff et| House or Cellar. 


Number of Rooms in the House or Cellar. 


ches : Aa Number of Families in the House or Cellar. 
A = a it Name. 

: Male. 
irs ne fount | Number of Adults. 
ool ee : Z 
es? Male. ; 

ss | vada Number of Children. 

— tt . 


: Church of England. 
—= =| ee Religious Profession of the 


| Drees seme. _| "Head of each Family 
+ isepeel English. 
aleniee asa Trish. 
5 Ra Snoteh Country of the Head of 
aaa WwW ack each Family. 
Pia: | Foreigners. 
2 a: fs Occupation or Trade of the Head of each Family. 
Bei | 


wee 
eeeee 


Occupation or Trade of any other Members of the Family. 


sent eeeeee 


sroquadieg 


sax 


eel enecereeee 


Number of Adults in the Family earning Wages. 


I 
dq le 
i 


i: : Number of Children in the Family earning Wages. 

FP eine Male. Number of Children attend- 
Ske? a gies Female. ing a Day School. 

agi re Male. Number of Children attend- 
bol fe Female. ing a Sunday School. 


Number of Sleeping Rooms for the Family. 


| Number of Beds for the Family. 


Sufficient supply of Water. 


I 
I 


ye = 2 Total weekly Payment for Schooling of Children. 
= o Ey Are there any Books in the House? 
Ss S s Dwelling comfortable. 
¥ ES 3 Dwelling well furnished. 
Pa & 
Sao Weekly Rent. 
SS 
Seer Number of Rooms for the Family. 
-_ 
i) 


sanz 
"saX{T 
sok 


“aATyeu| * 


How long has the Family been resident in the Town? 


“svat ¢]* 
sivak F 


ne 
is 
a 
rel 
o 
ee 
oo 
a 
o 
p. 
oo 
to 
oo 
ne 
oO 
a 
ao 
<4 
oO 
p 
= 
Zn 
= 
oO 
an 


trreeeeeeqgQT9g aDUaILIO | Name of Street. 


ON 
‘on | 
ON 


Does the Head of the family belong to any Benefit Society. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143° 


Account of the Inhabited Courts and Cellars in Liverpool, Sc. 


Whilst conducting the inquiry into the state of Education in Liver- 
pool, in 1835-6, the agent of the Manchester Statistical Society took 
an account of the number of inhabited courts, and of the cellars occu- 
pied as dwellings in that borough, of which the following is the 
summary :— 

Courts. Cellars. 

Parish of Liverpool .........scscscssssssceesessee L964 6506 
Portions of four other townships, included 

within the limits of the borough ...... vides 9 OT 987 


Total in the borough of Liverpool ... 2271 ... 7493* 


Estimated population of the borough ............. 230,000. 


No courts were counted, in which two or more families did not re- 
side, and above one-third of the whole number contained six or more 
families. Few of the courts had more than one outlet. 

No cellars were included in the above number in which the occupants 
did not sleep, as well as live by day; nor was any account taken of 
those occupied as gin-shops. ‘The great proportion of the inhabited 
cellars were dark, damp, confined, ill-ventilated, and dirty. 

From the evidence afforded by this inquiry, it appears that, taking 
an average of five to each cellar, there must be about 15 per cent. of 
the entire population of Liverpool occupying cellar residences ; but 
alowing 4°17 to each cellar, (the average in Manchester and Salford,) 
there would be 31,000 persons inhabiting cellars in Liverpool, out of a 
total population of 230,000 ; or, taking the working population at two- 
thirds of the whole, about 20 per cent. of that portion of the community. 

In York no inhabited cellars were found. : 

The proportion of the working population residing in cellars was 
found to be, 


In the borough of Manchester ............ 112 per cent. 
In the borough of Salford .................. 8 a 


Ba Dury ics .cscaertens Pe aaemecnes sees en. 4 oer 5 
Peeevsliton \.. sudeatshevdGataes ea cdnaan vescne..) Le a 
PO aCAbY OPIN E. 4. ccsapas Maen aby she van éoxsee'de 14 “ 
1 Tas D7 S77) UR 12 99 


* This report having caused much surprise, an examination was immediately insti- 
tuted ; and, on the following day, Mr. Adam Hodgson presented to the Section the 
following return, made by the inspectors to Mr. M. J. Whitty, head constable :—. 


North Division .......sssssscvees 4,004 Inhabited Cellars. 
South ditto wuddedectecccsese 3,858 ditto. 
Patatiers«ss 7,862 


The excess of 369 cellars, in Mr. Hodgson’s return, is accounted for by the extén- 
sion of building since the date of the first inquiry. In Toxteth, a very rapidly increa- 
sing district of the borough, a cellar dwelling is attached to almost every new house in 
the streets inhabited by the working classes, 


144 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Inquiry into the State of Education in the City of York. Py the Man- 
chester Statistical Society. 


This inquiry was carried on in 1836 under the direction of Mr. W. 
R. Greg, Mr. W. Langton, and Mr. H. Romilly, and the report showed 
the followed results :— 

The number found in attendance at the different schools in the 
city was 5591, of whom 
2228 or 7:96 per cent. of the population attended day and evening 

schools only. 
2521 or 9 per cent. of the population attended both day and Sun- 
—_ ——- day schools. 
4749 or 16°96 per cent. of the population. 
842 or 3:01 per cent. of the population attended Sunday schools 
— Ss --—— only. 
5591 or 19°97 per cent. of the population. 

The population of the city is taken at 28,000 in this calculation, 
which shows that nearly one-fifth of the population is in attendance 
at schools. 

It is assumed that the number of children in the city between the 
ages of 5 and 15 years is about 7000, and the general summary shows 
that only about 4700 of the children between 5 and 15 can have been 
in attendance at school at the date of the inquiry ; thus above 33 out 
of every 100 must be absent from school. This approaches very closely 
to the result shown in the examination of Manchester and Salford. In 
the manufacturing districts, however, above half of the total number of 
scholars were found to attend only a Sunday school; while in York 
the proportion attending Sunday schools only is 15 per cent. 

Several errors appear to have occurred in the returns made to the 


Government in 1833, so that it could not be exactly ascertained what: 


increase or otherwise had taken place since that time. 

An account of the state of education in York was collected in 1826 
by a Committee of the Society of Friends, a copy of which accom- 
panies this report ; but as its principle of classification is different, it 
shows no result which allows of a close comparison with the present 
report. 

The tables annexed to the report classified in figures are the most 
important features of the state of education in the city of York. Some 
of these are annexed. 


—S ls 


——  — = ey 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145 


In the following tables York is compared with other towns examined 
_ by the Manchester Statistical Society. 


SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE.—I.: 


ESTIMATED POPULATION. 200,000. 55,000. 20,000. 230,000. 28,000. 
PEK CENTAGE OF THE POPU- | Manchester, | Salford. | Bury. | Liverpool. | York. 
LATION WHO cee | ee ee Ee eee 
Attend Dame Schools ......... 2°36 2:81 | 4-20 2°28 2-66 
Common Day ......... 3:40 3:30 | 4:04 2°65 1:96 
Superior Private ...... 1-47 1:60 87 1:77 2-56 
RANI even avons cate scnness 32 “68 | 1:42 ‘96 | 1:48 
Evening .......sseeseceees 73 “96 75 “24 “15 
Endowed and Charity 1:78 255 | 1:84 4:91 8:15 
Total who atttend Day Schools 10:06 11:90 | 13-12 12-81 | 16-96 
Beeteqnnsvecsevees Sunday ... only 11:59 11°53 | 15-51 1:62 301 


—_——— |———_—_|______ 


Total who attend any Schools 21:65 23°43 | 28-63 14-43 19-97 


SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE.—II. 


PER CENTAGE OF THE TOTAL | Manchester. | Salford. | Bury. | Liverpool. | York. 
NO. OF SCHOLARS WHO So EE EO | El ee ee 


Attend Dame Schools ......... 10-90 11-97 | 14:67) 15:79 | 13:33 
Common Day ......... 15°68 14-08 | 14:]1 18:37 9-82 
Superior Private ...... 6:77 6°85 | 3:03 12:30 12-80 
WTAE acscasscewccsustve at 1:50 2°89 | 4:96 6°64 7-44 
Evening ........ssesseceee 3:37 4:08 | 264) 1°65 75 
Endowed and Charity 8:24 10:89 | 643] 34:04 | 40:80 

Total who attend Day Schools 46-46 50°76 | 45°84 88-79 84-94 

Ditto......... Sunday ... only 53°54 49-24 | 54:16) 11-21 15-06 
Grand Total......... 100- 100- 100° -} 100: 100- 


VOL. vi. 1837. L 


SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


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148 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


Abstract of a paper entitled “ Remarks upon the Importance of an 
Enquiry into the Amount and Appropriation of Wages by the Work- 
ing Classes.” By Wiii1Am Ferxin, Nottingham. 


The preliminary observations contain the writer's idea of the large 
amount of many skilful workmen’s wages, and their misappropriation. 
He considers his views of their want of providential care for themselves 
and their families corroborated by circumstances which occurred in 
Nottingham during the spring of 1837, which he proceeds to relate. 

The general commercial pressure bore so heavily upon Nottingham 
as to throw a large portion of the working people out of employ ; and 
in April, much suffering being apparent, the unemployed in the hosiery 
and lace trades of the neighbourhood, not paupers, were set to work 
in the construction of a new road, by a committee appointed to distri- 
bute £5000 raised by public subscription forthe purpose: £4322. 19s. 6d. 
of this sum was expended in this way in 18 weeks ; the remainder was 
paid for tools (reserved) and other necessary expenses. On the 19th 
June there were at work 49 single men; 76 men married, without 
children ; 182 having one child; 224 with two ; 179 with three ; 135 
with four ; 80 with five ; and 65 with six or more children; making a 
total of 990 men, having 941 wives, and 2576 children under 16 years 
of age; 4407 were dependent that day on the fund, which was the 
largest number that occurred. The road has been since completed, 
leading to 100 garden allotments which have been made to the poor of 
land before useless. The total number of applicants were, lace-makers 
839, stockingers'797, smiths 178, sundries 164, total 1978 men, having 
1401 wives and 3508 children; being 6887 persons destitute. 889 be- 
longed to Nottingham, 1024 to the county, 65 elsewhere: 1083 lived 
in Nottingham, 591 in the Radford Union, 304 in the parishes around. 
Being soon overpowered by the numbers of applicants, the Committee 
caused rigid inquiries to be made into the circumstances and charac- 
ter of each new one. Out of 1100 returns, 1043 are perfect, com- 
prising 452 stockingers and 4.98 lace-makers, and 93 smiths dependent 
on the other two trades. Their wives and children were almost en- 
tirely unemployed. Character, as “clean,” “comfortable,” “ indus- 
trious,” “sober,” “steady,” “very poor,” “very destitute,” “honest,” 
or the reverse, was given. 440 lace-makers have good and 39 bad 
characters; 360 stocking-makers good, 50 the reverse; 75 smiths favour- 
able, 13 not so; total, 875 goed, and 102 indifferent characters. On 
the whole, they were decent work-people. 

Eight only had been pauperised in any form. 


The length of time the stocking-makers had been partly unemployed — 
was an average of 17 weeks, 14 days; lace, 21 weeks, and half a day; — 
smiths, 20 weeks, 1} days; total average of partial employ, 19 weeks, — 


3 days. Totally unemployed, stocking makers, 5 weeks, 1 day; lace, 


8 weeks, one day; smiths, 8 weeks, 2 days; total average of entire — 


want of employ, 6 weeks, 5 days. Not one of the 1043 stated himself 
to be a depositor in the Savings’ Bank. 104 stocking-makers were in 


sick clubs, odd fellows’ societies, &c.; 141 lace and 18 smiths, total 263 — 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 149 


or one in four persons had provided for scarcely any thing more than 
future sickness. The higher or lower rate of wages does not seem to 
influence materially the desire to belong to these clubs, or to lay by for 
future contingencies. 210 stocking-makers earned 1ls. a week and 
under, of whom 43 were in sick clubs; 103 earned 192s., of whom 22 
were in sick clubs; 139 earned 13s. and upwards, of whom 39 were in 
sick clubs. Total average of stocking-makers’ earnings, 11s. 63d. a 
week: 176 of their wives averaged ls. 103d. 212 lace earned 14s. 
and under, of whom 41 were in clubs; 72 earned 15s., of whom 21; 
69 earned 16s., of whom 27 ; 143 earned 17s. and above, of whom 52 
were in sick clubs. Average lace earnings, 15s. 1d.; and of 182 wives, 
2s. lid. 93 smiths averaged 16s. 4d., and 34 wives 1s. 9d. a week. 
Totalaverage earnings of 1043 men weekly, 13s.73d.; 392 wives Ls. 113d. 
a week: and of each family when in full work, according to their own 
statement, 17s. 6d. Though the inquiry has been a difficult one, yet 
this amount is found to be somewhat considerably below the actual 
weekly sum received. 304 of the men had an average of 2 children 
each able to work, bringing in together 3s. a week. 661 had 300 chil- 
dren between 11 and 7 years of age, and 1300 below 7, or 23 on an 
average. 

The wages of Nottinghamshire lace hands averaged, 1n 1829, 25s., 
1831, 20s., 1833, 19s., in 1836, 17s. a week, rates established by the 
writer's statistical paper of those years. Those employed on this fund 
stated their earnings at 15s. Stocking-makers’ wages had risen from 
9s. in 1833, to 11s. 6d. in 1836. Neither the past difficulties of the 
_ last class, nor the prospective depression of the first, seems to have 

taught them economy. These papers however show the fact, that men 
with 5 or 6 children have supported themselves as long as the unmar- 
ried, and form the bulk of the contributors to sick clubs, &c. The 
average weekly pay from the fund was 8s. 72d. a man, or Is. 10d. a 
week for each person dependent upon it; yet notwithstanding the 
smallness of this sum, and the whole of the people being unaccustomed 
to this kind of employment, they soon began to assume a far more 
healthy and cheerful aspect in person and countenance, than when en- 
gaged in their ordinary pursuits; and many stated themselves stronger 
and better than formerly. Hay harvest coming on, and the numbers 
(which had been greatly reduced) having drained the resources of the 
Committee, the affair was terminated; having been so managed as on 
the whole to give general satisfaction. 

From these facts the following conclusions are drawn. 

That the number of distressed applicants from one of the highest 
paid trades, the lace, was as large as from one of the lowest, the stock- 
ing-makers; the one having fallen in a few years from upwards of 40s. 
to under 20s., the other having risen from 7s. to about 12s. a week ; 
the numbers employed in each trade in the district in question being 
nearly equal. The higher paid trade had afforded its workmen means 


of effecting considerable savings; but the number who made pro- 


. vision for the future in sick clubs, &c., did not rise with the larger 
amount of wages ; for of the 245 members, 132 were of those who had 


150 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 


earned 14s. a week and under, (the average wages being 13s. 7d.,) and 
113 were of those receiving above that sum. The kind of provision 
was partial, not meeting trade fluctuations at all; and unsatisfactory, 
because sick clubs are often ill managed, insolvent, and held at public 
houses: the Savings’ Bank was neglected, which is secure, and gives 
facilities for receiving and withdrawing deposits to suit every emer- 
gency. These 1043 cases, being unselected ones, and the returns 
impartially dealt with, give results similar to those obtained from in- 
quiries and observations carried on in other manufacturing districts, 
and indicate an important defect in the economic principles and con- 
duct of the well-paid amongst the manufacturing workmen; and seem 
to justify the writer in urging upon this Section and statistical societies, 
an inquiry into the best mode of ascertaining upon a large scale the 
rates and appropriation of earnings. After the preceding statements 
were drawn up, the writer made out a classified account of the de- 
positors in the Nottingham Savings’ Bank. This document confirms 
the views he has stated; for the number and amount of deposits from 
the workmen in the staple trades is very small, but large from the work- 
women, whose wages are invariably of but moderate amount, By far 
the largest part of the sum deposited is by domestic servants; their 
number was 1813; dress makers, cheveners, widows, governesses, &c., 
924; labourers 702; artisans 443; clerks 77; retail traders 497 ; lace- 
makers 437 ; stockingers 360; trustees 509; sundries, chiefly infants, 
339 ; total 6101 ; in 1836, 6218; accounts decreased during this pressure 
in trade 117, The balances of 6057 accounts amounted to £142,328, 
or £23. 10s. each ; 267 lace deposits amounted to 14s. 4d., and the 
other 170 to £28 each ; 120 stockingers’ deposits to £1 each, and the 
remaining 240 to £23.18s. each. The smaller sums are evidently 
mere balances, The real depositors in the staple trades are 410, and 
amount to £10,495. These have been scarcely affected by the late 
pressure, either in number or amount. 


P.S. It may be proper to state that, the Section having requested 
the publication of this paper, the writer urged upon the well-paid work- 
ing classes the duty and benefit of exercising economy and foresight 
in the disbursement of their wages, through a few pages of supplement- 
ary observations ; and four editions of about 10,000 copies have been 
distributed (three of the editions at the expense of private individuals, ) 
chiefly amongst the working people of the manufacturing districts. 


[ 151 .] 


INDEX IL. 


TO 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


Osszcrs and Rules of the Asso- 
ciation, v. 

Officers and Council, viii. 

‘Treasurer’s Account, xi. 

Reports, Researches, and Desiderata, 
xii—xxili. 

Synopsis of sums appropriated to sci- 
entific objects, xxiii. 

Address of Prof. 'Traill, xxv—xlii. 

Communications to the General Eve- 
ning Meetings, xiii. 


Agriculture of Dukhun, on the, 274, 


Birds of Dukhun, 248. 

Blind, on the modes of printing for the 
use of the, 87. 

Botany of Dukhun, 239. 


Cast iron, composition of, 117. 

————-, obtained by hot and cold 
blast, on the strength and other pro- 
perties of, 337, 377. 

Cave-temples of Dukhun, 255, 259. 

Chemical composition of hot and cold 
blast iron, 117. , 

Climate of Dukhun, 231. 

Crystals, epigene and pseudomorphous, 


Daubeny (Dr.) on the growth of plants 
confined in glass vessels, 505. 

Dimorphous bodies, on, 163. 

Douglas’s (Mr. D.) magnetical obser- 
vations, 27. 

Due’s (Lieut.) magnetic observations, 


Dukhun, on the statistics of, 217; ex- 
.tent and physical circumstances, 
217; geology, 219; climate, 231; 
botany, 239; zoology. 245; civil 
divisions, 253; Boodh cave-tem- 
ples, 255, 259; rivers, 256, 257, 


259, 260; population, 261 ; educa- 
tion, 270 ; irrigation, 272; agricul- 
ture, 274; land and other tenures, 
280; revenue, 295; assessments, 
310; wages, 320; manufactures, 
325; coins, 327; weights and mea- 
sures, 327; army, 332. 


Earth, on the magnetic intensity of 
the 1,497; general table of inten- 
sities, 42. 

Education, state of, in Dukhun, 271. 

Electricity of metallic veins, 133. 

Enitomology of Dukhun, 252. 

Epigene crystals, 194. 

Erman’s (M.) intensity observations, 


3. 
Estcourt’s (Major) magnetic observa- 
tions, 35, 


Fairbairn (W.) on the strength and 
other properties of cast iron, ob- 
tained from the hot and cold blast, 
377. 

FitzRoy’s (Capt.) magnetic obserya- 
tions, 32. 

Forbes’s (Mr.) magnetic observations, 
41 


Fox’s (R. W.) experiments on the elec- 
tricity of metallic veins, and on the 
temperature of mines, 133. 

Freycinet’s (Capt.) magnetic obser- 
vations, 35, 

Fuss’s (G.) observations on the mag- 
netic intensity of the earth, 497. 


Gay Lussac’s magnetical observations, 
7. 

Geology of Dukhun, 219. 

Glands, &c., of the human body, ana- 
lysis of the, 149. 


Hansteen’s (M.) observations on the 
magnetic intensity of the earth, 23, 


152 


Heart, on the motions and sounds of 
the, 155. 

Hodgkin, (Dr.) on the composition 
of secretions, and on the organs 
producing them, 139. 

Hodgkinson (E.) on the strength and 
other properties of cast iron ob- 
tained by hot and cold blast, 337. 

Humboldt’s observations on the mag- 
netic intensity of the earth, 5, 7. 


Ichthyology of Dukhun, 251. 
Tron, cast, on the composition of, 117. 
, obtained by hot and cold 

blast, on the strength and other 
properties of, 337, 377. 

{rrigation of Dukhun, 272. 

Isomorphism, 164; Isodimorphous 
groups, table of, 169; remarks on, 
170. 


Johnston (Prof.) on dimorphous bo- 
dies, 163; isodimorphous groups, 
168; monomorphous groups, 175; 
of analogous chemical groups,which 
taken singly are monomorphous, 
but which as groups are dimorphous, 
185; of bodies assuming two or 
more series of unlike physical pro- 
perties, but of which the crystalline 
form belonging to each series has 
not yet been determined, 187; of 
crystallized bodies not known to as- 
sume more than one form, which 
yet exhibit unlike physical proper- 
ties in different portions of their 
mass, 192; of epigene and pseudo- 
morphous crystals, 194; of trimor- 
phous bodies, 197; relation of di- 
morphism and molecular arrange- 
ment in general, to temperature, 
electricity, and mechanical pressure, 
199; eause of dimorphism, 203 ; 
extent of dimorphism, 206; rela- 
tion of the crystalline doctrine of 
dimorphism to the chemical doctrine 
of isomorphism, 209; desiderata, 
214. 


Keilhau’s (M.) magnetic observations, 
22. 

King’s (Capt.) observations on the 
magnetic intensity of the earth, 
15. 

Kupffer’s (M.) magnetic observations, 
25. 


INDEX I. 


Lenz, (M.) on the magnetic intensity 
of the earth, 13. 

Lloyd's (—.) magnetical observations, 
33 


Lubbock, (J. W.) on the tides, 103, 
Liitke’s (Capt.) observations on the 
magnetic intensity of the earth, 13. 


Magnetic intensity of the earth 1; ob- 
servations made by:— Rossel, 3; 
Humboldt, 5; Humboldt and Gay 
Lussac, 7; Sabine, 11, 19,33; Erich- 
sen 11; Keilhau, 11, 22 ; Boeck, 11; 
Erman, 11, 23; Liitke, 13; King, 15; 
Hansteen and Due, 23; Kupffer, 25; 
Quetelet, 26; Douglas, 27; Fitzroy, 
32; Rudberg, 33°; Lloyd, 33 ; Ross, 
33; Estcourt, 35; Freycinet, 35; 
Forbes, 41; general table of inten- 
sities, 42; general conclusions, 63 ; 
Fuss’s observations, 497, 

Manufactures of Dukhun, on the, 325. 

Medical Section, reports of the, 139 
161. 

Minerals of Dukhun, 229. 

Mines, on the temperature of, 134. 

Monomorphous groups, table of, 175. 

Music for the blind, 97. 


Nutation, determination of the con- 
stant of, 127. 


Plants, on their growth in closed glass 
vessels, 501. 

Printing for the blind, on the various 
modes of, 87; mathematics, 96; 
music, 97; a comparison between 
the advantages and disadvantages 
of the common Roman and arbi- 
trary alphabets, 98. 

Pseudomorphous mineral substances, 
list of, 195. 


Quetelet’s (M.) magnetic observations, 
26. 


Rees (Dr.) on the analysis of the 
glands, &c. of the human body, 149. 

Reptilia of Dukhun, 251. 

Rivers of Dukhun, 257, 259, 260, 

Robison (Sir J.) on waves, 417. 

Robinson (Rev. Dr.) on the determi- 
nation of the constant of nutation 
by the Greenwich observations, 127. 

Ross’s (Capt.) magnetic observations, 
33. 


INDEX II. 


- Rossel’s observations of the variations 

of the magnetic intensity, 3. 

Rudberg’s magnetical observations, 
33. 

Russell’s (J.S.) report on waves, 417. 


Sabine (Major) on the variations of 
the magnetic intensity observed at 
different points of the earth’s sur. 
face, 1,497. 

Secretions, on the composition of, 
139. 

Statistics of Dukhun, 217. 

Sykes (Lt.-Col.) on the statistics of 
Dukhun, 217. 


Taylor (Rev. W.) on thevarious modes 
of printing for the use of the blind, 
87. 


Temperature of mines, 134. 

Thomson (Thos.) on the composition 
of cast iron produced by cold and 
hot blast, 117. 


Axrriat currents of the temperate 
zones, on the probable causes of, 24. 
Alcohol and nitric acid, on the specific 
heats of, 43. 
Allis (T.) on the sclerotic bones of the 
_ eye in birds and reptiles, 98. 
Alum, new variety of, 49. 
Andrews (Dr.) on the action of nitric 
» acid on certain metals, 57. 
Anemometer, Whewell’s principle of, 
32; observations with, 32. 
, hew registering, 33. 
Antimonial compound, applicable as 
a pigment, 58. 
Apjohn (Dr.) on a new chemical com- 
pound, 48. 


153 


Tidal wave, on the, 417. 

Tide observations, results of, 103. 

Todd (Dr.) on the motions and sounds 
of the heart, 155. 

Trap Rocks of Dukhun, structure and 
mineral composition of, 227. 

Trimorphous bodies, 197. 


Veins, metallic, on the electricity of, 


Ward (N. I.) on the growth of plants 
in closed glass vessels, 501. 

Waves, researches on, 417. 

Weights and measures of Dukhun, 
327. 

Williams (Dr.) on the motions and 
sounds of the heart, 155. 


Yates’s (J.) report on the growth of 
plants in closed glass vessels, 501. 


Zoology of Dukhun, 245. 


INDEX II. 


TO 
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE 
SECTIONS. 


Apjohn, (Dr.) on a new variety of 
alum, 49. 

Arabian leprosy, 128. 

Arnott (Dr.) on safety lights for mines, 
54, 

Ashes of plants, on, 103. 

Ashworth (Mr.) on the state of edu- 
cation in Bolton in 1837, 138. 

on the strike of the cotton spin- 
ners of Preston, 140. 

Atmosphere, on Poisson’s theory of the 
constitution of the, 31. 

Aurora borealis, on its occurrence in 
England during summer, 28. 


Babington (C. C.) notice of a botanical 


154 


excursion to Guernsey and Jersey, 
103. 

Bache’s (Prof.) researches on radia- 
tion, on, 20. 

Bellingham (Dr.) on the motions of 
the heart, 114, 

Bermingham (Mr,) on reclaiming the 
bog of Critt, in Galway, 139. 

Bickersteth (Mr.) on the milk of ga- 
lactodendron utile, 102. 

Bird (Dr. G.) on the crystallization of 
metals by voltaic action, 45. 

Birt (Mr.) on the probable causes of 
the aérial currents of the temperate 
zones, 34. 

Black (Dr.) on the epidemic influenza 
at Bolton-le-Moors, 115. 

Black (W.) on the influence of elec- 
tricity on the process of brewing, 58. 

Blackburn (C.) on some new proper- 
ties of geometric series, 2. 

Blood, on albuminous principles ex- 
isting in the, 125, 

Bolton, state of education in, 138. 

Botany, 97. 

Brain, on the uses of the ventricles 
and convolutions of the, 128, 

Brett (R. H.) on the physical and che- 
mical characters of expectoration in 
different diseases of the lungs, 125. 

Brewing, influence of electricity on 
the process of, 58. 

Brewster (Sir D.) on the cause of the 
optical phenomena in the crystal- 
line lens during the absorption of 
distilled water, 11. 

on a new property of light, 12. 

on a new structure in the dia- 

mond, 13. 


Carbon and hydrogen, new gaseous 
compound of, 50. 

Carlile (H.) on the structure of the 
sacrum in man, 112. 

Carson (Dr.) on the motion of the 
blood in the head, and on the uses 
of the ventricles and convolutions of 
the brain, 123. 

Chemical compound, new, 48. 

Chemistry, 38—58. 

Christie (S. H.) on a singular optical 
phznomenon seen at sunset, 15. 
on the occurrence of the aurora 
borealis in England during summer, 

28 


Clanny (Dr.) on a new telegraph, 131. 


INDEX II, 


Clarke (Dr.) on the calculations of 
gases, 57. 

Clarke (Rev. W. D.) on the phzno- 
mena of the plastic clay formation, 
near Poole, 93. 

Coal:—on the smelting of iron with 
anthracite coal, 52; on the unity 
of the coal deposits of England and 
Wales, 75; coal district of South 
Lancashire, 77; coal-measures of 
West Lancashire, 81; dislocations 
of the coal strata in Wigan, 82; 
South Welsh coal basin, 83; Penn- 
sylvanian coal-field, 96, 

Cotton spinners of Preston, results of 
the strike of, 140. 

Crane (G.) on the smelting of iron 
with anthracite coal, 52. 

Crook (Dr. W. H.) on the unity of the 
coal deposits of England and Wales, 

Cunningham (J.) on a method of con- 
structing magnets, 38. 

Curtis (W. J.) on‘a flexible suspension 
bridge, 132. 

Crystallization of metals by voltaic 
action, 45. \ 

Crystallized metallic copper, 47. 


Dalton (Dr.) on the non-production 
of carbonic acid by plants, 58. 

Davy (Prof.) on a new gaseous com- 
pound of carbon and hydrogen, 50. 

Death, from a blow on the stomach, 
on the cause of, 104. 

De la Rive (Prof.) on an optical phz- 
nomenon observed at Mont Blanc, 
10. 

on the interference of electro- 
magnetic currents, 27. 

Denham (Capt.) on the tidal capacity 
of the Mersey estuary, &c., 85. 

Devon, on the grauwacke of, 95. 

Diamond, a new structure in the, 18. 

Dick (J.) on a new form of iron bottle 
for obtaining oxygen from peroxide 
of manganese, 58. 

Dickson (Sir D, J. H.)} on laceration 
of the rectus abdominis muscle, 
124. 

Dublin magnetical observatory, 20. 

Ducane (Capt.) on the metamorphism 
of a species of crustacean, 98, 

Dundee, on the tides of, 5. 


Earth, on the refrigeration of the, 91, 


INDEX Il. 


Education :—educational statistics of 
Sidlesham, 140; state of education 
in York, 144. 

Electrical researches, by Prof. Henry, 
22. 

Electricity, its influence on the process 
of brewing, 58. 

Electro-magnetic apparatus, for the 
production of electricity of high in- 
tensity, 24. i 

currents, on the interference of,27. 

Ettrick (W.) on Prof. Wheatstone’s 
determination of the velocity of elec- 
tric light, 28. 

—— on browning gun-barrels, 57. 

on a new method of obtaining an 
artificial horizon at sea, 136. 

Evanson (Dr,) on the functions of the 
brain, 108. 


’ Expectoration, in different diseases of 


the lungs, the physical and chemi- 
eal characters of, 125. 


Felkin (W.) on the amount of work- 
men’s wages, and their misappro- 
priation, 148, 

Filaria, on, 97. 

Fishes of the Ludlow rocks, 91. 

Forbes (E.) on new and rare British 
plants and animals, 102, 

Fossil vegetables, 59; wood and plants, 
discovered low down in the grau- 
wacke, 94, 

Fripp (C. B.) on the condition of the 
poor at Bristol, 139. 


Gardner (G.) on the internal structure 
of the palm tribe, 102. 

Gaseous compound of carbon and hy- 
drogen, 50. 

Geology, 59. 

Geometric series, on some new pro- 
perties of, 2, 

Glaciers, on the mechanism of the 
movement of, 64. 

Glasgow, on the tides of, 5. 

Glosso-pharyngeal nerye, 109. 

Gold (Col. C.) on the possibility of 

effecting telegraphic communica- 
tions during fogey weather, 38. 

Gould (J.) on the Trogonide, 97. 

Gray’s (J.1.) notice of some interesting 
mammaiia, 99 ; new land shells, 100. 

on Victoria Regina, 100, 

Griffith (R.) on the leading features 
of the geology of Ireland, 88. 


155 


Hall’s (E.) mineral map of Derby- 
shire, 91. 

Hall (G. W.) on improvements in 
agriculture, 139. 

Ham (J.) on the mud deposited by the 
tidal waters of the Severn, Usk, and 
Avon, 76. 

Hamilton’s (Sir W. R.) exposition of 
the argument of Abel, respecting 
equations of the fifth degree, 1; 
new applications of the calculus of 
principal relations, 1; exposition of 
Mr, Turner’s theorem of odd num- 
bers, and the cubes and other 
powers of natural numbers, 1. 

Hancock (Dr.) on the disease called 
Cocobz by the Africans, 128, 

Hare (Prof.) on fusing platina, 41. 

Hare (S.) on the curvature of the 
spine, 114. 

Hartley (J. B.) on preventing the 
corrosion of cast and wrought iron 
immersed in salt water, 56, 

Hawkins (J. I.) on the focal length of 
spectacles, 132. 

on mechanical sculpture, 136. 

Heart, on the motions of the, 114. 

Henry (Prof.), electrical researches 
by,, 22. 

on canals and railways in Ame- 
rica, 135. 

Henwood (W. J.) on the higher tem- 
perature which prevails in the slate 
than in the granite of Cornwall, 36. 

on some intersections of veins in 
the Dolcoath and Huel Prudence 
mines, in Cornwall, 74. 

—— on-the expansive action of steam, 
129 


on the geology of the coal district 
of South Lancashire, 77. 

Hitchcock (Prof.) on foot impressions 
in the new red sandstone, 60, 

Holland (Dr.) on the influence of re- 
spiration on the circulatory system, 
104; on the cause of death from a 
blow on the stomach, 104. 

Hope (Rev. F. W.) on Filaria, 97. 

Hopkins (W.) on the refrigeration of 
the earth, 91. 

Hydrogen and carbon, new gaseous 
compound of, 50. 


Influenza at Bolton-le-Moors, on the, 
115. 
Ireland, on the new red sandstone of, 


156 


88; on the leading features of the 
geology of, 88. 

Tron, for railways, quality of, 134. 

——, immersed in salt water, on pre- 
venting its corrosion, 56. 

, smelted with anthracite coal, 52. 


Johnston (Prof.) on a variety of ozo- 
cerite, 51. 

on anew compound of nitrate 

with oxalate of lead, 52, 


Kane (Dr.) on pyroacetic acid, 52. 
Kingsley (Mr.) on a new perspective 
drawing board, 135. 


Lancashire, on the geology of the coal 
district of, 77; on the coal measures 
of, 81. 

Lang (Mr.) on vessels with safety 
keels, 135. 

Lardner (Dr.) on the resistance to 
railway trains, 132. 

, on application of steam to long 
voyages, 136. 

Lead, oxalate of, new compound of 
nitrate with, 52. 

Leitheed (W.), on a new safety lamp, 
131. 

Lens, crystalline, 11. 

Leprosy, on the cure of, 128. 

Liebig (Prof.) on the products of the 
decomposition of uric acid, 38. 

Light, on a new property of, 12. 

, on Von Wrede’s explanation of 

the absorption of, 16. 

, on the dispersion of, 18. 

Limax variegatus, in the human in- 
testines, 98. 

Lindley (Dr.) on the structure and af- 
finities of Orobanchacez, 101. 

Liverpool, state of crime in, 139; ac- 
count of the inhabited courts and 
cellars in, 143. 

Lloyd’s (Rev. Prof.) account ofthe mag- 
netical observatory at Dublin, 20. 

Logan (Mr.) on the South Welsh coal 
basin, 83. 

Lubbock (J. W.) on M. Poisson’s 
theory of the constitution of the at- 
mosphere, 31. 

Lyell (C.) on certain phenomena con- 
nected with the junction of granite 
and transition rocks in Norway, 67. 


M‘Gauley (Rev. J. W.) on an electro- 


INDEX II. 


magnetic apparatus for the produc- 
tion of electricity of high intensity, 
24, 

Mackie (D.) on the tides of Dundee 
and Glasgow, 5. 

Mackintosh (Dr.) on cholera, 107. 

—————— on morbid preparations 
relating to Dysmenorrhea, 107. 

—on diseased lungs from 

sand respired, 108, * 

Madden (Dr.) on the connexion be- 
tween the nerves and muscles, 106. 

Meecenas, colossal bust of, presented ~ 
to the Association, xliii. 

Magnetical observatory at Dublin, 20. 

Magnets, method of constructing, 38. 

Mallet (R.) on the formation of cry- 
stallized metallic copper in Crone- 
bane copper mine, and of native sul- 
phate of iron and copper, 47. 

on the mechanism of the move- 

ment of glaciers, 64. 

on the power of aged trees to re- 
produce themselves, 102. 

Manchester Statistical Society, on the 
condition of the working classes, 
141; on the state of education in 
York, 144. 

Mathematics and physics, 1—30. 

Mechanical science, 129. 

Medical science, 104. 

Merritt (Mr.) on the state of educa- 
tion in Liverpool, 138. 

Mersey, on the tidal capacity of the, 
85 


Meteorological committee, proceed- 
ings of the, 37. 

Meteorology, &c., 31—388. 

Miller (Prof.) on the unequal expan- 
sion of minerals in different direc- 
tions by heat, 43. 

Minerals, on their unequal expansion 
in different directions by heat, 43. 

Mines, safety lights for, 54, 131. 

Mont Blane, on an optical phenomenon 
observed at, 10. 

Morrison (Lt.) on an instrument for 
measuring the electricity of the at- 
mosphere, 38. 

Moseley (Prof.) on the equilibrium of 
the arch, 133. 

Murchison (R. I.) on the fishes of the 
Ludlow rocks, 91. 

Mushet (D.) on the waste experienced 
by hot and cold blast iron during 
the process of refining, 56. 


INDEX II. 


Mushet (D.) on the quality of iron for 
railways, 134. 


Nerves and muscles, connexion be- 
tween the, 106. 

Nitric acid and alcohol, on the specific 
heats of, 43. 

Niven (Mr.) on vegetable physiology, 
102. : 


Optical phenomena, in the crystalline 
lens during the absorption of distilled 
water, cause of, 11. 

Optical phzenomenon, observed at 
Mont Blane, 10. 

—-—, singular, seen at sunset, 
15. 

Orobanchacez, structure and affinities 
of, 101. 

Osler (F.) on a new registering ane- 
mometer and rain-gauge, 33. 

Owen (Prof.) on the production of ca- 
taract by a worm, 98. 

Ozocerite, on a variety of, 51. 


Parallax of ¢ Lyre, 3. 

Peace (W.) on the dislocations of the 
coal strata in Wigan, 82. 

Pearsall (T. J.) on the action of water 
upon lead, 58. 

Pennsylvania, bituminous coal field of, 


Phillips (Sir T.), method of destroying 
insects which atiack books, &c., 99. 

Phillips (H.) on the bituminous coal 
field of Pennsylvania, 96. 

Physiology, vegetable, 102. 

Platina, method of fusing, 41. 

Pneumogastric nerve, 109. 

Poisson’s (M.) theory of the constitu- 
tion of the atmosphere on, 31. 

Porter (G. R.) on the trade between 
the United Kingdom and the United 
States, 136. 
Portlock (Capt.) on the new red sand- 
stone of England and Ireland, 88. 
Powell (Prof.) on Von Wrede’s expla- 
nation of the absorption of light, 16 ; 
on the dispersion of light, 18. 

on experiments relative to the 
influence of surfaces on radiation, 
20. 

Pump, Treffos, on the, 129. 


Radiation, on experiments relative to 
influence of surfaces on, 20. 


157 


Railway balance lock, 129. 

trains, on the resistance of, 132. 

Railways, on the quality of iron for, 
134. 

in America, on, 185. 

Rain-gauge, new registering, 33. 

Reade (Rev. J. B.) on the ashes of 
plants, 103. 

on the chemical composition of 
vegetable membrane and fibre, 104. 

Reid (Dr.) on the glosso-pharyngeal, 
pneumogastric, and spinal accessory 
nerve, 109. 

Remington (G.) on a railway balance 
lock, 129. ; 

Respiration, its influence on the circu- 
latory system, 104. 

Rigg’s (R.) inquiry into a peculiar pro- 
perty of the earth, 50. 

Rivers, steam navigation of, 131. 

, improvements in tidal rivers, 


Robinson (Rey. Dr.) on the parallax of 
a Lyre, 3. 

Russell (J. S.) on the mechanism of 
waves, in relation to steam naviga~ 
tion, 130. 

on improvements in tidal rivers, 

131. 

on the construction of sea walls 

and embankments, 183. 


Scotland, on the changes which have 
taken place in the levels of, 85. 

Sedgwick (Prof.) on the incursion of 
the sea into the collieries at Work- 
ington, 75. 

Shells, new, 100. 

Simpson (J. G.) on the contagiousness 
of cholera, 108. 

Slaney (Mr.) on wages in manufactu- 
ring districts, 138. 
Smelting of iron with anthracite coal, 
52. , 
Smith (J.) on the changes which have 
taken place in the levels of Scotland, 
85. 

, notice of undescribed shells, 100. 

Southwood’s (Mr.) account of his ob- 
servations with Mr. Whewell’s ane- 
mometer, 33. 

Soyres (Rev. F. De), educational sta- 
tistics of Sidlesham, 140. 

Spain, on the geology of, 70. 

Spinal accessory nerve, 112. 

Spine, on the curvature of, 114. 


158 


Spineto (Marquis) on the results of 
trials made for water in the desert 
between Suez and Cairo, 66. 

Statistics, 136. 

Steam navigation, mechanism of waves 
in relation to, 130. 

Strickland (H. E.) on the nature and 
origin of transported gravel, 61. 

Sulphate of iron and copper of Crone- 
bane copper mine, 47. 

Survey for level, from Bridgewater to 
Axmouth, 59. 

Suspension bridge, flexible, 132. 


Taylor (J.) on the duty of the Cornish 
engines, 133. 

Taylor (Dr. W. C.), report of the Uni- 
versity of New York, 139. 

Thomson (Dr.) on the specific heats 
of nitric acid and aleohol, 43. 

Tidal capacity of the Mersey, 85. 

Tidal rivers, on improvements in, 181. 

Tides, on, 4; of Dundee and Glasgow, 
5 


Traill (Dr.) on an antimonial com- 
pound applicable as a pigment, 58. 

on the geology of Spain, 70. 

, notice of Argas Persicus, 98. 

Tunnels, ventilation of, 136. 


Undulatory theory of light, 16. 

Uric acid, on the products of the de- 
composition of, 38. 

Urquhart (Mr.) on the plague in Con- 
stantinople, 139. 


Ventilation of tunnels, on the, 186. 
Voltaic action, crystallization of metals 
by, 45. 


INDEX II. 


Walmsley (Mr.) on the state of crime 
in Liverpool, 139. 

Warren (Dr.) on some crania found in 
North America, 108. 

Watson (B. L.) on telegraphic com- 
munication on railways, 131. 

Waves, mechanism of, in relation to 
steam navigation, 130. 

West (W.) on the ventilation of tun- 
nels, 136. 

Wheels, on the teeth of, 135. 

Whewell (Rev. W.) on tides, 4. 

on the principle of his anemo- 
meter, 32. 

Williams (Dr. D.) on limax variega- 
tus in the human intestines, 98. 

Williams (Rev. D.) on some fossil wood 
and plants discovered low down in 
the grauwacke of Devon, 94. 

Williams (J.) on the Treffos pump, 
129. < 

Williams (Mr.) on preventing the dan- 
gers of collision, and of fire in vessels, 
153. 

Williamson (W. C.) on the coal-mea- 
sures of West Lancashire, 81. 

Willis (Prof.) on the teeth of wheels, 
135. 


Wrede’s explanation of the absorption 
of light, on, 16. 


Yates (J.) on fossil vegetables from 
the new red sandstone of Worcester- 
shire, 59. 

Yelloly (Dr.) on spade husbandry, 
139. 

York, state of education in, 144. 


Zoology, 97. 


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Indices for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in various media ;—Dr. 
Hodgkin, on the Communication between the Arteries and Absorbents;— 
Prof. Phillips, Report of Experiments on Subterranean Temperature ;—Prof. 
Hamilton, on the Validity of a Method recently proposed by George B. 
Jerrard, Esq., for Transforming and Resolving Equations of Elevated Degrees. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of 
the Association and its Committees. 


LITHOGRAPHED SIGNATURES or rut MEMBERS who met at 
Cambridge in 1833, with the Proceedings of the Public Meetings. to. 
Price 4s. (Tro Members, 3s.) 


N.B. Members of the Association are entitled to purchase from the Local 
Treasurers, at the Depéts, or at the Office of Messrs.R. & J. E. Taylor, Printers, 
Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, London, at the following prices: Vol. I. 9s.; 
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LIST 


OF MEMBERS 


OF THE 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


FOR THE 


ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, 


TO WHICH ARE ADDED 


A LIST OF THE OFFICERS, RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION, 
AND CONTENTS OF THE REPORTS 
ALREADY PUBLISHED. 


LONDON : 


PRINTED BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR, 


RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 


1838. 


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LIFE MEMBERS. 


HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE DUKE OF SUSSEX, 
PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. 


A 


Abbatt, Richard, F.R.S., Epping, Essex. 

Abbott, Joseph, 16, Gloucester Street, 
Dublin. 

Abell, Joshua, 27, Eustace St., Dublin. 

Abercrombie, John, M.D., F.R.S.E.,Edin- 
burgh. ; 

Ablet, Joseph, Ruthin, North Wales. 

Abraham, J. H., F.L.S., Sheffield. 

Acland, Sir T.D., Bart., Killerton, Devon. 

Adair, John, 11, Mountjoy Sq., Dublin. 

Adam, Walter, M.D., Edinburgh. 

Adamson, J., F.L.S., F.S.A., M.R.S.L., 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Adare, Lord Viscount, B.A., Dublin. 

Adeane, H, J., Babraham, Cambridge- 
shire. 

Ainsworth, Peter, M.P., Bolton. 

Airy, G. B., Astron. Royal, Greenwich. 

Alderson, James, M.D., Hull. 

Alexander, Edward N., F.S.A., Sec. Lit. 
and Phil. Soc., Halifax. 

Alexander, Robert, F.R.S., 
Court, Temple. 

Allen, William, 50, Henry St., Dublin, 

Allis, Thomas, York. 

Allman, W., Prof. of Botany, Dublin. 

Alston, John, Glasgow. 

Amery, John. F.S.A., Stourbridge. 

Andrews, Thomas, M.D., Belfast. 

Anthony, Charles, Clifton. 

Apjohn, James, M.D., Prof. of Chemistry, 
Royal Coll. Surg., Dublin. 

Armstrong, George, India Buildings, Li- 
verpool. 

Arnott, G. A. Walker, Kinross-shire. 

Arnott, Neill, M.D., 38, Bedford Sq. 

Arrow, John James, Edinburgh. 

Ash, Rev. E. J., M.A., Tutor of Christ’s 

_ Coll., Cambridge. 

Ashhurst, Rev. T. H., D.C.L., All-Souls’ 
College, Oxford. 

Ashton, Thomas, Hyde, Cheshire. 

Ashton, Thomas, Jun., Hyde, Cheshire. 

Ashworth, Edmund, Manchester. 

Ashworth, Henry, Manchester. 

Aspland, Rev. Robert, Hackney. 

Aspland, Rev. R. Brooke, M.A., Bristol. 

Atkinson, James, York. 

Auldjo, John, F.G.S., London, 


5, Essex 


B. 


Babbage, Charles, F.R.S. L. and E., 
Lucasian Prof. of Mathematics, Cam= 
bridge, 1, Dorset St., London. 

Babbage, B. H., London. 

Babington, C. C., M.A., St, John’s Coll., 
Cambridge. 

Bache, Rev. Samuel, Edgbaston, Bir- 
mingham. 

Backhouse, Thos. Jas., Sunderland. 

Bagot, Thomas N., County of Galway. 

Bailey, Samuel, Sheffield. 

Bald, John, Dublin. 

Baldwin, Rev. J., M.A., Christ’s College, 
Cambridge. 

Ball, John, 85, Stephen’s Green South, 
Dublin. 

Ball, Richard, Taunton. 

Ball, Robert, M.R.I.A., Mountjoy Sq. 
North, Dublin. 

Barclay, Charles, F,A.S., F.G.S., Bury 
Hill, Dorking. 

Barker, Francis, M.D., Prof. Chem., T.C., 
Dublin. 

Barker, Richard, M.D., M.R.D,S., 1238, 
Great Britain Street, Dublin. : 

Barlow, Edward, Bristol. 

Barlow, Francis, Lower Gardiner Street, 
Dublin. 

Barlow, Major, 5, Gr. George St., Dublin. 

Barlow, Peter, 5, Gr. George St., Dublin. 

Barnes, Rev. Joseph W., M.A., Fellow of 
Trinity College, Cambridge. 

Baron, John, M.D., F.R.S., Gloucester. 

Barton, John, 44, Mary Street, Dublin. 

Bateman, James, F.L.S., Knypersly 
Hall, near Congleton, 

Bateson, James Glynn, 36, Anne Street, 
Liverpool. 

Bayldon, John, York. 

Bayley, Rev. J., M.A., Eton, 

Beale, Samuel, Birmingham. 

Beale, Capt., Toronto, Upper Canada. 

Beamish, Richard, Sans Souci, Cork. 

Bean, R. H., Blackwell Hill, near Bristol. 

Beaufoy, Henry, F.R.S., South Lambeth. 

Belcombe, H.S., M.D., York. 

Belgrave, Rev. T,, M.A.,North Kilworth, 
Leicestershire, 


Bell, Jacob, 338, Oxford Street, 
A2 


4 LIFE MEMBERS. 


Bell, Thomas, F.R.S., F.L.S., Prof. of 
Zoology, King’s College, London, 17, 
New Broad Street. 

Bell, Thomas, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Bell, William, Edinburgh. 

Bellingham, Sir Alan, Castle Bellingham. 

Bengough, Geo., Cotham Lodge, Clifton. 

Benson, Robert, Jun., Liverpool. 

Bergin, Thomas F., 5, Westland Row, 
Dublin. 

Bickersteth, Rob., Rodney St., Liverpool. 

Bingham, Rev. Wm., B.A., St. Mary’s 
Hall, Oxford. 

Birks, J. R., Trinity College, Cambridge. 

Birmingham, Thos., Kilmanna, Kilconnel. 

Black, James, M.D., Bolton. 

Blackburn, Bewicke, Clapham Common. 

Blackburn, Charles, B.A., 40, Ken- 
sington Square. 

Blackburne, Rev. John, Attercliffe, Shef- 
field. 

Blackburne, Rt. Hon. Francis, Dublin. 

Blackmore, John, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Blackwall, John, F.L.S., Crumpsall Hall, 
Manchester. 

Blackwell, Thos. E., Hungerford, Berks. 

Blake, Malachi, M.D., Taunton. 

Blake, William, Crewkerne. 

Bland, Rev. Miles, D.D., F.R.S., F.A.5., 
Ramsgate. 

Blanshard, William, York. 

Blick, Rev. C., B.D., Fellow of St. John’s 
College, Cambridge. 

Bliss, Rev. Philip, D.C.L., Registrar of 
the University of Oxford. 

Blood, W. Bindon, F.R.S.E., &c., Edin- 
burgh. 

Blore, Edward, F.S.A., 62, Welbeck St. 

Blundell, R.H., Liverpool. 

Blunt, Henry, Shrewsbury. 

Boase, C. W., M.G.S.C., Dundee. 

Boddington, Benj., Badger Hall, Shiffnall, 
Salop. 

Bodley, Thomas, Brighton. 

Bolton, R. L., Gambier Terr., Liverpool. 

Bond, H.I.H., M.D., Cambridge. 

Bond, Walter M., Armagh. 

Boothman, Thomas, Manchester. 

Rotfield, Beriah, Norton Hall, Daventry. 

Botfield, Thos., F.R. and G.S., Hopton 
Court, near Bewdley. 

Boult, E.S., Chatham Street, Liverpool. 

Bourne, J.D., Rodney Street, Liverpool. 

Bowman, J. E., Elm Place, New Stret- 
ford Road, Manchester. 

Bowstead, Rev. James, M.A., Fellow of 
Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. 
Boyle, Alex., M.R.D.S., 35, College 

Green, Dublia 


Brabant, R. H., M.D., Devizes. 

Bradshaw, Rev. John, Lambey Parson- 
age, Lisburne. 

Brady, D. F., 58, Old Dominick Street, 
Dublin. : 

Braham, John, Bristol. 

Brancker, Rev. Thomas, Fellow of Wad- 
ham College, Oxford. 

Brandreth, I. M., Preston. 

Bridstock, W. P., F.G.S., Stoke Hill, 
Guildford. 

Briggs, Col. John, M.R.I.A., London. 

Bright, Rich., Ham Green, near Bristol. 

Brisbane, Sir Thomas M., K.C.B., M.A., 
Cam., F.R.S.L. & E., Makerstown, 
Kelso. 

Brocklebank, Thomas, Mount Pleasant, 
Liverpool. 

Brooke, Charles, Gower Street. 

Brooke, H. J., F.R.S., F.G.S., Stockwell 
Place. 

Brown, G. B., Halifax. 

Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S.L. & E., 
V.P.L.S., M.R.LA., &., 17, Dean St., 
Soho. 

Brown, Alex., Richmond Hill, Liverpool. 

Brown, John, F.G.S., Colchester. 

Brown, Wm., Richmond Hill, Liverpool. 

Bruce, Halliday, M.R.D.S., 37, Dame 
Street, Dublin. 

Brunel, I. K., F.R.S., 18, Duke Street, 
Westminster. 

Bryce, James, M.A., F.G.S., Belfast. 

Bryce, Rev. R. J., LL.D., Principal of 
the Academy, Belfast. 

Buchanan, D.C., Everton, Liverpool. 

Buckland, Rev. William, D.D.,V.P.G.S., 
F.R.S., Canon of Christ Church, Prof, 
of Geology, Oxford. 

Buddle, John, Wallsend, Newcastle. 

Bulman, John, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Bunch, Rev. R. J., M.A., Fellow of Em- 
manuel College, Cambridge. 

Burchell, W. J., F.L.S., Fulham. 

Burgoyne, Col., M.R.I.A., Board of 
Works, Dublin. 

Burke, Francis, 5, Upper Rutland St., 
Dublin. 

Burlington, Earl of, F.R.S., Chancellor of 
the University of London, 10, Belgrave 
Square. 

Burn, William, F.R.S., Edinburgh. 

Bushell, C., Bedford Street, Liverpool. 

Buxton, Edward North, Upton, 

Byng, W. B., Staines. 


C. 


Cadell, Robert, Edinburgh. 
Cairns, Nathan, Liverpool. 


a te 


EE a 


LIFE MEMBERS. 5 


Caldwell, Robert, 9, Bachelor’s Walk, 

- Dublin. 

Campbell, Sir H. H. P., Bart., March- 

* mont House, Greenlaw, Berwick. 

Campbell, Jas., Edinburgh. 

Canterbury, His Grace the Archbishop 
of, Lambeth Palace. 

Cape, Rev. Jos., M.A., Fellow of Clare 
Hall, Cambridge. 

Carlisle, Thomas, Penpark, Westbury. 

Carmichael, Andrew, M.R.I.A., 24, Pa- 
lace Row, Dublin. 

Carmichael, H., 18, Hume St., Dublin. 

Carmichael, Richard, M.R.I.A., Dublin. 

Carne, Joseph, F.R.S., F.G.S., Penzance, 
Cornwall. 

Carpenter, Rev. Lant, LL.D., Bristol. 

Carpmall, Wm., Lincoln’s Inn, London. 

Cartmell, Dr. William, Carlisle. 

Cartmell, James, Corpus Christi College, 
Cambridge. 

Cartwright, Rev. R. B., Shirehampton. 

Cash, George, M.R.I.A., 34, Rutland 
Square West, Dublin. 

Castle, Robert, Elm Cottage, Redland, 
Bristol. 

Cattle, Robert, York. 

Cayley, Sir George, Bart., M.P., Bromp- 
ton, near Malton. 

Cayley, Digby, Brompton, near Malton. 

Cayley, E.S., M.P., Wydale, Malton. 

Challis, Rev. Prof. James, M.A., Ob- 
servatory, Cambridge. 

Chalmers, Rev. Thomas, D.D., Professor 
of Divinity in the Univ. of Edinburgh. 

Chance, L. R., New Inn Hall, Bir- 
mingham. 

Chantrey, Sir Fr., D.C.L., R.A., F.R.S., 
F.G.S., Pimlico. 

Cheshire, John, Hartford, Cheshire. 

Chevallier, Rev. T., B.D., New Town, 
Cambridge. 

Christie, S. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor 
of Mathematics, Woolwich. 

Christison, Rob., M.D., F.R.S.E., Prof. 
of Materia Medica, Edinburgh. 

Clare, Peter, Manchester. 

Clark, G.'T., 18, Duke St., Westminster. 

Clark, Sir James, M.D., F.R.S., George 
St., Hanover Square, London. 

Clark, Francis, Birmingham. 

Clark, Courtney R., Ringsend. 

Clark, Thomas, 123, Baggot St., Dublin. 

Clarke, William, M.D., F.G.S., Prof. of 
Anatomy, Cambridge. 

Clarke, George, Crumpsall Lodge, Man- 
chester. 

Clarkson, Rev. J., B.A., Cambridge. 

Clayton, Gen. Browne, K.C., D.C.L., 
Adlington Hall, Cheshire. 


Clendining, Alex., Westport, Ireland. 

Clerke, Rev. C. C., B.D., Archdeacon of 
Oxford. 

Clonbrock, Lord, Cionbrock, Palmerston. 

Cloncurry, Lord, M.R.D.S., Maritimo. 

Clough, Rev. A.B., B.D., Jesus College, 
Oxford. 

Clow, John, 23, Mt. Pleasant, Liverpool. 

Coathupe, C. T., Wraxall, Somerset. 

Colby, Colonel T. F., Tower. 

Collins, Robert, M.D., M.R.D.S., 2, Mer- 
rion Square North, Dublin. 

Collins, Stephen, Merrion Sq., Dublin. 

Collins, J. V., M.R.D.S., 10, Denzill 
Street, Dublin. 

Colthurst, John, Clifton. 

Colvile, Sir C. H., Duffield Park, Derby. 

Combe, George, Edinburgh. 

Compton, The Earl, Castle Ashby, North- 
amptonshire. 

Connell, Arthur, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. 

Connell, Archibald, Edinburgh. 

Conway, C., Pont-y-newydd Works, Mon- 
mouthshire. 

Conybeare, Rev. W. D., M.A., F.R.S., 
V.P.G.S., Visitor of Bristol College, 
Axminster, Devon. 

Cooke, Rev. G. L., B.D., Sedleian Prof., 
Oxford, Pres. Nat. Hist. Soc. Warwick, 
Cubington. 

Cooke, Rev. T. L., M.A., Magdalen Coll., 
Oxford. 

Cooke, Capt. Adolphus, Cookborough, 
Ireland. 

Cooke, James K., M.A., 71, Blessington 
Street, Dublin. 

Cooke, J. B., Exchange Buildings, Li- 
verpool. 

Cooke, Howard, M.D., 71, Blessington 
Street, Dublin. 

Cooper, Jos., Queen’s Coll., Cambridge. 

Cooper, Paul, Weston-super-Mare. 

Cory, Rev. Robert, B.D., Fellow of Em- 
manuel College, Cambridge. 

Cotter, John, Cork. 

Cotton, Wm., Walwood House, Leyton- 
stone. 

Cotton, W. C. Jun., M.A., Christ Church, 
Oxford. 

Coulter, Thomas, M.D., M.R.I.A., 28, 
Trin. College, Dublin. 

Courtney, Rich., 117, Baggot St., Dublin. 

Courtney, Henry, 27, Upper Mount St., 
Dublin. 

Craig, J. F., Gibson, Edinburgh. 

Crampton, Hon. Judge, 1, Merrion Sq., 
Dublin. 

Crampton, John, M.D., M.R.LA., 39, 
Kildare Street, Dublin. 

Crane, George, Londox. 


6 LIFE MEMBERS. 


Craven, Robert, Hull. 

Cresswell, Cresswell, M.P., London. 

Creyke, Rev. Stephen, M.A., York. 

Croft, Rev. John, M.A., Fellow of Christ’s 
College, Cambridge. 

Croker, C. P., M.D., M.R.I.A., Merrion 
Square, Dublin. i 

Crompton, Jos., Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

Crook, W. H., LL.D., 40, Gloucester 
Place, New Road, London. 

Crook, G. W., Town Hall, Liverpool. 

Crook, J. 'T., Wolstonholme Square, Li- 


verpool. - 

Croome, Rev. John, Bourton-on-the- 
Water. 

Crosthwaite, Leland, M.R.D.S., 63, 


Fleet Street, Dublin. 

Cubitt, Wm., M.R.I.A., 6, Great George 
Street, Westminster. 

Cully, Robert, Bank of Ireland, Dublin. 

Curtis, J. W., Alton, Hants. 

Cusack, James Wm., M.D., M.R.1L.A., 
8, Kildare Street, Dublin. 


D. 


D’Aguilar, Colonel George, Royal Ho- 
spital, Dublin. 

Dalby, Rev. Wm., Vicarage, Warminster. 

Dalmahoy, James, H.E.I.C.S. 

Dalmeny, Lord, Dalmeny Park. 

Dalton, Edw., LL.D., F.S.A., Dunkirk 
House, near Minchinhampton. 

Dalton, Rev. J. E., M.A., Fellow of 
Queen’s College, Cambridge. 

Daniel, Henry, M.D., Clifton. 

Daniell, F., Prof. of Chemistry, King’s 
College, London. 

Daubeny, C. G. B., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., 
F.G.S., Prof. of Chemistry and of Bo- 
tany in the University of Oxford. 

Davenport, E.D., Calverley, Cheshire. 

Davies, J. Birt, M.D., Birmingham. 

Davies, James, Maryiand St., Liverpool. 

Davis, Charles, M.D., M.R.I.A., St. 
Anne Street, Dublin. 

Davy, Edmund, Prof. Chem., R.D.S., 
M.R.I.A., Dublin. 

Dawes, Matthew, Bolton le Moors. 

Dawes, Rev. W. R., F.R.A.S., Ormskirk, 
Liverpool. 

Dawson, Robert, Llangollen, Wales. 

Dawson, Christopher, Yorkshire. 

Dawson, James, Mt. Pleasant, Liverpool. 

Dawson, Henry, Bedford St., Liverpool. 

Dawson, John, Halifax. 

Deck, Isaiah, Chemist, Cambridge. 

De la Beche, H. T., F.R.S., F.LS., 
F.G.S., London. 

Denison, Lieutenant, R. E., Chatham. 


Derbishire, S. D., Manchester. 
Derby, The Earl of, F.R.S,, F.LS., 
F.G.S., Knowsley Hall, Lancashire. 
De Tabley, Lord, Tabley House, Cheshire. 
Dickenson, John, 67, Stephen’s Green, 
Dublin. 

Dilke, C. Wentworth, 9, Lower Grosve- 
nor Place, London. 

Dircks, H., 7, Boundary St., Liverpool. 

Dixon, W.J., Abercromby Sq., Liverpool. 

Dobbin, Leonard, Jun., 23, Gardiner’s 
Place, Dublin. 

Dollond, George, F.R.S., St. Paul's 
Church Yard, London. 

D'Olier, Isaac, M.R.I.A., Bank of Ire- 
land, Dublin. 

D’Olier, I, M., LL.D., M.R.LA., 18, 
Baggot St., Dublin. 

Donkin, Thomas, York. 

Douglas, James, Cavers, Roxburghshire. 

Douglas, John, Gyrn, Holywell, N. W. 

Dowdall, Hamilton, Belmont, Dublin. 

Downall, Rev. John, Budworth, Notts. 

Drake, Rev. James, Kirkthorpe, Wake- 
field. 

Drennan, William, Belfast. 

Drinkwater, J. E., Barrister, Temple. 

Drummond, Lieut. Thomas, F.R.A.S5., 
Dublin Castle. 

Drummond, R. Home, Blair Drummond. 

Duck, Nehemiah, Ridgeway House, near 
Bristol. 

Dugard, Thomas, M.D., Shrewsbury. 

Duncan, J. F., 37, Marlborough Street, 
Dublin. 

Duncan, W. H., M.D., Liverpool. 

Duncan, J., Farnham House, Finglass. 

Dundas, Major-Gen. Rob., Arlington St. 

Dunnington, Rev. J., B.A., Thickett 
Hall, York, 

Durnford, Rev. R., Middleton, Lanca- 
shire. 

Dury, Rev. Theodore, Keighley, York. 

Dwyer, Rev. Thomas, M.A., West Derby 
Street, Liverpool. 

E. 

Earle, Charles, Woolton, near Liverpool. 

Earle, William, Jun., Abercromby §q., 
Liverpool. 

Earnshaw, Samuel, 
College, Cambridge. 

Ebden, Rev. J. C., M.A., Ipswich. 

Edgar, P.M., Bristol. 

Eden, Rev. John, B.D., Bristol. 

Eden, Thos., 96, Mt, Pleasant, Liverpool. 

Eden, James, 96, Mt. Pleasant, Liverpool. 

Edwards, Jas., Downing Coll., Cambridge. 

Edwards, John, Halifax. 


B.A., St. John’s 


; 


Edwards, Joshua, Bedford St., Liverpool. 


LIFE MEMBERS. 7 


‘Egerton, Lord Fr., Bridgwater House. 


Egerton, Sir Philip de Malpas Grey, 
Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., Oulton 
Park, Cheshire. 

Ellacombe, Rev. H.T., Bitton, near 
Bristol. 

Ellice, Alexander, B.A., Caius College, 
Cambridge. 

Ellens, G.C. 

Ellis, Rev. Robert, M.A., York. 

Ellis, T. F., M.A., 15, Bedford Place. 

Ellis, Rich., 12, Fitzwilliam St., Dublin. 

Ellis, George, 11, Fitzgibbon St., Dublin. 

Ejlis, Thos., M.D., 5, South Frederick 
Street, Dublin. 

Ellman, W. B., Oxford. 

Eltoft, William, Manchester. 

Empson, Wm., M.A., Prof. of Law at 
the E. I. College, Hailebury, Temple. 

English, Henry, Broad Street. 

Enys, John, Enys, Cornwall. 

Esteourt, T. G. B., M.P., D.C.L., F.S.A., 
Estcourt,nearTetbury, Gloucestershire. 

Estcourt, W.J., Baliol College, Oxford. 

Ettrick, Wm., High Barnes, Sunderland. 

Eustace, John, M.D., 21, Middle Glou- 
cester Street, Dublin. 

Evanson, R.T., M.D., M.R.1A., 86, 
Dawson Street, Dublin. 

Everest, Dr., St. Anne Street, Liverpool. 

Ewart, William, Eaton Place, London. 

Eyre, Rev. C. W., M.A., Carlton, Notts. 

Eyton, Chas., Hendred House, Abingdon. 


F. 


Fairbairne, William, Manchester. 

Fannin, Robert, M.R.D.S., 10, Harring- 
ton Street, Dublin. 

Fannin, John, M.A., 41, Grafton Street, 
Dublin, 

Faraday, Michael, D.C.L., F.R.S., Prof. 
of Chemistry in the Royal Institution, 

Faweett, H. E., M.A., New Temple 
Buildings. 

Fawcett, Wm., Argyle Street, Liverpool. 

Fearon, J. P., F.G.S., Inner Temple. 

Fell, S. B., Ulverston. 

Fellows, Charles, 30, Russell Square. 

Ferguson, Robert, F.R.S.E., Raith, Fife. 

Ferrall, J. M., M.R.LA., 38, Rutland 
Square, Dublin. 

Ferrier, James, M.R.D.S., Willow Park, 
Booters-town, Co. Dublin. 

Ferrier, A. I., William Street, Dublin. 

Field, E. W., 41, Bedford Row, London. 

Field, J. W., Heaton Hall, Bradford. 

Fielden, William, M.P., Todmorden, 
Lancashire. 

Fielding, George, Hull. 


Fielding, G. H., Hull. 
Finch, Charles, Jun., Cambridge. 
Finch, J., Sir Thomas’s Buildings, Liver- 


pool. 

Finch, John, Jun., Sir Thomas’s Build- 
ings, Liverpool. 

Finlay, James, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Firth, Thos., Northwich, Cheshire. 

Fish, W. C., Goswell Road, London. 

Fisher, Rev. J. H., M.A., F.G.S., Kirby 
Lonsdale. 

Fisher, Rev. J. M., 20, Gt. George Street, 
Liverpool. 

Fitzwilliam, Earl, D.C.L., F.R.S., Presi- 
dent of the Yorkshire Philosophical 
Society, Milton. 

Fitzwilliam, Hon. G. W., Milton. 

Fleetwood, P. H., M.P., Rossall, Lanca- 
shire. 

Fleming, Christopher, M.D., 9, Moles- 
worth Street, Dublin. 

Fletcher, E., Rodney Street, Liverpool. 

Fletcher, William, LL.D., 26, Merrion 
Square, Dublin. 

Fletcher, Samuel, Manchester. 

Flood, C. J., Lower Mount St., Dublin. 

Flood, Valentine, M.D., M.R.I.A., 19, 
Blessington Street, Dublin. 

Flower, Rev. Wm., Jun., M.A., York. 

Forbes, Charles, Greenhill, Edinburgh. 

Forbes, George, F.R.S., Edinburgh. 

Forbes, Edward, Isle of Man. 

Forbes, J.D., F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.S., 
Professor of Nat. Phil. in the Univer- 
sity of Edinburgh. 

Forbes, John, M.D., F.R.S., Chichester. 

Forbes, Sir John S., Bart., Edinburgh. 

Formby, Richard, M.D., Sandon Terrace, 
Liverpool. 


Forshall, Rev. Josiah, M.A., F.R.S., &e.,_ 


British Museum. 
Forster, Robert, Dungannon. 
Forster, Wm., Ballymore, Ireland. 
Foster, H. 8., Brooklands, Cambridge 
Foster, R., Brooklands, Cambridge. 
Foster, John, B.A., Clapham. 
Foulger, William, Norwich. 
Foulger, Rev. W., Leiston, Suffolk, - 
Fowler, R., 19, Merrion Square, Dublin 
Fox, G. T., F.L.S., Durhara. 
Fox, Thomas, Canton. 
Francis, W., Sekford Street, London. 
Franks, Robert, M.R.D.S., 152, Leeson 
Street, Dublin. 
Fraser, J., 17, Lower Dorset St.,Dublin. 
Freckelton, George, M.D., Oxford Street, 
Liverpool. 
Freer, G. C., Tiverton, near Bath, 
Fripp, G. D., Bristol. 


8 LIFE MEMBERS. 


Fripp, C. B., Bristol. 

Frodsham, W. J., 4, Change Alley, Corn- 
hill. 

Fry, Francis, Bristol. 

Fry, Richard, Bristol. 

Fry, Robert, Bristol. 

Furlong, Rev. Thos., 146, Leeson Street, 
Dublin. 


G 


Gadsden, A. W., Hull. 

Gair, S. S.,5,GambierTerrace, Liverpool. 

Galloway, S. H., Laibach, Austria. 

Galton, S. T., Leamington. 

Garnons, Rev. W. L. P., F.L.S., Sidney 
College, Cambridge. 

Gibb, Duncan, Strand Street, Liverpool. 

Gibbins, William, Falmouth. 

Gibson, Edward, Hull. 
Gilbert, Rev. Ashurst T., D.D., Princi- 
pal of Brazen-nose College, Oxford. 
Gilbert, Davies, D.C.L., Oxon. V.P.R.S., 
F.L.S., &c., Eastbourne, Sussex. 

Gilbertson, William, Preston. 

Gilby, Rev. W. R., Beverley. 

Gilderdale, J., M.A., Egerton Lodge, 
Huddersfield. 

Giles, Rev. William, Patricroft, near 
Manchester. 

Gill, Thomas, Plymouth. 

Gillies, John, M.D., Edinburgh. 

Glover, Thomas, Manchester. 

Godby, Aug.,General Post Office, Dublin. 

Goff, Wm., Ross Trevor, Ireland. 

Goldie, George, M.D., Shrewsbury, 

Goldsmid, F. H., 3, New Sq., Lincoln’s 
Inn. 

Gordon, James, Bristol. .- 

Gotch, Thomas H., Kettering. 

Gould, J., 20, Broad St., Golden Square, 
London. 

Gourlie, Wm, Jun., Garnet Hill, Glas- 


ow. 

Pie Capt. P., R.N., London. 

Gradon, Col. George, R.E., Portsmouth. 

Graham, Rev. J., D.D., Master of Christ’s 
College, Cambridge. 

Graham, R., M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor 
of Botany in the Univ. of Edinburgh. 

Graham, Prof. Thos., F.R.S.E., University 
College, London. 

Grantham, Rev. Geo., B.D., Magdalen 
College, Oxford. 

Granville, A. B., M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 
16, Grafton Street, London. 

Grasswell, A. N., Herne Hill. 

Graves, Charles, A.B., Fellow of Trinity 
College, Dublin. 

Gray, Jon,, V. P. Yorks. Phil. Soc., York. 


Gray, Wm., Jun., Sec. Yorks. Phil. Soc., 
York. 

Gray, J. E., F.R.S., British Museum. 

Gray, Rev. Walker, M.A., Henbury, 
Bristol. 

Green, Joseph H., F.R.S., F.G.S., Prof. 
of Anatomy to the Royal Academy, 
uincoln’s Inn Fields. 

Greenaway, Edw., 9, River Terrace, Is- 
lington. 

Greenock, Major-gen. Lord, Edinburgh. 

Gregg, T. H., 2, Upper Fitzroy Street, 
Fitzroy Square, London. 

Gresham, Rev. John, LL.D., Waterford. 

Gresham, T. M., Sackville St., Dublin. 

Greswell, Rev. Richard, M.A., F.R.S., 
Worcester College, Oxford. 

Greville, R. K., M.D., F.R.S.E., Edin- 
burgh. 

Griffin, S. F., Cheltenham. 

Griffin, Thomas, Cheltenham. 

Griffith, Rev. C. T., D.D., Warminster. 

Griffith, Joseph P., Great Elm, Somerset. 

Griffith, R. J., F.G.S., Fitzwilliam Pl., 
Dublin. 

Griffith, G. R., Fitzwilliam Pl., Dublin. 

Griffiths, John, B.A., Fellow of Wadham 
College, Oxford. 

Grooby, Rev. Jas., B.A., F.R.S., Swin- 
don, Wilts. 

Guest, J. J.. M.P., Dowling, Glamorgan. 

Guinness, R. R., Stillorgan, Dublin. 

Gwynne, Colonel A. G., F.R.S.E., Abe- 
rayron, Cardiganshire. 


H. 


Hackett, Michael, Book Lawn, Palmerston. 

Haggitt, Rev. G., Bury St. Edmunds. 

Hailstone, Samuel, F.G.S., Bradford. 

Halford, Sir Henry, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S., 
President of Royal Coll. of Physicians, 
16, Curzon Street, London. 

Hall, Rev. T. B., Coggeshall, Essex. 

Hallam, Henry, M.A., F.R.S., V.P.S.A., 
67, Wimpole Street. 

Halliday, A. H., M.A., Belfast. 

Halswell, Edm., M.A., M.R.I.A., Gore 
Lodge, Brompton. 

Hamilton, Sir W. R., B.A., M.R.LA., 
Astronomer Royal of Ireland. 

Hamilton, W. R., F.R.S., 66, South 
Audley Street. 

Harcourt, Rev. C. G. Vernon, M.A., 
Rothbury, Northumberland. 

Harcourt, Rev. Wm. Vernon, F.R.S., 
F.G.S., Bishopthorpe, York. 

Harcourt, Egerton Vernon, Bishopthorpe. 

Harcourt, Geo., M.P., Nuneham, Oxford, 

Hare, Samuel, Leeds. 


LIFE MEMBERS. 9 


Harford, J. S., Bristol. 

Harley, John, Pontypool. 

Harris, Hon. Charles, All-Souls College, 
Oxford. 

Harrison, Robert, M.D., M.R.I.A., 1, 
Hume Street, Dublin. 

Hartley, J. B., Bootle, near Liverpool. 

Hartley, Jesse, Trentham St., Liverpool. 

Hartnell, M.A., B.A., BirchesHouse,near 
Stroud. 
Hartnell, Aaron, Sec. Bristol Lit. and 
Phil. Soc., 8, Grenville Pl., Clifton. 
Hartstonge, Major R. W.,15, Molesworth 
Street, Dublin. 

Harvey, Enoch, Cheapside, Liverpool. 

Harvey, T. K., Cork. 

Hasted, Rev. H., M.A., F.R.S., Bury 
St. Edmunds. 

Hatfield, Wm., M.A., Newton Kyme, 
‘Tadcaster. 

Haughton, James, M.R.D.S., 34, Eccles 
Street, Dublin. 

Haughton, Wm., 28, City Quay, Dublin. 

Hawkins, J.H.,M.P., F.R.S., Athenzum, 
Westminster 

Hawkins, J. J., Pancras Vale, Hamp- 
stead Road. 

Hawkins, Thomas, Sharpham Park, near 
Giastonbury. 

Hay, Sir J., Bart., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. 

Hayward, W. W., Cambridge. 

Heath, J., 11, Albemarle Street, West- 

"minster. 

Henn, Richard, 22, Merrion Sq., Dublin. 

Hervey, Wm., M.D., F.R.S., Manchester. 

Henslow, Rev. J. S., M.A., F.L.S., 
F.G.S., Prof. of Botany, Cambridge. 

Henwood, W. J., F.G.S., Penzance. 

Herschel, Sir J. F. W., M.A., F.R.S., 

' F.G.S. 

Hey, John, Curator Lit. and Phil. Soc., 
Leeds. 

Hey, Richard, York. 

Heywood, Benj., Claremont, Manchester. 

Heywood, Robert, Bolton. 

Heywood, James, Acresfield, Manchester. 

Heyworth, L., Bootle, near Liverpool. 

Heyworth, Laur.,Jun., Bootle, Liverpool. 

Hibbert, Samuel, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., 
Edinburgh. 

Hildyard, James, B.A., Fellow of Christ’s 
College, Cambridge. 

Hill, Edw., B.A., Christ Church, Oxford, 

Hill, Rowland, 2, Burton Crescent. 

Hill, T. W., Bruce Castle, Tottenham. 

Hincks, Rev. Wm., F.L.S., York. 

Hindley, H. J., Nile St., Liverpool. 

Hindmarsh, L., Alnwick. 

Hoare, J. Gurney, Hampstead. 


Hodgkinson, Eaton, Member Phil. Soc., 
Manchester. 

Hodgson, Adam, Everton, Liverpool. 

Hodgson, J. F., Heskin Hall, Lancashire. 

Hodgson, Joseph, F.R.S., Birmingham. 

Holden, Moses, Preston. 

Holditch, Rev. H., Cambridge. 
Hollingsworth, Rev. N. J., Boldon, 
Durham. : 

Holme, Edward, M.D., Manchester. 

Holmes, Rev. W. R., Broughton, Skipton 

Holt, Edward, Falkner St., Liverpool. 

Holt, Henry, Notton, near Wakefield. 

Hone, Joseph, M.R.D.S., 47, Harcourt 
Street, Dublin. , 

Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.D.S., 53, Har- 
court Street, Dublin. 

Hope, T. C., M.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.S.E., 
Prof. of Chemistry in the University of 
Edinburgh. 

Hope, John, Dean of Faculty, Edinburgh. 

Hope, Wm., Hope Street, Liverpool. 

Hopkinson, Wm., Stamford. 

Hopkins, Wm., M.A., St. Peter’s Coll., 
Cambridge. 

Hornby, Hugh, Sandown, Liverpool. 

Horner, Leonard, F.R.S., L.&E. London. 

Horsfall, Charles, Everton, Liverpool. 

Horsfall, John, Wakefield. 

Hotham, Rev. C., M.A., Trinity College, 
Oxford. 

Hovell, Thomas, Cambridge. 

Hovenden, V. F., Sion Hill, Clifton. 

Houghton, Wm., Moss St., Liverpool. 

Houghton, Jas., Rodney St., Liverpool. 

Houghton, W., Salisbury St., Liverpool. 

Houston, J.,M.D.,31, York St., Dublin. 

Howell, John, M.D., F.R.S.E., Dep. In- 
spector Gen., Clifton. 

Huddart, Rev. T. P., 14, Mountjoy Sq, 
East, Dublin. : 

Hudson, James, at Mr. Beaufoy’s, South 
Lambeth. 

Hudson, Henry, M.D., M.R.I.A., 24, 
Stephen’s Green North, Dublin. 

Hudson, Mr., Oxford. 

Hughes, John, Grove, Stillorgan, Dublin. 

Hume, Arthur, Dawson Street, Dublin. 

Humphreys, James, Claremont, Dublin. 

Hunt, R. G., Fleet Street, Liverpool. 

Hunter, Adam, M.D., Edinburgh. 

Hunter, W. Percival, Albany, London. 

Hussey, Rev. Rob., M.A., Christ Church, 
Oxford. : 

Hutchison, Graham, Glasgow. 

Hutchison, James, Leith. 

Hutton, Edward, M.D., M.R.I.A., 33, 
Summer Hill, Dublin. 

Hutton, Robert, M.P., F.G.S., Putney. 


10 LIFE MEMBERS. 


Hutton, Thomas, M.R.D.S., 14, Sum- 
mer Hill, Dublin. 

Hutton, Henry, Barrister, Mountjoy Sq. 
East, Dublin. 

Hutton, H., 18, Gardiner’s Pl., Dublin. 

Hutton, Daniel, 6, Lower Dominick 
Street, Dublin. 

Hutton, Wm., F.G.S., Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne. 

Hyett, W.H., Painswick, Gloucestershire. 


I, 


Ibbetson, L. L. Boscawen, Ventnor, Isle 
of Wight. 

Ilsley, William, Bristol. 

Inglis, Sir R. H., Bart., M.P., D.C.L., 
F.R.S., 7, Bedford Square. 

Inglis, John, Redhall, Bristol. 

Ireland, R. S., M.D., 121, Stephen’s 
Green, Dublin. 

Irvin, Rev. Alexander, M.A., Cullens- 
wood, Dublin. 


J. 


Jackson, Charles, Bristol. 

Jackson, G. V. M. A., Ennipol Cross, 
Molina, Co, Sligo. 

Jackson, Prof. Thos., LL.D., St. Andrews. 

Jacob, Arthur, M.D., 23, Ely Pl., Dublin. 

Jacob, John, M.D., Maryborough, Queen’s 
County. 

James, Sir John K., Bart., Kingstown, 
Dublin. 

James, James, CalthorpeSt., Birmingham. 

Jardine, Sir William, Jardine Hall, 
Lockerbie, Dumfriesshire. 

Jarrett, Rev. Professor, Cambridge. 

Jebb, Rev. John, 41, Rutland Sq., Dublin. 

Jeffreys, Rev. H., B.D., Fellow of 5t. 
John’s College, Cambridge. 

Jemmett, Matthew, 54, Marlborough 
Street, Dublin. 

Jenkyns, Rev. H., M.A., Oriel College, 
Oxford. 

Jenkyns, Rev. Leonard, M.A., F.L.S., 
Swaffham Bulbeck, Cambridgeshire. 
Jerrard, Rev. Dr., Fellow of Caius Coll., 
Cambridge, Principal of Bristol Coll. 
Jerrard, Jos. H., LL.D., 59, Albany St., 

Regent’s Park. 
Jesse, John, Manchester. 
Job, Samuel, 3, Chatham Pl., Liverpool. 
Johnson, P.N., F.G.S.,79, HattonGarden, 
London. 
Johnson, John, Parr Cottage, Lancashire. 
Johnstone, J. F. W., M.A., Prof. of Che- 
mistry in the University of Durham. 


Johnstone, Sir J. V. B., Bart.,M.P., M.A., 
F.R.S.E., Pres.Scarborough Phil, Soc., 
Hackness, Scarborough. 

Jollie, Walter, Edinburgh. 

Jones, C. H., Castle Street, Liverpool. 

Jones, E. T., Clifton. 

Jones, Rob.,22,Pembroke St., Liverpool. 

Jones, Josiah, Castle Street, Liverpool. 

Joy, Rt. Hon. Henry, Lord Chief Baron, 
Dublin. 

Joy, W. B., 2, Mountjoy Square South, 
Dublin. 

Joy, H. H., 17, Mountjoy Square East, 
Dublin. 

Joy,J. H., 2, Mountjoy Sq.South, Dublin. 

Jubb, Abraham, Halifax. 

Jukes, J. B., Wolverhampton. 


K. 


Kane, R. I.,M.D., M.R.I.A., 23, Lower 
Gloster Street, Dublin. 

Kelly, J. C., Dublin. 

Kenedy, Rev. J., D.D., Ardtrea. 

Kennedy, John, Manchester. 

Kenny, Matthias, M.D., Castle Pollard, 
Treland. 

Kenrick, Rey. George, Hampstead. 

Kenrick, Rev. John, M.A., York. 

Kenrick, Samuel, West Bromwich, near 
Birmingham. 

Kent, J. C., Levant Lodge,’ near Upton. 

Key, C. H., 104, Prince’s St., Edinburgh. 

Kidd, John, M.D., F.R.S., Regius Prof. 
of Medicine in the University of Oxford. 

King, Joseph, Jun., Everton, Liverpool. 

King, W. P., Bristol. 

Kingston, A. J., Mosstown, Longford. 

Kinnear, J. G., Edinburgh. 

Kirkpatrick, Rev. W.B., 132, Capel St., 
Dublin. 

Knight, R. G., F.G.S., 46, Tavistock Sq. 
London. > 

Knight, Henry, Birmingham. 

Knowles, G, B,, F.L.S., Birmingham. 

Knowles, L. P., Liverpool. 

Knox, Rey. H.B., Monks Eleigh, Suffolk. 

Knox, G. J., 10, Nassau Street, Dublin. 

Knox, Rev. ‘I’. P., Toomavara, Killaloe. 

Kurtz, Andrew, Upper Stanhope Street, 
Liverpool. 


L. 


Lace, Ambrose, Much Woolton. 

Lacy, H.C., Kenyon House, Manchester. 
Laird, John, Birkenhead, Cheshire. 
Lamb, David, 34, Rodney St., Liverpool. 
Langley, George, Boxford, Suffolk. 
Langton, William, Manchester. 


LIFE MEMBERS. 11 


Lansdowne, Marquis of, F.R.S., D.C.L., 
Bowood, Wilts. 

Lanyon, Charles, Naas. 

Laprimaudaye, Rev, Chas.,M. A.,Leyton. 

Larcom, Lieut. R. E., Phoenix Park, 
Dublin. 

Lardner, Rev. Dionysius, L.L.D., F.R.S., 
London. 

Lassell, William, Jun., Norton Street, 
Liverpool. 

Latouche, D. C., M.R.I.A.,- Castle St., 
Dublin. 

Lauder, SirT. Dick, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. 

Law, Rev. William, M.A., Boxford, 
Suffolk. 

Lawrence, William, F.R.S., 18, White- 
hall Place, Westminster. 

Lawson, William, Liverpool. 

Leach, H. T., Barley Hall, Bradford. 

Leadbetter, John, Glasgow. 

Leatham, William, Wakefield. 

Leeson, H. B., Greenwich. 

Legh, G. Cornwall., High Legh, Cheshire. 

Legh, Rev. H. C., High Legh, Cheshire, 

Leigh, John Shaw, Liverpool. 

Leigh, P.T., 12, Lower Gardiner Street, 
Dublin. 

Leinster, His Grace the Duke of, Carton 
House, Maynooth, Ireland. 
Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P., M.A., 
F.RB.S., F.G.S., Carclew, Cornwall. 
Lendrick, Charles, M.D., 38, Hatch 
Street, Dublin. 

Lentaigne, Joshua, 12, Great Denmark 
Street, Dublin. : 

Lentaigne, John, M.D., 12, Great Den- 
mark Street, Dublin. 

Lewis, T. D., Theatre Royal, Liverpool. 

Leyland, John, 11, Queen Anne Street, 
Liverpool, 

Liddell, Andrew, Glasgow. 

Lightfoot, J. J., Old Burlington Street. 

Lightfoot, W.B., Grove Street, Liverpool. 

Lindley, John, LL.D., F.R.S., Prof. of 
Botany, University College, London. 

Lindsay, H. L., Civil Engineer, Armagh. 

Lingwood, Robert, Highlands, Sussex. 

Lister, J. J., F.R.S., 5, Tokenhouse Yard, 
London. 

Lister, J., Gt. Mersey Street, Liverpool. 

Littledale, Harold, Liscard, Cheshire. 

Litton, D., 18, Lower Mount St., Dublin. 

Litton, S., M.D., V.P.R.1.A., Dublin. 

Lloyd, Rev., Humphrey, F.T.C.D., Pro- 
fessor of Nat. and Exper. Philosophy, 
Trin. Coll., Dublin. 

Lloyd, Rev. C., M.A., Whittington, 
Oswestry. 

Lloyd, Owen, Boyle. 


Lloyd, W. H., F.L.S., 1, Park Square 
West, Regent’s Park. 

Lock, Sir Joseph, Oxford. 

Lock, Edward, Oxford. 

Locke, Joseph, Grand Junction Railway, 
Liverpool. 

Locke, W. O., M.D., Swaffham. 

Lockey, Rev.Fran.,Swanswick, nearBath. 

Lloyd, R. A., Whittington. 

Loder, J. S., Bristol. 

Lodge, Rev. John, M.A., Fellow of Mag- 
dalen College, Cambridge. 

Logan, W. E., Swansea. 

London, The Lord Bishop of. 

Longfield, Mountford, F.T.C., Regius 
Professor of Law, Dublin. 

Lowe, Geo., F.G.S., Civil Engineer, 39, 
Finsbury Cireus, London. 

Lowndes, M.D., St, Anne St., Liverpool. 

Lowndes, W., M.D., Egremont, Cheshire. 

Loyd, Samuel Jones, London. 

Lubbock, J. W., M.A., V.P.R.S., Vice 
Chancellor of the University of London, 
29, Eaton Place. 

Lucas, Edward, Castle Hayne. 

Lucas, William, Dublin. 

Lutwidge, Charles, M.A., Hull. 

Lutwidge, R.W.S.,M.A., 21, Old Square, 
Lincoln’s Inn. 

Lyell, Charles, Jun., M.A. F.RS., 
F.L.S., F.G.S., Hart Street, London. 


M. 


Macartney, Jas., M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., 
Professor of Anatomy, Dublin, 

Macbride, J. D., D.C.L., Principal of 
Magdalen College, Oxford. 

Macdonnel, Rev. Dr., F.T.C., Dublin. 

Macdonnell, H.H.G., F.T.C., Dublin. 

Macgregor, J., Woolton Hill, Liverpool. 

MacInnes, Col. J., Edinburgh. 

Macintosh, Charles, Glasgow. 

Mackenzie, Sir F. A., Bart., Gairloch, 
Union Club House. 

Mackie, Rev. J. W., M.A., Christ Church, 
Oxford. 

Maclagan, D., M.D., F.R.S.E., Edinb, 

Magan, F., 20, Usher’s Island, Dublin. 

Maguise, Bernard, Belmont, Co. West- 
meath. 

Mallet, Robert, M.R.I.A., 94, Capel St., 
Dublin. 

Malley, A. I., 62, Upper Mount St., 
Dublin. 

Marriott, John, Allerton, Liverpool. 

Marsh, Henry, M.D., M.R.J.A., 24, 
Molesworth Street, Dublin. 

Marshall, John, Headingley, Leeds. 

Marshall, J., Jun., Headingley, Leeds. 


12 LIFE MEMBERS. 


Marshall, J.G., M.A.,Headingley, Leeds. 

Martin, F., Cambridge. 

Martin, S., 3, Chesterfield St., Liverpool. 

Martineau, Rev. James, Liverpool. 

Mason, Thomas, York. 

Massey, Lord, Castle Connor, Ireland. 

Mather, J., 92, Mt. Pleasant, Liverpool. 

Mather, Daniel, 92, Mount Pleasant, 
Liverpool. 

Matthews, W. P., Dublin Castle. 

Maund, Benjamin, F.L.S., Bromsgrove, 
Worcestershire. 

Maynard, Henry, M.D., London. 

Maynard, Thomas, Bold St., Liverpool. 

Mayne, Rev. Charles, M.R.1.A.,2, Upper 
Merrion Street, Dublin. 

McAdam, James, Corr. Sec. Nat. Hist. 
Soc., Belfast. 

McCullach, James, F.T.C., Dublin. 

McCulloch, G., Cullenswood, Dublin. 

McKay, John, Dublin Castle. 

McKenny, John, M.R.D.S., 15, Beres- 
ford Place, Dublin. 

McMaster, Maxwell, 97, Grafton Street, 
Dublin. 

Mellor, J., 24, Shaw Street, Liverpool. 

Melville, Lord Viscount, Melville Castle. 

Merz, Philip, Birmingham. 

Miller, Patrick, M.D., Exeter. 

Miller, Rev. W. H., M.A., F.G.S., Pro- 
fessor of Mineralogy, Cambridge. 


Milne, Sir David, K.C.B., F.R.S.E., 
Edinburgh. 

Milne; David, M.A., F.R.S.E., Edin- 
burgh. 


Milne, Captain, R.N., F.R.S.E., Edin- 
burgh. 

Milne, R. M., M.P., Bawtry, Yorks. 

Milton, Lord Viscount, Milton. 

Milward, Captain Andrew, R.N., 1.U.S. 
Club, London. 

Moilliet, J. L., Hampstead Hall, Stafford. 

Molyneux, James, 91, Duke Street, 
Liverpool. 

Molyneux, Lieut., I.U.S. Club, London. 

Money, Rev. K.E., M.A., Much-March 
Parsonage, Ledbury. 

Moore, W.D., 9, St. Anne Street, Dublin. 

Moore, John, 12, Broad Weir, Bristol. 

Moore, Alex., M.D., Preston. 

Morant, Rev. Jas., Wakefield. 

More, I.S., Adv., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. 

Morgan, J. M., Ham Common. 

Morgan, William,D.C.L., 26, Old Square, 
Lincoln’s Inn. 

Moriarty, Merion, M.D., Dowry Parade, 
Clifton. 

Morpeth, Lord Viscount, Castle Howard. 

Morris, S., M.R.D.S., Fortvein, Clontarf. 


Moseley, Sir. Oswald, Bart., Rollestone 
Hall, Stafford. ; 
Moss, John, Otterspool, near Liverpool. 
Mulgrave, His Excellency Earl, Dublin. 
Murchison, R. I., F.R.S., F.G.S., 2, 
Upper Eccleston St., Belgrave Square. 

Murphy, Rev. Robert, M.A., Fellow of 
Caius College, Cambridge. 

Murray, John, Albemarle Street. 

Murray, John, Sunderland. 

Musgrave, John, Tourin Cappoquin, 
Ireland. 

Musgrave, Rev. Thos., M.A., Professor 
of Arabic, Cambridge. 

Muspratt, James, 9, Pembroke Place, 
Liverpool. 

Muston, George, Bristol. 

Myers., Rev, F., Clare Hall, Cambridge. 


N. 


Nairne, James, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. 

Napper, J.L., Lougherea, Co. Meath. 

Neilson, Robt., Woolton Hill, Liverpool. 

Neilson, J. R., Glasgow. 

Nevin, Ninian, Botan. Garden, Glasnevin. 

Newby, Richard, Bookseller, Cambridge. 

Newman, W.L., York. 

Nicholl, Iltyd, Usk, Monmouth. 

Nicholson, John, M.D., Balrath, Co. 
Meath. 

Norris, Charles, Halifax. 

Norris, William, Halifax. 

Northampton, Marquis of, F.G.S., Castle 
Ashby. 

Northumberland, His Grace the Duke of, 
K.G., M.A., F.R.S., Alnwick. 

Northen, R., Sec. Lit. and Phil.Soc., Hull. 

Norwich, The Lord Bishop of. 

Noverre, R., M.D., Trin. Coll., Dublin. 


O. 


O’Beirne, James, M.D., 23, North Cum- 
berland Street, Dublin. 

O’Brien, Sir Lucius, Bart., Dromoland, 
Newmarket on Fergus. 

O’Brien, Edward, M.A., University Club, 
London. 

O'Callaghan, George, Tulla, Co. Clare. 

O’Grady, M., M.D., T.C.D., Lamancha. 

Oliphant, William, Jun., Edinburgh. 

O’Reardon, John, M.D., 33, York Street, 
Dublin. 

O'Reilly, Lieut.-Col., Kelso. 

Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D., 13, South 
Frederick Street, Dublin. 

Orpen, J. H., M.A., 13, South Frederick 
Street, Dublin. 

Orpen, Charles, M.D., 11, North Great 
George Street, Dublin. 


LIFE MEMBERS, 13 


Osborne, Jeremiah, Bristol. 

Overend, Wilson, Sheffield. 

Owen, Jeremiah, Plymouth. 

Owen, R., College of Surgeons, London. 


P. 


Palmer, Wm., Harcourt Street, Dublin. 

Palmer, William, M.A., 5, Essex Court, 
Temple. 

Parker, C. S., Liverpool. 

Parker, Rev W., M.A., Saham, Norfolk. 

Partridge, R., Lancaster Place, London. 

Pasley, Col. C. W., C,B., R.E., F.R.S., 
Chatham. 

Paxton, James, Surgeon, Oxford. 

Paxton, Jos., Chatsworth, Derbyshire. 

Peacock, Rev. Geo., M.A.,F.R.S.,F.G.S., 
Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. 

Pearsall, T.J., Lit. and Phil. Soc., Hull. 

Pearson, Charles, Greenwich. 

Pearson, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Fellow of 

- Queen’s College, Cambridge. 

Pearson, Rev. William, LL.D., F.R.S., 
V.P.R.As.S., South Kilworth, Lei- 
cestershire. 

Peel, Sir Robert, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., 
F.R.S., Whitehall Gardens. 

Peel, George, Higher Ardwick Lodge, 
Manchester. 

Peile, Williamson, 14, Luke Street, Dub- 
lin, 

Pemberton, Rev. R.M., Stratton, Salop. 

Pendarves, E.W.W., M.P., M.A., F.R.S., 

- F.G.S., 36, Eaton Place. 

Pennefather, Edward, 5, Fitzwilliam 
Square, Dublin. 

Pering, Rev. J., Kildwick, Craven, Yorks. 

Perkins, Rev. B. R., B.C.L., Wootton- 
under-edge. 

Perry, Rev. Charles, M.A., Fellow of 

_ Trinity College, Cambridge. 

Perry, James, Obelisk Park, Black Rock. 

Pettiward, Rev. D., M.A., F.G.S., Stow- 
market. 

Phillips, C., M.D., Manchester. 

Phillips, M.,M.P., Park, near Manchester. 

Phillips, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., Prof. Geol. 
King’s College, London. 

Phillips, Richard, F.R.S., Camberwell. 

Phillips, Rev. Samuel, Woolton Priory, 
Liverpool. 

Philpot, Rev. H., M.A., Fellow of Catha- 
rine Hall, Cambridge. 

Pigott, J. H. Smith, Brockley Hall. 

Pike, Ebenezer, Cork. 

Pim, James, Jun., Monkstown, Dublin, 

Pim, George, 15, Usher’s Island, Dublin, 

Pim, W.H., Monkstown, Dublin. 


Plumptre, R. B., A.M., Forthampton, 
Tewkesbuty. 

Pollock, A., 16, Capel Street, Dublin. 

Porter, Rev. Chas., B.D., Stamford. 

Porter, H. J., Castle Tanderagee, County 
Armagh. 

Porter, Rev. T. H., D.D., Trinity College, 
Dublin. 

Portlock, Captain, R.E., M.R.I.A., Ord- 
nance Survey Office, Dublin. 

Potter, H. G., Newcastle. 

Potter, S. T., County Leitrim. 

Potter, Rich., Jun., Smedley Hall, near 
Manchester. 

Potter, William, Everton, Liverpool. 

Powell, Rev. Baden, F.R.S., Savilian 
Professor of Geometry, Oxford. 

Powell, Rev. Dr., Clitheroe. 

Pratt, Rev. J. H., B.A., Caius College, 
Cambridge. 

Pratt, S. P., F.L.S., F.G.S., Bath. 

Prelions, Thomas, 12, Upper North 
Cumberland Street, Dublin. 

Preston, Cooper, Flaxby Hall, Yorkshire. 

Prestwich, Jos., Jun., 20, Mark Lane. 

Prevost, J.L., Consul-General of Switzer- 
land, 3, Suffolk Place, Pall Mall. 

Price, Thomas, Furnace Lodge, Disley, 
Cheshire. 

Price, J. T., Neath Abbey. 

Prince, J.C., Brownlow Street, Liverpool. 

Pring, Capt. Daniel, R.N. 

Pritchard, I. C., M.D., F.R.S., Bristol. 

Punnett, Rev. J., Cornwall, of Clare Hall, 
Cambridge. 

Putland, George, Lower Mount Street, 
Dublin. 


R. 


Radford, J. G., 11, Catherine Street, 
Liverpool. 

Radford, W., Trinity College, Dublin. 

Radice, Evasio, LL.D., Trinity College, 
Dublin. r 

Raffles, Rev. Thomas, LL.D., Edge Hill, 
Liverpool. 

Rake, Joseph, Bristol. 

Rance, Henry, Cambridge. 

Rathbone, T. W., Allerton Priory, Li- 
verpool, 

Rathbone, William, Liverpool. 

Rawson, Christopher, F.G.S., Pres. Lit, 
and Phil. Soc., Halifax. 

Rawson, T. 8., Highpark Road, Liver- 

1 


poo. . 
Read, W. H.R., B.A., F.L.S., Lincoln’s 
Inn. 
Reades, Rev. Joseph B., M.A., Halifax, 
Redwood, Isaac, 15, Crawford Street. 


14 LIFE MEMBERS. 


Reid, W., Lead Merchant, Glasgow. 

Rennie, Sir J., F.R.S., 15, Whitehall Pl. 

Rennie, G., F.R.S., 21, Whitehall Place. 

Reynolds, W., M.D., Liverpool. 

ete Wm., 38, Water Street, Liver- 
pool. 

Rice, Right Hon. T. Spring, M.P., M.A., 
Manstield Street. 

Rice, S.E. Spring, Mansfield Street. 

Richardson, J., M.D., F.R.S., Chatham. 

Rickman, Thomas, F.S.A., Birmingham. 

Rigg, Robert, Walworth Road. 

Rigaud, S. P., M.A., V.P.R.S., Savilian 
Professor of Astronomy, Oxford. 

Roberts, Richard, Manchester. 

Robertson, John, Manchester. 

Robinson, John, Athlone. 

Robinson, Rev. T. R., D.D., Professor of 
Astronomy, Armagh. 

Robinson, John, Sec. R.S.E., Edinburgh. 

Rochfort, J. §., Sackville Street, Dublin. 

Roe, G. N., Donnybrooke. 

Roe, H., 2, Fitzwilliam Square, Dublin. 

Rogers, Rev. J., M.A., Canon of Exeter. 

Roget, P. M., M.D., Sec. R.S., F.L.S., 
F.G.S., 39, Bernard Street, Russell Sq. 

Rosebery, The Earl of, Dalmeny Park. 

Rotch, Benjamin, Furnival’s Inn. 

Rothman, R. W., F.R.A.S. F.G.S., 
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. 

Rothwell, Peter, Bolton. 

Roughton, Wm., Jun., Kettering. 

Russell, Rev. T., Enfield. 

Russell, James, Birmingham. 

Rutter, John, M.D., 19, St Anne Street, 
Liverpool. 

Rutton, Wm., North Allerton. 

Ryland, Arthur, Cherry St., Birmingham. 


Ss 


Sabine, Major, R.E., F.R.S,, Limerick. 

Sadleir, Rev. Dr., Senior Fellow of 
Trinity College, Dublin. 

Salisbury, Sir John, Huskisson St., Liver- 
pool. 

Salmon, W. W., Devizes, 

Sanders, J. N., Clifton. 

Sanders, Wm., Bristol. 

Satterthwait, Michael,M.D., Manchester, 

Scholfield, Edwd., M.D., Doncaster. 

Scoresby, Rev. Wm., F.R.S.L. and E., 
Exeter. 

Scott, James, Q. C., Merrion Sq. South, 
Dublin. 

Searle, Wm., Cambridge, 

Sedgwick, Rev, Adam, M.A., F.R.S., 
¥F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of 
Geology, Cambridge, 


Selby, P. J., F.R.S.E., Twizell House, 
Northumberland. 

Semple, Robert, Wavertree, Liverpool. 

Serle, Rev. Philip, B.D., Oddington, 
Oxfordshire. 

Sharp, Rev. John, B.A., Wakefield. 

Sharp, Rev. Samuel, M.A., Wakefield. 

Sharp, Rev. William, B.A., Wakefield. 

Shepherd, Rev. William, LL.D., Gate- 
acre, Liverpool. 

Sheppard, W. H., Newland Vicarage, 
near Monmouth. 

Sheppard, Henry, Bristol. 

Sherrard, D. H., 72, Blessington Street, 
Dublin. 

Shore, Offley, Sheffield. 

Short, Rev. Augustus, 
Church, Oxford. 

Sigmond, George, 24, Dover Street. 

Sillar, Z., M.D., Sion House, Liverpool. 

Sims, John, M.D., Cavendish Square. 

Simms, Wm., F.R.A.S., 136, Fleet St. 

Simpson, Thos., 4, Mount Vernon, Liver- 


M.A., Christ 


pool. 
Sidney, M.I.F., Cowpen, Newcastle. 
Singer, Rev. Dr., F.'1.C., Dublin. 
Sirr, Rev. J. D., Lower Castle Yard, 
Dublin. 
Sisson, Wm., 17, Parliament Street. 
Skelmersdale, Lord, Lathom House, 
Lancashire, 
Sligo, George, Seacliffe, Haddington. 
Sligo, John, Carneagle, Scotland. 
Smales, R. H., Kingston Bottom. 
Smethurst, Rey. R., Stand, near Man- 
‘chester. 
Smith, Rev. G. S., Trinity Coll., Dublin. 
Smith, James, Glasgow. . 
Smith, James, Deanston Works, Scotland. 
Smith, J. Pye, D.D., Homerton. 
Smith, James, 9, St. James’s Road, 
Liverpool. 
Smith, Rev. B., F.S.A.,Coton Hall, Salop. 
Smith, Samuel, 2, New Square, Lincoln's 


Inn. 

Smith, Thomas, South Hill Grove, 
Liverpool. 

Soden, John, 18, Down Street, Piccadilly. 

Soden, J. Smith, Bath. 

Somerset, His Grace the Duke of, Presi- 
dent of the Royal Institution, Park 
Lane, London. 

Sopwhite, Thos., Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Spineto, Marchese, Cambridge. 

Spottiswoode, Col. 

Staniforth, Rev. Thos., Bolton, 

Stanley, Sir T.S., Bart., Hooton, Cheshire. 

Stanley, A. P., Alderley, Cheshire, 

Stanway, J. Holt, Manchester. 


LIFE MEMBERS. 


Stapleton, M. H., B. M., 1, Mountjoy 
Place, Dublin. 

Staveley, T. R., Ripon. 

Stevenson, Robert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., 
Edinburgh. 

Steventon, Hugh, Egremont, Cheshire. 

Steventon, Edward, M.A., Fellow of 
Corp. Chris. Coll., Cambridge. 

Stewart, Thomas, Liverpool. 

Stowe, William, Buckingham. 

Strachey, Richd., Ashwick Grove, Bristol. 

Straton, Major-Gen., Sir Jos., K.C.H., 
C.B., F.R.S. L. & E., U. Service Club. 

Strickland, Eustachius, York. 

Strickland, Chas., Lough Glynn, Ireland. 

Strickland, J.E., French Park, Roscommon. 

Strickland, W., French Park, Roscommon. 

Strong, Rev. William, Stanground, near 
Peterborough. 

Stroud, Rev. Jos., M.A., Wadham Col- 
lege, Oxford. 

Strutt, William, Temple. 

Stuart, Robert, Manchester. 

Stutchbury, Samuel, Curator, Institution, 
Bristol. 

Sullivan, Jas., M.B., 51, Lower Gardiner 
Street, Dublin. 

Sutcliffe, William, Bath. 

Sutherland, A. R., M.D., F.R.S., 1, Par- 
liament Street. 

Sutherland, A. J., London. 

Sutton, J. B., Carlisle. 

Sweetman, Walter, M.R.D.S., 4, Mount- 
joy Square, Dublin. 

Synge, John, Glanmore, Ashford, Co. 
Wicklow. 


Te 


Talbot, Hon. F., Laycock Abbey, Wilts. 

Taprell, William, Inner Temple. 

Tayler, Rev. J. J., B.A., Manchester. 

Taylor, Frederick, Everton Terrace, 
Liverpool. 

Taylor, John, F.R.S., Treas. Geol. Soc., 
12, Bedford Row. 

Taylor, John, Jun., F.G.S., Coed dt, 
near Mold, Flintshire. 

Taylor, Richard, F.G.S., Truro. 

Taylor, Richard, Assist. Sec. Linn. Soc., 
F.G.S., Red Lion Court, Fleet St. 

Taylor,J.E., Broughton, near Manchester. 

Taylor, Jas., Todmorden Hall, Halifax. 

Taylor, Captain, London. 

Taylor, Rev. William, F.R.S., York. 

Taylor, W. C., LL.D., 131, Grove St., 

« Camden Town. 

Tennant, Charles, Glasgow. 

Tennent, R. J., Pres. Lit. Soc., Belfast. 

Thickness, Ralph, Jun., Wigan. 


15 


Thodey, Winwood, 4, Poultry, London. 

Thom, Rev. David, Falkner Street, 
Liverpool. 

Thom, John, Glasgow. 

Thomas, Samuel, Bristol. 

Thomas, Edward, Bristol. 

Thomas, George, Bristol. 

Thomason, Sir Edward, Birmingham. 

Thompson, E. P., Manchester. 

Thompson, D. P., M.R.I.A., Burnham 
House, Dingle, Co. Kerry. 

Thompson, George, Salop. 

Thompson, George, Gildart Street, Liver- 


ool. 

ait enters G., Chemist, Church Street, 
Liverpool. 

Thompson, Leonard, Hutton Park, York- 
shire. ; 

Thompson, A. T., M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., 
Professor of Materia Medica in Uni- 
versity Coll., London. 

Thomson, George, Banker, Oxford. 

Thomson, James, F.R.S., Clitheroe. 

Thomson, J. G., Edinburgh. 

Thomson, Corden, Sheffield. 

Thomson, Thomas, 127, George Street, 
Edinburgh. 
Thornely, Thomas, M.P., Liverpool. 
Thornton, Samuel, Camp Hill, Birming- 
ham. y 
Thorpe, Rev. Archdeacon, M.A., F.G.S., 
Bristol. 

Tierney, Edward, M.R.D.S., 15, Lower 
Fitzwilliam St., Dublin. 

Tinné, J. A., Briarly Aigburth, Liverpool. 

Tite, W., Hon. Sec. London Institution, 
25, Upper Bedford Place. 

Tobin, Sir John, Liverpool. 

Tobin, Rev. John, Cheshire. 

Todd, Rev. J. H., F.T.C.D., M.R.1.A., 
Dublin. 

Todhunter, J., 3, College Green, Dublin. 

Torrie, T. Jameson, F.G.S., Edinburgh. 

Towgood, Edward, St. Neots, Hunts. 

Townend, Thomas, Manchester, 

Townsend, George, Newbury. 

Townsend, K. E., Springfield, Norwood. 

Tregelles, Nathaniel, Neath Abbey, Gla- 
morgan. 

Trench, F. A., St. Catherine’s Park, 
Dublin. 

Trevelyan, W.C., M.A., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., 
F.G.S., Wallington, Northumberland. 

Tuckett, Francis, Frenchay, near Bristol, 

Tuckett, Henry, 20, Finsbury Circus, 

Tuckett, Frederick, Bristol. 

Turnbull, Rev. F. S., F.R.S., Caius Col- 
lege, Cambridge, 

Turner, Chas., Aigburth, Liverpool. 


16 LIFE MEMBERS. 


Turner, Thos., M.D., Curzon Street, 
May Fair. 

Turner, Sam., F.R.S., F.G.S., Liverpool. 

Turner, William, Halifax. 

Tweedy, William Mansel, Truro. 

Tyrconnell, Earl of, F.R.S., F.G.S., Kip- 
lin Catterick, Yorks, 

Tyrrell, John, Exeter. 


U. 


Upton, J. S., F.G.S., Trinity College, 
Cambridge. 

Vance, Robert, Belfast. 

Veitch, A. J., M.D., Galway. 

Verney, Sir Harry, Lower Clayton, 
Bucks. 

Vernon, Rt. Hon. Lord, 25, Wilton Cres- 
cent. 

Veysie, Rev. Daniel, B.D., Christ Church, 
Oxford. 

Vigors, N. A., M.P., 16, Chester Terrace, 
Regent’s Park. 

Visgar, Harman, Bristol. 

Voelker, Professor Chas., St. Domingo 
Street, Liverpool. 


W. 


Walker, James, Pres. of Institution Civ. 
Engineers, Great George Street, West- 
minster. 

Walker, Edward, Chester. 

Walker, William, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. 

Walker, Rev. Robert, M.A., F.R.S., 
Wadham College, Oxford. 

Walker, Francis, F.L.S.,F.G.S., 49, Bed- 
ford Square. 

Walker, Jos. N., F.L.S., President of the 
Liverpool Royal Institution, Allerton 
Hall. 

Wall, Rev. C.W., D.D.,S.F.T.C., Dublin. 

Wall, Rev. R. H,, A.M., 6, Hume Street, 
Dublin. 

Wallace, J. R., Isle of Man. 

Wallinger, Rev. William, Hastings. 

Walmesly, Joshua, Church St., Liverpool. 

Walmesley, Joshua, Jun, Mount 
Pleasant, Liverpool. 

Walsh, John, Prussian Consul, Dublin. 

Wansey, William, 16, Riches Court, 
Lime Street. 

Ward, Rey. Richard, 24, Cadogan Place, 
London. 

Wardell, William, Chester. 

Waring, S., Stoke Bishop, near Bristol. 

Warren, R. B., Q.C., 55, Leeson Street, 
Dublin. 

Warwick, W. A., Cambridge. 

Wasse, Jonah, M.D., Mount Hall, 
Boroughbridge, 


Waterhouse, John, Halifax. 

Watford, A., Engineer, Cambridge. 

Watkins, James R., Bolton. 

Watson, H. H., Bolton. 

Waud, Rev. S. W., Fellow of Magdalen 
College, Cambridge. 

Weaver, Thomas, 9, Panton Square, 
Haymarket, 

Webb, Rev. T. W., M.A., Tretyre, near 
Ross, Herefordshire. 

Webb, Rev. John, Tretyre. 


" Webster, Thomas, Cannon Row. 


Webster, B. D.,Penns, near Birmingham. 

Weld, Isaac, Sec. R.D.S., M.R.I.A., 
Dublin. 

Wellstood, John, Finch St., Liverpool. 

West, William, Sec. Lit. and Philos. Soc., 
Leeds. 

West, William, M.D., M.R.I.A., 5, Great 
Denmark Street, Dublin. 

Westhead, John, Manchester. 

Wetherd, Rev. Thomas, Leeds. 

Wharton, W. L.; M.A., Dryburn, Dur- 
ham. 

Whatton, Rev. Robert, F.R.S., Man- 
chester. 
Whewell, Rev, William, M.A., F.R.S., 
F.G.S., Trinity College, Cambridge. 
Whitehouse, William, Exchange Build- 
ings, Liverpool. 

Wigram, Rev. Jos. C., 5, Cork Street, 

Wilderspin, Samuel, Cheltenham. 

Willan, William, 6, Old Bridge Street, 
Dublin. 

Williams, C. J. B., M.D., 46, Half-Moon 
Street, Piccadilly. 

Williams, C. W., Dublin Steam Packet 
Office, Liverpool. 

Williams, Richard, Dame St., Dublin, 

Williams, Robert, Bridehead, Dorset, 

Williams, Robert, Jun., 36, Grosvenor 
Square. z 

Williams, Rev. David, F.R.S., Bleadon 
near Cross, Somerset, 

Williams, William, Birchin Lane, 

‘Williams, John, Jun., Berncoose, Corn 
wall, 

Williamson, William, Lincoln’s Inn. 

Williamson, W. C., Manchester. 

Willimott, John, F.G,S., 45, Great Marl- 
borough Street. 

Willis, Rev. Robert, M.A., F.R.S., 
F.G.S., Caius College, Cambridge. 

Wills, William, Birmingham. 

Wilson, James, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh, 

Wilson, John, Sen., Clyde Iron Works, 
Glasgow. 

Wilson, Thos., Banks, near Barnsley, 

Wilson, Alex., Bryanstone Square, 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 17 


Wilson, Rev. 
Dublin. 
Wilson, W. J., Manchester. 
Winsor, F. A., M.R.I.A., 
Adelphi. 

Winterbottom, Rev. J. E., M.A., F.L.S., 
F.G:S., East Woodhay, Hants. 

Wood, Rev. Samuel, London. 

Wood, Peter, M.D., Manchester. 

Wood, G. W., F.LS., F.G.Si, Singleton 
Lodge, near Manchester. ; 

Wood, “William, 16, Castle St., Liverpool. 

Wood, John, Leadon: 

Woods, Edward, Manchester. 

Woods, Samuel, Jun., India Buildings, 
Liverpool. 

Woolgar, J. W., F.R.A.S., Lewes. 

Woolley, William, Hull. 

Worthington, William, Brockhurst Hall, 
Northwich. 

Worthington, Archibald, Whitchurch, 
Salop. 

Wrottesley, John, Blackheath. 


Dr. James, M.R.1.A., | 


10, John St., | 


Ne 


Yarrell, William, Ryder St., St. James’s. 

Yate, Rev. Charles, M.A., Fellow of St. 
John’s College, Cambridge. 

Yates, James, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., 49, 
Upper Bedford Place, Russell Square: 

Yates, Jos. Brooke, F.S.A., Pres. Lit. 
and Philos. Soc. Liverpool, West Din- 
gle, near Liverpool. 

Yates, R. Vaughan, Toxteth Park, Liver- 

ool. 
Yeuies George, 2, Grafton St., Dublin. 


- Yelverton, W., Kirkdale, near Liverpool. 


York, His Grace the Archbishop of. 
Yorke, Col., 12, Duke St., Grosvenor Sq. 
Young, James, Chemist, London. 
Young,. Rev. John, D.D., F.R.AS., 
Warwick House, Cheltenham. 
Young, John, Taunton. 
Younge, Robert, M.D., Sheffield. 
Younge, Robert, F.L.S., Sheffield. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


—— 


Abbott, C. H., Long Ashton. 

Abbott, Henry, Long Ashton, Somerset. 

Abraham, Abraham, Edge Hill, Liverpool. 

Ackers, Joseph, Vauxhall Road, Liverpool. 

Acland, Robert, Boulston. 

Acraman, Alfred, Jun., Bristol. 

Acraman, D. W., Clifton. 

Acraman, W. E., Bristol. 

Acton, Rev. Henry, Exeter. 

Adair, Henry, 11, Mountjoy Sq. South, 
‘Dublin. 

Adair, John, 11, 

' South, Dublin. 

Adams, Robert, 11, Gt. Denmark Street, 
Dublin. 

Adams, S. B., Clifton. 

Adams, G. H., Belfast. 

Adamson, John, Solicitor, Newcastle. 

Addams, Robert, 20, Pembroke Square, 

' Kensington. 

Adcock, Robert, London, 

Adcock, Henry, London. 

Addington, H. J., Langford Court, So- 
merset. 


Mountjoy Square 


Addington, John, Ashley Court. 

Addison, Rev. J. A., Wallasey, Cheshire. 

Addison, T. B., Preston. 

Aiken, P. F., Bristol. 

Aikin, James, 1, Alfred St., Liverpool. 

Ainslie, Rev. J ohn, Kast Lothian. 

Akenhead, David, Newcastle. 

Alcock, Benjamin, M.D., Frederic St., 
Dublin. 

Alder, Joshua, Newcastle. 

Aldridge, J. F., Bristol. 

Alexander, W. W., Bristol. 

Alexander, R. C., Corsham, Wilts. 

Alford, Henry, ‘Taunton. 

Alleard, William, Liverpool. 

Allen, Andrew, Bristol. 

Allen, J. Penn, North Cerney, Glosters. 

Allen, T. D., North Cerney, Glostershire. 

Allen, L. Baugh, Dulwich Common. 

Allen, W., 32, Hardwicke Street, Dublin. 

Allies, Jabez, Catherine Villa, near Wor- 
cester. 

Alloway, R. T., Hotwells, Bristol. 

Allwood, Rev. Robert, Clifton Park. 


18 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Amer, John, Preston. 

Ames, G. H., Stoke Bishop, near Bristol. 

Anderson, Rev. D., B.A., South Hunter 
St., Liverpool. 

Anderson, T. D., South Hunter St., Li- 


verpool. 

Anderson, J. M., Bedford Street South, 
Liverpool. 

Anderson, Joseph, M.D., 5, Oxford St., 
Liverpool. 


Anderson, James, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. 

Anderson, David, of Exeter Coll. Oxon., 
Edinburgh. 

pales Henry, Woolton, near Liver- 
pool. 

Andrade, Joachim, 68, Duke St., Liver- 
pool. 

Andrew, H. P., Bodrean, Truro. 

Aunsted, D. T., Jesus College, Cambridge. 

Appleton, Rev.Richard, A.M.,22, Spring- 
field, Liverpool. 

Archbold, James, Newcastle. 

Archer, Francis, Renshaw Street, Liver- 
pool. 

Ariel, Miles, Bristel. 

Armstrong, G. A., Dublin. 

Armstrong, W. J.,Rathcoale, Co. Dublin. 

Armstrong, William, Bristol. 

Arnaud, Elias, Abercromby Square, 
Liverpool. 

Ash, Richard, Bristol. 

Ash, R. H., Middle Temple. 

Ash, J. H., Bristol. 

Ashburner, George, London. 

Ashton, H., Woolton Wood, Liverpool. 

Ashton, C. E., Woolton Hall, Liverpool. 

Ashton, H. P., Gildart St., Liverpool. 

Ashton, Jos. Yates, South John Street, 
Liverpool. 

Ashton, Michael, 2, Gildart St., Liver- 
pool. 

Ashworth, Thomas, Poynton, Stockport. 

Ashworth, Samuel, Oxford. 

Aspinall, Rev. James, Abercromby Sq., 
Liverpool. 

Aspland, A. S., Temple. 

Aston, Lieut. Henry, of Bombay Army, 
Torquay. 

Atcherly, John, 3, Gt. George’s Place, 
Liverpool. 

Auchinleck, William, 39, Dominick St., 
Dublin. 

Avison, Thomas, Jun., Catherine Street, 
Liverpool. 

Austen, Robert A. C., Stratford House, 
Guildford. 


B. 
Backhouse, Edward, Jun., Sunderland. 


Backhouse, William, Newcastle. 

Backhouse, T. I., Sunderland. 

Bacon, Robert, McCausland, 12, Fitz- 
gibbon Street, Dublin. 

Badham, J. B., Bristol. 

Baen, Martin, Bristol. 

Bailey, Lieut. Joseph, R.N., Bristol. 

Bailie, Rev. Dr. Kennedy, ArdtreaHouse, 
Tyrone. 

Baily, Fran.,Treas.R.S., F.G.S., London. 

Baily, James, Brighton. 

Baines, Thomas, Hope St., Liverpool. 

Baird, David, M.D., 97, Duke Street, 
Liverpool. 

Baker, Thomas, Bristol. 

Baker, George, Northampton. 

Baker, T, B. L., Hardwick Court, Glou- 
cester. 

Balearras, The Earl of, Haigh Hall, 
Wigan. 

Bald, William, F.R.S.E., Board of Works, 
Dublin. 

Ball, Rev. John, Manchester. 

Ball, John, Seacombe, Cheshire. 

Ball, Nicholas, 85, Stephen’s Green So., 
Dublin. ; 

Balleny, William, 50, Oxford Street, 
Liverpool. 

Bangley, George, 24, St. John’s Wood 
Road. 

Banner, J. M.,24, Rodney St., Liverpool. 

Banning, T. H., 27, CanningSt., Liverpool. 

Barber, Thos., Exchange Alley North, 
Liverpool. 

Barber, Charles, 18, Moira St., Liverpool. 

Barclay, Thomas, Castlebar. 

Barclay, T. B., Wavertree Lodge, Liver- 


ool. 

Harton, Beonstandl Hampton Hall, Ireland. 

Bardsley, S. A., M.D., Manchester. 

Bardsley, J. L., Manchester. 

Barham, Dr. T. F., Exeter. 

Barham, Francis, London. 

Barker, Rev. Frederick, B.A., Edge Hill, 
Liverpool, 

Barker, James, 24, North Cumberland 
Street, Dublin. 

Barker, Rey. T. F., Everton, Liverpool. 

Barker, James, Bakewell, Derbyshire. 

Barker, Rev. Henry, Clifton. 

Barnard, W. H., South Shields. 

Barratt, John, Conistone, near Kendall. 

Barrow, Samuel, Bath. 

Barton, Stephen, Bristol. 

Batchelor, W. M., Abbeville, County 
Dublin. 

Bates, John, Clifton. 

Bath and Wells, The Lord Bishop of, 
Palace, Wells. 


oe ee 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 19 


Bathurst, Earl, Cirencester. 

Batty, C., Liverpool. 

Baumgartner, A., Manchester. 

Bayly, John, Abbott's Leigh, Bristol. 

Bayly, T. K., Abbott’s Leigh, Bristol. 

Bayne, Rev. Thomas, Warrington. 

Baynton, William, Bristol. 

Bealey, Richard, Radcliffe. 

Beardman, Joseph, Chesterfield. 

Beasley, Thos., Fitzwilliam Sq., Dublin. 

Beatty, T. E., M.D.,M.R.1.A., 16, Moles- 
worth Street, Dublin. 

Beaufort, His Grace the Duke of, Bad- 
minton. 

Beddoes, Lieut. C. H., R.N., Clifton. 

Bedford, R. G., Clifton. 

Beilby, William, M.D., Edinburgh. 

Bell, David, Blessington Street, Dublin. 

Bell, T. B., Edinburgh. 

Bell, J. W., Q.C., 1, Gardiner Street, 
Dublin. 

Bell, Peter, M.D., Wolverhampton. 

Bell, John, Royal Barracks, Dublin. 

Bell, Matthew, M.P., Wolsington, New- 
castle. 

Bellamy, Wm., Rodney Street, Liverpool. 

Bellingham, Rev. J..G., B.A. 

Beney, Perceval, Bedford Row. 

Bennett, Richard, Bristol. 

Bennett, C. F., Clifton. 

Bennett, Henry, Bristol. 

Bennett, G., St. John’s, Newfoundland. 

Benson, Rob.,Jun., Lodge Lane, Liverpool. 

Benson, W. W., Lieut. 57th. Regiment. 

Benwell, Rev. William, Stanton Drew. 

Berend, S. S., Bold Street, Liverpool. 

Bernard, C. E., M.D., Clifton. 

Berkeley, F. H.,St. John’s Priory,Chester. 

Bernard, F. J., Bristol. 

Bernard, R. M., Bristol. 

Bernard, R. W., M.D., Cheltenham. 

Bernard, W. H., Whitburn, Durham. 

Bernard, W. R., M.A., Clifton. 

Berry, Rev. William, Settle, York. 

Bessonet, James, 28, Leeson St., Dublin. 

Bettune, William, Boston. 

Bevan, John, Great George Square, Liver- 

ool, 

Foran, John, Cowbridge, Glamorgan. 

Bevan, Samuel, Neath. 

Bevan, William, 8, Leeson St., Dublin. 

Bevan, Rev. William, Frazer Street, 
Liverpool. 

Bevan, Robert, M.D., Monmouth. 

Biggs, Arthur, Bristol. 

Bickford, J, S., Hayle, Cornwall. 

Biddle, John, Leamington. 

Biddle, James, 16, Mount Pleasant, 
Liverpool, 


Bigg, L. O., Bristol. 

Bigge, Chas. J., Dunston Hill, Durham. 

Bigge, C. W., Linden, Newcastle. 

Biggs, R. H., Bristol. 

Biggs, William, Leicester. 

Biggs, John, Leicester. 

Billett, James, Taunton. 

Bincks, C., Edinburgh. 

Birch, Sir T. B., Bart., Prescot. 

Bird, Golding, Guy’s Hospital. 

Bird, William, Dingle Mount, Liverpool. 

Birkbeck, William, Settle, Yorks. 

Birrell, Rev. C. M., Roscommon Street, 

_ Liverpool. 

Bishop, C. K., Tiverton. 

Black, James, M.D., Bolton. 

Black, William, 65, Cornhill. 

Blackaller, Rev. H., Clapville, America... 

Blackburn, E. B., Alnwick Castle. 

Blackburn, James, Alnwick Castle. 

Blackburn, J. J., M.P., Warrington. —- 

Blackburn, T., Camden St., Liverpool. 

Blackett, Christopher, M.P., Wyham Oak- 
wood, Newcastle. 

Blackhall, Rev. Samuel, North Cadbury. 

Blain, William, Mount Vernon, Liver- 
pool. 

Blair, Harrison, Mill Hill House, Bolton. 

Blake, John, 104, Bold Street, Liverpool, 

Blake, J. H., Lisduff, Co. Galway. 

Blake, Jas., Jun., Great George Square, 
Liverpool. 

Blake, William, Crewkerne. 

Bliss, Thomas, Jun., Trin. Coll., Dublin. 

Blisset, Charles, Clifton. 

Blood, W. Bindon, Edinburgh. 

Blower, Benjamin, Surgeon, Northern 
Hospital, Liverpool. 

Blundell, William, Crosby Hall, Liver- 


pool. 

Blundell, Richard, Hooton, Cheshire. 

Boisragon, Theodore, Cheltenham. 

Bold, N. D., Duke St., Liverpool. 

Bold, Rev. Thomas, Duke Street, Liver- 

ool. 

Bold, Thomas, Water Street, Liverpool. 

Boley, Richard, Ashley Hill, near Bristol. 

Bolton, Ogden, Great George’s Street, 
Liverpool. 

Bompas, G. G., M.D., Fishponds, near 
Bristol. 

Bompas, G. J., Jun., Fishponds, Bristol. 

Bompas, C. C., 11, Park Road, Regent’s 
Park. 

Booker, Richard, British Guiana. 

Booker, Josias, Allerton, Liverpool. 

Booth, Abraham, Hackney. 

Booth, Charles, Bedford Street North, 
Liverpool. 

B2 


20 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Booth, John, M.D., F.G.S., Brush House, 
Sheffield. 

Booth, Henry, Abercromby Square, Liver- 

ool. 

Boothby, J. B., Everton, Liverpool. 

Boswall, Capt., R.N., Edinburgh. 

Boswell, William, 115, Stephen’s Green, 
Dublin. 

Bouch, Thomas, Everton, Liverpool. 

Bovill, William, London. 

Bourne, Rt. Hon. William Sturges, Brook 
Street. 

Bourne, Timothy, Liverpool. 

Bower, Anthony,85, Islington, Liverpool. 

Bowes, John, M.P., Streatham Castle, 
Durham. 

Bowler, Capt., Liverpool. 

Bowman, J. E., F.L.S., Gresham, near 
Wrexham. 

Bowman, Thos., Berkeley Square, Bristol. 

Bowring, John, LL.D., 1, Queen Square, 
Westminster. 

Bowstead, Rev. T. S., Maryland Street, 
Liverpool. 

Boyd, G. W., Winson, near Liverpool. 

Bradshaw, R. S., Belfast. 

Bragg, J. K., Clifton. 

Brandling, John, Newcastle. 

Brandling, R. W., Low 
Newcastle. 

Brandon, J. J., Clifton. 

Brandreth, J.. M.D., Rodney Street, 
Liverpool. 

Brandreth, James, Tavistock Place. 

Branker, Henry, Wadham Coll., Oxford. 

Branker, W. H., Rodney St., Liverpool. 

Branson, Thomas, Sheffield. 

Branwhite, Nathaniel, Bristol. 

Branwhite, Nathaniel, Jun., Bristol. 

Bray, Charles, Coventry. 

Brentano, L. La Roche, 5, Bedford Street, 
Liverpool. 

Brereton, Joseph, Liverpool. 

Bretherton, Edward, South Hunter St., 
Liverpool. 

Brett, R. H., F.L.S., London. 

Brewster, Sir David, M.A. Cambridge, 
D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D., K.H., F.R.S., 
L. and E., St. Andrews. 

Brice, Rev. H. C., Bristol. 

Bridges, H. L., Clifton Hill. 

Bright, Robert, Abbott’s Leigh, Bristol. 

Bright, Richard, Juv., M.D., Abbott's 
Leigh, Bristol. 

Bright, Richard, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 
11, Saville Row. 

Bright, Samuel, Liverpool. 

Broadbent, William, Latchford, 
Warrington. 


Gosforth, 


near 


Brockett, John Trotter, Newcastle. 

Brodie, Robert, Clifton. 

Brodigan, Thomas, Drogheda. 

Bromby, Rev. J. E., Bristol. 

Bromby, C. H., St. John’s Coll., Cam- 
bridge. 

Brookes, Rev. Jonathan, M.A., Everton, 
Liverpool. 

Brooks, John, 28, Great George Street, 
Liverpool. 

Brooks, J. H., Brazennose Coll., Oxford. 

Brougham, Lord, Brougham Hall. 

Broughton, S. D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12, 
Great Marlborough Street. 

Brown, Ebenezer, A.M., Bedford Street, 
Liverpool. 

Brown, George, Clifton. 

Brown, George, Liverpool. 

Brown, Samuel, Bristol. 

Brown, Rev. Geo., M.A., Edge Hill, 
Liverpool. 

Brown, W.-A., North John Street, Liver- 

ool, 

Bins James, Douglas, Isle of Man. 

Brown, James, India Buildings, Liver- 
pool. 

Brown, Thomas, Barbadoes. 

Brown, Dr., Sunderland. 

Brown, J: B., Bedford Place, London. 

Brown, Rev. Thos., Inneskip. 

Brown, G. A., Manchester. 

Browne, William, Richmond Hill, Clifton. 

Browne, Robert, Liverpool. 

Browne, James, Bristol. 

Browne, John, Bridgewater. 

Bruce, O. Tyndall, Falkland, Fifeshire. 

Bruce, Rev. J. C., Newcastle. 

Bruce, Robert, Frenchay, near Bristol. 

Bruce, Robert, Jun., Frenchay. 

Bruce, William, Middle Temple. 

Brunel, M. I., V.P.R.S., 18, Duke St., 
Westminster. 

Bryan, R. B., M.R.D.S., 20, Eccles St., 
Dublin. 

Bryan, James, Netherfield Road North, 
Liverpool. 

Bryant, Samuel, Bristol. 

Bryce, Charles, M.D., Mount Pleasant, 
Liverpool. 

Buchanan, John, 2, Harrington Street, 
Liverpool. 

Buchanan, Daniel, Everton, Liverpool. 

Buckingham, C. J., New York. 

Budd, J. P., South Hill Road, Liverpool. 

Budd, John, Liverpool. 

Buddicombe, Rev. R. P., M.A., F.A.S., 
Everton, Liverpool. 

Buddicombe, W. B., Liverpool. 

Buddle, John, Newcastle. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 21 


Bull, H. W., London. 
Bulley, Thomas, 17, Falkner St., Liver- 


ool. 

Benbaiy, Richardson, 19, Mountjoy Sq., 
Dublin. 

Bunt, T. G., Bristol. 

Bunting, Jabez, D.D., London. 

- Burgess, Alfred, Leicester. 

Burgess, Daniel, Clifton. 

Burgess, Daniel, Jun., Clifton Vale. 

Burnett, George, Jun., Newcastle. 

Burrell, William, Newcastle. 

Burroughs, J. A., Bristol. 

Burroughs, W. G., Clifton. 

Burton, H.S., Carrigaholt, County Clare. 

org John, Monkstown Avenue, Dub- 
in. 

Bush, James, Beach Bitton, near Bristol. 

Bush, Thomas, Beach Bitton. 

Bush, James, Baldwin Street, Bristol. 

Bush, Henry, Clifton. 

Bush, George, Durdham Down, Bristol. 

Bush, William, Bristol. 

anil W. P., Exchange Alley, Liver- 
pool. 

alae F. A., Exchange Alley, Liver- 
pool. 

Bushell, W. D., Kingshill Villa, Cotham. 

Butler, Charles, M.D., 53, Lower Sack- 
ville Street, Dublin. 

Butterworth, J. H., 
Bristol. 

Byles, J. B., London. 

Byng, Rev. John, Merton Coli., Oxford. 


C. 


Henbury Court, 


Cales, Henry, Cheltenham. 

Callcott, Captain G.B., Lower Crescent, 
Clifton. 

Caly, Edward, Isle of Man. 

Campbell, Rev. Augustus, Duke Street, 
Liverpool. 

Campbell, Rev. Jas., D.D., Dublin. 

Campbell, John, India Buildings, Liver- 

ool. 

Campbell, Colin, Toxteth Park, Liverpool. 

Campbell, Rev. Colin, M.A., Newport, 
Salop. 

Campbell, R. C., Glasgow. 

Campbell, John, LL.D., Fishill, Ire- 
land. 

Capron, A., Park Row, Bristol. 

Carey, Rev. Robert, Clonmel. 

Cargill, William, Newcastle. 

Carlisle, H. H.,Bushfield Avenue, Dublin. 

Carlisle, Richard, Enfield. 

Carmichael, Thomas, 10, Upper Temple 
Street, Dublin. 


Carne, C. F., 9, Bold Street, Liverpool. 

Carpenter, R. L., College, York. ; 

Carpenter, Rev. Benjamin, Nottingham. 

Carpenter, W. B., Edinburgh. 

Carpenter, Ph. P., Jun., Bristol. 

Carr, R. L., St. Anne St., Liverpool. 

Carr, I. T. J., 10, Old Church Yard, 
Liverpool. 

Carr, Rey. William, B.D., Gomersal, 
near Leeds. . 

Carr, William, Gomersal. 

Carrick, A., M.D. 

Carrow, I. M., Temple, Londox. 

Carson, J. W., M.D., F.R.S., Mount 
Pleasant, Liverpool. 

Carson, James, Jun., M.D., Liverpool. 

Carson, P. M., Mount Pleasant, Liver- 
pool. 

Carson, Joseph, Trinity College, Dublin. 

Carter, Rev. Augustus, Theakstone, York- 
shire. 

Case, B. C. T., Malmesbury. 

Case, W. A., Garston, Liverpool. 

Case, R. E., Clifton. 

Case, J. Ashton, Aigburth, Liverpool. 

Casin, Henry, Bristol. 

Casson, Wm., Greenland St., Liverpool. 

Castle, H. M., Bristol. 

Castle, Michael, Grove House, Clifton. 

Castle, W. H., Stoke’s Croft, Bristol. 

Cattell,T. W., 16, Seymour Street, Liver- 
pool. 

Catto, Robert, Aberdeen. 

Cay, R. B., Sunderland. 

Chadwick, Edwin, Somerset House. .. 

Chaigneau, Peter, Upper Fitzwilliam St., 
Dublin. 

Chambers, James, Dublin. 

Champion, Guy, Dublin. 

Chancellor, George, Dublin. 

Chanter, John, Earl Street. 

Chapman, Capt. J. G., R.A., Clifton. 

Chappell, Commander, R.N., Dublin 
Steam Packet Office, Liverpool. 

Charles, S., Bristol College. 

Charlesworth, Edward, British Museum. 

Charters, Capt. Samuel, R.N., Bath. 

Chawner, Dr. Darwin, Newark. 

Chatfield, Henry, Devonport. 

Cheeseborough, John, 48, St. Anne St., 
Liverpool. 

Cheetham, David, Preston. 

Chibborn, Edward, Cullenswood, Dublin. 

Chilcott, John, Bristol. 

Chilcott, Thomas, Clifton. 

Cholmeley, M., Oxford. 

Clauny, Rev. R., F.R.S.E., Sunderland. 

Clanny, Dr., Sunderland. 

Clapham, Col., Over Court. 


22 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Clark, Alonzo, M.A., New York. 

Clark, Bracy, F.L.S., 7, Taunton Place, 
Regent’s Park. 

Clarke, W. H., London. 


Clarke, James, Q. C., Recorder of Liver- 


pool. 

Clarke, Bramhall, Old Hall Street, Li- 
verpool, 

Clarke, J. L., Woolton, Liverpool. 

Clarke, Joshua, Bristol. 

Clarke, Rev. W. B., Stanley Green, near 
Poole. 

Clarke, Rev. Edward, M.A., Essex. 

Clarke, N. D., Manchester. 

Clarke, E. S., Palmerston. 

Clarke, Sir Arthur, M.D., 44, New Great 
George Street, Dublin. 

Claxton, Christopher, Clifton. 

Clay, Robert, Bold Street, Liverpool. 

Clay, Rev. John, B.D., Adlington Hall, 
Cheshire. 

Clayton, John, Newcastle. 

Cleave, W. O., Clifton. 

Clegram, W. B., Gloucester. 

Clendining, Dr. John, 16, Wimpole St. 

Clerk, Henry, Bristol. 

Clerk, Thomas, M.D., Aberdeen. 

Clerk, Rev. D. M., Yatton, near Bristol. 

Clerke, Major Shadwell, K.H., F.R.S., 
Atheneum. 

Clive, Rev. William, Welsh Pool 

Clutterbuck, James, Cheltenham. 

Coates, William, Clifton. 

Coates, William, Jun., 5, Richmond Ter- 
race, Clifton. 

Coathupe, Oliver, Redland, near Bristol. 

Cobden, Richard, Manchester. 

Cock, Edward, Guy’s Hospital. 

Cock, James, Liverpool. 

Cocker, John, Salford. 

Cocks, W. 8., Upper Newington, Liver- 


ool. 

Cocks, J. Somers, Legh, Worcester. 

Cocks, Rev. H. Somers, Legh. 

Coffin, William, Llandaff. 

Coglan, Thomas, Exchange Street East, 
Liverpool. 

Colbeck,. Thomas, Southampton Row. 

Cole, Lord Viscount, M.P., Florence 
Court. 

Cole, Walter K., Bristol College. 

Coles, Rev. Thos., Bourton on the Water. 

Colles; Maurice, M.D., 18, Merrion 5q., 
Dublin. 

Collings, D. H., Queen’s Coll., Oxford. 

Collins, James, M.D., 11, Norton Street, 
Liverpool. 

Collinson, Rev. John, A.M., Gateshead. 

Colville, Lieut. R., 97th. Regt., Stockport. 


Comer, George, Exchange Buildings, 
Liverpool. 

Comrie, A., London. 

Condie, John, Willsonton Iron Works, 
North Britain. 

Condie, A., North Britain. 

Congreave, C., Sheffield. 

Connebee, Richard, Dorking. 

Conolly, John, M.D., Warwick. 

Conolly, William, M.D., Castleton House, 
near Cheltenham. 

Conybeare, John, Sully Rectory. 

Cook, J., 4, King’s Bench Walk, Temple. 

Cooke, Rev. Dr. George, Tortworth. 

Cooke, J. A., Clifton. 

Cooke, George, West Derby, Liverpool. 

Cooke, Isaac, Clifton. 

Cooke, Samuel, Christ Church, Oxford. 

Cookson, Joseph, Clifton. 

Cookson, Isaac, Meldon, Newcastle. 

Cooper, John, Bristol. 

Cooper, J. S., M.R.1.A., Upper Merrion 
Street, Dublin. 

Cooper, James, St. Anne Street, Liverpool. 

Cooper, Paul, Isle of Man. 

Copeland, Dr., Enniskillen. 

Copeland, G. F., Cheltenham. 

Copeland, James, M.D., 1, Bulstrode St. 

Copinger, John, M.D., Cork. 

Corbett, William, 22, Lower Baggot St., 
Dublin. 

Corrie, John, Pres. Birmingham Philos. 
Institut., Woodville,near Birmingham. 

Corrie, J. R., M.D., Birmingham. 

Corrie, Thomas, Bedford St., Liverpool. 

Corrie, V. B., London. 

Corser, Rev. Wm., Stand, near Bury. 

Coryndon, R. W., Plymouth. 

Cosby, Major Wm., M.R.D.5., 1, Belve- 
dere Place, Dublin. 

Costello, Marcus, Dublin. 

Cotes, Thomas, 59, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, 

Cotesworth, Charles, Brunswick Street, 
Liverpool. 

Cottam, G. C., Engineer, Winsley Street, 
London. 

Cottam, S. E., Manchester. 

Coulston, T. L., Clifton Wood. 

Coultherd, Wm., Neweastle-upon-Tyne, 

Cowall, J. W., Gloucester. 

Cowan, Charles, M.D., Bath. 

Cowan, William, LL.D., Lodge Lane, 
Liverpool. 

Cowan, Capt. T., R.N., Edinburgh. 

Cowie, C. G., Liverpool. 

Cowling, John, Temple. 

Cowling, John, Maryland St., Liverpool. 

Cox, Robert, 28, St. Anne St., Liverpool. 

Cox, James, 10, Oxford St., Liverpool. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 23 


Craig, Edward, M.A., Staines. 

Craigh, Hugh, Percy Street, Liverpool. 

Crane, George, Swansea. 

Crawford, T. R., Charles Street, Berkeley 
Square. 

Crawley, Rev. Wm.,Brynywyn Rectory, 
Monmouth. 

Creig, W. L., Red Castle, Castle Douglas. 

Creighton, Captain, London. 

Crewdson, Wilson, Manchester. 

Crichton, Sir Alexander, Kent. 

Cripps, Frederick, 39, Mount Pleasant, 
Liverpool. 

Crisp,T. §., Baptists’ Coll., Stoke’s Croft, 
Bristol. 

Croft, Rev. R., Edmund St., Liverpool. 

Croft, J. R., Straw Street, Liverpool. 

Crompton, C., Barrister, 52, Doughty St. 

Crompton, Edward, Eton House, Liver- 
pool. 

Crompton, Henry, Eton House, Liverpool. 

Crompton, Albert, Eton House, Liverpool. 

Crompton, Woodhouse, Liverpool. 

Crooke, Nicholas, Christ Church, Oxford. 

Croome, William, Cirencester. 

Cropper, John, Everton, Liverpool. 

Cropper, John, Jun., Dingle, Liverpool. 

Cropper, Edward, Dingle, Liverpool. 

Crosfield, Wm., Mason Street, Liverpool. 

Crosfield, John, Temple Court, Liverpool. 

Crosfield, Simon, Bedford St., Liverpool. 

Cross, B. J., Kingsdown, Bristol. 

Cross, William, Clifton. 

Cross, Thomas, Bristol. 

Cross, T. B., Chorley, Lancashire. 

Crosse, J. A., Broomfield, near Taunton. 

Crossfield, Joseph, Warrington. 

Crouch, E. A., Penzance. 

Cruickshanks, Alexander, Boulogne. 

Crum, Walter, Glasgow. 

Crump, John, Woodside, Cheshire. 

Culdwell, J.S., Linley Wood,Staffordshire. 

Cull, Richard, London. 

Cumberland, G., Bristol. 

Cumming, Rev. Professor, F.R.S.,F.G.S., 
Cambridge. 

Cumming, George, M.D., Denbigh. 

Cunningham, James, Clifton. 

Cunningham, James, Jun., Clifton. 

Cunningham, John, Wood St., Liverpool. 

Cunningham, George, Oak Vale, near 
Liverpool. 

Cunningham, William, Castle Pollard. 

Currie, Donald, 20, Regent Street. 

Currie, William, Q.C., 37, Summer Hill, 
Dublin. 

Currie, W. W., Ellerslie, Liverpool. 

Curry, P. F., Knotty Ash, near Liverpool. 

Curtis, B. W., Bristol. 


Curtis, W., Alton, Hants. ; 

Curtis, John, F.L.S., 11, Robert Street, 
Hampstead Road. 

Cuthbert, S. T., Clifton. 


D. 


Dakin, Thomas, London. 

Dale, J. C., Granville’s Wootten, Dorset. 

Dale, T. A., Hanover Street, Liverpool. 

Dale, E. H., Bristol. 

Dale, Henry, North Shields. 

Dale, Rev. P. S., Holland’s Green, War- 
tington. 

Dalgleish, Robert, Wigan. 

Dalton, John, D.C.L. Oxon., F.R.S., &c., 
Manchester. 

Dalton, J. S., Mount Vernon, Liverpool. 

Danger, William, Durdham Down Lodge, 
Bristol. 

Daniel, Edward, Jun., St. 
Somerset. 

Daniel, Thomas, Henbury, near Bristol. 

Daniel, Thomas, Jun., Sneed Park, near 
Bristol. 

Darley, William, 34, Lower Baggot St., 
Dublin. 

Darthez, S. T., Clapham Park. 

Daubeny, J. W., Cote, near Bristol. 

Davey, Gen.W., Tracey Park, near Bath. 

Davey, Richard, Redruth, Cornwall. 

Davies, Thomas, Montpelier, Bristol. 

Davies, Theodore, Nailsea, near Bristol. 

Davies, David, M.D., Bristol. 

Davies, W. W., Coate Bank, Westbury. 

Davies, John, M.D., 31, Lennox Street, 
Dublin. 

Davies, Rev. Robert, M.A., Brownlow 
Street, Liverpool. 

Davies, Rev. Richard, B.A., Brownlow 
Street, Liverpool. i 

Davies, Walter, Liscard, Cheshire. 

Davies, Edward, Wrexham. 

Davies, John, Abergeley, Denbigh. 

Davies, James, Lyceum Place, Liverpool. 

Davis, Francis, Waterford. 

Davis, Joseph, Westbury-upon-Tyne. 

Davy, Rev. Dr., Master of Caius College, 
Cambridge. 

Dawell, John, Bristol. 

Dawell, Stephen, Abbott's Leigh, Hunts. 

Dawson, Charles, Llangollen, 

Dawson, John, Rodney Street, Liverpool. 

Dawson, Robert, Sandwell Cottage, Bir- 
mingham. 

Dawson, Joseph, 20, Stafford Street, 
Liverpool. 

Dawson, Edw., Aldcliffe Hall, Liverpool. 

Day, Alfred, Bristol. 


George’s, 


24 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Day, Joseph H., Bristol. 

Day, John, Peckham. 

Day, J. D., Brazennose College, Oxford. 

Day, J., Llangollen. 

Deane, Sir Thomas, Cork. 

Deane, Alexander, Cork. 

De Beauvoir, Sir John E., Bart., Albe- 
marle Street. 

De Butts, Rev. G., A.M., Crickhowel, 
Glamorganshire. 

Denham, Capt. H. M., R.N., Toxteth 
Park, Liverpool. 

Denny, Henry, Leeds. 

De Ridder, L. E., 5, Victoria Place, near 
Bristol. 

De Soyres, Rev. F., Siddlesham, Sussex. 

Dick, Dr. Paris, Bristol. 

Dicker, J. R., Woodside, Cheshire. 

Dickinson, Jos., M.B., Trinity College, 
Dublin. 

Dickson, Rey.T. B., Whittle, near Preston. 

Dillon, Edward, 39, York Street, Dublin. 

Dillwin, L. W., Spelty Hall, Swansea. 

Dix,John,Jun,,Somerset Terrace, Bristol. 

Dixon, James, Birkenhead, Cheshire. 

Dixon, James, Oxford. 

Dixon, William, Parish Office, Liverpool. 

Dixon, William, Jun., Abercromby 
Square, Liverpool. 

Dixon, J. D., Everton, Liverpool. 

Dobbs, A. A., Birkenhead, Cheshire. 

Dobson, T. O., 5, Myrtle St., Liverpool. 

Dockray, Benjamin, Lancaster. 

Dockray, David, Jun., 24, Cook Street, 
Liverpool. 

Don, David, F.L.S., Professor of Botany, 
King’s College, London. 

Donato, F. K., Bristol. 

Donovan, A. F., 14, Anson St., Liverpool. 

Doran, Thomas, Bristol. 

Doveton, Rev. J. F., Clifton. 

Douglas, H. G., France. 

Douglas, J. J., 4, Garden Court, Temple. 

Douglass, Rey. William, Prebendary of 

’ Durham. 

Dow, Robert, M.D., Waterford. 

Dowell, Rev. Henry, M.A., Axminster. 

Drake, John, Bedminster. 

Dublin, His Grace the Archbishop of. 

Du Buisson, Thomas, Wandsworth. 

Duckworth, Robinson, 2, Canning Street, 
Liverpool. 

Dudgeon, 
Liverpool. 

Dudgeon, John, Edinburgh. 

Duffy, John, 5, Upper Fitzwilliam Street, 
Dublin. 

Duke, Valentine, M.D., Dublin. 

Dumbell, G. W., Isle of Man. 


Robert, Mount Pleasant, 


Dunalley, Lord, Kilbay, Nenagh. 

Dunbar, David, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Duncan, Philip B., M.A., Keeper of Ash- 
molean Mus., Fell. of New Coll.Oxford. 

Duncan, W. H., M.D., 18, Rodney Street, 
Liverpool. 

Duncan, Dr., Glasgow. 

Duncan, G. I., 21, Rodney St., Liverpool. 

Duncan, J. C., Everton Road, Liverpool. 

Duncan, Jas., 13, Percy Street, Liverpool. 

Duncan, J. R., Dumfries. 

Duncan, Robert, Dumfries. 

Dungannon, Lord, M.P., Wickham Park, 
Northampton. 

Dunlevie, C. T., Brunswick St., Liverpool. 

Dunn, William, Hedgfield. 

Dunsford, William, Park Place, Clifton. 

Duppa, T. D., Salop. 

Durbin, F. J., Trinity Coll., Cambridge. 

Durby, Abraham, Colebrook Dale. 


E. 


Earle, William, Woolton Hall, Liverpool. 

Earle, Hardman, Exchange Buildings, 
Liverpool. 

Eaton, Rev. George, Norwich. : 

Eaton, Rey. George, The Pole, near 
Warrington. 

Eaton, Joseph, Bristol. 

Eastwicke, W. H., Heynsham. 

Eckersall, John, Bath. 

Edgar, John Foy, Bristol. 

Edgworth, Francis, Bristol. 

Edington, William, 18, Leinster Street, 
Dublin. 

Edwards, Thomas, Bristol. 

Edwards, G. O,, Redland, near Bristol. 

Edwards, 8. C., Long Ashton, Somerset. 

Edwards, Richard, Roby Hall, Liverpool. 

Edwards, John, M.D., 23, Bold Street, 
Liverpool. 

Edwards, J. P., Falkland St., Liverpool. 

Egerton, Rev. William, Cheshire. 

Egerton, W. G., Oulton Park, Cheshire, 

Egerton, Rev. William, Hodnet, Salop. 

Eginton, Harvey, Worcester. 

Eglington, Sam., 88, Islington, Liverpool. 

Eglington, J. T., 88, Islington, Liverpool. 

Elgin, Edward, York. 

Elliott, William, M.D., Carlisle. ’ 

Ellis, Francis, Bristol. 

Ellis, Capt. G. M., Ballyshannon. 

Ellis, Carteret J. W., 47, Albion Street, 
Hyde Park. 

Ellison, King, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. 

Elton, Ar. H., Bristcl. 

Elton, C. A., Bristol. 

Elverson, James, Bushby, Leicestershire. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 25 


Elwin, Rev.F., Grosvenor Cottage, Clifton. 
Elwin, F. H., London. 

Emery, George, Banwell, Somerset. 
Errington, J. E., Hartford. 

Errington, William, Hartford. 

Estlin, J. B., Bristol. 

Etches, J. C., Price Street, Liverpool. 
Evans, Eyre, 48, Renshaw St., Liverpool. 
Evans, John, London. 

Evans, Richard, Swansea. 

Evans, Rev.Wm., Park Wood, Tavistock. 
Ewart, J. C., Mosely Hall, Liverpool. 
Exall, William, Reading. 

Exley, Thomas, M.A., Bristol. 

Eyes, Edward, Everton, Liverpool. 
Eyes, Edward, Jun., Liverpool. 

Eyton, T. C. Eyton, Wellington, Salop. 
Eyton, John, Holywell. 

Eyton, Edward, Flintshire. 


F, 


Fabian, Lieut., R.N., London. 

Fairbrother, Alexander, M.D., Clifton. 

Falkner, E. D.,F airfield House, Liverpool. 

Fannin, Thomas, Dublin. 

Targus, John, Bristol. 

Farquharson, Lieut.-Col., Bolton. 

Farran, Joseph, 44, York Street, Dublin. 

Farre, F. S., F.L.S., London. 

Faulder, John, Bristol. 

Fearne, Charles, Wakefield. 

Fearon, H. B., 105, Bond Street. 

Fearon, Rev. J., Bootle, Liverpool. 

Fedden, O., Bedminster. 

Felkin, William, Nottingham. 

Fell, J. A., Woodside, Cheshire. 

Fellows, Charles, 30, Russell Square. 

Fenwick, Addison, Newcastle. 

Fenwick, John, Newcastle. 

Ferguson, James, M.D., 62, St. Anne 
Street, Liverpool. 

Ferguson, J., Carlisle. 

Ferguson, Hugh, M.D., M.R.I.A., Sack- 

- ville Street, Dublin. 

Fergusson, Thomas, Birkenhead,Cheshire. 

Fernehough, W. F., 16, Chatham Street, 
Liverpool. 

Ferris, Richard, Clifton. 

Field, Arthur, Liverpool. 

Field, Henry, M.D., Blackrock, Ireland. 

Field, John, Seacombe, Cheshire. 

Field, Joshua, Lambeth. 

Fielden, John, M.P.,odmorden, Lancas. 

Fielden, Joshua, Todmorden, Lancashire. 

Fielden, Rev. Robt., Bebbington, Cheshire. 

Fife, G., M.D., Newcastle. 

Fife, John, Newcastle. 

_ Fife, William, Newcastle. 


Filgate, W. H., Castle Bellingham. - 

Finlay, John, LL.D., 31, North Cumber- 
land Street, Dublin. 

Firke, Robert, Clifton. 

Fisher, Rev. Charles, Badgworth, near 
Cross, Somerset. 

Fisher, Rey. Thomas, 32, Edmund Street, 
Liverpool. 

Fisher, Thomas, Liverpool. 

Fisher, John, Bristol. 

Fisher, W. B., M.B., Downing College, 
Cambridge. 

Fitzherbert, E. H., Temple. 

Fitzhugh, W.H.,Goree Piazzas, Liverpool. 

Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D., 12, Park 
Street, Dublin. 

Fleming, John, Bootle, Liverpool. 

Fletcher, John, Toxteth Park, Liverpool. 

Fletcher, J. D., Toxteth Park, Liverpool. 

Fletcher,R.A.,Park Hill Road, Liverpool. 

Fletcher, Thomas, Gateacre, Liverpool. 

Fletcher, Robert, Exchange, Bristol. 

Fletcher, Angus, Athenzum. 

Flood, P. T., M.R.D.S., Lower Mount 
Street, Dublin. 

Folingsby, T. G., Belfast. 

Foote, Simon, Essex Bridge, Dublin. 

Forbes, John, LL.D., Aberdeen. 

Forbes, Rev. John, Glasgow. 

Ford, Major H., Conway. 

Ford, William, Liverpool. 

Ford, H. R., Hareholme, near Rochdale. 

Forrest, Richard, Heathfield Terrace, 
Turnham Green. 

Forrester, George, Vauxhall Foundry, 
Liverpool. : 

Forshaw, Richard, Colquitt St., Liverpool. 

Forster, Francis, 6, Rodney St., Liverpool. 

Forster, Edward, Woodford, Essex. 

Forster, William, Jun., Liverpool. 

Forster, J. N., Biggleswade, Beds. 

Forsythe, Thomas, Edge Hill, Liverpool. 

Forsythe, Thomas, 31, St. Anne Street, 
Liverpool. 

Foster, Geo., Pendle Hill, near Clitheroe. 

Foster, Rev. F. D., Doddington. 

Foster, William, 13, Merrion Square East, 
Dublin. 

Fowler, Rev. John, Bristol. 

Fowler, Richard, M.D., F.R.S., Salisbury. 

Fowler, John, Bristol. 

Fox, G. F., Brislington, near Bristol. 

Fox, H. H., Bristol. 

Fox, G. C., Grove Hill, Falmouth. 

Fox, Edwin, Brislington. 

Fox, F. K., Brislington. 

Fox, C. P. Brislington. 

Fox, Robert Were, Falmouth. 

Fox, R. B., Falmouth. 


26 


Fox, Alfred, Falmouth. 

Fox, Charles, Perran Arworthal, Truro. 

Fox, Rev. S. W., 96, Stephen’s Green, 
Dublin. 

Francis, G. G., Royal 
Liverpool. 

Francis, Francis, London. 

Francis, William, Whitehall, near Truro. 

Francis, John, Swansea. 

Franklin, B.W., 24,Canning St., Liverpool. 

Franklyn, G. W., Clifton. 

Franklyn, John, Clifton. 

Franklyn, J. N., Clifton. 

Fraser, G. G., Bold Place, Liverpool. 

Fraser, William, Demerara. 

Fraser, William, Edinburgh. 

Freeman, J. C., Clifton. 

French, Arthur, 9, Merrion Square, 
Dublin. . 

French, Charles, Club House, Kildare 
Street, Dublin. 


Jnstitution, 


Frend, William, M.A., F.R.S., 31, Upper” 


Bedford Place, Russell Square. 

Frere, Jt. E., 13th Light Infantry, Bitton. 

Freser, J. W., Manchester. i 

Fripp, William, Bristol. 

Fripp, E. B., Westbury, near Bristol. 

Fripp, James, Bristol. 

Frith, J. G., London. 

Frodsham, George, 4, Change Alley. 

Fry, Joseph, Bristol. 

Fry, William, India Buildings, Liverpool. 

Fry, Thomas, Exchange Alley North, 
Liverpool. 

Fryer, J. H., Whitley House. 

Fryer, Thomas, Bristol. 

Fryer, William, London Road, Liverpool. 

Fuge, John, Plymouth. 

Furnival, Rey. James, St. Helen’s, near 
Liverpool. 


G. 


Gage, Rev. Robt., N.T.L., Vady, Ireland. 

Gage, M. A., 17, Slater Street, Liverpool. 

Gale, R. L., 42, Seymour St., Liverpool. 

Gamble, J. C.,St. Helen’s, near Liverpool. 

Gamboa, A., Bristol. 

Gardon, George, Truman St., Liverpool. 

Garrard, T., Bristol. 

Garston, E. H., 18, Catherine Street, 
Liverpool. 

Garston, Henry, 18, Catherine Street, 
Liverpool. 

Gaskell, Jas., Smithdown Lane, Liverpool. 

Gawne, Robert, Bristol. 

Gennest, Charles, Isle of Man. 

Geoghegan, Thomas, M.D., 52, York 
Street, Dublin. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


George, Christopher, Abbott's Leigh, 
Bristol. 

George, C. F., Abbott's Leigh. 

Gettings, William, London. 

Gibbons, Wm., M.D., Richmond, Surrey. 

Gibbons, Benj., Corbyne Hall, Staffords. 

Gibbs, George, Belmont, Somersetshire. 

Gibbs, G. H., 11, Bedford Square. 

Gibbs, H. H., 11, Bedford Square. 

Gibbs, James, Bristol. 

Gibson, John, Newcastle. 

Gibson, Solomon, 22, Gildart’s Street, 
Liverpool. 

Gibson, Rev.N.W., Ardwick, Manchester. 

Gibson, Rev. Geo., Park Place, Liverpool. 

Gilbert, John Davies, Eastbourne. 

Gilbert, Richard, Tranmere, Cheshire. 

Gilbert, Rev. Joseph, Nottingham. 

Giles, Rev. Hen.,3, Mill Street, Liverpool. 

Gilfillan, Jas., Rodney Street, Liverpool. 

Gillon, Andrew,ClarenceStreet, Liverpool. 

Gillow, Rev. Robert, 50, Warren Street, 


Liverpool. 

Gilly, Dr., College, Durham. 

Gladstone, David, Canning Street, 
Liverpool. 


Gladstone, William, Liverpool. 

Gladstone, T.S.,ChathamS treet, Liverpool. 

Gladstone, Murray, Great George Street, 
Westminster. 

Glasco, John, Springfield, Liverpool. 

Glasebrook, T. K., Everton, Liverpool. 

Godwin, J. H., Highbury College. 

Goldney, A., West Lydford. 

Goldney, Samuel, Hotwells, Bristol. 

Goldsmid, M.A.,PortmanSquare, London. 

Goldsmid, I. L., St. John's Lodge, 
Regent's Park. 

Goodenough, Very Rev. Edward, D.D., 
Dean of Wells. 

Goodall, Ebenezer, 19, Molesworth Street, 
Dublin. 

Goodeve, J. W., Clifton. 

Goodfellow, R., Demerara. 

Goodlett, George, Leith. 

Goodwin, Rev. F. G., A.M., Wigwell, 
Derbyshire. 

Goodwin, Capt., 
Derbyshire. 

Goore, W. H., Aigburth, Liverpool. 

Gordon, Alexander, 22, Fludyer Street, 
London. 

Gordon, Harry, Great George Street, 
Liverpool. 

Gordon, A. F., Edinburgh. 

Gordon, James, Jun., Kincardine. 

Gore, Co]. George, ‘Tours, France. 

Gore, R. T., Bath. ; 

Gotch, F. W., Kettering. 


Wigwell Grange, 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 27 


Gouthwaite, John, 102, Richmond Row, 
Liverpool. 

Graham, Robert, Edinburgh. 

Grainger, Richard, Newcastle. 

Granger, F. R., Bristol. 

Grant, Geo., Rodney Street, Liverpool. 

Grant, R. E., M.D., Professor of Zoology 
in University College, London. ~ 

Grantham, Richard, Limerick. 

Grantham, John, Everton, .Liverpool. 

Grantham, Richard, F.G.S., Streatley, 
Berkshire. 

Grapel, Wm., Church Street, Liverpool. 

Gravatt, William, 7, De la Haye Street, 
Westminster. 

Graves, R. I., M.D., M.R.I.A., 9, Har- 
court Street, Dublin. 

Graves, J. T., M.A., 20, Southampton 
Buildings, Chancery Lane. 

Graves, Rev. R. H., D.D., Glebe, 
Mitchelstown. 

Gray, James, Manchester. 

Gray, J. E., 36, Great George Street, 
Westminster. 

Green, F. W., Dean’s Marsh, Bristol. 

Green, Henry, Turbot Town, Ireland. 

Green, George, M.D., 14, Harcourt 
Street, Dublin. 

Green, Rev. H., Knutsford, Cheshire. 

Green, J. A., LL.B., 107, Lower Gar- 
diner Street, Dublin. 

Green, George, Aigburth, Liverpool. 

Green, Thomas, Bristol. 

Greenall, Edward, Gambier Terrace, 
Liverpool. 

Greene, John, M.R.D.S., 4, Lower Or- 
mond Quay, Dublin. 

Greene, R.W., 49, Stephen’s Green East, 
Dublin. 

Greenhaw, T. M., Newcastle. 

Greenless, Matthew, Glasgow. 

Greenough, G. B., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., 
Regent’s Park. 

Greenslade, Amos, Bristol. 

Greenwell, William, North Shields. 

-Greeves, Augustus F. A., Nottingham. 

Greg, R. H., Manchester. 

Greg, W. R., Manchester. 

Greg, Samuel, Manchester. 

Gregg, R. H., Norcliffe, Cheshire. 

Greig, Charles, Bristol. 

Gretton, Rev. R. H., Rector of Nantwich. 

Grier, J. R., Clifton. 

Griffin, J. J., Chemist, Glasgow. 

Griffin, Edw., Beckwith Street, Liverpool. 

Griffin, Nathaniel, Portsmouth. 

Griffin, S. J., Cheltenham. 

Griffin, Thomas, Cheltenham. 

Griffith, W. V., 13, Clare Street, Dublin. 


Griffiths, S. F., Cheltenham. 

Griffiths, Samuel, Kingswood School. 

Griffiths, R. S., Carrglwyd, Anglesea. 

Griffiths, Thomas, M.D., Westbury. 

Grimaldi, Joseph, 3, Great Oxford Street, 
Liverpool. 

Grinfield, Rev. Thomas, Clifton. 

Grosvenor, Gen., Hare Park, Cambridge- 
shire. 

Groves, Chas., Canning Street, Liverpool. 

Grubble. Rev. J. H., 8, Bedford Place, 
Kensington. 

Grundy, Joshua, Oates, near Leicester. 

Guillebaud, Rev. Peter, Clifton. 

Guillebaud, Henry, Clifton. 

Guillemard, John, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., 
27, Gower Street. 

Guinness, Arthur, Beaumont, Dublin. 

Guinness, Rev. Wm., Beaumont, Dublin. 

Guppy, T. R., Bristol. 

Guppy, Samuel, London. 

Gutch, J. W. G., Swansea. 

Gutch, J. M., Bristol. 

Guyton, Jos., Irwell Street, Liverpool. 


H. 


Hackett, Dr. William, Newry. 

Hadow, G. I., Clifton. 

Hadow, George, Jun., BalliolColl., Oxford. 

Haigh, Thomas, Liverpool. 

Hailey, Edward, Bristol. 

Haire, Robert, Q.C., 19, Summer Hill, 
Dublin. 

Haire, James, 19, Summer Hill, Dublin. © 

Hall, John, 12, Hope Street, Liverpool. 

Hall, John, 35, Hope Street, Liverpool.” 

Hall, John Wesley, Ashley Down, near 
Bristol. 

Hall, Elias, Derbyshire. 

Hall, George Webb, Sneed Park, near 
Bristol. 

Hall, J.R., Stockbridge Terrace, London. 

Hall, J. T., Mountjoy Square, Dublin. 

Hall, B., M.P., 36, Hertford Street, May 
Fair. 

Hall, James, St. James's Barton, Bristol. 

Hall, R. B., Alderley, Gloucestershire. 

Halliday, J. C., Seacombe, Cheshire. 

Halpin, George, Jun., 10, Middle Mount- 
joy Street, Dublin. 

Halse, Edward, Clifton. 

Halsall, Edward, Bristol. 

Halton, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Islington, 
Liverpool. 

Ham, Thomas, Ballina. 

Ham, John, Bristol. 

Hamer, John, Preston. 

Hamilton,C. W., 37, Dominick St., Dublin. 


28 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Hamilton, James, Commercial Bank of 
England, Liverpool. 

Hamilton, G. A., Hampton Hall, Bal- 
briggan. 

Hamilton, C. J., Liverpool. 

Hamilton, Rev. H. P., M.A., F.R.S. 
L. & E., F.G.S., Wath, Ripon. 

Hamilton, Gilbert, Soho, Birmingham. 

Hamilton, Wm. Tighe, Co. Meath. 

Hamilton, Alexander, Perth. 

Hamilton, Arthur, LL.D., 
Cumberland Street, Dublin. 

Hamilton, Dacre, New Leach, Monaghan. 

Hancock, John, M.D., Commercial Road. 

Handley, Hen., Culverthorpe, Lincoln- 
shire. 

Hannay, Alex., M.D., Great George 
Street, Liverpool. 

Hanson, Thomas, Woodside, Cheshire. 

Hanson, Thomas, Jun., Smithwick, 
Birmingham. 

Haram, Benj.,11,Chapel Street, Liverpool. 

Harbard, H. G., South Dispensary, 
Liverpool. 

Harden, Rev. Edward, Norwood. 

Harden, J. W., Hope Street, Liverpool. 

Hardman, Edward, 4, Upper Mount 
Street, Dublin. 

Hardwick, James, Bristol. 

Hardwicke, William, Surgeon, London. 

Hare, John, Springfield. 

Hare, C. B., Bristol. 

Hare, Charles, Bristol. 

Hare, W. C.,, Bristol. 

Harford, J. S., Bristol. 

Harford, Somers, Tirhowy, Abergavenny. 

Harford, W. H., Bailey Wood, Somerset. 

Hargreave, James, Leeds. 

Hargreaves, John, Settle, Yorkshire. 

Hargreaves, Wm., Oakhill, Blackburn. 

Harland, W. C., M.P., 4, Albemarle St. 

Harley, Edward, Bristol. 

Harley, Edward, Jun., Bristol. 

Harling, William, Chester. 

Harness, T. B., Tavistock. 

Harnett, John, 42, Mt. Pleasant, Liverpool. 

Harnett, Michael, 42, Mount Pleasant, 
Liverpool. 

Harper, Abiezer, Kingsdown, near Bristol. 

Harris, Thos., Crete Hill, near Bristol. 

Harris, William, Bristol. 

Harris, Edward, Meath. 

Harris, Joseph, Chapel Ville, Liverpool. 

Harris, G. F., Harrow on the Hill. 

Harris, Wm. Snow, F.R.S., Plymouth. 

Harrison, John, Bristol. 

Harrison, John, Nottingham. 

Harrison, T. E., Whitburn. 

Harrison, Wm., Fulwell Grange, Durham, 


12, South 


Hart, A.S., F.T.C.D., Trin. Coll., Dublin. 

Harte, W. L., Newcastle. 

Hartop, Henry, Hoyland Hall, Barnsley. 

Harvey, Thomas, Blackburn ‘Terrace, 
Liverpool. 

Harvey, James, Jun., Liverpool. 

Harvey, R. E., Islington, Liverpool. 

Harvey, Alexander, Glasgow. 

Harvey, John, Ripon. 

Harwood, William, Jun., Bristol. 

Harwood, Edw., Barton Hill, near Bristol. 

Harwood, Reynold, Edinburgh. 

Hassal, Rev. J., ‘'oxteth Park, Liverpool. 

Hasseli, Charles, Bristol. 

Hassell, William, Bristol. 

Hastings, William, Huddersfield. 

Hawkes, William, Birmingham. 

Hawkshaw, John, Manchester. 

Hawtrey, Rev. M. 1. G., M.A., Liverpool. 

Hay, J. P., Norwich. _ 

Hayes, Rey. H., Bath. 

Hayes, John, Edinburgh. 

Haynes, Rev. Thomas, Bristol. 

Hayward, J. C., Quedgelley House, 
Gloucestershire. 

Headham,J.E.,M.D.,Mayorof Newcastle. 

Healey, Elkanah, Liverpool. 

Healey, S. R., Edge Hill, Liverpool. 

Heath, Edward, King Street, Liverpool. 

Heath, Rev. Thomas, Chester. 

Heaton, Charles, Endon, Staffordshire. 

Heaven, C. G., Bristol. 

Hebson, Douglas, Liverpool. 

Hedley, Dr., Mayor of Morpeth. 

Hegan, Jos., Rodney Street, Liverpool. 

Heigham, Capt., 4th Dragoon Guards. 

Heiniken, Rev. N. S., Sidmouth. 

Hele, Matthew, London. 

Hellicar, John, Bristol. 

Hellicar, Joseph, Hotwells, Bristol. 

Hellicar, Valentine, Bristol. 

Henderson, Samuel, 9, Exchange Build- 
ings, Liverpool. 

Henderson, William, Bristol. 

Hendlam, T. E., M.D., Newcastle. 

Hennell, C. C., London. 

Hensman, Rev. John, Clifton Grove. 

Herapath, William, Mansion House, Old 
Park, Bristol. 

Herapath, W. B., Old Park, Bristol. 

Herapath, John, Kensington. 

Herbert, Thomas, Nottingham. 

Hess, 8. Y., Lord Street, Liverpool. 

Hetherington, George, M.D., 9, Castle 
Street, Dublin. 

Hetling, William, Clifton. 

Hetling, Geo., 19, College Green, Bristol. 

Hewitson, W. C., Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Hewitson, Henry, Seaton Burn. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 29 


Hewitt, Wm., Heath Cottage, Westerleigh. 

Hewitt, T. H., Clifton Hill. 

Heywood, Francis, Edge Lane Hall, 
Liverpool. 

Heywood, J. P., Brunswick St., Liverpool. 

Hibblewhite, Thos., Slater St., Liverpool. 

Higgins, Robert, Wavertree, Liverpool. 

Higgins, Vincent, Upper Parliament 
Street, Liverpool. 

Higgins, John, Salford. 

Higginson, Alfred, South Dispensary, 
Liverpool. 

Hill, Charles, Hotwells, Bristol. 

Hill, Charles, Distillery, Bristol. 

Hill, Jeremiah, Bristol. 

Hillhouse, Martin, Clifton. 

Hillhouse, George, Combe, Gloucestersh. 

Hilton, Major, Allerton Hall. 

Hilton, James, Edge Hill, Liverpool. 

Hilton, Sir John, Conway. 

Hincks, Rev. T. D., LL.D., Belfast. 

Hincks, Thomas, York. 

Hincks, Thomas, Elm House, 
Liverpool. 

Hind, J. H., Salthouse Dock, Liverpool. 

Hinde, J. H., M.P., Neweastle, 

Hinton, G. P., Kingsdown, near Bristol. 

Hitching, Rev. W. J., London. 

Hobhouse, Rt. Hon. Henry, Hadspen 
House, Somerset. 

Hobhouse, B. T., Temple. 

Hodge, Rowland, Dep. Master of Trinity 
House, Newcastle. 

Hodges, Rev. Dr. Edward, Bristol. 

Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D., 20, Finsbury 
Cireus. 

Hodgkinson, Francis, LL.D., V.P. Trin. 
Coll., Dublin. 

Hodgson, Rey. J. S., Rufford. 

Hodgson, Rev. J., Rector of Hortburne. 

Hodgson, Richard, M.P. 

Hodgson, David, Everton, Liverpool. 

Hodgson, I. , Thurnley, Leicestershire. 

Hodson, William, Middleton, Co. West- 

. Meath. 

Hodson, H., Cambridge. 

Hogan, Rev. James, Tintern Abbey. 

Hogan, William, 15, Fitzwilliam Street, 
Dublin. 

Holgate, J., Chatham Place, Liverpool. 

Hoiland, C., Goree Piazzas, Liverpool. 

Holland, P. H., Manchester. 

Holland, Peter, Knutsford, Cheshire, 

Holland, G. C., M.D., Sheffield. 

Holland, Edward, Worcestershire. 

Holme, A. H., Seel Street, Liverpool. 

Holmes, H., Everton Brow, Liverpool. 

Holmes, John, Chatham St., Liverpool, 

Holmes, Robert, Dublin. 


near 


| Holt, George, West Derby, Liverpool. 


Homfray, C. G., Oriel College, Oxford. 

Hooker, Sir William, LL.D., Prof. Bot., 
Glasgow. 

Hope, Rev. Thomas, Clifton. 

Hope, Rev. F. W., M.A., 39, Upper Sey- 
mour Street. 

Hope, Samuel, Liverpool. 

Hopkinson, W. L., M.D., Stamford. 

Hore, Edwin, 3, Salisbury St., Liverpool. 

Hornblower, Jethro, Bristol. 

Hornby, Joseph, Everton, Liverpool. 

Hornby, Rev. T., Canning St., Liverpool. 

Horsfall, C. H., Toxteth Park, Liverpool. 

Horsfall, T, B., Everton, Liverpool. 

Horsfall, J. G., Bradford. 

Houghton, John, Rodney St., Liverpool. 

Houston, Robert, Greenock. 

Howell, John, Park Row, Clifton. 

Howick, Viscount, M.P., Whitehall Place. 

Hudson, Rev. E., Glenville, Co. Cork 

Hughes, Rev. Morris, St. Anne’s, near 
Bangor. 

Hughes, Henry, King’s Town, Dublin. 

Hughes, D.S., Kingstown, Dublin. 

Hughes, J. G., Middle Temple. 

Hughes, H. N., 2, India Buildings, Li- 
verpool. 

Hull, Rev. A. H., Donaghadee. . 

Hull, Col. Wm., M.R.A.S., 31, Norfolk 
Street, London. 

Hull, W. D., Ross Trevor, Ireland. 

Humble, Henry, University, Durham. 

Humpage, Edward, Bristol. 

Humphreys, J. C., Birkenhead, Cheshire. 

Humphries, D. J., Cheltenham. 

Hunt, Harry, Birmingham. 

Hunt, T., Chemist, Kingstown, Dublin. 

Hunter, Rev. Jos., F.S.A., 30, Torrington 
Square. 

Hunter, Robert, 46, Burton Crescent. 

Hurle, John, Bristol. 

Hurle, W. I., Newcastle. 

Hurst, M. C., Nottingham. 

Hut, K. C., Winksworth, Derbyshire. 

Husenbeth, F. C., Bristol. 

Hutching, Rev. A., London. 

Hutchings, E., Keynsham, near Bristol. 

Hutchinson, Frederick, 7th Regiment 
Fusileers. 

Hutchinson, James, Paris. 

Hutchinson, Captain C., North Hall, 
Wigan. 

Hutton, Rev. Jos., M.A., Fairfield, Glas- 
nevin. 

Huxtable, Edgar, Bristol. 

paste W. H., Painswick, Gloucester- 
shire. 


30 
. I, 
lliff, Rev. T., Royal Institution, Liver- 
pool. 


Ingham, Robert, Westoe, South Shields. 

Ingle, Rev. Charles, York. 

Inglis, James, M.D., Ripon. 

Irlam, Thomas, Old Hall St., Liverpool. 

Irvine, Rev. A., St. Margaret’s, Leicester. 

Irving, John, Jun., Bristol. 

Irving, James, Fleet Street, Liverpool. 

Irving, George, Bristol. 

Isaacson, Joseph, Curator, Zoological 
Gardens, Liverpool. 

Ivatt, James, Bristol. 


J. 


Jackson, J., Hatton Garden, Liverpool. 

Jackson, C., Eastland House, Notts. 

Jackson, Rev. W., Leigh, near Man- 
chester. 

Jackson, Samuel, Clifton. 

Jackson, Rev. I. E., Farleigh Castle, near 
Bath. 

Jackson, C, R., Barton Lodge, Liverpool. 

Jacobs, Joseph, Bristol. 

Jacques, W. S., Clifton. 

James, E., Hatton Garden, Liverpool. 

James, H. G., Bristol. 

James, Rev. Thomas, Oxford. 

James, Lieut., R. E., Ordnance Survey 
Office, Dublin. 

James, William, Bristol. 

James, Evan, Swansea. 

Jarman, Francis, Bristol. 

Jee, Matthew, Edge-Hill, Liverpool. 

Jeffcott, I. Arthur, Isle of Man, 

Jeffrey, Joseph, Abbey Fore Gate, 
Shrewsbury. 

Jeffrey, Rev. James, Greenock. 

Jeffreys, Thomas, M.D., 19, George Sq., 
Liverpool. 

Jeffreys, J. G., Swansea. 

Jelly, Rev. Henry, Bath. 

Jenkins, William, Bristol. 

Jenkinson, Captain, Bristol. 

Jenkyn, Rey. John, Yeovil. 

Jerdan, William, M.R.S.L., Grove House, 
Brompton. 

Jerrard, Joseph, Kingsdown, Bristol. 

Jerrard, George, Bristol. 

Jerrard, J., Clifton. 

Jerrard, F, W. H., Bristol, 

Jerrard, B. G., Bristol. 

Jevons, T., Park Hill Road, Liverpool. 

Jevons, William, Jun., Park Hill Road, 
Liverpool. 

Jevons, William, Alfred St., Liverpool. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Johnson, Captain E. J., 14, Cambridge 
Terrace, Hyde Park. 

Johnson, R., Chapel Walk, Liverpool. 

Johnson, David, M.D., Edinburgh. 

Johnson, Charles, M.D., 18, Molesworth 
Street, Dublin. 

Johnson, Thomas, Chester. 

Johnson, R., Soho Street, Liverpool. 

Johnson, Richard, Jun., Park Hill Road, 
Liverpool. 

Johnson, James, Great Mersey Street, 
Liverpool. 

Johnson, John, Kirkdale, Liverpool. 

Johnson, J., Hatton Garden, Liverpool. 

Johnson, George, Chester. 

Johnson, James, M.D., Suffolk Street, 
London. 

Johnson, Edward, Chester. 

Johnson, William, M.A., Cambridge. 

Johnson, Rev. B. 

Jones, Rev. Francis, Middleton. 

Jones, Edward, Kingsdown, Bristol. 

Jones, R. P., Charfield, Glostershire. 

Jones, George, Bristol. 

Jones, W. C. Bristol. 

Jones, A., Bristol. 

Jones, Thomas, Bristol. 

Jones, Edward, Nine Tree Hili, Bristol. 

Jones, Edward, M.D., Waterford. 

Jones, Edward, Waterford. 

Jones, I. R., Brazennose College, Oxford. 

Jones, B. H., India Board, London. 

Jones, C. H., Cambridge. 

Jones, Rev. D., Bedford St., Liverpool. 

Jones, B. H., Lark Hill, Liverpool. 

Jones, E., Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. 

Jones, E., Walton Breck, Liverpool. 

Jones, Wm., Walton Breck, Liverpool. 

Jones, W. M., 10, Alfred St., Liverpool. 

Jones, John, Everton, Liverpool 

Jones, R., Everton Crescent, Liverpool. 

Jones, J. O., Castle Street, Liverpool. 

Jones, Hugh, Bank, Brunswick Street, 
Liverpool. 

Jones, H. H., Mary Anne St., Liverpool. 

Jones, E., Brecon. 

Jones, R. Wynne, Beaumaris. 

Jones, Rey. Robert, D.D., Bedfont. 

Jones, Professor F. R., King’s College, 
London. 

Jordan, H. B. Bristol. 

Jordan, Joseph, Manchester. 

Joy, Frederick, Belfast. 


K. 
Kay, I. P., Norwich. 


Kay, I. L., Park Road, Liverpool. 
Kay, Wiliam, Park Road, Liverpool. 


~~ 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 31 


Kearle, Thomas, Harpingdon, Herts. 

Kearsley, S., 16, Percy Street, Liverpool. 

Keet, Edwin, Kensington. 

Kelly, T. L., Board of Education, Marl- 
borough Street, Dublin. 

Kelly, J. C. Athlone. 

Kelsa, J. B., Engineer, Glasgow. 

Kemmies, H. K., 12, Merrion Square, 
Dublin. 

Kempe, F., Bispham Lodge, Lancashire. 

Kennedy, G. A.,M.D.; 49, Summer Hill, 
Dublin. 

Kennedy, P. G., M.D., Edinburgh. 

Kenny, J. W., Dublin. 

Kenrick, Samuel, West Bromwich, Bir- 
mingham. 

Kent, William, Bath. 

Kershaw, Thomas, Ormskirk, Liverpool. 

Killaloe, The Lord Bishop of, Dublin. 

King, Richard, London. 

King, The Right Hon. Lord, 10, St. 
James’s Square. 

King, John, Clifton. 

King, J. W., 74, Dame Street, Dublin. 

King, R. P., Bristol. 

King, Alfred, Norton Street, Liverpool. 

King, J., 5, Roscommon St., Liverpool. 

King, Robert, Liverpool. 

Kingdon, J. H., Barrister, Exeter. 

Kingsburg, Thomas, Bath. 

Kingsley, Jeffries, Nenagh. 

Kingsley, R. Tipperary. 

Kington, Thomas, Clifton. 

Kirkpatrick, J. S., Dale Street, Liverpool. 

Kirr, M., 79, Duke Street, Liverpool. 

Knapp, A. J., Bristol. 

Knifton, T. T., Uphill Lodge, Somerset. 

Knight, A. I., M.D., Sheffield. (Life.) 

Knight, Col., Ireland. 

Knight, J. P.,4, Suffolk Place, Haymarket. 

Knight, Patrick, Stewart’s Town, Armagh. 

Knight, William, Chelmsford. 

Knight, William, M.A., Bristol. 

Knight, William, Jun., Bristol. 

Knipe, J. A., Worcester. 

Knott, Samuel, M.D., Newcastle. 

Knowles, Andrew, Bolton. 

Knox, Rev. R., Killaloe, Co. Limerick. 

Knox, C. G., 22, Lincoln’s Inn Fields. 

Konig, Arnold, Manchester. 

Kyan, J. H., Cheltenham. 

Kynnersley, T. C. S., Uttoxeter. 

Kyrke, James, Glascoed, near Wrexham. 


L. 


Lacey, Rev. Charles, Tring, Herts. 
Lacon, Samuel, Falkner St,, Liverpool. 


Lainé, Le Chevalier, French Consul, 60, 
Oxford Street, Liverpool. 

Lake, Frederick, Taunton. 

Lamb, Joshua, Newcastle. 

Lambert, Rev. R. W., Churchill, Som- 
erset. 

Lampert, C. L. P., Liverpool. 

Lampert, William, Liverpool. 

Lane, A. C., Clifton. 

Lane, Richard, Manchester. 

Lang, James, London. 

Lang, W., Hospital, Guinea St., Bristol. 

Lang, Thomas, Ashfield Lodge, near 
Bristol. 

Lang, Samuel, Bristol. 

Lang, O., Royal Dock Yard, Woolwich. 

Langley, F. H., Everton, Liverpool. 

Langton, Col. William Gore, Newton 
Park, Somerset. 

Langton, Henry Gore, Clifton. 

Langton, H. C., 62, Dale St., Liverpool. 

Langton, J. B., Liverpool. 

Langton, Joseph, Great George Square, 
Liverpool. 

Lankester, Edwin, Doncaster. 

Lashbury, F. P., 21, Wellington Place, 
Bristol. 

Lassell, William, Bold Street, Liverpool. 

Latham, John, Wavertree, Liverpool. 

Laton, Henry, Bristol. 

Laughton, J. B., B.A., Edge Hill, Liver- 


pool. 

Laurence, Rey. C.W., Bold Place, Liver- 
pool. 

Laurence, Charles, Wavertree Hall, 
Liverpool. 


Laurence, G. H., Bedford St., Liverpool. 

Laurence, George, London. 

Laurie, Sir Peter, 7, Park Sq., London. 

Laurie, Peter, Temple. 

Law, George, 5,Montague Place, Bedford 
Square. 

Lawrence, John, Leicester. 

Lawson, Henry, London. 

Lawson, Wiiliam, Everton, Liverpool. 

Lax, Joseph, Clifton. 

Lax, Robert, Bristol. 

Lax, William, Ormskirk, near Liverpool. 

Leach, John, B.A., Windsor, near 
Liverpool. 

Leadbetter, John, Gloucester. 

Lean, Joel, Bristol. 

Lean, Thomas, Marazion, Cornwall. 

Lean, James, Clifton Hill. 

Lear, John, Jun., Liverpool. 

Leathom, Thos., Hanover Street, Liver- 
pool. 

Lee, Rev. S., Banwell, near Cross, Somer- 
setshire, 


32 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Lee, T. G., Birmingham. 

Lee, Nathaniel, Ilfracombe. 

Lees, T., 23, Berkeley Street, Liverpool. 

Lees, S. D., M.D., Ashton-under-Lyne. 

Lees, Henry, Ashton-under-Lyne. 

Leferne, Jules, Abercromby Terrace, Li- 
verpool. 

_ Leicester, Rey. Robert, Much Woolton, 
Liverpool. 

Leifchild, John, Bushy Park, Dublin. 

Leigh, J. G., Eton College. 

Leigh, J. H., Warrington. 

Leigh, T. G., Birmingham. , 

Leigh, Rey. T. G., Abercromby Square, 
Liverpool. 

Lemon, J. J., Bristol. 

Lemon, Frederick, Infirmary, Bristol. 

Le Normand, Gustave, Abercromby Ter- 
race, Liverpool. 

Leonard, Rev. Thomas, Dublin. 

Lethbridge, A.G.,Sandhill Park, Taunton. 

Leveson, Lord, M.P. 

Lewin, J.,22, Queen Anne St., Liverpool. 

Lewis, Rey. J., Ashton Vicarage. 

Lewis, Rey. T. T.,Aymestry, Leominster. 

Liddell, Hon. H., Percy’s Cross, Fulham. 

Liddell, Hon. Thos., Ravensworth Castle. 

Liddiard, Rey. W., Dunshaghlin, Co., 
Meath. 

Liddle, Sir Charles, Egremont, Cheshire. 

Lightbody, John, Birchfield, Liverpool. 

Lightbody, Robert, Birchfield. 

Lingard, Rev. John, D.D., Hornby, 
Lancashire. 

Lister, E., Jun., Everton, Liverpool. 

Little, John, Edinburgh. 

Littledale, E., 99, Bold Street, Liverpool. 

Litton Edward, Q. C., 37, North Great 
George Street, Dublin. 

Livett, James, Ashley Place, Bristol. 

Livingstone, Terence, Bigburg, Devon. 

Llewellyn, G., Baglan Hall, Glamorgan. 

Llewellyn, D..J., Swansea. 

Llewellyn, John, Clifton. 

Llewellyn, Peter, Kingsdown, Bristol. 

Llewellyn, Richard, Westbury. 

Lloyd, B. C., 8, Leinster Street, Dublin. 

Lloyd, 'l’., 79, Falkner Street, Liverpool. 

Lloyd, George, M.D., Leamington. 

Lloyd, Samuel, London. 

Lloyd, Thomas, M.D., Ludlow. 

Loch, George, Southill road, Liverpool. 

Lockhart, William, Everton, Liverpool. 

Logan, H. F. C., 36, Hardwick Street, 
Dublin. 

Logan, C, Blackfield House, Liverpool. 

Logan, Simon, West St., Walworth. 

Lomas, John, Birmingham, 

Lomax, Robert, Harwood, 


Lomi, Mark, Sion House, Clifton. 

Long, James, Infirmary, Brownlow Hill, 
Liverpool. 

Long, William, Hartshall, Saxmundham. 

Lonsdale, William, F.G.S., Somerset 
House. 

Lonsdale, James, Berner’s Street. 

Looney, Francis, Manchester. 

Lord, Lieut. William, R.N., 79, Duke 
Street, Liverpool. 

Losh, James, Newcastle. . 

Low, J. M., St. John’s Coll., Cambridge. 

Lowe, Robert, E.1.C. Service, London. 

Lubé, D. G., 24, Kensington Crescent. 

Lucas, William, The Mills, Sheffield. 

Lucena, J, L., Garden Court, Temple. 
(Life.) 

Ludlow, J. T., Bristol. 

Ludlow, Serjeant, Down House, Bristol. 

Lunell, George, Bristol. 

Lunell, W. P. Bristol. 

Lunell, J. G., Ashley, near Bristol. 

Lunn, William, Montreal, Edinburgh. 

Luscombe, Thomas, Comm, Gen., Kil- 
lerton House, Dublin. 

Lyle, Acheson, 17, Gardiner’s Place, 
Dublin. 

Lynch, George, Clifton. 

Lynch, Gerard, 18, James St., Liverpool. 

Lynch, John, 18, James Street, Liverpool. 

Lyne,Cornelius, 15, Hume Street, Dublin. 


M. 


Macalester, Col., Axminster. 

Macalester, Rev. J., St. Domingo House, 
Liverpool. 

MacAlister, Rev. Jos., Newcastle. 

Macauiey, James, Middle Temple. 

Machin, George. 

Macdonald, George, St. James’s Barton, 
Bristol. 

Macdougall, A. H., F.R.A.S., 46, Parlia- 
ment Street. 

Macintire, Dr., 14, Slater St., Liverpool. 

Macintire, L. H., 32, King Street, 
Liverpool. 

Mackay, R. W., Lincoln’s Inn. 

Mackay, J. T., M.R.I.A., Cottage Ter- 
race, Dublin. 

Mackenzie, Dr., 22, Great George Street, 
Liverpool. 

Mackie, David, Lect. 
Glasgow. 

Mackie, Robert, Slater Street, Liverpool. 

Mackintosh, John, M.D., Edinburgh. 

Maclaine, Lieut.-Col. Hector, Kyneton, 
Thornbury. 

Maclaine, W. A., Kyneton, Thornbury. 


Nat. Philos. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 33 


Macleay, W. S.,F.L.S., 11, Park Place, 
Regent’s Park. 

Macma, W., Bromsgrove, Worcestershire. 

Macrorie, David, M.D., Duke Street, 
Liverpool. 

McAdam, James, Belfast. 

McBayne, L., Clifton Down. 

McBayne, William, Clifton Down. 

McBride, J. W., 21, Islington, Liverpool. 

McCall, Chas., 34, Nelson St., Liverpool. 

McCann, J. i 38, Stephen’s Green, 
Dublin. 

McCaul, John, LL. D., Trinity College, 
Dublin. 

McCauley, Henry, Huddersfield. 

McCausland, Rev. J. C., Armagh. 

McClean, T. R., Belfast. 

McCrea, Charles, M.D., Clondalkin. 

McCullach, John, 13, College, Dublin. 

McCulloch, Samuel, 99, Duke Street, 
Liverpool. 

McDiarmid, J., Dumfries. 

McDouall, P. M., Ramsbottom, near 
Bary. 

McGauley, Rev. J. W., 79, Marlborough 
Street, Dublin. 

McGill, Thomas, 91, 
Liverpool. 

McGregor, W. F., Everton, Liverpool. 

McHutchen, J ohn, Isle of Man. 

McKay, J. i, M.R.L. A., 5, Cottage Ter- 
race, Dublin. 

McLauchlan, Henry, F.G.S., Map Office, 
Tower. 

MeNeil, Rev. Hugh, Roscommon Street, 
Liverpool. 

McNeill, R., Exchange Alley, Liverpool. 

Madge, Rev. Thos., 12, Doughty Street. 

Magrath, Rev. F., Queen’s County. 

Mainwaring, Townsend, Wrexham. 

Malcolm, George, 61, Upper Parliament 
Street, Liverpool. 

Mallard, William, Bristol. 

Manifold, Wm.,, Elliott Street, Liverpool. 

Manley, Charles, 9, John Street, Adelphi. 

Mann, Joseph, Mary Ann St., Liverpool. 

Mann, John, 173, Aldersgate Street. 

Mardon, Benjamin, M.A., Grove, Kentish 
Town. 

Margerison, Edmund, Burnley. 

Mariescheau, Armand, French Consul, 
Dublin. 

Marks, D. W., Professor of Hebrew, 
Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. 

Marples, David, Lord Street, Liverpool. 

Marreco, A. J. F., North Shields. 

Marriott, Peter, Bath. 

‘Marsden, Ellis, Everton, Liverpool. 

Marsh, S. H. J., Cotham Cottage, Bristol. 


Mount Pleasant, 


Marsh, M. N., Inner Temple. 

Marshall, Buchanan, Clayton Square, 
Liverpool. 

Marshman, J.R.,Fig Tree Court, Temple. 

Martin, R. Montgomery, 86, Piccadilly. 

Martin, James, Bristol. 

Martin, Studley, 3, Chesterfield Street, 
Liverpool. 

Martin, G., St. John’sCollege, Cambridge. 

Martin, Anthony, Birmingham, 

Marton, J. A., Edge Hill, Liverpool. 

Mascarenhas, A. B. de, Feriyeaese 
Consul, Bristol. 

Mash, James, Infirmary, Northampton. 

Mason, George, Dent. 

Mason, Rev. John, Tuxford. 

Mather, J. P., M.A., Everton, Liverpool. 

Mating, Edward, Sunderland. 

Matthew, Rev. John, Chelvey, 
Bourton. 

Matthew, M., Brierly Hall, Staffordshire. 

Maurice, Michael, Reading. 

Maw, H.L., Tetley Crowle, Lincolnshire. 

Maxwell, Francis, 24, Pembroke Place, 
Liverpool. 

Mayer, Joseph, Lord Street, Liverpool. 

Maynard, J. A., M.A., King’s Bench 
Walk, Temple. 

Maynard, R., Poultry. 

Maynard, Alleyne, Bavbadoos 

Mayne, E. C., French Street, Dublin. 

Maze, Peter, Rownham Lodge, Bristol. 

Mealy, Rev. R. R. P., M.A., Bangor. 

Mease, Rev. J., Rathmullin. 

Meason, M. L., 8, Bold Street, Liverpool. 

Melvill, W illiam, Great George Street, 
Liverpool. 

Menlove, Thomas, Bristol. 

Menzies, Rev. William, Greenock. 

Merac, Theophilus, College Green, Bristol. 

Merritt, John, Edge Hill, Liverpool. 

Merz, Philip, Manchester, (Life). 

Meynell, Thomas, Jun., F.L.S. ae 
Yarm, Yorkshire. 

Middleton, John, Clifton. 

Miles, P. L., M.P., Leigh Court, Bristol. 

Miles, W., King’sWeston, Gloucestershire. 

Mill, Baron B., Bath. 

Miller, John, Jun., 100, Mount Pleasant, 
Liverpool. 

Miller, Wm., 8, Percy Street, Liverpool. 

Miller, T. B.; Hillside, Totterdown. 

Miller, John, Nursery Villa, Durdham 
Down. 

Miller, John, Jun., Exchange Street West, 
Liverpool. 

Mills, John, Bristol. 

Mills, Rev. J. P., Abbott’s Leigh, near 
Bristol. 


near 


c 


$4 


Milne, Joshua, High Crompton, near 
Manchester. 

Milne, Thomas, Halifax. 

- Milner, Joseph, Huddersfield. 

Milner, W. P., Bengal Army, Liverpool. 

Minshull, J. L., St. Anne St., Liverpool. 

Mitchell, D. W., Oxford. 

Mitchell, W. A., Newcastle. 

Mitchelson, A. H., Edinburgh. 

Mocatta, E., Jun., 28, Chester Terrace, 
Regent's Park. 

Mogg, J.R.,Cholwell House, near Bristol. 

Mogg, Michael, Bristol. 

Molesworth, J. E. N., Canterbury. 

Moline, James, Godalming. 

Molland, P. J., Manchester. 

Mollans, John, M.D., 32, Upper Glou- 
cester Street, Dublin. 

Molloy, Jas. Scot, Dublin. 

Monck, Sir Charles, Bart., Belsay Castle, 
Newcastle. 

Monck, A., Belsay Castle. 

Monday, John, Kingsdown, Bristol. 

Monday, J. R., Olveston, near Bristol. 

Monk, Rev. J. B., M.A., St. Anne Street, 
Liverpool. 

Montgomery, W. F., M.D., M.R.1.A., 
18, Molesworth Street, Dublin. 

Moon, Edward, Tithebarn St., Liverpool. 

Moon, James, Walton Rectory, near 
Liverpool. 

Moore, John, 51, Park Lane, Liverpool. 

Moore, Nehemiah, Bristol. 

Moore, Alfred, St. Anne Street, Liverpool. 

Moore, Thomas, Slopperton Cottage, 
Devizes. 

Moore,T. L., Slopperton Cottage, Devizes. 

Moore, John, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, 

Moore, Henry, 17, Huskisson Street, 
Liverpool. 

Moore, John, Bolton. 

Moorton, Samuel, Birmingham. 

Morden, Professor, London. 

Morgan, W. F., Bristol. 

Morgan, R. G., 10, Oxford St., Liverpool. 

Morgan, Rev. J., Kirkby Laythorpe, Lin- 
colnshire. 

Morley, Henry, Camberwell. 

Morrah, James, 62, Sloane Street. 

Morris, Edward, Worcester. 

Morris, Lieut.-Col. George, Gardiner’s 
Place, Dublin. 

Morrison, Lieut. R. J., Cheltenham. 

Mortimer, William, Clifton. 

Moseley, Rev. Henry, Prof. of Nat. and 
Exper. Philos. King’s Coll. London, 

- Wandsworth. 
Mould, R. A., 4, Anson St., Liverpool. 
Mounsey, G, G., Mayor of Carlisle. 


} 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Moxham, John, Kingsdown, Bristol. 

Mozley, Lewin, 62, Mount Pleasant, 
Liverpool. 

Mozley, Charles, 62, Mount Pleasant, 
Liverpool. 

Mozley, E. J., Lord Street, Liverpool. 

Mozley, M. L., Great George Street, 
Liverpool. 

Muir, T. A., Director Philos. Soc., Glas- 


gow. 

Muller, William, Bristol. 

Mullineux, J. W., Gloucester Place, 
Liverpool. ‘ 

Mullineux, James, Great George Street, 
Liverpool. 

Munro, Rev. Alex., Manchester. 

Murch, Rev. Jerome, Bath. 

Murch, Rev. W. H., Stepney College. 

Mure, John, Edinburgh. 

Mure, William, Edinburgh. 

Muroe, William, Druid’s ‘Stoke, near 
Bristol. 

Murphy, Dr. P. J., 2, Upper Parliament 
Street, Liverpool. 

Murphy, Rev. Francis, 
Liverpool. Wj 

Murray, Sir James, M.D., 2, Merrion 
Square South, Dublin. 

Murray, Rev. Dr., 9, Mountjoy Square 
South, Dublin. 

Murray, J., F.S.A., Hull. 

Musket, David, Coleford. 

Muspratt, John, Jun., 9, Pembroke Place, 
Liverpool. 


Park Place, 


N. 

Nalty, John, M.D., Clare Street, Dublin. 

Nanny, George, Demerara. 

Nash, Llewellyn, Stafford St., Liverpool. 

Nash, J. E., Bristol. 

Naylor, Benjamin, Altringham. 

Neave, R. D., Epsom. 

Needham, Samuel, 9, Exchange Build- 
ings, Liverpool. 

Needham, William, Varley Hill, near 
Pontypool. 

Neild, William, Manchester. 

Neill, Hugh, 1, Oxford Street, Liverpool. 

Neill, Patrick, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Edin- 
burgh. 

Neville, Parker, 14, York Street, Dublin. 

Nevin, Rev. John, Great Newton Street, 
Liverpool. 

New, G. R., Newport, Monmouth. 

New, F. T., Shepton Mallet. 

Newman, J. W., 6, Clarence Place, 
Bristol. 

Newman, Henry, North Dispensary, 
Liverpool. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 35 


Newman, C. W., Jun., Edge Lane, Li- 
verpool. 

Newton, Rev. J. H., York. 

Nicholl, Iltyd, Jun., Exeter Coll., Oxford. 

Nicholl, Whitlock, Adamsdown, near 
Cardiff. 

Nicholl, F. V., Adamsdown, near Cardiff. 

Nicholl, R. E. W., Adamsdown. 

Nicholson, Samuel, Ballymena. 

Nicholson, Robert, Manchester. 

Nicholson, John, Lyme Regis. 

Nicol, Dr., 4, Redney Street, Liverpool. 

Nielson, J. B., Liverpool. 

Nielson, David, 40, Rodney St., Liverpool. 

Nightingale, Breton, Ashton Street, 
Liverpool. 

Nightingale, Thos., Infirmary, Liverpool. 

Nixon, R. L., 4, Grenville St., Dublin. 

Noad, H. M., Shawford, near Bath. 

Noble, C., Salford. 

Noble, A., Salford. 

Norman, George, Bath. 

Norton, Capt. John, London. 

Nottingham, John, Upper Parliament 
Street, Liverpool. 

Nowell, John, Farnley Wood, near 
Huddersfield. ; ; 

Nugent, Lord, 6, Chandos Street, Caven- 
dish Square. 

Nugent, Edward, Exeter Coll., Oxford. 


O. 


O’Brien, Donat, M.R.D.S., Chester. 

O’Brien, John,-M.D., Mountjoy Square 
East, Dublin. 

Odgers, W. J., Plymouth. 

O'Donnell, John, M.D., Rodney Street, 
Liverpool. 

O’Farrell, Rev. Patrick, Bristol. 

Ogilvie, G. S., Calne. 

Ogilvy, Thomas, Wallasey, Cheshire. 

O'Kelly, M. J., 147, James St., Dublin. 

Okely, W. J., Bristol. 

O'Neil, Rev. A., Carrickfergus. 

O’Neil, Rev. J. T., Nenagh. 

Ord, Wm., M.P., Whitfield, Hull. 

Orred, Geo., Exchange Alley, Liverpool. 

Orred, John, Exchange Alley, Liverpool. 

Ortt, Edmund, Park Chapel, Liverpool. 

Osborne, Edw., Berwick Lodge, Henbury. 

Osborne, Robert, Bristol. 

Osler, Thomas, Clifton. 

Osler, A. F., Birmingham, (Life). 

Ossulston, Lord, M.P. Grosvenor Square. 

O'Sullivan, Rev. Samuel, Phoenix Park, 
Dublin. 

Oswald, H. R., Douglas, Isle of Man. 

Ottley, Sir Richard, Heavitree. 


Ottley, Drury, Exeter. 

Ouchterlony, J.; Madras. 

Ould, Rev. Fielding, Rathmore Glebe. 

Outram, B. F., M.D.,F.R.S., F.G.S., 1, 
Hanover Square, (Life). 

Owens, J. R., Jesus College, Oxford. 

Owens, Rev. W. H., St. Asaph. 

Oxmantown, Lord, Brier Castle, Ireland. 


DP; 


Page, Capt. Robert, Charlton, Somersets, 

Paget, John, Temple. 

Paget, John, Leicester. ; 

Pakenham, Daniel, State Apothecary, 58, 
Henry Street, Dublin. 

Paley, G. B., B.D., Freckenham, Suffolk. 

Palmer, Frederick, Bristol. 

Palmer, H. R., 2, Great George Street, 
Westminster. A 

Palmer, A. H., Bristol. 

Palmer, A. H., Jun., Bristol. 

Palmer, H. A., Clifton. / 

Palmer, J. W., Hanham. 

Panter, J. R., Bristol. 

Pariente, J. J., London. 

Parker, Rev. Edwin, Berkshire. 

Parker, Wm., Seymour Street, Liverpool. 

Parker, Joseph, Penzance. 

Parker, R. T., M.P., Curedon, Chorley. 

Parker, Patrick, Aigburth, Liverpool. 

Parker, Rev. E. J., Waltham, St. Law- 
rence. 

Parkinson, W. H., M.D., 32, Marlbo- 
rough Street, Dublin. 

Parnell, R., Devonshire. 

Parke, John, Edge Hill, Liverpool. 

Park, Rev. John, M.A., 19, Norton 
Street, Liverpool. 

Parsons, George, Aigburth, Liverpool. 

Parton, Joseph, Edge Hill, Liverpool. 

Partridge, W. J., Hockham Hall, Norfolk. 

Patchett, John. 

Patterson, A. T., Soho Street, Liverpool. 

Patterson, Henry, M.D., 32, Blessington 
Street, Dublin. 

Pattinson, H.L., Newcastle. 

Pattison, F., Master of Trinity House, 
Newéastle. 

Payne, Charles, Clifton. 

Peace, William, Wigan. 

Pearsall, R. L., Willsbridge House, near 
Bristol. 

Pearson, J. W., Gateacre, Liverpool. 

Pease, Joseph, M.P., 3, Queen Square, 
London. 

Penkivil, W. T., Bristol. 

Pennington, Frederick, Hindley, near 
Wigan, 

c2 


86 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Perceval, Stanley, Allerton, Liverpool. 

Perceval, Stanley, Jun., Allerton. 

Perrott, Francis, Brunswick Street, 
Liverpool. 

Perrott, Samuel, Cork. 

Perry, James, Newton, Lancashire. 

Peters, Daniel, Bristol. 

Petrie, Dr. J., 7, Upper Parliament St., 
Liverpool. 

Phelp, James, Bristol. 

Phelps, Rev. William, Meare, near Glas- 
tonbury. 

Phillips, Sir Richard, London. 

Phillips, J. B., All Souls’ Coll., Oxford. 

Phillips, T. J., London. 

Phillips, William, M.D., Scarborough. 

Phillips, Rey. Robert, Stoke Newington 
Green. 

Phillips, J. L., Melksham, Wilts. 

Phillips, George, Conlongan Castle. 

Phillips, Rev. Robert, Bettuos Abergeth, 
North Wales. 

Phillips, Shakspeare, Barton Hall, Man- 
chester. 

Phillips, J. M., Everton, Liverpool. 

Philp, F. R., M.B., Liverpool. 

Phippen, Robert, Bedminster. 

Phipps, Robert, LL.D., F.T.C., Dublin. 

Pickin, W. J.,Whitemore Allerton, Notts. 

Picton, J. A., Warren Street, Liverpool. 

Pigot, M., Staffordshire. 

Pilgrim, C. H., 17, York Terrace, Re- 
gent’s Park, (Life). 

Pilgrim, Foster, Barbadoes. 

Pilling, John, Great Oxford Street, Liver- 

ool, 

Pilling, Wm., Richmond Row, Liverpool. 

Pinkus, Henry, London. 

Pinney, William, Somerton. 

Pinney, Charles, Clifton. 

Pitcairn, John, M.D., Edinburgh. 

Pittard, Thomas, Edinburgh. 

Player, John, Oakwood, Neath. 

Plenderleath, Col., Clifton. 

Plummer, M. 

Plunkett, Randall, Portland St., Dublin. 

Pocock, George, Bristol. 

Pollexfen, John, M.D., Orkney. 

Pollock, James, Mayor of Gateshead. 

Pollock, Joseph, 9, Camden Street, Cam- 
den Town. 

Poole, Matthew, M.D., Waterford. 

Poole, Thos., Stowey, near Bridgewater. 

Pooley, Henry, 83, Dale St., Liverpool. 

Pooley, Frederick, 1, Exchange Build- 
ings, Liverpool. 

Porch, T. P., M.A., The Abbey, near 
Glastonbury. 

Porter, Thomas, Everton, Liverpool. 


Porter, G. R., Board of Trade. 

Porter, W. G., Peterborough. 

Porter, John, 22, Lincoln’s Inn Fields. 

Porter, W. O., M.D., Bristol. 

Potter, W. H., London. 

Potts, Frederick, Chester. 

Potts, Henry, Chester. 

Powell, Edward, Edge Hill, Liverpool. 

Powell, Thomas, Bristol. 

Powell, Samuel, Jun., Knaresborough. 

Powell, William, Temple Gate, Bristol. 

Pownall, W. L., St. John’s College, 
Cambridge. 

Pownall, William, Jun., Wavertree, Li- 
verpool. 

Pratt, Rev. John, Birkenhead, Cheshire. 

Prendergast, J. P., 78, Stephen’s Green, 
Dublin. 

Preston, Richard Rushton, Great George 
Street, Westminster. 

Preston, E. R., Mt. Pleasant, Liverpool. 

Preston, R. W., West Derby, Liverpool. 

Prevost, Geo., Water Street, Liverpool. 

Price, H. H., 4, Parliament Street. 

Price, J. R., Westfield, Mountrath, 
Queen’s County. 

Price, John, A.M., Bristol College. 

Price, H. C., Westbury. 

Prichard, Edward, Clifton. 

Prichard, Richard, Oxford. 

Prichard, Edward, Ross. 

Priestley, John, Toxteth Park, Liverpool. 

Pringle, J. W., Athenzeum. 

Pritchard, Andrew, 263, Strand. 

Pritchard, J. B., Catherine St., Liverpool. 

Prittie, Henry, Corville, Co. Tipperary. 

Proctor, Thomas, Birmingham. 

Prosser, Samuel, Blackheath. 

Protheroe, M. D., Clifton. 

Protheroe, Philip, Richmond Hill, Clifton. 

Protheroe, Edward, Jun., Newnham, 
Gloucestershire. 

Provis, John, Chippenham. 

Prout, William, M.D., F.R.S., 41, Sack- 
ville Street, London. 

Prout, J.S., Cotham Cottage, near Bristol. 

Prowse, James, St. James’s Barton, 
Bristol. 

Prudhoe, Lord. E 

Purdon, Robert, Plympton, Devon. 

Purdon, Simon, Devonport. - 

Purdon, Rev. W. J., M.A., Aigburth, 
Liverpool. 

Purdy, Richard, Lower Ormond Quay, 
Dublin. 


Q. 
Quail, John, M.D., London. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 37 


Queckett, J. T., Langport, Somerset. 
Quinn, Richard, Liverpool. 

Quirk, George, Isle of Man. 

Quirk, J. R., Isle of Man. 

Quirk, R., Isle of Man. 


R. 


Radcliffe, John, West Derby, Liverpool. 

Radcliffe, Richard, Town Hall, Liverpool. 

Radcliffe, Richard, Jun., West Derby, 
Liverpool. 

Radcliffe, Right Hon. John, LL.D., 
M.R*1.A., Hume Street, Dublin. 

Raddon, William, Bristol. 

Radford, Thomas, Christian Street, Li- 
verpool. 

Rae, Ebenezer, Liverpool. 

Raftles, T. S., B.A., Edge Hill, Liverpool. 

Raikes, Henry, B.A., Chester. 

Raikes, Rev. Chancellor, Chester. 

Rainy, George, Demerara. 

Ralph, Rev. Hugh, LL.D., Hope Street, 
Liverpool. 

Ramsay, P., M.D., Chatham Street, Li- 
verpool. 

Randall, John. : 

Randolph, Rev. J. H., Bildeston, Suffolk. 

Rankin, Thomas, Bristol. 

Rankin, Robert, Clifton. 

Rankin, Robert, Jun., Chief Justice of 
Sierra Leone. 

Rankin, Rev. Charles, Brislington, near 
Bristol. 

Rathbone, R. R., Woodcroft, Liverpool. 

Rathbone, William, Jun., Liverpool. 

Ravenhill, W. H., Bristol. 

Rawdon, Christopher, Elm House, Liver- 
pool. 

Rawlins, C. E., Jun., Brook Cottage, 
Sutton, Cheshire. 

Rawlinson, E. A., Chadlington, Oxon. 

Rawson, William, Higher Ardwicke, 
Manchester. 

Rawson, John, Halifax. 

Rawson, Samuel, Dulwich Hill. 

Reade, Dr. Joseph, Cork. 

Read, Thomas, Castle Street, Liverpool. 

Redwood, Theophilus, Neath. 

Redwood, J., Birmingham. 

Reed, Thomas, Oxford. 

Rees, Thomas, 18, Shaw Street, Liver- 


pool. 
Rees, G. O., Holland Place, Clapham 
Road. 
Reeve, Andrews, Wadham Coll., Oxford. 
Reeves, J. F., Taunton. 
Reid, Alexander, Edinburgh. 
Reid, Alexander, Hartford, Cheshire. 


Reid, Henry, 5, Mountjoy Square North, 
Dublin. 
Reid, Rev. J. S., D.D., Carrickfergus. 


‘Reid, John, M.D., Edinburgh. 


Reid, Robert, M.D., M.R.LA., 16, Bel- 
vedere Place, Dublin. 

Remmington, Rev. ‘Thomas, M.A., Trin. 
Coll., Cambridge. 

Rennie, M. B., 6, Whitehall Place. 

Renny, H. L., M.D., Royal Hospital, 
Dublin. 

Renshaw, Geo., Nottingham Park, Notts. 

Renton, Henry, Bradford. 

Reynold, John, Liverpool. 

Reynolds, J. G., Bristol. 

Reynolds, T. F., London. 

Rham, Rev. W. L., Winkfield, Berkshire. 

Rhodes, Thomas, 55, Russell Street, 
Liverpool. 

Ricardo, Sampson, 4, Eccleston Street, 
Liverpool. 

Ricardo, Frederick, 4, Eccleston Street, 
Liverpool. 

Ricardo, M., Brighton. 

Richards, E. L., F.G.S., Bolls Chambers, 
Chancery Lane. 

Richards, Rev. Henry, Bristol. 

Richardson, Thomas, Montpelier Hill, 
Dublin. 

Rick, W. E. J., Sunderland. 

Rickards, Richard, Clifton. 

Rickett, Richard, Bristol. 

Rickett, Henry, Brislington, Bristol. 

Riddell, Sir J. M., Bart., Strontian, Scot- 
land. 

Riddell, Thomas, Strontian. 

Riddle, Isaac, Bristol. 

Riddle, T. H., Bristol. 

Riddle, W. L. Bristol. 

Ridgway, John, Staffordshire Potteries. 

Ridgway, Joseph, 8, India Buildings, Li- 
verpool. 

Ridgway, J., India Buildings, Liverpool. 

Ridley, Sir M., Bart, Neweastle. 

Ridout, Geo., Newland, Gloucestershire. 

Ridyard, William, Gateacre, Liverpool. 

Rigg, Henry, Lancashire. 

Rigg, J. F., Wood Broughton, near Miln- 
thorpe. 

Riley, Henry, M.D., Bristol. 

Ripley, William, Abercromby Square, Li- 
verpool. 

Rippon, C., M.P., Stanhope Castle, 
Durham. 

Ritson, James, 41, Rodney St., Liver- 


pool. “ 
Robberds, Rev. J. G., Manchester. 
Roberts, Arthur, Bath. : 
Roberts, Owen, M.D., St. Asaph. 


- 


38 


Roberts, Edward, Bettuos 
North Wales. 

Roberts, ‘Thomas, ‘Tranmere, Cheshire. 

Robertson, William, M.D.,2, New Square, 
Lincoln’s Inn. 

Robertson, Archibald, M.D., Great 
George Street, Liverpool. 

Robinson, Jas., Brunswick St., Liverpool. 

Robinson, James, Stafford St., Liverpool. 

Robinson, Thomas, Settle, Yorkshire. 

Robinson, Rev. Wm., Dinham Reetory. 

Robley, Henry, Clifton. 

Rodick, Thomas, Gateacre, Liverpool. 

Rodman, S. W., New Bedford. 

Roe, Major Thomas, Newbury. 

Rofe, John, Birmingham, 

Rogers, John, Clifton. 


Abergeth, 


Rogers, George, 15, LowerCollege Green, | 


Bristol. 

Rogers, Geo., 13, College Green, Bristol. 

Rogers, William, Hampstead Heath. 

Rogerson, G., M.D., Suffolk Street, Li- 
verpool. 

Rooker, James, Bideford. 

Rootsey, Samuel, Upper Easton House, 
Bristol. 

Roper, H. J., Bristol. 

Roscoe, W. S., Upper Parliament Street, 
Liverpool. 

Rose, Rev. H. J.,B.D., Principal of King’s 
College, London, 

Roskell, Robert, Church Street, Liverpool. 

Roskell, Nicholas, Gambier Terrace, Li- 
verpool. 

Roskell, John, Church Street, Liverpool. 

Ross, Rev. Alexander, Castle Street, Li- 
verpool. 

Ross, Captain Sir John, R.N., Castle 
Stranraer. 

Ross, Captain, J. C., F.R.S., London. 

Rowan, Rev. A. B., M.R,1.A., Dublin. 

Rowe, W. Carpenter, Temple. : 

Roxby, J. W., South Shields. 

Royle, J. F., M.D., 62, Berners Street. 

Rudd, John, Jamaica. 

Rudhall, Henry, Bristol. 

Russell, J. S., 22, Coates’s Crescent, 
Edinburgh. 

Russell, James, Jun., Birmingham, 

Russell, J. R., Edinburgh. 

Ryley, Jas., Jun., Bedford St., Liverpool, 


8. 


St. Albin, William, Chester. 

St. David’s, the Lord Bishop of, Deanery, 
Durham. 

St. Leger, Noblet, Carvick-on-Shannon. 

St.Pant, Sir Horace, Bart., Ewart, Wooler, 
Northumberland, 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Salmond, Edw., Exeter College, Oxford. 

Salt, C. F., Chatham Street, Liverpool. 

Salter, Rev. John, Iron Acton, Glouces- 
tershire. 

Salusbury, J. S. P., Huskisson Street, Li- 
verpool. 

Sambrook, J. R., Temple. 

Sampson, Benjamin, Tullimore, Truro. 

Sampson, Edward, Bristol. 

Sampson, Edward, Jun., Bristol. 

Samuel, William, Landillo, Carmarthen. 

Samuel, Edward, Canning St., Liverpool. 

Sanbach, H. R., Aigburth, Liverpool. - 

Sanbach, Samuel, Aigburth, Liverpool. 

Sanbach, Samuel, Jun., Trinity College, 
Cambridge. 

Sanbach, G. R., Brazennose College, Ox- 
ford. 

Sanders, Rev. John, M.A., Everton, Li- 
verpool. 

Sanders, G. E., Clifton. 

Sanders, Thomas, Bristol. 


| Sanders, T. R., Jun., Bristol. 


Sanders, Joseph, Edge Hill, Liverpool. 
Sanderson, G. S., Everton, Liverpool. 
Sandford, G, A., M.P., Ninehead Court, 
Somerset. 
Sandford, G. A., Jun., Ninehead Court. 
Sandland, J. D., Salford. 
Sandon, Lord, M.P.,41, Lower Grosvenor 
- Street. 
Sands, Thomas, Everton, Liverpool. 
Sandwith, Colonel William, Oriental Club, 
London. 
Sangster, W. B., Leeds Street, Liverpool. 
Sanwick. J. W., Holms Vale, Bury. 
Sargent, R. S., M.D., Upper Sherrard St., 
Dublin. 
Sargent, Rev. J. P., 47, North Great 
George Street, Dublin. 
Sass, Hen., 6, Charlotte St., Bloomsbury. 
Saul, W. D., F.G.S., Aldersgate Street. 
Saunders, Rey. A. B., M.A., Charter 
House. 
Savage, Francis, Jun., Bristol. 
Savage, J. C., Bristol. 
Savery, Charles, Bristol. 
Saxton, Sir Charles, Abingdon. 
Scanlan, Maurice, Rogerson’s 
Dublin. 
Schimmelpennick, L., Bristol. 
Scobell, Captain, R.N,, High Littleton, 
near Old Down. 
Scott, R. W., M.D., 5, Great George St., 
Liverpool. 
Scott, John, Wesleyan Minister, Bristol. ° 
Scott, J. J., St. James’s Walk, Liverpool. 
Scott, William, Bristol. 
Scott, John, Sunderland. 


Quay, 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 39 


Regier; John, M.D., Prof. R.D.S., Dub- 
. lin. 
Seutt, Thomas White, Glinde, near Lewes. 
Sealey, Edward, Bridgewater. 
Sealey, H. N., Clifton. 
Sealey, George, Clifton. 
Searle, J. C., Bristol. 
Sedgwick, Rev. James, Freshwater, Isle 
of Wight. 
Sedgwick, Rev. John, Dent. 
Selby, George, Alnwick. 
Selden, David, 27, Pembroke Place, Li- 
verpool, 
Senewith, Col. William, London. 
Shand, Alexander, Everton, Liverpool. 
Shand, W. S., Everton. 
Shand, Wm., Old Church Yard, Liver- 
pool, 
Sharp, Sir C., Sunderland. 
Shaw, J., Wingfield, London. 
_ Shaw, J. C., Dublin Steam Packet Office, 
Liverpool, 
Shaw, J. R., Arrow Hall, Cheshire. 
Shaw, R.N., Springfield, Liverpool, 
Shenkwin, Charles, Bristol. 
Shepherd, J. G., Wadham Coll., Oxford. 
Sheppard, William, B,A., Oriel College, 
Oxford. 
Sherring, R. B., Bristol. 
Shew, Charles, Bristol. 
Shipley, Joseph, Bedford Street, Liverpool. 
Shute, Robert, North John St., Liverpool, 
Shuttleworth, John, Manchester. 
Shuttleworth, Thomas, Manchester, 
Silke, Edward, Kingsdown, Bristol. 
Silvertop, Col. Charles, F.G.S., 55, Lower 
Grosvenor Street. 
Simon, J. P., M.D., Exeter. 
Simpson, James, Edinburgh. 
Simpson, J. N., M.D., Edinburgh. 
Sims, James, Chasewater, near Truro. 
Sinclair, Capt. John, R.N., Edinburgh, 
Sinelair, Archibald, Edinburgh. 
’ Sinclair, John, Red Castle, Castle Douglas. 
Singleton, John, Quinville Abbey, Co. 
Clare. 
Singleton, Rev. Archdeacon, Elden Castle. 
Slaney, R. A., M.P., Walford Manor, 
Salop. 
Slattery, Thomas, 26, Brunswick Street, 
Liverpool. 
Sleigh, Rev. Thomas, Newcastle-under- 
ne. 
Smith, Richard, 38, Park Street, Bristol. 
Smith, J. G., Ashley Down, Bristol. 
Smith, Orton, 2, Berkeley Crescent, 
Bristol. 
Smith, Partridge, 10, Charlotte Street, 
Bristol. 


Smith, Brook, Stoke Bishop, near Bristol. 

Smith, John, M.A., Warwick Street, Li- 
verpool. 

Smith, George, Toxteth Park, Liverpool. 

Smith, Rev. John, M.A.,18, Great George 
Street, Liverpool. 

Smith, Chas., Canning Street, Liverpool. 

Smith, J. H., 32, Rodney St., Liverpool. 

Smith, Rey. J. F., Ince Blundell, Liver 
pool. 

Smith, J. D., Romford, Essex. 

Smith, H. L. Southam, Warwicks. 

Smith, Robert, Margam, Glamorgans. 

Smith, Captain George, R.N., London. 

Smith, W. H., Birmingham. 

Smith, Joseph, Manchester. 

Smith, Augustus, Ashlyn Hall, Berk- 
hampstead. 

Smith, J. T., Lincoln’s Inn. 

Smith, William, Everton, Liverpool. 

Smith, J. L., Vice Principal of Brazen- 
nose College, Oxford. 

Smith, R. W., Trinity College, Dublin. 

Smith, John, Upper Warwick St., Liver- 


* pool. 

Sniith, Charles, M.A., St. John’s College, 
Cambridge. 

Smith, Wm., LL.D., Newborough Cottage, 
Scarborough. 

Smith, Aquila, M.D., M.R.L.A., 120, 
Lower Baggot Street, Dublin. © 

Smith, John, Glasgow, 

Smithurst, John, Moreton Hampstead. 

Smyth, G.L., 16, Bridge St., Westminster. 

Smyth, Rev. Mitchell, Garvagh, Ireland. 

Sneyd, Thomas, Belmont, Staffordshire. 

Solly, Reynolds, 48, Albemarle Street. 

Somerton, W. H., 35, Broad St., Bristol. 

Sorley, J.,77, Great George St., Liverpool. 

Southam, Samuel, Trinity Street, Bristol. 

Southwood, T. A., Devonport. 

Southworth, Ebenezer, Bolton. 

Sparkes, Robert, M.D.,.M.R.LA., 25, 
Suffolk Street, Dublin, 

Spence, Henry, London. 

Spence, R. H., Hull. 

Spence, W. B., London. 

Spence, John, Q.C., London. 

Spence, William, F.R.S. 

Spencer, J. H. F., Cheltenham. - 

Spender, J. C., Bath. 

Spoor, R., Mayor of Sunderland. ; 

Squires, W. W., M.D., Everton, Liver- 
pool, i 

Squires, Rich., Walton Lodge, Liverpool. 

Staite, Opie, Bellevue, Bristol. 

Staite, W. E., Highbury Place, Bristol. 

Stamp, Rev. J. S., Chester. 

Standish, Chas., M.P., Grosvenor Street. 


40 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Stanger, William, M.D., Wisbeach. 

Staniforth, Saml., Stamp Office, Liverpool. 

Stanley, T. W., 19, Trin. Coll., Dublin. 

Stanley, Henry, Leamington. 

Stanley, Sir Edward, M.R.D.S., Rose 
Vale, Raheny. 

Stanton, John, Bristol. 

Staples, E. J., Bristol. 

Starkey, J. J. 28, Water St., Liverpool. 

Statley, Benjamin, Chester. 

Steaton, Joseph, London. 

Steele, Thomas, Lough O’Connell. 

Steele, E., St. James’s Mount, Liverpool. 

Steele, Henry, New Gas and Coke Com- 
pany, Liverpool. 

Stephens, Edward, Bristol. 

Stephens, Henry, Bristol. 

Stephens, John, Bristol. 

Stephens, Thomas, Tynemouth. 

Stephens, Rev. M. F. T., Thornbury, 
Gloucestershire. 

Stephenson, Rev. J. A., Lympsham Rec- 
tory, Somerset, 

Stephenson, J. H., Lympsham Rectory. 

Stephenson, G., Leicestershire. 

Stephenson, W. B., Bristol. 

Stevelly, Professor John, Belfast. 

Stevelly, Rev. Rob., 5, Charlemont Mall, 
Dublin. 

Stevens, E. B., Chemist, London. 

Stevens, Thomas, North Shields. 

Stevenson, William, Clifton. 

Stevenson, Wm., Birkenhead, Cheshire. 

Stewart, Robert, Skibbor Wen, near Usk. 

Stewart, John, Lawson Street, Liverpool. 

Stewart, William, Edinburgh. 

Stiff, B. J., Bristol. 

Stiff, William, Bristol. 

Stock, Wm. Spry, Norwood Villa, Bristol. 

Stock, Thomas, Bristol. 

Stock, Samuel, Jun., Manchester. 

Stock, J. S., Barrister, London. 

Stoker, Abraham, Dublin Castle. 

Stokes, Rev. Geo., Grove St., Liverpool. 

Stokoe, William, Newcastle. 

Stone, John, Summer Hill House, near 
Bristol. 

Stoney, T. B., Portland, Jreland. 

Stonham, David, Bedford St., Liverpool. 

Stonhouse, John, Glasgow. 

Stott, William, Kearsley. 

Strachey, Sir Henry, Bart., Sutton Court, 
Somerset. 

Stralley, Rev. Edward, 30, Seymour St., 
Liverpool. 

Stratford, W. S., Notting Hill. 

Street, Henry, Clifton. 

Strickland, H. E., Jun., Cracombe House, 
Worcestershire. ; 


Strickland, H. E., M.A., F.G.S., Cra- 
combe House. 

Strong, Dr., Hereford. 

Strong, William, Bristol. 

Stubbs, Henry, Upper Duke Street, Li- 
verpool. 3 

Stuckey, Vincent, Langport. 

Sturge, Young, Bristol. 

Summers, Nathaniel, Bristol. 

Summers, Samuel, Bristol. 

Surrage, James, M.D., Wincanton. 

Sutherland, John, M.D., Liverpool. 

Sutton, H. G., Moss Street, Liverpool. 

Swainson, William, F.L.S., St. Albans. 

Swainson, Anthony, St. Anne Street, 
Liverpool. 

Swainson, C. A., St. Anne St., Liverpool. 

Swann, W. B., Merrixton House, Pem- 
broke. 

Swanwick, James, Jun., Bury. 

Swayne, J. C., Bristol. 

Sweetman, William, 16, Middle Gardiner 
Street, Dublin. 

Swete, Rey. John. D.D., Bristol. 

Swinburne, Francis, Gateshead. 

Swinburne, R. W., South Shields. 

Swinburne, W. A., South Shields. 

Swire, Samuel, Ashton-under-Lyne. 

Sykes, Lieut.-Col. W. H., F.L.S., F.G.S., 
47, Albion Street, Hyde Park. 

Symes, Richard, Yatton, Somerset. 

Symonds, J. A., Bristol. 

Symons, Arth., Board of Trade, London. 

Synge, A. H., Glanmore, Co. Wicklow. 

Synge, Francis, Glanmore. 

Synnott, Rev. Mark, Seel St., Liverpool. 


T. 


Tagart, Rev. Edward, 38, Porchester 
Terrace, Bayswater. 

Taite, C. M., Amen Court, St. Paul’s. 

Talbot, Hon. James, Evercreech, near 
Shepton Mallet. 

Talbot, W. H., Wrightington Hall, 
Eastwood. 

Tanner, John, Dublin. 

Tanner, William, Calne. 

Tate, William, Renshaw Street, Liverpool. 

Tattershall, Rev. Thos., A.M., Shaw St., 
Liverpool. 

Tattershall, E. B., Solicitor, London. 

Taunton, R. C., Ashley, Hants. 

Taunton, Wm.,Stoke Bishop, near Bristol. 

Tawney, R., Willoughby, Warwickshire. 

Tayleur, C., Edinburgh. 

Tayleur, W. E., Edinburgh. 

Taylor, Charles, High Street, Dublin. 

Taylor, Rey. G., Manchester. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 41 


Taylor, Rev. James, Clifton. 

Taylor, John, Seddon Street, Liverpool. 

Taylor, John, Preston. 

Taylor, Stephen, Duckinfield, near Ash- 
ton-under-Lyne. 

Taylor, Robert, Broomlands, Dumfriessh. 

Taylor, Wm., Moss Cottage, Preston. 

Taylor, J. A., Worcester College, Oxford. 

Taylor, G, E., Bristol. 

Taylor, Sir Brook, London. 

Taylor, Peter, Manchester. 

Taylor, R. H., Bristol. 

Tebay, Thomas, Winstanley Park, Wigan. 

Tennant, John, Liverpooi. 

Tennant, Wm., Castle Bytham, Lincoln. 

Tennent, John, Glasgow. 

Teschemacher, E. F., Camberwell. 

Thadstone, T. S., Chatham St., Liverpool. 

‘Thom, Rev. J. H., 13, Nile St., Liverpool. 

Thomas, B. C., Malmesbury. 

Thomas, C. E., Pembroke College, Cam- 
bridge. 

Thomas, David, Kingsdown, Bristol. 

Thomas, Morgan, R.A., Island Bridge, 
Dublin. 

Thompson, Alderman Wm., M.P., 12, 
Whitehall Place. 

Thompson, B., Director of Carlise Rail- 
way. 

Thompson, Thomas, Sunderland. 

Thompson, David, Dublin. 

Thompson, G. H., Falkner St., Liverpool. 

Thompson, S. H, Abercromby Square, 

* Liverpool. 

Thompson, R. D., M.D., 20, Gower St. 

Thompson, W. K., 2, Paul St., Liverpool. 

Thompson, William, 'V.P. Nat. Hist. So- 
ciety, Belfast. 

Thompson, Rev. T., 19, Daulby Street, 
Liverpool. 

Thompson, Andrew, Bristol. 

Thompson, Rev. W., Cheadle, Cheshire. 

Thompson, J., Kirk House, near Carlisle. 

Thompson, J ohn, Edinburgh. 

Thompson, Thomas, M.R.D.S., 49, Har- 
court Street, Dublin. 

Thompson, Theophilus, 15, Keppel Street. 


Thomson, Robert, M.D., Rathmines, 
Dublin. 

Thomson, Thomas, M.D., Prof. Chem., 
Glasgow. 


Thomson, James, Glasgow. 

Thomson, Charles, Manchester. 

Thomson, Thomas, 100, St. Vincent St., 
Glasgow. 

ean Thomas, Clitheroe. 

Thorburn, R. M., Edinburgh. 

Thornborrow, Michael, Mount Vernon, 
Liverpool. 


Thornley, J. D., Bineenes Place, Liver- 
ool, 

Thornley, Wn., J un., Blackburn Place, 
Liverpool. 

Thornley, Samuel, Clarence St., Liverpool. 

Thornton, J. P., London. 

Thorpe, Rev. Charles, D.D., Archdeacon 
of Durham. 

Thorpe, Rev. Charles, Warden of Univer- 
sity, Durham. 

Thwaites,G. H. K., King’s Down, Bristol. 

Timmon, John, M.D., Drogheda. 

Tipping, John, Low Hill, Liverpool. 


‘Todd, R. wet M.D., King’s Coll., London. 


Tollett, G. W., Bitley, Staffordshire. 

Tomkins, Dr. “Charles, Devizes. 

Tomlinson, Joseph, Toxteth Park, Lived! 

ool. 

ee John, Castle Street, Liverpool. 

Topp, Richard, Cork. 

Tothill, William, Redland, Bristol. 

Tothill, William, Jun., Redland. 

Touchett, John, Manchester. 

Townley, Charles, Water St., Liverpool. 

Townsend, W. H., Bristol. 

Townsend, Rev. J. C., M.A., Milton, 
Oxfordshire. 

Townshend, Mr., College, Durham. 

Tracey, Rey. E.H., Toddington, Glouces- 
tershire. 

Tracey, Rev. C. H., 35, Doon Street, 
Bristol, 

Traiks, H. F., 4, Park Terrace, Regent’s _ 
Park. 

Traill, T. S., M.D., Professor, Edinburgh. 

Traill, T. S., Jun., Edinburgh. 

Travers, Robert, M.B., Rathmines, Dublin, 

Tribe, E. S., 29, Soho Square. 

Trimmer, Joshua, Carnarvon. 

Trotman, Thomas, M.D., Bristol. 

Trotman,S. L., Park HillRoad, Liverpool. 

Trowbridge, Lieut., 7th Fusileers. 

Tucker, Robert, Bristol. 

Tucker, Francis, Torqueer, Dumfries. 

Tucker, I. M., Clifton. 

Tuckett, Alfred, Moorend, near Bristol. 

Tuckett, P. D., Frenchay, Bristol. 

Tudor, John, Bath. 

Tudor, Richard, Bushfield, Clontarf, Co. 
Dublin. 

Tudor, William, Bath. 

Tufnell, E. C., London. 

Tuke, James, York. 

Turnbull, George, Cardiff. 

Turner, R. B., Hanover St., Liverpool. 

Turner, J. A. , Manchester. 

Turner, S. A., Aigburth, Liverpool. 

Turner, Rey William, Sec. Lit. and 
Philos. Soc., Newcastle. 


42 


Turner, William, M.D., Melrose. 

Turner, Thomas, Lincoln’s Inn. 

Twells, Rey. John, Perlethorpe, Ollerton, 
Notts. 

Twycross, Edward, 69, Dame St., Dublin. 

Tyers, I. T., The Grove, Wrington. 

Tyrer, James, Bootle, near Liverpool. 


U. 


Ullathorne, Rev. S., D.D., Renshaw St., 
Liverpool. 

Ullathorne, William, Sydney, Australia. 

Underwood, Frederick, Bristol. 

Upton, James, Sedgburgh, Yorkshire. 

Urquhart, David, London, 


Whe 


Vachell, C, R., Cardiff. 

Vandeleur, Lieut.-Gen. Sir John, 7, Mer- 
rion Square, Dublin. 

Van Oven, Joshua, 10, Great George St., 
Liverpool. 

Van Zeller, John, Abercromby Square, 
Liverpool. 

Vaughan, Hugh, Crete Hill, Bristol. 

Vaughan, E. P., M.A., Wraxall, near 
Bristol. 

Vaughan, James, Middle Temple. 

Vavasour, Mervyn, Melbourne Hall, 
Pocklington, Yorks. 

Venables, T. A., Colquitt St., Liverpool. 

Vice, William, Truro. 

Vignoles, Rev. Dr. Charles, M.R.I.A., 
Dublin Castle. 

Vignoles, C, B.,5, Westland Row, Dublin. 

Vigors, Ferdinand, Regent's Park. 

Vildosola, A. E., Lower Redland, Bristol. 

Vining, John, Richmond Hill, Clifton. 

Vint, James, Sunderland. 

Vose, I. A., M.D., 19, Hope St., Liver- 
pool. ; 

Vose, James, Jun., M.D., 19, Hope St., 
Liverpool. 

Vye, Nathaniel, Ilfracombe, (Life). 

Vyvyan, Sir R. R., Bart., 'Trelowarren, 
Cornwall, 


W. 


Wade, I'rederick, Liverpool. 

Wade, Joseph, Clifton. 

Wainwright, T. W., Everton. 

Wainwright, William, Abercromby Sq., 
Liverpool. 

Wait, Samuel, Bristol. 

Walcott, W. H. L., Southampton, 

Waldo, Edward, Bristol. 

Walker, George, Lewes, 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Walker, Rev. A., Wexford. 

Walker, C. L., Bristol. 

Walker, Rev. Richard, Sheffield. 

Walker, John, Kirkcudbright. 

Wallace, Robert, M.D., 
Lodge, Surrey. 

Wallace, I. E., Trin. Coll. Cambridge, 
Carshalton Lodge. 

Wallis, George, Bristol. 

Wallscourt, Lord, Ardtrea, Ireland. 

Walmesley, Hugh, Liverpool. 

Waln, Robert, Oldham St., Liverpool. 

Waln, William, Hope Street, Liverpool. 

Walsh, Rev. H. G., M.A., Claybrook, 
Leicester. 

Walton, T. 'T., King’s Parade, Bristol. 

Ward, Richard, Burfield House, West- 
bury. 

Ward, R. B., Burfield House, Westbury. 

Ward, D. H., Bristol. 

Ware, John, Clifton. 

Waring, H. F., Lyme Regis. 

Warner, Charles, Everton, Liverpool. 

Warr, Richard, Bristol. 

Wasborough, C., Kingsdown, Bristol. 

Wason, James, 46, Cornwallis St., Liver- 
pool. 

Wason, James, Jun., Fort, Bristol. 

Waterfield, Rev. William, Wrexham. 

Waterhouse, Daniei, Aigburth, Liverpool. 

Waterhouse, Alfred, Aigburth, Liverpool. 

Waterhouse, Octavius, Liverpool. 

Waterhouse, Roger, Edge Hill, Liverpool. 

Waterhouse, Henry, Manchester, 

Watling, Rev. C. H., Cirencester, 

Watson, Col. Sir H., Spottiswoode Park, 

Watson, John, Glasgow. 

Watson, Barnard L., 26, Hope St. South, 
Liverpool. 

Watson, Andrew, King St., Liverpool, 

Watson, Jos., Newcastle. 

Watt, Charles, London. 

Watt, George, Sen., Glasgow. 

Watts, H. B,, Isle of Man. 

Way, Rev. H. H.; Henbury, Bristol. 

Wayte, Samuel 5., Bristol. 

Wayte, William, Highlands, near Calne. 

Wellbeloved, Rey. Charles, ¥.P. Yorks. 
Philos. Society, York. 

Wellington, James, Bristol. 

Wellington, J. H., Bristol. 

Wentworth, D. S. E., M.D., Brownlow 
Street, Liverpool. 

Wentworth, Joseph, Cambridge. 

West, Arthur, Bath. 

West, William, Observatory, Clifton. 

Westcot, Jasper, Bristol. 

Weihiatby, Percival, Toxteth Park, Liver- 
pool. 


Carshalton 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS, . 43 


Wheatstone,C., Professor, King’s College, 
London, 20, Conduit Street. 

Whettham, Col., Abbott’s Leigh, near 
Bristol. 

White, Andrew, M.P. 

White, Francis, V.P, College of Surgeons, 
42, Dawson St., Dublin. 

White, James, Ballitore. 

Whitehead, Walter, Derby House, Che- 
shire. 

Whiteside, Rev. J, W., Ripon. 

Whithers, Richard, Everton, Liverpool. 

Whitley, Rev. Charles, Durham. 

Whitley, John, Shaw St,, Liverpool. 

Whitmore, William, Dudmaston, Salop. 

Whittuck, C. J., Bristol. 

Whittuck, 8. H., Heathend House, near 
Wotton-under-edge. 

Whitty, Harry, Dublin. 

Whitwell, Stedman, Highgate, 

Whitworth, J., Manchester. 

Whyte, Thomas, Edinburgh. 

Wilcock, Rev. P., Great Horner Street, 
Liverpool. 

Wild, John, Bristol. 

Wildes, Rev. George, Liverpool. 

Wilkie, Sir David, R.A., D.C.L., Ken- 
sington. 

Wilkins, Major William, Oriental Club, 
London. 

Wilkinson, Rev. Thomas, Edmund Street, 
Liverpool. 

Wilkinson, W. A., Camberwell. 

Wilkinson, Edmund, 87, Upper Islington, 
Liverpool. 

Willan, E., Jun., Bold St., Liverpool. 

Willans, W., 6, Bridge Street, Dublin. 

Willcock, Dr., South Hill Road, Liver- 

ool, 
Willeock, Jacob, South Hill Road, Liver- 
ool. 

Williams. J. W., Co. Durham. 

Williams, Rev. James, Anglesea. 

Williams, John, Holywell, Flint. 

Williams, Samuel, Dublin. 

Williams, Elijah, Bristol. 

Williams, R. P., Clifton. 

Williams, Rev. Thos., Heytesbury, Wilts. 

Williamson, Sir H., Bart., Whitburn, 
Durham. 

Williamson, Joshua, Dublin. | 

Williamson, Richard, D.D., Dean’s Yard, 
Westminster. 

Willis, J. S., Liverpool. 

Willis, Richard, Halstead, near Prescot. 

Willis, Henry, Bristol. 

Willoughby, E., Birkenhead, Cheshire: 

Wills, Anthony, 17, Upper Gardiner St., 
Dublin, 


Wills, Frederick, Bristol. 

Wills, John, Bristol. 

Wills, W. D., Bristol. 

Wilmot, Samuel, 120, Stephen’s Green, 
Dublin, 

Wilmot, John, Birmingham. 

Wilson, Rev. Professor H. H., Oxford. 

Wilson, John, 7, Bold Street, Liverpool. 

Wilson, J. C., Myrtle Street, Liverpool. 

Wilson, J. G., Bristol. 

Wilson, Rev. J, A., Childwall, near Li- 
verpool. 

Wilson, John, Jun., Clyde Iron Works, 
Glasgow. 

Wilson, Rev. R. C., Vicarage, Preston. 

Wilson, Rey. Richard, Wigan. 

Wilson, Thomas, Gateshead. 

Wilson, George, Manchester. 

Wilson, William, Nottingham. 

Wingfield, Charles, Oxford. 
Wingate, Alexander, Glasgow. 
Winstanley, William, M.D., Woolton 
Lodge, Liverpool. 
Winstanley, William, 
Lodge, Liverpool. 
Winstanley, Thos., Church St., Liverpool. 
Winstanley, 8. §., Great George Street, 
Liverpool. 

Winter, Henry, Bristol. 

Wintle, Thomas, Bristol. * 

Winwood, John, Clifton Down. 

Wise, Robert, Manchester. 

Witham, H. T. M., Lartington, Barnard 
Castle. 

Witham, Rev. Thomas, Stella, Durham. 

Withington, R., Bristol. 

Withy, John, Bristol. 

Wood, James, Bristol. 

Wood, R. W., Edge Hill, Liverpool. 

Wood, R. N., Macclesfield. 

Wood, J. R., Penketh, near Warrington. 

Woodcock, Henry, Wigan. 

Woodhead, G., Mottram, near Manchester. 

Woodhouse, T. J., Leicester. 

Woods, William, Chairman of Durham 
Junction Railway. 

Woodward, Rev. F. B.,11, Kildare Street, 
Dublin. 

Woollcombe, Henry, President of the Ply- 
mouth Institution, Plymouth. 

Woollett, J. S., 69, Duke St., Liverpool. 

Woolwright, John, Bold St., Liverpool. 

Worrall, George, Frenchay, near Bristol. 

Worsley, Philip, Hampstead. 

Worsley, Samuel, F.G.S., Bristol. 

Worswick, Thomas, Great Oxford Street, 
Liverpool. f 

Worthington, Charles, Rodney Street, 
Liverpool, 


Jun., Woolton 


44 CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 7 


Worthington, John, Liverpool. 

Worthington, James, Manchester. 

Wortley, Hon. J. S., Wortley Hall, Shef- 
field. 

Wotherspoon, Matthew, India Buildings, 
Liverpool. 

Wreford, Rev. J. R., Birmingham. 

Wreford, R. W., Bristol. 

Wreford, W.E., Kingsdown, near Bristol. 

Wright, John, Derby. 

Wright, John, Jun., Liverpool. 

Wright, George. 

Wright, R. F., Hinton Blewitt, Somerset. 

Wright, Roger, 50, Bedford Street, Li- 
verpool. 

Wright, Thomas, Cheltenham. 

Wrigley, J. H., Liverpool. 

Wybergh, John, Everton, Liverpool. 

Wybergh, J., Jun., Everton, Liverpool. 

Wyse, Thomas, M.P., Waterford. 


Ys 


Yaniewiez, W. F., Bold Street, Liverpool, 

Yard, Charles, 97th Regt., Stockport. 

Yates, John Ashton, M.P., F.G.S., 33, 
Bryanstone Square. 

Yelloly, John, M.D., F.R.S., Woodton 
Hall, Norfolk. 

Yelloly, S, T., Woodton Hall, Norfolk. 

Yeo, Dr., Wadebridge, Cornwall. 

Yescombe, Morris, Truro. 

Youens, Rev. Dr., 50, Warren Street, 
Liverpool. 

Young, C. B., Everton, 

Young, G. R., Halifax, Nova Scotia. 

Young, Thomas, 46, Nelson Square. 

Young, Adam, Camberwell. 

Young, James, Brewery, Spitalfields. 

Young, Robert, Clifton. 

Young, Rev. Edward, Clifton. 

Yule, Captain, U. S. Club, London. 


CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 


<r 


Agassiz, Professor, Neufchatel. ' 
Arago, M., Secretary of the Institute, Paris. 
Berzelius, Professor, Stockholm. 

De la Rive, Professor, Geneva. 


Dumas, Prof., Paris. 


Humboldt, Baron Alexander von, Berlin. 
Liebig, Prof., Giessen. 

Qirsted, Professor, Copenhagen. 

Plana, Jean, Astronomer Royal, Turin. 
Quetelet, M., Brussels. 

Schumacher, Professor, Altona. 


Foreigners who have attended Meetings of the British 


Agardh, Dr., C.A., Prof., Lund, Sweden. 
Agassiz, Professor L., Neufchatel. 

Allen, Horatio, New York. 

Andiffredi, Le Chevalier, Piedmont. 


Arago, P., Paris. 


Association. 


A B. 


Bagge, Professor, J. S., Stockholm. 
Bartolomé, M. M., Segovia. 
Bazzine, Professor, Padua. 
Berardi, Le Chevalier G., Rome. 
Bernhardi, T., Erfurt. 

Bocca, Louis, Valenciennes. 


Bocea, Henri, Valenciennes. 
Breda, I. G.S. Van, Professor, Leyden. 


C. 


Campbell, Dr. G. W., Tenesee, U.S. 
Chauviteaux, M., Paris. 

Chilton, G., New York. 

Clark, Alonzo, New York. 

Clemson, T. G., Paris. 

Cohen, M. I., United States. 
Combes, C.P.M., Paris. 

Coupery, Jacques, Paris. 

Coussins, Jules, Paris. 


D. 


D’Abbadie, M., Paris. 

Darbue, Samuel, Paris. 

Dana, S. L., M.D., Boston, U.S. 
Daubrée, Auguste, Paris. 
DeLancey, Rev. Dr. W.H., Philadelphia. 
Demonville, M., Paris. 
Deshouilliéres, M. 

Dieterici, M., Berlin. 

Dow, Dr. Robert, New Orleans. 
Druffel, F. C. Von, Prussia. 
Dufrénoy, A. P., Paris. 

Dupin, Baron Charles, Paris. 


E. 


Ende, Charles Baron, Baden. 
Erbkam, Barnard, Berlin. 
Esterhazy, Count Maurice, Vienna. 
Evans, E. C., Philadelphia. 


F. 


Fiske, Williber, D. D., President of Wes- 
leyan Univ., Middleton, U.S. 
Fleming, William, Leyden. 


G. 


Gerard, M., Paris. 

Giacomini, Professor, Padua. 
Gordon, I. M., Niagara, U.S. 

Gore, Col. George, ‘Tours. 
Guiniaraem, M., Carara, Venezuela. 


H. 


Hahn, Dr., Germany. 

Hare, Robert, M.D., Prof., Philadelphia. 
Harland, Richard, M.D., Philadelphia. 
Harvey, D. C., M.D., Philadelphia. 
Henry, Professor, Princeton, U.S. 


Herbst, G., M.D., Gottingen. 


Hoffmann, David, LL.D., Maryland, U.S. 
Holt, G. A., New Orleans. 
Hooper, R. W., M.D., Boston, U.S. - 


J. 


Jackson, Bolton, Baltimore. 
Jacobson, I., Berlin. 
Jonge van Ellemut, W.C.M. de. 


K, 
Krantz, M. Berlin. 
L. 


Lappenberg, Dr.J.M.,F.S.A., Hamburgh. 
Le Play, F., Paris. 

Liebig, Professor, Giessen. 

Loomis, Professor Elias, Ohio, U.S. 
Lowell, J. J., Boston, U.S. 

Luca, L’Abate Antonio di, Rome. 


M, 
Main, A.L. J., New York. 


Manni, Pietro, Rome. 

Marcartin, Felix, Lille. 

Marcet, Professor. 

Marshall, John, Dantzig. 

Martens, B., Brunswick. 

Martinez del Rio, M., Mexico. 

Maxey, M., Amer. Chargé d’Affaires, 
Belgium. 

Mendelsohn, Bartholdy Felix, Berlin. 

Mendes, J. C., United States. 

Metcalf, S. L., M.D., Kentucky, U.S. 

Michaelis, 8. D., Berlin. 

Milner, Clarke, New Orleans. 

Mongey, M.., Paris. 

Montalembert, M. de, Paris. 

Morgan, H. E., New York. 

Miincke, Dr. C. F., Apolda. 

Munier, Rev. R., Rector Univ., Geneva. 


N. 


Nachot, Dr. H. W., Saxony. 
Natschayef, Professor, St. Petersburgh. 
Nebel, Henry, Heidelberg. 

Nevins, J. W., Philadelphia. 

Nilsson, Professor 8., Lund, Sweden. 
Noislieu, Martin de. 

Nolthenius, H. J., Batavia. 


O. 


Omer, Effendi, Cairo. 
Otto, Edward, Berlin. 


Oxley,Charles, New Orleans. 
P. : 


Parigot, Dr., Prof. Geol., Brussels. 
Parigot, M. J., Ghent. 

Parker, William, Cincinnati, Ohio. 
Pearsall, R. L., Carlsruhe. 
Phillips, Hardman, Pennsylvania, 
Peithman, Dr., Berlin. 

Peithman, M., Berlin. 

Pirondi, Cyrus, Marseilles. 

Popp, Alexander, Paris. 

Prandi, M. 


Q. 
Quetelet, M., Brussels. 

R. 
Rathen, A. B. von, Vienna. 


Raumer, I’. von, Professor, Berlin. 
Riernacki, L., Calitz, Poland. 


Rivas, San Benigno, Carara, Venezuela. 
Rive, Thomas de la, Professor, Geneva. 


Roberts, S. W., Philadelphia. 
Rochemont, Pietot de, Geneva. 
Rogers, H. D., Professor, Philadelphia. 
Rostain, A., Paris. 


S. 


Saxton, Joseph, Philadelphia. 
Searle, M., Vienna. 

Sedgwick, Theodore, United States, 
Sentis, Eugéne, Paris. 

Seybert, Henry, Philadelphia. 


Spencer, J., Philadelphia. 

Stanley, Prof., Newhaven University,U.S. 
Stevenson, M., American Minister, Lon- - 

don. 

St. John, Professor, Yule Cottage, U.S. 
St. Leger, M. de, Paris. 

Strom, H. C., Norway. 

Suermondt, M., Utrecht. 


iby 


Tanner, Professor P., Joannian Univer- 
sity, Stiria. 

Tickner, George, Boston, U.S. 

Tocqueville, M. de, Paris. 

Toyno, Dr., Philadelphia. 

Tolly, Baron Barclay de, Russia. 

Toorn, A. van der, Holland. 

Treviranus, Dr. L. C., Bonn. 


Whe 


Vaux, M., Sec. American Minister, Lon- 
don. 

Verneuil, M. de. 

Vlastos, Dr., Chios. 


U. 


Ulman, C., Weimar. 
Urano, Carlo, Acad. Royale d’Anvers. 


W. 


Warren, Dr. J. C., Boston, U.S. 
Wedal Jarlsberg, Count, Norway. 
Wedal Jarlsberg, Baron, Norway. 
Wolff, Doctor, Hanover.» 


N.B, As it is feared that many errovs may have crept into the List, Members are re- 
spectfully requested to forward any corrections either to the Treasurer in London, 


or to the nearest local Treasurer, 


a ae | 


RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


RELATING TO THE 


ADMISSION OF MEMBERS, 
AND 


PAYMENT OF SUBSCRIPTIONS AND ACCOUNTS. 


MEMBERS. 


Att persons who have attended the First Meeting (at York in 1831) shall 
be ENTITLED to become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an ob- 
ligation to conform to its Rules. 

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical Societies, 
publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be enrrTeD in like 
manner to become Members of the Association. 

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of 
Philosophical Institutions shall be ent1TLED in like manner to become Mem- 
bers of the Association. 

All Members of a Philosophical Institution, recommended by its Council or 
Managing Committee, shall be enTITLED in like manner to become Members 


~ of the Association. 


Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be rxecrep by the General 
Committee or Council, to become Members of the ee subject to the 
approval of a General Meeting. 


SUBSCRIPTIONS. 


The amount of the Annual Subscription shall be One Pound, to be paid in 
advance upon admission; and the amount of the Composition in lieu thereof 
Five Pounds. 

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries. 


ARREARS. 


If the Annual Subscriptions of any Member shall have been in arrear for 
Two Years, and shall not be paid on proper notice, he shall cease to be a 
Member ; but it shall be in the power of the Committee or Council to rein- 
state him on payment of arrears. 


Accounts. 


The Accounts of the Association shall be audited Annually, by Auditors 
appointed by the Meeting. 


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49 


II. Table showing the Members of Council of the British Association from 
its Commencement, in. addition to Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local 
Secretaries. 


Rev. Wm. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., &c. 1832—1836. 
ee oe J Francis Baily, V.P. and Treas. R.S.....:.... 1835. 
age Perretaries. "4p. Murghicon,.¥ BS. BG:S. 5... 1836, 1837. 
LRev. G. Peacock, F.R.S. F.G.S., &c......00: 1837. 
General Treasurer. John Taylor, F.R.S. Treas. G.S., &c......04. 1832—1837.. 


Charles Babbage, F.R.S. L. & E., &c. 
Trustees (permanent). R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., &c. 
(John Taylor, F.R.S., &c. 


Assistant-General \ Professor Phillips, F.R.S., &c. ..cseescseeeees 1832—1837, 
Secretary. 
Members of Council. 

G. B. Airy, F.R.S. Astronomer Royal...... 1834, 1835. 
Francis Baily, V.P. and Treas. R.S. ...... 1837. 
George Bentham, F.L.S. ........... Sadgctacee 1834, 1835. 
Rey. Professor Buckland, D.D. F:R.S., &c. 1833, 1835. 
Robert Brown, D.C.L. F.R.S.. --1832, 1834, 1835. 
Sir David Brewster, F.R.S., &e. vapectowa oats 1832. 
M. I. Brunel, F.R.S., Be es Mea ncore 1832. 
Rev. T. Chalmers, D. D. Prof. of Divinity, 

Edinburgh ...... eon aasieieeeemshes sbececeeel 833. 
Professor Christie, F.R.S., &e. SEO eee A 1833—1837. 
William Clift, F.R.S. F.G.S. *.......00+.+00.1832—1835. 
John Corrie, F.R.S., Kc. s.scesesceoeese v00000 1832. 
Professor Daniell, F. RSaPacteerennscsc tenets 1836. 
J.E. Drinkwater ues Memes Ratiedadten cette ns 1834, 1835. 
The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L. F.R.S., &c. 1833. 
Professor Forbes, F.R.S.L. & E., &c. ......1832. 
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L. V.P.R.S., &c....... 1832. 
Professor Graham, fae F.R.S.E. Laat ia pie 1837. 
John Edward Gray, F.R.S. F.L.S., &c. ...1837. 
Professor Green, F.R.S. F.G.S. ......ces00e 1832. 
G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. F.G.S. ............1832—1837. 
Henry Hallam, F.R.S. F.S.A., he tos 1836. 
Sir William R. Hamilton, Astron. Royal 

of Ireland........... Mss Nersce ei ees ca aemate coun 1832, 1833, 1836. 


Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A. F.L.S. F.G.S. -1837. 
Sir John F. W. Herschel, F.R.S. L. & E. 


F.R.AS. BiGoBg Ok, « one oh os Saves cock 1832. 
Thomas Hodgkin, M. D.. Macias Sedan satahees «ae 1833—1837. 
Prof. Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D. F.R.S., &c. .1832. 

Rev. F. W. Hope, M.A. F.L.S. seeeee0 1837. 
Robert Hutton, M.P. F.G.S., co dius eweases 1836, 1837. 
Professor R. Jameson, F.R.S.L. & E. ...... 1833. 
Rev. Provost Lloyd, D.D....... seeeceese oeeee1832, 1833. 
Professor Lindley, F.R.S. F.L.S., &c. ...... 1833, 1836. 


J. W. Lubbock, F.R.S. F.L.S., ec. Vice- 

Chancellor of the Univ. of Tondo --- 1833—1836. 
Rev. Thomas: Libygiicscscctesssondedssvnsveuscs 1832. 
William Sharp MacLeay, F.L.S. .......000001837. 

D 


MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. 


Patrick Neill, LE.D. F.R.S.E. ........006000. 1833. 

Richard Owen, F.R.S. F.L.S. .c...sccceeeees 1836. 

Rev. George Peacock, M.A. F.R.S., .- 1832, 1834, 1835. 
Rev. Professor Powell, M.A. F.R.S., 1836, 1837. 

J. C. Prichard, M.D. Fr. RiSe cess eitas nse 1832. 

George Rennie, F.R.S. ..sescssseseeeeeceereees 1833--1835. 

Rey. Professor Ritchie, F.R.S. ........+esee0e 1833. 

Sir John Robison, Sec. R.S.E..... Souee ARS. 1832, 1836. 


P. M. Roget, M.D. Sec. R.S. 


F.G.S., &c. .1834—1837. 
Rey. William Scoresby, B.D. F.R.S. 


L. & E.1832. 
Ss. 


Lieut.-Col.W. H. Sykes, F.R.S. F.L.S., &c.1837. 

Rev. J. J. Tayler, B.A. .....-2-scesssseserecees 1832. 
Professor Pratl] MeDiy?: 10.8 scweccessee coeds 1832, 1833. 
N. A. Vi gors, M.P., D.C.L. F.S.A. F.L.S.1832, 1836. 
William Yarrell, My liseuwacne ae caeeanactoonar 1833—1836. 


Secretaries to the Edward Turner, M.D. F.R.S. L. & E....1832—1836. 
Council. James Yates, F.L.S. F.G,S....c...ceeseeee 1832—1837. 


51 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCE- 
MENT OF SCIENCE. 


The Published Reports of Proceedings at the Meetings of the Association may be 
obtained by Members only, on application to the under-mentioned Local Treasurers, or 
Agents appointed by them, at the following prices :— 


TREASURER. DEPOT FOR THE REPORTS. 
LONDON .oecesseseee ....-.J0hn Taylor, Esq. Messrs. R. and J. E. Taylor’s Printing Office, 
2, Duke Street, Adelphi. Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. 
LOCAL TREASURERS. DEPOTS. 
SURHORD csteaecvoccesssss Dr. Daubeny ............Ashmolean Museum, Mr. Kirkland. 
CAMBRIDGE seceeeseseeeees Professor Henslow ,..... House of the Philosophical Society. 
NP DBEIN Soceccnscccnasdeess Dr. Orpen .......eecesees 13, South Frederick Street. 
EDINBURGH .e.seseeeeee Charles Forbes, Esq. ...Apartments of the Royal Society, 
WORK se .ccscccscoccees .... WilliamGray,Jun.,Esq...Mr. Sunter’s, Stonegate. 
BRISTOL ...cceceeee ....George Bengough, Esq. . Philosophical Institution, Park Street. 
LivERPOOL ..... ..Samuel Turner, Esq. ...Bank of England Branch Bank,S.Turner, Esq. 
MANCHESTER ...........Rev. John Jas. Taylor ..Mr. R. Robinson’s, St. Anne’s Place, 
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NewcastTLE-on-Tyne . William Hutton, Esq....Apartments of the Natural History Society. 
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VOL. I.—PROCEEDINGS or tut FIRST anp SECOND MEETINGS, at York 
and Oxford, 1831 and 1832, 10s. 


Contents :—Prof, Airy, on the Progress of Astronomy ;—J. W. Lubbock, Esq., on 
the Tides ;—Prof. Forbes, on the Present State of Meteorology ;—Prof. Powell, on the 
Present State of the Science of Radiant Heat ;—Prof. Cumming, on Thermo-Electri- 
city;—Sir David Brewster, on the Progress of Optics;—Rev. W. Whewell, on the 
Present State of Mineralogy ;—Rev. W. D. Conybeare, on the Recent Progress and 
Present State of Geology ;—Dr. Prichard’s review of Philological and Physical Re- 
searches. ; 

Together with Papers on Mathematics, Optics, Acoustics, Magnetism, Electricity, 
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VOL. II.—PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRD MEETING, at Cambridge, 1833, 8s. 


Contents :—Proceedings of the Meeting ;—Mr. John Taylor, on Mineral Veins ;— 
Dr. Lindley, on the Philosophy of Botany ;—Dr. Henry, on the Physiology of the 
Nervous System ;—Mr. Peter Barlow, on the Strength of Materials;—Mr. S. H. Christie, 
on the Magnetism of the Earth ;—Rev. J. Challis, on the Analytical Theory of Hydro- 
statics and Hydrodynamics ;—Mr. George Rennie, on Hydraulics as a Branch of Engi- 
neering, Part I.;—Rev. G. Peacock, on certain Branches of Analysis. 

Together with Papers on Mathematics and Physics, Philosophical Instruments and 
Mechanical Arts, Natural History, Anatomy, Physiology, and History of Science. 


VOL. III—PROCEEDINGS or ras FOURTH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 
1834, 10s. 


Contents :—Mr. H. D. Rogers, on the Geology of North America ;—Dr. C, Henry, 
on the Laws of Contagion ;—Prof. Clark, on Animal Physiology ;—Rev. L. Jenyns, on 


of a 


wt oe 
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Zoology ;—Rev. J. Challis, on Capillary Attraction;—Prof. Lloyd, on Physical Optics ; 
—Mr. G. Rennie, on Hydraulics, Part II. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the Asso- 
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VOL. IV.—PROCEEDINGS or tue FIFTH MEETING, at Dublin, 1835, 9s. 


Contents :—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition of 
the Mathematical Theories of Electricity, Magnetism, and Heat;—M. A. Quetelet, 
Apercu de l’Etat actuel des Sciences Mathématiques chez les Belges ;—Captain Ed- 
ward Sabine, on the Phenomena of Terrestrial Magnetism. ~ 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the Asso- 
ciation and its Committees. 


VOL. V.—PROCEEDINGS or tut SIXTH MEETING, at Bristol, 1836, 8s. 


Contents :—Prof. Daubeny, on the Present State of our Knowledge with respect to 
Mineral and ‘Thermal Waters ;—Major Edward Sabine, on the Direction and Intensity 
of the Terrestrial Magnetic Force in Scotland;—Mr. John Richardson, on North . 
American Zoology ;—Rev. J. Challis, on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids;—Mr. 
J. 'T. Mackay, a Comparative View of the more remarkable Plants which characterize 
the neighbourhood of Dublin and Edinburgh, and the South-west of Scotland, &c. ;— 
Mr. J. T. Mackay, Comparative geographical notices of the more remarkable Plants 
which characterize Scotland and Ireland;—Report of the London Sub-Committee of 
the Medical Section on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Second Report of the 
Dublin Sub-Committee on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Report of the Dublin 
Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous System ;—J. W. Lubbock, Esq., 
Account of the recent Discussions of Observations of the Tides;—Rev. Baden Powell, 
on determining the refractive Indices for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in 
various media ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on the Communication between the Arteries and Ab- 
sorbents ;—Prof. Phillips, Report of Experiments on Subterranean Temperature ;— 
Prof. Hamilton, on the Validity of a Method recently proposed by George B. Jerrard, 
Esq., for Transforming and Resolving Equations of Elevated Degrees. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the Asso- 
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VOL. VI.—PROCEEDINGS or tue SEVENTH MEETING, at Liverpool, is 
in the Press. 


LITHOGRAPHED SIGNATURES or tras MEMBERS who met at Cambridge 
in 1833, with the Proceedings of the Public Meetings. 4to. Price4s. (To Mem- 
bers, 3s.) 


Printed by Richard and John E, Taylor, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. 


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